ISBN 978-83-62139-31-6 Editor in-Chief Emil Orzechowski Scientific Secretary Łukasz Gaweł Editorial Board Peter Bendixen (Vienna) Ivars Berziņš (Riga) Milena Dragićević-Šešic (Belgrad) Danuta Glondys (Cracow) Dorota Ilczuk (Warsaw) Levan Khetaguri (Tbilisi) Kazimierz Krzysztofek (Warsaw) Krzysztof Pleśniarowicz (Cracow) Małgorzata Sternal (Cracow) Mathias Theodor Vogt (Görlitz) Lech Witkowski (Bydgoszcz) Editorial Staff Katarzyna Baran Alicja Kędziora Katarzyna Kopeć Joanna Zdebska-Schmidt
Table of Contents Dorota Ilczuk, Małgorzata Nowak
A reform of the cultural sector in Poland. Where is the problem?..................................................... 9 Galina Koretskaya
Analysis of cultural policy in Kazakhstan....................... 15 Monika Murzyn-Kupisz
Current trends in the management of cultural heritage..........................................................19 Anna Góral
The nature of legends and ancient tales and their significance to the development of cultural tourism in the Małopolska region............... 30
Graphic design Katarzyna Poznańska
Justyna Przyborowicz
Editorial Office Address Rynek Główny 8 31-042 Cracow Tel. +48 12 411 47 84 kultura@uj.edu.pl
social and cultural environment.....................................41
© Copyright by Jagiellonian University Department of Cultural Management Cracow 2011 All rights reserved
cultural organisations..................................................... 48
The magazine is financed by: Jagiellonian University Office for the City of Cracow Marshal of the Małopolskie Voivodeship (Ars Quaerendi Prize)
based on an example of the research conducted
Attyka Publishing House W. Żeleńskiego Str. 29 31–353 Cracow Tel. +48 12 623 10 18 www.attyka.net.pl
Mission of media organizations in
Marcin Laberschek
A set of marketing communication tools for newly-established, third-sector
Kieliszewski Przemysław, Mękarski Michał
Research of the cultural sector as an element of the participatory model of culture management, by the Regional Observatory of Culture........................ 66 Anna Lewanowicz
Development and management of non-governmental organizations in the context of urban cultural policy......76 *** A review Bogusław Nierenberg
ISBN 978-83-62139-31-6
Public Broadcasting in Europe in the Digital Age............................................................93
in the Digital Age............................................................93 Public Broadcasting in Europe Bogusław Nierenberg
Attyka Publishing House W. Żeleńskiego Str. 29 31–353 Cracow Tel. +48 12 623 10 18 www.attyka.net.pl The magazine is financed by: Jagiellonian University Office for the City of Cracow Marshal of the Małopolskie Voivodeship (Ars Quaerendi Prize) © Copyright by Jagiellonian University Department of Cultural Management Cracow 2011 All rights reserved Editorial Office Address Rynek Główny 8 31-042 Cracow Tel. +48 12 411 47 84 kultura@uj.edu.pl Graphic design Katarzyna Poznańska Editorial Staff Katarzyna Baran Alicja Kędziora Katarzyna Kopeć Joanna Zdebska-Schmidt Editorial Board Peter Bendixen (Vienna) Ivars Berziņš (Riga) Milena Dragićević-Šešic (Belgrad) Danuta Glondys (Cracow) Dorota Ilczuk (Warsaw) Levan Khetaguri (Tbilisi) Kazimierz Krzysztofek (Warsaw) Krzysztof Pleśniarowicz (Cracow) Małgorzata Sternal (Cracow) Mathias Theodor Vogt (Görlitz) Lech Witkowski (Bydgoszcz) Scientific Secretary Łukasz Gaweł Editor in-Chief Emil Orzechowski
A review *** organizations in the context of urban cultural policy......76 Development and management of non-governmental Anna Lewanowicz
by the Regional Observatory of Culture........................ 66 based on an example of the research conducted of the participatory model of culture management, Research of the cultural sector as an element Kieliszewski Przemysław, Mękarski Michał
cultural organisations..................................................... 48 for newly-established, third-sector A set of marketing communication tools Marcin Laberschek
social and cultural environment.....................................41 Mission of media organizations in Justyna Przyborowicz
of cultural tourism in the Małopolska region............... 30 and their significance to the development The nature of legends and ancient tales Anna Góral
of cultural heritage..........................................................19 Current trends in the management Monika Murzyn-Kupisz
Analysis of cultural policy in Kazakhstan....................... 15 Galina Koretskaya
Where is the problem?..................................................... 9 A reform of the cultural sector in Poland. Dorota Ilczuk, Małgorzata Nowak
Table of Contents
Der öffentliche Rundfunk im digitalen Zeitalter..................................................... 188 Galina Koretskaya
Eine Reform des Kultursektors in Polen. Worin liegt das Problem?.............................................. 101 Dorota Ilczuk, Małgorzata Nowak
Inhalt
Der öffentliche Rundfunk im digitalen Zeitalter..................................................... 188
Chefredakteur Emil Orzechowski
Eine Analyse der Kulturpolitik Kasachstans.................108
Rezension
Wissenschaftlicher Mitarbeiter Łukasz Gaweł
Monika Murzyn-Kupisz
***
Bogusław Nierenberg
ISBN 978-83-62139-31-6
Aktuelle Tendenzen im Kulturerbemanagement.........112
Entwicklung und Management von Nichtregierungsorganisationen im Kontext der städtischen Kulturpolitik......................171
Anna Góral
Anna Lewanowicz
Redaktionskomitee Peter Bendixen (Wien) Ivars Berziņš (Riga) Milena Dragićević-Šešic (Belgrad) Danuta Glondys (Kraków) Dorota Ilczuk (Warszawa) Levan Khetaguri (Tbilisi) Kazimierz Krzysztofek (Warszawa) Krzysztof Pleśniarowicz (Kraków) Małgorzata Sternal (Kraków) Matthias Theodor Vogt (Görlitz) Lech Witkowski (Bydgoszcz)
Untersuchungen des Kultursektors als Element eines Partizipationsmodells des Kulturmanagements am Beispiel von Untersuchungen des Regionalen Kulturobservatoriums.....................................................161
Die besondere Bedeutung von Märchen und Legenden für die Entwicklung des Kulturtourismus in Kleinpolen............................... 124
Przemysław Kieliszewski, Michał Mękarski
Justyna Przyborowicz
Das Instrumentarium der Marketingkommunikation für neuentstehende Kulturorganisationen des Dritten Sektors........................................................ 143
Redaktion Katarzyna Baran Alicja Kędziora Katarzyna Kopeć Joanna Zdebska-Schmidt
Marcin Laberschek
Die Mission einer Medienorganisation im soziokulturellen Umfeld........................................... 135
Die Mission einer Medienorganisation im soziokulturellen Umfeld........................................... 135
Das grafische Projekt Katarzyna Poznańska
Justyna Przyborowicz
Marcin Laberschek
Die besondere Bedeutung von Märchen und Legenden für die Entwicklung des Kulturtourismus in Kleinpolen............................... 124
Das Instrumentarium der Marketingkommunikation für neuentstehende Kulturorganisationen des Dritten Sektors........................................................ 143
Anna Góral
Redaktionsadresse Rynek Główny 8 31-042 Kraków Tel. +48 12 411 47 84 kultura@uj.edu.pl
Aktuelle Tendenzen im Kulturerbemanagement.........112
Przemysław Kieliszewski, Michał Mękarski
Monika Murzyn-Kupisz
© Copyright by Uniwersytet Jagielloński Katedra Zarządzania Kulturą Kraków 2011 All rights reserved
Eine Analyse der Kulturpolitik Kasachstans.................108
Untersuchungen des Kultursektors als Element eines Partizipationsmodells des Kulturmanagements am Beispiel von Untersuchungen des Regionalen Kulturobservatoriums.....................................................161
Attyka Verlag W. Żeleńskiego Str. 29 31–353 Cracow Tel. +48 12 623 10 18 www.attyka.net.pl
Galina Koretskaya
Anna Lewanowicz
Die Halbjahresschrift wird von der Jagiellonen Universität, dem Stadtamt in Kraków und dem Marschall der Woiwodschaft Małopolska (Ars Quaerendi Preis) mitfinanziert.
Eine Reform des Kultursektors in Polen. Worin liegt das Problem?.............................................. 101
Entwicklung und Management von Nichtregierungsorganisationen im Kontext der städtischen Kulturpolitik......................171
© Copyright by Uniwersytet Jagielloński Katedra Zarządzania Kulturą Kraków 2011 All rights reserved
Dorota Ilczuk, Małgorzata Nowak
Die Halbjahresschrift wird von der Jagiellonen Universität, dem Stadtamt in Kraków und dem Marschall der Woiwodschaft Małopolska (Ars Quaerendi Preis) mitfinanziert.
Redaktionsadresse Rynek Główny 8 31-042 Kraków Tel. +48 12 411 47 84 kultura@uj.edu.pl
***
Das grafische Projekt Katarzyna Poznańska
Rezension
Redaktion Katarzyna Baran Alicja Kędziora Katarzyna Kopeć Joanna Zdebska-Schmidt
Bogusław Nierenberg
Redaktionskomitee Peter Bendixen (Wien) Ivars Berziņš (Riga) Milena Dragićević-Šešic (Belgrad) Danuta Glondys (Kraków) Dorota Ilczuk (Warszawa) Levan Khetaguri (Tbilisi) Kazimierz Krzysztofek (Warszawa) Krzysztof Pleśniarowicz (Kraków) Małgorzata Sternal (Kraków) Matthias Theodor Vogt (Görlitz) Lech Witkowski (Bydgoszcz)
Attyka Verlag W. Żeleńskiego Str. 29 31–353 Cracow Tel. +48 12 623 10 18 www.attyka.net.pl
Wissenschaftlicher Mitarbeiter Łukasz Gaweł
Inhalt
ISBN 978-83-62139-31-6
Chefredakteur Emil Orzechowski
ISBN 978-83-62139-31-6 Redaktor naczelny Emil Orzechowski Sekretarz naukowy Łukasz Gaweł Komitet redakcyjny: Peter Bendixen (Wiedeń) Ivars Berziņš (Ryga) Milena Dragicevic-Sesic (Belgrad) Danuta Glondys (Kraków) Dorota Ilczuk (Warszawa) Levan Khetaguri (Tbilisi) Kazimierz Krzysztofek (Warszawa) Krzysztof Pleśniarowicz (Kraków) Małgorzata Sternal (Kraków) Matthias Theodor Vogt (Görlitz) Lech Witkowski (Bydgoszcz) Redakcja Katarzyna Baran Alicja Kędziora Katarzyna Kopeć Joanna Zdebska-Schmidt
Spis treści Dorota Ilczuk, Małgorzata Nowak
Reforma sektora kultury w Polsce. Gdzie leży problem?...................................................... 195 Galina Koretskaya
Analiza polityki kulturalnej Kazachstanu..................... 201 Monika Murzyn-Kupisz
Współczesne trendy w zarządzaniu dziedzictwem kulturowym...........................................205 Anna Góral
Specyfika i znaczenie legend i baśni w rozwoju turystyki kulturowej Małopolski................ 216 Justyna Przyborowicz
Projekt graficzny Katarzyna Poznańska
Misyjność organizacji medialnej
Adres Redakcji Rynek Główny 8 31-042 Kraków tel. +48 12 411 47 84 kultura@uj.edu.pl
Marcin Laberschek
© Copyright by Uniwersytet Jagielloński Katedra Zarządzania Kulturą Kraków 2011 All rights reserved
Kieliszewski Przemysław, Mękarski Michał
Pismo finansowane przez: Uniwersytet Jagielloński Urząd Miasta Krakowa Marszałka Województwa Małopolskiego (Nagroda Ars Quaerendi) Wydawnictwo Attyka W. Żeleńskiego Str. 29 31–353 Cracow Tel. +48 12 623 10 18 www.attyka.net.pl
w otoczeniu społeczno-kulturalnym............................226
Zestaw narzędzi komunikacji marketingowej dla nowo powstałych organizacji kultury trzeciego sektora........................................................... 233
Badania sektora kultury jako element partycypacyjnego modelu zarządzania kulturą na przykładzie badań Regionalnego Obserwatorium Kultury.........................249 Anna Lewanowicz
Rozwój i zarządzanie organizacją pozarządową w kontekście polityki kulturalnej miasta.........................................................258 *** Recenzja Bogusław Nierenberg
ISBN 978-83-62139-31-6
Radiofonia publiczna w Europie w erze cyfrowej........................................... 273
w Europie w erze cyfrowej........................................... 273 Radiofonia publiczna Bogusław Nierenberg
Wydawnictwo Attyka W. Żeleńskiego Str. 29 31–353 Cracow Tel. +48 12 623 10 18 www.attyka.net.pl Pismo finansowane przez: Uniwersytet Jagielloński Urząd Miasta Krakowa Marszałka Województwa Małopolskiego (Nagroda Ars Quaerendi) © Copyright by Uniwersytet Jagielloński Katedra Zarządzania Kulturą Kraków 2011 All rights reserved Adres Redakcji Rynek Główny 8 31-042 Kraków tel. +48 12 411 47 84 kultura@uj.edu.pl Projekt graficzny Katarzyna Poznańska Redakcja Katarzyna Baran Alicja Kędziora Katarzyna Kopeć Joanna Zdebska-Schmidt Komitet redakcyjny: Peter Bendixen (Wiedeń) Ivars Berziņš (Ryga) Milena Dragicevic-Sesic (Belgrad) Danuta Glondys (Kraków) Dorota Ilczuk (Warszawa) Levan Khetaguri (Tbilisi) Kazimierz Krzysztofek (Warszawa) Krzysztof Pleśniarowicz (Kraków) Małgorzata Sternal (Kraków) Matthias Theodor Vogt (Görlitz) Lech Witkowski (Bydgoszcz) Sekretarz naukowy Łukasz Gaweł Redaktor naczelny Emil Orzechowski
Recenzja *** kulturalnej miasta.........................................................258 pozarządową w kontekście polityki Rozwój i zarządzanie organizacją Anna Lewanowicz
Regionalnego Obserwatorium Kultury.........................249 kulturą na przykładzie badań partycypacyjnego modelu zarządzania Badania sektora kultury jako element Kieliszewski Przemysław, Mękarski Michał
trzeciego sektora........................................................... 233 dla nowo powstałych organizacji kultury Zestaw narzędzi komunikacji marketingowej Marcin Laberschek
w otoczeniu społeczno-kulturalnym............................226 Misyjność organizacji medialnej Justyna Przyborowicz
w rozwoju turystyki kulturowej Małopolski................ 216 Specyfika i znaczenie legend i baśni Anna Góral
dziedzictwem kulturowym...........................................205 Współczesne trendy w zarządzaniu Monika Murzyn-Kupisz
Analiza polityki kulturalnej Kazachstanu..................... 201 Galina Koretskaya
Gdzie leży problem?...................................................... 195 Reforma sektora kultury w Polsce. Dorota Ilczuk, Małgorzata Nowak
Spis treści
Culture Management Culture Management
Culture Management 2011, Vol 4 (4)
7
INTRODUCTION Emil Orzechowski
T
he fourth issue of our journal , which is still the only one of such a profile in our part of Europe, is more modest than the previous ones. It is a result of financial difficulties. The same is the reason why there are mainly Polish texts and texts referring to Polish subjects. It does not mean that the editorial staff intends to change the profile of the journal. On the contrary, by presenting, sometimes in great detail, Polish problems, we would like to point to identical phenomena in other countries in our region. It will presumably find its reflection in next issues. A special consideration requires the text written by D. Ilczuk, who asks the question, from the perspective of European experience, “Reform of the cultural sector in Poland. Where is the problem?” and tries to find an answer to it. A new subject is the role of media in the context of the cultural sector, with technical changes,
like digitization, taken into consideration. Another new subject is cultural heritage and management of it; it is exemplified with intangible cultural heritage (legends and tales). A separate text, which is a pride of this issue, is the analyze of cultural policy of Kazakhstan – this is a sign of our constant interest in this subject, which we have already shown with the examples of Belarus and Ukraine. The editorial staff hopes that next issues will be even more varied, but it depends on the authors and, partially, financial realities. Currently, efforts are being made to put our journal on the lists of prestigious academic journals; it requires time because our Polish realities hinder these attempts. It is needless to add that the editorial staff is counting on the interest in the content of the journal and the authors’ cooperation.
he fourth issue of our journal , which is still the only one of such a profile in our part of Europe, is more modest than the previous ones. It is a result of financial difficulties. The same is the reason why there are mainly Polish texts and texts referring to Polish subjects. It does not mean that the editorial staff intends to change the profile of the journal. On the contrary, by presenting, sometimes in great detail, Polish problems, we would like to point to identical phenomena in other countries in our region. It will presumably find its reflection in next issues. A special consideration requires the text written by D. Ilczuk, who asks the question, from the perspective of European experience, “Reform of the cultural sector in Poland. Where is the problem?” and tries to find an answer to it. A new subject is the role of media in the context of the cultural sector, with technical changes,
T
Emil Orzechowski
INTRODUCTION Culture Management 2011, Vol 4 (4)
7
like digitization, taken into consideration. Another new subject is cultural heritage and management of it; it is exemplified with intangible cultural heritage (legends and tales). A separate text, which is a pride of this issue, is the analyze of cultural policy of Kazakhstan – this is a sign of our constant interest in this subject, which we have already shown with the examples of Belarus and Ukraine. The editorial staff hopes that next issues will be even more varied, but it depends on the authors and, partially, financial realities. Currently, efforts are being made to put our journal on the lists of prestigious academic journals; it requires time because our Polish realities hinder these attempts. It is needless to add that the editorial staff is counting on the interest in the content of the journal and the authors’ cooperation.
9
Culture Management 2011, Vol 4 (4)
A reform of the cultural sector in Poland. Where is the problem?
1
Dorota Ilczuk, Małgorzata Nowak
1. Preface
T
his paper is a record of reflection on the attempts taken to reform the organisation and financing of cultural activities in Poland for the past 20 years. The authors formulate the hypothesis that there are at least three, mutually complementary, main (which does not mean that the only) causes of failure in this area. The first is the lack of a theoretical embedding of reforms, not using the expert knowledge and constructing reforms without taking into account the specificity of the cultural sector. Directly related to this issue is the neglection of regular and consistent monitoring of the cultural sector on the national level, which would create a solid foundation of expertise. The next two reasons are of the proverbial “resistance of matter” nature. They are: fear of the cultural circles of implementing the new solutions and a lack of political determination to create system changes. A brief attempt to examine the selected actions taken over the two decades of democracy in Poland does not allow of a definitive verification or falsification of this hypothesis. But we hope, that it will at least persuade the reflection, and maybe protect against another reform, which will not come into force.
2. What has been achieved and what is deficient in the culture after 1989?
I
n both culture and its management much after 1989 has changed. In the 90’s transformation
from a planned economy to a market economy and administrative reforms have forced a number of adaptation actions of the cultural sector. They were often very radical actions, but did not come as a result of strategic thinking about the development of culture but from the changes of a general nature only. These changes, however, have produced many positive effects. There has been a shift of consciousness in Poles, who are now free to discuss the modern methods of culture management, partnership between sectors of the economy, the economic importance of culture, etc. Not only they discuss, but also they create and function in different spheres of culture and its industries, they express with passion civic participation by creating the third sector (so active in the culture sphere), skilfully benefiting from European models, using funds from various sources, including EU sources, they capably find their ways in the field of new technologies. Local governments proved to be the efficient hosts in the cultural sphere, what is more, apart from the current administration of public funds for culture they feel the need for strategic planning in this area. This means that Poles have adapted to new market conditions, they found themselves as EU citizens, they are facing the challenges of globalization and even the economic crisis. In short, those who work in the field of culture – artists, activists, administrators have adapted to new political, economic and administrative Poland, to the new challenges of world culture. Can we expect more? Surely we could, but certainly in this context, we feel quite satisfied. Meanwhile, from the perspective of 2010, there is a lack of systemic changes that are compatible
1 International conference “Cultural Economics: from theory to practice” organised by Adam Mickiewicz Institute and National Centre for Culture in partnership with Warsaw School of Social Sciences and Humanities and Pro Cultura Foundation. November 29, 2010, Warsaw.
Culture Management 2011, Vol 4 (4)
9
Dorota Ilczuk Professor of Economics at School of Social Sciences and Humanities, habilitated doctor in Humanities and Cultural Management, founder and president of the Pro Cultura Foundation. In years 2002-2007 president of CIRCLE – Cultural Information and Research Centers Liaison in Europe. A member of the European Cultural Parliament. Since 2003 a board member of The Union of Polish Theatres. She co-operates with international organizations and science associations such as: European Institute for Comparative Cultural Research (ERICarts), Association of Cultural Economics International (ACEI) and International Society for Third Sector Research (ISTR). She has taken part in over hundred national and international science conferences. She is a project director of numerous research programmes. She is the author and coauthor of over hundred publications, studies and articles, in following research fields: economics of culture, cultural policy, civil society and functioning of the third sector.
1 International conference “Cultural Economics: from theory to practice” organised by Adam Mickiewicz Institute and National Centre for Culture in partnership with Warsaw School of Social Sciences and Humanities and Pro Cultura Foundation. November 29, 2010, Warsaw.
I
n both culture and its management much after 1989 has changed. In the 90’s transformation
2. What has been achieved and what is deficient in the culture after 1989? A brief attempt to examine the selected actions taken over the two decades of democracy in Poland does not allow of a definitive verification or falsification of this hypothesis. But we hope, that it will at least persuade the reflection, and maybe protect against another reform, which will not come into force. his paper is a record of reflection on the attempts taken to reform the organisation and financing of cultural activities in Poland for the past 20 years. The authors formulate the hypothesis that there are at least three, mutually complementary, main (which does not mean that the only) causes of failure in this area. The first is the lack of a theoretical embedding of reforms, not using the expert knowledge and constructing reforms without taking into account the specificity of the cultural sector. Directly related to this issue is the neglection of regular and consistent monitoring of the cultural sector on the national level, which would create a solid foundation of expertise. The next two reasons are of the proverbial “resistance of matter” nature. They are: fear of the cultural circles of implementing the new solutions and a lack of political determination to create system changes.
T
1. Preface
from a planned economy to a market economy and administrative reforms have forced a number of adaptation actions of the cultural sector. They were often very radical actions, but did not come as a result of strategic thinking about the development of culture but from the changes of a general nature only. These changes, however, have produced many positive effects. There has been a shift of consciousness in Poles, who are now free to discuss the modern methods of culture management, partnership between sectors of the economy, the economic importance of culture, etc. Not only they discuss, but also they create and function in different spheres of culture and its industries, they express with passion civic participation by creating the third sector (so active in the culture sphere), skilfully benefiting from European models, using funds from various sources, including EU sources, they capably find their ways in the field of new technologies. Local governments proved to be the efficient hosts in the cultural sphere, what is more, apart from the current administration of public funds for culture they feel the need for strategic planning in this area. This means that Poles have adapted to new market conditions, they found themselves as EU citizens, they are facing the challenges of globalization and even the economic crisis. In short, those who work in the field of culture – artists, activists, administrators have adapted to new political, economic and administrative Poland, to the new challenges of world culture. Can we expect more? Surely we could, but certainly in this context, we feel quite satisfied. Meanwhile, from the perspective of 2010, there is a lack of systemic changes that are compatible
Dorota Ilczuk, Małgorzata Nowak
A reform of the cultural sector in Poland. Where is the problem?
1
Dorota Ilczuk Professor of Economics at School of Social Sciences and Humanities, habilitated doctor in Humanities and Cultural Management, founder and president of the Pro Cultura Foundation. In years 2002-2007 president of CIRCLE – Cultural Information and Research Centers Liaison in Europe. A member of the European Cultural Parliament. Since 2003 a board member of The Union of Polish Theatres. She co-operates with international organizations and science associations such as: European Institute for Comparative Cultural Research (ERICarts), Association of Cultural Economics International (ACEI) and International Society for Third Sector Research (ISTR). She has taken part in over hundred national and international science conferences. She is a project director of numerous research programmes. She is the author and coauthor of over hundred publications, studies and articles, in following research fields: economics of culture, cultural policy, civil society and functioning of the third sector.
Małgorzata Nowak Graduate of Cultural Studies at Warsaw School of Social Sciences and Humanities. Since 2006 she has been co-operating with the Pro Cultura Foundation in Warsaw, currently holding the position of a director, where she took part in many projects, e.g. she was a project coordinator in „European Intercultural Campus”, and the co-editor of a book Intercultural Dialogue in Contemporary Metropolis. In 2010 she coordinated the preparation of the Warsaw’s application for the title of European Capital of Culture 2016. She is the co-author of a Polish profile in Council of Europe and ERICarts portal concerning cultural policy in Europe (www.culturalpolicies.net). Since 2010 she has been lecturing on Culture Management at Warsaw School of Social Sciences and Humanities, department of Culture Studies.
with the original cultural policy based on a modern legal system of the culture. Culture is the only unreformed sector of economy in Poland. We missed a wave of changes going through other European countries, according to which although the state is not getting rid of responsibility for this sphere, it modifies its powers in order to increase the efficiency of subsidized cultural activities and the achievement of its higher quality. In Western Europe two new trends in organising and financing of culture became dominant. The first of these is the inclusion in the cultural governance of the intermediary bodies (agencies/funds/councils) operating as quasi–non–governmental organisations that distribute public funds for the cultural activities and also serve an advisory role to the ministries of culture. The second is a change in the management of the public (subsidized) cultural institutions. This new approach can be described as a kind of institutions’ moving away from state and thus consequently gaining greater autonomy. It is often called a de–etatisation process in cultural institutions. The biggest weakness of the existing system of organisation and financing of culture, in addition to relatively low in comparison with other developed European countries, public spending (in 2008 public expenditure on culture per capita amounted to 180.88 PLN (45.22 Euro), which represented 0.58% of GDP, state expenditure accounted for 21.17% of total public expenditure and 0.53% of total budget2) must include: MM badly carried out, not taking into account the specificities of the sector, decentralisation of public tasks in the field of culture; MM principles of organising and financing of cultural institutions, being a mix of solutions used in businesses and commercial units of the so called non–budgetary economy, which are clearly inadequate to the nature of the institution; MM financing of culture based on annual budgets; MM possibility of using financial instruments in order to achieve substantive impact on the activities of cultural institutions; MM unequal treatment of different economic entities in the allocation of public resources for purposeful tasks; preference for institutions at the expense of projects;
MM poor state of monitoring of culture finances as well as of the development of cultural industries. Listed as the last the lack of systematic data collection on the state of the cultural sector requires an individual comment. It is a fact obvious to experts that such information allows more effective respond to threats or creating realistic vision of development, it remains unrecognised by the authorities responsible for shaping cultural policy both at the national level and locally. It is certainly surprising in view of the numerous examples of foreign observatories, laboratories and institutes for monitoring of culture, such as the German Institute ERICarts, Catalan Interarts Foundation, Centre for Cultural Policy Research in Glasgow, Austrian Kulturdokumentation or French Observatoire des Politiques Culturelles. The above–mentioned entities deal with various sectors of culture, differ in legal and organisational form, but their primary task is to collect and analyse data which enables to respond to changes and to propose new solutions. We can also observe the attempts of consolidation of the monitoring entities, e.g. the CultureLink international network, established by UNESCO or the CultureWatchEurope project of the Council of Europe, which gathers portals providing comparative information updated from around 40 European countries in three areas: cultural policy, cultural heritage and the audiovisual sector. Meanwhile in Poland, „somehow it does not work” and yet the term „cultural observatory” is not unfamiliar neither to us nor to the organisers of the cultural life. The first attempts to create such a centre can be dated to the year 1999, when the Cultural Institute has proposed the creation of the Observatory of cultural life in Poland3. Some hope is given by initiatives such as Alive Culture Observatory, jointly organised by the Observatory of Culture NCK, Division of Cultural Research Methods ISNS UW and Klon/Jawor Association. However, this is a new project so it is impossible to assess its effectiveness. The same applies to regional observatories emerging before our eyes. Other lack comprehensiveness and regularity, such as the reports on the state of culture, which emerged from the Congress of Culture 2009. Their advantage, despite the varied levels of detail, is
2 Data driven from the Central Statistical Office’s publication Culture in 2008
Culture Management 2011, Vol 4 (4)
poor state of monitoring of culture finances as well as of the development of cultural industries. Listed as the last the lack of systematic data collection on the state of the cultural sector requires an individual comment. It is a fact obvious to experts that such information allows more effective respond to threats or creating realistic vision of development, it remains unrecognised by the authorities responsible for shaping cultural policy both at the national level and locally. It is certainly surprising in view of the numerous examples of foreign observatories, laboratories and institutes for monitoring of culture, such as the German Institute ERICarts, Catalan Interarts Foundation, Centre for Cultural Policy Research in Glasgow, Austrian Kulturdokumentation or French Observatoire des Politiques Culturelles. The above–mentioned entities deal with various sectors of culture, differ in legal and organisational form, but their primary task is to collect and analyse data which enables to respond to changes and to propose new solutions. We can also observe the attempts of consolidation of the monitoring entities, e.g. the CultureLink international network, established by UNESCO or the CultureWatchEurope project of the Council of Europe, which gathers portals providing comparative information updated from around 40 European countries in three areas: cultural policy, cultural heritage and the audiovisual sector. Meanwhile in Poland, „somehow it does not work” and yet the term „cultural observatory” is not unfamiliar neither to us nor to the organisers of the cultural life. The first attempts to create such a centre can be dated to the year 1999, when the Cultural Institute has proposed the creation of the Observatory of cultural life in Poland3. Some hope is given by initiatives such as Alive Culture Observatory, jointly organised by the Observatory of Culture NCK, Division of Cultural Research Methods ISNS UW and Klon/Jawor Association. However, this is a new project so it is impossible to assess its effectiveness. The same applies to regional observatories emerging before our eyes. Other lack comprehensiveness and regularity, such as the reports on the state of culture, which emerged from the Congress of Culture 2009. Their advantage, despite the varied levels of detail, is MM
3 Observatory of cultural life in Poland - a project developed by a team led by prof. Andrew Siciński and dr. Zina Jarmoszuk, Cultural Institute, 1999. Never implemented.
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3 Observatory of cultural life in Poland - a project developed by a team led by prof. Andrew Siciński and dr. Zina Jarmoszuk, Cultural Institute, 1999. Never implemented. 2 Data driven from the Central Statistical Office’s publication Culture in 2008
with the original cultural policy based on a modern legal system of the culture. Culture is the only unreformed sector of economy in Poland. We missed a wave of changes going through other European countries, according to which although the state is not getting rid of responsibility for this sphere, it modifies its powers in order to increase the efficiency of subsidized cultural activities and the achievement of its higher quality. In Western Europe two new trends in organising and financing of culture became dominant. The first of these is the inclusion in the cultural governance of the intermediary bodies (agencies/funds/councils) operating as quasi–non–governmental organisations that distribute public funds for the cultural activities and also serve an advisory role to the ministries of culture. The second is a change in the management of the public (subsidized) cultural institutions. This new approach can be described as a kind of institutions’ moving away from state and thus consequently gaining greater autonomy. It is often called a de–etatisation process in cultural institutions. The biggest weakness of the existing system of organisation and financing of culture, in addition to relatively low in comparison with other developed European countries, public spending (in 2008 public expenditure on culture per capita amounted to 180.88 PLN (45.22 Euro), which represented 0.58% of GDP, state expenditure accounted for 21.17% of total public expenditure and 0.53% of total budget2) must include: MM badly carried out, not taking into account the specificities of the sector, decentralisation of public tasks in the field of culture; MM principles of organising and financing of cultural institutions, being a mix of solutions used in businesses and commercial units of the so called non–budgetary economy, which are clearly inadequate to the nature of the institution; MM financing of culture based on annual budgets; MM possibility of using financial instruments in order to achieve substantive impact on the activities of cultural institutions; MM unequal treatment of different economic entities in the allocation of public resources for purposeful tasks; preference for institutions at the expense of projects;
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Małgorzata Nowak Graduate of Cultural Studies at Warsaw School of Social Sciences and Humanities. Since 2006 she has been co-operating with the Pro Cultura Foundation in Warsaw, currently holding the position of a director, where she took part in many projects, e.g. she was a project coordinator in „European Intercultural Campus”, and the co-editor of a book Intercultural Dialogue in Contemporary Metropolis. In 2010 she coordinated the preparation of the Warsaw’s application for the title of European Capital of Culture 2016. She is the co-author of a Polish profile in Council of Europe and ERICarts portal concerning cultural policy in Europe (www.culturalpolicies.net). Since 2010 she has been lecturing on Culture Management at Warsaw School of Social Sciences and Humanities, department of Culture Studies.
Culture Management 2011, Vol 4 (4)
Culture Management 2011, Vol 4 (4)
the fact that they have been prepared by experts in their fields. It is unfortunate, however, that these reports were a unique venture, formed exclusively for the Congress of Culture, and the regular update that would allow the observation of change is not planned. In order to make our paper at least a little bit less pessimistic, we feel obliged to stress the latest, emerging mainly due to the efforts of the co–organisers of this conference, initiatives, aiming at introduction of the reflections on the economic significance of the cultural sector into the public discourse. Projects such as Culture Counts!, the debate and research4 conducted in its framework, are very important and give hope for a different perception of culture. We observe them with great interest, hoping that this project will be realised consequently, systematically and with great care of quality. We emphasize here the significance of broad understanding of culture (with its industries) as a source of creativity and a key sector of economy. It is extremely important for such an attitude to surpass the theoretical reflection and to be present in practice – in both creation and everyday realisation of the state’s cultural policy.
3. Diagnoses and attempts at reform
T
he lack of system changes that would take into account the specificities of culture, lack of its monitoring and evaluation, is not unfortunately a new ascertainment. The last decade has elapsed in the repetition that we cannot forever be satisfied with alterations, smaller or larger modifications of the order left after years of planned economy, adaptations forced by market requirements, the administrative system or the possibility of using EU funds. And, unfortunately, it is still valid. In order not to be groundless, let us recall the studies recognised as essential in the circles of culture researchers: “The draft reform of public cultural institutions in Poland”, prepared by professors Jacek Purchla and Andrzej Rottermund in 1999 and “The financing and organisation of
culture in a market economy” by Dorota Ilczuk and Wojciech Misiąg in 2003, which also contains the never implemented draft law on cultural activities by Wojciech Misiąg on year 2000. In the first half of 2004, Culture and Business group, operating at the Polish Confederation of Private Employers Lewiatan, has begun the works on a Social Draft Law on Cultural Activities. The members of the Culture and Business group appointed a working group, headed by prof. Andrzej Rottermund. The group consisted of Maciej Englert, Dorota Ilczuk, Janusz Pietkiewicz and Jacek Weksler. The project theses of the cultural activity reform elaborated by that group, like previous attempts, hung in a vacuum. Congress of Culture in 2009 only confirmed the previous considerations. Culture circles loudly called for the need for far–reaching changes, as evidenced by the study developed by the Zbigniew Raszewski Theatre Institute: “Three steps to change for the better in Polish culture.”5 The authors of this document call for the recognition of creativity as a priority of the state cultural policy, flexibility, increasing the dynamics and proper assessment of work of cultural institutions as well as introduction of new financial mechanisms (e.g. non–budgetary mechanism) allowing for the diversification of sources of cultural institutions financing. Since from the beginning of this decade awareness of the need to build a new modern system of culture was clearly defined and publicised it is worth considering whether 10 years is a lot or a little for such reforms to become a success. Maybe we are too impatient after the transformation carried out rapidly in the 90’s. Maybe the time for reflection has come. Time to create an expert base in order to design future developmental directions for the organisation of cultural activity in Poland and to profile the original definition of cultural policy. Maybe. Such an explanation would certainly be reasonable, if we would not have the knowledge of examples of concrete actions taken within the last 10 years which, despite even the massive mobilisation, have not entered into force. We will present here two of them. Let us now return to the year 2002 when the then minister of culture Andrzej Celiński, tried
4 Recently the Structural Research Institute elaborated (on the commission of the Observatory of Culture) a report entitled “The economic value of the cultural sector. Introduction to the problem analysis”. It is the first in many years such a comprehensive and reliable attempt of assessing the economic value of Polish cultural sector, as well as culture and creative industries. 5 Text prepared by a team composed of: Eliza Durka, Dorota Mieszek, Hanna Trzeciak, Maciej Nowak, Paweł Płoski, Michał Wojtuś in cooperation with Klaudia Madziar, Warsaw, 2009
Culture Management 2011, Vol 4 (4)
11
11
5 Text prepared by a team composed of: Eliza Durka, Dorota Mieszek, Hanna Trzeciak, Maciej Nowak, Paweł Płoski, Michał Wojtuś in cooperation with Klaudia Madziar, Warsaw, 2009 4 Recently the Structural Research Institute elaborated (on the commission of the Observatory of Culture) a report entitled “The economic value of the cultural sector. Introduction to the problem analysis”. It is the first in many years such a comprehensive and reliable attempt of assessing the economic value of Polish cultural sector, as well as culture and creative industries.
he lack of system changes that would take into account the specificities of culture, lack of its monitoring and evaluation, is not unfortunately a new ascertainment. The last decade has elapsed in the repetition that we cannot forever be satisfied with alterations, smaller or larger modifications of the order left after years of planned economy, adaptations forced by market requirements, the administrative system or the possibility of using EU funds. And, unfortunately, it is still valid. In order not to be groundless, let us recall the studies recognised as essential in the circles of culture researchers: “The draft reform of public cultural institutions in Poland”, prepared by professors Jacek Purchla and Andrzej Rottermund in 1999 and “The financing and organisation of
T
3. Diagnoses and attempts at reform the fact that they have been prepared by experts in their fields. It is unfortunate, however, that these reports were a unique venture, formed exclusively for the Congress of Culture, and the regular update that would allow the observation of change is not planned. In order to make our paper at least a little bit less pessimistic, we feel obliged to stress the latest, emerging mainly due to the efforts of the co–organisers of this conference, initiatives, aiming at introduction of the reflections on the economic significance of the cultural sector into the public discourse. Projects such as Culture Counts!, the debate and research4 conducted in its framework, are very important and give hope for a different perception of culture. We observe them with great interest, hoping that this project will be realised consequently, systematically and with great care of quality. We emphasize here the significance of broad understanding of culture (with its industries) as a source of creativity and a key sector of economy. It is extremely important for such an attitude to surpass the theoretical reflection and to be present in practice – in both creation and everyday realisation of the state’s cultural policy.
culture in a market economy” by Dorota Ilczuk and Wojciech Misiąg in 2003, which also contains the never implemented draft law on cultural activities by Wojciech Misiąg on year 2000. In the first half of 2004, Culture and Business group, operating at the Polish Confederation of Private Employers Lewiatan, has begun the works on a Social Draft Law on Cultural Activities. The members of the Culture and Business group appointed a working group, headed by prof. Andrzej Rottermund. The group consisted of Maciej Englert, Dorota Ilczuk, Janusz Pietkiewicz and Jacek Weksler. The project theses of the cultural activity reform elaborated by that group, like previous attempts, hung in a vacuum. Congress of Culture in 2009 only confirmed the previous considerations. Culture circles loudly called for the need for far–reaching changes, as evidenced by the study developed by the Zbigniew Raszewski Theatre Institute: “Three steps to change for the better in Polish culture.”5 The authors of this document call for the recognition of creativity as a priority of the state cultural policy, flexibility, increasing the dynamics and proper assessment of work of cultural institutions as well as introduction of new financial mechanisms (e.g. non–budgetary mechanism) allowing for the diversification of sources of cultural institutions financing. Since from the beginning of this decade awareness of the need to build a new modern system of culture was clearly defined and publicised it is worth considering whether 10 years is a lot or a little for such reforms to become a success. Maybe we are too impatient after the transformation carried out rapidly in the 90’s. Maybe the time for reflection has come. Time to create an expert base in order to design future developmental directions for the organisation of cultural activity in Poland and to profile the original definition of cultural policy. Maybe. Such an explanation would certainly be reasonable, if we would not have the knowledge of examples of concrete actions taken within the last 10 years which, despite even the massive mobilisation, have not entered into force. We will present here two of them. Let us now return to the year 2002 when the then minister of culture Andrzej Celiński, tried
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Culture Management 2011, Vol 4 (4)
for a draft law amending the act on organisation and conducting of cultural activities and certain other acts”, namely the nth amendment to the law stipulating the conditions of cultural activities. Prepared draft has already come a long way of public consultation and discussions. At the end of May it has been recommended to the Council of Ministers. Its final version in several aspects differs from the original and, unfortunately, does not always take into account the environmental demands (which would be extremely difficult due to the fact that they often were mutually exclusive). The project envisages the division of cultural institutions in the artistic and the others, and among the “others” institutions with such a different character as community centres, libraries or museums will be found, ignoring the original proposal of popularisating institutions category. It opens the way for director employment (selected in the competition), on the basis of management contracts with limited employment time. It introduces the possibility of mandating the administration of cultural institution to the legal or physical person, but does not specify mechanisms for supervision and control of such institutions. Unfortunately, there is no possibility of budget planning in a longer, than the annual, run. It remains for us to wait for the approval of the draft guidelines and instead of the system reform, so long awaited, we’ll have another amendment of old legislation.
nteresting from our point of view, is an analysis of unsuccessful attempts to introduce reforms, not only large but also individual solutions and new regulations for the cultural sector in Poland. For example, what happened to the proposal to introduce boards of trustees to public institutions of culture, which incidentally despite careful suggestions from experts was planned to be carried out on a large scale. Will the possibility of deducting of 1% of corporate income tax for cultural purposes be put in force. Will the rule of 1% of decorum, wildly discussed recently, be introduced... etc. Concentrating on the causes of failures helps to list constructive proposals and avoid repeating the same mistakes. It should be a task for the future. Now we can only make the general statement, that in each of the above examples at least one of the following elements, which determine success
4. Causes of failures
I
I
4. Causes of failures
nteresting from our point of view, is an analysis of unsuccessful attempts to introduce reforms, not only large but also individual solutions and new regulations for the cultural sector in Poland. For example, what happened to the proposal to introduce boards of trustees to public institutions of culture, which incidentally despite careful suggestions from experts was planned to be carried out on a large scale. Will the possibility of deducting of 1% of corporate income tax for cultural purposes be put in force. Will the rule of 1% of decorum, wildly discussed recently, be introduced... etc. Concentrating on the causes of failures helps to list constructive proposals and avoid repeating the same mistakes. It should be a task for the future. Now we can only make the general statement, that in each of the above examples at least one of the following elements, which determine success
12
for a draft law amending the act on organisation and conducting of cultural activities and certain other acts”, namely the nth amendment to the law stipulating the conditions of cultural activities. Prepared draft has already come a long way of public consultation and discussions. At the end of May it has been recommended to the Council of Ministers. Its final version in several aspects differs from the original and, unfortunately, does not always take into account the environmental demands (which would be extremely difficult due to the fact that they often were mutually exclusive). The project envisages the division of cultural institutions in the artistic and the others, and among the “others” institutions with such a different character as community centres, libraries or museums will be found, ignoring the original proposal of popularisating institutions category. It opens the way for director employment (selected in the competition), on the basis of management contracts with limited employment time. It introduces the possibility of mandating the administration of cultural institution to the legal or physical person, but does not specify mechanisms for supervision and control of such institutions. Unfortunately, there is no possibility of budget planning in a longer, than the annual, run. It remains for us to wait for the approval of the draft guidelines and instead of the system reform, so long awaited, we’ll have another amendment of old legislation.
to carry out a general reform of financing and organisation of the cultural sector. Expert studies carried out at that time assumed to develop far– reaching changes in financing and management of culture in Poland, the role and responsibilities of government in this area and creating conditions that could encourage the private sector to finance culture. However, these proposals as well as those relating to legislative changes in the organisation of cultural activities and public support for the cinematography have been dropped along with the hasty resignation of the minister. Measurable effect of that “revolution” is the inclusion of Poland to the club of countries that allocate the profits from state lotteries for cultural purposes. The possibility to acquire 5% support of the National Lottery coupons price is a small but steady financial injection for culture. Finally, the second attempt. Jerzy Hausner’s team proposal, presented at the Congress of Culture in 2009, largely consistent with previous ones on the main directions of the proposed changes. Specific solutions differ, of course. However, many of the entries contain elements creating controversies in the environment, which resulted in a heated debate over this attempt at reform. Why? Well, first of all, the reform should lead to greater efficiency of the institutions of culture, whereas it had no announcement of the support in the transition process, it also lacked proposals of transformation. Instead a record could be found that was to move away from subject subsidies in favour of purpose subsidies, which if entered incorrectly could lead even to the collapse of the weak public institutions. The fact that this plan was separated from the successfully revised European practice raised concerns. It is worth to appreciate the pioneer solutions, but in this case, the risk could be too great. In addition, many records were unclear or imprecise, which resulted in a variety of interpretations, for example; the concept of cultural institutions, not allowing the unequivocal statement that it is a legal term that grants certain rights or just a loose formula needed to be registered in the registry office. Similar controversies were raised by the proposal, which lacked a real calculation, of 1% of corporate income tax deduction – would it only serve cultural institutions? As a result of the storm, which passed over the proposals of prof. Hausner’s team, the initial intentions of a great change had passed. In return, the Ministry of Culture in September 2009 prepared a so called small reform “Draft guidelines
Culture Management 2011, Vol 4 (4)
to carry out a general reform of financing and organisation of the cultural sector. Expert studies carried out at that time assumed to develop far– reaching changes in financing and management of culture in Poland, the role and responsibilities of government in this area and creating conditions that could encourage the private sector to finance culture. However, these proposals as well as those relating to legislative changes in the organisation of cultural activities and public support for the cinematography have been dropped along with the hasty resignation of the minister. Measurable effect of that “revolution” is the inclusion of Poland to the club of countries that allocate the profits from state lotteries for cultural purposes. The possibility to acquire 5% support of the National Lottery coupons price is a small but steady financial injection for culture. Finally, the second attempt. Jerzy Hausner’s team proposal, presented at the Congress of Culture in 2009, largely consistent with previous ones on the main directions of the proposed changes. Specific solutions differ, of course. However, many of the entries contain elements creating controversies in the environment, which resulted in a heated debate over this attempt at reform. Why? Well, first of all, the reform should lead to greater efficiency of the institutions of culture, whereas it had no announcement of the support in the transition process, it also lacked proposals of transformation. Instead a record could be found that was to move away from subject subsidies in favour of purpose subsidies, which if entered incorrectly could lead even to the collapse of the weak public institutions. The fact that this plan was separated from the successfully revised European practice raised concerns. It is worth to appreciate the pioneer solutions, but in this case, the risk could be too great. In addition, many records were unclear or imprecise, which resulted in a variety of interpretations, for example; the concept of cultural institutions, not allowing the unequivocal statement that it is a legal term that grants certain rights or just a loose formula needed to be registered in the registry office. Similar controversies were raised by the proposal, which lacked a real calculation, of 1% of corporate income tax deduction – would it only serve cultural institutions? As a result of the storm, which passed over the proposals of prof. Hausner’s team, the initial intentions of a great change had passed. In return, the Ministry of Culture in September 2009 prepared a so called small reform “Draft guidelines
Culture Management 2011, Vol 4 (4)
in implementing systemic changes in the force, was missing. These include: a. A strong base of expertise benefiting from the system of monitoring and evaluation of the cultural sector in Poland It should finally be clear that a rational reform requires professionals who know the specificity of the whole cultural sector, equipped with both knowledge of international practices, as well as the Polish situation. For example, attempts to change the system of public financing and organization of the cultural sector, undertaken without consultation with culture economists, must necessarily be doomed to failure. After all, it is the economics of culture which deals with the setting of effective instruments in the cultural sphere of economic policy in such areas as employment, finance, infrastructure, etc... Culture economists analyse culture, taking into account the specificity of cultural activities, mechanisms applicable in various sectors (public, private, non– profit.) And it is these mechanisms that we are looking for in our reforming actions. Disciplines such as management and economics of culture, develop in Poland quite systematically. After thirty years since the Stanislawa Golinowska first drew attention to the existence of cultural economics as a discipline, we have a large research achievements and new experiences of cultural activity in a market economy. Although Culture Institute in Warsaw no longer exists, where the Department of Cultural Economics was actively engaged in systematic research in the field, part of its functions were taken over by independent researchers and independent institutions (eg. Pro Cultura). Students of Cultural Management at the Jagiellonian University and Cultural Studies at SWPS have lectures on the subject of cultural economics. So both experienced and novice culture economists may either by themselves or indicating foreign colleagues, strengthen expert facilities necessary to carry out reforms in the culture. To be able to be truly effective they need an effective and consolidated system of monitoring and evaluation of cultural activities, not only the procedures, but primarily the effects of actions. b. Acceptance of the cultural circles of the proposed solutions Cultural environment in Poland is aware of the need for change and accepts that possibility. Concern of the environment, which we lists as one of the causes of failures of system reforms, does not
Culture Management 2011, Vol 4 (4)
apply to question the validity of their conduct, but that what they will become and how they shall be carried out. People of culture long enough have coped with various constraints on their own, to possess in this area a lot of experience. They also have a considerable understanding of foreign solutions. They have usually quite clearly defined expectations. They do not protest against solutions that would bring positive effects: the possibility of long–term planning of cultural activities, financial stability, improving the conditions of artistic activities, the transparency of public funding, greater independence and liberation from the current limitations of cultural institutions, leading to greater efficiency and greater access to culture, and thus also to extend its influence to build our identity and civil society. It is, therefore important, that the proposed reform, due to its depth and wide reach, was preceded by a carefully rethought process of consultation and implementation. Achieving the target effect requires changes to be carried out gradually, in turn, allows the various stages of the evolutionary implementation of the reform, including the need for its promotion, explaining to recipients. It is vital to ensure the necessary budgetary resources for its conduct and carrying out pilot projects on selected subjects. c. The political will to carry out systemic reforms in culture It is hard to imagine the construction of contemporary cultural policy, without the prior answering the question about the level of State intervention in the sphere of culture. If during the Congress of Culture, organised in 2009, one of the panel discussions was titled “How much State in culture: government, local government or civil society” that is to say that such a discourse has still not been taken seriously in Poland. We will not comment on the exclusionary nature of the question, either one or the other, we will assume that being a slip of the tongue, because the essence of the problem is, after all – the conditions set for the cooperation. How much State in the social sphere, which includes culture, how much place for the State in culture – are fundamental questions about the extent of state intervention in the cultural field in an economy based on market principles. These are the questions of discourse, which leads to the consideration of the adopted by the European countries, contemporary models/ approaches across the social policy. It is hard to imagine the construction of contemporary cul-
13
b. Acceptance of the cultural circles of the proposed solutions Cultural environment in Poland is aware of the need for change and accepts that possibility. Concern of the environment, which we lists as one of the causes of failures of system reforms, does not a. A strong base of expertise benefiting from the system of monitoring and evaluation of the cultural sector in Poland It should finally be clear that a rational reform requires professionals who know the specificity of the whole cultural sector, equipped with both knowledge of international practices, as well as the Polish situation. For example, attempts to change the system of public financing and organization of the cultural sector, undertaken without consultation with culture economists, must necessarily be doomed to failure. After all, it is the economics of culture which deals with the setting of effective instruments in the cultural sphere of economic policy in such areas as employment, finance, infrastructure, etc... Culture economists analyse culture, taking into account the specificity of cultural activities, mechanisms applicable in various sectors (public, private, non– profit.) And it is these mechanisms that we are looking for in our reforming actions. Disciplines such as management and economics of culture, develop in Poland quite systematically. After thirty years since the Stanislawa Golinowska first drew attention to the existence of cultural economics as a discipline, we have a large research achievements and new experiences of cultural activity in a market economy. Although Culture Institute in Warsaw no longer exists, where the Department of Cultural Economics was actively engaged in systematic research in the field, part of its functions were taken over by independent researchers and independent institutions (eg. Pro Cultura). Students of Cultural Management at the Jagiellonian University and Cultural Studies at SWPS have lectures on the subject of cultural economics. So both experienced and novice culture economists may either by themselves or indicating foreign colleagues, strengthen expert facilities necessary to carry out reforms in the culture. To be able to be truly effective they need an effective and consolidated system of monitoring and evaluation of cultural activities, not only the procedures, but primarily the effects of actions. in implementing systemic changes in the force, was missing. These include:
13
c. The political will to carry out systemic reforms in culture It is hard to imagine the construction of contemporary cultural policy, without the prior answering the question about the level of State intervention in the sphere of culture. If during the Congress of Culture, organised in 2009, one of the panel discussions was titled “How much State in culture: government, local government or civil society” that is to say that such a discourse has still not been taken seriously in Poland. We will not comment on the exclusionary nature of the question, either one or the other, we will assume that being a slip of the tongue, because the essence of the problem is, after all – the conditions set for the cooperation. How much State in the social sphere, which includes culture, how much place for the State in culture – are fundamental questions about the extent of state intervention in the cultural field in an economy based on market principles. These are the questions of discourse, which leads to the consideration of the adopted by the European countries, contemporary models/ approaches across the social policy. It is hard to imagine the construction of contemporary culapply to question the validity of their conduct, but that what they will become and how they shall be carried out. People of culture long enough have coped with various constraints on their own, to possess in this area a lot of experience. They also have a considerable understanding of foreign solutions. They have usually quite clearly defined expectations. They do not protest against solutions that would bring positive effects: the possibility of long–term planning of cultural activities, financial stability, improving the conditions of artistic activities, the transparency of public funding, greater independence and liberation from the current limitations of cultural institutions, leading to greater efficiency and greater access to culture, and thus also to extend its influence to build our identity and civil society. It is, therefore important, that the proposed reform, due to its depth and wide reach, was preceded by a carefully rethought process of consultation and implementation. Achieving the target effect requires changes to be carried out gradually, in turn, allows the various stages of the evolutionary implementation of the reform, including the need for its promotion, explaining to recipients. It is vital to ensure the necessary budgetary resources for its conduct and carrying out pilot projects on selected subjects.
tural policy without first answering this question. However, since the last 10 years could not produce such a response, and the cultural policy also has not been clearly specified, does this mean that at the time the politicians responsible for creating cultural policy made no progress and by printing various, more or less professional documents and strategies, were really only meeting the current needs in the cultural sphere? Since 1989 no single political party has decided, or did not have sufficient political strength and knowledge of the industry to cease placing only a single, adaptive changes and to make systemic transformations. In 2007, part on the culture of Civic Platform’s (Platforma Obywatelska) programme document contained a provision on the need to reform the funding model and organization of cultural activities. To this day we do not have the reform. History likes to repeat itself apparently, but does it have to be like this also this time?
Culture Management 2011, Vol 4 (4)
5. Conclusion
14
W
ithin the title of this paper we ask a question, where is the problem of reforming the cultural sector, what is the cause of failure. Fulfilment of the conditions we have mentioned may be the key to success. But can we combine them? We do not know. We know, however, that every effort
should be made to ensure, step by step, creating a conducive situation for the systematic and systemic (we stress this with all the power) change. Otherwise we are doomed to constant repetition of worn–out bon mots that public spendings on culture in Poland, are within the statistical error and that the governance of culture in Poland is slowly becoming an isolated island when compared to a reformed Europe. As an effect it reduces the importance of culture and insult people of culture. It does not have to be so, if we do not want it. In our study there is another question, who should be responsible for the introduction of this highly anticipated changes. Example of Culture Congress showed how strong is the voice of the environment on the media subject. It is therefore possible that for the reform to be effective, there should be an outside initiative, adopted by the ministry as the vox populi. Yes, it is possible that this is a good way, although we see a greater role for the ministry, as the initiator and leader of change. And perhaps we should listen to the voices of local authorities and together with them implement pilot projects, allowing to verify the assumptions of the reform. Let us think about it together. One thing is certain. Further delay in action to reform can lead to the need for implementation of the non evolutionary changes, implemented systematically, according to a thought–out plan, but revolutionary, and such actions bring risk of high expenses.
W
ithin the title of this paper we ask a question, where is the problem of reforming the cultural sector, what is the cause of failure. Fulfilment of the conditions we have mentioned may be the key to success. But can we combine them? We do not know. We know, however, that every effort
Culture Management 2011, Vol 4 (4)
5. Conclusion
should be made to ensure, step by step, creating a conducive situation for the systematic and systemic (we stress this with all the power) change. Otherwise we are doomed to constant repetition of worn–out bon mots that public spendings on culture in Poland, are within the statistical error and that the governance of culture in Poland is slowly becoming an isolated island when compared to a reformed Europe. As an effect it reduces the importance of culture and insult people of culture. It does not have to be so, if we do not want it. In our study there is another question, who should be responsible for the introduction of this highly anticipated changes. Example of Culture Congress showed how strong is the voice of the environment on the media subject. It is therefore possible that for the reform to be effective, there should be an outside initiative, adopted by the ministry as the vox populi. Yes, it is possible that this is a good way, although we see a greater role for the ministry, as the initiator and leader of change. And perhaps we should listen to the voices of local authorities and together with them implement pilot projects, allowing to verify the assumptions of the reform. Let us think about it together. One thing is certain. Further delay in action to reform can lead to the need for implementation of the non evolutionary changes, implemented systematically, according to a thought–out plan, but revolutionary, and such actions bring risk of high expenses.
14
tural policy without first answering this question. However, since the last 10 years could not produce such a response, and the cultural policy also has not been clearly specified, does this mean that at the time the politicians responsible for creating cultural policy made no progress and by printing various, more or less professional documents and strategies, were really only meeting the current needs in the cultural sphere? Since 1989 no single political party has decided, or did not have sufficient political strength and knowledge of the industry to cease placing only a single, adaptive changes and to make systemic transformations. In 2007, part on the culture of Civic Platform’s (Platforma Obywatelska) programme document contained a provision on the need to reform the funding model and organization of cultural activities. To this day we do not have the reform. History likes to repeat itself apparently, but does it have to be like this also this time?
15
Culture Management 2011, Vol 4 (4)
Analysis of cultural policy in Kazakhstan.
6 Article was presented during 2d International Research Conference for MA and PHD Students in Arts Science, Arts Practice, Cultural Policy and Cultural Management, organized by The Arts Research Institute of Ilia State University (Georgia) in cooperation with Stichting Caucasus Foundation (NL). Tbilisi, 23 – 25 of May 2011.
T
erritory of nowadays Kazakhstan was historically part of Russian Imperia from the middle
2. Historical–cultural background and nowadays situation.
Galina Koretskaya
1. Introduction6.
N
owadays, there is a set of questions in Kazakhstani’s arts and cultural field, which arose due to the historical background of the country. But the evolvement of the field cannot be further developed without stating the direction of cultural policy, which was taken by the state after independence in 1991 and which has been never analyzed, using the accepted cultural policy research tools. The aims of the thesis are to describe the situation in Kazakhstani’s social, artistic and cultural field, analyze the direction of cultural policy, which was taken after independency, evaluate it and propose hypotheses for later development of the theme. The work is not about answering, but mostly asking questions and setting up issues, which should be solved in the future. Due to the theme of the work were chosen descriptive and evaluative research methods. One of the main research problems was a lack of materials and independent analysis about current situation in arts and cultural field as well as non–transparent, idealized and sometimes garbled information from the official sources. That is why the work is mostly based on newspaper articles and interviews of the persons related to the analyzed topics.
Due to the theme of the work were chosen descriptive and evaluative research methods. One of the main research problems was a lack of materials and independent analysis about current situation in arts and cultural field as well as non–transparent, idealized and sometimes garbled information from the official sources. That is why the work is mostly based on newspaper articles and interviews of the persons related to the analyzed topics. owadays, there is a set of questions in Kazakhstani’s arts and cultural field, which arose due to the historical background of the country. But the evolvement of the field cannot be further developed without stating the direction of cultural policy, which was taken by the state after independence in 1991 and which has been never analyzed, using the accepted cultural policy research tools. The aims of the thesis are to describe the situation in Kazakhstani’s social, artistic and cultural field, analyze the direction of cultural policy, which was taken after independency, evaluate it and propose hypotheses for later development of the theme. The work is not about answering, but mostly asking questions and setting up issues, which should be solved in the future.
N
1. Introduction6.
of 18th century. At the beginning of 20th century it became a Union republic of Soviet Union and received a name Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic with Alma–Ata as a capital city. Since that period, due to the several waves of deportations and migrations to Kazakhstan (Stalin’s deporations in 1930th, evacuations in 1940th during The Great Patriotic War (II World War), migrations in 1950th during The Virgin Lands Campaign) the ethnic popilation was dramatically changed, as the result Kazakhs were just 30% of the whole population. The rest consists of Russians, Ukraninans, Belorussians, Germans, Polish etc. From the one side during the Soviet Unon grew up a new well–educateted generation, were built a wide range of cultural institutons. Through the Russian language local population was introduced to the world’s art and culture. But from the other side there was a rejection of Kazakh original culture and traditions, repressions on Kazakh intelligensia. All the population were speaking Russian, Kazakh language was almost forgoten, Kazakh people staretd to loose their original roots and ethnic identity. In 1991 Kazakhstan became independent. From this period started the rebirth of Kazakh patriotism, Kazakh culture, Kazakh traditions. Since that time was developed the state model with one nation – Kazakhstanies, with one title nation – Kakzakhs, with one state language – Kazakhs and Russian as the official language. The aim of the state was to create a new national identity shared by Kazakhs and by other ethnics, teach Kazakh language as to ethinc Kazakhs, so to other 130 ethnic groups, living in nowadays Kazakhstan. It was crusial to avoied national
Galina Koretskaya 2. Historical–cultural background and nowadays situation.
T
erritory of nowadays Kazakhstan was historically part of Russian Imperia from the middle
of 18th century. At the beginning of 20th century it became a Union republic of Soviet Union and received a name Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic with Alma–Ata as a capital city. Since that period, due to the several waves of deportations and migrations to Kazakhstan (Stalin’s deporations in 1930th, evacuations in 1940th during The Great Patriotic War (II World War), migrations in 1950th during The Virgin Lands Campaign) the ethnic popilation was dramatically changed, as the result Kazakhs were just 30% of the whole population. The rest consists of Russians, Ukraninans, Belorussians, Germans, Polish etc. From the one side during the Soviet Unon grew up a new well–educateted generation, were built a wide range of cultural institutons. Through the Russian language local population was introduced to the world’s art and culture. But from the other side there was a rejection of Kazakh original culture and traditions, repressions on Kazakh intelligensia. All the population were speaking Russian, Kazakh language was almost forgoten, Kazakh people staretd to loose their original roots and ethnic identity. In 1991 Kazakhstan became independent. From this period started the rebirth of Kazakh patriotism, Kazakh culture, Kazakh traditions. Since that time was developed the state model with one nation – Kazakhstanies, with one title nation – Kakzakhs, with one state language – Kazakhs and Russian as the official language. The aim of the state was to create a new national identity shared by Kazakhs and by other ethnics, teach Kazakh language as to ethinc Kazakhs, so to other 130 ethnic groups, living in nowadays Kazakhstan. It was crusial to avoied national
6 Article was presented during 2d International Research Conference for MA and PHD Students in Arts Science, Arts Practice, Cultural Policy and Cultural Management, organized by The Arts Research Institute of Ilia State University (Georgia) in cooperation with Stichting Caucasus Foundation (NL). Tbilisi, 23 – 25 of May 2011.
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Galina Koretskaya She comes from Kazakhstan and lives in Almaty. In 2011 she graduated from the Janáček Academy of Music and Performing Arts in Brno. The article is a summary of her master’s thesis.
Analysis of cultural policy in Kazakhstan.
Galina Koretskaya She comes from Kazakhstan and lives in Almaty. In 2011 she graduated from the Janáček Academy of Music and Performing Arts in Brno. The article is a summary of her master’s thesis.
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This approach of the “controlled art” lead to the deep stagnation in the Kazakhstan’s artistic field, conformism and traditionalism in artistic projects, so–called “souvenir” art and degradation of the system of cultural and artistic heritage, which was gained by Kazakhstan during the soviet period.
s was mentioned before, it is difficult to make any final conclusions, especially, when we are talking about work of the Ministry of culture or state expenses for cultural field. Ministry developing strategic plans only for short–term periods, in the reports of the Ministry is still seen the soviet administrative approach to show up quantitative, not qualitative results. There is no analysis or monitoring of the earlier strategies, no clear statistical data or expert’s opinion. As the result, Kazakhstan hasn’t still had long–term aims of development of the field. Budget of the Ministry of culture is not clear and transparent to make any decisions, for example, what field of art was financed less or more, as there is no clear division of the Ministries’ expenses. All the data are usually not up to date, statistical information is different in various recourses. There is no available information about policy in cultural field before year 2006. Since that time Ministry of culture developed two strategic programs for the period of 2006–2008 and 2010–2015. Aims of the first strategic plan were to improve legislative base, develop cultural infrastructure, widen international collaboration, improve skills of the staff, working in the cultural institutions. Nevertheless, there were given no clear mechanisms of the realization of the set tasks as well as the analysis of the result of this program after it was finished. In the current plan the goal is to increase international competitive ability of Kazakhstan’s art and cultural products. The task to increase competitive ability came up in other Ministries’ strategic plans after president set up the objective, that Kazakhstan should enter into the top 50 countries listed in The Global Competitiveness Report. According to the Report in 2010 Kazakhstan went down from 62 to 72 place. To our mind, this goal can not be nowadays priority, while, for example, even such basic things as cultural legislation, cultural infrostructure, skills of the cultural institutions staff are still undeveloped, not to mention stagnation of the artistic field as a whole and poor artistic education.
3. State aims and objectives in the cultural field.
A
A
3. State aims and objectives in the cultural field.
s was mentioned before, it is difficult to make any final conclusions, especially, when we are talking about work of the Ministry of culture or state expenses for cultural field. Ministry developing strategic plans only for short–term periods, in the reports of the Ministry is still seen the soviet administrative approach to show up quantitative, not qualitative results. There is no analysis or monitoring of the earlier strategies, no clear statistical data or expert’s opinion. As the result, Kazakhstan hasn’t still had long–term aims of development of the field. Budget of the Ministry of culture is not clear and transparent to make any decisions, for example, what field of art was financed less or more, as there is no clear division of the Ministries’ expenses. All the data are usually not up to date, statistical information is different in various recourses. There is no available information about policy in cultural field before year 2006. Since that time Ministry of culture developed two strategic programs for the period of 2006–2008 and 2010–2015. Aims of the first strategic plan were to improve legislative base, develop cultural infrastructure, widen international collaboration, improve skills of the staff, working in the cultural institutions. Nevertheless, there were given no clear mechanisms of the realization of the set tasks as well as the analysis of the result of this program after it was finished. In the current plan the goal is to increase international competitive ability of Kazakhstan’s art and cultural products. The task to increase competitive ability came up in other Ministries’ strategic plans after president set up the objective, that Kazakhstan should enter into the top 50 countries listed in The Global Competitiveness Report. According to the Report in 2010 Kazakhstan went down from 62 to 72 place. To our mind, this goal can not be nowadays priority, while, for example, even such basic things as cultural legislation, cultural infrostructure, skills of the cultural institutions staff are still undeveloped, not to mention stagnation of the artistic field as a whole and poor artistic education.
16
This approach of the “controlled art” lead to the deep stagnation in the Kazakhstan’s artistic field, conformism and traditionalism in artistic projects, so–called “souvenir” art and degradation of the system of cultural and artistic heritage, which was gained by Kazakhstan during the soviet period.
conflicts, maintain social and economic stability. According to the analytics, Kazakhstan fell within solving two main issues. First was to build a new, one nation state and second is to build it according democracy principals in a very short timing. That’s why task of national building was needed so–called contralled democracy [Bekturganova 2010]. Till the end of the 1990th state was busy mainly solving acute economical issues, cultural questions were moved to the last place. At the begining of the years 2000, when the economical crises was mostly overcame, new financial resourses were spent not for developing and supporting cultural and artistic initiatives, but to different idealogical projects, which were aimed to develop image of Kazakhstan as a new modern state with national and economic stability and to promote image of new Kazkahstan’s capital, Astana, by building modern expencive palaces of culture, concert halls etc. Nowadays, art has only a civilazing and elevating value, plays a big part in patriotic education based on the Kazakhs‘ historical past. Only academic state cultural institutions and organizations have state financial support. Plus, great number of cultural projects financed by the state via government order, which gives these projects certain style and ideological interpretation. Drawing the parallels with the situation in Kazakhstan’s mass media, analytics note, that officials treated media and journalists as their services, demanding materials, which propagandize only state successes [Mass–media v Kazakhstane… 2010]. Media, as well as art, should play the role of the advisers to the people, telling how to overcome difficulties, teaching on the positive experience of the others, stating attitudes of certainty, tolerance, and patriotism. Kazakhstan’s and the whole Central Asian‘s independent contemporary art can be regarded as a freelance institutional sector. After the Central Asian republics became independent, the new art of these new countries has never been supported by their respective governments. As Yuliya Sorokina, Kazakhstan’s artist and art– manager says: „To be a contemporary artist/ curator here means to be an enthusiastic person, with no institutional support, no stable salary, and no local recognition. From time to time we try to organize some exhibitions, workshops, seminars in Central Asian countries, but they have never captured the attention of governmental structures or business corporations. They do not yet want to open up their minds for contemporary art“ [Sorokina 2008].
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conflicts, maintain social and economic stability. According to the analytics, Kazakhstan fell within solving two main issues. First was to build a new, one nation state and second is to build it according democracy principals in a very short timing. That’s why task of national building was needed so–called contralled democracy [Bekturganova 2010]. Till the end of the 1990th state was busy mainly solving acute economical issues, cultural questions were moved to the last place. At the begining of the years 2000, when the economical crises was mostly overcame, new financial resourses were spent not for developing and supporting cultural and artistic initiatives, but to different idealogical projects, which were aimed to develop image of Kazakhstan as a new modern state with national and economic stability and to promote image of new Kazkahstan’s capital, Astana, by building modern expencive palaces of culture, concert halls etc. Nowadays, art has only a civilazing and elevating value, plays a big part in patriotic education based on the Kazakhs‘ historical past. Only academic state cultural institutions and organizations have state financial support. Plus, great number of cultural projects financed by the state via government order, which gives these projects certain style and ideological interpretation. Drawing the parallels with the situation in Kazakhstan’s mass media, analytics note, that officials treated media and journalists as their services, demanding materials, which propagandize only state successes [Mass–media v Kazakhstane… 2010]. Media, as well as art, should play the role of the advisers to the people, telling how to overcome difficulties, teaching on the positive experience of the others, stating attitudes of certainty, tolerance, and patriotism. Kazakhstan’s and the whole Central Asian‘s independent contemporary art can be regarded as a freelance institutional sector. After the Central Asian republics became independent, the new art of these new countries has never been supported by their respective governments. As Yuliya Sorokina, Kazakhstan’s artist and art– manager says: „To be a contemporary artist/ curator here means to be an enthusiastic person, with no institutional support, no stable salary, and no local recognition. From time to time we try to organize some exhibitions, workshops, seminars in Central Asian countries, but they have never captured the attention of governmental structures or business corporations. They do not yet want to open up their minds for contemporary art“ [Sorokina 2008].
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4. Parallels with the existing models of cultural policy and conclusions.
W
e would like to emphises two models of cultrual policies, which current situation in Kazakhstan’s artistic and cultural field matches the most. First is the model based on the principle of the public support, offered by prof. Andreas Wiesand. Among it’s main characteristics are: MM state interest is mostly focused on traditionally main cultural institutions, as museums, libraries, cultural centers, which are having state financial support. Artists are playing missionary role, spreading „the true value of art“. Experimental art considered as insignificant; MM the main aim is to support institutional balance with the help of traditional art, which has gained certain recognition; MM considering, that the main financial resource is the state budget, the tools of state regulation are planning and developing strategic programs; MM policy is mainly realized on the nationwide level, when international cultural collaboration is kept within diplomatic contacts. MM Given model of cultural policy could lead to the following issues as: MM minimum conditions for innovations, new trends of contemporary art are usually rejected; MM persons, in charge for cultural policy development and realization are usually have poor knowledge about cultural development or innovations; MM tools of the planning and realization are not flexible; MM administrative decision–making is dominate, as well as administrative influence is suppose to be more sufficient, than role of the artist [Vostrjakov, e-doc.]. The other model is cultural policy of the transition period, proposed by prof. Milena Dragicevic´–Sesic´. The destinctive feature of this model is that even democraticaly orienting points
are realized through old buracratic govermental structure. Prof. Dragicevic´–Sesic, taking Serbia as an example, says, that culture and cultural policy in post–soviet countries are still deeply dependent on the old models of cultural policy and organization of the institutional system on the one hand, and on the other, they depend on the demands of certain intellectuals, oriented mostly towards the national question and national culture. It is dangerous to belief, that the entire state and cultural apparatus, accustomed to work, think and behave in accordance with the rigid totalitarian norms, can bе painlessly and efficiently changed overnight, by accepting the rhetoric of “new” post–totalitarian, but hardly democratic society [In from the margins...1997]. Summarizing the analysis, we came to the conclusions (hypotheses), which needs further deeper research and analysis: MM
MM
MM
MM
MM
the acute problem is revitalization of artistic and creative potential of the country. Poor artistic education. No bright artists younger 35 years old; all the independent artistic projects supported only by international funds and organizations (Soros Kazakhstan Foundation); self–censorship of the artists (parallels with situation in media field, journalists’ self–censorship); the biggest part of the Ministry of culture expenses goes to promotion of Astana’s image. Formation of cultural policy model should be worked out conceptually, it shouldn’t be based only on short–terms plans. As prof. Lev Vostrjakov mentioned, search of cultural policy model should goes not by adopting nowadays western theories, but by the principls of their understanding. Social and cultural achivements of the past shouldn’t be rejected. Concept of cultural policy should be based on the analyzis and generalizaton of adecuate structures and examples of the existing cultural policies [Vostrjakov, e-doc.].
e would like to emphises two models of cultrual policies, which current situation in Kazakhstan’s artistic and cultural field matches the most. First is the model based on the principle of the public support, offered by prof. Andreas Wiesand. Among it’s main characteristics are: MM state interest is mostly focused on traditionally main cultural institutions, as museums, libraries, cultural centers, which are having state financial support. Artists are playing missionary role, spreading „the true value of art“. Experimental art considered as insignificant; MM the main aim is to support institutional balance with the help of traditional art, which has gained certain recognition; MM considering, that the main financial resource is the state budget, the tools of state regulation are planning and developing strategic programs; MM policy is mainly realized on the nationwide level, when international cultural collaboration is kept within diplomatic contacts. MM Given model of cultural policy could lead to the following issues as: MM minimum conditions for innovations, new trends of contemporary art are usually rejected; MM persons, in charge for cultural policy development and realization are usually have poor knowledge about cultural development or innovations; MM tools of the planning and realization are not flexible; MM administrative decision–making is dominate, as well as administrative influence is suppose to be more sufficient, than role of the artist [Vostrjakov, e-doc.]. The other model is cultural policy of the transition period, proposed by prof. Milena Dragicevic´–Sesic´. The destinctive feature of this model is that even democraticaly orienting points
W
4. Parallels with the existing models of cultural policy and conclusions. Culture Management 2011, Vol 4 (4)
17
MM MM MM MM MM
the acute problem is revitalization of artistic and creative potential of the country. Poor artistic education. No bright artists younger 35 years old; all the independent artistic projects supported only by international funds and organizations (Soros Kazakhstan Foundation); self–censorship of the artists (parallels with situation in media field, journalists’ self–censorship); the biggest part of the Ministry of culture expenses goes to promotion of Astana’s image. Formation of cultural policy model should be worked out conceptually, it shouldn’t be based only on short–terms plans. As prof. Lev Vostrjakov mentioned, search of cultural policy model should goes not by adopting nowadays western theories, but by the principls of their understanding. Social and cultural achivements of the past shouldn’t be rejected. Concept of cultural policy should be based on the analyzis and generalizaton of adecuate structures and examples of the existing cultural policies [Vostrjakov, e-doc.].
are realized through old buracratic govermental structure. Prof. Dragicevic´–Sesic, taking Serbia as an example, says, that culture and cultural policy in post–soviet countries are still deeply dependent on the old models of cultural policy and organization of the institutional system on the one hand, and on the other, they depend on the demands of certain intellectuals, oriented mostly towards the national question and national culture. It is dangerous to belief, that the entire state and cultural apparatus, accustomed to work, think and behave in accordance with the rigid totalitarian norms, can bе painlessly and efficiently changed overnight, by accepting the rhetoric of “new” post–totalitarian, but hardly democratic society [In from the margins...1997]. Summarizing the analysis, we came to the conclusions (hypotheses), which needs further deeper research and analysis:
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Literature: 2010, p. 7, http://www.soros.kz/ru/publications/ books [access: 24.04.2011 r.]. Sorokina Y., Central Asian Art–Traffic. Collective online platform N.E.W.S., 2008 http://northeastwestsouth. net/central–asian–art–traffic–0 [access: 25.04.11 r.]. Vostrjakov L., Kulturnaja politika: koncepciji, ponjatija, modely. Rossijsky institut kulturnoj politiky: Analitika http://www.cpolicy.ru/analytics/80.html, [access: 24.04.2011 r.].
Bekturganova B., Kazakhstanskaja identicnost: trudnosti obretenija, Respublikanskij politiceskij zhurnal „Bajterek”, 2006–12, No 6 (21) http://www.baiterek.kz/ index.php?journal=3&page=95 [access: 24.04.2011]. In from the margins. A contribution to the debate on Culture and Development in Europe. Council Europe, 1997, p. 83. Mass–media v Kazakhstane. Zakony. Konflikty. Pravonarushenija. Itogy 2009 goda, Volume 1, Ałma–Ata,
Bekturganova B., Kazakhstanskaja identicnost: trudnosti obretenija, Respublikanskij politiceskij zhurnal „Bajterek”, 2006–12, No 6 (21) http://www.baiterek.kz/ index.php?journal=3&page=95 [access: 24.04.2011]. In from the margins. A contribution to the debate on Culture and Development in Europe. Council Europe, 1997, p. 83. Mass–media v Kazakhstane. Zakony. Konflikty. Pravonarushenija. Itogy 2009 goda, Volume 1, Ałma–Ata,
2010, p. 7, http://www.soros.kz/ru/publications/ books [access: 24.04.2011 r.]. Sorokina Y., Central Asian Art–Traffic. Collective online platform N.E.W.S., 2008 http://northeastwestsouth. net/central–asian–art–traffic–0 [access: 25.04.11 r.]. Vostrjakov L., Kulturnaja politika: koncepciji, ponjatija, modely. Rossijsky institut kulturnoj politiky: Analitika http://www.cpolicy.ru/analytics/80.html, [access: 24.04.2011 r.].
Literature: 18
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Current trends in the management of cultural heritage Monika Murzyn–Kupisz
1. Introduction
A
broadly understood concept of management refers to taking certain actions by various agents for the most effective and efficient achievement of certain objectives, based on the resources at their disposal. According to P. Drucker management, rooted both in society and culture, consists of tasks and people who realize them [Drucker 1974, pp. 12–13]. E. Kirejczyk, on the other hand, defines management as a “type of certain purposeful human activity based on having certain material, financial and human resources at one’s disposal and taking responsibility for the way they are handled” [Kirejczyk 2008, p. 18]. The growing interest in cultural heritage as a specific development resource on the local and regional scale has been observed in recent decades all over the world. [Carnea 2001; Heritage for the future…], which encourages us to have a closer look at the changing approach to cultural heritage, from the perspective of looking at what entities, in what contemporarily defined objectives and what types of cultural resources inherited from the past can and want to handle these resources, recognizing them as cultural heritage. The understanding of cultural heritage and the potential of its possible impact on the present time changed considerably at the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries, having undergone an essential transformation. The title question about trends in the management of cultural heritage refers essentially to the triad of the most important variables (ill. 1). First of all, it is essential to understand the concept of cultural heritage (the definition of the resource which is to be managed). Secondly, it seems advisable to discuss the ‘who’, i.e., what entities, units or institutions may be expressing their interest in cultural heritage and wish to be involved in its
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contemporary use (stakeholders). Finally, what is their objective? I.e. what are the values and impact levels that they are interested in?
2. Contemporary understanding of the concept of cultural heritage
“
… [cultural] heritage is everywhere – in the media, cinema, market square – in everything, from galaxies to genes. It focuses the attention of patriotism and is the basic attraction for tourists. We encounter it everywhere we go. Each type of heritage is appreciated: from ethnic roots to historical theme parks, from Hollywood to Holocaust, the whole world busies itself praising or lamenting over some kind of past, never mind if its real or fictional...” [Lowenthal 1998, p. 13].
Monika Murzyn-Kupisz Ph.D. in Economics, M.A. in European Leisure Studies, assistant professor at UNESCO Chair for Heritage and Urban Studies (Cracow University of Economics, department of Economic and Social History), member of PKN ICOMOS. Her professional interests include: cultural economics, social and economic problems of heritage protection, interpretation and management, cultural policy, regeneration of cities and cultural space in Central Europe.
Cultural heritage is a concept that is these days willingly quoted and used both in the academic and colloquial discourse. It is a pair of words that is omnipresent in the media and usually, without much thinking; the adjective ‘cultural’ is swiftly replaced with ‘national’ in the names of institutions and on public agenda responsible Ill. 1. Triangle of management of cultural heritage Aktorzy/interesariusze
Zasoby – materialne i niematerialne składniki dziedzictwa kulturowego
Formy wykorzystania, płaszczyzny oddziaływania
Source: original idea
19
The understanding of cultural heritage and the potential of its possible impact on the present time changed considerably at the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries, having undergone an essential transformation. The title question about trends in the management of cultural heritage refers essentially to the triad of the most important variables (ill. 1). First of all, it is essential to understand the concept of cultural heritage (the definition of the resource which is to be managed). Secondly, it seems advisable to discuss the ‘who’, i.e., what entities, units or institutions may be expressing their interest in cultural heritage and wish to be involved in its broadly understood concept of management refers to taking certain actions by various agents for the most effective and efficient achievement of certain objectives, based on the resources at their disposal. According to P. Drucker management, rooted both in society and culture, consists of tasks and people who realize them [Drucker 1974, pp. 12–13]. E. Kirejczyk, on the other hand, defines management as a “type of certain purposeful human activity based on having certain material, financial and human resources at one’s disposal and taking responsibility for the way they are handled” [Kirejczyk 2008, p. 18]. The growing interest in cultural heritage as a specific development resource on the local and regional scale has been observed in recent decades all over the world. [Carnea 2001; Heritage for the future…], which encourages us to have a closer look at the changing approach to cultural heritage, from the perspective of looking at what entities, in what contemporarily defined objectives and what types of cultural resources inherited from the past can and want to handle these resources, recognizing them as cultural heritage.
A
1. Introduction
Source: original idea
Zasoby – materialne i niematerialne składniki dziedzictwa kulturowego
Formy wykorzystania, płaszczyzny oddziaływania
Aktorzy/interesariusze Ill. 1. Triangle of management of cultural heritage
Cultural heritage is a concept that is these days willingly quoted and used both in the academic and colloquial discourse. It is a pair of words that is omnipresent in the media and usually, without much thinking; the adjective ‘cultural’ is swiftly replaced with ‘national’ in the names of institutions and on public agenda responsible … [cultural] heritage is everywhere – in the media, cinema, market square – in everything, from galaxies to genes. It focuses the attention of patriotism and is the basic attraction for tourists. We encounter it everywhere we go. Each type of heritage is appreciated: from ethnic roots to historical theme parks, from Hollywood to Holocaust, the whole world busies itself praising or lamenting over some kind of past, never mind if its real or fictional...” [Lowenthal 1998, p. 13].
“
2. Contemporary understanding of the concept of cultural heritage contemporary use (stakeholders). Finally, what is their objective? I.e. what are the values and impact levels that they are interested in?
Monika Murzyn–Kupisz
Current trends in the management of cultural heritage
Monika Murzyn-Kupisz Ph.D. in Economics, M.A. in European Leisure Studies, assistant professor at UNESCO Chair for Heritage and Urban Studies (Cracow University of Economics, department of Economic and Social History), member of PKN ICOMOS. Her professional interests include: cultural economics, social and economic problems of heritage protection, interpretation and management, cultural policy, regeneration of cities and cultural space in Central Europe.
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here, i.e., understanding it as a process of choice, attributing meanings and the interpretation of the past, perhaps less underdefined, and avoiding the traps of the “standardization” of heritage [Skuonti 2009, pp. 74–92]. As far as the first definition is concerned, it is important to understand that the concept of cultural heritage has evolved significantly in the last two hundred years. Originally, it was only the preservation of individual architectural sites and artworks that was considered important, above all the oldest works that belonged to the canon of national culture. Gradually, the spectrum of ingredients thought of as interesting and worth protecting was extended with groups of sites and larger spatial arrangements, works of applied arts, industrial and technical buildings, cultural landscape and historic environment, and non– material values of places and communities: their traditions10, customs and rituals, historic names and their symbolism. Within a group of objects for, e.g., stationary objects, there is also variety: architectural sites can include very different buildings such as sacral, residential, public, defensive, technical, wooden and brick. Today, on the grounds of the theory of conservation, socio–economic geography and cultural economics, an extremely varied collection of material and non–material ingredients, continually expanding typologically and chronologically, and referring both to ancient and more recent epochs is thought of as heritage [Benhamou 1996, pp. 115–132]. This evolution is transparent when we look at the definition of the subject of protection in the most important international legal acts pertaining to cultural heritage, and more narrowly understood material historic monuments. The Venice Charter, which belongs to the canon of international documents in conservation and restoration provides as follows: ARTICLE 1. The concept of an historic monument embraces not only the single architectural work but also the urban or rural setting in which is found the evidence of a particular civilization, a significant development or an historic event.
9 Including traditional manufacturing, agricultural and artistic pursuits and culinary traditions
for the realization of broadly understood cultural policy. Cultural heritage is often referred to not only in the obligatory documents directly referring to it, e.g., in Poland these will be the provincial programmes for the protection of historic sites, municipal programmes of this type and other spatial planning documents, general strategies for the development of municipalities and regions and revitalization plans, and operational programmes relating to the use of EU funds. At the same time, the notion of heritage remains to a large extent underdefined and difficult to define, mostly because it involves very heterogenic ingredients7 and it permeates into the range of meaning of other words such as ‘tradition’, ‘memory’ and ‘culture’ [Nieroba, Czerner, Szczepański 2010, p. 35]. In the maximalist approach ‘heritage’ is “everything that we regard to be passed to us from the past” [Lowenthal 2005, p. 81], “everything that people want to preserve” [Howard 2003, p. 1], both for the present and future generations, or a “contemporary use of the past” [Graham, Ashworth, Tunbridge 2002, p. 2]. So it is omnipresent, concerns every individual and every territory, as it is the aftermath of every type of human activity, not only artistic as it can also refer to the natural sites and items. It not only refers to what is publicly regarded and promoted,8 but it functions in very different scales and discourses, from private to global, from official to countercultural. As P. Howard said: “not everything is heritage but everything can become it” [Howard 2003, p. 3]. Without wishing to stop at a not very useful though quite insightful into the nature contemporary understanding of heritage definition, it is perhaps worth mentioning the two basic approaches to it. More practical, also in the context of these considerations, seem the subject–oriented definitions, which specify what ingredients of the legacy of the past may be regarded as heritage, reflected also in the legal regulations, both in international law (charters, conventions) and national legal regulations. The second essential approach to cultural heritage must also be discussed
8 Some authors refer to this as the so–called – “Authorised Heritage Discourse”. See L. Smith, (2006), Uses of Heritage, Routledge, London and New York.
7 See e.g. A. Peacock, (1995), A future to the past: the political economy of heritage, “Proceedings of the British Academy”, No. 87, p. 189–226. The lack of systematizing and heterogeneity is also indicated as a general feature of heritage studies. See D. C. Harvey, (2001), Heritage pasts and heritage presents: temporality, meaning and the scope of heritage studies, “International Journal of Heritage Studies”, No. 4, pp. 319–338. It is also advisable that further theoretical reflection should be necessarily undertaken. W. Logan, L. Smith, (2009), Foreword, in: L. Smith, N. Akagawa (ed.), Intangible heritage, Routledge, London, s. XII.
7 See e.g. A. Peacock, (1995), A future to the past: the political economy of heritage, “Proceedings of the British Academy”, No. 87, p. 189–226. The lack of systematizing and heterogeneity is also indicated as a general feature of heritage studies. See D. C. Harvey, (2001), Heritage pasts and heritage presents: temporality, meaning and the scope of heritage studies, “International Journal of Heritage Studies”, No. 4, pp. 319–338. It is also advisable that further theoretical reflection should be necessarily undertaken. W. Logan, L. Smith, (2009), Foreword, in: L. Smith, N. Akagawa (ed.), Intangible heritage, Routledge, London, s. XII.
8 Some authors refer to this as the so–called – “Authorised Heritage Discourse”. See L. Smith, (2006), Uses of Heritage, Routledge, London and New York.
here, i.e., understanding it as a process of choice, attributing meanings and the interpretation of the past, perhaps less underdefined, and avoiding the traps of the “standardization” of heritage [Skuonti 2009, pp. 74–92]. As far as the first definition is concerned, it is important to understand that the concept of cultural heritage has evolved significantly in the last two hundred years. Originally, it was only the preservation of individual architectural sites and artworks that was considered important, above all the oldest works that belonged to the canon of national culture. Gradually, the spectrum of ingredients thought of as interesting and worth protecting was extended with groups of sites and larger spatial arrangements, works of applied arts, industrial and technical buildings, cultural landscape and historic environment, and non– material values of places and communities: their traditions10, customs and rituals, historic names and their symbolism. Within a group of objects for, e.g., stationary objects, there is also variety: architectural sites can include very different buildings such as sacral, residential, public, defensive, technical, wooden and brick. Today, on the grounds of the theory of conservation, socio–economic geography and cultural economics, an extremely varied collection of material and non–material ingredients, continually expanding typologically and chronologically, and referring both to ancient and more recent epochs is thought of as heritage [Benhamou 1996, pp. 115–132]. This evolution is transparent when we look at the definition of the subject of protection in the most important international legal acts pertaining to cultural heritage, and more narrowly understood material historic monuments. The Venice Charter, which belongs to the canon of international documents in conservation and restoration provides as follows: ARTICLE 1. The concept of an historic monument embraces not only the single architectural work but also the urban or rural setting in which is found the evidence of a particular civilization, a significant development or an historic event.
9 Including traditional manufacturing, agricultural and artistic pursuits and culinary traditions
for the realization of broadly understood cultural policy. Cultural heritage is often referred to not only in the obligatory documents directly referring to it, e.g., in Poland these will be the provincial programmes for the protection of historic sites, municipal programmes of this type and other spatial planning documents, general strategies for the development of municipalities and regions and revitalization plans, and operational programmes relating to the use of EU funds. At the same time, the notion of heritage remains to a large extent underdefined and difficult to define, mostly because it involves very heterogenic ingredients7 and it permeates into the range of meaning of other words such as ‘tradition’, ‘memory’ and ‘culture’ [Nieroba, Czerner, Szczepański 2010, p. 35]. In the maximalist approach ‘heritage’ is “everything that we regard to be passed to us from the past” [Lowenthal 2005, p. 81], “everything that people want to preserve” [Howard 2003, p. 1], both for the present and future generations, or a “contemporary use of the past” [Graham, Ashworth, Tunbridge 2002, p. 2]. So it is omnipresent, concerns every individual and every territory, as it is the aftermath of every type of human activity, not only artistic as it can also refer to the natural sites and items. It not only refers to what is publicly regarded and promoted,8 but it functions in very different scales and discourses, from private to global, from official to countercultural. As P. Howard said: “not everything is heritage but everything can become it” [Howard 2003, p. 3]. Without wishing to stop at a not very useful though quite insightful into the nature contemporary understanding of heritage definition, it is perhaps worth mentioning the two basic approaches to it. More practical, also in the context of these considerations, seem the subject–oriented definitions, which specify what ingredients of the legacy of the past may be regarded as heritage, reflected also in the legal regulations, both in international law (charters, conventions) and national legal regulations. The second essential approach to cultural heritage must also be discussed
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This applies not only to great works of art but also to more modest works of the past which have acquired cultural significance with the passing of time. ARTICLE 7. A monument is inseparable from the history to which it bears witness and from the setting in which it occurs (...). ARTICLE 8. Items of sculpture, painting (...) form an integral part of a monument (...) ARTICLE 11. The valid contributions of all periods to the building of a monument must be respected (...) [Venice Charter 1996, p. 19–28] The UNESCO Convention regarding the world’s cultural and natural heritage (the so–called Paris Convention), issued less than a decade later, already includes the concepts of “cultural heritage” and “natural heritage”. According to the convention cultural heritage comprises: MM monuments: architectural works, works of monumental sculpture and painting, elements or structures of an archaeological nature, inscriptions, cave dwellings and combinations of features, which are of outstanding universal value from the point of view of history, art or science; MM groups of buildings: groups of separate or connected buildings which, because of their architecture, their homogeneity or their place in the landscape, are of outstanding universal value from the point of view of history, art or science; MM sites: works of man or the combined works of nature and man, and areas including archaeological sites which are of outstanding universal value from the historical, aesthetic, ethnological or anthropological point of view. [Article 1 Convention on World Heritage 1996] One should also mention the concept of “cultural property”, often used as synonymous with the notions of “historic monument” and “cultural heritage”, which has been used in the “Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Military Conflict” signed in The Hague in 1954 and which is defined as follows: a. movable or immovable property of great importance to the cultural heritage of every people, such as monuments of architecture, art or history, whether religious or secular; archaeological sites; groups of buildings which, as a whole, are of historical or artistic interest; works of art; manuscripts, books and other objects of artistic, historical or archaeological
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interest; as well as scientific collections and important collections of books or archives or of reproductions of the property defined above; b. buildings whose main and effective purpose is to preserve or exhibit the movable cultural property defined in sub–paragraph (a) such as museums, large libraries and depositories of archives, and refuges intended to shelter, in the event of armed conflict, the movable cultural property defined in sub–paragraph (a); c. centres containing a large amount of cultural property as defined in sub–paragraphs (a) and (b), to be known as `centres containing monuments’. [Convention for the Protection ... 1957] The growing awareness that non–material cultural heritage is also worth recognition and protection led to the UNESCO “Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage” of 2003, which specifies as follows: 1. The “intangible cultural heritage” means the practices, representations, expressions, knowledge and skills – as well as the instruments, objects, artefacts and cultural spaces associated therewith – that communities, groups and, in some cases, individuals recognize as part of their cultural heritage. This intangible cultural heritage, transmitted from generation to generation, is constantly recreated by communities and groups in response to their environment, their interaction with nature and their history, and provides them with a sense of identity and continuity, thus promoting respect for cultural diversity and human creativity. (...) 2. The “intangible cultural heritage”, as defined in paragraph 1 above, is manifested inter alia in the following domains: a. oral traditions and expressions, including language as a vehicle of the intangible cultural heritage; b. performing arts; c. social practices, rituals and festive events; d. knowledge and practices concerning nature and the universe; e. traditional craftsmanship. [Convention for the safeguarding… 2003, e-doc.] As considered here, cultural heritage is understood in contemporary literature as something that exists objectively, with its material and intangible expression. It may be defined and recognized institutionally, e.g., through an official placement in a listing or register of historic monuments (lo-
21
One should also mention the concept of “cultural property”, often used as synonymous with the notions of “historic monument” and “cultural heritage”, which has been used in the “Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Military Conflict” signed in The Hague in 1954 and which is defined as follows: a. movable or immovable property of great importance to the cultural heritage of every people, such as monuments of architecture, art or history, whether religious or secular; archaeological sites; groups of buildings which, as a whole, are of historical or artistic interest; works of art; manuscripts, books and other objects of artistic, historical or archaeological The UNESCO Convention regarding the world’s cultural and natural heritage (the so–called Paris Convention), issued less than a decade later, already includes the concepts of “cultural heritage” and “natural heritage”. According to the convention cultural heritage comprises: MM monuments: architectural works, works of monumental sculpture and painting, elements or structures of an archaeological nature, inscriptions, cave dwellings and combinations of features, which are of outstanding universal value from the point of view of history, art or science; MM groups of buildings: groups of separate or connected buildings which, because of their architecture, their homogeneity or their place in the landscape, are of outstanding universal value from the point of view of history, art or science; MM sites: works of man or the combined works of nature and man, and areas including archaeological sites which are of outstanding universal value from the historical, aesthetic, ethnological or anthropological point of view. [Article 1 Convention on World Heritage 1996] This applies not only to great works of art but also to more modest works of the past which have acquired cultural significance with the passing of time. ARTICLE 7. A monument is inseparable from the history to which it bears witness and from the setting in which it occurs (...). ARTICLE 8. Items of sculpture, painting (...) form an integral part of a monument (...) ARTICLE 11. The valid contributions of all periods to the building of a monument must be respected (...) [Venice Charter 1996, p. 19–28]
21
As considered here, cultural heritage is understood in contemporary literature as something that exists objectively, with its material and intangible expression. It may be defined and recognized institutionally, e.g., through an official placement in a listing or register of historic monuments (loThe growing awareness that non–material cultural heritage is also worth recognition and protection led to the UNESCO “Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage” of 2003, which specifies as follows: 1. The “intangible cultural heritage” means the practices, representations, expressions, knowledge and skills – as well as the instruments, objects, artefacts and cultural spaces associated therewith – that communities, groups and, in some cases, individuals recognize as part of their cultural heritage. This intangible cultural heritage, transmitted from generation to generation, is constantly recreated by communities and groups in response to their environment, their interaction with nature and their history, and provides them with a sense of identity and continuity, thus promoting respect for cultural diversity and human creativity. (...) 2. The “intangible cultural heritage”, as defined in paragraph 1 above, is manifested inter alia in the following domains: a. oral traditions and expressions, including language as a vehicle of the intangible cultural heritage; b. performing arts; c. social practices, rituals and festive events; d. knowledge and practices concerning nature and the universe; e. traditional craftsmanship. [Convention for the safeguarding… 2003, e-doc.] interest; as well as scientific collections and important collections of books or archives or of reproductions of the property defined above; b. buildings whose main and effective purpose is to preserve or exhibit the movable cultural property defined in sub–paragraph (a) such as museums, large libraries and depositories of archives, and refuges intended to shelter, in the event of armed conflict, the movable cultural property defined in sub–paragraph (a); c. centres containing a large amount of cultural property as defined in sub–paragraphs (a) and (b), to be known as `centres containing monuments’. [Convention for the Protection ... 1957]
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The essence of heritage in the second approach is its selectivity, intangibility, discursivity and changeability, as well as its relationship with identity and its aim to fulfil contemporary functions. Whether or not the past (i.e. what the previous generations have left) is useful for contemporary purposes is decisive in determining if it is indeed heritage, that is, if there are any entities willing to inherit it, i.e., use it for contemporary purposes and for the realization of contemporary needs. What takes place in the case of heritage is a “continued re–confirmation of value through usage” [Prott 2005, pp. 225–248]. The process of creating and transforming objects and associations from the past into heritage (their “becoming” heritage is called “heritagisation” [Berndix 2009; Harvey 2001; Smith, Akagawa 2009, pp. 1–9]. Because of a large number of producers and consumers of heritage and the various, overlapping functions (political, social and economic) they fulfil, many authors think that it is not that a place has one heritage but, similarly to identities, it can have many heritages that remain in symbiosis, rivalry or conflict [Graham, Howard 2008]. On this view, heritage is not every remnant of the past in a given area, but only those that are significant and fulfil certain functions for the people who actually live there. Not all ingredients of the legacy of the past are accepted in contemporary world and, what follows, useful in a given political, economic, social or cultural context. While thinking about the contemporary role and functions of heritage, it is important to introduce the differentiation between an accepted heritage and a rejected, unacknowledged heritage that causes dissonance (dissonant heritage), the heritage which has no heirs or finds it very difficult to attach itself to any.11
11 E.g. the material heritage of ethnic groups which no longer live in an area, heritage relating to tragic historic events, ethnic cleansing, genocide etc. See J. E. Tunbridge, G. J. Ashworth, (1996), Dissonant heritage: the management of the past as a resource in conflict, John Wiley & Sons, Chichester; W. Logan, K. Reeves (ed.), (2009), Places of pain and shame. Dealing with ‘difficult heritage’, Routledge, London.
3. A multidisciplinary look on values of cultural heritage
10 The Nobel Prize laureate in 1992.
A
contemporary interdisciplinary and holistic understanding of cultural heritage leads to identifying many different values that it can be characterized with, which includes not only cultural but also economic values. A cultural value
contemporary interdisciplinary and holistic understanding of cultural heritage leads to identifying many different values that it can be characterized with, which includes not only cultural but also economic values. A cultural value
A
cal, regional or higher), or informally recognized by specialists, and also by ordinary citizens who regard something to be worthy of preservation and protection. [Benhamou 2003, pp. 255–262]. According to the second approach, which may be called a process or subjective approach, heritage is produced: “it does not exist [but] is created” [Bendix 2009, p. 255]. It is a social and political construct. Certain fragments are thus selected from the past and regarded as important and valuable (economically and socially). L. Smith defines heritage as “an act of communication and creating meanings” and “cultural and social process” [Smith 2006, p. 2; see Harvey 2001, p. 326]]. On to this view “the concept of heritage does not involve material objects but cultural and social process linked with the acts of memory aimed at (...) understanding and being involved in the present”. Defined this way, the term “national heritage” should be rather used as a verb than a noun. The same author thinks that heritage is a “discourse related to the negotiation and regulation of social meanings and practices, linked with the creation and reproduction of identity” [Smith 2006, p. 5]. D. Harvey also perceives heritage as a process of defining identity, i.e., confirming one’s differences from other groups or individuals or legitimization of power [Harvey 2001]. Similarly B. Graham and P. Howard think that material heritage sites can be only “empty shells of dubious authenticity but their significance is a derivative of ideas and values that are communicated through them” [Graham, Howard 2008, p. 4]. B. Kirshenblatt– Gimblett provides yet another definition of cultural heritage. According to her, “heritage is a new form of cultural production in the present, which supports itself with the past” [Kirshenblatt–Gimblett 1995, p. 369]. It is more than just revealing the past because it transforms it and creates new qualities on the basis of it. A. Peacock suggests that heritage should be looked at from the point of view of G. Becker10, i.e., as the “intangible service that increases the utility perceived by consumers, in which historic buildings and artefacts are an overlay (input)” [Peacock 2008, p. 195]. It is the consumer here is the “producer” of its own usefulness with the option of substitution between the “overlays” of heritage.
3. A multidisciplinary look on values of cultural heritage
10 The Nobel Prize laureate in 1992.
The essence of heritage in the second approach is its selectivity, intangibility, discursivity and changeability, as well as its relationship with identity and its aim to fulfil contemporary functions. Whether or not the past (i.e. what the previous generations have left) is useful for contemporary purposes is decisive in determining if it is indeed heritage, that is, if there are any entities willing to inherit it, i.e., use it for contemporary purposes and for the realization of contemporary needs. What takes place in the case of heritage is a “continued re–confirmation of value through usage” [Prott 2005, pp. 225–248]. The process of creating and transforming objects and associations from the past into heritage (their “becoming” heritage is called “heritagisation” [Berndix 2009; Harvey 2001; Smith, Akagawa 2009, pp. 1–9]. Because of a large number of producers and consumers of heritage and the various, overlapping functions (political, social and economic) they fulfil, many authors think that it is not that a place has one heritage but, similarly to identities, it can have many heritages that remain in symbiosis, rivalry or conflict [Graham, Howard 2008]. On this view, heritage is not every remnant of the past in a given area, but only those that are significant and fulfil certain functions for the people who actually live there. Not all ingredients of the legacy of the past are accepted in contemporary world and, what follows, useful in a given political, economic, social or cultural context. While thinking about the contemporary role and functions of heritage, it is important to introduce the differentiation between an accepted heritage and a rejected, unacknowledged heritage that causes dissonance (dissonant heritage), the heritage which has no heirs or finds it very difficult to attach itself to any.11
11 E.g. the material heritage of ethnic groups which no longer live in an area, heritage relating to tragic historic events, ethnic cleansing, genocide etc. See J. E. Tunbridge, G. J. Ashworth, (1996), Dissonant heritage: the management of the past as a resource in conflict, John Wiley & Sons, Chichester; W. Logan, K. Reeves (ed.), (2009), Places of pain and shame. Dealing with ‘difficult heritage’, Routledge, London.
cal, regional or higher), or informally recognized by specialists, and also by ordinary citizens who regard something to be worthy of preservation and protection. [Benhamou 2003, pp. 255–262]. According to the second approach, which may be called a process or subjective approach, heritage is produced: “it does not exist [but] is created” [Bendix 2009, p. 255]. It is a social and political construct. Certain fragments are thus selected from the past and regarded as important and valuable (economically and socially). L. Smith defines heritage as “an act of communication and creating meanings” and “cultural and social process” [Smith 2006, p. 2; see Harvey 2001, p. 326]]. On to this view “the concept of heritage does not involve material objects but cultural and social process linked with the acts of memory aimed at (...) understanding and being involved in the present”. Defined this way, the term “national heritage” should be rather used as a verb than a noun. The same author thinks that heritage is a “discourse related to the negotiation and regulation of social meanings and practices, linked with the creation and reproduction of identity” [Smith 2006, p. 5]. D. Harvey also perceives heritage as a process of defining identity, i.e., confirming one’s differences from other groups or individuals or legitimization of power [Harvey 2001]. Similarly B. Graham and P. Howard think that material heritage sites can be only “empty shells of dubious authenticity but their significance is a derivative of ideas and values that are communicated through them” [Graham, Howard 2008, p. 4]. B. Kirshenblatt– Gimblett provides yet another definition of cultural heritage. According to her, “heritage is a new form of cultural production in the present, which supports itself with the past” [Kirshenblatt–Gimblett 1995, p. 369]. It is more than just revealing the past because it transforms it and creates new qualities on the basis of it. A. Peacock suggests that heritage should be looked at from the point of view of G. Becker10, i.e., as the “intangible service that increases the utility perceived by consumers, in which historic buildings and artefacts are an overlay (input)” [Peacock 2008, p. 195]. It is the consumer here is the “producer” of its own usefulness with the option of substitution between the “overlays” of heritage.
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of heritage comprises various artistic, aesthetic, historic, scientific, spiritual and social values (patriotism, congeniality, feeling of local community, identity etc.) [Pawłowska 2002, pp. 43–61]. From the economic perspective, the advantages resulting from keeping and using a given object, group or functions of heritage or from an enterprise related to heritage may be divided into utilitarian and non–utilitarian values. [Hutter, Rizzo 1997; Throsby 2001; Ready ed., Navrud ed. 2002; Peacock, Rizzo 2008; Avrami, Mason, Torre de la 2000; Cuccia, Signorello 2002, pp. 119–146]. Utilitarian values pertain to all goods and services directly generated by a given place, object or enterprise related with cultural heritage, which most frequently can be expressed by their price (for example by the price of an entry ticket to a historic site or the price of accommodation in a historic building, price of historic property, of a work of art bought in a gallery or costs of having access to heritage, such as travel costs to a given site or building). Apart from utilitarian values, no less essential both for communities and individuals are non–utilitarian values, such as the appreciation of the mere fact of existence of a certain site or tradition (value of existence, the value attached to the opportunity to experience them or visit them in any unspecified future (optional value) or the satisfaction from the opportunity to transfer heritage to future generations (legacy value). When heritage–related enterprises are undertaken, it is not only their utilitarian value to the present–day generations that is mentioned but also the necessity to preserve them for our successors. The values mentioned here are also linked with the essential ethical dilemmas regarding the contemporary use of heritage, such as the character of public property, which has many ingredients of heritage [Murzyn–Kupisz 2011] or the issue of balanced management of heritage from the point of view of transferring it to the future generations in good shape and not reducing its resources through irresponsible, excessive modern consumerism, i.e., respecting the principle of so–called intergenerational equity. The second important issue is maintaining equal access to properties and services of heritage for all members of a given community, be it local, national etc.; respecting the principle of so–called intragenerational equity [Ciccia, Signorello 2002, p. 120; Throsby 2001, pp. 85–86].
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4. Wide spectrum of entities that have an impact on the management of cultural heritage
A
nother very important issue is recognizing the multiplicity of stakeholders in the process of making use of heritage – any entities which potentially have an influence on cultural heritage – and the variety of their expectations regarding whether it should be transformed, used and interpreted for various modern purposes, such as commercial, social, political or cultural, and if so, then to what purposes and in what way [Graham, Ashworth, Tubridge 2002]. P. Howard distinguishes six principal groups of entities that have an impact on heritage both as producers and consumers. These are: owners of heritage, the so–called “locals” and “insiders” who are emotionally and geographically close to a place (residents of buildings and historic sites, broadly understood local community, local enthusiasts and fans of heritage), and “outsiders” who experience a heritage site only temporarily (tourists, pilgrims) but also scientists, public authorities of various level and the media [Howard 2003, p. 104]. K. Pawłowska and M. Swaryczewska who looked at the problem from a similar perspective mention two basic groups: local community and incomers. The first group comprises residents, owners and hosts, local patriots and entrepreneurs, and the second includes enthusiasts, tourists and specialists. Local leaders and authorities can provide a useful link between the two [Pawłowska, Swaryczewska 2002, p. 72]. In the description of the demand for heritage, G. Piccinato also distinguishes two main groups of heritage consumers, i.e., permanent residents and incomers – the users who benefit from a historic site, such as service providers, tourists, enthusiasts and specialists [Piccinato 2002, p. 19]. G. J. Ashworth, on the other hand, divides users of heritage into purposeful and accidental. For example historic heritage can be used by an accidental tourist, a visitor from outside of the region, a tourist who comes to the city and wishes to get to know its historic sites, a resident who experiences heritage in everyday life or local entrepreneur who treats heritage as a source of income [Ashworth 1991, p. 70]. Finally, the same heritage can be used for producing various goods and providing various services and at the same time being ‘consumed’ by various segments of the market.
23
of heritage comprises various artistic, aesthetic, historic, scientific, spiritual and social values (patriotism, congeniality, feeling of local community, identity etc.) [Pawłowska 2002, pp. 43–61]. From the economic perspective, the advantages resulting from keeping and using a given object, group or functions of heritage or from an enterprise related to heritage may be divided into utilitarian and non–utilitarian values. [Hutter, Rizzo 1997; Throsby 2001; Ready ed., Navrud ed. 2002; Peacock, Rizzo 2008; Avrami, Mason, Torre de la 2000; Cuccia, Signorello 2002, pp. 119–146]. Utilitarian values pertain to all goods and services directly generated by a given place, object or enterprise related with cultural heritage, which most frequently can be expressed by their price (for example by the price of an entry ticket to a historic site or the price of accommodation in a historic building, price of historic property, of a work of art bought in a gallery or costs of having access to heritage, such as travel costs to a given site or building). Apart from utilitarian values, no less essential both for communities and individuals are non–utilitarian values, such as the appreciation of the mere fact of existence of a certain site or tradition (value of existence, the value attached to the opportunity to experience them or visit them in any unspecified future (optional value) or the satisfaction from the opportunity to transfer heritage to future generations (legacy value). When heritage–related enterprises are undertaken, it is not only their utilitarian value to the present–day generations that is mentioned but also the necessity to preserve them for our successors. The values mentioned here are also linked with the essential ethical dilemmas regarding the contemporary use of heritage, such as the character of public property, which has many ingredients of heritage [Murzyn–Kupisz 2011] or the issue of balanced management of heritage from the point of view of transferring it to the future generations in good shape and not reducing its resources through irresponsible, excessive modern consumerism, i.e., respecting the principle of so–called intergenerational equity. The second important issue is maintaining equal access to properties and services of heritage for all members of a given community, be it local, national etc.; respecting the principle of so–called intragenerational equity [Ciccia, Signorello 2002, p. 120; Throsby 2001, pp. 85–86].
nother very important issue is recognizing the multiplicity of stakeholders in the process of making use of heritage – any entities which potentially have an influence on cultural heritage – and the variety of their expectations regarding whether it should be transformed, used and interpreted for various modern purposes, such as commercial, social, political or cultural, and if so, then to what purposes and in what way [Graham, Ashworth, Tubridge 2002]. P. Howard distinguishes six principal groups of entities that have an impact on heritage both as producers and consumers. These are: owners of heritage, the so–called “locals” and “insiders” who are emotionally and geographically close to a place (residents of buildings and historic sites, broadly understood local community, local enthusiasts and fans of heritage), and “outsiders” who experience a heritage site only temporarily (tourists, pilgrims) but also scientists, public authorities of various level and the media [Howard 2003, p. 104]. K. Pawłowska and M. Swaryczewska who looked at the problem from a similar perspective mention two basic groups: local community and incomers. The first group comprises residents, owners and hosts, local patriots and entrepreneurs, and the second includes enthusiasts, tourists and specialists. Local leaders and authorities can provide a useful link between the two [Pawłowska, Swaryczewska 2002, p. 72]. In the description of the demand for heritage, G. Piccinato also distinguishes two main groups of heritage consumers, i.e., permanent residents and incomers – the users who benefit from a historic site, such as service providers, tourists, enthusiasts and specialists [Piccinato 2002, p. 19]. G. J. Ashworth, on the other hand, divides users of heritage into purposeful and accidental. For example historic heritage can be used by an accidental tourist, a visitor from outside of the region, a tourist who comes to the city and wishes to get to know its historic sites, a resident who experiences heritage in everyday life or local entrepreneur who treats heritage as a source of income [Ashworth 1991, p. 70]. Finally, the same heritage can be used for producing various goods and providing various services and at the same time being ‘consumed’ by various segments of the market.
A
4. Wide spectrum of entities that have an impact on the management of cultural heritage
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5. Multiplicity of possible levels of impact of heritage on socio–economic reality
What is considered to be an essential level of social impact on heritage is the issue of quality of life in a given place, expressed in meeting the local cultural and creative needs, providing good aesthetics of space (also public space), and of everyday life, but also the influence of heritage on self–identify, self–esteem, the feeling of being “at home”, the intergenerational link, social dialogue and the overall building of social cohesion, identity and local pride. As a rule, heritage is also an integral element of revitalization strategy, either as in inspiration or a background for revitalization processes or as a flagship aspect and catalyst of recovering life in a given area. Heritage is often a decisive element of the image of a place or
S
First of all, the economic effects that heritage brings about in a short– or medium–term perspective are essential. These are the income generated in the process of its preservation, making it available and interpreting it; the multiplier effects such as maintaining and creating places of work, revenue and expenditure of the public sector and the impact that the presence of heritage may have on the property market. Secondly, one should consider other effects that may emerge both in a short and longer time scale relating to the potential of heritage, which can support creativity and the knowledge–built economy, providing educational resources and space, helping to build up social capital, individual and collective cultural capital and stimulating imagination and creativity. Heritage may be an inspiration for the creation of original, high–quality products within the creative sectors but also beyond them.
imilarly to the issue of ingredients and values of heritage, looking at the contemporary use of heritage requires that attention is paid to the fact that its impact may be both of economic and social character, which may be looked at from a short–, medium– and long–term perspective, always in reference to a broader socio–economic functional context [see Bowitz, Ibenholt 2009, pp. 1–8; McLoughlin ed., Kamiński ed., Sodagar ed. 2006]. In general, I think that six basic levels of contemporary consideration of the impact of heritage on developmental processes can be distinguished here. These are presented in diagram below (ill. 2):
imilarly to the issue of ingredients and values of heritage, looking at the contemporary use of heritage requires that attention is paid to the fact that its impact may be both of economic and social character, which may be looked at from a short–, medium– and long–term perspective, always in reference to a broader socio–economic functional context [see Bowitz, Ibenholt 2009, pp. 1–8; McLoughlin ed., Kamiński ed., Sodagar ed. 2006]. In general, I think that six basic levels of contemporary consideration of the impact of heritage on developmental processes can be distinguished here. These are presented in diagram below (ill. 2):
First of all, the economic effects that heritage brings about in a short– or medium–term perspective are essential. These are the income generated in the process of its preservation, making it available and interpreting it; the multiplier effects such as maintaining and creating places of work, revenue and expenditure of the public sector and the impact that the presence of heritage may have on the property market. Secondly, one should consider other effects that may emerge both in a short and longer time scale relating to the potential of heritage, which can support creativity and the knowledge–built economy, providing educational resources and space, helping to build up social capital, individual and collective cultural capital and stimulating imagination and creativity. Heritage may be an inspiration for the creation of original, high–quality products within the creative sectors but also beyond them.
S
What is considered to be an essential level of social impact on heritage is the issue of quality of life in a given place, expressed in meeting the local cultural and creative needs, providing good aesthetics of space (also public space), and of everyday life, but also the influence of heritage on self–identify, self–esteem, the feeling of being “at home”, the intergenerational link, social dialogue and the overall building of social cohesion, identity and local pride. As a rule, heritage is also an integral element of revitalization strategy, either as in inspiration or a background for revitalization processes or as a flagship aspect and catalyst of recovering life in a given area. Heritage is often a decisive element of the image of a place or
24
5. Multiplicity of possible levels of impact of heritage on socio–economic reality
Another way of looking at the primary groups on the heritage market is their division into a public, private and non–governmental sector. Each of them has different motivations and purposes [Murzyn–Kupisz 2010, pp. 61–80]. It is also necessary to consider the fact that these groups or agents function in various spatial scales: local, regional, national and international depending on the type of heritage, its reputation, legal status and the functions it fulfils [Howard 2003; Aa van der 2005]. They may either be entities that are obliged to be involved in heritage management (such as public cultural institutions – museums, archives or libraries, local and regional authorities obliged by law, owners of heritage sites who manage their own property, non–governmental institutions whose main aim is to protect and popularize national heritage) and those who, often spontaneously and willingly, participate in the management of cultural heritage (groups of residents, non–governmental organizations whose main focus is not in heritage, private enterprises, including tourist companies). Heritage may then become equally a ground of cooperation and conflict [Pawłowska 2008]. Various entities on the heritage market have different approaches to the important aspects of the debate about heritage, i.e., the issue of authenticity of tissue, fulfilled functions, need to interpret heritage or leaving it to individual understanding, treating it as a symbol and sacrum or as profanum, using it in everyday life for commercial and educational purposes, regarding it as private, local or public. What follows is that there are also different approaches to making heritage accessible, the costs of such access and who should bear them, and finally the views on a key issue, which is acknowledging a given property or intangible value as heritage and the degree of its approval. Groups which make use of heritage vary in their aims, such as preserving identity, legitimization of power, building patriotic attitudes, working for profit through selling commercial goods and services, creating comfortable private space, raising prestige, promote the area, providing entertainment or scientific pursuit. Modern functions that heritage may fulfil include a role of core or ingredient of various products and services, both of commercial and non–commercial character, making use of heritage as the background for providing various services – mostly tourist and cultural – and treating it as an important ingredient of building identity and image of places.
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Another way of looking at the primary groups on the heritage market is their division into a public, private and non–governmental sector. Each of them has different motivations and purposes [Murzyn–Kupisz 2010, pp. 61–80]. It is also necessary to consider the fact that these groups or agents function in various spatial scales: local, regional, national and international depending on the type of heritage, its reputation, legal status and the functions it fulfils [Howard 2003; Aa van der 2005]. They may either be entities that are obliged to be involved in heritage management (such as public cultural institutions – museums, archives or libraries, local and regional authorities obliged by law, owners of heritage sites who manage their own property, non–governmental institutions whose main aim is to protect and popularize national heritage) and those who, often spontaneously and willingly, participate in the management of cultural heritage (groups of residents, non–governmental organizations whose main focus is not in heritage, private enterprises, including tourist companies). Heritage may then become equally a ground of cooperation and conflict [Pawłowska 2008]. Various entities on the heritage market have different approaches to the important aspects of the debate about heritage, i.e., the issue of authenticity of tissue, fulfilled functions, need to interpret heritage or leaving it to individual understanding, treating it as a symbol and sacrum or as profanum, using it in everyday life for commercial and educational purposes, regarding it as private, local or public. What follows is that there are also different approaches to making heritage accessible, the costs of such access and who should bear them, and finally the views on a key issue, which is acknowledging a given property or intangible value as heritage and the degree of its approval. Groups which make use of heritage vary in their aims, such as preserving identity, legitimization of power, building patriotic attitudes, working for profit through selling commercial goods and services, creating comfortable private space, raising prestige, promote the area, providing entertainment or scientific pursuit. Modern functions that heritage may fulfil include a role of core or ingredient of various products and services, both of commercial and non–commercial character, making use of heritage as the background for providing various services – mostly tourist and cultural – and treating it as an important ingredient of building identity and image of places.
25
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Ill. 2. Potential levels of impact of cultural heritage on socio–economic development
he socio–economic transformations of the end of the 20th century led to the changes in approach to the remnants of the past and the role they play in the society (see Table 1 below). The understanding of the notion of cultural heritage is continually expanding, as it gradually replaces the concept of historic monument used so far, which is narrower and used above all in reference to architectural sites and mobile artworks and
economic effects - income directly relating to the activities for the protection, availability and interpretation of cultural heritage; - multiplier effects, including the maintenance and creation of workplaces; - giving support to structural changes in economy - tax income of public sector - property market
Level and quality of residents’ life (municipality/region) - meeting the cultural needs; - meeting the recreational needs - aesthetics of space - impact on social cohesion and creation of social capital - identity and local pride
T
6. Conclusions Building knowledge and creativity based economy - taking advantage of heritage for educational purposes; - building individual cultural capital, human resource capital and creative potential; - heritage as inspiration for products and services created by creative sector; - contributing to the creation of original, high quality products
area, of its perception as attractive among tourists and investors in selected sectors. It may be also an essential element of internal marketing directed at residents. Finally, the impact of heritage on ecological conditions of functioning of an area may be also multiple. It may ensure or inspire a more balanced spatial management and prevent the sprawling of urban districts and cause an excessive antropression, attracting too many visitors and intensifying the road traffic.
Image and branding of a place - among tourists; - among enterpreneurs and investors; - internal marketing (among residents)
The level of impact of cultural heritage on socio–economic development
Ecological conditions in the area - avoiding the sprawling of built–up areas, re–use of already developed areas; - number of users and user–pressure (street traffic, consumption of infrastructure)
Integral element of revitalization process - background for revitalization processes - flagship revitalization project, process catalyst - functional animation of degraded space
archaeological objects. What also changes is the scale of looking at the legacy of the past, from individual objects, buildings or places to a broader perspective including the whole urbanist or ruralist complexes, cultural landscapes or linking material products of human activity with intangible values. However, it is still an exceptionally important role of heritage to create, consolidate and emphasize national identity. In the present day, it is also considered to be increasingly important to respect cultural diversity and look into the broader economic and social advantages brought about by heritage, by affecting the quality of life, image and branding of a place. In the classic 19th century approach to heritage the basic indicator of its relevance was a narrow spectrum of values such as age, aesthetic values and links with national history. A contemporary notion of heritage refers to a wide range of values expanding onto various objects, not only those that are testimony to artistic pursuits that belong to the so–called high culture or the old ones; it should be enough to mention the recent great
Source: original idea
Source: original idea
area, of its perception as attractive among tourists and investors in selected sectors. It may be also an essential element of internal marketing directed at residents. Finally, the impact of heritage on ecological conditions of functioning of an area may be also multiple. It may ensure or inspire a more balanced spatial management and prevent the sprawling of urban districts and cause an excessive antropression, attracting too many visitors and intensifying the road traffic.
Integral element of revitalization process - background for revitalization processes - flagship revitalization project, process catalyst - functional animation of degraded space
Image and branding of a place - among tourists; - among enterpreneurs and investors; - internal marketing (among residents) Building knowledge and creativity based economy - taking advantage of heritage for educational purposes; - building individual cultural capital, human resource capital and creative potential; - heritage as inspiration for products and services created by creative sector; - contributing to the creation of original, high quality products
The level of impact of cultural heritage on socio–economic development
Ecological conditions in the area - avoiding the sprawling of built–up areas, re–use of already developed areas; - number of users and user–pressure (street traffic, consumption of infrastructure)
6. Conclusions
T
he socio–economic transformations of the end of the 20th century led to the changes in approach to the remnants of the past and the role they play in the society (see Table 1 below). The understanding of the notion of cultural heritage is continually expanding, as it gradually replaces the concept of historic monument used so far, which is narrower and used above all in reference to architectural sites and mobile artworks and
Culture Management 2011, Vol 4 (4)
archaeological objects. What also changes is the scale of looking at the legacy of the past, from individual objects, buildings or places to a broader perspective including the whole urbanist or ruralist complexes, cultural landscapes or linking material products of human activity with intangible values. However, it is still an exceptionally important role of heritage to create, consolidate and emphasize national identity. In the present day, it is also considered to be increasingly important to respect cultural diversity and look into the broader economic and social advantages brought about by heritage, by affecting the quality of life, image and branding of a place. In the classic 19th century approach to heritage the basic indicator of its relevance was a narrow spectrum of values such as age, aesthetic values and links with national history. A contemporary notion of heritage refers to a wide range of values expanding onto various objects, not only those that are testimony to artistic pursuits that belong to the so–called high culture or the old ones; it should be enough to mention the recent great
25
sou efe ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ......
Poz ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ......
Bud ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ......
Pła rozw Uw ...... ...... ...... ......
Wiz ...... ...... ......
Inte ...... ...... ...... ......
economic effects - income directly relating to the activities for the protection, availability and interpretation of cultural heritage; - multiplier effects, including the maintenance and creation of workplaces; - giving support to structural changes in economy - tax income of public sector - property market
Level and quality of residents’ life (municipality/region) - meeting the cultural needs; - meeting the recreational needs - aesthetics of space - impact on social cohesion and creation of social capital - identity and local pride
Ill. 2. Potential levels of impact of cultural heritage on socio–economic development
Int ..... ..... ..... ..... Wi ..... ..... ..... Pł roz U ..... ..... ..... ..... Bu ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... Po ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... so ef ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... .....
Culture Management 2011, Vol 4 (4)
fashion of discovering industrial heritage, noticing the exceptionality of 20th century modernist architecture or combining the issue of cultural heritage with activities linked with natural heritage. The significance of heritage and its value are therefore currently connected not only with its relevance to a specific national culture but they can also refer to a broad spectrum of values of different cultures on various scales, e.g., local, regional. The broad understanding of heritage and its value also changes the role of experts in heritage management; from specialists making authoritarian decisions, above all in conservation, architecture and archaeology, they are changing into mentors who represent various disciplines and are supposed to assist, provide direction and support the heritage management process as facilitators, especially when we consider that the decisions regarding heritage are increasingly made democratically, with the participation of many stakeholders, especially local communities. This trend is also linked with transferring the centre of gravity, as far as decision making involving heritage is concerned, from central to regional or local administration and local government [Murzyn–Kupisz 2008, pp. 155–182]. Similarly the recognition and identification of special characteristics and interpretation of heritage are not only the domain of central level state administration, and what follows is that the responsibility for heritage lies not only with state institutions or public administration but also with local communities and private companies operating in the free market.
Culture Management 2011, Vol 4 (4)
1997, p. 56]. Similarly, D. Netzer emphasizes that the “greatest success (...) in the heritage protection is when an ingredient of cultural legacy is really used” [Netzer 1997, p. 4]. Such approach affects the changing of management methods. The trend is to depart from unique conservation projects realized at the sites designated from the top as historic monuments and move towards the inclusion of heritage which was symbolically or really taken over by its contemporary heirs (owners, local communities) into broader development concepts of an area, within the so–called integrated conservation, taking into account not only the artistic and technological aspects but also the social and economic conditions.12 Cultural heritage is treated increasingly frequently as a contemporary resource which may fulfil a number of contemporary functions and applications, and successful heritage–related projects and enterprises usually have an impact simultaneously on many functional dimensions of a territorial unit, meeting both local needs, developmental chances and bringing about economic and social advantages affecting both the present day and future generations. The trends discussed here are visible and present to a varying degree in different country– level, regional and local contexts. Heritage can be potentially large, but unrealized in practice; developmental chance, especially if its potential (multitude of ingredients and values) is not recognized by the public, private or non–governmental sectors, or if they cannot translate the awareness of the potential of heritage into effective actions. The recognition and multitude of contemporary uses of heritage often leads to conflict between the various functions it fulfils simultaneously, and also – if it is used in an unbalanced way – it may lead to the destruction or reduction of its material and intangible ingredients.
26
Searching for the economic arguments for retaining heritage C. Koboldt thinks that “many, if not most advantages [brought about by heritage] may be achieved only through [its] real use” [Koboldt
12 The concept of integrated conservation taken from the Amsterdam Declaration which includs the decisions of the Congress on European Architectural Heritage of 1975 (1995) in: K. Pawłowski (red.), Vademecum konserwatora zabytków Międzynarodowe normy ochrony dziedzictwa kultury. Biuletyn Polskiego Komitetu Narodowego ICOMOS, ICOMOS, Warszawa, s. 41–48. [Handbook of Heritage Conservator. International Standards of the Protection of Cultural Heritage. Bulletin of the Polish National Committee ICOMOS]
12 The concept of integrated conservation taken from the Amsterdam Declaration which includs the decisions of the Congress on European Architectural Heritage of 1975 (1995) in: K. Pawłowski (red.), Vademecum konserwatora zabytków Międzynarodowe normy ochrony dziedzictwa kultury. Biuletyn Polskiego Komitetu Narodowego ICOMOS, ICOMOS, Warszawa, s. 41–48. [Handbook of Heritage Conservator. International Standards of the Protection of Cultural Heritage. Bulletin of the Polish National Committee ICOMOS]
Searching for the economic arguments for retaining heritage C. Koboldt thinks that “many, if not most advantages [brought about by heritage] may be achieved only through [its] real use” [Koboldt
1997, p. 56]. Similarly, D. Netzer emphasizes that the “greatest success (...) in the heritage protection is when an ingredient of cultural legacy is really used” [Netzer 1997, p. 4]. Such approach affects the changing of management methods. The trend is to depart from unique conservation projects realized at the sites designated from the top as historic monuments and move towards the inclusion of heritage which was symbolically or really taken over by its contemporary heirs (owners, local communities) into broader development concepts of an area, within the so–called integrated conservation, taking into account not only the artistic and technological aspects but also the social and economic conditions.12 Cultural heritage is treated increasingly frequently as a contemporary resource which may fulfil a number of contemporary functions and applications, and successful heritage–related projects and enterprises usually have an impact simultaneously on many functional dimensions of a territorial unit, meeting both local needs, developmental chances and bringing about economic and social advantages affecting both the present day and future generations. The trends discussed here are visible and present to a varying degree in different country– level, regional and local contexts. Heritage can be potentially large, but unrealized in practice; developmental chance, especially if its potential (multitude of ingredients and values) is not recognized by the public, private or non–governmental sectors, or if they cannot translate the awareness of the potential of heritage into effective actions. The recognition and multitude of contemporary uses of heritage often leads to conflict between the various functions it fulfils simultaneously, and also – if it is used in an unbalanced way – it may lead to the destruction or reduction of its material and intangible ingredients.
26
fashion of discovering industrial heritage, noticing the exceptionality of 20th century modernist architecture or combining the issue of cultural heritage with activities linked with natural heritage. The significance of heritage and its value are therefore currently connected not only with its relevance to a specific national culture but they can also refer to a broad spectrum of values of different cultures on various scales, e.g., local, regional. The broad understanding of heritage and its value also changes the role of experts in heritage management; from specialists making authoritarian decisions, above all in conservation, architecture and archaeology, they are changing into mentors who represent various disciplines and are supposed to assist, provide direction and support the heritage management process as facilitators, especially when we consider that the decisions regarding heritage are increasingly made democratically, with the participation of many stakeholders, especially local communities. This trend is also linked with transferring the centre of gravity, as far as decision making involving heritage is concerned, from central to regional or local administration and local government [Murzyn–Kupisz 2008, pp. 155–182]. Similarly the recognition and identification of special characteristics and interpretation of heritage are not only the domain of central level state administration, and what follows is that the responsibility for heritage lies not only with state institutions or public administration but also with local communities and private companies operating in the free market.
27
Culture Management 2011, Vol 4 (4)
Tab. 1. Trends in the management of cultural heritage at the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries. before (emphasis on):
currently (the following are taken into the account:)
the concept of heritage and the related values definition of cultural heritage
meaning/value of heritage
historic monuments
continuous expansion of the concept, e.g., with vernacular heritage, cultural landscapes, stress on intangible heritage.
individual buildings
urbanist/cultural groups
places
historic environment surroundings/ /milieu
the basic indicator is the age of an object (in the case of intangible heritage the durability of a given tradition)
does not depend only on the age of an object but may include objects originating in the recent past, e.g., industrial heritage, objects that emerged in the second half of the 20th century.
narrow spectrum of values
broad spectrum of values
relevance to the national culture (national heritage)
conditioned by local (regional) specifics, the indicator of local separateness.
monocultural
reflects values of various cultures
Source: prepared on the basis of S. Helseth, K. Clark, T. Copeland, P. Drury, M. Prytehregh, (2000), Forward planning: the functions of cultural heritage in a changing Europe, The London Group Discussion Paper for the Council of Europe, draft, London, www.arcchip.cz/w01/w01_appendix1.pdf [downloaded 10.12.2010].
levels of impact and the role of heritage in society consolidation of identity and national unity
respect for cultural variety respect for local separateness
generating revenue through visitors
broad economic and social advantages
entities participating in the management process
research on the philosophy of protection, social and economic aspects of heritage
scientific research regarding the technical and technological aspects of heritage protection
broader strategic activities
place–based activities
integrated conservation
unique conservation projects
educational and promotional activities among local community, owners and users
becoming a historic monument by being listed in the special register. management methods
decisions
protection of historic monuments/culture sector
environmental protection/industrial/cultural sector
leading role of the state
responsibility
leading role of local community
leading role of experts
interpretation
management skills
historic knowledge role specialists
made at state level
made at many levels from international to regional and local, recognizing the multitude of entities that have an impact on cultural heritage.
top–down, authoritarian
democratization of the decision–making process, participation, e.g., of local community/stakeholders.
experts
assisting, facilitating and supporting the management process (facilitators)
representing individual disciplines e.g. architecture, archaeology)
multi–disciplinary perspective
representing individual disciplines e.g. architecture, archaeology) role specialists
historic knowledge
management skills
interpretation
leading role of experts
leading role of local community
responsibility
leading role of the state
local communities/private sector/free market
protection of historic monuments/culture sector
environmental protection/industrial/cultural sector
management methods becoming a historic monument by being listed in the special register.
educational and promotional activities among local community, owners and users
unique conservation projects
integrated conservation
place–based activities
broader strategic activities
scientific research regarding the technical and technological aspects of heritage protection
research on the philosophy of protection, social and economic aspects of heritage
Source: prepared on the basis of S. Helseth, K. Clark, T. Copeland, P. Drury, M. Prytehregh, (2000), Forward planning: the functions of cultural heritage in a changing Europe, The London Group Discussion Paper for the Council of Europe, draft, London, www.arcchip.cz/w01/w01_appendix1.pdf [downloaded 10.12.2010].
decisions
local communities/private sector/free market multi–disciplinary perspective assisting, facilitating and supporting the management process (facilitators)
experts
democratization of the decision–making process, participation, e.g., of local community/stakeholders.
top–down, authoritarian made at state level
made at many levels from international to regional and local, recognizing the multitude of entities that have an impact on cultural heritage.
entities participating in the management process broad economic and social advantages
generating revenue through visitors
respect for cultural variety respect for local separateness
consolidation of identity and national unity levels of impact and the role of heritage in society meaning/value of heritage definition of cultural heritage
reflects values of various cultures
monocultural
conditioned by local (regional) specifics, the indicator of local separateness.
relevance to the national culture (national heritage)
broad spectrum of values
narrow spectrum of values
does not depend only on the age of an object but may include objects originating in the recent past, e.g., industrial heritage, objects that emerged in the second half of the 20th century.
the basic indicator is the age of an object (in the case of intangible heritage the durability of a given tradition)
historic environment surroundings/ /milieu
places
urbanist/cultural groups
individual buildings historic monuments
continuous expansion of the concept, e.g., with vernacular heritage, cultural landscapes, stress on intangible heritage.
the concept of heritage and the related values before (emphasis on):
currently (the following are taken into the account:)
Tab. 1. Trends in the management of cultural heritage at the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries. Culture Management 2011, Vol 4 (4)
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Hutter M., Rizzo I. ed. Economic perspectives on cultural heritage, London 1997. Karta Wenecka [in:] Vademecum konserwatora zabytków. Międzynarodowe normy ochrony dziedzictwa kultury. Biuletyn Polskiego Komitetu Narodowego ICOMOS, red. K. Pawłowski, Warszawa 1996. [A Handbook for heritage conservators. International standards of the protection of cultural heritage. Bulletin of the Polish National Committee ICOMOS] Kirejczyk E., Zrozumieć zarządzanie [Understanding Management] Warszawa 2008. Kirshenblatt–Gimblett B., Theorizing Heritage, „Ethnomusicology” 1995, No. 3. Koboldt C., Optimising the use of cultural heritage [in:] Economic perspectives on cultural heritage, ed. M. Hutter, I. Rizzo, London 1997. Konwencja o ochronie dóbr kulturalnych w razie konfliktu zbrojnego wraz z regulaminem wykonawczym do tej konwencji oraz protokół o ochronie dóbr kulturalnych w razie konfliktu zbrojnego, podpisane w Hadze dnia 14 maja 1954 r., Dz.U. z 1957 r. nr 46, poz. 212, załącznik, 1957. Konwencja w sprawie ochrony światowego dziedzictwa kulturalnego i naturalnego UNESCO, Paryż 1972 [w:] Vademecum konserwatora zabytków. Międzynarodowe normy ochrony dziedzictwa kultury. Biuletyn Polskiego Komitetu Narodowego ICOMOS, red. K. Pawłowski Warszawa 1996. [Convention on the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Military Conflict with the executive regulations and the Protocol on the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Military Event, signed in The Hague on the 15th May 1954 [Parliamentary Journal 1957, No. 46, pos. 212, Appendix 1957. The UNESCO Convention on the Protection of World Cultural and Natural Heritage, Paris 1972. A Handbook of Heritage Conservator. International Standards for the Protection of Cultural Heritage. Bulletin of Polish National Committee ICOMOS] Logan W., Smith L. Foreword [in:] Intangible heritage, red. L. Smith, N. Akagawa, London 2009. Lowenthal D., Natural and cultural heritage, “International Journal of Heritage Studies” 2005, No. 1. Lowenthal D., The heritage crusade and the spoils of history, Cambridge 1998. McLoughlin J., Kaminski J., Sodagar B. red., Heritage Impact 2005. Proceedings of the first international symposium on the socio–economic impact of cultural heritage, Budapest 2006.
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Hutter M., Rizzo I. ed. Economic perspectives on cultural heritage, London 1997. Karta Wenecka [in:] Vademecum konserwatora zabytków. Międzynarodowe normy ochrony dziedzictwa kultury. Biuletyn Polskiego Komitetu Narodowego ICOMOS, red. K. Pawłowski, Warszawa 1996. [A Handbook for heritage conservators. International standards of the protection of cultural heritage. Bulletin of the Polish National Committee ICOMOS] Kirejczyk E., Zrozumieć zarządzanie [Understanding Management] Warszawa 2008. Kirshenblatt–Gimblett B., Theorizing Heritage, „Ethnomusicology” 1995, No. 3. Koboldt C., Optimising the use of cultural heritage [in:] Economic perspectives on cultural heritage, ed. M. Hutter, I. Rizzo, London 1997. Konwencja o ochronie dóbr kulturalnych w razie konfliktu zbrojnego wraz z regulaminem wykonawczym do tej konwencji oraz protokół o ochronie dóbr kulturalnych w razie konfliktu zbrojnego, podpisane w Hadze dnia 14 maja 1954 r., Dz.U. z 1957 r. nr 46, poz. 212, załącznik, 1957. Konwencja w sprawie ochrony światowego dziedzictwa kulturalnego i naturalnego UNESCO, Paryż 1972 [w:] Vademecum konserwatora zabytków. Międzynarodowe normy ochrony dziedzictwa kultury. Biuletyn Polskiego Komitetu Narodowego ICOMOS, red. K. Pawłowski Warszawa 1996. [Convention on the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Military Conflict with the executive regulations and the Protocol on the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Military Event, signed in The Hague on the 15th May 1954 [Parliamentary Journal 1957, No. 46, pos. 212, Appendix 1957. The UNESCO Convention on the Protection of World Cultural and Natural Heritage, Paris 1972. A Handbook of Heritage Conservator. International Standards for the Protection of Cultural Heritage. Bulletin of Polish National Committee ICOMOS] Logan W., Smith L. Foreword [in:] Intangible heritage, red. L. Smith, N. Akagawa, London 2009. Lowenthal D., Natural and cultural heritage, “International Journal of Heritage Studies” 2005, No. 1. Lowenthal D., The heritage crusade and the spoils of history, Cambridge 1998. McLoughlin J., Kaminski J., Sodagar B. red., Heritage Impact 2005. Proceedings of the first international symposium on the socio–economic impact of cultural heritage, Budapest 2006.
Aa van der B. J. M., Preserving the heritage of humanity? Obtaining World Heritage status and the impacts of listing, Enschede 2005. Ashworth G. J., Heritage planning, Conservation as the management of urban change, Groningen 1991. Avrami E., Mason R., de la Torre M., Values and heritage conservation. Research Report, Los Angeles 2000. Bendix R, Heritage between economy and politics [in:] Intangible heritage, ed. L. Smith, N. Akagawa, London 2009. Benhamou F., Heritage [in:] A handbook of cultural economics, edited by R. Towse, Cheltenham 2003. Benhamou F. Is increased public spending for the preservation of historic monuments inevitable? The French case, “Journal of Cultural Economics” 1996, No. 20. Bowitz E., Ibenholt K., Economic impacts of cultural heritage. Research and perspectives, “Journal of Cultural Heritage” 2009, No. 10. Cernea M., Cultural heritage and development. A framework for action in the Middle East and North Africa, Washington 2001. Convention for the safeguarding of the intangible cultural heritage, Paris 2003, http://www.unesco. org/culture/ich/doc/src/01852–EN.pdf (the paper of 14.04.2011). Cuccia T., Signorello G., Methods for measuring the demand for the arts and heritage: theoretical issues [in:] The economics of heritage. A study in the political economy of culture in Sicily, edited by: I. Rizzo, R. Towse, Cheltenham 2002. Drucker P., Management: tasks, responsibilities, practices, New York 1974. Graham B., Ashworth G. J., Tunbridge J. E., A geography of heritage, London 2002. Graham B., Howard P., Heritage and identity [in:] The Ashgate research companion to heritage and identity, edited by: B. Graham, P. Howard, Aldershot 2008. Harvey D. C., Heritage pasts and heritage presents: temporality, meaning and the scope of heritage studies, “International Journal of Heritage Studies” 2001, No. 4. Helseth S., Clark K., Copeland T., Drury P., Prytehregh M., Forward planning: the functions of cultural heritage in a changing Europe, London 2002, www.arcchip.cz/ w01/w01_appendix1.pdf (downloaded: 10.12.2010). Heritage for the future – realizing the economic and social potential of a key asset, Council of Europe Publishing, Strasbourg 2005. Howard P., Heritage, management, interpretation, identity, London–New York 2003.
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Aa van der B. J. M., Preserving the heritage of humanity? Obtaining World Heritage status and the impacts of listing, Enschede 2005. Ashworth G. J., Heritage planning, Conservation as the management of urban change, Groningen 1991. Avrami E., Mason R., de la Torre M., Values and heritage conservation. Research Report, Los Angeles 2000. Bendix R, Heritage between economy and politics [in:] Intangible heritage, ed. L. Smith, N. Akagawa, London 2009. Benhamou F., Heritage [in:] A handbook of cultural economics, edited by R. Towse, Cheltenham 2003. Benhamou F. Is increased public spending for the preservation of historic monuments inevitable? The French case, “Journal of Cultural Economics” 1996, No. 20. Bowitz E., Ibenholt K., Economic impacts of cultural heritage. Research and perspectives, “Journal of Cultural Heritage” 2009, No. 10. Cernea M., Cultural heritage and development. A framework for action in the Middle East and North Africa, Washington 2001. Convention for the safeguarding of the intangible cultural heritage, Paris 2003, http://www.unesco. org/culture/ich/doc/src/01852–EN.pdf (the paper of 14.04.2011). Cuccia T., Signorello G., Methods for measuring the demand for the arts and heritage: theoretical issues [in:] The economics of heritage. A study in the political economy of culture in Sicily, edited by: I. Rizzo, R. Towse, Cheltenham 2002. Drucker P., Management: tasks, responsibilities, practices, New York 1974. Graham B., Ashworth G. J., Tunbridge J. E., A geography of heritage, London 2002. Graham B., Howard P., Heritage and identity [in:] The Ashgate research companion to heritage and identity, edited by: B. Graham, P. Howard, Aldershot 2008. Harvey D. C., Heritage pasts and heritage presents: temporality, meaning and the scope of heritage studies, “International Journal of Heritage Studies” 2001, No. 4. Helseth S., Clark K., Copeland T., Drury P., Prytehregh M., Forward planning: the functions of cultural heritage in a changing Europe, London 2002, www.arcchip.cz/ w01/w01_appendix1.pdf (downloaded: 10.12.2010). Heritage for the future – realizing the economic and social potential of a key asset, Council of Europe Publishing, Strasbourg 2005. Howard P., Heritage, management, interpretation, identity, London–New York 2003.
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Literature:
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Murzyn–Kupisz M., Barbarzyńca w ogrodzie? Dziedzictwo kulturowe widziane z perspektywy ekonomii, „Zarządzanie Publiczne”, w druku. [“A barbarian in the garden? Cultural heritage seen from the economic perspective” Public Management] forthcoming. Murzyn–Kupisz M., Podmioty na rynku dziedzictwa kulturowego, „Studia Regionalne i Lokalne” 2010, No. 3. [“Agents on the market of cultural heritage” Regional and Local Studies] Murzyn–Kupisz M., Zarządzanie dziedzictwem kulturowym na początku XXI wieku. Wyzwania stojące przed władzami lokalnymi Krakowa [w:] Barcelona i Kraków. Zmieniające się wizje – wizje zmian, ed. J. Purchla, Kraków, 2008. [Management of Cultural Heritage at the Beginning of the 21st century. Challenges Facing Kraków’s Local Authorities [in] Barcelona and Kraków. The Changing Visions – Visions of Changes] Netzer D., The economic implications of heritage preservation, “The Urban Age” 1997, No. 4. Nieroba E., Czerner A., Szczepański M. S., Flirty tradycji z popkulturą. Dziedzictwo kulturowe w późnej nowoczesności, Warszawa 2010. [Flirts of Tradition with Popculture. Cultural Heritage in Late Postmodernity] Pawłowska K., Swaryczewska M., Ochrona dziedzictwa kulturowego. Zarządzanie i partycypacja społeczna [Protection of Cultural Heritage. Management and Social Participation] Kraków 2002. Pawłowska K., Przeciwdziałanie konfliktom wokół ochrony i kształtowania krajobrazu [Counteracting Conflicts Around Landscape Protection and Formation] Kraków 2008.
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Peacock A., A future to the past: the political economy of heritage, “Proceedings of the British Academy” 1995, No. 87. Peacock A., Rizzo I., The heritage game. Economics, policy and practice, Oxford 2008. Piccinato G., Specjaliści, mieszkańcy, użytkownicy. Ćwiczenia w zgodnym budowaniu [Specialists, Residents, Users. Excercises in Building Together] [in:] Dziedzictwo a turystyka [Heritage and Tourism] ed. J. Purchla, Kraków 1999. Prott L., The international movement of cultural objects, “International Journal of Cultural Property” 2005, No. 12. Ready R. C., Navrud S. ed., Valuing cultural heritage. Applying environmental valuation techniques to historic buildings, monuments and artefacts, Cheltenham 2002. Skounti A., The authentic illusion. Humanity’s intangible cultural heritage, the Moroccan experience [w:] Intangible heritage, ed. L. Smith, N. Akagawa, London 2009. Smith L., Uses of heritage, London and New York 2006. Throsby D., Economics and culture, Cambridge 2001. Tunbridge J. E., Ashworth G. J., Dissonant heritage: the management of the past as a resource in conflict, Chichester 1996. Ustawa z dn. 23 lipca 2003 r. o ochronie zabytków i opiece nad zabytkami, (Dz. U. z 2003 r., No. 162, poz. 1568). Act of Parliament dated 23 July 2003 on the protection of remnants of the past and ... Parliamentary Journal [Dz.U.] 2003 No. 162 pos. 1568.
29
Murzyn–Kupisz M., Barbarzyńca w ogrodzie? Dziedzictwo kulturowe widziane z perspektywy ekonomii, „Zarządzanie Publiczne”, w druku. [“A barbarian in the garden? Cultural heritage seen from the economic perspective” Public Management] forthcoming. Murzyn–Kupisz M., Podmioty na rynku dziedzictwa kulturowego, „Studia Regionalne i Lokalne” 2010, No. 3. [“Agents on the market of cultural heritage” Regional and Local Studies] Murzyn–Kupisz M., Zarządzanie dziedzictwem kulturowym na początku XXI wieku. Wyzwania stojące przed władzami lokalnymi Krakowa [w:] Barcelona i Kraków. Zmieniające się wizje – wizje zmian, ed. J. Purchla, Kraków, 2008. [Management of Cultural Heritage at the Beginning of the 21st century. Challenges Facing Kraków’s Local Authorities [in] Barcelona and Kraków. The Changing Visions – Visions of Changes] Netzer D., The economic implications of heritage preservation, “The Urban Age” 1997, No. 4. Nieroba E., Czerner A., Szczepański M. S., Flirty tradycji z popkulturą. Dziedzictwo kulturowe w późnej nowoczesności, Warszawa 2010. [Flirts of Tradition with Popculture. Cultural Heritage in Late Postmodernity] Pawłowska K., Swaryczewska M., Ochrona dziedzictwa kulturowego. Zarządzanie i partycypacja społeczna [Protection of Cultural Heritage. Management and Social Participation] Kraków 2002. Pawłowska K., Przeciwdziałanie konfliktom wokół ochrony i kształtowania krajobrazu [Counteracting Conflicts Around Landscape Protection and Formation] Kraków 2008.
29
Peacock A., A future to the past: the political economy of heritage, “Proceedings of the British Academy” 1995, No. 87. Peacock A., Rizzo I., The heritage game. Economics, policy and practice, Oxford 2008. Piccinato G., Specjaliści, mieszkańcy, użytkownicy. Ćwiczenia w zgodnym budowaniu [Specialists, Residents, Users. Excercises in Building Together] [in:] Dziedzictwo a turystyka [Heritage and Tourism] ed. J. Purchla, Kraków 1999. Prott L., The international movement of cultural objects, “International Journal of Cultural Property” 2005, No. 12. Ready R. C., Navrud S. ed., Valuing cultural heritage. Applying environmental valuation techniques to historic buildings, monuments and artefacts, Cheltenham 2002. Skounti A., The authentic illusion. Humanity’s intangible cultural heritage, the Moroccan experience [w:] Intangible heritage, ed. L. Smith, N. Akagawa, London 2009. Smith L., Uses of heritage, London and New York 2006. Throsby D., Economics and culture, Cambridge 2001. Tunbridge J. E., Ashworth G. J., Dissonant heritage: the management of the past as a resource in conflict, Chichester 1996. Ustawa z dn. 23 lipca 2003 r. o ochronie zabytków i opiece nad zabytkami, (Dz. U. z 2003 r., No. 162, poz. 1568). Act of Parliament dated 23 July 2003 on the protection of remnants of the past and ... Parliamentary Journal [Dz.U.] 2003 No. 162 pos. 1568.
The nature of legends and ancient tales and their significance to the development of cultural tourism in the Małopolska region
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Anna Góral
30
Anna Góral Ph.D.student and lecturer at Jagiellonian University, faculty of Management and Social Communication. She coordinates projects and international interregional cooperation. Her academic interests include intangible cultural heritage and economy of cultural heritage.
n the main, legends are tales imbued with myriad fantasical elements and are frequently built around folk themes. Nevertheless, they can often tell us a great deal more about a given
This article sets out to present the cultural heritage of the Małopolska region. Małopolska is rich in a folk tradition and folk culture which includes local tales, legends and stories that have the potential of being a unique regional attraction in both the national and international arena. Despite its appeal, however, full advantage has yet to be taken of this folk tradition by the tourism sector and the absence of a wider awareness of the region’s folk culture is observable amongst both the various local authorities and the cultural institutions reporting to them. Małopolska encompasses a multitude of places connected with local legends and tales and their true cultural countenance should be modernised, promoted and brought into prominence. The article amplifies the tales, legends and stories of Małopolska, propounds measures for their promotion and popularisation based on examples of good practice and puts forward proposals for employing them to enhance the region’s appeal as a tourist destination. The results of a study are also presented. The research in question was designed to ascertain the level of awareness amongst local authorities and the cultural institutions reporting to them as regards the cultural potential of local tales and legends and the possibility of putting them to advantageous use.
I
1. Introduction
1. Introduction
event or place than many an historical fact. Myriad legends and tales born in the lands of Małopolska still exist today. Though their greater part is lost in the mists of time or has faded from human recall, those which have survived form a fundamental element of the local folklore, giving a faithful account of the region’s specificity. Storytelling is a vital, but poorly nurtured, element of local folklore, particularly in the context of the development of tourism. An oft–posed question asks whether and how it is instrumental in building a full cultural tourism experience. Ethnographical studies reveal that tales and legends not only fill the role of an instrument, a socio–cultural ‘go–between’ in the process of regenerating the official, sanctioned image and history of a place, but also bring to bear an influence in vividly moulding the picture of their destination that the tourist holds in their mind’s eye [Krawczyk–Wasilewska 1979]. As a cultural medium, tales and legends can stimulate both the way in which the tourist makes contact with, and absorbs, the local culture and the process by which they come to understand local customs, rituals and ways of life. However, making conscious and effective use of the cultural potential that lies dormant in tales and legends demands an understanding of their roles and significance on the part of both the institutions responsible for protecting and preserving the unbroken handing down of local folklore and those with a brief to develop and manage regional development strategies, primarily regional and local authorities. The question of making use of tales and legends in the development of a region’s
I
This article sets out to present the cultural heritage of the Małopolska region. Małopolska is rich in a folk tradition and folk culture which includes local tales, legends and stories that have the potential of being a unique regional attraction in both the national and international arena. Despite its appeal, however, full advantage has yet to be taken of this folk tradition by the tourism sector and the absence of a wider awareness of the region’s folk culture is observable amongst both the various local authorities and the cultural institutions reporting to them. Małopolska encompasses a multitude of places connected with local legends and tales and their true cultural countenance should be modernised, promoted and brought into prominence. The article amplifies the tales, legends and stories of Małopolska, propounds measures for their promotion and popularisation based on examples of good practice and puts forward proposals for employing them to enhance the region’s appeal as a tourist destination. The results of a study are also presented. The research in question was designed to ascertain the level of awareness amongst local authorities and the cultural institutions reporting to them as regards the cultural potential of local tales and legends and the possibility of putting them to advantageous use.
event or place than many an historical fact. Myriad legends and tales born in the lands of Małopolska still exist today. Though their greater part is lost in the mists of time or has faded from human recall, those which have survived form a fundamental element of the local folklore, giving a faithful account of the region’s specificity. Storytelling is a vital, but poorly nurtured, element of local folklore, particularly in the context of the development of tourism. An oft–posed question asks whether and how it is instrumental in building a full cultural tourism experience. Ethnographical studies reveal that tales and legends not only fill the role of an instrument, a socio–cultural ‘go–between’ in the process of regenerating the official, sanctioned image and history of a place, but also bring to bear an influence in vividly moulding the picture of their destination that the tourist holds in their mind’s eye [Krawczyk–Wasilewska 1979]. As a cultural medium, tales and legends can stimulate both the way in which the tourist makes contact with, and absorbs, the local culture and the process by which they come to understand local customs, rituals and ways of life. However, making conscious and effective use of the cultural potential that lies dormant in tales and legends demands an understanding of their roles and significance on the part of both the institutions responsible for protecting and preserving the unbroken handing down of local folklore and those with a brief to develop and manage regional development strategies, primarily regional and local authorities. The question of making use of tales and legends in the development of a region’s
Anna Góral Ph.D.student and lecturer at Jagiellonian University, faculty of Management and Social Communication. She coordinates projects and international interregional cooperation. Her academic interests include intangible cultural heritage and economy of cultural heritage.
n the main, legends are tales imbued with myriad fantasical elements and are frequently built around folk themes. Nevertheless, they can often tell us a great deal more about a given
Culture Management 2011, Vol 4 (4)
Anna Góral
30
The nature of legends and ancient tales and their significance to the development of cultural tourism in the Małopolska region
Culture Management 2011, Vol 4 (4)
2. Legends as a fundamental expression of folk tradition The literature defines legends as stories having recourse to elements of the extraordinary and the miraculous in connection with life in a given society or region. They tell the tale of how a particular place came into being and of historical events and, more often than not, they feature important regional figures, such as heroes or knights, for instance. They are often woven through with folk themes and apocrypha. Originally handed on orally, they were later written down as well. The first legends emerged in the Middle Ages, with a view to propagating the Christian faith. Passed on, as they were, orally, they evolved with time, adapting to the needs of the moment in local communities [Sławiński 1999]. Legends, tales and folk stories have an enormous informative, cultural and historical role. They perform a multitude of functions within the local community, uniting it, first and foremost, around shared images and symbols, as well as moulding and preserving historical awareness
The rhythms of folk culture saw legends most frequently being told during the long autumn and winter evenings as people carried out tasks such as spinning flax, hulling peas or weaving, though they would also be told in the summer, whilst working the fields and in the evenings, after the day’s tasks were done and the entire family and their neighbours gathered at their ease. Clear and captivating, the tales were comprehensible to young and old alike and were thus more easily remembered and passed on. Apart from their function as entertainment, the legends also bore a certain emotional and educational charge. They presented a variety of facts relating to good and evil, thanks to which they taught the moral principles and modes of behaving and acting that prevailed in a given community, as well as local attitudes toward both the community and the surrounding world. Their purpose was also to preserve historical events, turning points and incomprehensible and extraordinary phenomena in the inhabitants’ consciousness. Most crucially of all, they created the foundations of an historical awareness. Handed down from generation to generation by grandparents who would speak of their own grandparents as they told them, the legends strengthened this awareness and founded a tradition [Pawlikowska–Wójcicka 2005]. It would seem that the richer a region’s history and the more developed its identity and its inhabitants’ awareness of history, the greater its wealth of legends, folk stories, tales and anecdotes [Kneafsey 2000, p. 35–50]. This is in keeping with the fact that folk legends were created on the basis of authentic events, which were framed as gripping stories with an added sprinkling of diverse digressions and, of course, elucidations of their less comprehensible themes. The absence of an unequivocal record and the potential for adaptation as befitting the needs of the moment often led to both the stratification of tales from various ages and their continuous modification. This meant that, at one moment in their history,
The nature of legends and ancient tales and their significance to the development of cultural tourism in the Małopolska region
It would seem that the richer a region’s history and the more developed its identity and its inhabitants’ awareness of history, the greater its wealth of legends, folk stories, tales and anecdotes [Kneafsey 2000, p. 35–50]. This is in keeping with the fact that folk legends were created on the basis of authentic events, which were framed as gripping stories with an added sprinkling of diverse digressions and, of course, elucidations of their less comprehensible themes. The absence of an unequivocal record and the potential for adaptation as befitting the needs of the moment often led to both the stratification of tales from various ages and their continuous modification. This meant that, at one moment in their history,
2. Legends as a fundamental expression of folk tradition culture and tourism is a topic of interest to a great many researchers, particularly those who are a presence in the foreign literature [cf. Giaccardi 2006, p. 281–294, Kneafsey 2000 and Lowenthal 1998]. These publications focus on both the role of tales and legends in local folk tradition and the tools used in order to tie them in effectively with a regional development strategy. Tales and legends within the context of stimulating regional tourism are absent in Poland. There are numerous publications on using folk culture promotionally in this regard. However, they focus predominantly on such areas as folk arts and crafts, regional cuisine and folk architecture, and rituals and customs [cf. Ramczyk, Gutkowska 2008 and Jessa 2010]. This article presents the tales, legends and stories of Małopolska as a vital element of the local folk tradition. Potential forms and tools for the promotion of the region by means of tales and legends are put forward, as are selected instances of good practice exemplified in projects which set out to achieve that goal. The results of a survey are also presented. It was designed to ascertain the level of awareness amongst local authorities and the cultural institutions reporting to them as regards the cultural potential of local tales and legends and the possibility of using them advantageously.
Anna Góral
and constituting a record of the crucial events played out in the region [Sławiński 1999]. At one time, they were the basic ingredient of the nation’s historical consciousness and identity and, although their role today has been considerably reduced, they can still be treated as one of the most vital elements of a region’s culture, shaping its inhabitants’ imagination and knowledge [Odoj, Pec 2000].
Anna Góral
The literature defines legends as stories having recourse to elements of the extraordinary and the miraculous in connection with life in a given society or region. They tell the tale of how a particular place came into being and of historical events and, more often than not, they feature important regional figures, such as heroes or knights, for instance. They are often woven through with folk themes and apocrypha. Originally handed on orally, they were later written down as well. The first legends emerged in the Middle Ages, with a view to propagating the Christian faith. Passed on, as they were, orally, they evolved with time, adapting to the needs of the moment in local communities [Sławiński 1999]. Legends, tales and folk stories have an enormous informative, cultural and historical role. They perform a multitude of functions within the local community, uniting it, first and foremost, around shared images and symbols, as well as moulding and preserving historical awareness
31
The nature of legends and ancient tales and their significance to the development of cultural tourism in the Małopolska region
culture and tourism is a topic of interest to a great many researchers, particularly those who are a presence in the foreign literature [cf. Giaccardi 2006, p. 281–294, Kneafsey 2000 and Lowenthal 1998]. These publications focus on both the role of tales and legends in local folk tradition and the tools used in order to tie them in effectively with a regional development strategy. Tales and legends within the context of stimulating regional tourism are absent in Poland. There are numerous publications on using folk culture promotionally in this regard. However, they focus predominantly on such areas as folk arts and crafts, regional cuisine and folk architecture, and rituals and customs [cf. Ramczyk, Gutkowska 2008 and Jessa 2010]. This article presents the tales, legends and stories of Małopolska as a vital element of the local folk tradition. Potential forms and tools for the promotion of the region by means of tales and legends are put forward, as are selected instances of good practice exemplified in projects which set out to achieve that goal. The results of a survey are also presented. It was designed to ascertain the level of awareness amongst local authorities and the cultural institutions reporting to them as regards the cultural potential of local tales and legends and the possibility of using them advantageously.
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31
The rhythms of folk culture saw legends most frequently being told during the long autumn and winter evenings as people carried out tasks such as spinning flax, hulling peas or weaving, though they would also be told in the summer, whilst working the fields and in the evenings, after the day’s tasks were done and the entire family and their neighbours gathered at their ease. Clear and captivating, the tales were comprehensible to young and old alike and were thus more easily remembered and passed on. Apart from their function as entertainment, the legends also bore a certain emotional and educational charge. They presented a variety of facts relating to good and evil, thanks to which they taught the moral principles and modes of behaving and acting that prevailed in a given community, as well as local attitudes toward both the community and the surrounding world. Their purpose was also to preserve historical events, turning points and incomprehensible and extraordinary phenomena in the inhabitants’ consciousness. Most crucially of all, they created the foundations of an historical awareness. Handed down from generation to generation by grandparents who would speak of their own grandparents as they told them, the legends strengthened this awareness and founded a tradition [Pawlikowska–Wójcicka 2005]. and constituting a record of the crucial events played out in the region [Sławiński 1999]. At one time, they were the basic ingredient of the nation’s historical consciousness and identity and, although their role today has been considerably reduced, they can still be treated as one of the most vital elements of a region’s culture, shaping its inhabitants’ imagination and knowledge [Odoj, Pec 2000].
Culture Management 2011, Vol 4 (4)
those parts which were of more interest to the listeners at that time would be elaborated upon, whilst at a different moment in time, something else, which was then incomprehensible, would be expounded. In consequence, the entire construction of what was being passed on was constantly being transformed. The end result of these processes was the birth of legends which, despite being grounded in authentic events, constitute an exceptional and unique picture of a region’s social culture.
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3. The ancient tales and legends of Małopolska
32
L
13 “[...] a female first name of Germanic origin […], the diminutive, which arose in Hungary, is Kinga; hence the Polish name, Kinga.”; Wikipedia, http://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kunegunda, translated for the purposes of this article.
seasoned Hungarian miners. Once in Małopolska, she ordered them to seek for salt. In his Parliamentary Sermons (Kazania Sejmowe), dating from 1597, Piotr Skarga, a Jesuit priest, describes how, when at last this precious commodity was found in Bochnia and Wieliczka, “[…] with the first nugget of salt they took, therein was found her ring, upon sight of which and recognising it, Kunegunda13 gave thanks to the Lord God, who, with His deeds, astonishes those who love Him.” [Skarga 1995, p. 48]. Every castle, every manor and every other building of significance to the local community has a legend connected with its history. Niepołomice Castle and its legend of the lotus flower will serve as an instance. It tells the tale of how, in the fourteenth century, King Kazimierz the Great brought a piece of the rock upon which the chapel of St. Gereon of Köln stands on Krakow’s Wawel Hill. Beneath it there lies a chakra known in Hindi as the Lotus Flower. His intent was that this magical stone should become the cornerstone of the castle he was raising in Niepołomice. It lies in the castle’s most ancient section, which is over six hundred and fifty years old and was used by the Germans as an ammunition store during the war. The presence of the chakra has been confirmed by scientific instruments and radiesthesia [Moskal 2004, p. 93]. In the same way, Pieskowa Skala Castle, which rises in splendour on its limestone cliff top, has its legend which, at one and the same time, also explains the origins of its name. The story goes that, in the far and distant Middle Ages, the young and beautiful Dorota, of the noble and venerable Topór family, was wedded to Szafraniec the Elder, castellan of the castle. The girl, naturally enough, had her beloved, a tall knight, full of charm. Yet he was poor and hence her family gave Dorota in marriage to the elderly nobleman. The young knight disguised himself as a lute player and thus attired, arrived at the castle. The elderly Szafraniec admitted him to his young wife’s presence, for she loved to listen to music. Then he rode off to the hunt. But he returned earlier than the young lovers had anticipated and the concert he met with upon his arrival exceeded his wildest expectations. He ordered that the knight–musician be torn apart by horses and meted out a punishment even more cruel upon his faithless wife, locking
egends can be divided into two groups, the first being fantasical legends, telling of supernatural phenomena, spirits, manifestations, devils and haunted places and the second being legends springing from reality, stories and elucidations of historical and cultural events, most frequently bound up with the natural world and landscapes of a given region, historical figures and ancient buildings. The most common of these, and the best preserved, are connected with the origins of place names. Every place has a part–legendary story linked to the roots of its name. A well–known Małopolska tale tells of the founding of Krakow, which owes its name to a legendary ruler who reputedly lived in the latter half of the first millennium. His name was King Krak [Rożek 2004, s. 59]. One of the region’s most famous figures of legend is Saint Kinga and many a place there has its connections with her. The tale has it that, in the mid–thirteenth century, when Bolesław, Duke of Krakow and Sandomierz, asked for the hand of Kinga, daughter of King Béla IV of Hungary, she requested that her father give her neither gold nor jewels as a dowry, but salt, the greatest of Hungary’s treasures and the gift which she wished to present to her new homeland. The king granted her request, giving her the richest mine in Praid, a commune located in Maramureş, part of the historical region of Transylvania. Taking it into her possession, Kinga cast her betrothal ring into the shaft and, at her behest, was accompanied on her journey to her husband’s country by
egends can be divided into two groups, the first being fantasical legends, telling of supernatural phenomena, spirits, manifestations, devils and haunted places and the second being legends springing from reality, stories and elucidations of historical and cultural events, most frequently bound up with the natural world and landscapes of a given region, historical figures and ancient buildings. The most common of these, and the best preserved, are connected with the origins of place names. Every place has a part–legendary story linked to the roots of its name. A well–known Małopolska tale tells of the founding of Krakow, which owes its name to a legendary ruler who reputedly lived in the latter half of the first millennium. His name was King Krak [Rożek 2004, s. 59]. One of the region’s most famous figures of legend is Saint Kinga and many a place there has its connections with her. The tale has it that, in the mid–thirteenth century, when Bolesław, Duke of Krakow and Sandomierz, asked for the hand of Kinga, daughter of King Béla IV of Hungary, she requested that her father give her neither gold nor jewels as a dowry, but salt, the greatest of Hungary’s treasures and the gift which she wished to present to her new homeland. The king granted her request, giving her the richest mine in Praid, a commune located in Maramureş, part of the historical region of Transylvania. Taking it into her possession, Kinga cast her betrothal ring into the shaft and, at her behest, was accompanied on her journey to her husband’s country by
L
13 “[...] a female first name of Germanic origin […], the diminutive, which arose in Hungary, is Kinga; hence the Polish name, Kinga.”; Wikipedia, http://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kunegunda, translated for the purposes of this article.
3. The ancient tales and legends of Małopolska
seasoned Hungarian miners. Once in Małopolska, she ordered them to seek for salt. In his Parliamentary Sermons (Kazania Sejmowe), dating from 1597, Piotr Skarga, a Jesuit priest, describes how, when at last this precious commodity was found in Bochnia and Wieliczka, “[…] with the first nugget of salt they took, therein was found her ring, upon sight of which and recognising it, Kunegunda13 gave thanks to the Lord God, who, with His deeds, astonishes those who love Him.” [Skarga 1995, p. 48]. Every castle, every manor and every other building of significance to the local community has a legend connected with its history. Niepołomice Castle and its legend of the lotus flower will serve as an instance. It tells the tale of how, in the fourteenth century, King Kazimierz the Great brought a piece of the rock upon which the chapel of St. Gereon of Köln stands on Krakow’s Wawel Hill. Beneath it there lies a chakra known in Hindi as the Lotus Flower. His intent was that this magical stone should become the cornerstone of the castle he was raising in Niepołomice. It lies in the castle’s most ancient section, which is over six hundred and fifty years old and was used by the Germans as an ammunition store during the war. The presence of the chakra has been confirmed by scientific instruments and radiesthesia [Moskal 2004, p. 93]. In the same way, Pieskowa Skala Castle, which rises in splendour on its limestone cliff top, has its legend which, at one and the same time, also explains the origins of its name. The story goes that, in the far and distant Middle Ages, the young and beautiful Dorota, of the noble and venerable Topór family, was wedded to Szafraniec the Elder, castellan of the castle. The girl, naturally enough, had her beloved, a tall knight, full of charm. Yet he was poor and hence her family gave Dorota in marriage to the elderly nobleman. The young knight disguised himself as a lute player and thus attired, arrived at the castle. The elderly Szafraniec admitted him to his young wife’s presence, for she loved to listen to music. Then he rode off to the hunt. But he returned earlier than the young lovers had anticipated and the concert he met with upon his arrival exceeded his wildest expectations. He ordered that the knight–musician be torn apart by horses and meted out a punishment even more cruel upon his faithless wife, locking
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those parts which were of more interest to the listeners at that time would be elaborated upon, whilst at a different moment in time, something else, which was then incomprehensible, would be expounded. In consequence, the entire construction of what was being passed on was constantly being transformed. The end result of these processes was the birth of legends which, despite being grounded in authentic events, constitute an exceptional and unique picture of a region’s social culture.
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her up to starve. Yet Dorota was to outlive her husband, and this was thanks to her loyal little dog, who shares his titbits and dainties with her through a crack in the wall. After the death of her pitiless husband, she was set free and, in honour of her most steadfast friend, named the castle Pieskowa Skala, Little Dog’s Cliff. Scholars explain the name otherwise. The cliff upon which the castle stronghold was later erected was said to have belonged to one Piotr, a diminutive of which is Pieszek. It was thus named Skala Pieszkowa (Pieszek’s Cliff) and, with time, Pieszkowa became Pieskowa [Sukertowa–Biedrawina 1928]. In the same way, out–of–the–ordinary places endowed with unique treasures in the form of works of nature also have their legends and stories which tell of their origins. One such legend, very well–known in Małopolska, is connected with Hercules’ Club, which stands at the very heart of the Ojców National Park. A single, solitary limestone outcrop, the slender ‘stem’ upon which it is poised gradually thickens as it rises to a height of almost thirty feet, looking for all the world like a giant club. The most ancient of the legends linked to the spot takes us back to the second half of the first millennium and the times when King Krak ruled. It tells of how the club served the king in his fight with a dragon that had laid waste to the surrounding lands and of how it was then set at the entrance of the Ojców valley as a warning to any other such dragons as might wish to take up their abode there [Sukertowa–Biedrawina 1928]. A similar legend is attached to the birth of the Petrified City near the town of Ciężkowice, to the east of the region. This ancient tale tells of how it was not natural forces which gave rise to the Petrified City, but a curse cast upon the erstwhile inhabitants as a punishment for their immoral lives. Another version has it that it was retribution for a violation of the laws of hospitality committed by the then lord, one Ciężkowicz. It happened one day that a girl arrived at his door. A fugitive, she had fled from enslavement at the hands of the lord of the village of Rożnów. He demanded that she be handed back to him, offering the nearby village of Kąsna in exchange. Betrayed, the girl died of despair and, in punishment, the entire town was turned to stone [Staszewski 1968, p. 100].
As can be seen from the selection given as examples in the foregoing, the legends of Małopolska are deeply rooted not merely in the region’s culture, but also in its history. They are an incomparable source, not only in terms of this history, but also of local traditions, customs and interpersonal relationships. As a result, they constitute a unique aspect of the region’s identity, which, like other kinds of folk tradition and material elements, bears witness to its singularity and which, properly harnessed, can form a basis for building its appeal as a tourist destination.
4. Cultural tourism and regional tourism
W
ładysław Gaworecki points out that the ties between tourism and culture are close–knit and mutual. Tourism preserves, enriches and popularises cultural values, while culture inspires the development of tourism [Gaworecki 2000]. As Andrzej Kowalczyk asserts, a great many sociologists perceive all tourism as being primarily a meeting of different cultures [Kowalczyk 2001]. Tourism can thus be both object and subject in such a relationship. It might therefore be said that, on the one hand, tourism is a product of culture, whilst, on the other, it also has a vital influence on shaping it. This specific relationship can be distinguished in the case of cultural tourism. The perception of cultural tourism in both scholarly research and development–related activities began to undergo visible changes at the end of the 20th century. However, as David Lowenthal has remarked, in the post–modernist era, when ‘heritage’ spans “the centuries from prehistory to last night14”, the range of interests which engage tourists encompasses every possible form of human activity, embracing not only material products, but also something which is difficult to pinpoint, in other words, a non–material culture which is also often called ‘folklore’ [Lowenthal 1998]. In its entry on cultural tourism, the Encyclopedia of Tourism notes that “[…] there is no shortage of attempts to define this phenomenom […]. The majority of definitions suggest learning about others and their way of life as a major element.15
14 Quotation from the English original found at http://tinyurl.com/3aplwgo, p. 3, 29th August 2011. 15 Quotation from the English original found at http://tinyurl.com/6dg466o, p. 125, 31st August 2011.
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15 Quotation from the English original found at http://tinyurl.com/6dg466o, p. 125, 31st August 2011. 14 Quotation from the English original found at http://tinyurl.com/3aplwgo, p. 3, 29th August 2011.
A similar legend is attached to the birth of the Petrified City near the town of Ciężkowice, to the east of the region. This ancient tale tells of how it was not natural forces which gave rise to the Petrified City, but a curse cast upon the erstwhile inhabitants as a punishment for their immoral lives. Another version has it that it was retribution for a violation of the laws of hospitality committed by the then lord, one Ciężkowicz. It happened one day that a girl arrived at his door. A fugitive, she had fled from enslavement at the hands of the lord of the village of Rożnów. He demanded that she be handed back to him, offering the nearby village of Kąsna in exchange. Betrayed, the girl died of despair and, in punishment, the entire town was turned to stone [Staszewski 1968, p. 100]. her up to starve. Yet Dorota was to outlive her husband, and this was thanks to her loyal little dog, who shares his titbits and dainties with her through a crack in the wall. After the death of her pitiless husband, she was set free and, in honour of her most steadfast friend, named the castle Pieskowa Skala, Little Dog’s Cliff. Scholars explain the name otherwise. The cliff upon which the castle stronghold was later erected was said to have belonged to one Piotr, a diminutive of which is Pieszek. It was thus named Skala Pieszkowa (Pieszek’s Cliff) and, with time, Pieszkowa became Pieskowa [Sukertowa–Biedrawina 1928]. In the same way, out–of–the–ordinary places endowed with unique treasures in the form of works of nature also have their legends and stories which tell of their origins. One such legend, very well–known in Małopolska, is connected with Hercules’ Club, which stands at the very heart of the Ojców National Park. A single, solitary limestone outcrop, the slender ‘stem’ upon which it is poised gradually thickens as it rises to a height of almost thirty feet, looking for all the world like a giant club. The most ancient of the legends linked to the spot takes us back to the second half of the first millennium and the times when King Krak ruled. It tells of how the club served the king in his fight with a dragon that had laid waste to the surrounding lands and of how it was then set at the entrance of the Ojców valley as a warning to any other such dragons as might wish to take up their abode there [Sukertowa–Biedrawina 1928].
In its entry on cultural tourism, the Encyclopedia of Tourism notes that “[…] there is no shortage of attempts to define this phenomenom […]. The majority of definitions suggest learning about others and their way of life as a major element.15 ładysław Gaworecki points out that the ties between tourism and culture are close–knit and mutual. Tourism preserves, enriches and popularises cultural values, while culture inspires the development of tourism [Gaworecki 2000]. As Andrzej Kowalczyk asserts, a great many sociologists perceive all tourism as being primarily a meeting of different cultures [Kowalczyk 2001]. Tourism can thus be both object and subject in such a relationship. It might therefore be said that, on the one hand, tourism is a product of culture, whilst, on the other, it also has a vital influence on shaping it. This specific relationship can be distinguished in the case of cultural tourism. The perception of cultural tourism in both scholarly research and development–related activities began to undergo visible changes at the end of the 20th century. However, as David Lowenthal has remarked, in the post–modernist era, when ‘heritage’ spans “the centuries from prehistory to last night14”, the range of interests which engage tourists encompasses every possible form of human activity, embracing not only material products, but also something which is difficult to pinpoint, in other words, a non–material culture which is also often called ‘folklore’ [Lowenthal 1998].
W
4. Cultural tourism and regional tourism As can be seen from the selection given as examples in the foregoing, the legends of Małopolska are deeply rooted not merely in the region’s culture, but also in its history. They are an incomparable source, not only in terms of this history, but also of local traditions, customs and interpersonal relationships. As a result, they constitute a unique aspect of the region’s identity, which, like other kinds of folk tradition and material elements, bears witness to its singularity and which, properly harnessed, can form a basis for building its appeal as a tourist destination.
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Culture Management 2011, Vol 4 (4)
34
Culture Management 2011, Vol 4 (4)
region or micro–region, with sets of shared cultural characteristics which predominate across the entire area, these characteristics being both spiritual, such as religious faiths, folk traditions and so on, and material, as in, for instance, styles of folk architecture, regional cuisine and so forth. Or it may be culturally set apart by other characteristics, such as the ethnic origins of the inhabitants, regional dialects and so on.” [Mikos von Rohrscheidt 2008]. When analysed from the perspective of tourism, this concept of the region primarily underscores its multidimensionality, whereby it is not only material objects that are of vital significance, but also the non–material cultural which is bound up with them and which decides their significance to, and role in, its cultural life.
18 English original, ibid., p. 126.
This article concentrates on one ethnographic region, Małopolska, a region characterised by the great wealth and variety of its folklore, set against a Polish backdrop. The specifics of the region and its folklore are presented, as is the potential for enhancing their promotion in the context of regional tourism. The author focuses in particular on one category of folklore and tradition, namely local tales and legends.
17 Translated from the Polish for the purposes of this article.
5. Survey results
16 Translated from the Polish for the purposes of this article.
I
n order to define what the chances might be of instigating activities related to the undertaking of initiatives involving the use of legends and tales in promoting the region, the level of awareness amongst local authorities and the cultural institutions reporting to them, which is to say arts centres, culture centres and libraries, was first verified. A survey was drawn up with a view to obtaining answers relating to two primary questions, namely what knowledge of local tales and legends the respondents have at their disposal and how conscious they are of both their significance to the region’s cultural heritage and the means by which they can be popularised for the purpose of developing its cultural tourism. The survey was carried out on the basis of a questionnaire and an analysis of good practice as regards using tales and legends in this respect.
n order to define what the chances might be of instigating activities related to the undertaking of initiatives involving the use of legends and tales in promoting the region, the level of awareness amongst local authorities and the cultural institutions reporting to them, which is to say arts centres, culture centres and libraries, was first verified. A survey was drawn up with a view to obtaining answers relating to two primary questions, namely what knowledge of local tales and legends the respondents have at their disposal and how conscious they are of both their significance to the region’s cultural heritage and the means by which they can be popularised for the purpose of developing its cultural tourism. The survey was carried out on the basis of a questionnaire and an analysis of good practice as regards using tales and legends in this respect.
I
[ Jafari 2000]. Such an approach makes it possible to take into account every aspect of culture as understood contemporarily, in other words, associated with visiting historical sites, but actively, inasmuch as the tourist wishes to discover, sense, experience and absorb the ‘local flavour’. Other researchers, including G. Donald Adams and Moya Kneafsey, define cultural tourism as “travel for self–enrichment16”, as well as “a search for knowledge17” (cf. Kneafsey 2000]. In their opinion, the most essential elements of the phenomenom in question are the development, presentation and interpretation of cultural resources. The fruit of these solutions is the following, comprehensive definition of cultural tourism as […] the commercial manifestation of the human desiring to see how others live. It is based on satisfying the demand of the curious tourist to see other peoples in the ‘authentic’ environment and to view the physical manifestations of their lives as expressed in the arts and crafts, music, literature, dance, food and drinks, play, handicrafts, language and ritual18 [ Jafari 2000]. One specific kind of cultural tourism is what is known as ‘regional tourism’, which encompasses travels undertaken for cultural or cognitive motives [Lessa 2010, p. 43]. The purpose here is to discover a specific historical or regional region. A regional tourist travel itinerary should focus to a substantial extent on direct contact with the participants and facilitating a personal experience of the culture in question, as well as broadening their knowledge of the region being visited [ Jessa 2010, p. 39–71]. Labelling a trip as regional, cultural tourism renders it possible to distinguish it from other forms of tourist travel, where the destination may, indeed, be a specific geographical region, but the primary reason for undertaking the trip is relaxation, recreation, sport or entertainment. The notion of an historical or cultural region differs from that of a tourist region in that, in cultural tourism there is a distinct and separate concept of what a region is. “It is an historical region, distinguished on the basis of shared histories and the kinds of ties that arise from them; social ties, ties of custom and tradition, linguistic distinctiveness, building methods and so forth. Or it is a cultural
5. Survey results
16 Translated from the Polish for the purposes of this article.
This article concentrates on one ethnographic region, Małopolska, a region characterised by the great wealth and variety of its folklore, set against a Polish backdrop. The specifics of the region and its folklore are presented, as is the potential for enhancing their promotion in the context of regional tourism. The author focuses in particular on one category of folklore and tradition, namely local tales and legends.
17 Translated from the Polish for the purposes of this article.
region or micro–region, with sets of shared cultural characteristics which predominate across the entire area, these characteristics being both spiritual, such as religious faiths, folk traditions and so on, and material, as in, for instance, styles of folk architecture, regional cuisine and so forth. Or it may be culturally set apart by other characteristics, such as the ethnic origins of the inhabitants, regional dialects and so on.” [Mikos von Rohrscheidt 2008]. When analysed from the perspective of tourism, this concept of the region primarily underscores its multidimensionality, whereby it is not only material objects that are of vital significance, but also the non–material cultural which is bound up with them and which decides their significance to, and role in, its cultural life.
18 English original, ibid., p. 126.
[ Jafari 2000]. Such an approach makes it possible to take into account every aspect of culture as understood contemporarily, in other words, associated with visiting historical sites, but actively, inasmuch as the tourist wishes to discover, sense, experience and absorb the ‘local flavour’. Other researchers, including G. Donald Adams and Moya Kneafsey, define cultural tourism as “travel for self–enrichment16”, as well as “a search for knowledge17” (cf. Kneafsey 2000]. In their opinion, the most essential elements of the phenomenom in question are the development, presentation and interpretation of cultural resources. The fruit of these solutions is the following, comprehensive definition of cultural tourism as […] the commercial manifestation of the human desiring to see how others live. It is based on satisfying the demand of the curious tourist to see other peoples in the ‘authentic’ environment and to view the physical manifestations of their lives as expressed in the arts and crafts, music, literature, dance, food and drinks, play, handicrafts, language and ritual18 [ Jafari 2000]. One specific kind of cultural tourism is what is known as ‘regional tourism’, which encompasses travels undertaken for cultural or cognitive motives [Lessa 2010, p. 43]. The purpose here is to discover a specific historical or regional region. A regional tourist travel itinerary should focus to a substantial extent on direct contact with the participants and facilitating a personal experience of the culture in question, as well as broadening their knowledge of the region being visited [ Jessa 2010, p. 39–71]. Labelling a trip as regional, cultural tourism renders it possible to distinguish it from other forms of tourist travel, where the destination may, indeed, be a specific geographical region, but the primary reason for undertaking the trip is relaxation, recreation, sport or entertainment. The notion of an historical or cultural region differs from that of a tourist region in that, in cultural tourism there is a distinct and separate concept of what a region is. “It is an historical region, distinguished on the basis of shared histories and the kinds of ties that arise from them; social ties, ties of custom and tradition, linguistic distinctiveness, building methods and so forth. Or it is a cultural
Culture Management 2011, Vol 4 (4)
The questionnaire survey was carried out in Małopolska during late March and early April 2011. The questionnaire was e–mailed throughout the region, to every Commune Office and library in places with a population of less than forty thousand. This selection of respondents was dictated by the fact that the rural and urban–rural communes of Małopolska possess very rich resources in terms of non–material cultural heritage. These resources currently see scant use, yet they represent a vital asset that could have an impact on the region’s economical development. At the final count, seventy–five institutions from across the region took part, namely fifty commune offices, fifteen arts and culture centres and ten public libraries. In all, there are one hundred and eighty–two communes in Małopolska; thus, given the modest nature of the trial study, the results cannot be extrapolated for the entire region. Nevertheless, its purpose is to call attention to the problem and indicate the necessity of undertaking wider research in this area. The questionnaire was constructed in four parts. Part 1 dealt with general questions as to the region’s tourist and cultural appeal; Part 2 covered detailed questions regarding local legends and tales; Part 3 consisted of questions relating to the use of tales and legends in shaping the region’s tourist image and Part 4 contained questions in respect of the institutions responsible for promoting the region’s local tales and regions, archiving them and preserving the continuity with which they are handed down. A belief that their commune is attractive in terms of both culture and tourism predominated amongst the respondents, with only four deeming it to be culturally unattractive and with a similar result emerging for the question regarding tourist appeal. All the respondents also indicated that the label of cultural tourism can be used to define any travel where the primary motive is sightseeing and discovering places of historical, artistic and cultural value, which is evidence of the fact that the topic of cultural tourism is not, in itself, unfamiliar to those being surveyed. Asked about the cultural elements most characteristic of their communes, sixty–two respondents mentioned historical architecture, making this the most frequently cited feature. Forty–five respondents listed regional cuisine and forty–five referred to cultural events and festivals. Only twelve respondents made mention of tales and legends as numbering amongst the most characteristic cultural aspects of their region. The respondents also listed the
Culture Management 2011, Vol 4 (4)
cultural elements given in the foregoing as the most attractive to visitors. In answer to the question as to whether tales and legends directly connected with their region exist, all the respondents stated that they do. The most frequently mentioned legends and tales include those linked with the origins of place names and commune names and with distinctive natural features, such as the legend of Hercules Club in the Commune of Sułoszowa, for instance, or that of Kmit’s Rock, in the Commune of Zabierzów, which tells of the suicide of a lovelorn knight. Legends connected with architectural sites also occurred with great frequency, examples of these being the White Lady of Wiśnicki Castle, situated in Nowy Wisnicz and the ghost of Diament Manor in the Commune of Żabno, as did legends about figures of significance to the region, such as the legend of St Kinga’s Ring, linked to the Commune of Bochnia or, from the Commune of Krościenko–nad–Dunajcem, the legend of Janosik, which tells of a mountain bandit who, like Robin Hood, robbed the rich and gave the spoils to the poor. All of the institutions participating in the survey mentioned at least two legends directly linked to their region. The communes listing the most legends of this kind were the Town and Commune of Uzdrowiskowa Muszyna, Krościenko nad Dunajcem, Żabno, Nowy Wiśnicz and Bochnia. This demonstrates that legends are a vital element of the region’s culture, though not initially perceived as such, since the respondents were surprised by the question which addressed the matter in the context of regional cultural heritage. The survey showed that, as an aspect of this heritage, tales and legends are used to no great extent in promoting the region, despite the fact that all the respondents indicated that they could be an effective element in marketing their communes. Only twenty–one of them made mention of using their local tales and legends in promoting tourism in their region. They most frequently comprise an element of the commune’s logo or form a backdrop to parts of the scenarios for local festivals and folk fêtes. Get–togethers with local story–tellers are also organised, as are children’s and young people’s competitions based on their knowledge of local tales, legends and stories. The Communes of Wieliczka, Bochnia, Nowy Wiśnicz and Żabno have also instigated reconstructions of the settings of such tales with a view to enhancing their region’s tourist appeal. Twelve respondents mentioned that elements of legends, often local tales, are used in their com-
35
The questionnaire survey was carried out in Małopolska during late March and early April 2011. The questionnaire was e–mailed throughout the region, to every Commune Office and library in places with a population of less than forty thousand. This selection of respondents was dictated by the fact that the rural and urban–rural communes of Małopolska possess very rich resources in terms of non–material cultural heritage. These resources currently see scant use, yet they represent a vital asset that could have an impact on the region’s economical development. At the final count, seventy–five institutions from across the region took part, namely fifty commune offices, fifteen arts and culture centres and ten public libraries. In all, there are one hundred and eighty–two communes in Małopolska; thus, given the modest nature of the trial study, the results cannot be extrapolated for the entire region. Nevertheless, its purpose is to call attention to the problem and indicate the necessity of undertaking wider research in this area. The questionnaire was constructed in four parts. Part 1 dealt with general questions as to the region’s tourist and cultural appeal; Part 2 covered detailed questions regarding local legends and tales; Part 3 consisted of questions relating to the use of tales and legends in shaping the region’s tourist image and Part 4 contained questions in respect of the institutions responsible for promoting the region’s local tales and regions, archiving them and preserving the continuity with which they are handed down. A belief that their commune is attractive in terms of both culture and tourism predominated amongst the respondents, with only four deeming it to be culturally unattractive and with a similar result emerging for the question regarding tourist appeal. All the respondents also indicated that the label of cultural tourism can be used to define any travel where the primary motive is sightseeing and discovering places of historical, artistic and cultural value, which is evidence of the fact that the topic of cultural tourism is not, in itself, unfamiliar to those being surveyed. Asked about the cultural elements most characteristic of their communes, sixty–two respondents mentioned historical architecture, making this the most frequently cited feature. Forty–five respondents listed regional cuisine and forty–five referred to cultural events and festivals. Only twelve respondents made mention of tales and legends as numbering amongst the most characteristic cultural aspects of their region. The respondents also listed the
35
cultural elements given in the foregoing as the most attractive to visitors. In answer to the question as to whether tales and legends directly connected with their region exist, all the respondents stated that they do. The most frequently mentioned legends and tales include those linked with the origins of place names and commune names and with distinctive natural features, such as the legend of Hercules Club in the Commune of Sułoszowa, for instance, or that of Kmit’s Rock, in the Commune of Zabierzów, which tells of the suicide of a lovelorn knight. Legends connected with architectural sites also occurred with great frequency, examples of these being the White Lady of Wiśnicki Castle, situated in Nowy Wisnicz and the ghost of Diament Manor in the Commune of Żabno, as did legends about figures of significance to the region, such as the legend of St Kinga’s Ring, linked to the Commune of Bochnia or, from the Commune of Krościenko–nad–Dunajcem, the legend of Janosik, which tells of a mountain bandit who, like Robin Hood, robbed the rich and gave the spoils to the poor. All of the institutions participating in the survey mentioned at least two legends directly linked to their region. The communes listing the most legends of this kind were the Town and Commune of Uzdrowiskowa Muszyna, Krościenko nad Dunajcem, Żabno, Nowy Wiśnicz and Bochnia. This demonstrates that legends are a vital element of the region’s culture, though not initially perceived as such, since the respondents were surprised by the question which addressed the matter in the context of regional cultural heritage. The survey showed that, as an aspect of this heritage, tales and legends are used to no great extent in promoting the region, despite the fact that all the respondents indicated that they could be an effective element in marketing their communes. Only twenty–one of them made mention of using their local tales and legends in promoting tourism in their region. They most frequently comprise an element of the commune’s logo or form a backdrop to parts of the scenarios for local festivals and folk fêtes. Get–togethers with local story–tellers are also organised, as are children’s and young people’s competitions based on their knowledge of local tales, legends and stories. The Communes of Wieliczka, Bochnia, Nowy Wiśnicz and Żabno have also instigated reconstructions of the settings of such tales with a view to enhancing their region’s tourist appeal. Twelve respondents mentioned that elements of legends, often local tales, are used in their com-
Culture Management 2011, Vol 4 (4) Culture Management 2011, Vol 4 (4)
four communes indicated that a provision for the nurture and promotion of local folklore, cultural heritage and regional products exists within their development strategy. This indicates that this aspect of the region’s cultural heritage is neglected, despite the fact that, in its non–material form, such as, for instance, regional cuisine and local folk festivals, this same heritage very often constitutes a fundamental element of the regional culture with which it is associated. The cause of this situation can be discerned not only in the lack of know–how and ideas as regards cultivating non–material cultural heritage, but also in the lack of statutory provisions at a national level, where no mention is made in any way whatsoever of non–material historical treasures19. This kind of approach to regional cultural heritage and the classification of relics and mementos of the past places a clear and firm emphasis on the preservation of material artefacts, leaving those which have a spiritual dimension, the non–material, untended and without statutory protection. The final part of the questionnaire also contained a question which addressed local authorities and their initiatives in respect of forms of support for activities connected with the region’s cultural heritage. They indicated that the sources of support most frequently offered were the establishment of a promotional Internet portal where interested institutions and enterprises can publish information about their activities and the possibility of participating in organised local events, where they are able to do the same. However, there is no long–term, crystallised programme for this support, which is by way of being more extemporaneous, created in response to the need of the moment. The remaining respondents, namely the libraries and the arts and culture centres, rated collaboration with the commune’s administrative bodies as average. In particular, and without exception, the respondents cited the insufficiency of the funds allocated cultural activities and the dearth of clear support for local initiatives relating to cultural heritage.
36
mune’s promotional materials and that novelties and souvenirs are created around them. However, fifty–nine respondents, representing the greater part of those being surveyed, indicated that no use whatsoever is made of their local legends in building the commune’s image as an attractive tourist destination. The reasons given for this were various; nineteen respondents cited a lack of ideas as to how to make use of legends, ten listed a dearth of the requisite funds and twenty mentioned a lack of know–how in respect of the possibility of using legends and tales in this regard. The final part of the questionnaire dealt with the institutions responsible for managing the process of preserving the continuity of local tales and legends and promoting them as an element of their region’s cultural heritage. The purpose of the questions set out in that section was to investigate the level of the respondents’ awareness of the scope of their tasks and responsibilities in respect of the protection of cultural heritage, as set out in the relevant legislation, namely the Act on Commune Local Government, of 1990, with further amendments, the Act on the Preservation and Care of Historical Relics, of 2003, with further amendments, and the Act on the Organisation and Running of Cultural Activities, of 1991, with further amendments. Fifty–four respondents, representing the greater part of those being surveyed and including eight libraries, indicated that no institution or organisation responsible for conducting studies of local tales, legends and stories, documenting them, or promoting them, operates in their commune. What is worth emphasising is that the libraries and cultural institutions taking part in the study made no mention of themselves as numbering amongst those responsible for the protection and popularisation of local, regional cultural heritage, despite the fact that the provisions of law impose that obligation upon them. In the same way, non–material cultural heritage, including local tales and legends, is encompassed by neither the communes’ regional development nor their tourism development strategies. Only
19 The legal basis for the preservation of cultural heritage in Poland is the Act on the Preservation and Care of Historical Relics, of 23rd July 2003 (Dz. U. [ Journal of Laws] 2003, No. 163, item 1568), which provides comprehensive regulation in respect of the definition of an historical relic, the preservation and care of these relics, the forms of preservation, the competences of the bodies engaged in the preservation, including national and local government adminstration, the forms of funding for the care of historical relics, the maintenance of records and inventories and so forth. However, according to the act, an historical relic has a clearly material dimension, something which is also emphasised in articles published by the National Heritage Board of Poland (!); “historical relics are elements of cultural heritage constituting material footprints of the past, as well as frequently being both the embodiment of, and bearing witness to, an important concept which has built our identity. They also play a crucial role in shaping a peoplefriendly environment.” (http://www.nid.pl/idm,316,co-to-jest-dziedzictwo-kulturowe-co-to-jest-zabytek.html)
19 The legal basis for the preservation of cultural heritage in Poland is the Act on the Preservation and Care of Historical Relics, of 23rd July 2003 (Dz. U. [ Journal of Laws] 2003, No. 163, item 1568), which provides comprehensive regulation in respect of the definition of an historical relic, the preservation and care of these relics, the forms of preservation, the competences of the bodies engaged in the preservation, including national and local government adminstration, the forms of funding for the care of historical relics, the maintenance of records and inventories and so forth. However, according to the act, an historical relic has a clearly material dimension, something which is also emphasised in articles published by the National Heritage Board of Poland (!); “historical relics are elements of cultural heritage constituting material footprints of the past, as well as frequently being both the embodiment of, and bearing witness to, an important concept which has built our identity. They also play a crucial role in shaping a peoplefriendly environment.” (http://www.nid.pl/idm,316,co-to-jest-dziedzictwo-kulturowe-co-to-jest-zabytek.html)
four communes indicated that a provision for the nurture and promotion of local folklore, cultural heritage and regional products exists within their development strategy. This indicates that this aspect of the region’s cultural heritage is neglected, despite the fact that, in its non–material form, such as, for instance, regional cuisine and local folk festivals, this same heritage very often constitutes a fundamental element of the regional culture with which it is associated. The cause of this situation can be discerned not only in the lack of know–how and ideas as regards cultivating non–material cultural heritage, but also in the lack of statutory provisions at a national level, where no mention is made in any way whatsoever of non–material historical treasures19. This kind of approach to regional cultural heritage and the classification of relics and mementos of the past places a clear and firm emphasis on the preservation of material artefacts, leaving those which have a spiritual dimension, the non–material, untended and without statutory protection. The final part of the questionnaire also contained a question which addressed local authorities and their initiatives in respect of forms of support for activities connected with the region’s cultural heritage. They indicated that the sources of support most frequently offered were the establishment of a promotional Internet portal where interested institutions and enterprises can publish information about their activities and the possibility of participating in organised local events, where they are able to do the same. However, there is no long–term, crystallised programme for this support, which is by way of being more extemporaneous, created in response to the need of the moment. The remaining respondents, namely the libraries and the arts and culture centres, rated collaboration with the commune’s administrative bodies as average. In particular, and without exception, the respondents cited the insufficiency of the funds allocated cultural activities and the dearth of clear support for local initiatives relating to cultural heritage.
36
mune’s promotional materials and that novelties and souvenirs are created around them. However, fifty–nine respondents, representing the greater part of those being surveyed, indicated that no use whatsoever is made of their local legends in building the commune’s image as an attractive tourist destination. The reasons given for this were various; nineteen respondents cited a lack of ideas as to how to make use of legends, ten listed a dearth of the requisite funds and twenty mentioned a lack of know–how in respect of the possibility of using legends and tales in this regard. The final part of the questionnaire dealt with the institutions responsible for managing the process of preserving the continuity of local tales and legends and promoting them as an element of their region’s cultural heritage. The purpose of the questions set out in that section was to investigate the level of the respondents’ awareness of the scope of their tasks and responsibilities in respect of the protection of cultural heritage, as set out in the relevant legislation, namely the Act on Commune Local Government, of 1990, with further amendments, the Act on the Preservation and Care of Historical Relics, of 2003, with further amendments, and the Act on the Organisation and Running of Cultural Activities, of 1991, with further amendments. Fifty–four respondents, representing the greater part of those being surveyed and including eight libraries, indicated that no institution or organisation responsible for conducting studies of local tales, legends and stories, documenting them, or promoting them, operates in their commune. What is worth emphasising is that the libraries and cultural institutions taking part in the study made no mention of themselves as numbering amongst those responsible for the protection and popularisation of local, regional cultural heritage, despite the fact that the provisions of law impose that obligation upon them. In the same way, non–material cultural heritage, including local tales and legends, is encompassed by neither the communes’ regional development nor their tourism development strategies. Only
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6. Good practice in the promotion and popularisation of tales and legends.
A
tourist infrastructure which is generally wanting, a particular weakness in respect of accommodation and gastronomy, and insufficient tourist information are the main problems with which the rural communes in the Małopolskie voivodship are grappling [Zmyślony 2008]. This means that they are not making full use of the potential for developing tourism in their regions. Małopolska has abundant cultural wealth to offer, not only in Krakow, but also in its rural areas lying far from the madding crowds of the larger urban centres. However, in order both to draw tourists in their hundreds and engage the inhabitants more extensively, what is essential is both the considerable expansion and intensification of promotional activities and the enrichment of the cultural offer itself. These activities do not necessarily have to be connected with large investments in either the cultural or the tourist infrastructure. What is of the essence, however, is the understanding and skilful use of local cultural resources and, in particular, of the non–material cultural heritage. This section of the article presents selected projects relating to the popularisation of tales and legends and their application in developing regional tourism. The projects constitute good practice in respect of making advantageous use of the cultural heritage of tales and legends in Poland. In the light of good practice, the primary information and educational activities aiming to popularise local folklore include regional education carried out in schools and local cultural institutions alike, as well as initiatives conducted on a wider scale in the form of digital archives and libraries where various kinds of materials presenting the local folk culture are available. The aim of these activities is not simply to engage the interest of a wider public in the folk culture and thus in their region, but also to work from ‘the bottom up’, in other words, conduct educational activities at the local level. For the cultural and tourist potential of tales and legends to be used effectively, their worth must first be perceived by the local community, which is the most important vehicle, and by the local authorities, who are obliged to
provide institutional support for the process of preserving the continuity with which the region’s cultural heritage is passed onward. Activities of this kind are often undertaken by local public libraries. An initiative launched by the Municipal and Commune Public Library in Żabno (Miejsko–Gminna Biblioteka Publiczna w Żabnie) serves as a case in point. Entitled The Legends of Żabno, the project, which is co–funded by the Ministry of Culture and National Heritage, set out to gather and compile a collection of local legends. It was addressed to the young people in the Commune of Żabno and consisted of rediscovering and recording the legends of the region. It aimed, first and foremost, to spur young people to dig into the history and culture of their ‘little homeland’ and stimulate their awareness of their own cultural identity. By taking part in the project’s workshops, they had the opportunity not only to discover the history of their corner of the earth, but also to delve into the wellspring of local traditions. In addition, the wealth of the legends collected was intended to demonstrate to the young participants that they are in possession of a profusion of cultural resources which, properly used, can bring about the cultural development of their commune. The project also served to breathe new life into the vanishing legends of Żabno and its environs, as well as providing for them to be documented and popularising the region’s cultural tradition, including the spread of literature.20 The work of the Storyteller Museum (Muzeum Bajek, Baśni i Opowieści) in Konstancin–Jeziora is another of the most interesting initiatives aimed at promoting and preserving traditional storytelling. It gathers and holds unique collections of oral traditions, not only from Poland, but from all over the world. It also engages in activities intended to prevent oral traditions and intangible heritage from becoming extinct. It works toward its aims not only through typical museum activities, but also by organising the Art of Storytelling Festival and running workshops entitled Creating the Word, designed to teach this ancient form of expression, which today is almost forgotten. What the museum wishes to achieve by these means is the popularisation of the art of storytelling as a part of regional folklore, as integral to it as regional cuisine, dance, folk music and handicrafts. In the opinion of the museum’s founders,
20 Further information regarding the project can be found on the Municipal and Commune Public Library in Żabno website at http:// www.bibliotekazabno.tarman.pl
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20 Further information regarding the project can be found on the Municipal and Commune Public Library in Żabno website at http:// www.bibliotekazabno.tarman.pl
tourist infrastructure which is generally wanting, a particular weakness in respect of accommodation and gastronomy, and insufficient tourist information are the main problems with which the rural communes in the Małopolskie voivodship are grappling [Zmyślony 2008]. This means that they are not making full use of the potential for developing tourism in their regions. Małopolska has abundant cultural wealth to offer, not only in Krakow, but also in its rural areas lying far from the madding crowds of the larger urban centres. However, in order both to draw tourists in their hundreds and engage the inhabitants more extensively, what is essential is both the considerable expansion and intensification of promotional activities and the enrichment of the cultural offer itself. These activities do not necessarily have to be connected with large investments in either the cultural or the tourist infrastructure. What is of the essence, however, is the understanding and skilful use of local cultural resources and, in particular, of the non–material cultural heritage. This section of the article presents selected projects relating to the popularisation of tales and legends and their application in developing regional tourism. The projects constitute good practice in respect of making advantageous use of the cultural heritage of tales and legends in Poland. In the light of good practice, the primary information and educational activities aiming to popularise local folklore include regional education carried out in schools and local cultural institutions alike, as well as initiatives conducted on a wider scale in the form of digital archives and libraries where various kinds of materials presenting the local folk culture are available. The aim of these activities is not simply to engage the interest of a wider public in the folk culture and thus in their region, but also to work from ‘the bottom up’, in other words, conduct educational activities at the local level. For the cultural and tourist potential of tales and legends to be used effectively, their worth must first be perceived by the local community, which is the most important vehicle, and by the local authorities, who are obliged to
A
6. Good practice in the promotion and popularisation of tales and legends.
provide institutional support for the process of preserving the continuity with which the region’s cultural heritage is passed onward. Activities of this kind are often undertaken by local public libraries. An initiative launched by the Municipal and Commune Public Library in Żabno (Miejsko–Gminna Biblioteka Publiczna w Żabnie) serves as a case in point. Entitled The Legends of Żabno, the project, which is co–funded by the Ministry of Culture and National Heritage, set out to gather and compile a collection of local legends. It was addressed to the young people in the Commune of Żabno and consisted of rediscovering and recording the legends of the region. It aimed, first and foremost, to spur young people to dig into the history and culture of their ‘little homeland’ and stimulate their awareness of their own cultural identity. By taking part in the project’s workshops, they had the opportunity not only to discover the history of their corner of the earth, but also to delve into the wellspring of local traditions. In addition, the wealth of the legends collected was intended to demonstrate to the young participants that they are in possession of a profusion of cultural resources which, properly used, can bring about the cultural development of their commune. The project also served to breathe new life into the vanishing legends of Żabno and its environs, as well as providing for them to be documented and popularising the region’s cultural tradition, including the spread of literature.20 The work of the Storyteller Museum (Muzeum Bajek, Baśni i Opowieści) in Konstancin–Jeziora is another of the most interesting initiatives aimed at promoting and preserving traditional storytelling. It gathers and holds unique collections of oral traditions, not only from Poland, but from all over the world. It also engages in activities intended to prevent oral traditions and intangible heritage from becoming extinct. It works toward its aims not only through typical museum activities, but also by organising the Art of Storytelling Festival and running workshops entitled Creating the Word, designed to teach this ancient form of expression, which today is almost forgotten. What the museum wishes to achieve by these means is the popularisation of the art of storytelling as a part of regional folklore, as integral to it as regional cuisine, dance, folk music and handicrafts. In the opinion of the museum’s founders,
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Culture Management 2011, Vol 4 (4)
implemented on a smaller scale by libraries, arts centres and culture centres, as well as by local non–governmental organisations working in the sphere of cultural heritage. Yet numerous institutions and local government units whose attention was drawn to the matter by the questionnaire presented earlier in this article still either fail to discern the potential lying dormant in tales and legends or continue to suffer from a dearth of ideas as to how to turn them to good use. For this reason, it is imperative that good practice be widely promoted in such a way as to constitute an inspiration to others interested in launching similar projects.
23 Further information regarding the project can be found at http://www.zywezamki.pl/
7. Reflections
22 Zob. informacje na temat projektu można znaleźć na stronie WWW Małopolskiego Instytut Kultury http://www.mik.krakow.pl/ pierscien-sw-kingi.html
T
21 Further information regarding the project can be found on the Storyteller Museum website at http://www.storytellermuseum.org/
he study carried out demonstrates that the potential for tourism that lies dormant in local tales and legends is discerned and that they are perceived as an effective marketing tool which can serve to build the region’s image as an attractive tourist destination and place of cultural appeal. However, there is a lack of ideas as to how these resources can be used. Few communes in Małopolska have undertaken to put marketing activities based on the use of tales and legends into practice, since, as compared to other kinds of local folklore and tradition, such as handicrafts, regional cuisine, folk songs and folk dances, they are by far and away the least tangible and visible element of the region’s cultural heritage. The study also revealed a disturbing manifestation; a sense of responsibility for the cultural heritage of tales and legends is lacking on the part of institutions which have a statutory obligation in that respect. As many as fifty–four of the respondents stated that there is no institution responsible the preservation and popularisation of the heritage of tales and legends and stories operating in their commune. This is despite the fact that, in accordance with the law, the obligation to preserve local cultural heritage rests with the local governments in the communes and the cultural institutions reporting to them. This problem might arise from a lack of awareness
he study carried out demonstrates that the potential for tourism that lies dormant in local tales and legends is discerned and that they are perceived as an effective marketing tool which can serve to build the region’s image as an attractive tourist destination and place of cultural appeal. However, there is a lack of ideas as to how these resources can be used. Few communes in Małopolska have undertaken to put marketing activities based on the use of tales and legends into practice, since, as compared to other kinds of local folklore and tradition, such as handicrafts, regional cuisine, folk songs and folk dances, they are by far and away the least tangible and visible element of the region’s cultural heritage. The study also revealed a disturbing manifestation; a sense of responsibility for the cultural heritage of tales and legends is lacking on the part of institutions which have a statutory obligation in that respect. As many as fifty–four of the respondents stated that there is no institution responsible the preservation and popularisation of the heritage of tales and legends and stories operating in their commune. This is despite the fact that, in accordance with the law, the obligation to preserve local cultural heritage rests with the local governments in the communes and the cultural institutions reporting to them. This problem might arise from a lack of awareness
legends do, after all, bear witness to a region’s uniqueness and comprise a crucial element of its cultural identity.21 A project entitled St. Kinga’s Ring was implemented by the Małpolska Institute of Culture (Małopolski Instytut Kultury), together with local partners, namely cultural institutions, local authorities and private enterprises. It aimed to create an attractive tourism and culture offer addressed to the inhabitants of Małopolska and visitors from outside the region alike. Created on the basis of the legend of St. Kinga, it is an annual event held in an number of places across Małpolska, including Bochnia, Krościenko nad Dunajcem, Dębno and Wieliczka and takes the form of fun activities and workshops based on the medieval legend and designed to give the residents of the region a sense of the daily lives of its inhabitants in times gone by. The role played by the popular legend of St. Kinga in the initiative became the inspiration to create a more extensive cultural and historical project which has become a permanent feature of the region’s cultural tourism offer.22 Yet another interesting initiative is the Living Castles project run by the Małpolska Tourism Organisation. On the one hand, it aims to popularise cultural tourism in the region, whilst, on the other, it sets out to familiarise the region’s inhabitants with the history and legends connected with places that are unique to it; its castles and manor houses. Eleven castles in Małopolska are currently involved in the project, including Lanckorona Castle, Dębno Castle, Niepołomice Castle and Wieliczka Castle and every year they organise a programme of outdoor events set against a backdrop of local tales and legends. The project enjoys a great deal of popularity in the region and the activities carried out under its auspices are being steadily extended by the creation of educational offers for children and young people, workshops and other events held throughout the year.23 The initiatives and projects connected with local tales and legends presented here are no more than a selection of the most popular programmes of this nature being run in Małopolska. There are also a great many such local initiatives,
T
21 Further information regarding the project can be found on the Storyteller Museum website at http://www.storytellermuseum.org/
7. Reflections
22 Zob. informacje na temat projektu można znaleźć na stronie WWW Małopolskiego Instytut Kultury http://www.mik.krakow.pl/ pierscien-sw-kingi.html
implemented on a smaller scale by libraries, arts centres and culture centres, as well as by local non–governmental organisations working in the sphere of cultural heritage. Yet numerous institutions and local government units whose attention was drawn to the matter by the questionnaire presented earlier in this article still either fail to discern the potential lying dormant in tales and legends or continue to suffer from a dearth of ideas as to how to turn them to good use. For this reason, it is imperative that good practice be widely promoted in such a way as to constitute an inspiration to others interested in launching similar projects.
23 Further information regarding the project can be found at http://www.zywezamki.pl/
legends do, after all, bear witness to a region’s uniqueness and comprise a crucial element of its cultural identity.21 A project entitled St. Kinga’s Ring was implemented by the Małpolska Institute of Culture (Małopolski Instytut Kultury), together with local partners, namely cultural institutions, local authorities and private enterprises. It aimed to create an attractive tourism and culture offer addressed to the inhabitants of Małopolska and visitors from outside the region alike. Created on the basis of the legend of St. Kinga, it is an annual event held in an number of places across Małpolska, including Bochnia, Krościenko nad Dunajcem, Dębno and Wieliczka and takes the form of fun activities and workshops based on the medieval legend and designed to give the residents of the region a sense of the daily lives of its inhabitants in times gone by. The role played by the popular legend of St. Kinga in the initiative became the inspiration to create a more extensive cultural and historical project which has become a permanent feature of the region’s cultural tourism offer.22 Yet another interesting initiative is the Living Castles project run by the Małpolska Tourism Organisation. On the one hand, it aims to popularise cultural tourism in the region, whilst, on the other, it sets out to familiarise the region’s inhabitants with the history and legends connected with places that are unique to it; its castles and manor houses. Eleven castles in Małopolska are currently involved in the project, including Lanckorona Castle, Dębno Castle, Niepołomice Castle and Wieliczka Castle and every year they organise a programme of outdoor events set against a backdrop of local tales and legends. The project enjoys a great deal of popularity in the region and the activities carried out under its auspices are being steadily extended by the creation of educational offers for children and young people, workshops and other events held throughout the year.23 The initiatives and projects connected with local tales and legends presented here are no more than a selection of the most popular programmes of this nature being run in Małopolska. There are also a great many such local initiatives,
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that tales and legends are just as integral a part of a region’s non–material cultural heritage as are its folk handicrafts, local cuisine, music and dance. It is an attitude which might well lead to the tales’ and legends’ becoming extinct as a result of the lack of a ongoing programme dedicated to preserving the continuity with which they are handed down through educational activities, documentation or promotion. Every respondent acknowledged that legends and tales directly connected with their commune do exist, be they linked to elements of the landscape or nature, or to figures of significance to the region. However, in the majority of cases, they are not perceived as an element of sufficient value to warrant their being put to use in building the commune’s image as an attractive tourist destination and place of cultural appeal. Legends and tales are perceived as a part of the inhabitants daily lives and not as something unique and exceptional. With their unique, intangible character, tales and legends are a part of local folklore which is difficult first to grasp and then to use in promoting the region. In both the questionnaire surveys and the interviews which followed them, the respondents demonstrated a dearth of ideas as to how to make good use of this potential. On the basis of the study, it can be concluded that the first step toward the effective and cognisant use of tales and legends in a regional promotional strategy is to tackle the lack of knowledge in the institutions responsible for their preservation and popularisation, which is to say libraries, cultural institutions and local authorities. This would entail increasing their awareness not only of their tasks, but also of the value of tales and legends themselves as a crucial element of the region’s cultural identity. Only then will it prove possible to start designing and implementing effective projects for their preservation and popularisation.
Literature: Buczkowska K., (2008). Turystyka kulturowa. Przewodnik metodyczny [Cultural Tourism. A Methodological Guide], Poznań. Buczkowska K., (2009). Turysta kulturowy – klient nietuzinkowy [Cultural Tourism. The Uncommon Customer [in:] Stasiak A. (ed.), 2009, Kultura i Turystyka – wspólnie zyskać, Culture and Tourism. A Profit Shared, Łódź, Published by WSTH.
Culture Management 2011, Vol 4 (4)
8. Conclusion
I
n recent years, cultural tourism has taken on an ever–increasing significance. As Joanna Małek emphasises, at the same time, it is more powerfully linked to local development than nature is [Małek, e–doc.]. In planning its development, the potential dangers should not be forgotten. Cultural heritage, particulary in its non–material manifestations, is highly sensitive. It demands a balanced preservation which, primarily, will ensure the continuity with which it is handed onward. When deciding to sell a non–material tourist attraction, what should be taken into account is that, contrary to material relics, it is an non– renewable resource, which is why it is essential to endeavour, by means of skilful management, not to allow its excessive exploitation. Non–material cultural heritage, of which stories and legends are a manifestation, has a great deal of potential for tourism. When properly used, it can provide a vital stimulation to a region’s economic growth. The particular value of this kind of heritage is also inherent in the fact that it has an impact on the region’s social development by building the cultural identity of its inhabitants. However, as this article has emphasized, the first step toward the effective use of non–material cultural resources is to become aware of their worth. It is often the case that the heirs to a rich cultural heritage will themselves not realize what it is that they have inherited. The postulate that its promotion be addressed to tourists and the local community alike would thus seem to be a pertinent one [Kneafsey 2000, p. 35–50]. At the same time, it should not be forgotten that ignorance may not only render it impossible to put this resource to advantageous use, but might well also lead to its destruction.
Dobkiewiczowa, K. (1988). Drogocenne wiano. Zbiór legend o błogosławionej Kindze księżnie polskiej, patronce górników, obrończyni wiary, matce ludu polskiego w 700 rocznicę śmierci [The Precious Marriage Portion. A Collection of Legends about the Blesséd Kinga, Polish Duchess, Patroness of Miners, Defender of the Faith and Mother of the Polish People. On the 700th Anniversary of her Death] Katowice, Księgarnia Św. Jacka [St. Jacek’s Bookshop].
39
Dobkiewiczowa, K. (1988). Drogocenne wiano. Zbiór legend o błogosławionej Kindze księżnie polskiej, patronce górników, obrończyni wiary, matce ludu polskiego w 700 rocznicę śmierci [The Precious Marriage Portion. A Collection of Legends about the Blesséd Kinga, Polish Duchess, Patroness of Miners, Defender of the Faith and Mother of the Polish People. On the 700th Anniversary of her Death] Katowice, Księgarnia Św. Jacka [St. Jacek’s Bookshop].
Buczkowska K., (2008). Turystyka kulturowa. Przewodnik metodyczny [Cultural Tourism. A Methodological Guide], Poznań. Buczkowska K., (2009). Turysta kulturowy – klient nietuzinkowy [Cultural Tourism. The Uncommon Customer [in:] Stasiak A. (ed.), 2009, Kultura i Turystyka – wspólnie zyskać, Culture and Tourism. A Profit Shared, Łódź, Published by WSTH.
Non–material cultural heritage, of which stories and legends are a manifestation, has a great deal of potential for tourism. When properly used, it can provide a vital stimulation to a region’s economic growth. The particular value of this kind of heritage is also inherent in the fact that it has an impact on the region’s social development by building the cultural identity of its inhabitants. However, as this article has emphasized, the first step toward the effective use of non–material cultural resources is to become aware of their worth. It is often the case that the heirs to a rich cultural heritage will themselves not realize what it is that they have inherited. The postulate that its promotion be addressed to tourists and the local community alike would thus seem to be a pertinent one [Kneafsey 2000, p. 35–50]. At the same time, it should not be forgotten that ignorance may not only render it impossible to put this resource to advantageous use, but might well also lead to its destruction.
that tales and legends are just as integral a part of a region’s non–material cultural heritage as are its folk handicrafts, local cuisine, music and dance. It is an attitude which might well lead to the tales’ and legends’ becoming extinct as a result of the lack of a ongoing programme dedicated to preserving the continuity with which they are handed down through educational activities, documentation or promotion. Every respondent acknowledged that legends and tales directly connected with their commune do exist, be they linked to elements of the landscape or nature, or to figures of significance to the region. However, in the majority of cases, they are not perceived as an element of sufficient value to warrant their being put to use in building the commune’s image as an attractive tourist destination and place of cultural appeal. Legends and tales are perceived as a part of the inhabitants daily lives and not as something unique and exceptional. With their unique, intangible character, tales and legends are a part of local folklore which is difficult first to grasp and then to use in promoting the region. In both the questionnaire surveys and the interviews which followed them, the respondents demonstrated a dearth of ideas as to how to make good use of this potential. On the basis of the study, it can be concluded that the first step toward the effective and cognisant use of tales and legends in a regional promotional strategy is to tackle the lack of knowledge in the institutions responsible for their preservation and popularisation, which is to say libraries, cultural institutions and local authorities. This would entail increasing their awareness not only of their tasks, but also of the value of tales and legends themselves as a crucial element of the region’s cultural identity. Only then will it prove possible to start designing and implementing effective projects for their preservation and popularisation.
Literature:
n recent years, cultural tourism has taken on an ever–increasing significance. As Joanna Małek emphasises, at the same time, it is more powerfully linked to local development than nature is [Małek, e–doc.]. In planning its development, the potential dangers should not be forgotten. Cultural heritage, particulary in its non–material manifestations, is highly sensitive. It demands a balanced preservation which, primarily, will ensure the continuity with which it is handed onward. When deciding to sell a non–material tourist attraction, what should be taken into account is that, contrary to material relics, it is an non– renewable resource, which is why it is essential to endeavour, by means of skilful management, not to allow its excessive exploitation.
I
8. Conclusion
Odoj, G.; Pec, A. (2000). Dziedzictwo kulturowe. Edukacja regionalna [Cultural Heritage. Regional Education], Warszawa, Alex. Ogrodowska B. (2000). Zwyczaje, obrzędy i tradycje w Polsce. Mały słownik [Customs, rituals and traditions in Poland. A Concise Dictionary], Warszawa. Pawlikowska–Wójcicka, A. (2005). Edukacja regionalna, Małopolska (Regional Education. Małopolska), Kraków, Centrum Doskonalenia Nauczycieli [In– Service Teacher Training Centre]. Pokropek M., (1978). Atlas Sztuki Ludowej i folkloru w Polsce [An Atlas of Folk Art and Folklore in Poland], Warszawa. Rożek, M. (2005). Kraków Magiczny [Magical Krakow], Kraków, Verso. Skarga, P. (1995). Kazania sejmowe [Parliamentary Sermons], Wrocław; Kraków: Zakład Narodowy im. Ossolińskich – Wydawnictwo [Published by the Ossolineum]. Sławiński, J. ed. (1999). Podręczny słownik terminów literackich [A Handy Dictionary of Literary Terms], Warszawa, Open. Staszewski, J. (1968). Mały słownik: pochodzenie i znaczenie nazw geograficznych [A Concise Dictionary of the Origins and Meanings of Place Names], Warszawa, Wiedza Powszechna. Sukertowa–Biedrawina, E. (1998). Legendy nad prądnikowe. [Legends of the Pradnik River], Warszawa: PTK. Ust. o ochronie zabytków i opiece nad zabytkami z 2003 z późn. zm. [The Act on the Preservation and Care of Historical Relics, of 2003, with further amendments]. Ust. o organizowaniu i prowadzeniu działalności kulturalnej z 1991 z późn. zm. (The Act on the Organisation and Running of Cultural Activities, of 1991, with further amendments) Ust. o samorządzie gminnym z 1990 z późn. zm. [The Act on Commune Local Government] Zmyślony, M. et al. (2008). Kierunki Rozwoju Turystyki dla Województwa Małopolskiego na lata 2008–2013 (Directions in the Development of Tourism for the Małopolskie Voivodship fromn 2008 to 2013 [e–doc.] http://www.malopolskie.pl/Pliki/2008/Kierunki.pdf [retrieved: 22.04.2011].
Culture Management 2011, Vol 4 (4)
Giaccardi, E. (2006). Collective Storytelling and Social Creativity in the Virtual Museum: A Case Study, Design Issues, 22:3, summer 2006, pp. 29–41. Jafari, J. (2000). Encyclopedia of Tourism. London, Routledge. Jarv, R. (2010). Fairy Tales and Tourism Trips. Fabula, Vol. 51, Issue 3–4, p. 281–294. Jessa, M. (2010). Specyfika i znaczenie folkloru łowickiego w turystyce regionalnej, Turystyka kulturowa [The Specifics and Significance of the Folklore of the Łowicz Region in Regional Tourism, Cultural Tourism], No. 10–12/2010, p. 39–71). Jędrysiak T., (2008). Turystyka kulturowa [Cultural Tourism], Warszawa, PWE. Kneafsey, M. (2000) Tourism, place identities and social relations in the rural European periphery. European Urban and Regional Studies, 7 (1): 35–50. Kopaliński, W. (2011). Słownik mitów i tradycji kultury [A Dictionary of Myth and Cultural Traditions], Warszawa, Rytm. Kowalczyk A. (2001). Geografia turyzmu [The Geography of Tourism], Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN [Polish Scientific Publishers]. Krawczyk–Wasilewska V. (1979) Wprowadzenie do folklorystyki [An Introduction to Folklore], Łódź. Krawczyk–Wasilewska V. (1986). Współczesna wiedza o folklorze [Contemporary Knowledge of Folklore], Warszawa. Krzysztofowicz–Kozakowska S. (1972) O sztuce ludowej w Polsce [On Folk Art in Poland], Warszawa. Lowenthal, D. (1998). The Heritage Crusade and the Spoils of History, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. Małek, J. (2003). Turystyka kulturowa jako czynnik rozwoju lokalnego [Cultural Toursim as a Factor of Local Development [e–doc.], www.wgsr.uw.edu.pl/pub/ uploads/pis03/malek.pdf [retrieved: 30.04.2011]. Mikos von Rohrscheidt, A. (2008). Turystyka kulturowa: fenomen, potencjał, perspektywie [Cultural Tourism. The Phenomenon, the Potential and the Prospects], Gniezno, GWSHM Milenium. Moskal, K. (2004). Zamki w dziejach Polski i Słowacji między Wisłą a Hornadem [Castles in the History of Poland and Slovakia. Between the Vistula and the Hornád], Nowy Sącz, Wydawnictwo Fundacja. Noel, S.; Van den Branden, E. (2009). Cultural tourism storytelling in Flanders: the story behind the stories http://www.steunpunttoerisme.be/main/publicaties
Culture Management 2011, Vol 4 (4)
40
Odoj, G.; Pec, A. (2000). Dziedzictwo kulturowe. Edukacja regionalna [Cultural Heritage. Regional Education], Warszawa, Alex. Ogrodowska B. (2000). Zwyczaje, obrzędy i tradycje w Polsce. Mały słownik [Customs, rituals and traditions in Poland. A Concise Dictionary], Warszawa. Pawlikowska–Wójcicka, A. (2005). Edukacja regionalna, Małopolska (Regional Education. Małopolska), Kraków, Centrum Doskonalenia Nauczycieli [In– Service Teacher Training Centre]. Pokropek M., (1978). Atlas Sztuki Ludowej i folkloru w Polsce [An Atlas of Folk Art and Folklore in Poland], Warszawa. Rożek, M. (2005). Kraków Magiczny [Magical Krakow], Kraków, Verso. Skarga, P. (1995). Kazania sejmowe [Parliamentary Sermons], Wrocław; Kraków: Zakład Narodowy im. Ossolińskich – Wydawnictwo [Published by the Ossolineum]. Sławiński, J. ed. (1999). Podręczny słownik terminów literackich [A Handy Dictionary of Literary Terms], Warszawa, Open. Staszewski, J. (1968). Mały słownik: pochodzenie i znaczenie nazw geograficznych [A Concise Dictionary of the Origins and Meanings of Place Names], Warszawa, Wiedza Powszechna. Sukertowa–Biedrawina, E. (1998). Legendy nad prądnikowe. [Legends of the Pradnik River], Warszawa: PTK. Ust. o ochronie zabytków i opiece nad zabytkami z 2003 z późn. zm. [The Act on the Preservation and Care of Historical Relics, of 2003, with further amendments]. Ust. o organizowaniu i prowadzeniu działalności kulturalnej z 1991 z późn. zm. (The Act on the Organisation and Running of Cultural Activities, of 1991, with further amendments) Ust. o samorządzie gminnym z 1990 z późn. zm. [The Act on Commune Local Government] Zmyślony, M. et al. (2008). Kierunki Rozwoju Turystyki dla Województwa Małopolskiego na lata 2008–2013 (Directions in the Development of Tourism for the Małopolskie Voivodship fromn 2008 to 2013 [e–doc.] http://www.malopolskie.pl/Pliki/2008/Kierunki.pdf [retrieved: 22.04.2011].
40
Giaccardi, E. (2006). Collective Storytelling and Social Creativity in the Virtual Museum: A Case Study, Design Issues, 22:3, summer 2006, pp. 29–41. Jafari, J. (2000). Encyclopedia of Tourism. London, Routledge. Jarv, R. (2010). Fairy Tales and Tourism Trips. Fabula, Vol. 51, Issue 3–4, p. 281–294. Jessa, M. (2010). Specyfika i znaczenie folkloru łowickiego w turystyce regionalnej, Turystyka kulturowa [The Specifics and Significance of the Folklore of the Łowicz Region in Regional Tourism, Cultural Tourism], No. 10–12/2010, p. 39–71). Jędrysiak T., (2008). Turystyka kulturowa [Cultural Tourism], Warszawa, PWE. Kneafsey, M. (2000) Tourism, place identities and social relations in the rural European periphery. European Urban and Regional Studies, 7 (1): 35–50. Kopaliński, W. (2011). Słownik mitów i tradycji kultury [A Dictionary of Myth and Cultural Traditions], Warszawa, Rytm. Kowalczyk A. (2001). Geografia turyzmu [The Geography of Tourism], Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN [Polish Scientific Publishers]. Krawczyk–Wasilewska V. (1979) Wprowadzenie do folklorystyki [An Introduction to Folklore], Łódź. Krawczyk–Wasilewska V. (1986). Współczesna wiedza o folklorze [Contemporary Knowledge of Folklore], Warszawa. Krzysztofowicz–Kozakowska S. (1972) O sztuce ludowej w Polsce [On Folk Art in Poland], Warszawa. Lowenthal, D. (1998). The Heritage Crusade and the Spoils of History, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. Małek, J. (2003). Turystyka kulturowa jako czynnik rozwoju lokalnego [Cultural Toursim as a Factor of Local Development [e–doc.], www.wgsr.uw.edu.pl/pub/ uploads/pis03/malek.pdf [retrieved: 30.04.2011]. Mikos von Rohrscheidt, A. (2008). Turystyka kulturowa: fenomen, potencjał, perspektywie [Cultural Tourism. The Phenomenon, the Potential and the Prospects], Gniezno, GWSHM Milenium. Moskal, K. (2004). Zamki w dziejach Polski i Słowacji między Wisłą a Hornadem [Castles in the History of Poland and Slovakia. Between the Vistula and the Hornád], Nowy Sącz, Wydawnictwo Fundacja. Noel, S.; Van den Branden, E. (2009). Cultural tourism storytelling in Flanders: the story behind the stories http://www.steunpunttoerisme.be/main/publicaties
41
Culture Management 2011, Vol 4 (4)
Mission of media organizations in social and cultural environment Justyna Przyborowicz
Public media play an important role in creating a culturally aware civil society. Creating a vision, adequate to public expectations, is necessary for the public media organizations to be able to realize their priority objectives. The activities of public media follow the changes that occur in a social and cultural environment, whereas media organizations themselves can have real impact on their environment. In this paper, I have presented this relationship, taking into account the legislation pursuant to the realization of the mission of the Polish media. The goal of this paper is to identify the features of the mission of the public media, in their cultural and social environment.
1. The character of public media
P
ublic broadcasters have special duties but they also enjoy certain privileges, such as subscription revenues and the right to broadcast programmes without special concessions. Art. 26, paragraph 1–3 [Act of Parliament on radio and television broadcast 1992] defines the status of public radio and television stations, which should always operate as one–man joint stock company, owned by the State Treasury. The legislator has imposed a wide range of special tasks on the public media, among them the creation and dissemination of nationwide, regional programmes and programmes for their consumers resident abroad, in Polish and other languages, and other programmes that meet the democratic, social and cultural needs of local communities. Public media should also realize tasks relating to providing support for the artistic, literary, scientific and educational initiatives. They should popularize knowledge in the Polish language. Importantly, both national and regional media should respond to the needs of national
Culture Management 2011, Vol 4 (4)
and ethnic minorities and the communities that speak regional dialects, and so they should also broadcast news programmes in the languages spoken by ethnic and national minorities and in the regional dialects. According to Article 21, paragraph 1 [ibidem] a public broadcaster should also create and make available educational programmes for Polish diasporas and Poles living abroad. The concept of public media is also linked with an ethical imperative. The significance of public broadcasters can be presented on three definitional levels [Napoli, Albarran, Chan–Olmsted, Wirtin ed. 2006, p. 276]: conceptual, operational and applicatory. On the broadest, conceptual level, the debate focuses on the concept of the determinism of public interest. On the operational level, it naturally consists of conceptual work and providing for the public interest. The last, applicatory level focuses on the debate on the most important values and principles relating to the operational level, which translates into specific forms of behaviour and legal regulations. Apart from the programme–related work, public media’s tasks include the creation and dissemination of specialised programmes that require concessions [ibidem], building and running the broadcasting and base transceiver radio and television stations, disseminating text transmissions, working on new techniques for creating and broadcasting radio and television programmes. It also involves the manufacture, service and commercial work relating to audiovisual programmes, including their export and import. Transmissions must be missionary in character. The Polish legislator has also specified a framework for transmitted programmes. Further to the Act of Parliament on radio and television broadcast, 1992, these are some of the obligations of the programmes that can be broadcast in the public media:
41
Justyna Przyborowicz Ph.D.student and lecturer at Jagiellonian University, faculty of Management and Social Communication. Journalist and radio publicist. Her interests include: media systems, union media policy, contemporary culture.
ublic broadcasters have special duties but they also enjoy certain privileges, such as subscription revenues and the right to broadcast programmes without special concessions. Art. 26, paragraph 1–3 [Act of Parliament on radio and television broadcast 1992] defines the status of public radio and television stations, which should always operate as one–man joint stock company, owned by the State Treasury. The legislator has imposed a wide range of special tasks on the public media, among them the creation and dissemination of nationwide, regional programmes and programmes for their consumers resident abroad, in Polish and other languages, and other programmes that meet the democratic, social and cultural needs of local communities. Public media should also realize tasks relating to providing support for the artistic, literary, scientific and educational initiatives. They should popularize knowledge in the Polish language. Importantly, both national and regional media should respond to the needs of national
P
1. The character of public media Public media play an important role in creating a culturally aware civil society. Creating a vision, adequate to public expectations, is necessary for the public media organizations to be able to realize their priority objectives. The activities of public media follow the changes that occur in a social and cultural environment, whereas media organizations themselves can have real impact on their environment. In this paper, I have presented this relationship, taking into account the legislation pursuant to the realization of the mission of the Polish media. The goal of this paper is to identify the features of the mission of the public media, in their cultural and social environment.
Apart from the programme–related work, public media’s tasks include the creation and dissemination of specialised programmes that require concessions [ibidem], building and running the broadcasting and base transceiver radio and television stations, disseminating text transmissions, working on new techniques for creating and broadcasting radio and television programmes. It also involves the manufacture, service and commercial work relating to audiovisual programmes, including their export and import. Transmissions must be missionary in character. The Polish legislator has also specified a framework for transmitted programmes. Further to the Act of Parliament on radio and television broadcast, 1992, these are some of the obligations of the programmes that can be broadcast in the public media: and ethnic minorities and the communities that speak regional dialects, and so they should also broadcast news programmes in the languages spoken by ethnic and national minorities and in the regional dialects. According to Article 21, paragraph 1 [ibidem] a public broadcaster should also create and make available educational programmes for Polish diasporas and Poles living abroad. The concept of public media is also linked with an ethical imperative. The significance of public broadcasters can be presented on three definitional levels [Napoli, Albarran, Chan–Olmsted, Wirtin ed. 2006, p. 276]: conceptual, operational and applicatory. On the broadest, conceptual level, the debate focuses on the concept of the determinism of public interest. On the operational level, it naturally consists of conceptual work and providing for the public interest. The last, applicatory level focuses on the debate on the most important values and principles relating to the operational level, which translates into specific forms of behaviour and legal regulations.
Justyna Przyborowicz
Mission of media organizations in social and cultural environment
Justyna Przyborowicz Ph.D.student and lecturer at Jagiellonian University, faculty of Management and Social Communication. Journalist and radio publicist. Her interests include: media systems, union media policy, contemporary culture.
42
Culture Management 2011, Vol 4 (4)
MM
I
2. The environment of media organizations
Culture Management 2011, Vol 4 (4)
MM
42
MM
Modern societies are increasingly aware of the content they wish to be exposed to, just as they have an increasingly easier access to information. These factors determine a clear need for the public media to fulfil their duties. In order to respond to social and cultural needs, the public media must aspire to specialisation, by creating theme–based blocks of programmes and highly specialised channels. The realization of these objectives requires that the character of the Polish media be refreshed, along with their image. Certain broad systemic changes need to be introduced as well. In order to fulfil their missions, contemporary media organisations should take into consideration current market requirements and relations, respect the circumstances of their environment and follow the urgent needs of a fast–developing society. The way a mission is managed depends on the character of a broadcaster. A mission– based organization should above all meet the expectations of the society. Journalism changes depending on the methods of financing and investors’ expectations. If we were to assume that the subscribers are the primary investors in the public media, meeting their needs should be the main priority of daily journalism. Still, the mission of the media is realized through journalistic input. It is the duty of public media employees to remember about the priorities of their work as public servants, when implementing each and every task.
MM
MM
MM
MM
MM
MM
Be guided by the responsibility for words and take care of the good name of the public radio and television broadcasting. Present the whole variety of events and phenomena in the country and abroad truthfully Favour the independent thinking among citizens and support the formation of public opinion Make it possible for the citizens and their organizations to participate in public life by presenting various views and positions, and by supporting the right to social monitoring and criticism. Serve the development of culture, science and education with a special focus on the Polish intellectual and artistic achievements. Respect the Christian system of values, taking universal ethical principles to be fundamental;, serve the consolidation of family. Support pro–healthy attitudes. Serve actions against social pathologies.
MM
n the modernist concepts, the environment of an organisation used to be defined by its elements. One can distinguish here between an inter–organizational network and the international environment, general and global. An inter–organizational network is created by all the elements that can interact with an organization. A media organization produces goods in the form of media content and provides services (such as telenews, teleshopping), which are consumed by the environment; it also has an impact on its clients, i.e., viewers and audiences. An inter– organizational network consists of suppliers, clients, competition, trade unions, monitoring institutions and lobbying groups. The controlling institutions monitor the activities of organizations; for example, TVP (Polish State Television) is monitored by the Media Ethics Council, which was first founded by the Conference of the Polish Media in 1996. Currently the Council is in its 5th term and it has eleven members. According to the Council’s regulations, its competences embrace making sure that the decisions of the Media Ethics Charter of 1995 are being followed. The Charter provides that a journalist should follow seven ethical principles, such as the principles of truth, objectivism, separation of information from commentary, honesty, respect and tolerance, giving priority to consumers’ best interest, freedom and responsibility. These principles are expanded on by the Journalist Moral Code of 2002. The Council has no sanctions as such at its disposal but it can indicate trespassing, express opinions, take positions on specific matters and issue appeals. The Council’s positions are treated as opinion making in the media, and therefore various institutions, including the courts of law, often approach it for specific views. For modernists, the analysis of a network also means defining its rational boundaries (only some of the networks are closed systems). Managers are inclined to put organizations at the centre of a network, which can distort an objective point of view [Hatch 2001, p. 55]. Media organizations are then not focused at all on building interactions with the society but limit their activities to various productions independently of social needs. This is when they enter into competition without really paying enough attention to the requirements of its potential consumers.
MM
MM
I
MM
MM
2. The environment of media organizations
n the modernist concepts, the environment of an organisation used to be defined by its elements. One can distinguish here between an inter–organizational network and the international environment, general and global. An inter–organizational network is created by all the elements that can interact with an organization. A media organization produces goods in the form of media content and provides services (such as telenews, teleshopping), which are consumed by the environment; it also has an impact on its clients, i.e., viewers and audiences. An inter– organizational network consists of suppliers, clients, competition, trade unions, monitoring institutions and lobbying groups. The controlling institutions monitor the activities of organizations; for example, TVP (Polish State Television) is monitored by the Media Ethics Council, which was first founded by the Conference of the Polish Media in 1996. Currently the Council is in its 5th term and it has eleven members. According to the Council’s regulations, its competences embrace making sure that the decisions of the Media Ethics Charter of 1995 are being followed. The Charter provides that a journalist should follow seven ethical principles, such as the principles of truth, objectivism, separation of information from commentary, honesty, respect and tolerance, giving priority to consumers’ best interest, freedom and responsibility. These principles are expanded on by the Journalist Moral Code of 2002. The Council has no sanctions as such at its disposal but it can indicate trespassing, express opinions, take positions on specific matters and issue appeals. The Council’s positions are treated as opinion making in the media, and therefore various institutions, including the courts of law, often approach it for specific views. For modernists, the analysis of a network also means defining its rational boundaries (only some of the networks are closed systems). Managers are inclined to put organizations at the centre of a network, which can distort an objective point of view [Hatch 2001, p. 55]. Media organizations are then not focused at all on building interactions with the society but limit their activities to various productions independently of social needs. This is when they enter into competition without really paying enough attention to the requirements of its potential consumers.
MM
Be guided by the responsibility for words and take care of the good name of the public radio and television broadcasting. Present the whole variety of events and phenomena in the country and abroad truthfully Favour the independent thinking among citizens and support the formation of public opinion Make it possible for the citizens and their organizations to participate in public life by presenting various views and positions, and by supporting the right to social monitoring and criticism. Serve the development of culture, science and education with a special focus on the Polish intellectual and artistic achievements. Respect the Christian system of values, taking universal ethical principles to be fundamental;, serve the consolidation of family. Support pro–healthy attitudes. Serve actions against social pathologies.
Modern societies are increasingly aware of the content they wish to be exposed to, just as they have an increasingly easier access to information. These factors determine a clear need for the public media to fulfil their duties. In order to respond to social and cultural needs, the public media must aspire to specialisation, by creating theme–based blocks of programmes and highly specialised channels. The realization of these objectives requires that the character of the Polish media be refreshed, along with their image. Certain broad systemic changes need to be introduced as well. In order to fulfil their missions, contemporary media organisations should take into consideration current market requirements and relations, respect the circumstances of their environment and follow the urgent needs of a fast–developing society. The way a mission is managed depends on the character of a broadcaster. A mission– based organization should above all meet the expectations of the society. Journalism changes depending on the methods of financing and investors’ expectations. If we were to assume that the subscribers are the primary investors in the public media, meeting their needs should be the main priority of daily journalism. Still, the mission of the media is realized through journalistic input. It is the duty of public media employees to remember about the priorities of their work as public servants, when implementing each and every task.
MM
Culture Management 2011, Vol 4 (4)
A lot of external factors have an influence over an organization. These can be placed in different sectors that make up the general environment. Next to the legal, political, economic, technological and natural environment sectors we can distinguish the social and cultural ones. To a media organization that follows a specific mission the influences of social and cultural environment may prove crucial. The social sector is directly linked with class culture and the kinds of lifestyles followed in society, traditional social institutions (education systems, religious practices, commerce, and professions) and demographic considerations. It is important to a media organization setting its objectives, to the extent that it becomes a matter of a daily routine in departments and editorial boards, which effectively create their own broadcasting. This process takes place in a global, national and local scale. If we were to compare public media, operating in various media systems, created on the basis of local provisions of law, we would notice the differences in the way they operate, function, the content they transmit and the way that content is expressed [Hatch 2001, p. 55]. It is hard to deny the fact that media organizations operate in a social environment on the basis of the standards and legislation established in that environment. However, these can also change and, therefore, people who manage media organizations find their environments to be a source of uncertainty [Koźmiński 2000, p. 33]. This is well represented by various examples of the historic formation of media systems and the systemic approach to media management.
3. Social relations with media environment
T
he formation of social relations with the media sector is well portrayed by the examples of the emerging media systems in Europe. The political and cultural stimuli were of considerable importance as far as the legal provisions for the media were established, which depended on the political party systems prevailing in each country. In the 19th century the countries of democratic corporatism saw the emergence of mass parties, which were gradually gaining in power. These parties educated their structures, letting them permeate into the social strata and institutional networks, which were a specific platform for communicating with the party members. What’s more, they were also linked with social organizations,
Culture Management 2011, Vol 4 (4)
such as trade unions, business associations and religious communities. These relations formed the divisions among the supporters of specific parties and, what’s important; these divisions were of social character, compliant with various interests and cultural identity. They responded to class, religious and language divisions. Those groups created specific sub–cultures in the society and made up a system known as fragmented pluralism. Groups of social significance had their role to play in the organization of public media; they were reflected in the power of trade journalists, trade unions and journalist organizations [Mancini, Hallin 2007 p. 191]. These social and media relationships are therefore very strong because of their historic background. Some systems point us clearly towards the social influences on the media legislation, objectives and the division of the media market. The Dutch system, for example, worked on the grounds of a specific form of external pluralism, characterised by the existence of separate broadcast companies representing various social groups. Internal pluralism – on the other hand – concerns, among other areas, the media content that should reflect the variety of views in society and the structures of media organizations which often involve representatives of various social, political and cultural groups. This is what distinguishes media corporatism from liberal systems. The BBC made the media independent from the government, political parties and other involved social groups. Pluralism in liberal countries is linked with the transfer of responsibility for representing varying voices and responsibility for the needs of societies into the neutral media employees and journalists [ibidem]. Independently of the methods of formation of the European media systems, it needs to be said that the correlation between the social moods and interactions and the emerging profile of the media sector in Europe is of considerable strength. Local examples show the specific relationship between society and media organizations. Issues discussed in the local media are in direct response to the stimuli coming from society. They are often a reaction to events relevant to a given region, its communities and problem areas. This content may also serve the purpose of fulfilling a mission in support of various social groups. Broadcast schedules for regional radio and television stations are prepared in the context of local needs, which should indeed be the starting point for the workings of these units. Local activities are
43
he formation of social relations with the media sector is well portrayed by the examples of the emerging media systems in Europe. The political and cultural stimuli were of considerable importance as far as the legal provisions for the media were established, which depended on the political party systems prevailing in each country. In the 19th century the countries of democratic corporatism saw the emergence of mass parties, which were gradually gaining in power. These parties educated their structures, letting them permeate into the social strata and institutional networks, which were a specific platform for communicating with the party members. What’s more, they were also linked with social organizations,
T
3. Social relations with media environment A lot of external factors have an influence over an organization. These can be placed in different sectors that make up the general environment. Next to the legal, political, economic, technological and natural environment sectors we can distinguish the social and cultural ones. To a media organization that follows a specific mission the influences of social and cultural environment may prove crucial. The social sector is directly linked with class culture and the kinds of lifestyles followed in society, traditional social institutions (education systems, religious practices, commerce, and professions) and demographic considerations. It is important to a media organization setting its objectives, to the extent that it becomes a matter of a daily routine in departments and editorial boards, which effectively create their own broadcasting. This process takes place in a global, national and local scale. If we were to compare public media, operating in various media systems, created on the basis of local provisions of law, we would notice the differences in the way they operate, function, the content they transmit and the way that content is expressed [Hatch 2001, p. 55]. It is hard to deny the fact that media organizations operate in a social environment on the basis of the standards and legislation established in that environment. However, these can also change and, therefore, people who manage media organizations find their environments to be a source of uncertainty [Koźmiński 2000, p. 33]. This is well represented by various examples of the historic formation of media systems and the systemic approach to media management.
43
Local examples show the specific relationship between society and media organizations. Issues discussed in the local media are in direct response to the stimuli coming from society. They are often a reaction to events relevant to a given region, its communities and problem areas. This content may also serve the purpose of fulfilling a mission in support of various social groups. Broadcast schedules for regional radio and television stations are prepared in the context of local needs, which should indeed be the starting point for the workings of these units. Local activities are such as trade unions, business associations and religious communities. These relations formed the divisions among the supporters of specific parties and, what’s important; these divisions were of social character, compliant with various interests and cultural identity. They responded to class, religious and language divisions. Those groups created specific sub–cultures in the society and made up a system known as fragmented pluralism. Groups of social significance had their role to play in the organization of public media; they were reflected in the power of trade journalists, trade unions and journalist organizations [Mancini, Hallin 2007 p. 191]. These social and media relationships are therefore very strong because of their historic background. Some systems point us clearly towards the social influences on the media legislation, objectives and the division of the media market. The Dutch system, for example, worked on the grounds of a specific form of external pluralism, characterised by the existence of separate broadcast companies representing various social groups. Internal pluralism – on the other hand – concerns, among other areas, the media content that should reflect the variety of views in society and the structures of media organizations which often involve representatives of various social, political and cultural groups. This is what distinguishes media corporatism from liberal systems. The BBC made the media independent from the government, political parties and other involved social groups. Pluralism in liberal countries is linked with the transfer of responsibility for representing varying voices and responsibility for the needs of societies into the neutral media employees and journalists [ibidem]. Independently of the methods of formation of the European media systems, it needs to be said that the correlation between the social moods and interactions and the emerging profile of the media sector in Europe is of considerable strength.
4. Role of the media in the cultural environment therefore aimed at direct communications with local communities, and they should constantly follow local social transformations and respond to the events or changes occurring in these communities. In a local community a broadcaster may become an activist of local life by providing links between the local environment and various support institutions and non–governmental organizations [Chrisidu–Budnik 2005 p. 202]. Independently, however, of the level of functioning of a media organization, the range of its management should be perceived operationally, as it occurs in the framework of the whole chain of economic correlations [Drucker 2009, p. 43]. These interdependent links and relations prevailing in the environment of public broadcasters translate into the way they operate and the content they discuss, accept and present. It is reflected in the content of journalistic work, which – in the context of a public broadcaster – is in principle missionary in character. Public management in such case is based on defining a problem, which requires an intervention, and on the legitimisation of specific actions, which means convincing the environment that they are right [Hausner 2008, p. 47]. The addressees and beneficiaries of the socially transparent responsibility of the public media are the consumers, so their interest should be treated as a priority.
and limitations, e.g., professional; and finally the organizational or corporate culture which defines one’s role and work position. The awareness of how various social groups and categories function in a given area provides the basis for the distribution of air content for media organizations. The flexibility of broadcasters in this respect is dictated by the irregular development of communities. Moreover, the growing population has required that new solutions have been searched for that would make it possible for people to co–exist and create a certain stable social structure. [Hofstede 2000, p. 47]. Media broadcasters have a double task in this respect: on the one hand to react to the signals coming from society and on the other, to present the various positions and points of view, sensitively approaching cultural variety, although keeping in mind the need to spread the feelings of national value.
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The cultural sector is linked with issues rooted in history, tradition, expectations of certain behaviours and values of the society or societies where a given organization operates. The type of leadership, degree of rationality and resources of an organization are directly dependent on the cultural sphere in which it operates. Hierarchical authority is obviously less valued with a growing number of specialists; better–educated journalists are ready to multi–task, doing their own editing or establishing production groups. Human rights are also more valued which is linked with higher responsibility of journalists, respect for employee rights and guarding the freedom of speech. These trends are also supported by such issues as the quality and protection of the physical environment. The cultural sector and the trends for change may tackle gender–related issues, the growing role of women on editorial boards and management positions, their influence on the content of programmes presented by the public media, which discuss such issues as, for example, equality of rights. In local environments media organizations are particularly responsive to the role of minorities in the regions. A good example of it is ‘Kleka’ a programme broadcast Monday to Friday on local Polish Radio Gdańsk, devoted to the news from Kashubia, about Kashubians and in the Kashubian language [Polish Radio Gdańsk, e–doc.].
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In the European context, there is a certain withdrawn approach to the cultural role of the media. Cultural function is interpreted within internal contexts of the member states and not
In the European context, there is a certain withdrawn approach to the cultural role of the media. Cultural function is interpreted within internal contexts of the member states and not
Public media should be a guarantor of independence and of the idea of democracy. Today, democracy without the media is impossible, which means that they deserve an equal position among the ingredients of democracy [Regulatory Strategy, e–doc.] The expected changes, such as depoliticizing of the media and turning towards the promotion of cultural development of the society may be followed by an increase in their social significance. From the point of view of consumers one should mark out the difference between social groups and categories. The multilayered character of the levels of culture may be evidence of the complexity of relationships between media organizations and their environment, especially their cultural environment. A few levels of culture need to be distinguished here [Hofstede 2000, p. 46], i.e., national culture – relating to the belonging to a regional, ethnic, religious or language group; the culture of social class, which is linked with the possibilities
The cultural sector is linked with issues rooted in history, tradition, expectations of certain behaviours and values of the society or societies where a given organization operates. The type of leadership, degree of rationality and resources of an organization are directly dependent on the cultural sphere in which it operates. Hierarchical authority is obviously less valued with a growing number of specialists; better–educated journalists are ready to multi–task, doing their own editing or establishing production groups. Human rights are also more valued which is linked with higher responsibility of journalists, respect for employee rights and guarding the freedom of speech. These trends are also supported by such issues as the quality and protection of the physical environment. The cultural sector and the trends for change may tackle gender–related issues, the growing role of women on editorial boards and management positions, their influence on the content of programmes presented by the public media, which discuss such issues as, for example, equality of rights. In local environments media organizations are particularly responsive to the role of minorities in the regions. A good example of it is ‘Kleka’ a programme broadcast Monday to Friday on local Polish Radio Gdańsk, devoted to the news from Kashubia, about Kashubians and in the Kashubian language [Polish Radio Gdańsk, e–doc.].
Public media should be a guarantor of independence and of the idea of democracy. Today, democracy without the media is impossible, which means that they deserve an equal position among the ingredients of democracy [Regulatory Strategy, e–doc.] The expected changes, such as depoliticizing of the media and turning towards the promotion of cultural development of the society may be followed by an increase in their social significance. From the point of view of consumers one should mark out the difference between social groups and categories. The multilayered character of the levels of culture may be evidence of the complexity of relationships between media organizations and their environment, especially their cultural environment. A few levels of culture need to be distinguished here [Hofstede 2000, p. 46], i.e., national culture – relating to the belonging to a regional, ethnic, religious or language group; the culture of social class, which is linked with the possibilities
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4. Role of the media in the cultural environment
and limitations, e.g., professional; and finally the organizational or corporate culture which defines one’s role and work position. The awareness of how various social groups and categories function in a given area provides the basis for the distribution of air content for media organizations. The flexibility of broadcasters in this respect is dictated by the irregular development of communities. Moreover, the growing population has required that new solutions have been searched for that would make it possible for people to co–exist and create a certain stable social structure. [Hofstede 2000, p. 47]. Media broadcasters have a double task in this respect: on the one hand to react to the signals coming from society and on the other, to present the various positions and points of view, sensitively approaching cultural variety, although keeping in mind the need to spread the feelings of national value.
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therefore aimed at direct communications with local communities, and they should constantly follow local social transformations and respond to the events or changes occurring in these communities. In a local community a broadcaster may become an activist of local life by providing links between the local environment and various support institutions and non–governmental organizations [Chrisidu–Budnik 2005 p. 202]. Independently, however, of the level of functioning of a media organization, the range of its management should be perceived operationally, as it occurs in the framework of the whole chain of economic correlations [Drucker 2009, p. 43]. These interdependent links and relations prevailing in the environment of public broadcasters translate into the way they operate and the content they discuss, accept and present. It is reflected in the content of journalistic work, which – in the context of a public broadcaster – is in principle missionary in character. Public management in such case is based on defining a problem, which requires an intervention, and on the legitimisation of specific actions, which means convincing the environment that they are right [Hausner 2008, p. 47]. The addressees and beneficiaries of the socially transparent responsibility of the public media are the consumers, so their interest should be treated as a priority.
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as an element of clear–cut strategy for the media sector in Europe. One can only wonder whether it is possible at all to carry out a mission defined coherently for the entire European Union or does the favoured principle of pluralism in a way deny its existence? This judgment becomes even more meaningful in view of the fact that EU has no treaty that gives shape to the media sphere. The most important instrument of the EU’s audiovisual policy is the 2010/13/UE directive on audiovisual media services, which mainly regulates market matters or legal protection, without mentioning any cultural issues at all. It is worth, however, mentioning the European Committee announcement of 2009 [Committee Announcement on applying the rules of aid… 2009], which replaced the announcement of 2001. It acknowledges the special character of public radio and television broadcasting and treats them as services rendered in general economic interest (public interest). It also lists the most important requirements towards the member states, focusing on such issues as [ibidem] MM the official definition and conferral of the mission of public media is exclusively within the competences of each member state, the role of EC is limited to detecting gross misconduct MM the monitoring of the way the mission is realized in practice is conducted by an independent institution MM providing financial transparency of the public media by separating the missionary activity from others, and conducting separate accounts EU activities are thus aimed at giving financial support but not at pointing towards the direction of potential factors that would develop the interaction between the media and their cultural and social environment. There is therefore no reason to think that it is the features of a mission common to the whole of Europe that would become a platform for unifying the development of public broadcasting, in the context of contemporary cultural transformations. These competences are left to the states themselves, as they decide on the specific missions of their own public media. Commenting on the EU tendencies towards an interaction with culture, so widely promoted in the media, one should perhaps mention the notion of multiculturalism – so favoured in the EU debate that the public media could include in their mission objectives. This concept can particularly emerge in the context of the systemic treatment of the media, which has been different across Europe, and often independent from politics and
Culture Management 2011, Vol 4 (4)
social trends. A quote from Zygmunt Bauman [Bauman 2011, p.65] a sociologist, philosopher and essayist will certainly aid our understanding of these correlations: “Multiculturalism is the most common answer given these days by the learned and opinion– making classes to the world’s uncertainty about the kinds of values that deserve to be cherished and cultivated and the directions that should be pursued with rugged determination. That answer is fast becoming the canon of ‘political correctness’; more, it turns into an axiom that no longer needs to be spelled out, into the prolegomena to all further deliberation, the cornerstone of doxa: not a knowledge itself, but the unthought, tacit assumption of all leading–to–knowledge thinking” [Community: seeking safety in the insecure world, 2003 Polity Press]. It seems that the author’s words are equally applicable to the EU policy towards the media, where the notion of multiculturalism often appears in the debates but is hardly present in a written form. Multiculturalism can be, however, tackled by the local media as part of the canon of their daily mission. Another essential issue in the context of cultural premises for the missions of the public media is the independence of broadcasters, which is a key element of the freedom of the electronic media. This independence should be guaranteed by media pluralism, revealed in two groups of objectives [Regulatory strategy…, e–doc.]: Promoting structural pluralism of the media through: MM aiming at the ownership, geographic (local, regional media) pluralism and supporting the development of minority and social media MM regulating access to interoperationality of networks and electronic communication services MM public aid and other forms of support, ensuring the transparency of ownership structures MM Promoting the variety of content: MM promotion of the democratic participation and internal pluralism of content, including political views and positions and cultural expression MM licensing process and properly designed principles must carry/must offer MM financial support for the production and distribution of content which serves the variety of information sources, including for the media in minority languages In the context of relations with the cultural and social environment both areas of the independ-
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EU activities are thus aimed at giving financial support but not at pointing towards the direction of potential factors that would develop the interaction between the media and their cultural and social environment. There is therefore no reason to think that it is the features of a mission common to the whole of Europe that would become a platform for unifying the development of public broadcasting, in the context of contemporary cultural transformations. These competences are left to the states themselves, as they decide on the specific missions of their own public media. Commenting on the EU tendencies towards an interaction with culture, so widely promoted in the media, one should perhaps mention the notion of multiculturalism – so favoured in the EU debate that the public media could include in their mission objectives. This concept can particularly emerge in the context of the systemic treatment of the media, which has been different across Europe, and often independent from politics and as an element of clear–cut strategy for the media sector in Europe. One can only wonder whether it is possible at all to carry out a mission defined coherently for the entire European Union or does the favoured principle of pluralism in a way deny its existence? This judgment becomes even more meaningful in view of the fact that EU has no treaty that gives shape to the media sphere. The most important instrument of the EU’s audiovisual policy is the 2010/13/UE directive on audiovisual media services, which mainly regulates market matters or legal protection, without mentioning any cultural issues at all. It is worth, however, mentioning the European Committee announcement of 2009 [Committee Announcement on applying the rules of aid… 2009], which replaced the announcement of 2001. It acknowledges the special character of public radio and television broadcasting and treats them as services rendered in general economic interest (public interest). It also lists the most important requirements towards the member states, focusing on such issues as [ibidem] MM the official definition and conferral of the mission of public media is exclusively within the competences of each member state, the role of EC is limited to detecting gross misconduct MM the monitoring of the way the mission is realized in practice is conducted by an independent institution MM providing financial transparency of the public media by separating the missionary activity from others, and conducting separate accounts
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In the context of relations with the cultural and social environment both areas of the independAnother essential issue in the context of cultural premises for the missions of the public media is the independence of broadcasters, which is a key element of the freedom of the electronic media. This independence should be guaranteed by media pluralism, revealed in two groups of objectives [Regulatory strategy…, e–doc.]: Promoting structural pluralism of the media through: MM aiming at the ownership, geographic (local, regional media) pluralism and supporting the development of minority and social media MM regulating access to interoperationality of networks and electronic communication services MM public aid and other forms of support, ensuring the transparency of ownership structures MM Promoting the variety of content: MM promotion of the democratic participation and internal pluralism of content, including political views and positions and cultural expression MM licensing process and properly designed principles must carry/must offer MM financial support for the production and distribution of content which serves the variety of information sources, including for the media in minority languages social trends. A quote from Zygmunt Bauman [Bauman 2011, p.65] a sociologist, philosopher and essayist will certainly aid our understanding of these correlations: “Multiculturalism is the most common answer given these days by the learned and opinion– making classes to the world’s uncertainty about the kinds of values that deserve to be cherished and cultivated and the directions that should be pursued with rugged determination. That answer is fast becoming the canon of ‘political correctness’; more, it turns into an axiom that no longer needs to be spelled out, into the prolegomena to all further deliberation, the cornerstone of doxa: not a knowledge itself, but the unthought, tacit assumption of all leading–to–knowledge thinking” [Community: seeking safety in the insecure world, 2003 Polity Press]. It seems that the author’s words are equally applicable to the EU policy towards the media, where the notion of multiculturalism often appears in the debates but is hardly present in a written form. Multiculturalism can be, however, tackled by the local media as part of the canon of their daily mission.
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5. Conclusions
T
T
5. Conclusions and their social and cultural environment. It is then that such organizations may undertake actions in a conscious way, and meet the requirements of their mission towards their environment. A coherent media transmission is built based on the environmental contexts and the language that a given community speaks, whereas its level should be raised in order to develop its potential consumers. Culture Management 2011, Vol 4 (4)
ence of broadcasters are relevant, as they – in a way – guarantee the independence of broadcasting institutions. Promoting a variety of media content is important, giving consideration to the cultural environment. These principles serve the development of democratic ideas; cultural expression which reaches the media from the cultural environment. Financial support, on the other hand, is a real premise that allows for these principles to be realized with dignity. Apart from giving support to national minorities, cultivating tradition and supporting variety, the public media should be also sensitive to other related factors occurring in their cultural environment. The role of the media is after all significant in building the sense of national cultural identity, which can be realized in compliance with Article 6 of Polish Constitution (The Republic of Poland creates conditions for popularization and equal access to the achievements of culture which is the source of identity of the Polish nation, its continuation and development). This document imposes special duties on the public media [ibidem]: MM a duty to create and disseminate programmes which meet, among others, the cultural needs of consumers MM supporting artistic, literary, scientific creativity and educational activities MM taking into account the needs of national and ethnic minorities MM active participation in the creation and production of audiovisual content popularising the national and European cultural heritage.
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MM
here might be a lot of contradictions and incorrect interpretations between the objectives of the missions of the public media and their actual realization. Some of the impoverished regional units are a testimony to bad management, financial problems and imprecise media legislation. The analysis of the missionary character of the media, through their social and cultural context, leads us to a conclusion that it is the regional media that are closest to the actual needs of the society, and so they can fulfil their mission. The EU has not sufficient legislative competences in this respect, but if such legal provisions were possible, there will be a unification of media systems, sensitive to cultural environments and based on social needs in Europe. Public organizations that would emerge in such process would be created, following the example of the BBC, with its depoliticized management and pluralist ideas. It is, after all, culture that is a problem in the context of any possible unification of the media systems, because of the threat of the loss of identity of member states. Independently of the international level, broadcasters’ regional work in principle guarantees a direct response of media units to the social and cultural needs of societies.
here might be a lot of contradictions and incorrect interpretations between the objectives of the missions of the public media and their actual realization. Some of the impoverished regional units are a testimony to bad management, financial problems and imprecise media legislation. The analysis of the missionary character of the media, through their social and cultural context, leads us to a conclusion that it is the regional media that are closest to the actual needs of the society, and so they can fulfil their mission. The EU has not sufficient legislative competences in this respect, but if such legal provisions were possible, there will be a unification of media systems, sensitive to cultural environments and based on social needs in Europe. Public organizations that would emerge in such process would be created, following the example of the BBC, with its depoliticized management and pluralist ideas. It is, after all, culture that is a problem in the context of any possible unification of the media systems, because of the threat of the loss of identity of member states. Independently of the international level, broadcasters’ regional work in principle guarantees a direct response of media units to the social and cultural needs of societies.
The catalogue of these guidelines can be realized in practice only in the situation when there are real interactions between the media organizations
and their social and cultural environment. It is then that such organizations may undertake actions in a conscious way, and meet the requirements of their mission towards their environment. A coherent media transmission is built based on the environmental contexts and the language that a given community speaks, whereas its level should be raised in order to develop its potential consumers.
The catalogue of these guidelines can be realized in practice only in the situation when there are real interactions between the media organizations
ence of broadcasters are relevant, as they – in a way – guarantee the independence of broadcasting institutions. Promoting a variety of media content is important, giving consideration to the cultural environment. These principles serve the development of democratic ideas; cultural expression which reaches the media from the cultural environment. Financial support, on the other hand, is a real premise that allows for these principles to be realized with dignity. Apart from giving support to national minorities, cultivating tradition and supporting variety, the public media should be also sensitive to other related factors occurring in their cultural environment. The role of the media is after all significant in building the sense of national cultural identity, which can be realized in compliance with Article 6 of Polish Constitution (The Republic of Poland creates conditions for popularization and equal access to the achievements of culture which is the source of identity of the Polish nation, its continuation and development). This document imposes special duties on the public media [ibidem]: MM a duty to create and disseminate programmes which meet, among others, the cultural needs of consumers MM supporting artistic, literary, scientific creativity and educational activities MM taking into account the needs of national and ethnic minorities MM active participation in the creation and production of audiovisual content MM popularising the national and European cultural heritage.
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Literature: Barta J., Markiewicz R., Matlak A. Prawo mediów [Media Law] LexisNexis. Warszawa 2002. Bauman Z., Kultura w płynnej nowoczesności. [Liquid Times: Living in an Age of Uncertainty] Narodowy Instytut Audiowizualny. Agora S.A. Warszawa 2011 Drucker P., Zarządzanie XXI wieku – wyzwania. [Management of the 21st Century – Challenges] MT Biznes. Warszawa 2009. Chrisidu–Budnik A., Organizacja i jej otoczenie. [Organization and its Environment] [in:] Chrisidu–Budnik A., Korczak J., Pakuła A., Supernat J. Nauka organizacji i zarządzania. [Learning Organization and Management] Kolonia Limited. Wrocław 2005. Hatch M. J., Teoria organizacji. [Organization Theory] PWN. Warszawa 2001. Hausner J., Zarządzanie publiczne. (Public Management) Scholar. Warszawa 2008.
Hofstede G. Kultury i organizacje. [Cultures and Organizations] PWE. Warszawa 2000. Koźmiński A . Organizacja.[Organization] [in:] Zarządzanie: teoria i praktyka. [Management: Theory and Practice] PWN. Warszawa 2000. Mancini Paolo. Hallin Daniel. Systemy medialne: trzy modele mediów i polityki w ujęciu porównawczym. [Comparing Media Systems Beyond the Western World (Communication, Society and Politics)] Wyd. UJ. Kraków 2007. Napoli P. Issues In Media Management and Public Interest. [in:] Albarran Allan. Chan–Olmsted. Sylvia. Wirtin M. Handbook of Media Management and Economics. Routledge Taylor & Francis Group. New York 2006.
Internet pages: Rada Etyki Mediów [Media Ethics Council] http://www. radaetykimediow.pl/oradzie.html Polskie Radio Gdańsk [Polish Radio Gdańsk] http:// www.radiogdansk.pl/?a=audycje
Krajowa Rada Radiofonii i telewizji [National Council for Radio and Television Broadcast] http://www. krrit.gov.pl/bip/
Legislation: Ustawa o radiofonii i telewizji. z dnia 29 grudnia 1992 r. Dz.U.04.253.2531 [Act of Parliament on Radio and Television Broadcast dated 29 December 1992 – Parliamentary Journal [Dz.U.] 04.253.2531] Strategia regulacyjna na lata 2011–2013 opublikowana przez KRRiTv http://www.krrit.gov.pl/bip/ [The Regulatory Strategy for 2011–2013 published by the National Council for Radio and Television Broadcast]
Komunikat Komisji w sprawie stosowania zasad pomocy państwa wobec radiofonii i telewizji publicznej (2009/C257/1), Dziennik Urzędowy Unii Europejskiej, C 257, 27–X–2009 2 na lata 2011–2016 [The Announcement of the Committee on the use of Public Aid for Public Radio and Television Broadcasting (2009/C257/1), EU Official Journal C 257, 27–X–2009 2 for 2011–2016]
Ustawa o radiofonii i telewizji. z dnia 29 grudnia 1992 r. Dz.U.04.253.2531 [Act of Parliament on Radio and Television Broadcast dated 29 December 1992 – Parliamentary Journal [Dz.U.] 04.253.2531] Strategia regulacyjna na lata 2011–2013 opublikowana przez KRRiTv http://www.krrit.gov.pl/bip/ [The Regulatory Strategy for 2011–2013 published by the National Council for Radio and Television Broadcast]
Komunikat Komisji w sprawie stosowania zasad pomocy państwa wobec radiofonii i telewizji publicznej (2009/C257/1), Dziennik Urzędowy Unii Europejskiej, C 257, 27–X–2009 2 na lata 2011–2016 [The Announcement of the Committee on the use of Public Aid for Public Radio and Television Broadcasting (2009/C257/1), EU Official Journal C 257, 27–X–2009 2 for 2011–2016]
Legislation: Rada Etyki Mediów [Media Ethics Council] http://www. radaetykimediow.pl/oradzie.html Polskie Radio Gdańsk [Polish Radio Gdańsk] http:// www.radiogdansk.pl/?a=audycje
Krajowa Rada Radiofonii i telewizji [National Council for Radio and Television Broadcast] http://www. krrit.gov.pl/bip/
Internet pages: Barta J., Markiewicz R., Matlak A. Prawo mediów [Media Law] LexisNexis. Warszawa 2002. Bauman Z., Kultura w płynnej nowoczesności. [Liquid Times: Living in an Age of Uncertainty] Narodowy Instytut Audiowizualny. Agora S.A. Warszawa 2011 Drucker P., Zarządzanie XXI wieku – wyzwania. [Management of the 21st Century – Challenges] MT Biznes. Warszawa 2009. Chrisidu–Budnik A., Organizacja i jej otoczenie. [Organization and its Environment] [in:] Chrisidu–Budnik A., Korczak J., Pakuła A., Supernat J. Nauka organizacji i zarządzania. [Learning Organization and Management] Kolonia Limited. Wrocław 2005. Hatch M. J., Teoria organizacji. [Organization Theory] PWN. Warszawa 2001. Hausner J., Zarządzanie publiczne. (Public Management) Scholar. Warszawa 2008.
Literature: Culture Management 2011, Vol 4 (4)
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Hofstede G. Kultury i organizacje. [Cultures and Organizations] PWE. Warszawa 2000. Koźmiński A . Organizacja.[Organization] [in:] Zarządzanie: teoria i praktyka. [Management: Theory and Practice] PWN. Warszawa 2000. Mancini Paolo. Hallin Daniel. Systemy medialne: trzy modele mediów i polityki w ujęciu porównawczym. [Comparing Media Systems Beyond the Western World (Communication, Society and Politics)] Wyd. UJ. Kraków 2007. Napoli P. Issues In Media Management and Public Interest. [in:] Albarran Allan. Chan–Olmsted. Sylvia. Wirtin M. Handbook of Media Management and Economics. Routledge Taylor & Francis Group. New York 2006.
Culture Management 2011, Vol 4 (4)
A set of marketing communication tools for newly–established, third–sector cultural organisations
Culture Management 2011, Vol 4 (4)
Marcin Laberschek
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1. Introduction
24 The Association describes itself as “an independent, apolitical and non-profit-making organisation with the primary aim of developing a tolerant, active, creative and self-organising society. The Association’s activities consist of supporting non-governmental organisations and other civic initiatives (…)”; [from the mission statement published on the Association’s website, http://tinyurl. com/5rj3zxj, retrieved on 11th September 2011 and translated for the purposes of this article].
I
n conducting a systematic study of Polish non– profit organisations, the Sycamore–Maple Association (Stowarzyszenie Klon/Jawor)24 has observed that, as of 2001, a disturbing trend toward ageing has taken hold of the non–governmental sector. In a report dated 2008, several crucial issues are emphasised. On the one hand, the oldest organisations, namely those which have been operating for more than fifteen years, have increased in proportion. On the other hand, not only are fewer and fewer new organisations emerging, but many recently–established initiatives are also collapsing. As the authors of the report remark, the fact that a significant percentage of newly–founded organisations cease to function within the course of a few years is not in itself surprising. However, the scale of the phenomenon is striking [Szołajska ed. 2008]. Following an analysis of the non–profit sector conducted in the early years of this century, it was ascertained that around 70% of its organisations cease operating within three years of their launch [Bogacz–Wojtanowska 2006, p. 59]. 12.7% of all Poland’s third–sector organisations mention culture and the arts as a direct field of activity and 24.1% list it as one of the areas in which they operate [Szołajska ed. 2008]. Bearing this in mind, it may be assumed with a large degree of certainty that the problems of the entire sector might well also affect the culture and arts sphere
Marcin Laberschek Ph.D. student at Jagiellonian University, faculty of Management and Social Communication. Since 2001 he has been running a business – he is a co-owner of an artistic agency, and a manager.
I
to a similar extent. Moreover, in all probability, the very phenomenon of ageing apparent in the non–governmental sector affects those entities involved in culture and the arts to a greater extent than it does the remaining organisations; it has been noted that a high proportion of cultural initiatives are characterised by their ‘longevity’ [Herbst 2005]. Other data also provide evidence of the exceptional nature of the culture and arts sphere; 75% of this type of organisation employ no staff, as compared with 67% across the entire sector; the budgets of 50% of them do not exceed PLN 8,500, compared to PLN 13,000 on a sector–wide basis, and 30% of them have an annual income which does not exceed PLN 1,000, as against 21% overall [ibidem]. Apart from the foregoing information, from the viewpoint of the analysis presented in this article it will also be vital to note that organisations involved with culture and the arts in the widest sense may well have problems in seeking financial resources externally. The percentage share of funding originating from local authorities amounts to 16% of the average cultural organisation’s budget, as opposed to 22.6% across the entire sector, whilst the share of government funding and financial contributions originating from institutions and companies is similar for both the one and the other. On the other hand, an insignificant difference in favour of cultural organisations is reported in the case of funds received from natu-
to a similar extent. Moreover, in all probability, the very phenomenon of ageing apparent in the non–governmental sector affects those entities involved in culture and the arts to a greater extent than it does the remaining organisations; it has been noted that a high proportion of cultural initiatives are characterised by their ‘longevity’ [Herbst 2005]. Other data also provide evidence of the exceptional nature of the culture and arts sphere; 75% of this type of organisation employ no staff, as compared with 67% across the entire sector; the budgets of 50% of them do not exceed PLN 8,500, compared to PLN 13,000 on a sector–wide basis, and 30% of them have an annual income which does not exceed PLN 1,000, as against 21% overall [ibidem]. Apart from the foregoing information, from the viewpoint of the analysis presented in this article it will also be vital to note that organisations involved with culture and the arts in the widest sense may well have problems in seeking financial resources externally. The percentage share of funding originating from local authorities amounts to 16% of the average cultural organisation’s budget, as opposed to 22.6% across the entire sector, whilst the share of government funding and financial contributions originating from institutions and companies is similar for both the one and the other. On the other hand, an insignificant difference in favour of cultural organisations is reported in the case of funds received from natu-
1. Introduction
n conducting a systematic study of Polish non– profit organisations, the Sycamore–Maple Association (Stowarzyszenie Klon/Jawor)24 has observed that, as of 2001, a disturbing trend toward ageing has taken hold of the non–governmental sector. In a report dated 2008, several crucial issues are emphasised. On the one hand, the oldest organisations, namely those which have been operating for more than fifteen years, have increased in proportion. On the other hand, not only are fewer and fewer new organisations emerging, but many recently–established initiatives are also collapsing. As the authors of the report remark, the fact that a significant percentage of newly–founded organisations cease to function within the course of a few years is not in itself surprising. However, the scale of the phenomenon is striking [Szołajska ed. 2008]. Following an analysis of the non–profit sector conducted in the early years of this century, it was ascertained that around 70% of its organisations cease operating within three years of their launch [Bogacz–Wojtanowska 2006, p. 59]. 12.7% of all Poland’s third–sector organisations mention culture and the arts as a direct field of activity and 24.1% list it as one of the areas in which they operate [Szołajska ed. 2008]. Bearing this in mind, it may be assumed with a large degree of certainty that the problems of the entire sector might well also affect the culture and arts sphere
Marcin Laberschek Ph.D. student at Jagiellonian University, faculty of Management and Social Communication. Since 2001 he has been running a business – he is a co-owner of an artistic agency, and a manager.
24 The Association describes itself as “an independent, apolitical and non-profit-making organisation with the primary aim of developing a tolerant, active, creative and self-organising society. The Association’s activities consist of supporting non-governmental organisations and other civic initiatives (…)”; [from the mission statement published on the Association’s website, http://tinyurl. com/5rj3zxj, retrieved on 11th September 2011 and translated for the purposes of this article].
Marcin Laberschek
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A set of marketing communication tools for newly–established, third–sector cultural organisations
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2. The essence of marketing communication
T
he fundamental premise of this article is the demonstration of the kind of marketing communication tools that new, small–scale cultural organisations in the third sector with limited funds at their disposal will be able to use to their advantage. Using properly selected tools in this respect means that an organisation ceases to be anonymous and becomes a recognised ‘face’ in the cultural and administrative community and not merely at a local level, either. In turn, attaining an established level of recognisability can result in easier access to external sources of financing in the form of funding from natural persons and company and institutional budgets, as well as from local government sources. Using the proper marketing communication tools gives no guarantee of success. What it does do, however, is increase the odds of surviving those first, difficult operational years. Marketing communication is often referred to simply as marketing. However, this is an over– generalisation. As Jim Blythe points out, when we speak of marketing communication, we are only giving consideration to those activities on the part of the organisation which are noticed by
3. The evaluation methodology applied
I
n order to indicate which of the tools presented are worth recommending to newly–established, third–sector cultural organisations, an evaluation was first required. It was conducted by applying five pairs of opposing parameters, A, B, C, D and E, which were selected in line with the purpose: A. product/organisation promotion; is the outcome of using the tools a one–off effect, a specific cultural event, such as a concert, for example? Or is it long–term, namely the organisation’s image? For a newly–established
A set of marketing communication tools for newly–established, third–sector cultural organisations
n order to indicate which of the tools presented are worth recommending to newly–established, third–sector cultural organisations, an evaluation was first required. It was conducted by applying five pairs of opposing parameters, A, B, C, D and E, which were selected in line with the purpose: A. product/organisation promotion; is the outcome of using the tools a one–off effect, a specific cultural event, such as a concert, for example? Or is it long–term, namely the organisation’s image? For a newly–established
T
2. The essence of marketing communication ral persons, at 12.9% for culture and the arts, as against 10.7% overall [ibidem]. It transpires that the most perceptible drawback, as indicated by 61.40% of non–profit organisations, is “the difficulty in obtaining the funding or the equipment indispensable to carrying out the organisation’s activities [Szołajska ed. 2008]. It may very well be that the reason behind the suspension of socio–cultural activities on the part of new organisations is their poor material situation. Three out of four admit that they have no financial reserves. In over half of the non–profit organisations which had been in existence for a maximum of two years, the annual income for 2007 did not exceed PLN 5,919; in over half of those existing for between three and five years, the sum was PLN 7,500 and over half of those which had been operating for more than fifteen years reported a maximum annual income of PLN 54,000 [ibidem]. These disproportions are a clear indication of just how difficult it is for newly–established and budding entities to survive and compete with the more experienced and favoured.
I
3. The evaluation methodology applied
Marcin Laberschek
the receivers. Organisational activities connected with distribution, pricing and the preparation of the product itself are, so to say, ‘hidden’, they are out of the reach of the client’s perception [Blythe 2002, p. 11]. On the other hand, neither is marketing communication, sensu stricto, a promotion. As the concept itself suggests, marketing communication assumes the existence of a definite communication, a mutual, equiponderant relationship, a dialogue between an organisation and a receiver. Promotion, on the other hand, most frequently adopts the form of a one–way message, a no–reply announcement [Wiktor 2001]. In this respect, marketing communication has at its fingertips a highly elaborate palette of instruments for acting upon the public and some of those instruments cannot be numbered amongst the set of tools designed for promotion in the classic sense. When discussing a set of tools for marketing communication, what should be taken into consideration are: 1. the elements of traditional promotion listed by Philip Kotler; advertising, sales promotion, personal selling, public relations and direct marketing [Kotler 2005, p. 16]; 2. elements of the product as vehicles for information, namely quality and packaging; 3. modern marketing communication instruments, which is to say shock advertising, merchandising, product placement, ambient marketing, experiential marketing, whisper marketing, exhibitions and trade fairs, and event marketing; 4. marketing communication instruments in the virtual environment; Internet advertising, Web 2.0, advertainment, direct e–marketing, whisper e–marketing.
Marcin Laberschek
he fundamental premise of this article is the demonstration of the kind of marketing communication tools that new, small–scale cultural organisations in the third sector with limited funds at their disposal will be able to use to their advantage. Using properly selected tools in this respect means that an organisation ceases to be anonymous and becomes a recognised ‘face’ in the cultural and administrative community and not merely at a local level, either. In turn, attaining an established level of recognisability can result in easier access to external sources of financing in the form of funding from natural persons and company and institutional budgets, as well as from local government sources. Using the proper marketing communication tools gives no guarantee of success. What it does do, however, is increase the odds of surviving those first, difficult operational years. Marketing communication is often referred to simply as marketing. However, this is an over– generalisation. As Jim Blythe points out, when we speak of marketing communication, we are only giving consideration to those activities on the part of the organisation which are noticed by
A set of marketing communication tools for newly–established, third–sector cultural organisations
ral persons, at 12.9% for culture and the arts, as against 10.7% overall [ibidem]. It transpires that the most perceptible drawback, as indicated by 61.40% of non–profit organisations, is “the difficulty in obtaining the funding or the equipment indispensable to carrying out the organisation’s activities [Szołajska ed. 2008]. It may very well be that the reason behind the suspension of socio–cultural activities on the part of new organisations is their poor material situation. Three out of four admit that they have no financial reserves. In over half of the non–profit organisations which had been in existence for a maximum of two years, the annual income for 2007 did not exceed PLN 5,919; in over half of those existing for between three and five years, the sum was PLN 7,500 and over half of those which had been operating for more than fifteen years reported a maximum annual income of PLN 54,000 [ibidem]. These disproportions are a clear indication of just how difficult it is for newly–established and budding entities to survive and compete with the more experienced and favoured.
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the receivers. Organisational activities connected with distribution, pricing and the preparation of the product itself are, so to say, ‘hidden’, they are out of the reach of the client’s perception [Blythe 2002, p. 11]. On the other hand, neither is marketing communication, sensu stricto, a promotion. As the concept itself suggests, marketing communication assumes the existence of a definite communication, a mutual, equiponderant relationship, a dialogue between an organisation and a receiver. Promotion, on the other hand, most frequently adopts the form of a one–way message, a no–reply announcement [Wiktor 2001]. In this respect, marketing communication has at its fingertips a highly elaborate palette of instruments for acting upon the public and some of those instruments cannot be numbered amongst the set of tools designed for promotion in the classic sense. When discussing a set of tools for marketing communication, what should be taken into consideration are: 1. the elements of traditional promotion listed by Philip Kotler; advertising, sales promotion, personal selling, public relations and direct marketing [Kotler 2005, p. 16]; 2. elements of the product as vehicles for information, namely quality and packaging; 3. modern marketing communication instruments, which is to say shock advertising, merchandising, product placement, ambient marketing, experiential marketing, whisper marketing, exhibitions and trade fairs, and event marketing; 4. marketing communication instruments in the virtual environment; Internet advertising, Web 2.0, advertainment, direct e–marketing, whisper e–marketing.
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organisation, instruments which operate over the long–term, the kind which will build associations and afford it a visibility on the local cultural market, will be of more value; B. addressed to individual or group receivers; until such time as the organisation identifies who the receiver of the target product is and what needs and preferences they have, its initial marketing activities should reach larger target groups; C. expensive/inexpensive; how great a financial burden is entailed in the marketing communication tools used? It should be as small as possible in any model being weighed up; D. for organisations with a strong/weak brand; the tools of primary interest will be those which can be used by a little–known organisation where the brand is still in the making, tools which allow a stable and recognisable brand to be created with reasonable speed; E. for large/small organisations; an instrument should conform to the specifics of small–scale organisations with one premises, a maximum of five people engaged directly in the work and, as the occasion arises, an indirect volunteer group of similar numbers. The evaluation contains a further element, namely a system of points ranging from –4 to 4. Each given marketing tool has been allocated points for every separate set of parametres, the minimum, –4, being assigned when its utter unsuitability as an instrument for newly–founded cultural organisation is found and the maximum, 4, for the opposite situation. Naturally, an intermediate status is also possible, together with the option of assigning a value of 0. The points obtained by the tool after comparison with each parameter pair are totalled and the result constitutes the final evaluation of its usefulness; a 20–point evaluation, for instance, indicates that it is of the highest usefulness. The evaluation of the usefulness of marketing communication tools to newly–established, third– sector cultural organisations
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messages and includes not only the press, radio, television and the Internet, the last of which will be discussed separately as regards its use, but also advertising in, and on, public transport, such as buses, trains, trams and so forth, as well as outdoor advertising in the form of billboards, posters and leaflets and any kind of non–standard advert, for instance, on balconies or till receipts. Advertising is a tool most frequently employed in the promotion of a concrete product or event, such as a theatre performance and, at the same time, to some extent, it creates a positive image of the organisation. It is not difficult to envision how advertising the organisation alone using this kind of more or less one–off campaign would be most unlikely to bring about the expected result, while running it as a long–term exercise would be highly expensive. In the context, the points awarded to the category A parameters are –4. From the viewpoint of new organisations, one thing that is crucial is to know that the advertising addresses group receivers. This effect is attained by means of mass coverage; numerous posters and leaflets and an advert widely accessible on public transport or billboards. The tool receives 4 points for category B. Launching advertising activities in terms of radio, the press and posters frequently entails expenditures which newly–established cultural organisations cannot afford. Investing financial resources in a one–off advertising campaign is inadvisable; in order for such an activity to be effective, it should be carried out on a regular basis, which is more often than not a costly undertaking. Despite this, there are several forms of advertising which can be employed by new organisations and do not necessarily do serious damage to the budget; small publishers can advertise their periodicals and books on the final page of their other publications, at which point the advertising cost calculated is the printing cost; cinemas, theatres and clubs can place an advert on their own tickets and even on their till receipts; advertising on leaflets does not entail overly high expenditure, either, though its efficacy is dependent upon adopting a large–scale campaign, since, if too few leaflets reach the potential receivers, then even a modest investment may, de facto, result in a loss. For category C, the tool therefore receives –3 points.
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Advertising This is one of the most widespread forms of promotion. It is “a paid message inserted into a medium25” [Blythe 2002, p. 50]. Understood thus, the media constitutes the vehicles for these
25 Quotation from the English original found at tinyurl.com/6ehk4xu, p. 220; 14th September 2011.
25 Quotation from the English original found at tinyurl.com/6ehk4xu, p. 220; 14th September 2011.
Advertising This is one of the most widespread forms of promotion. It is “a paid message inserted into a medium25” [Blythe 2002, p. 50]. Understood thus, the media constitutes the vehicles for these
messages and includes not only the press, radio, television and the Internet, the last of which will be discussed separately as regards its use, but also advertising in, and on, public transport, such as buses, trains, trams and so forth, as well as outdoor advertising in the form of billboards, posters and leaflets and any kind of non–standard advert, for instance, on balconies or till receipts. Advertising is a tool most frequently employed in the promotion of a concrete product or event, such as a theatre performance and, at the same time, to some extent, it creates a positive image of the organisation. It is not difficult to envision how advertising the organisation alone using this kind of more or less one–off campaign would be most unlikely to bring about the expected result, while running it as a long–term exercise would be highly expensive. In the context, the points awarded to the category A parameters are –4. From the viewpoint of new organisations, one thing that is crucial is to know that the advertising addresses group receivers. This effect is attained by means of mass coverage; numerous posters and leaflets and an advert widely accessible on public transport or billboards. The tool receives 4 points for category B. Launching advertising activities in terms of radio, the press and posters frequently entails expenditures which newly–established cultural organisations cannot afford. Investing financial resources in a one–off advertising campaign is inadvisable; in order for such an activity to be effective, it should be carried out on a regular basis, which is more often than not a costly undertaking. Despite this, there are several forms of advertising which can be employed by new organisations and do not necessarily do serious damage to the budget; small publishers can advertise their periodicals and books on the final page of their other publications, at which point the advertising cost calculated is the printing cost; cinemas, theatres and clubs can place an advert on their own tickets and even on their till receipts; advertising on leaflets does not entail overly high expenditure, either, though its efficacy is dependent upon adopting a large–scale campaign, since, if too few leaflets reach the potential receivers, then even a modest investment may, de facto, result in a loss. For category C, the tool therefore receives –3 points.
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organisation, instruments which operate over the long–term, the kind which will build associations and afford it a visibility on the local cultural market, will be of more value; B. addressed to individual or group receivers; until such time as the organisation identifies who the receiver of the target product is and what needs and preferences they have, its initial marketing activities should reach larger target groups; C. expensive/inexpensive; how great a financial burden is entailed in the marketing communication tools used? It should be as small as possible in any model being weighed up; D. for organisations with a strong/weak brand; the tools of primary interest will be those which can be used by a little–known organisation where the brand is still in the making, tools which allow a stable and recognisable brand to be created with reasonable speed; E. for large/small organisations; an instrument should conform to the specifics of small–scale organisations with one premises, a maximum of five people engaged directly in the work and, as the occasion arises, an indirect volunteer group of similar numbers. The evaluation contains a further element, namely a system of points ranging from –4 to 4. Each given marketing tool has been allocated points for every separate set of parametres, the minimum, –4, being assigned when its utter unsuitability as an instrument for newly–founded cultural organisation is found and the maximum, 4, for the opposite situation. Naturally, an intermediate status is also possible, together with the option of assigning a value of 0. The points obtained by the tool after comparison with each parameter pair are totalled and the result constitutes the final evaluation of its usefulness; a 20–point evaluation, for instance, indicates that it is of the highest usefulness. The evaluation of the usefulness of marketing communication tools to newly–established, third– sector cultural organisations
Culture Management 2011, Vol 4 (4)
As previously mentioned, advertising primarily serves products and events and not necessarily organisations. For this reason, it is an instrument which should be used by entities with a strongly– grounded brand position for the purpose of consolidating it. As a rule, advertising does not enhance brand value unless the form and content is appropriately sophisticated and the campaign is not a one–off. The points it receives in respect of the category D parameters are thus –3. In the case of advertising, the size of the organisation is not, in principle, of vital significance. By and large, advertising, in terms of the design, printing and display, is prepared by external entities. To all intents and purposes, contact with these entities can be undertaken by one person within the organisation. In view of this, for category E it receives 4 points. Given the foregoing, the usefulness of advertising to newly–established, third–sector cultural organisations is evaluated at –2, this being the sum of the points awarded to parameters A, B, C, D and E, respectively; (–4) + 4 + (–3) + (–3) + 4 = (–2). Sales promotion This is a set of diversified measures which are intended to induce the receiver to use a product or service. They are most often short–term activities [ibidem, p. 240], though cyclical repetition can have an impact on increasing the value of the company’s image. The most frequent forms of sales promotion are samples, coupons, discounts, free gifts, loyalty programmes, competitions, prizes, cards, additional attractions, guarantees, trial periods or combining products. Mention has already been made of the fact that the primary aim of sales promotions is to convince the receiver to use the product by offering them a range of incentives. However, running certain activities on an ongoing basis can have the effect of enhancing the company’s image and increasing customer loyalty levels toward the organisation. These activities might be customer loyalty cards, thanks to which, the receiver obtains discounts on books, events and so forth, while, at one and the same time, feeling themselves to be, in some way, one of the select; or prizes, such as albums or free entry to an event, or awarding a medal or extending an invitation to join an honorary club as a ‘reward’ for tickets bought and participation in a competition. It receives 1 point for category A. The mechanisms for sales promotions are directed, in particular, to the individual receiver.
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Not everyone can receive a loyalty card or take part in a special meeting with the director of a production, organised as a prize or an additional attraction to a different event. However, there are some activities which can be addressed to a wider group of receivers; a glass of wine for every guest at the opening of an exhibition, or free tickets for children if they come to a performance accompanied by two adults. For category B, the score is –3. A sales promotion is not as costly as advertising. There are the kind of activities which entail bearing not only the direct costs incurred for prizes, free gifts and novelties, but also the indirect costs and, indeed, in the case of combining products, such as, for instance, two CDs for the price of one, or discounts, lower proceeds. However, there are also those where incurring additional expenditure does not, in fact come into play, such as, for example, some additional attractions, like meeting the musicians after a concert. In the context of the parameters for category C, sales promotions receive 1 point. Sales promotions can only be used to a minor degree in terms of building a brand, since they are more often than not short–term in nature. Building brand value can be based on loyalty programmes such as customer clubs and partner’s card systems, to name but two of many. However, what should be noted is the length of time it takes for this kind of strategy to accomplish results and the fact that its impact on the organisation’s image may not be directly perceivable. Despite this, though, entities with a weak brand can make use of this method. It receives 1 point for category D. The techniques of sales promotion can be successfully employed in small organisations. Preparation for these uncomplicated activities is something that one person in the organisation can undertake or, in specific cases, two. Apart from readying gifts, the various types of sales promotion are set up internally. It receives 3 points in category E. The overall evaluation of this marketing communication tool is 3 points. Personal selling Some marketing theorists consider personal selling to be the most effective form of marketing communication [ibidem, p. 259]. An organisation’s sales representative establishes personal contact with the potential customer and informs them of the product’s attributes during a direct meeting. Personal sales depends not upon effectively
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Sales promotion This is a set of diversified measures which are intended to induce the receiver to use a product or service. They are most often short–term activities [ibidem, p. 240], though cyclical repetition can have an impact on increasing the value of the company’s image. The most frequent forms of sales promotion are samples, coupons, discounts, free gifts, loyalty programmes, competitions, prizes, cards, additional attractions, guarantees, trial periods or combining products. Mention has already been made of the fact that the primary aim of sales promotions is to convince the receiver to use the product by offering them a range of incentives. However, running certain activities on an ongoing basis can have the effect of enhancing the company’s image and increasing customer loyalty levels toward the organisation. These activities might be customer loyalty cards, thanks to which, the receiver obtains discounts on books, events and so forth, while, at one and the same time, feeling themselves to be, in some way, one of the select; or prizes, such as albums or free entry to an event, or awarding a medal or extending an invitation to join an honorary club as a ‘reward’ for tickets bought and participation in a competition. It receives 1 point for category A. The mechanisms for sales promotions are directed, in particular, to the individual receiver. As previously mentioned, advertising primarily serves products and events and not necessarily organisations. For this reason, it is an instrument which should be used by entities with a strongly– grounded brand position for the purpose of consolidating it. As a rule, advertising does not enhance brand value unless the form and content is appropriately sophisticated and the campaign is not a one–off. The points it receives in respect of the category D parameters are thus –3. In the case of advertising, the size of the organisation is not, in principle, of vital significance. By and large, advertising, in terms of the design, printing and display, is prepared by external entities. To all intents and purposes, contact with these entities can be undertaken by one person within the organisation. In view of this, for category E it receives 4 points. Given the foregoing, the usefulness of advertising to newly–established, third–sector cultural organisations is evaluated at –2, this being the sum of the points awarded to parameters A, B, C, D and E, respectively; (–4) + 4 + (–3) + (–3) + 4 = (–2).
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Personal selling Some marketing theorists consider personal selling to be the most effective form of marketing communication [ibidem, p. 259]. An organisation’s sales representative establishes personal contact with the potential customer and informs them of the product’s attributes during a direct meeting. Personal sales depends not upon effectively Not everyone can receive a loyalty card or take part in a special meeting with the director of a production, organised as a prize or an additional attraction to a different event. However, there are some activities which can be addressed to a wider group of receivers; a glass of wine for every guest at the opening of an exhibition, or free tickets for children if they come to a performance accompanied by two adults. For category B, the score is –3. A sales promotion is not as costly as advertising. There are the kind of activities which entail bearing not only the direct costs incurred for prizes, free gifts and novelties, but also the indirect costs and, indeed, in the case of combining products, such as, for instance, two CDs for the price of one, or discounts, lower proceeds. However, there are also those where incurring additional expenditure does not, in fact come into play, such as, for example, some additional attractions, like meeting the musicians after a concert. In the context of the parameters for category C, sales promotions receive 1 point. Sales promotions can only be used to a minor degree in terms of building a brand, since they are more often than not short–term in nature. Building brand value can be based on loyalty programmes such as customer clubs and partner’s card systems, to name but two of many. However, what should be noted is the length of time it takes for this kind of strategy to accomplish results and the fact that its impact on the organisation’s image may not be directly perceivable. Despite this, though, entities with a weak brand can make use of this method. It receives 1 point for category D. The techniques of sales promotion can be successfully employed in small organisations. Preparation for these uncomplicated activities is something that one person in the organisation can undertake or, in specific cases, two. Apart from readying gifts, the various types of sales promotion are set up internally. It receives 3 points in category E. The overall evaluation of this marketing communication tool is 3 points.
other hand, any one–off mistakes made sales representatives will not necessarily have the effect of impairing a new organisation’s inconspicuous brand value. Personal selling most frequently takes the form of a face to face meeting with the customer, in view of which, any such mistakes will ultimately only be known to one person. For category D, it receives –2 points. Direct selling can be a very good marketing communication tool for small organisations. The activities can be carried out by a handful of their own staff or members. There might be a problem with involving particular members of the organisation. A sales representative should evince physical and mental endurance, by reason of the fact that long series of meetings, similar in nature, occur, as does the possibility of being exposed to the receivers’ spontaneous reactions. In respect of the category E parameters, it receives 3 points. In all, the usefulness of personal selling as a tool is evaluated at 1 point.
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Public relations “This is a set of deliberately organised activities that are continuous in nature and provide an organisation with regular communication with the surrounding world” [Limański, Drabik 2007, p. 217–218]. Ultimately, these activities are intended to enhance the organisation’s positive image. Public relations methods include, inter alia, arranging meetings and conferences devoted to the topic of the organisation, as well as entertainments, charitable events and suppers with crucial external figures, such as benefactors, volunteers, customers, local government and media representatives and so forth; giving interviews to the media, and preparing articles concerning the organisation; inviting influential people to avail themselves of the events it holds, for example exhibitions, concerts or performances; organising promotional events or happenings; lobbying activities; holding open days; and sponsoring events. In particular, activities in the public relations sphere build the desired positive image of the organisation. The way they work on public opinion is long–term, although they themselves can be both ongoing and one–off by nature. Ultimately, they all serve to enhance the organisation’s prestige in the minds of the receivers. In terms of parameter A, public relations activities receive the maximum value of 4 points. Public relations’ measures are often used as a communication tool with specific people whose decisions can have a fundamental impact on the
Public relations “This is a set of deliberately organised activities that are continuous in nature and provide an organisation with regular communication with the surrounding world” [Limański, Drabik 2007, p. 217–218]. Ultimately, these activities are intended to enhance the organisation’s positive image. Public relations methods include, inter alia, arranging meetings and conferences devoted to the topic of the organisation, as well as entertainments, charitable events and suppers with crucial external figures, such as benefactors, volunteers, customers, local government and media representatives and so forth; giving interviews to the media, and preparing articles concerning the organisation; inviting influential people to avail themselves of the events it holds, for example exhibitions, concerts or performances; organising promotional events or happenings; lobbying activities; holding open days; and sponsoring events. In particular, activities in the public relations sphere build the desired positive image of the organisation. The way they work on public opinion is long–term, although they themselves can be both ongoing and one–off by nature. Ultimately, they all serve to enhance the organisation’s prestige in the minds of the receivers. In terms of parameter A, public relations activities receive the maximum value of 4 points. Public relations’ measures are often used as a communication tool with specific people whose decisions can have a fundamental impact on the
convincing the receiver as regards buying the product, but upon the matter of dialogue, of finding a concordance on the customer need–product value line. It may well seem that personal selling primarily promotes an organisation’s product and not the organisation itself. Indeed, if the representative makes contact solely with the end user or receiver, such as individual audience members, guests at an event, bookshops or the owners of music shops, then the associations they build will only be as a sales representative. However, they can also act as representative of the organisation and make direct contact with the directors of educational institutions where the learners are interested in watching films, for instance, or meet the representatives of the local authorities responsible for subsidising third–sector cultural organisations. This kind of activity is also connected with the promotion of the organisation as such, rather than what it offers. Both the indirect doings and external appearance of the representative can also have an impact on drawing attention to a specific organisation. In sum, it receives 1 point for category A. One drawback of personal selling is the impossibility of reaching a large number of potential receivers in a short time. Yet for a new non–profit organisation more than any other, time is pivotal. This tool means that meeting every customer in person is a must. Employing additional representatives is something that new organisations can, most frequently, ill afford. With this in mind, for category B it receives –4 points. As stated, every additional representative can constitute a considerable financial burden to the organisation. After all, it is possible for this activity to be carried out by a handful of its own staff or members without incurring significant costs on that account. However, it should be remembered that, in focussing on the work of a sales representative, it is possible to neglect other areas of the organisation’s functioning and, by the same token, expose it to unforeseen expenditure. In view of this, the customers with whom personal contact need to be established should be appropriately selected. In category C, it receives 3 points. Personal selling is not a tool that can be particularly recommended for organisations wishing to build their brand. Mention has already been made of the fact that some activities can have an impact on an organisation’s image, but building a strong brand is a long–term undertaking. On the
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other hand, any one–off mistakes made sales representatives will not necessarily have the effect of impairing a new organisation’s inconspicuous brand value. Personal selling most frequently takes the form of a face to face meeting with the customer, in view of which, any such mistakes will ultimately only be known to one person. For category D, it receives –2 points. Direct selling can be a very good marketing communication tool for small organisations. The activities can be carried out by a handful of their own staff or members. There might be a problem with involving particular members of the organisation. A sales representative should evince physical and mental endurance, by reason of the fact that long series of meetings, similar in nature, occur, as does the possibility of being exposed to the receivers’ spontaneous reactions. In respect of the category E parameters, it receives 3 points. In all, the usefulness of personal selling as a tool is evaluated at 1 point.
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convincing the receiver as regards buying the product, but upon the matter of dialogue, of finding a concordance on the customer need–product value line. It may well seem that personal selling primarily promotes an organisation’s product and not the organisation itself. Indeed, if the representative makes contact solely with the end user or receiver, such as individual audience members, guests at an event, bookshops or the owners of music shops, then the associations they build will only be as a sales representative. However, they can also act as representative of the organisation and make direct contact with the directors of educational institutions where the learners are interested in watching films, for instance, or meet the representatives of the local authorities responsible for subsidising third–sector cultural organisations. This kind of activity is also connected with the promotion of the organisation as such, rather than what it offers. Both the indirect doings and external appearance of the representative can also have an impact on drawing attention to a specific organisation. In sum, it receives 1 point for category A. One drawback of personal selling is the impossibility of reaching a large number of potential receivers in a short time. Yet for a new non–profit organisation more than any other, time is pivotal. This tool means that meeting every customer in person is a must. Employing additional representatives is something that new organisations can, most frequently, ill afford. With this in mind, for category B it receives –4 points. As stated, every additional representative can constitute a considerable financial burden to the organisation. After all, it is possible for this activity to be carried out by a handful of its own staff or members without incurring significant costs on that account. However, it should be remembered that, in focussing on the work of a sales representative, it is possible to neglect other areas of the organisation’s functioning and, by the same token, expose it to unforeseen expenditure. In view of this, the customers with whom personal contact need to be established should be appropriately selected. In category C, it receives 3 points. Personal selling is not a tool that can be particularly recommended for organisations wishing to build their brand. Mention has already been made of the fact that some activities can have an impact on an organisation’s image, but building a strong brand is a long–term undertaking. On the
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functioning of the organisation. However, there are also activities such as events conducted in the organisation’s environs, or articles where the end result is that the organisation’s image is built in the consciousness of local or regional social groups. 1 point is presented for category B. Public relations activities are most frequently carried out without the outlay of financial resources, as is the case with lobbying, articles in the press, interviews, inviting special guests to the organisation’s in–house events and holding open days. However, if the activity in question is a specially arranged event, such as a charity ball or a happening, then it will entail the corresponding expenditure. It receives 2 points for category C. The mechanisms of public relations can be particularly recommended for newly–established, third–sector cultural organizations, where a great deal hinges on the effective building of their brand. Although these are activities are long–term in nature, an interestingly run artistic ‘action’ can also have a positive effect on the organisation’s image and, hand in hand with that, enhance its brand in a short period of time. The activities which can be classified as brand–enhancing are happenings, conferences, seminars, charitable balls and press articles, particularly in the local and sectoral press. It receives 4 points in category D. Not all public relations tools can be freely employed by small organisations. Organising conferences or charitable balls might well demand the involvement of a larger number of people from outside, namely volunteers. Nonetheless, in the main, the activities can be conducted without an organisation’s having a particularly large staff force at its disposal, as in, for instance, lobbying, or inviting guests to a performance or concert, or contact with the media. When an organisation has been founded by artists such as actors, musicians or painters, then it can carry out artistic actions under its own steam. In category E, it receives 1 point. Recapitulating the foregoing, the usefulness of public relations activities can be evaluated overall at 12 points. Direct marketing Direct marketing is a set of instruments with the help of which direct channels of communication can be established between the organisation and the receiver without the participation of market intermediaries. These instruments include postal marketing, catalogues, television market-
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ing, telemarketing and promotional stands [Kotler 2005, s. 632]. There are also direct–marketing tools which make use of the latest technologies, such as the Internet or mobile phones; these will be discussed in a separate section further on in the article. Personal selling is also included amongst the tools of this technique by some specialists [ibidem, p. 634]; here it is dealt with as a separate instrument. Direct–marketing activities are addressed both to current receivers [Kotler 2005, p. 632] and potential receivers, though not on a mass basis, since the focus here is on those who might be interested in the offer [Blythe 2002, p. 208]. For new non–profit organisations, telemarketing and postal marketing are activities which primarily promote a concrete event, such as an exhibition or film screening. Their impact on the organisation’s image is solely an indirect one. For mature organisations, the postal method, in the form of, for example, seasonal greetings sent to long–term customers, is more effective in terms of image creation. Newly–founded organisations, though, should make use of instruments in the form of catalogues or promotional stands. For category A, it receives 0 points. The direct marketing form is highly attractive to newly–established, third–sector organisations, because to all intents and purposes, all the activities can be addressed to potential receivers, which is to say, to a larger receiver group. Nonetheless, in this case, they do not attain the mass reach that traditional advertising does. Telemarketing, postal marketing, catalogues and promotional points alike are tools which assist in establishing relationships with receiver groups, albeit most often specific, being interested in theatre or the visual arts, or cultural heritage and so forth. It is only after this that the search within these groups for people interested in taking up the offer on a long– term basis is reached and then individualised marketing activities can be addressed directly to them. In the context of the category B parameters, direct marketing receives 4 points. In terms of newly–founded, third–sector organisations, one disadvantage of direct–marketing instruments is the cost of their implementation. Bypassing television, or teleshopping, a form which is both highly expensive and unsuitable from the viewpoint of cultural organisations, carrying out a mail–shot campaign promoting a performance, concert or festival, for instance, or preparing a printed advertising catalogue, may well exceed the financial abilities of many entities.
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Direct marketing Direct marketing is a set of instruments with the help of which direct channels of communication can be established between the organisation and the receiver without the participation of market intermediaries. These instruments include postal marketing, catalogues, television marketfunctioning of the organisation. However, there are also activities such as events conducted in the organisation’s environs, or articles where the end result is that the organisation’s image is built in the consciousness of local or regional social groups. 1 point is presented for category B. Public relations activities are most frequently carried out without the outlay of financial resources, as is the case with lobbying, articles in the press, interviews, inviting special guests to the organisation’s in–house events and holding open days. However, if the activity in question is a specially arranged event, such as a charity ball or a happening, then it will entail the corresponding expenditure. It receives 2 points for category C. The mechanisms of public relations can be particularly recommended for newly–established, third–sector cultural organizations, where a great deal hinges on the effective building of their brand. Although these are activities are long–term in nature, an interestingly run artistic ‘action’ can also have a positive effect on the organisation’s image and, hand in hand with that, enhance its brand in a short period of time. The activities which can be classified as brand–enhancing are happenings, conferences, seminars, charitable balls and press articles, particularly in the local and sectoral press. It receives 4 points in category D. Not all public relations tools can be freely employed by small organisations. Organising conferences or charitable balls might well demand the involvement of a larger number of people from outside, namely volunteers. Nonetheless, in the main, the activities can be conducted without an organisation’s having a particularly large staff force at its disposal, as in, for instance, lobbying, or inviting guests to a performance or concert, or contact with the media. When an organisation has been founded by artists such as actors, musicians or painters, then it can carry out artistic actions under its own steam. In category E, it receives 1 point. Recapitulating the foregoing, the usefulness of public relations activities can be evaluated overall at 12 points.
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ing, telemarketing and promotional stands [Kotler 2005, s. 632]. There are also direct–marketing tools which make use of the latest technologies, such as the Internet or mobile phones; these will be discussed in a separate section further on in the article. Personal selling is also included amongst the tools of this technique by some specialists [ibidem, p. 634]; here it is dealt with as a separate instrument. Direct–marketing activities are addressed both to current receivers [Kotler 2005, p. 632] and potential receivers, though not on a mass basis, since the focus here is on those who might be interested in the offer [Blythe 2002, p. 208]. For new non–profit organisations, telemarketing and postal marketing are activities which primarily promote a concrete event, such as an exhibition or film screening. Their impact on the organisation’s image is solely an indirect one. For mature organisations, the postal method, in the form of, for example, seasonal greetings sent to long–term customers, is more effective in terms of image creation. Newly–founded organisations, though, should make use of instruments in the form of catalogues or promotional stands. For category A, it receives 0 points. The direct marketing form is highly attractive to newly–established, third–sector organisations, because to all intents and purposes, all the activities can be addressed to potential receivers, which is to say, to a larger receiver group. Nonetheless, in this case, they do not attain the mass reach that traditional advertising does. Telemarketing, postal marketing, catalogues and promotional points alike are tools which assist in establishing relationships with receiver groups, albeit most often specific, being interested in theatre or the visual arts, or cultural heritage and so forth. It is only after this that the search within these groups for people interested in taking up the offer on a long– term basis is reached and then individualised marketing activities can be addressed directly to them. In the context of the category B parameters, direct marketing receives 4 points. In terms of newly–founded, third–sector organisations, one disadvantage of direct–marketing instruments is the cost of their implementation. Bypassing television, or teleshopping, a form which is both highly expensive and unsuitable from the viewpoint of cultural organisations, carrying out a mail–shot campaign promoting a performance, concert or festival, for instance, or preparing a printed advertising catalogue, may well exceed the financial abilities of many entities.
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The costs can be limited and the telemarketing model employed within a pre–determined budget, which means purchasing a packet for a fixed price from the provider, with an unlimited number of local and long–distance calls for a month, for example, and then, having ‘met’ the receivers over the phone, send a letter together with the relevant materials, such as tickets or invitations, for instance, only to those who have expressed an interest. However, the most useful form would seem to be arranging to establish a promotional stand. The organisation can undertake collaboration with a school or HEI, for instance, and offer to place their logo on posters for a cultural event, in return for which, it will obtain the opportunity of setting up a promotional stand, free of charge. This can then fulfil not only a promotional role, but may also serve as a sales point for tickets, books, records and so forth. Ultimately, however, the tool receives –2 points for category C. Direct–marketing mechanisms are not suited to building an organisation’s brand. Only a long–term series of catalogues and the launch of promotional stands at apposite sites can enhance the brand; however, these are not measures which will bring about an immediate result. There is no particular risk to a new organisation’s brand as regards employing this kind of practice. However, caution should be taken with telemarketing, which, if badly conducted, can produce negative associations in the minds of the receivers. In category D, it receives –1 points. The majority of direct–marketing instruments can be used by small organisations. No more than three people need be involved in postal marketing or running a promotional stand. However, these practices, particularly telemarketing, can entail compiling an accurate database, while carrying them out rapidly and accurately may well involve a larger number of people, often specialists. In the context of the parameters for category E, direct marketing receives 2 points. The final evaluation of the suitability of direct marketing mechanisms is 3 points.
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product and this product alone. Confirmation of the message, or feedback, and at the same time the closure of the communication process, or message flow, occurs when the customer makes the purchase. If the receiver is not in possession of the information regarding the product’s uniqueness, then they cannot say that it is of an appropriate quality. Given that “the features or characteristics of a product or service that bear on its ability to satisfy stated or implied needs26” [Griffin 2004, p. 689] should typify every product that endeavours to compete with others on the market and not merely those which, as Ricky Griffin claims, are distinctive for their quality, then ultimately, quality, a uniqueness and otherness, should characterise all the products, events or services of newly–established, third–sector cultural organisations. Despite the fact that quality occurs on the product–receiver line, it can have a direct impact on the organisation’s image in itself. Engaging well–known actors or using music by a renowned composer in a production, or arranging a special meeting with a recognised sculptor, as well as adapting an old factory in order to hold a concert there, or running a street art ‘action’ against unique scenery, for instance, will not only enhance an event itself, but will also reinforce the image of the organisation responsible for running it. In category A, it receives 2 points. Quality should be perceived by a specific receiver. However, when it comes to cultural wares, their quality benefits a larger community at film screenings, concerts and performances, or through books and music releases. This also applies to galleries, where quality extends not only to the receiver who wishes to come into possession of a work of art, but also, in a sense, to groups of indirect receivers who are tempted by the quality of the work into visiting the gallery itself. It receives 2 points in category B. Maintaining a high artistic level can mean that a cultural organisation will incur the essential costs entailed in, for instance, engaging the appropriate artists, selecting adequate technical equipment, such as computers, lighting and sound systems, and hiring the right premises, be it a recording studio, performance space or factory, or a square or street for an open–air event. In order to limit the costs, the organisation should make
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Quality Quality is not only a characteristic of a product, a discriminant of its uniqueness. It also, and even primarily, informs the receiver; it is a message to the effect that this uniqueness belongs to this
26 Quotation from the English original found at http://tinyurl.com/6kj9nsz, p. 472; 16th September 2011.
26 Quotation from the English original found at http://tinyurl.com/6kj9nsz, p. 472; 16th September 2011.
Quality Quality is not only a characteristic of a product, a discriminant of its uniqueness. It also, and even primarily, informs the receiver; it is a message to the effect that this uniqueness belongs to this
product and this product alone. Confirmation of the message, or feedback, and at the same time the closure of the communication process, or message flow, occurs when the customer makes the purchase. If the receiver is not in possession of the information regarding the product’s uniqueness, then they cannot say that it is of an appropriate quality. Given that “the features or characteristics of a product or service that bear on its ability to satisfy stated or implied needs26” [Griffin 2004, p. 689] should typify every product that endeavours to compete with others on the market and not merely those which, as Ricky Griffin claims, are distinctive for their quality, then ultimately, quality, a uniqueness and otherness, should characterise all the products, events or services of newly–established, third–sector cultural organisations. Despite the fact that quality occurs on the product–receiver line, it can have a direct impact on the organisation’s image in itself. Engaging well–known actors or using music by a renowned composer in a production, or arranging a special meeting with a recognised sculptor, as well as adapting an old factory in order to hold a concert there, or running a street art ‘action’ against unique scenery, for instance, will not only enhance an event itself, but will also reinforce the image of the organisation responsible for running it. In category A, it receives 2 points. Quality should be perceived by a specific receiver. However, when it comes to cultural wares, their quality benefits a larger community at film screenings, concerts and performances, or through books and music releases. This also applies to galleries, where quality extends not only to the receiver who wishes to come into possession of a work of art, but also, in a sense, to groups of indirect receivers who are tempted by the quality of the work into visiting the gallery itself. It receives 2 points in category B. Maintaining a high artistic level can mean that a cultural organisation will incur the essential costs entailed in, for instance, engaging the appropriate artists, selecting adequate technical equipment, such as computers, lighting and sound systems, and hiring the right premises, be it a recording studio, performance space or factory, or a square or street for an open–air event. In order to limit the costs, the organisation should make
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The costs can be limited and the telemarketing model employed within a pre–determined budget, which means purchasing a packet for a fixed price from the provider, with an unlimited number of local and long–distance calls for a month, for example, and then, having ‘met’ the receivers over the phone, send a letter together with the relevant materials, such as tickets or invitations, for instance, only to those who have expressed an interest. However, the most useful form would seem to be arranging to establish a promotional stand. The organisation can undertake collaboration with a school or HEI, for instance, and offer to place their logo on posters for a cultural event, in return for which, it will obtain the opportunity of setting up a promotional stand, free of charge. This can then fulfil not only a promotional role, but may also serve as a sales point for tickets, books, records and so forth. Ultimately, however, the tool receives –2 points for category C. Direct–marketing mechanisms are not suited to building an organisation’s brand. Only a long–term series of catalogues and the launch of promotional stands at apposite sites can enhance the brand; however, these are not measures which will bring about an immediate result. There is no particular risk to a new organisation’s brand as regards employing this kind of practice. However, caution should be taken with telemarketing, which, if badly conducted, can produce negative associations in the minds of the receivers. In category D, it receives –1 points. The majority of direct–marketing instruments can be used by small organisations. No more than three people need be involved in postal marketing or running a promotional stand. However, these practices, particularly telemarketing, can entail compiling an accurate database, while carrying them out rapidly and accurately may well involve a larger number of people, often specialists. In the context of the parameters for category E, direct marketing receives 2 points. The final evaluation of the suitability of direct marketing mechanisms is 3 points.
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use of the people it knows, particularly in terms of the artistic sphere and hiring premises, where it might, for instance, have contacts within the adminstration section. Taking the assumptions of the parameters for category C into account, quality receives –2 points. Quality management is indicated for non–profit organisations with a weak brand which is still in the making. Fostering the highest possible quality in what they offer can have a direct impact on the rapid development of a strong brand. Further activities will then entail enhancing its stability. It receives 4 points in category D. Nurturing the quality of what is offered need not involve the engagement of a larger organising group. Tracking down the right artists or site for a cultural event can be done by a maximum of four to five people. However, the organisation is then forced to run more modest events. Large–scale activities demand the employment of additional personnel. From the viewpoint of category E, it receives 2 points. Quality management activities are thus evaluated at 8 points. Packaging It would appear that packaging relates solely to material products. However, in the case of services, packaging will also be something that does not directly constitute a service, but is connected with its use. It will thus be every element which either just prior to, or during, the process of using the service, can be identified via the senses. it is thanks to the message contained in the contents of the packaging that the receiver makes the decision as to whether or not to avail themselves of the product. In a hairdressing salon, for instance, this could be the hairdresser’s clothes, the décor of the salon, the temperature and the music playing, even in the background. In the case of services provided directly in situ, we evaluate those elements which are connected with the person providing the service themselves, such as their appearance and the way they conduct themselves and use the equipment, for example. These considerations can be transferred to the plane of cultural organisations. In the cultural sphere, packaging management can be divided into two types; the packaging of material products, for example books, albums and periodicals, and the packaging of non–material offers, such as concerts, exhibitions and performances. The first type will serve to promote the products themselves, whilst the second, which
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includes the décor of a club, the attire of the service staff, cleanliness and smell, for instance, will serve both the event and the organisation. It would seem that using packaging as a marketing communication tool offers greater promotional opportunities for the product than for the organization. In view of this, for category A it receives –1 point. The division of culture into material and non– material is also vital from another point of view. The packaging of a material product is intended primarily to work on the individual receiver. When it comes to the non–material, however, it works to a greater degree on a larger group than it does on individuals. This relates to groups availing themselves of non–material cultural wares, such as, for instance, artistic actions, film screenings, or a museum exhibition in its entirety, rather than in terms of individual exhibits. Given the foregoing, it receives 0 points for category B. Packaging management is a technique which can entail the incurrence of considerable costs by a cultural organisation, for instance, when the right graphic artist is engaged to design the packaging, which is to say, the covers, of a book or periodical. However, these activities can be carried out by the organization on its own account by a person who is familiar with the appropriate software and is of an artistic bent. In general, preparing the packaging for a non–material product, such as the décor of a theatre, for example, should be counted as a high–cost undertaking. Although a one–off activity, it is a project that demands ongoing conservation. In respect of the category C parameters, it receives –4 points. Packaging can be used to build the brand of a newly–established, third–sector cultural organisation. In the case of material products, this effect can be directly achieved by means of running a rigorous packaging management strategy, such as, for example, a series of books with a high–profile placement of the publisher’s logo. The packaging of the non–material, such as ingenious interior design and other elements which create an atmosphere, has a more direct impact upon building the right brand image. It receives 2 points for category C. Concepts related to packaging and its function can be implemented by a small group of people. Innovative solutions might entail undertaking collaboration with additional people from outside. Nonetheless, these are not activities which a small organisation would be unable to conduct under its own steam. For category E, it receives 3 points. The combined value of the tool is 0 points.
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Packaging It would appear that packaging relates solely to material products. However, in the case of services, packaging will also be something that does not directly constitute a service, but is connected with its use. It will thus be every element which either just prior to, or during, the process of using the service, can be identified via the senses. it is thanks to the message contained in the contents of the packaging that the receiver makes the decision as to whether or not to avail themselves of the product. In a hairdressing salon, for instance, this could be the hairdresser’s clothes, the décor of the salon, the temperature and the music playing, even in the background. In the case of services provided directly in situ, we evaluate those elements which are connected with the person providing the service themselves, such as their appearance and the way they conduct themselves and use the equipment, for example. These considerations can be transferred to the plane of cultural organisations. In the cultural sphere, packaging management can be divided into two types; the packaging of material products, for example books, albums and periodicals, and the packaging of non–material offers, such as concerts, exhibitions and performances. The first type will serve to promote the products themselves, whilst the second, which use of the people it knows, particularly in terms of the artistic sphere and hiring premises, where it might, for instance, have contacts within the adminstration section. Taking the assumptions of the parameters for category C into account, quality receives –2 points. Quality management is indicated for non–profit organisations with a weak brand which is still in the making. Fostering the highest possible quality in what they offer can have a direct impact on the rapid development of a strong brand. Further activities will then entail enhancing its stability. It receives 4 points in category D. Nurturing the quality of what is offered need not involve the engagement of a larger organising group. Tracking down the right artists or site for a cultural event can be done by a maximum of four to five people. However, the organisation is then forced to run more modest events. Large–scale activities demand the employment of additional personnel. From the viewpoint of category E, it receives 2 points. Quality management activities are thus evaluated at 8 points.
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includes the décor of a club, the attire of the service staff, cleanliness and smell, for instance, will serve both the event and the organisation. It would seem that using packaging as a marketing communication tool offers greater promotional opportunities for the product than for the organization. In view of this, for category A it receives –1 point. The division of culture into material and non– material is also vital from another point of view. The packaging of a material product is intended primarily to work on the individual receiver. When it comes to the non–material, however, it works to a greater degree on a larger group than it does on individuals. This relates to groups availing themselves of non–material cultural wares, such as, for instance, artistic actions, film screenings, or a museum exhibition in its entirety, rather than in terms of individual exhibits. Given the foregoing, it receives 0 points for category B. Packaging management is a technique which can entail the incurrence of considerable costs by a cultural organisation, for instance, when the right graphic artist is engaged to design the packaging, which is to say, the covers, of a book or periodical. However, these activities can be carried out by the organization on its own account by a person who is familiar with the appropriate software and is of an artistic bent. In general, preparing the packaging for a non–material product, such as the décor of a theatre, for example, should be counted as a high–cost undertaking. Although a one–off activity, it is a project that demands ongoing conservation. In respect of the category C parameters, it receives –4 points. Packaging can be used to build the brand of a newly–established, third–sector cultural organisation. In the case of material products, this effect can be directly achieved by means of running a rigorous packaging management strategy, such as, for example, a series of books with a high–profile placement of the publisher’s logo. The packaging of the non–material, such as ingenious interior design and other elements which create an atmosphere, has a more direct impact upon building the right brand image. It receives 2 points for category C. Concepts related to packaging and its function can be implemented by a small group of people. Innovative solutions might entail undertaking collaboration with additional people from outside. Nonetheless, these are not activities which a small organisation would be unable to conduct under its own steam. For category E, it receives 3 points. The combined value of the tool is 0 points.
Shock advertising Shock advertising, or shockvertising, reaches the receivers via the same channels as traditional advertising. Its unique characteristic is the message it contains, or rather, the way in which that message is presented, be it visually, aurally or by means of the content. Shock advertising is intended to invoke extreme emotions in the receiver, emotions such as fear or disgust, or to break social taboos. To this end, the spheres that are most often put to use are “sexuality, violence, death and suffering, as well as the sense of good taste and religious and moral feelings” [Śliwińska, Pacut ed. 2011, p. 18]. Although, as mentioned previously, traditional advertising serves product promotion, it is a somewhat different matter with shock advertising. The content of the advert is also a ‘product’, inasmuch as it refers to an exhibition or socio– cultural event, for instance, but the way in which it is presented may well simultaneously have an impact upon the receiver’s evaluation of the organisation. If a campaign is properly run, then shock advertising can enhance an organisation’s image. For category A, it receives 1 point. As is the case with traditional advertising, shock advertising reaches larger social groups. From the viewpoint of the category B parameters, it thus receives 4 points. The financial outlay on shock advertising can be likened to the expenditure entailed in a traditional campaign. It receives –3 points in category C. As regards classic advertising, it has previously been noted that, as a tool, it has no direct impact on an organisation’s brand. From this point of view, it is of little use to non–profit organisations. However, in the case of an ill–run shock advertising campaign, the weak brand of a newly– founded organisation might be entirely forfeited. In category D, it receives –4 points. Both traditional and shock advertising can be adapted by a small organisation with the same success. Analogically, the number of points it receives for category E is 4. The usefulness of shock advertising is evaluated as being 2 points.
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shelves; interactive, lighting and audio–visual systems; sampling and interactive equipment; staff clothing and behaviour; and ‘lures’. In the case of third–sector cultural organisations, some merchandising instruments are employed in product promotion. These will be shelves, posters, display stands or banners, prepared with a view to advertising and presenting a specific product. In galleries, small museums, bookshops and music shops, for instance, shop windows and display cases can play an indirect role, encouraging the receivers to make a concrete purchase of, for example, a book, while a space which is arranged in a non–standard and ingenious fashion will, analogically, create a positive image for the entire organisation. The ‘lure’ mechanism, such as, for instance, a person in fancy dress who urges receivers to enter an organisation’s premises, can work in a similar way. The number of merchandising measures which create a positive image of the organisation is, in fact, vast. There are interactive systems, such as a computer with online access to the organisation’s website or forum; audio systems, music which can also be listened to off the premises, thus invoking positive associations; lighting systems which, particularly after dark, can create a unique atmosphere; and sampling, such as providing the opportunity of reading a book without constraint in a bookshop or listening to music from a record in which the receiver is interested. In the same way, stylised clothing and the choreographed behaviour of the staff can act directly upon the way in which the organisation is perceived by the receivers. It receives 2 points for category A. Given that merchandising instruments are located either indoors or in the organisation’s nearest vicinity, they are thus directed, in particular, toward individual receivers or small receiver groups in its direct environs. For this reason, in the case of the category B parameters, it receives –2 points. Merchandising resources can be divided into two groups, those which give rise to expenditure, such as display stands, posters and advanced technological systems, and those which are creative, depend upon their instigator’s ingenuity and need not necessarily entail financial outlay, including sampling, shop window displays, ‘lures’ and the staff’s activities. For category C, it receives 0 points. Merchandising can be adapted to the requirements of an organisation that has no brand. The greater the creativity of its members in, for
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Merchandising This is a set of instruments located either at a sales point or in the nearest vicinity of an organisation which entices receivers to avail themselves of its offer. They can be shop windows and display cases; posters and banners; display stands and
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Merchandising This is a set of instruments located either at a sales point or in the nearest vicinity of an organisation which entices receivers to avail themselves of its offer. They can be shop windows and display cases; posters and banners; display stands and
shelves; interactive, lighting and audio–visual systems; sampling and interactive equipment; staff clothing and behaviour; and ‘lures’. In the case of third–sector cultural organisations, some merchandising instruments are employed in product promotion. These will be shelves, posters, display stands or banners, prepared with a view to advertising and presenting a specific product. In galleries, small museums, bookshops and music shops, for instance, shop windows and display cases can play an indirect role, encouraging the receivers to make a concrete purchase of, for example, a book, while a space which is arranged in a non–standard and ingenious fashion will, analogically, create a positive image for the entire organisation. The ‘lure’ mechanism, such as, for instance, a person in fancy dress who urges receivers to enter an organisation’s premises, can work in a similar way. The number of merchandising measures which create a positive image of the organisation is, in fact, vast. There are interactive systems, such as a computer with online access to the organisation’s website or forum; audio systems, music which can also be listened to off the premises, thus invoking positive associations; lighting systems which, particularly after dark, can create a unique atmosphere; and sampling, such as providing the opportunity of reading a book without constraint in a bookshop or listening to music from a record in which the receiver is interested. In the same way, stylised clothing and the choreographed behaviour of the staff can act directly upon the way in which the organisation is perceived by the receivers. It receives 2 points for category A. Given that merchandising instruments are located either indoors or in the organisation’s nearest vicinity, they are thus directed, in particular, toward individual receivers or small receiver groups in its direct environs. For this reason, in the case of the category B parameters, it receives –2 points. Merchandising resources can be divided into two groups, those which give rise to expenditure, such as display stands, posters and advanced technological systems, and those which are creative, depend upon their instigator’s ingenuity and need not necessarily entail financial outlay, including sampling, shop window displays, ‘lures’ and the staff’s activities. For category C, it receives 0 points. Merchandising can be adapted to the requirements of an organisation that has no brand. The greater the creativity of its members in, for
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Shock advertising Shock advertising, or shockvertising, reaches the receivers via the same channels as traditional advertising. Its unique characteristic is the message it contains, or rather, the way in which that message is presented, be it visually, aurally or by means of the content. Shock advertising is intended to invoke extreme emotions in the receiver, emotions such as fear or disgust, or to break social taboos. To this end, the spheres that are most often put to use are “sexuality, violence, death and suffering, as well as the sense of good taste and religious and moral feelings” [Śliwińska, Pacut ed. 2011, p. 18]. Although, as mentioned previously, traditional advertising serves product promotion, it is a somewhat different matter with shock advertising. The content of the advert is also a ‘product’, inasmuch as it refers to an exhibition or socio– cultural event, for instance, but the way in which it is presented may well simultaneously have an impact upon the receiver’s evaluation of the organisation. If a campaign is properly run, then shock advertising can enhance an organisation’s image. For category A, it receives 1 point. As is the case with traditional advertising, shock advertising reaches larger social groups. From the viewpoint of the category B parameters, it thus receives 4 points. The financial outlay on shock advertising can be likened to the expenditure entailed in a traditional campaign. It receives –3 points in category C. As regards classic advertising, it has previously been noted that, as a tool, it has no direct impact on an organisation’s brand. From this point of view, it is of little use to non–profit organisations. However, in the case of an ill–run shock advertising campaign, the weak brand of a newly– founded organisation might be entirely forfeited. In category D, it receives –4 points. Both traditional and shock advertising can be adapted by a small organisation with the same success. Analogically, the number of points it receives for category E is 4. The usefulness of shock advertising is evaluated as being 2 points.
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instance, initiating choreographed activities, the greater the likelihood of rapidly building a brand of strength. On the other hand, an overly ostentatious use of this kind of activity, or the unsuitable or improper use of technological solutions, can bring about the opposite effect. Ultimately, in respect of the category D parameters, it receives 2 points. In the main, merchandising activities can be conducted internally. In all probability, the installation and adaptation of advanced technologies to the organisation’s requirements will demand specialist assistance from outside. It receives 2 points for category E. The final evaluation of the usefulness of merchandising to newly–established, third–sector cultural organisations is 6 points. Product placement Marketing communication is a measure which combines the fields of advertising and public relations [ibidem, p. 19]. It makes use of similar channels to those utilised by advertising, namely the mass media, but the entire marketing operation is hidden, which is what occurs with public relations activities. Information about a product or organisation is camouflaged in a variety of forms; in feature films, radio programmes and theatre productions, in the screenplays for television programmes or in the contents of articles where the underlying premise concerns a different topic. An example of this might be when someone from an organisation takes part in a series, or when plot lines in a series are devoted to an organisation, or when an organisation’s logo or other information about it is visible either during the broadcast itself or in the opening or closing credits. In the cultural sphere, product placement can be used, for instance, by organisations running cultural ‘actions’, in other words acting prosocially with the aim of promoting cultural and positive behaviours, such as learning to read and write [Dragicevic–Sesic, Stojkovic 2010, p. 129]. These mechanisms are employed by third–sector cultural organisations in order to demonstrate certain negative socio–cultural manifestations to the receiver. In this way, the organisation promotes its own ‘product’, whilst also being able to counteract this type of problem. At one and the same time, it is also promoting itself. For category A, it receives 0 points. As a result of availing themselves of the mass media, non–profit organisations have the possibility of reaching numerous receivers at one time. It receives 4 points for category B.
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To all intents and purposes, product placement instruments can be said to be a form of marketing communication that is free of charge. It receives 4, the maximum number of points. On the one hand, it can be claimed that product placement may well be a highly advantageous solution if an organisation is intent upon building a solid brand in a short time. On the other hand, it is difficult for a new organisation with a weak brand to exist in the media environment; at best, they might succeed at the regional level. Bearing in mind the benefits of this solution in the context of the group D parameters, it receives a final allocation of 1 point. As previously remarked, owing to the hindrances which impede access to the major media, small cultural, which is to say, artisitic, organisations rarely make use of this type of activity. However, they can endeavour to participate as representatives of non–profit organisations on local television and radio programmes. For category E, it receives –3 points. The evaluation of the usefulness of the product placement marketing communication tool to newly–established, third–sector cultural organisations stands at 4 points. Ambient marketing This is a set of marketing communication activities which entails establishing a relationship with the receiver by unconventional means [Śliwińska, Pacut ed. 2011, p. 21]. The sender of the message should surprise the receiver, astonish them, leave them dumbstruck. It most frequently uses the surfaces of atypical items, such as toilet paper, old coins or bottles; architectural items, for example, bus and tram shelters, or pavements; and entire spaces or surfaces that traditionally carry advertising but are put to use in an atypical way, for instance advertising columns and boards. The ingenuity of the campaign depends solely on the creativity of the team organising it. This type of tool is used primarily in order to promote specific events and products, such as concerts, festivals, books, meetings with creative artists and so forth. It is unquestionable, however, that a campaign with highly creative attributes can also have a positive impact on an organisation’s image. It receives –1 point for category A. The premise behind ambient marketing, or ambient media, as it is also known, is that it is intended to be a visible and recognisable campaign. It is addressed to appropriately large receiver
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Product placement Marketing communication is a measure which combines the fields of advertising and public relations [ibidem, p. 19]. It makes use of similar channels to those utilised by advertising, namely the mass media, but the entire marketing operation is hidden, which is what occurs with public relations activities. Information about a product or organisation is camouflaged in a variety of forms; in feature films, radio programmes and theatre productions, in the screenplays for television programmes or in the contents of articles where the underlying premise concerns a different topic. An example of this might be when someone from an organisation takes part in a series, or when plot lines in a series are devoted to an organisation, or when an organisation’s logo or other information about it is visible either during the broadcast itself or in the opening or closing credits. In the cultural sphere, product placement can be used, for instance, by organisations running cultural ‘actions’, in other words acting prosocially with the aim of promoting cultural and positive behaviours, such as learning to read and write [Dragicevic–Sesic, Stojkovic 2010, p. 129]. These mechanisms are employed by third–sector cultural organisations in order to demonstrate certain negative socio–cultural manifestations to the receiver. In this way, the organisation promotes its own ‘product’, whilst also being able to counteract this type of problem. At one and the same time, it is also promoting itself. For category A, it receives 0 points. As a result of availing themselves of the mass media, non–profit organisations have the possibility of reaching numerous receivers at one time. It receives 4 points for category B. instance, initiating choreographed activities, the greater the likelihood of rapidly building a brand of strength. On the other hand, an overly ostentatious use of this kind of activity, or the unsuitable or improper use of technological solutions, can bring about the opposite effect. Ultimately, in respect of the category D parameters, it receives 2 points. In the main, merchandising activities can be conducted internally. In all probability, the installation and adaptation of advanced technologies to the organisation’s requirements will demand specialist assistance from outside. It receives 2 points for category E. The final evaluation of the usefulness of merchandising to newly–established, third–sector cultural organisations is 6 points.
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Ambient marketing This is a set of marketing communication activities which entails establishing a relationship with the receiver by unconventional means [Śliwińska, Pacut ed. 2011, p. 21]. The sender of the message should surprise the receiver, astonish them, leave them dumbstruck. It most frequently uses the surfaces of atypical items, such as toilet paper, old coins or bottles; architectural items, for example, bus and tram shelters, or pavements; and entire spaces or surfaces that traditionally carry advertising but are put to use in an atypical way, for instance advertising columns and boards. The ingenuity of the campaign depends solely on the creativity of the team organising it. This type of tool is used primarily in order to promote specific events and products, such as concerts, festivals, books, meetings with creative artists and so forth. It is unquestionable, however, that a campaign with highly creative attributes can also have a positive impact on an organisation’s image. It receives –1 point for category A. The premise behind ambient marketing, or ambient media, as it is also known, is that it is intended to be a visible and recognisable campaign. It is addressed to appropriately large receiver On the one hand, it can be claimed that product placement may well be a highly advantageous solution if an organisation is intent upon building a solid brand in a short time. On the other hand, it is difficult for a new organisation with a weak brand to exist in the media environment; at best, they might succeed at the regional level. Bearing in mind the benefits of this solution in the context of the group D parameters, it receives a final allocation of 1 point. As previously remarked, owing to the hindrances which impede access to the major media, small cultural, which is to say, artisitic, organisations rarely make use of this type of activity. However, they can endeavour to participate as representatives of non–profit organisations on local television and radio programmes. For category E, it receives –3 points. The evaluation of the usefulness of the product placement marketing communication tool to newly–established, third–sector cultural organisations stands at 4 points. To all intents and purposes, product placement instruments can be said to be a form of marketing communication that is free of charge. It receives 4, the maximum number of points.
groups. In view of the foregoing, it receives 4 points in category B. By nature, ambient campaigns can be twofold; there are those where the cost may well place a considerable burden on new organisations, or there are those requiring a modest financial outlay. It receives –1 point for category C. It appears that ambient marketing might well be a significant instrument for organisations with a weak brand. The greater the potential creativity of an ambient campaign, the greater the likelihood that the receiver will also perceive that potential in the organisation itself. Because ambient marketing does not rely on provoking negative emotions in the receiver, such as may well occur in the case of shock advertising, the risk of a disadvantageous impact’s being made by an unsuccessful campaign is a minor one. In the context of the category D parameters, it receives 3 points in all. A great many ambient marketing ideas will be impossible for small, non–governmental organisations to implement, even with the assistance of additional volunteers. Carrying out activities of this type on the largest of scales is something that can only be done by a large, experienced organisation. Thanks to ingenuity, however, a smaller group of people is capable of implementing interesting activities, albeit on a more modest scale, such as guerrilla marketing, sticker bombing or graffiti, for instance. In category E, it receives 0 points. In total, ambient marketing receives 5 points.
As is the case with product placement, activities of this type are intended to make the receiver aware that there are certain marginalized socio– cultural or cultural problems, such as cultural niches or forgotten aspects of culture in the latter instance. They point up a diminution with which this or that organisation is engaged in this or that manner. The point here is to shine a light on a problem and, simultaneously, to identify the entity that is working to fix it, thus building the image of the organisation operating in the field. It is also intended to indicate the ways in which that organisation is combating the problem, by means of cultural actions, concerts and so forth; hence working to promote the ‘product’. For category A, it receives 0 points. Experiential marketing activities should always be directed toward a wide audience. The premise is to build public opinion as regards the marginalisation of a given problem. It receives 4 points in category B. Some experiential marketing tools can entail the commitment of adequate financial resources. This is primarily the case with those based on advertising mechanisms. However, the majority of these instruments, which number amongst public relations solutions, can be applied at no cost or with modest outlays. In category C, it receives 1 point. For organisations characterised by a weak brand, experiential marketing can be an advantageous solution. Effective activities can produce a fairly rapid result in the form of attaining the status of an organisation with a strong brand. The overly intense support of extreme niche cultural trends might, however, give rise to the opposite effect. In respect of the category D parameters, it thus receives 2 points. Conducting cultural activities, particularly those of supraregional significance, might constitute a major challenge for small organisations. Smaller actions or happenings may only occasionally require the engagement of a greater number of volunteers. Experiential marketing employing standard advertising solutions can be coordinated by a small group of people. It receives –1 point in category E. All told, the value of experiential marketing is evaluated as being 6 points.
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Whisper marketing This a set of communication marketing tools thanks to which an organisation’s one–off message will, without its further participation, be spontaneously replicated amongst receivers. As
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Whisper marketing This a set of communication marketing tools thanks to which an organisation’s one–off message will, without its further participation, be spontaneously replicated amongst receivers. As
Experiential marketing Experiential marketing might bring to mind shock advertising and public relations, particularly happenings. Nevertheless, this is not shock advertising, since it does not make use of advertising techniques alone. Its aim is to trigger powerful emotions in the receiver, though not negative ones and not necessarily by creating a shock, but by means of an effect that causes them to associate the content of the message with their own experience, such as, for instance, a poster depicting a teenager writing a simple word in an exercise book and spelling it wrongly. In the cultural sphere, tools of this type are used by organisations carrying out cultural campaigns promoting reading, for example, or singing, as well as by those operating in social niches or independent cultural clubs and organisations and by those whose aim might be to bring undiscerned issues related to cultural heritage to the forefront of people’s minds.
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Experiential marketing Experiential marketing might bring to mind shock advertising and public relations, particularly happenings. Nevertheless, this is not shock advertising, since it does not make use of advertising techniques alone. Its aim is to trigger powerful emotions in the receiver, though not negative ones and not necessarily by creating a shock, but by means of an effect that causes them to associate the content of the message with their own experience, such as, for instance, a poster depicting a teenager writing a simple word in an exercise book and spelling it wrongly. In the cultural sphere, tools of this type are used by organisations carrying out cultural campaigns promoting reading, for example, or singing, as well as by those operating in social niches or independent cultural clubs and organisations and by those whose aim might be to bring undiscerned issues related to cultural heritage to the forefront of people’s minds.
As is the case with product placement, activities of this type are intended to make the receiver aware that there are certain marginalized socio– cultural or cultural problems, such as cultural niches or forgotten aspects of culture in the latter instance. They point up a diminution with which this or that organisation is engaged in this or that manner. The point here is to shine a light on a problem and, simultaneously, to identify the entity that is working to fix it, thus building the image of the organisation operating in the field. It is also intended to indicate the ways in which that organisation is combating the problem, by means of cultural actions, concerts and so forth; hence working to promote the ‘product’. For category A, it receives 0 points. Experiential marketing activities should always be directed toward a wide audience. The premise is to build public opinion as regards the marginalisation of a given problem. It receives 4 points in category B. Some experiential marketing tools can entail the commitment of adequate financial resources. This is primarily the case with those based on advertising mechanisms. However, the majority of these instruments, which number amongst public relations solutions, can be applied at no cost or with modest outlays. In category C, it receives 1 point. For organisations characterised by a weak brand, experiential marketing can be an advantageous solution. Effective activities can produce a fairly rapid result in the form of attaining the status of an organisation with a strong brand. The overly intense support of extreme niche cultural trends might, however, give rise to the opposite effect. In respect of the category D parameters, it thus receives 2 points. Conducting cultural activities, particularly those of supraregional significance, might constitute a major challenge for small organisations. Smaller actions or happenings may only occasionally require the engagement of a greater number of volunteers. Experiential marketing employing standard advertising solutions can be coordinated by a small group of people. It receives –1 point in category E. All told, the value of experiential marketing is evaluated as being 6 points.
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groups. In view of the foregoing, it receives 4 points in category B. By nature, ambient campaigns can be twofold; there are those where the cost may well place a considerable burden on new organisations, or there are those requiring a modest financial outlay. It receives –1 point for category C. It appears that ambient marketing might well be a significant instrument for organisations with a weak brand. The greater the potential creativity of an ambient campaign, the greater the likelihood that the receiver will also perceive that potential in the organisation itself. Because ambient marketing does not rely on provoking negative emotions in the receiver, such as may well occur in the case of shock advertising, the risk of a disadvantageous impact’s being made by an unsuccessful campaign is a minor one. In the context of the category D parameters, it receives 3 points in all. A great many ambient marketing ideas will be impossible for small, non–governmental organisations to implement, even with the assistance of additional volunteers. Carrying out activities of this type on the largest of scales is something that can only be done by a large, experienced organisation. Thanks to ingenuity, however, a smaller group of people is capable of implementing interesting activities, albeit on a more modest scale, such as guerrilla marketing, sticker bombing or graffiti, for instance. In category E, it receives 0 points. In total, ambient marketing receives 5 points.
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a process, it is reminiscent of the spread of gossip. The condition requisite in order for this phenomenom to spring up is a suitably potent piece of information [Hughes 2008, p. 13–14], such as, for instance, the final performance before a theatre goes dark for good or a concert given by a well– known musician after a twenty–year absence from the scene and so forth. The message can equally as well relate to a product or an event or to the organisation itself. Thus, if such a need exists, this mechanism can be used by the organisation purely in order to create and promote its image and can take the form of both one–off and long–term activities. It receives 4 points for category A. Although the message might be directed toward a specific receiver, the premise underlying the mechanism of whisper marketing is to obtain the desired effect, which is a public discussion triggered by the contents as regards, for example a book, a concert or the activities of the organisation itself. For category B it also receives 4 points. Organisations making use of whisper marketing are not exposed to incurring financial outlays. Whether or not the message is disseminated depends, as previously mentioned, solely upon its informational contents and has no connection with the investment of financial resources. For category C, it again receives 4 points. Whisper marketing creates the possibility of instituting the desired image for an organisation. Nonetheless, building a brand cannot rely solely on the contents of the message itself, but must also arise from the organisation’s non–marketing activities. Uncontrolled information might ultimately hamper the building of a strong brand. From the viewpoint of the category D parameters, it thus receives –2 points. To all intents and purposes, one person can be responsible for preparing and launching the information into the surrounding world. In this case, 4 points should be awarded in category E. In total, whisper marketing receives 14 points. Exhibitions and trade fairs These are marketing communication tools intended for the promotion and sale of cultural products beyond the organisation’s headquarters and in a public meeting place for people interested in a given cultural field. Trade fairs and exhibitions can be distinguished as follows; books; music, in terms of musical instruments and equipment, as well as the phonographic industry; visual arts, in
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the form of large galleries; theatre and dance; television, radio and film producers [Dragicevic–Sesic, Stojkovic 2010, p. 129]; fashion; and folklore. Trade fairs and exhibitions are places for promoting products and they also offer the opportunity to purchase them; however, as Jim Blythe remarks, they are, to a larger extent, an image–building instrument [Blythe 2002, p. 195]. Participation in trade fairs endows an organisation with additional prestige. For category A, the tool receives 1 point. Trade fairs are visited by numerous potential receivers. A properly prepared stand is an effective way for an organisation to reach a large number of receiver groups with its own offer, In this case, for category B, it receives 4 points. Trade fairs are expensive undertakings, although they do not consume expenditure to the same degree as an advertising campaign and are not planned with excessive frequency either. In respect of the category C parameters, it thus receives –3 points. For an organisation with a weak brand, trade fairs can constitute a natural instrument for its reinforcement. This can be achieved, for instance, by the organisation’s setting up its own stand between those of organisations recognised within the sector. It receives 3 points for category D. Every organisation can express its willingness to take part in trade fairs. The entire venture can be carried out by a group of three or four people. However, a plan of action should be rigorously determined, since these events often take place away from the organisation’s home base. The final result is 8 points. Event marketing This is a marketing communication tool which, until recently, belonged within the public relations group of instruments. However, in view of the specificity of artistic events, research began in the late 1990s into detaching it from the other elements of public relations [Grzegorczyk ed. 2009, p. 7]. Artistic events are not only cultural events sensu stricto. Undertakings of this kind are more and more frequently being prepared as an instrument for the promotion of an organisation and as a mechanism for building a marketing communication channel on the organisation–receiver line. Understood in this sense, artistic events can also be used by third–sector, cultural organisations. The situation may arise whereby a production, for instance, will be a theatre’s marketing communication tool and not its product.
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Exhibitions and trade fairs These are marketing communication tools intended for the promotion and sale of cultural products beyond the organisation’s headquarters and in a public meeting place for people interested in a given cultural field. Trade fairs and exhibitions can be distinguished as follows; books; music, in terms of musical instruments and equipment, as well as the phonographic industry; visual arts, in a process, it is reminiscent of the spread of gossip. The condition requisite in order for this phenomenom to spring up is a suitably potent piece of information [Hughes 2008, p. 13–14], such as, for instance, the final performance before a theatre goes dark for good or a concert given by a well– known musician after a twenty–year absence from the scene and so forth. The message can equally as well relate to a product or an event or to the organisation itself. Thus, if such a need exists, this mechanism can be used by the organisation purely in order to create and promote its image and can take the form of both one–off and long–term activities. It receives 4 points for category A. Although the message might be directed toward a specific receiver, the premise underlying the mechanism of whisper marketing is to obtain the desired effect, which is a public discussion triggered by the contents as regards, for example a book, a concert or the activities of the organisation itself. For category B it also receives 4 points. Organisations making use of whisper marketing are not exposed to incurring financial outlays. Whether or not the message is disseminated depends, as previously mentioned, solely upon its informational contents and has no connection with the investment of financial resources. For category C, it again receives 4 points. Whisper marketing creates the possibility of instituting the desired image for an organisation. Nonetheless, building a brand cannot rely solely on the contents of the message itself, but must also arise from the organisation’s non–marketing activities. Uncontrolled information might ultimately hamper the building of a strong brand. From the viewpoint of the category D parameters, it thus receives –2 points. To all intents and purposes, one person can be responsible for preparing and launching the information into the surrounding world. In this case, 4 points should be awarded in category E. In total, whisper marketing receives 14 points.
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Event marketing This is a marketing communication tool which, until recently, belonged within the public relations group of instruments. However, in view of the specificity of artistic events, research began in the late 1990s into detaching it from the other elements of public relations [Grzegorczyk ed. 2009, p. 7]. Artistic events are not only cultural events sensu stricto. Undertakings of this kind are more and more frequently being prepared as an instrument for the promotion of an organisation and as a mechanism for building a marketing communication channel on the organisation–receiver line. Understood in this sense, artistic events can also be used by third–sector, cultural organisations. The situation may arise whereby a production, for instance, will be a theatre’s marketing communication tool and not its product. the form of large galleries; theatre and dance; television, radio and film producers [Dragicevic–Sesic, Stojkovic 2010, p. 129]; fashion; and folklore. Trade fairs and exhibitions are places for promoting products and they also offer the opportunity to purchase them; however, as Jim Blythe remarks, they are, to a larger extent, an image–building instrument [Blythe 2002, p. 195]. Participation in trade fairs endows an organisation with additional prestige. For category A, the tool receives 1 point. Trade fairs are visited by numerous potential receivers. A properly prepared stand is an effective way for an organisation to reach a large number of receiver groups with its own offer, In this case, for category B, it receives 4 points. Trade fairs are expensive undertakings, although they do not consume expenditure to the same degree as an advertising campaign and are not planned with excessive frequency either. In respect of the category C parameters, it thus receives –3 points. For an organisation with a weak brand, trade fairs can constitute a natural instrument for its reinforcement. This can be achieved, for instance, by the organisation’s setting up its own stand between those of organisations recognised within the sector. It receives 3 points for category D. Every organisation can express its willingness to take part in trade fairs. The entire venture can be carried out by a group of three or four people. However, a plan of action should be rigorously determined, since these events often take place away from the organisation’s home base. The final result is 8 points.
Just like everything in the public relations circle, event marketing activities do indeed serve to enhance the organisation’s image. It receives 4 points for category A. All non–material cultural products, such as performances, concerts and artistic and cultural actions, for instance, are addressed to groups of receivers, often local, but never to individuals. For category B it receives 4 points. If an artistic event coincides with an organisation’s activities, for example, a theatre event marketing a theatre, then the cost of the undertaking does not necessarily constitute a significant obstacle to the organisation, since it may make use of its own acting ensemble, for instance, as well as its wardrobe. In spite of this, every artistic or para–artistic venture generates its corresponding expenditure. It receives 1 point in category C. Event marketing is a tool thanks to which a new organisation can think realistically about building its brand value. These are activities which it should bear in mind when drawing up its brand management strategy. For category D it receives 4 points. If event marketing activities coincide with a branch of a cultural organisation’s operations, as in, for instance, a production and a theatre, or street art and an art gallery, then there is no need to engage additional people. However, if a small–scale cinema wished to organise a promotional concert, for instance, then it would be necessary to undertake collaboration with people outside the organization. In category E, it receives 1 point.
the link to the organisation’s website is located in the highest possible position in a popular Internet index. Advertising videos can also be found on the Internet, preceding films played online, as well as on websites where an entire page is an advert [ibidem, p. 36–37]. As is the case with the traditional version, Internet advertising is a paid service provided by external entities beyond the sphere of an organisation’s website. Advertising is a product–promotion tool. As a rule, it has no impact on enhancing an organisation’s image. Although a high position in a search engine might have a positive effect on the image, a lower position will have the opposite result. For category A it receives –3 points. As mentioned previously, advertising is addressed to the largest possible receiver group at any one time. The same applies to Internet advertising. If, after entering the search term ‘concert’ into a search engine, the link to the organisation’s website appears, for example, in the second position on the list of search results, then any number of users will visit that site. It receives 4 points in category B. Advertising is one of the most expensive forms of marketing communication. Admittedly, for now, Internet advertising is less costly than the classic form and a satisfactory search engine position can be attained by using free positioning techniques. Nonetheless, if an organisation is to undertake effective Internet advertising activities, then this will entail the incurrence of the corresponding costs. In the contexts of the assumptions adopted for the group C parameters, it receives –2 points. As is the case with traditional advertising, it should be stated that Internet advertising can only influence brand strength to a minor degree. In category D, it receives –3 points. Advertising activities are most frequently undertaken by external units, while the positioning strategy can be assigned to, and carried out by, one person in the organisation. For category E it receives 4 points. The usefulness of Internet advertising is evaluated at 0 points.
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Web 2.0 Web 2.0 is a concept whereby websites, or entire Internet services, are generated by the users of the pages themselves. These activities are free and offered to the user in exchange for placing adverts, or various additional, paid options, on the sites that spring up in this way. Web 2.0 solutions include, inter alia, blogs; social
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Web 2.0 Web 2.0 is a concept whereby websites, or entire Internet services, are generated by the users of the pages themselves. These activities are free and offered to the user in exchange for placing adverts, or various additional, paid options, on the sites that spring up in this way. Web 2.0 solutions include, inter alia, blogs; social
Internet advertising Advertising on the Internet appears in many forms. The most popular are the display–type advert and those which appear in search engines. A display advert is a small, static or dynamic window which is either composed into various points on a website or does not constitute part of its contents, but pops up unexpectedly whilst the site is being used. A display–type advert can make use of various forms of computer animation, such as animated flash scenes, or scrolling effects, or vanishing or ‘floating’ adverts; they can also contain audio and/or video files. The types of display adverts available are banners, billboards, buttons, pop–ups, pop–unders, sky–scrapers, top–layers and intermercials [Śliwińska, Pacut ed. 2011, p. 36]. Advertising in search engines involves placing a link to one’s own site in a website links base, which is a kind of catalogue, or index. The efficacy of this kind of advertising is achieved when
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Internet advertising Advertising on the Internet appears in many forms. The most popular are the display–type advert and those which appear in search engines. A display advert is a small, static or dynamic window which is either composed into various points on a website or does not constitute part of its contents, but pops up unexpectedly whilst the site is being used. A display–type advert can make use of various forms of computer animation, such as animated flash scenes, or scrolling effects, or vanishing or ‘floating’ adverts; they can also contain audio and/or video files. The types of display adverts available are banners, billboards, buttons, pop–ups, pop–unders, sky–scrapers, top–layers and intermercials [Śliwińska, Pacut ed. 2011, p. 36]. Advertising in search engines involves placing a link to one’s own site in a website links base, which is a kind of catalogue, or index. The efficacy of this kind of advertising is achieved when
the link to the organisation’s website is located in the highest possible position in a popular Internet index. Advertising videos can also be found on the Internet, preceding films played online, as well as on websites where an entire page is an advert [ibidem, p. 36–37]. As is the case with the traditional version, Internet advertising is a paid service provided by external entities beyond the sphere of an organisation’s website. Advertising is a product–promotion tool. As a rule, it has no impact on enhancing an organisation’s image. Although a high position in a search engine might have a positive effect on the image, a lower position will have the opposite result. For category A it receives –3 points. As mentioned previously, advertising is addressed to the largest possible receiver group at any one time. The same applies to Internet advertising. If, after entering the search term ‘concert’ into a search engine, the link to the organisation’s website appears, for example, in the second position on the list of search results, then any number of users will visit that site. It receives 4 points in category B. Advertising is one of the most expensive forms of marketing communication. Admittedly, for now, Internet advertising is less costly than the classic form and a satisfactory search engine position can be attained by using free positioning techniques. Nonetheless, if an organisation is to undertake effective Internet advertising activities, then this will entail the incurrence of the corresponding costs. In the contexts of the assumptions adopted for the group C parameters, it receives –2 points. As is the case with traditional advertising, it should be stated that Internet advertising can only influence brand strength to a minor degree. In category D, it receives –3 points. Advertising activities are most frequently undertaken by external units, while the positioning strategy can be assigned to, and carried out by, one person in the organisation. For category E it receives 4 points. The usefulness of Internet advertising is evaluated at 0 points.
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Just like everything in the public relations circle, event marketing activities do indeed serve to enhance the organisation’s image. It receives 4 points for category A. All non–material cultural products, such as performances, concerts and artistic and cultural actions, for instance, are addressed to groups of receivers, often local, but never to individuals. For category B it receives 4 points. If an artistic event coincides with an organisation’s activities, for example, a theatre event marketing a theatre, then the cost of the undertaking does not necessarily constitute a significant obstacle to the organisation, since it may make use of its own acting ensemble, for instance, as well as its wardrobe. In spite of this, every artistic or para–artistic venture generates its corresponding expenditure. It receives 1 point in category C. Event marketing is a tool thanks to which a new organisation can think realistically about building its brand value. These are activities which it should bear in mind when drawing up its brand management strategy. For category D it receives 4 points. If event marketing activities coincide with a branch of a cultural organisation’s operations, as in, for instance, a production and a theatre, or street art and an art gallery, then there is no need to engage additional people. However, if a small–scale cinema wished to organise a promotional concert, for instance, then it would be necessary to undertake collaboration with people outside the organization. In category E, it receives 1 point.
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network portals, such as Facebook and MySpace, for instance; Internet fora and chat rooms; social media, which are journalistic–news sites created by amateurs; and community sharing websites, one example of which is YouTube. Third–sector cultural organisations can avail themselves of all the aforementioned solutions. Some of these solutions can serve the promotion of a specific cultural event, such as, for instance, publishing information about a concert on Facebook or about a literary festival on a social media page. However, the majority of the techniques offer the opportunity of shaping a positive image for the organisation, such as having a continually active Facebook account for the organisation, or keeping its blog updated. Uploading videos of cultural ventures which the organisation was involved in running on YouTube also opens up possibilities for creating an image. In sum, it receives 2 points for category A. By nature, this type of activity is not individualised. In publishing information within the Internet environment, an organisation is counting on the fact that it will generally accessible. Nonetheless, it is not published randomly, but in places where it can be noticed by potential receiver groups. For category B, it receives 4 points. Generating information by using the potential of Web 2.0 techniques is entirely free of charge; the cost of running the site is borne solely by provider. In view of this, it receives 4 points in category C. Web 2.0 solutions create a genuine opportunity for a newly–established organisation to enhance its brand. Depending upon the nature of the activities it carries out and the kind of culture involved, such as niche or elite, for instance, information can be published, in line with the organisation’s policy, on different portals or in various ways, for example by taking a serious tone, or adopting a certain distance. This type of activity has a positive impact on reinforcing the strength of the brand. In category D, it receives 4 points. Another advantage of Web 2.0 systems is that they are not complicated to use. In principle, a marketing communications management strategy employing these solutions can be carried out by one person from the organisation. In respect of the final parameter pair, it receives 4 points. The combined grade is 18 points. Advertainment This is a technique that makes use of Internet and other electronic media technologies, such
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as mobile phones, for instance. It involves using a website in conjunction with electronic add–ons which are often related to the same organisation. Examples of this are simple flash games, such as a ‘logo puzzle’, where the user assembles the logo from scattered pieces; screensavers; wallpapers; photos; and video or audio files. Some of these add–ons can be adapted for use on mobile phones. This kind of tool is not designed to promote a product. Appropriately selected, it serves to enhance an organisation’s image. In category A, it receives 4 points. These instruments are only placed an organisation’s own website. Thus they do not have an influence on a large recipient group. On the other hand, neither will the recipients be specific and identified users. In the context of the group B parameters, it receives –3 points. Preparing add–ons which will not be randomly put together, but will be thematically linked to the cultural activities of a non–governmental organisation is synonymous with incurring the corresponding costs. If the strategy is to have positive and appealing overtones, then the outlay might well exceed the organisation’s financial abilities. It receives –3 points for category C. This type of solution should be approached with suitable detachment. These are not tools which will serve directly to build and enhance a brand unless the organisation conducts cultural activities addressed to groups of young people, whilst their incorrect use can entail a failure to achieve the desired prestige and even to the organisation’s not being taken seriously by the public. For category D, it receives –1 points. The person most frequently responsible for preparing add–ons is usually commissioned from outside the organisation. Once in place, however, their use can be overseen by one person appointed from within. It receives 4 points in respect of the category E parameters. The usefulness of the tool is evaluated at 1 point. E–marketing E–marketing, which is direct marketing by electronic means, is a sub–species of traditional direct marketing, the mechanisms of which are applied to the Internet environment. Here, too, it is a set of instruments thanks to which an organisation can reach potential and current receivers directly, without the participation of additional market entities. In this case, the receivers are Internet
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Advertainment This is a technique that makes use of Internet and other electronic media technologies, such network portals, such as Facebook and MySpace, for instance; Internet fora and chat rooms; social media, which are journalistic–news sites created by amateurs; and community sharing websites, one example of which is YouTube. Third–sector cultural organisations can avail themselves of all the aforementioned solutions. Some of these solutions can serve the promotion of a specific cultural event, such as, for instance, publishing information about a concert on Facebook or about a literary festival on a social media page. However, the majority of the techniques offer the opportunity of shaping a positive image for the organisation, such as having a continually active Facebook account for the organisation, or keeping its blog updated. Uploading videos of cultural ventures which the organisation was involved in running on YouTube also opens up possibilities for creating an image. In sum, it receives 2 points for category A. By nature, this type of activity is not individualised. In publishing information within the Internet environment, an organisation is counting on the fact that it will generally accessible. Nonetheless, it is not published randomly, but in places where it can be noticed by potential receiver groups. For category B, it receives 4 points. Generating information by using the potential of Web 2.0 techniques is entirely free of charge; the cost of running the site is borne solely by provider. In view of this, it receives 4 points in category C. Web 2.0 solutions create a genuine opportunity for a newly–established organisation to enhance its brand. Depending upon the nature of the activities it carries out and the kind of culture involved, such as niche or elite, for instance, information can be published, in line with the organisation’s policy, on different portals or in various ways, for example by taking a serious tone, or adopting a certain distance. This type of activity has a positive impact on reinforcing the strength of the brand. In category D, it receives 4 points. Another advantage of Web 2.0 systems is that they are not complicated to use. In principle, a marketing communications management strategy employing these solutions can be carried out by one person from the organisation. In respect of the final parameter pair, it receives 4 points. The combined grade is 18 points.
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E–marketing E–marketing, which is direct marketing by electronic means, is a sub–species of traditional direct marketing, the mechanisms of which are applied to the Internet environment. Here, too, it is a set of instruments thanks to which an organisation can reach potential and current receivers directly, without the participation of additional market entities. In this case, the receivers are Internet as mobile phones, for instance. It involves using a website in conjunction with electronic add–ons which are often related to the same organisation. Examples of this are simple flash games, such as a ‘logo puzzle’, where the user assembles the logo from scattered pieces; screensavers; wallpapers; photos; and video or audio files. Some of these add–ons can be adapted for use on mobile phones. This kind of tool is not designed to promote a product. Appropriately selected, it serves to enhance an organisation’s image. In category A, it receives 4 points. These instruments are only placed an organisation’s own website. Thus they do not have an influence on a large recipient group. On the other hand, neither will the recipients be specific and identified users. In the context of the group B parameters, it receives –3 points. Preparing add–ons which will not be randomly put together, but will be thematically linked to the cultural activities of a non–governmental organisation is synonymous with incurring the corresponding costs. If the strategy is to have positive and appealing overtones, then the outlay might well exceed the organisation’s financial abilities. It receives –3 points for category C. This type of solution should be approached with suitable detachment. These are not tools which will serve directly to build and enhance a brand unless the organisation conducts cultural activities addressed to groups of young people, whilst their incorrect use can entail a failure to achieve the desired prestige and even to the organisation’s not being taken seriously by the public. For category D, it receives –1 points. The person most frequently responsible for preparing add–ons is usually commissioned from outside the organisation. Once in place, however, their use can be overseen by one person appointed from within. It receives 4 points in respect of the category E parameters. The usefulness of the tool is evaluated at 1 point.
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4. A model of the usefulness of marketing communication tools to newly–established, third–sector cultural organisations
instance. The principle of electronic whisper marketing is similar to that of its traditional counterpart. However, here the information is launched in written form and is disseminated via Internet fora or social portals. One specific form of electronic whisper marketing is known as viral marketing. Here, the same mechanism is used but, instead of written information, people use e–mails, MMS or other electronic means of exchanging information to send each other atypical films, audio files, images and so forth. In terms of every one of the five parameter pairs, electronic whisper marketing receives exactly the same number of points as the standard version. It should again be emphasised that, having once launched the information into the public arena, the sender has no control over it whatsoever. They can neither steer it nor prevent its spontaneous dissemination. When it comes to the desire to build a strong and stable brand, the organisation should thus give careful thought as to whether this is an apt tool. Nonetheless, it is most certainly of use to small, newly–founded, non–profit organisations. The usefulness of electronic whisper marketing is evaluated at 14 points.
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4. A model of the usefulness of marketing communication tools to newly–established, third–sector cultural organisations
he foregoing presents an evaluation of the usefulness of twenty marketing communication tools in terms of their potential application by newly–established, third–sector cultural organisations. None of the tools received the abjectly low mark of –20 points; neither was the maximum of 20 points allocated. All the evaluations fall between the –2 points allocated to advertising and the 18 received by Web 2.0. At –2 points, advertising was thus ranked lowest, the only tool to receive a negative value as its final total. This will be a tool which newly– established, third–sector cultural organisations need not make use of in their activities. Two tools received 0 points, namely packaging management and Internet advertising, and they are balanced on the dividing line between positive and negative values; Likewise, two tools were allocated 1 point, advertainment and personal selling; Shock advertising received 2 points;
T
T
users and the tools are the organisation’s website, e–mailing and e–catalogues. Although e–mailing and e–catalogues serve to promote an organisation’s products or services, it is its website, with the exception of the ‘What We Offer’ tab, which is a vital image–enhancing tool. An organisation can attain a positive image by means of a professionally–created website, which should display an appropriate level of user– friendliness and intuitiveness, as well as being provided with additional functions such as the possibility of registering to receive newsletters and completing comment–based and evaluative questionnaires; a forum option; and access to an online e–catalogue, to name but a very few. It receives 3 points for category A. Just as occurrs with the traditional direct marketing formula, thanks to e–marketing, particularly in the form of e–mailing, information can be directed toward numerous potential receiver groups. An additional advantage of e–marketing is the possibility of sending offers to those who have expressed their wish to receive them by registering on the newsletter list. For category B, it receives 4 points. Launching e–mail activities forces the organisation to incur the costs of creating their website and e–catalogue. However, the expenditure will be lower than in the case of non–Internet direct marketing. The cost of a printed catalogue outstrips that of preparing its electronic equivalent and the same applies as regards the traditional post, or ‘snail mail’, as it is dubbed, and e–mailing. In category C, it receives –1 point. E–marketing has no direct impact upon building an organisation’s brand, although the possibility of continually updating and modifying its website may well afford better results than will occur in the case of non–Internet direct marketing techniques. It receives 0 points in category D. To all intents and purposes, it is only compiling an accurate e–mail database that might be problematic for a small organisation. Once a website has been launched, modern technological solutions make it possible for any of the staff or members to maintain it without the need for advanced knowledge of IT. It receives 2 points for category E. The combined grade is 8 points.
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he foregoing presents an evaluation of the usefulness of twenty marketing communication tools in terms of their potential application by newly–established, third–sector cultural organisations. None of the tools received the abjectly low mark of –20 points; neither was the maximum of 20 points allocated. All the evaluations fall between the –2 points allocated to advertising and the 18 received by Web 2.0. At –2 points, advertising was thus ranked lowest, the only tool to receive a negative value as its final total. This will be a tool which newly– established, third–sector cultural organisations need not make use of in their activities. Two tools received 0 points, namely packaging management and Internet advertising, and they are balanced on the dividing line between positive and negative values; Likewise, two tools were allocated 1 point, advertainment and personal selling; Shock advertising received 2 points;
Electronic whisper marketing This is a sub–species of whisper marketing and characteristic of the Internet and other electronic media technologies, such as mobile phones, for
instance. The principle of electronic whisper marketing is similar to that of its traditional counterpart. However, here the information is launched in written form and is disseminated via Internet fora or social portals. One specific form of electronic whisper marketing is known as viral marketing. Here, the same mechanism is used but, instead of written information, people use e–mails, MMS or other electronic means of exchanging information to send each other atypical films, audio files, images and so forth. In terms of every one of the five parameter pairs, electronic whisper marketing receives exactly the same number of points as the standard version. It should again be emphasised that, having once launched the information into the public arena, the sender has no control over it whatsoever. They can neither steer it nor prevent its spontaneous dissemination. When it comes to the desire to build a strong and stable brand, the organisation should thus give careful thought as to whether this is an apt tool. Nonetheless, it is most certainly of use to small, newly–founded, non–profit organisations. The usefulness of electronic whisper marketing is evaluated at 14 points.
Electronic whisper marketing This is a sub–species of whisper marketing and characteristic of the Internet and other electronic media technologies, such as mobile phones, for
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users and the tools are the organisation’s website, e–mailing and e–catalogues. Although e–mailing and e–catalogues serve to promote an organisation’s products or services, it is its website, with the exception of the ‘What We Offer’ tab, which is a vital image–enhancing tool. An organisation can attain a positive image by means of a professionally–created website, which should display an appropriate level of user– friendliness and intuitiveness, as well as being provided with additional functions such as the possibility of registering to receive newsletters and completing comment–based and evaluative questionnaires; a forum option; and access to an online e–catalogue, to name but a very few. It receives 3 points for category A. Just as occurrs with the traditional direct marketing formula, thanks to e–marketing, particularly in the form of e–mailing, information can be directed toward numerous potential receiver groups. An additional advantage of e–marketing is the possibility of sending offers to those who have expressed their wish to receive them by registering on the newsletter list. For category B, it receives 4 points. Launching e–mail activities forces the organisation to incur the costs of creating their website and e–catalogue. However, the expenditure will be lower than in the case of non–Internet direct marketing. The cost of a printed catalogue outstrips that of preparing its electronic equivalent and the same applies as regards the traditional post, or ‘snail mail’, as it is dubbed, and e–mailing. In category C, it receives –1 point. E–marketing has no direct impact upon building an organisation’s brand, although the possibility of continually updating and modifying its website may well afford better results than will occur in the case of non–Internet direct marketing techniques. It receives 0 points in category D. To all intents and purposes, it is only compiling an accurate e–mail database that might be problematic for a small organisation. Once a website has been launched, modern technological solutions make it possible for any of the staff or members to maintain it without the need for advanced knowledge of IT. It receives 2 points for category E. The combined grade is 8 points.
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Direct marketing and sales promotions received 3 points; Ambient marketing was evaluated at 5 points; Product placement received 6 points, as did merchandising and experiential marketing; The usefulness of e–marketing, exhibitions and trade fairs and quality were evaluated at 8 points; Activities in the sphere of public relations obtained four more points, achieving 12 in all; No tools whatsoever came with the 10–13 band, but 14 points were allocated to three, namely event marketing, whisper marketing and electronic whisper marketing; As previously mentioned, the tool to receive the highest number of points, with its usefulness as a mechanism evaluated at 18, only two short of the maximum, is Web 2.0. It would seem that the possibilities offered by this technology are not something that should be ignored either by organisations which are just beginning their work or those in the early stages of development. The ranking of marketing communication tools presented in this paper should serve an organisation as an indicator of not only their individual value, but also of the order in which they may be used. However, it is worth drawing attention to
a crucial question which arises when analysing the ranking of these tools as achieved by these means. If it is possible to claim with a large degree of certainty that the Web 2.0 instruments, at 18 points, or even event marketing activities, at 14 points, are of greater usefulness to newly– founded, third–sector cultural organisations than direct marketing, for instance, then it is difficult to assert unequivocally that merchandising, at 6 points, is of more use to them than employing ambient marketing techniques, at 5 points. After all, this might very well depend upon a particular cultural organisation where the specificity of its activities may favour an ambient form of marketing. In view of the foregoing, it is is necessary to construct a model of the usefulness of marketing communication tools to newly–established, third–sector cultural organisations. The model groups the tools into three categories of usefulness; unsuitable, useful and indispensable. The unsuitable tools are those which received an evaluation of between –2 and 4, the useful are encompassed between 5 and 11 points, whilst the indispensable fall between 12 and 18 points. A graphic representation of the model is presented below.
Tab. 1. A model of the usefulness of marketing communication tools to newly–established, third–sector cultural organisations Category of usefulness
Points band range
Name of tool (number of points)
Unsuitable
–2 to 4
– advertising (–2) – packaging (0) – Internet advertising (0) – advertainment (1) – personal selling (1) – shock advertising (2) – sales promotion (3) – direct marketing (3)
Useful
5–11
– ambient marketing (5) – product placement (6) – experiential marketing (6) – merchandising (6) – e–marketing (8) – exhibitions and trade fairs (8) – quality (8)
Indispensable
12–18
– public relations (12) – event marketing (14) – whisper marketing (14) – electronic whisper marketing (14) – Web 2.0 (18)
Source: compiled by the author
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Source: compiled by the author 12–18
Indispensable
5–11
Useful
–2 to 4
Unsuitable
Points band range
Category of usefulness
– public relations (12) – event marketing (14) – whisper marketing (14) – electronic whisper marketing (14) – Web 2.0 (18) – ambient marketing (5) – product placement (6) – experiential marketing (6) – merchandising (6) – e–marketing (8) – exhibitions and trade fairs (8) – quality (8) – advertising (–2) – packaging (0) – Internet advertising (0) – advertainment (1) – personal selling (1) – shock advertising (2) – sales promotion (3) – direct marketing (3) Name of tool (number of points)
Tab. 1. A model of the usefulness of marketing communication tools to newly–established, third–sector cultural organisations
Direct marketing and sales promotions received 3 points; Ambient marketing was evaluated at 5 points; Product placement received 6 points, as did merchandising and experiential marketing; The usefulness of e–marketing, exhibitions and trade fairs and quality were evaluated at 8 points; Activities in the sphere of public relations obtained four more points, achieving 12 in all; No tools whatsoever came with the 10–13 band, but 14 points were allocated to three, namely event marketing, whisper marketing and electronic whisper marketing; As previously mentioned, the tool to receive the highest number of points, with its usefulness as a mechanism evaluated at 18, only two short of the maximum, is Web 2.0. It would seem that the possibilities offered by this technology are not something that should be ignored either by organisations which are just beginning their work or those in the early stages of development. The ranking of marketing communication tools presented in this paper should serve an organisation as an indicator of not only their individual value, but also of the order in which they may be used. However, it is worth drawing attention to
a crucial question which arises when analysing the ranking of these tools as achieved by these means. If it is possible to claim with a large degree of certainty that the Web 2.0 instruments, at 18 points, or even event marketing activities, at 14 points, are of greater usefulness to newly– founded, third–sector cultural organisations than direct marketing, for instance, then it is difficult to assert unequivocally that merchandising, at 6 points, is of more use to them than employing ambient marketing techniques, at 5 points. After all, this might very well depend upon a particular cultural organisation where the specificity of its activities may favour an ambient form of marketing. In view of the foregoing, it is is necessary to construct a model of the usefulness of marketing communication tools to newly–established, third–sector cultural organisations. The model groups the tools into three categories of usefulness; unsuitable, useful and indispensable. The unsuitable tools are those which received an evaluation of between –2 and 4, the useful are encompassed between 5 and 11 points, whilst the indispensable fall between 12 and 18 points. A graphic representation of the model is presented below.
As the table depicts, eight tools appear in the ‘Unsuitable’ category, namely advertising, packaging, Internet advertising, advertainment, personal sales, shock advertising, sales promotion and direct marketing. The ‘Useful’ category consists of seven tools, to wit, ambient marketing, product placement, experiential marketing, whisper marketing, e–marketing, exhibitions and trade fairs, and quality. The ‘Indispensable’ category contains five tools, these being public relations, event marketing, whisper marketing, electronic whisper marketing and Web 2.0 The model clearly demonstrates which of the groups of tools a new organisation should first put to use. This does not, however, mean that it should focus exclusively upon the ‘Indispensable’ category and set no store at all by the others. In particular situations and for special–case cultural organisations, it may happen that employing, for instance, pro–quality instruments, at 8 points, might well prove to be of more use than bringing the whisper marketing mechanism, at 14 points, into play.
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5. Conclusion
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I
n concluding these deliberations on the topic of the usefulness of marketing communication tools to newly–established cultural organisations in the third sector, it is worth drawing attention to several crucial matters. First, there are tools, such as public relations, direct marketing, sales promotion and merchandising, which are, in fact, a collection of instruments grouped together under a specific classification. For instance, public relations contains, inter alia, the organisation of both conferences and charitable balls, as well as lobbying, and
maintaining contact with representatives of the media. Were each individual instrument to be subject to separate analysis, rather than the tool in its entirety, then it could be that various categories of usefulness might be identified amongst them, too. However, such an operation goes beyond the framework of this study. The purpose of pointing it out is to indicate the benefits of conducting this kind of deeper analysis. Second, in order to obtain more objectivised evaluation values for particular tools, it would be necessary to give consideration to analyses conducted by several independent experts in the fields of communication marketing, the marketing of non–profit organisations and specialists in the culture market and compare the results of their evaluations. Third, and finally, the values obtained in this way should be confirmed empirically by means of conducting surveys, interviews and case studies evaluating the principles for the use of communication marketing tools and the scope of their use in extant, newly–established, third–sector cultural organisations. Despite these considerations, it would seem that the model presented here, if used whilst still maintaining a certain level of caution, could be born in mind by cultural organisations when building their marketing strategy. It can be stated with a large degree of certainty that the tools determined as being indispensable should not be bypassed by non–governmental cultural organisations in the initial stage of their operations. This is particularly the case when consideration is once more given to the obstacles with which newly–founded and budding non–governmental organisations struggle, mention of which was made in the introduction to this article.
I
n concluding these deliberations on the topic of the usefulness of marketing communication tools to newly–established cultural organisations in the third sector, it is worth drawing attention to several crucial matters. First, there are tools, such as public relations, direct marketing, sales promotion and merchandising, which are, in fact, a collection of instruments grouped together under a specific classification. For instance, public relations contains, inter alia, the organisation of both conferences and charitable balls, as well as lobbying, and
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5. Conclusion
maintaining contact with representatives of the media. Were each individual instrument to be subject to separate analysis, rather than the tool in its entirety, then it could be that various categories of usefulness might be identified amongst them, too. However, such an operation goes beyond the framework of this study. The purpose of pointing it out is to indicate the benefits of conducting this kind of deeper analysis. Second, in order to obtain more objectivised evaluation values for particular tools, it would be necessary to give consideration to analyses conducted by several independent experts in the fields of communication marketing, the marketing of non–profit organisations and specialists in the culture market and compare the results of their evaluations. Third, and finally, the values obtained in this way should be confirmed empirically by means of conducting surveys, interviews and case studies evaluating the principles for the use of communication marketing tools and the scope of their use in extant, newly–established, third–sector cultural organisations. Despite these considerations, it would seem that the model presented here, if used whilst still maintaining a certain level of caution, could be born in mind by cultural organisations when building their marketing strategy. It can be stated with a large degree of certainty that the tools determined as being indispensable should not be bypassed by non–governmental cultural organisations in the initial stage of their operations. This is particularly the case when consideration is once more given to the obstacles with which newly–founded and budding non–governmental organisations struggle, mention of which was made in the introduction to this article.
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As the table depicts, eight tools appear in the ‘Unsuitable’ category, namely advertising, packaging, Internet advertising, advertainment, personal sales, shock advertising, sales promotion and direct marketing. The ‘Useful’ category consists of seven tools, to wit, ambient marketing, product placement, experiential marketing, whisper marketing, e–marketing, exhibitions and trade fairs, and quality. The ‘Indispensable’ category contains five tools, these being public relations, event marketing, whisper marketing, electronic whisper marketing and Web 2.0 The model clearly demonstrates which of the groups of tools a new organisation should first put to use. This does not, however, mean that it should focus exclusively upon the ‘Indispensable’ category and set no store at all by the others. In particular situations and for special–case cultural organisations, it may happen that employing, for instance, pro–quality instruments, at 8 points, might well prove to be of more use than bringing the whisper marketing mechanism, at 14 points, into play.
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Literature: Blythe J., Komunikacja marketingowa [Marketing Communications], Polish edition: Warszawa 2002. Bogacz–Wojtanowska E., Zarządzanie organizacjami pozarządowymi na przykładzie stowarzyszeń krakowskich [Managing Non–Governmental Organisations, with Krakow–Based Associations as an Exemplifier], Kraków 2006. Dragicevic–Sesic M., Stojkovic B., Kultura: zarządzanie, animacja, marketing [Culture. Management, the Work of the Animateur and Marketing], Warszawa 2010. Griffin R. W., Podstawy zarządzania organizacjami [Fundamentals of Management], Polish edition, Warszawa 2004. Grzegorczyk A. ed., Event marketing jako nowa forma organizacji procesów komunikacyjnych [Event Marketing as a New Form of Organising Communications Processes], Warszawa 2009. Herbst J., Wewnętrzne zróżnicowanie sektora. Podstawowe fakty o branżach sektora organizacji pozarządowych w Polsce. Kultura i Sztuka [Internal Sectoral Differentiations. Non–Governmental Organisations in Poland and the Fundamental Facts about the Branches within the Sector. Culture and the Arts], 2005, http://www.ngo.pl/files/badania.ngo. pl/public/branze/kultura_i_sztuka.pdf (retrieved: 28.04.2011).
Hughes M., Marketing szeptany. Buzzmarketing [Buzzmarketing. Get People To Talk About Your Stuff], Polish edition, Warszawa 2008. Kotler P., Marketing [Marketing Management], Poznań 2005. Limański A., Drabik I., Marketing w organizacjach non–profit [Marketing in Non–Profit Organisations], Warszawa 2007. Szołajska J. red., Podstawowe fakty o organizacjach pozarządowych. Raport z badania 2008 [Fundamental Facts about Non–Governmental Organisations. 2008 Study Report], 2008, http://civicpedia. ngo.pl/files/civicpedia.pl/public/kondycja2008.pdf (retrieved: 28.04.2011) Śliwińska K., Pacut M. red., Narzędzia i techniki komunikacji marketingowej XXI wieku. Przykłady aplikacji w wybranych organizacjach non profit [Communication Marketing Tools and Techniques for the 21st Century. Instances of Their Use in Selected Non–Profit Organisations], Warszawa 2011. Wiktor J. W., Teoretyczne podstawy systemu komunikacji marketingowej [A Theoretical Basis for a Marketing Communication System], „Świat Marketingu. Czasopismo internetowe” [The World of Marketing. An Internet Magazine], 2001, http://swiatmarketingu. pl/index.php?rodzaj=01&id_numer=719231 (retrieved: 28.04.2011).
Blythe J., Komunikacja marketingowa [Marketing Communications], Polish edition: Warszawa 2002. Bogacz–Wojtanowska E., Zarządzanie organizacjami pozarządowymi na przykładzie stowarzyszeń krakowskich [Managing Non–Governmental Organisations, with Krakow–Based Associations as an Exemplifier], Kraków 2006. Dragicevic–Sesic M., Stojkovic B., Kultura: zarządzanie, animacja, marketing [Culture. Management, the Work of the Animateur and Marketing], Warszawa 2010. Griffin R. W., Podstawy zarządzania organizacjami [Fundamentals of Management], Polish edition, Warszawa 2004. Grzegorczyk A. ed., Event marketing jako nowa forma organizacji procesów komunikacyjnych [Event Marketing as a New Form of Organising Communications Processes], Warszawa 2009. Herbst J., Wewnętrzne zróżnicowanie sektora. Podstawowe fakty o branżach sektora organizacji pozarządowych w Polsce. Kultura i Sztuka [Internal Sectoral Differentiations. Non–Governmental Organisations in Poland and the Fundamental Facts about the Branches within the Sector. Culture and the Arts], 2005, http://www.ngo.pl/files/badania.ngo. pl/public/branze/kultura_i_sztuka.pdf (retrieved: 28.04.2011).
Literature: Culture Management 2011, Vol 4 (4)
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Hughes M., Marketing szeptany. Buzzmarketing [Buzzmarketing. Get People To Talk About Your Stuff], Polish edition, Warszawa 2008. Kotler P., Marketing [Marketing Management], Poznań 2005. Limański A., Drabik I., Marketing w organizacjach non–profit [Marketing in Non–Profit Organisations], Warszawa 2007. Szołajska J. red., Podstawowe fakty o organizacjach pozarządowych. Raport z badania 2008 [Fundamental Facts about Non–Governmental Organisations. 2008 Study Report], 2008, http://civicpedia. ngo.pl/files/civicpedia.pl/public/kondycja2008.pdf (retrieved: 28.04.2011) Śliwińska K., Pacut M. red., Narzędzia i techniki komunikacji marketingowej XXI wieku. Przykłady aplikacji w wybranych organizacjach non profit [Communication Marketing Tools and Techniques for the 21st Century. Instances of Their Use in Selected Non–Profit Organisations], Warszawa 2011. Wiktor J. W., Teoretyczne podstawy systemu komunikacji marketingowej [A Theoretical Basis for a Marketing Communication System], „Świat Marketingu. Czasopismo internetowe” [The World of Marketing. An Internet Magazine], 2001, http://swiatmarketingu. pl/index.php?rodzaj=01&id_numer=719231 (retrieved: 28.04.2011).
Research of the cultural sector as an element of the participatory model of culture management, based on an example of the research conducted by the Regional Observatory of Culture.
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We have made an attempt in this paper to present a completed research project from the perspective of its useful applications in culture management (cultural policy), with reference to elements of the participatory model, well known from management theory. In the first part of the paper, we discuss the elements of this model, which is a unique alternative to the current management practices in the public culture sector. What we mean here is the management that takes place at the level of local government, and less so at the level of institutions. Next, we present a draft of the research project entitled Cultural Potentials and Deficits of District Towns conducted by the Regional Cultural Observatory in Poznań. The project may turn out to be an interesting and replicable example of the application of research tools for the creation of a local cultural strategy, and at the same time, one of the instruments of a model of cultural management, adequate to the current needs and specific conditions dominant in culture management.
participatory model of management is generally speaking applicable in the management of enterprises. We do not wish to translate it directly
1. A draft of the participatory model of management in the public sector
A
into the management of cultural institutions, or rather the management of culture as carried out by local government. In practice, it is local governments that have finances at their disposal and they can initiate strategic thinking and various activities in the cultural sector. At the source of the concept of participatory management there is a question about the subject of management, about those who are the participants in the process and those who are its addressees. “A traditional approach to the issues regarding the participants in the process of strategic management is closely linked with the planning trend, with its characteristic centralization, formalization and clear division of roles. Traditionally, on this view, managers are divided into the corporate, business and functional level” [Witecka–Crabb]. A reliable analysis of strategic management involving a number of source texts and references to cultural institutions is presented in the article by Martyna Śliwa [Śliwa 2011, pp.10–25]. In the planning approach, employees of an enterprise are not involved in strategy making or management of the enterprise, while it is involvement that is one of the key features of the participatory model. Especially in those areas where profit is not and cannot be structurally the main motivating element, the involvement of employees is clearly necessary. This is certainly the case in cultural institutions. Local cultural strategies
1. A draft of the participatory model of management in the public sector
into the management of cultural institutions, or rather the management of culture as carried out by local government. In practice, it is local governments that have finances at their disposal and they can initiate strategic thinking and various activities in the cultural sector. At the source of the concept of participatory management there is a question about the subject of management, about those who are the participants in the process and those who are its addressees. “A traditional approach to the issues regarding the participants in the process of strategic management is closely linked with the planning trend, with its characteristic centralization, formalization and clear division of roles. Traditionally, on this view, managers are divided into the corporate, business and functional level” [Witecka–Crabb]. A reliable analysis of strategic management involving a number of source texts and references to cultural institutions is presented in the article by Martyna Śliwa [Śliwa 2011, pp.10–25]. In the planning approach, employees of an enterprise are not involved in strategy making or management of the enterprise, while it is involvement that is one of the key features of the participatory model. Especially in those areas where profit is not and cannot be structurally the main motivating element, the involvement of employees is clearly necessary. This is certainly the case in cultural institutions. Local cultural strategies
A
We have made an attempt in this paper to present a completed research project from the perspective of its useful applications in culture management (cultural policy), with reference to elements of the participatory model, well known from management theory. In the first part of the paper, we discuss the elements of this model, which is a unique alternative to the current management practices in the public culture sector. What we mean here is the management that takes place at the level of local government, and less so at the level of institutions. Next, we present a draft of the research project entitled Cultural Potentials and Deficits of District Towns conducted by the Regional Cultural Observatory in Poznań. The project may turn out to be an interesting and replicable example of the application of research tools for the creation of a local cultural strategy, and at the same time, one of the instruments of a model of cultural management, adequate to the current needs and specific conditions dominant in culture management.
participatory model of management is generally speaking applicable in the management of enterprises. We do not wish to translate it directly
Przemysław Kieliszewski Lawyer, Ph.D., lecturer at Adam Mickiewicz University of Poznan, the Institute of Culture Studies, co-author of Regional Observatory of Culture, manager of cultural projects in Poland and abroad. He represented non-governmental organizations in a contest council of culture in a committee of the Poznan mayor. He did researches for the Marshal office of Wielkopolska region ( 2006-07), the Ministry of Culture and National Heritage, and the Institute of Adam Mickiewicz ( 2008). He is the author of a dissertation Cultural policy facing the development of a citizen’s society in Poland and other publications on this subject. He coordinated the conference “Cultural institutions in hard times of a crisis (Poznan,
Przemysław Kieliszewski Lawyer, Ph.D., lecturer at Adam Mickiewicz University of Poznan, the Institute of Culture Studies, co-author of Regional Observatory of Culture, manager of cultural projects in Poland and abroad. He represented non-governmental organizations in a contest council of culture in a committee of the Poznan mayor. He did researches for the Marshal office of Wielkopolska region ( 2006-07), the Ministry of Culture and National Heritage, and the Institute of Adam Mickiewicz ( 2008). He is the author of a dissertation Cultural policy facing the development of a citizen’s society in Poland and other publications on this subject. He coordinated the conference “Cultural institutions in hard times of a crisis (Poznan,
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Research of the cultural sector as an element of the participatory model of culture management, based on an example of the research conducted by the Regional Observatory of Culture.
67
Culture Management 2011, Vol 4 (4)
2. Application of the participatory model in the cultural sector
Research of the cultural sector as an element of the participatory model of culture management, based on an example of the research conducted by the Regional Observatory of Culture.
created “above” are transferred to the employees and directors of cultural institutions for further endorsement. In this situation, another essential part of participatory character is missing: that of identifying yourself with the strategy. What may happen as well is an attitude of resistance towards it as “it is created by people who have no idea about what happens down here”, those who hardly know the reality of the actual endorsement of a given strategy or how the strategy fits them. “And so an enormous potential of knowledge, skills and creativity dispersed throughout an enterprise is lost and the planning stage is unnaturally separated from the stages of strategy endorsement” [Śliwa 2011, p. 2]. At the same time, the participatory model is all about openness and broadening the array of individuals and organizations involved in the process, taking into the account various points of view, experiences and varied – often very practical – aspects of knowledge. In practice, some of the most revolutionary solutions for enterprise operations often originate at its lower levels. Treating employees as agents naturally releases their creative potential towards work, overall creativity and efficiency. Anna Witek–Crabb, following Gary Hamel, points us towards the necessity for clear–cut leadership in this model for giving directions to the multitude of voices that appears in the situation of great openness, and to take care simultaneously of “the multitude of perspectives and unity of objectives” [Hamel 1996, pp. 80–81]. The involvement of co–workers in creating strategy ensures their active involvement in the realization of its objectives and assumptions. The introduction to Joanna Orlik’s recently published book includes the sentence “conversation is action” [Orlik 2011, p. 7], which may actually express the quintessence of participation. Orlik proposes the creation of local and regional cultural councils, where the operational strategy for cultural institutions and cultural policy would be discussed and agreed.
et us try to apply the features of this model to the management of cultural institutions, but in the broader context of cultural sector management handled by local governments. It is hard in
L
2. Application of the participatory model in the cultural sector
Kieliszewski Przemysław, Mękarski Michał
Participatory management in the public sector is also to a certain extent an emanation of the subsidiarity principle, fundamental to the proper functioning of democratic systems. It is and should be one of the main operational principles of administration, and a guarantor that it will not unnecessarily expand and take over new areas that have been so far managed by associations, cultural institutions, estate communities, charitable organizations, enterprises, families and individuals. The subsidiarity principle belongs to the general heritage of social philosophy. It has been most clearly formed and developed in Catholic social teaching27. It stipulates that smaller organizations should be handling matters that must not be taken from them but only provided with support. This decentralizing and involving interpretation of the principle additionally consolidates the arguments for participatory management. In this context what is also a very interesting aspect of this issue is “horizontal subsidiarity”. The 2002 report entitled “Rethinking the subsidiarity principle” includes a statement that “horizontal subsidiarity is based on complementarity and cooperation of citizens and public institutions; its objective is the improvement and rationalization of public good. [...] The organizations of citizens and individuals have a right to conduct activities directed at public interest and applying for authority or permits from public authorities” [Roffiaen 2003, p. 7]. This “independent activity of citizens must be supported by public authority” [ibidem, p. 2], by the use of various forms of support, including financial.
Kieliszewski Przemysław, Mękarski Michał
27 Pius XI in his encyclical entitled Quadragesimo anno (1931) says: “Just as it is gravely wrong to take from individuals what they can accomplish by their own initiative and industry and give it to the community, so also it is an injustice and at the same time a grave evil and disturbance of right order to assign to a greater and higher association what lesser and subordinate organizations can do. For every social activity ought of its very nature to furnish help to the members of the body social, and never destroy and absorb them.” See Pius XI, Quadragesimo anno [http://www.newadvent.org/library/docs_pi11qa.htm; 12.09.2011]. The subsidiarity principle was also a subject of another papal encyclical Mater et magistra written by John XXIII in 1961. In the new post World War II reality the principle was formulated as follows: “But however extensive and far-reaching the influence of the State on the economy may be, it must never be exerted to the extent of depriving the individual citizen of his freedom of action. It must rather augment his freedom while effectively guaranteeing the protection of his essential personal rights.” In this encyclical the subsidiarity principle is formed as an instruction for the permitted state intervention, which should “support, instigate, help and amend the initiatives undertaken by individuals”. This interpretation has been also confirmed by John Paul II in his encyclical Centesimus annus. See: John Paul II, Centesimus annus http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/encyclicals/documents/ hf_jp-ii_enc_01051991_centesimus-annus_en.html [12.09.2011].
Research of the cultural sector as an element of the participatory model of culture management, based on an example of the research conducted by the Regional Observatory of Culture.
created “above” are transferred to the employees and directors of cultural institutions for further endorsement. In this situation, another essential part of participatory character is missing: that of identifying yourself with the strategy. What may happen as well is an attitude of resistance towards it as “it is created by people who have no idea about what happens down here”, those who hardly know the reality of the actual endorsement of a given strategy or how the strategy fits them. “And so an enormous potential of knowledge, skills and creativity dispersed throughout an enterprise is lost and the planning stage is unnaturally separated from the stages of strategy endorsement” [Śliwa 2011, p. 2]. At the same time, the participatory model is all about openness and broadening the array of individuals and organizations involved in the process, taking into the account various points of view, experiences and varied – often very practical – aspects of knowledge. In practice, some of the most revolutionary solutions for enterprise operations often originate at its lower levels. Treating employees as agents naturally releases their creative potential towards work, overall creativity and efficiency. Anna Witek–Crabb, following Gary Hamel, points us towards the necessity for clear–cut leadership in this model for giving directions to the multitude of voices that appears in the situation of great openness, and to take care simultaneously of “the multitude of perspectives and unity of objectives” [Hamel 1996, pp. 80–81]. The involvement of co–workers in creating strategy ensures their active involvement in the realization of its objectives and assumptions. The introduction to Joanna Orlik’s recently published book includes the sentence “conversation is action” [Orlik 2011, p. 7], which may actually express the quintessence of participation. Orlik proposes the creation of local and regional cultural councils, where the operational strategy for cultural institutions and cultural policy would be discussed and agreed.
L
et us try to apply the features of this model to the management of cultural institutions, but in the broader context of cultural sector management handled by local governments. It is hard in
27 Pius XI in his encyclical entitled Quadragesimo anno (1931) says: “Just as it is gravely wrong to take from individuals what they can accomplish by their own initiative and industry and give it to the community, so also it is an injustice and at the same time a grave evil and disturbance of right order to assign to a greater and higher association what lesser and subordinate organizations can do. For every social activity ought of its very nature to furnish help to the members of the body social, and never destroy and absorb them.” See Pius XI, Quadragesimo anno [http://www.newadvent.org/library/docs_pi11qa.htm; 12.09.2011]. The subsidiarity principle was also a subject of another papal encyclical Mater et magistra written by John XXIII in 1961. In the new post World War II reality the principle was formulated as follows: “But however extensive and far-reaching the influence of the State on the economy may be, it must never be exerted to the extent of depriving the individual citizen of his freedom of action. It must rather augment his freedom while effectively guaranteeing the protection of his essential personal rights.” In this encyclical the subsidiarity principle is formed as an instruction for the permitted state intervention, which should “support, instigate, help and amend the initiatives undertaken by individuals”. This interpretation has been also confirmed by John Paul II in his encyclical Centesimus annus. See: John Paul II, Centesimus annus http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/encyclicals/documents/ hf_jp-ii_enc_01051991_centesimus-annus_en.html [12.09.2011].
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2009). Manager of the culture team in Poznan Metropolis Council (2010), co-author of the culture development strategic program for Wielkopolska region, the research and report “Cultural Potential and Deficits of County Towns” (2010). Coordinator of the innovative training project “Cultural Institutions of the 21st century” implemented with EFS in Kujawsko-Pomorskie region, director of the festival “Polish Guitar Academy”. Michał Mękarski Sociologist, worker of Regional Observatory of Culture at Adam Mickiewicz University, trainer in a project “Cultural Institutions of the 21st century”. He took part in the program of culture development in Wielkopolska region in years 2011-2020 and in many research projects e.g. “Cultural Potential and Deficits of County Towns”, “The viewership of local media”, “Eurequal. Social Inequality and Why it Matters for the Economic and Democratic Development of Europe and its Citizens” . He specializes in preparing research tools for quality and quantity research.
Participatory management in the public sector is also to a certain extent an emanation of the subsidiarity principle, fundamental to the proper functioning of democratic systems. It is and should be one of the main operational principles of administration, and a guarantor that it will not unnecessarily expand and take over new areas that have been so far managed by associations, cultural institutions, estate communities, charitable organizations, enterprises, families and individuals. The subsidiarity principle belongs to the general heritage of social philosophy. It has been most clearly formed and developed in Catholic social teaching27. It stipulates that smaller organizations should be handling matters that must not be taken from them but only provided with support. This decentralizing and involving interpretation of the principle additionally consolidates the arguments for participatory management. In this context what is also a very interesting aspect of this issue is “horizontal subsidiarity”. The 2002 report entitled “Rethinking the subsidiarity principle” includes a statement that “horizontal subsidiarity is based on complementarity and cooperation of citizens and public institutions; its objective is the improvement and rationalization of public good. [...] The organizations of citizens and individuals have a right to conduct activities directed at public interest and applying for authority or permits from public authorities” [Roffiaen 2003, p. 7]. This “independent activity of citizens must be supported by public authority” [ibidem, p. 2], by the use of various forms of support, including financial.
Michał Mękarski Sociologist, worker of Regional Observatory of Culture at Adam Mickiewicz University, trainer in a project “Cultural Institutions of the 21st century”. He took part in the program of culture development in Wielkopolska region in years 2011-2020 and in many research projects e.g. “Cultural Potential and Deficits of County Towns”, “The viewership of local media”, “Eurequal. Social Inequality and Why it Matters for the Economic and Democratic Development of Europe and its Citizens” . He specializes in preparing research tools for quality and quantity research. 2009). Manager of the culture team in Poznan Metropolis Council (2010), co-author of the culture development strategic program for Wielkopolska region, the research and report “Cultural Potential and Deficits of County Towns” (2010). Coordinator of the innovative training project “Cultural Institutions of the 21st century” implemented with EFS in Kujawsko-Pomorskie region, director of the festival “Polish Guitar Academy”.
Culture Management 2011, Vol 4 (4) Culture Management 2011, Vol 4 (4)
more funds, which allow for their material development or even continued existence. In principle, what is encouraged here is the model of development of cultural institutions through subordination and winning favours.” In this model, development is understood, more than anything, in material categories rather than programme–related or artistic terms. (...). The directors of cultural institutions must be above all skilful and foresighted players or administrators, and to a much lesser degree managers capable of working out and implementing their own long–term programme– based vision of development for the institutions they manage” [Hausner 2009, pp. 45–46]. It is obvious that an idea, which can be defined as local government cultural policy, should exist but it is very rarely a strategy or cultural policy par excellence, even if some document confirming the policy is actually in place. The directors and employees of cultural institutions are often merely realizing such policies without any influence whatsoever on their creation. There should be some kind of a buffer, such as cultural councils or similar organizations serving as an intermediary between local government and cultural institutions. attempts to create such councils have not been far–reaching, although almost every institution of culture has a programme council that is just a facade for approving the institution’s annual report without fuss or involvement. It is, however, increasingly frequent that strategies are built on the basis of research. This is all right if the research is run by an independent company and is reliable. In fact, there are more and more examples of research which serve the purpose of finding out about the reality and is at the same time an attempted dialogue with the parties participating in the management process, both those directly interested in changing the system or those who should be persuaded to do so. One such project is an extensive, large– scale research conducted in the Wielkopolska Province (2006–2007) [Kieliszewski, Schmidt 2006, pp. 20–25], initiated by the provincial local government. Another interesting example of using research as an element of confronting the decisions made by local governments with the residents’ opinions is the research commissioned
68
the current legal climate and practices to talk at all about the independence of cultural institutions, in a sense comparable to applying solutions at the level of company management (directors of the institutions). One of the charges against public cultural institutions from the “market” is their structural inadequacy to applying the rules of the market. It is an objective of any enterprise to achieve and maximise profit whereas the aim of the public sector, including its cultural institutions, is to achieve broadly or directly formulated social objectives, and it is the realization of these objectives that is financed from public funds. In spite of the fact that the public sector is not directly focused on profit, the management methods are increasingly frequently reaching for the rules and achievements of enterprises in this context. “Strategic management” has become a kind of imperative in the operations of the public sector with its attempts to introduce costs–saving measures in institutions, to improve their operations and efficiency of management. In this sense the public sector is trying to become similar to the private sector”28. It seems that the participatory model has not yet had a chance to happen in a broader sense in the operations of local governments and the cultural institutions they manage. In many cases local government authorities and their units treat the directors of cultural institutions as subsidiary administrators who receive financing and should not be too independent. The local authorities expect institutions to follow the general policy of the city/town or municipality. They define the institution’s budget and often tentatively suggest the realization of specific tasks. In large cities cultural institutions may seem more independent (often artistic institutions headed by strong personalities/artists) but they are especially used to realize short–term local government objectives. Additionally, directors of institutions that accept the “servile” type of pragmatism are promoted by local governments. This is what Jerzy Hausner says about such institutions and their directors: “Institutions of culture in fact accept bureaucratic interference into their operations even if they are critical of it, as in exchange they receive access to
28 More about this issue in: P. Kieliszewski, Publiczne i prywatne. O nowym modelu relacji międzysektorowych [Public and private. On a new model of intersectoral relations.] [in:] A. Gwóźdź (ed.), Od przemysłów kultury do kreatywnej gospodarki [From cultural industries to creative economics], Narodowe Centrum Kultury, Warszawa 2010, pp. 34-46.
28 More about this issue in: P. Kieliszewski, Publiczne i prywatne. O nowym modelu relacji międzysektorowych [Public and private. On a new model of intersectoral relations.] [in:] A. Gwóźdź (ed.), Od przemysłów kultury do kreatywnej gospodarki [From cultural industries to creative economics], Narodowe Centrum Kultury, Warszawa 2010, pp. 34-46.
more funds, which allow for their material development or even continued existence. In principle, what is encouraged here is the model of development of cultural institutions through subordination and winning favours.” In this model, development is understood, more than anything, in material categories rather than programme–related or artistic terms. (...). The directors of cultural institutions must be above all skilful and foresighted players or administrators, and to a much lesser degree managers capable of working out and implementing their own long–term programme– based vision of development for the institutions they manage” [Hausner 2009, pp. 45–46]. It is obvious that an idea, which can be defined as local government cultural policy, should exist but it is very rarely a strategy or cultural policy par excellence, even if some document confirming the policy is actually in place. The directors and employees of cultural institutions are often merely realizing such policies without any influence whatsoever on their creation. There should be some kind of a buffer, such as cultural councils or similar organizations serving as an intermediary between local government and cultural institutions. attempts to create such councils have not been far–reaching, although almost every institution of culture has a programme council that is just a facade for approving the institution’s annual report without fuss or involvement. It is, however, increasingly frequent that strategies are built on the basis of research. This is all right if the research is run by an independent company and is reliable. In fact, there are more and more examples of research which serve the purpose of finding out about the reality and is at the same time an attempted dialogue with the parties participating in the management process, both those directly interested in changing the system or those who should be persuaded to do so. One such project is an extensive, large– scale research conducted in the Wielkopolska Province (2006–2007) [Kieliszewski, Schmidt 2006, pp. 20–25], initiated by the provincial local government. Another interesting example of using research as an element of confronting the decisions made by local governments with the residents’ opinions is the research commissioned
68
the current legal climate and practices to talk at all about the independence of cultural institutions, in a sense comparable to applying solutions at the level of company management (directors of the institutions). One of the charges against public cultural institutions from the “market” is their structural inadequacy to applying the rules of the market. It is an objective of any enterprise to achieve and maximise profit whereas the aim of the public sector, including its cultural institutions, is to achieve broadly or directly formulated social objectives, and it is the realization of these objectives that is financed from public funds. In spite of the fact that the public sector is not directly focused on profit, the management methods are increasingly frequently reaching for the rules and achievements of enterprises in this context. “Strategic management” has become a kind of imperative in the operations of the public sector with its attempts to introduce costs–saving measures in institutions, to improve their operations and efficiency of management. In this sense the public sector is trying to become similar to the private sector”28. It seems that the participatory model has not yet had a chance to happen in a broader sense in the operations of local governments and the cultural institutions they manage. In many cases local government authorities and their units treat the directors of cultural institutions as subsidiary administrators who receive financing and should not be too independent. The local authorities expect institutions to follow the general policy of the city/town or municipality. They define the institution’s budget and often tentatively suggest the realization of specific tasks. In large cities cultural institutions may seem more independent (often artistic institutions headed by strong personalities/artists) but they are especially used to realize short–term local government objectives. Additionally, directors of institutions that accept the “servile” type of pragmatism are promoted by local governments. This is what Jerzy Hausner says about such institutions and their directors: “Institutions of culture in fact accept bureaucratic interference into their operations even if they are critical of it, as in exchange they receive access to
Culture Management 2011, Vol 4 (4)
recently by Jarocin’s local government, aimed at evaluating the project of combining school and public libraries, which was realized over a year prior to the research. 29 Research supporting the process of management in the cultural sector can be conducted everywhere where local governments are not afraid of realistic diagnosis and evaluation of their actions. Everywhere where local authorities, acting in good faith, are convinced of the correctness of their intuitions or decisions already made, but they wish to confront them with the opinions of the residents or selected representatives of residents. And so it is also here that the emphasis, the point of gravity in management is such that the initiative or the “voice” is to be given to the employees of cultural institutions, the so–called “addressees of the cultural offer”. The global trend is to change the concept of an “addressee of cultural offer”, who is no longer a passive absorbent of a listing programmed by an instructor or curator. Following the contemporary internet community communicators, this very recipient can (and often wants to) co–create communities, be involved in the creation of cultural phenomena and events, and in the footsteps of digital television platforms, to select programmes, and play them at a convenient time. A good example of an internet initiative of this type – by both residents and admirers of the town of Kępno in the south of Wielkopolska – was to archive old photographs of the “local fatherland” and then tidy up the neglected Protestant cemetery. This led to the authorities getting involved in encouraging the residents to join in. Another clever step of the local authorities was to re– open a local culture club, seventeen years after its closure. They had the courage to say that they were not quite sure what its purpose was going to be and then invited external experts to work out a new model for its operations. Discussion panels and focus research gave grounds to the projects described further in this paper. Poznański Sztab Antykryzysowy (Poznań City Anti–Crisis Staff) is an interesting attempt to recover the field for participation, and it complies
with the subsidiarity principle. It seems to be a shot at giving agency to individuals, associations and institutions involved in culture as far as the creation and actual running of cultural policy is concerned, in other words, involving them in the creation of the cultural strategy for the city. The effort made by dozens of people focuses on the programming and creating of new models of cooperation, motivating mechanisms, monitoring instruments which will have an impact on an objective selection of staff (directors, employees) for the institutions of quantitative evaluation of actions taken by institutions and individuals. The Staff, just like a similar group in Bydgoszcz, organizes the local congress of culture. And this is where the first dilemmas and difficulties relating with the operation of the participatory model appear. Its efficiency is endangered by attempts to run a debate on too many issues that require a definite range of competences. On the other hand, the new operational model for cultural institutions, worked out within the Poznań Staff, must maximally involve the individuals who are to endorse it later, at the stage of its creation. The disadvantage of this work is that it takes place in a certain opposition to Poznań local government authorities30, which in turn results in a certain distance taken towards it by local clerks and obviously by the directors of institutions, as described above by Jerzy Hausner. There are many other places in Poland that make similar attempts as far as the endorsement of strategic planning in culture is concerned and expanding the field of participation in this area. A centre that provides professional support for this type of activities on a regional level is, e.g., Małopolski Instytut Kultury (The Małopolska Cultural Institute) and nationally the leader in this field is Narodowe Centrum Kultury (National Cultural Institute) and Obserwatorium Kultury (Cultural Observatory) operating within its structure, which creates a network of observatories across the country. Thus a new quality in the strategic thinking about culture emerges, and it is worth remembering on this occasion about keeping its widest participatory character.
29 More about the same project in: R. Kaźmierczak, Biblioteki marnowanych potencjałów [Libraries of wasted potential], [in:] Kieliszewski P., Landsberg P., Poprawski M., Sójka J. (ed.), Instytucje kultury w czasach kryzysu [Cultural insitutions in the times of crisis], in the series published by: Instytut Kulturoznawstwa UAM: Studia kulturoznawcze. Polityka Kulturalna [Culture Studies. Culture Policy] Bogucki Wydawnictwo Naukowe, Poznań 2009, pp. 73-80. 30 The Poznan Anticrisis Staff was founded as a consequence of Poznań failing in the competition for the title of the European Capital of Culture 2016, and also a result of the criticism addressed to the Deputy Mayor of Poznań for Culture.
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30 The Poznan Anticrisis Staff was founded as a consequence of Poznań failing in the competition for the title of the European Capital of Culture 2016, and also a result of the criticism addressed to the Deputy Mayor of Poznań for Culture. 29 More about the same project in: R. Kaźmierczak, Biblioteki marnowanych potencjałów [Libraries of wasted potential], [in:] Kieliszewski P., Landsberg P., Poprawski M., Sójka J. (ed.), Instytucje kultury w czasach kryzysu [Cultural insitutions in the times of crisis], in the series published by: Instytut Kulturoznawstwa UAM: Studia kulturoznawcze. Polityka Kulturalna [Culture Studies. Culture Policy] Bogucki Wydawnictwo Naukowe, Poznań 2009, pp. 73-80.
recently by Jarocin’s local government, aimed at evaluating the project of combining school and public libraries, which was realized over a year prior to the research. 29 Research supporting the process of management in the cultural sector can be conducted everywhere where local governments are not afraid of realistic diagnosis and evaluation of their actions. Everywhere where local authorities, acting in good faith, are convinced of the correctness of their intuitions or decisions already made, but they wish to confront them with the opinions of the residents or selected representatives of residents. And so it is also here that the emphasis, the point of gravity in management is such that the initiative or the “voice” is to be given to the employees of cultural institutions, the so–called “addressees of the cultural offer”. The global trend is to change the concept of an “addressee of cultural offer”, who is no longer a passive absorbent of a listing programmed by an instructor or curator. Following the contemporary internet community communicators, this very recipient can (and often wants to) co–create communities, be involved in the creation of cultural phenomena and events, and in the footsteps of digital television platforms, to select programmes, and play them at a convenient time. A good example of an internet initiative of this type – by both residents and admirers of the town of Kępno in the south of Wielkopolska – was to archive old photographs of the “local fatherland” and then tidy up the neglected Protestant cemetery. This led to the authorities getting involved in encouraging the residents to join in. Another clever step of the local authorities was to re– open a local culture club, seventeen years after its closure. They had the courage to say that they were not quite sure what its purpose was going to be and then invited external experts to work out a new model for its operations. Discussion panels and focus research gave grounds to the projects described further in this paper. Poznański Sztab Antykryzysowy (Poznań City Anti–Crisis Staff) is an interesting attempt to recover the field for participation, and it complies
with the subsidiarity principle. It seems to be a shot at giving agency to individuals, associations and institutions involved in culture as far as the creation and actual running of cultural policy is concerned, in other words, involving them in the creation of the cultural strategy for the city. The effort made by dozens of people focuses on the programming and creating of new models of cooperation, motivating mechanisms, monitoring instruments which will have an impact on an objective selection of staff (directors, employees) for the institutions of quantitative evaluation of actions taken by institutions and individuals. The Staff, just like a similar group in Bydgoszcz, organizes the local congress of culture. And this is where the first dilemmas and difficulties relating with the operation of the participatory model appear. Its efficiency is endangered by attempts to run a debate on too many issues that require a definite range of competences. On the other hand, the new operational model for cultural institutions, worked out within the Poznań Staff, must maximally involve the individuals who are to endorse it later, at the stage of its creation. The disadvantage of this work is that it takes place in a certain opposition to Poznań local government authorities30, which in turn results in a certain distance taken towards it by local clerks and obviously by the directors of institutions, as described above by Jerzy Hausner. There are many other places in Poland that make similar attempts as far as the endorsement of strategic planning in culture is concerned and expanding the field of participation in this area. A centre that provides professional support for this type of activities on a regional level is, e.g., Małopolski Instytut Kultury (The Małopolska Cultural Institute) and nationally the leader in this field is Narodowe Centrum Kultury (National Cultural Institute) and Obserwatorium Kultury (Cultural Observatory) operating within its structure, which creates a network of observatories across the country. Thus a new quality in the strategic thinking about culture emerges, and it is worth remembering on this occasion about keeping its widest participatory character.
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3. Regional Culture Observatory (RCO) – as (not only) a research institution.
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riting about the need for dialogue and cooperation, the necessary elements of the participatory model of management in the sphere of culture, it is also worth mentioning the circumstances of the foundation of the Regional Cultural Observatory. In 2010, the Rector of the Adam Mickiewicz University together with the Mayor of Poznan signed a letter of intent, which established a university centre as a cooperation platform between the university and the local government of the City of Poznań for the monitoring and research of the cultural sector. This bilateral expression of willingness to cooperate for culture, while maintaining a partnership, was also a result of pragmatic thinking and an expression of a response to the need, which complies with the European trend, to create these kinds of centres that monitor and research culture–related areas. The observatory operates (or plans to operate) in many areas, without restricting itself solely to monitoring and research of the cultural sector in the context of forming local cultural policies. The provision of consultancy services to local governments and cultural institutions is increasingly expected. There is also a need to stimulate activities that support cooperation and a debate about the condition of culture, promoting good practice or recommending those models which are the conveyors of many improvements and innovations in culture management. Raising the level of narration and awareness of common activities for differentiating between various institutions of social and cultural life is also realized through research projects implemented by RCO.
32 The Report is available on the web page http://platformakultury.pl/files/2011-01-]04/kulturalne_potencjay_i_deficyty _miast_powiatowych__raport.pdf [22.04.2011].
4. Research project as a dialogue
31 The research team has selected six medium-size district towns (approximately 30 thousand residents, with the exception of Gniezno) situated in various parts of the province and varying in distance from Poznań (from Gniezno which is situated 50km from the capital of the Province to Kępno 170km away). The choice of the towns made it possible to capture the variety of culture in Wielkopolska, its potentials and deficits and the results of research became a diagnostic element of the Cultural Development Programme for the Wielkopolska Province for years 2011-2020.
I
n 2010, a team organized around the Regional Cultural Observatory and the Foundation of Polish Culture carried out a research project entitled “Cultural Potentials and Deficits of District
Towns” co–financed by the National Cultural Centre. The research focused on six deliberately selected town districts in the Wielkopolska Province: Czarnków, Gniezno, Jarocin, Kępno, Turek and Wolsztyn31. The towns, selected for their geographic location and a number of residents, allowed the final report to show32 the variety (exposed both through the multiplicity of opportunities and potentials of local culture and its complexity and multifaceted deficits and threats to it) of culture in the entire province. The choice of smaller centres brought one more result. It led to noticing and including the voice of district towns in the discussion about culture; the towns which often through their size and considerable distance from the capital of Wielkopolska Province were marginalized and omitted from the discussion. From the point of view of the participatory model this was a very significant result; just as according to it even the smallest interested party should be treated equally and as a partner in the process. The research also created the opportunity (not very commonly encountered as these research projects are very infrequent) to objectively compare a town with its level of local culture with other municipal centres of similar size in the region. The research project itself also became a tool for changing narration, while raising awareness of the necessity to introduce changes into local cultural policies. It stimulated and encouraged discussion and the involvement (through research) of various social groups. Additionally, it was encouraged at almost every stage of the research process that the debate (which began thanks to the research) on the condition of local culture is promulgated and popularized. This has been done both through contacts with the local media (passing information and project related materials to the media) and inviting media professionals to the second stage of the research (expert debates in the form of focus group discussions). This was not an easy task because the time of research and the activities of promoting the debate coincided with the self–government election campaign, so it was often treated as a secondary topic.
I
n 2010, a team organized around the Regional Cultural Observatory and the Foundation of Polish Culture carried out a research project entitled “Cultural Potentials and Deficits of District
4. Research project as a dialogue
31 The research team has selected six medium-size district towns (approximately 30 thousand residents, with the exception of Gniezno) situated in various parts of the province and varying in distance from Poznań (from Gniezno which is situated 50km from the capital of the Province to Kępno 170km away). The choice of the towns made it possible to capture the variety of culture in Wielkopolska, its potentials and deficits and the results of research became a diagnostic element of the Cultural Development Programme for the Wielkopolska Province for years 2011-2020.
riting about the need for dialogue and cooperation, the necessary elements of the participatory model of management in the sphere of culture, it is also worth mentioning the circumstances of the foundation of the Regional Cultural Observatory. In 2010, the Rector of the Adam Mickiewicz University together with the Mayor of Poznan signed a letter of intent, which established a university centre as a cooperation platform between the university and the local government of the City of Poznań for the monitoring and research of the cultural sector. This bilateral expression of willingness to cooperate for culture, while maintaining a partnership, was also a result of pragmatic thinking and an expression of a response to the need, which complies with the European trend, to create these kinds of centres that monitor and research culture–related areas. The observatory operates (or plans to operate) in many areas, without restricting itself solely to monitoring and research of the cultural sector in the context of forming local cultural policies. The provision of consultancy services to local governments and cultural institutions is increasingly expected. There is also a need to stimulate activities that support cooperation and a debate about the condition of culture, promoting good practice or recommending those models which are the conveyors of many improvements and innovations in culture management. Raising the level of narration and awareness of common activities for differentiating between various institutions of social and cultural life is also realized through research projects implemented by RCO.
32 The Report is available on the web page http://platformakultury.pl/files/2011-01-]04/kulturalne_potencjay_i_deficyty _miast_powiatowych__raport.pdf [22.04.2011].
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Towns” co–financed by the National Cultural Centre. The research focused on six deliberately selected town districts in the Wielkopolska Province: Czarnków, Gniezno, Jarocin, Kępno, Turek and Wolsztyn31. The towns, selected for their geographic location and a number of residents, allowed the final report to show32 the variety (exposed both through the multiplicity of opportunities and potentials of local culture and its complexity and multifaceted deficits and threats to it) of culture in the entire province. The choice of smaller centres brought one more result. It led to noticing and including the voice of district towns in the discussion about culture; the towns which often through their size and considerable distance from the capital of Wielkopolska Province were marginalized and omitted from the discussion. From the point of view of the participatory model this was a very significant result; just as according to it even the smallest interested party should be treated equally and as a partner in the process. The research also created the opportunity (not very commonly encountered as these research projects are very infrequent) to objectively compare a town with its level of local culture with other municipal centres of similar size in the region. The research project itself also became a tool for changing narration, while raising awareness of the necessity to introduce changes into local cultural policies. It stimulated and encouraged discussion and the involvement (through research) of various social groups. Additionally, it was encouraged at almost every stage of the research process that the debate (which began thanks to the research) on the condition of local culture is promulgated and popularized. This has been done both through contacts with the local media (passing information and project related materials to the media) and inviting media professionals to the second stage of the research (expert debates in the form of focus group discussions). This was not an easy task because the time of research and the activities of promoting the debate coincided with the self–government election campaign, so it was often treated as a secondary topic.
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3. Regional Culture Observatory (RCO) – as (not only) a research institution.
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This narration was consolidated in an open academic seminar33 which summarized the project and presented the research results with the representatives of towns, mayors and directors of cultural institutions who were invited along the employees of National Cultural Centre, Ministry of Culture and National Heritage, General Statistics Office (GUS) and also scientists, PhD students, students and journalists.
5. Research description
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he project entitled “Cultural Potentials and Deficits of District Towns” consisted of two main phases of the research process, in which separate research methods were applied. In the first stage, a research poll was carried out with the use of an auditorium questionnaire with 726 respondents from all investigated towns taking part in it34. In the second phase, the team of the Regional Cultural Observatory used the FGI (focus group interview) quantitative method. Why is it that the research team described social reality using a dichotomous division into cultural potentials and deficits? Defining advantages and disadvantages is a necessary starting point of any strategic thinking. The theme of the research constructed in this way clearly and transparently defines the project as directed at the diagnosis of the condition of local culture. It also stipulates that it will propose further directions for town development in this area. The knowledge gathered in the report includes the specification of the strengths and weaknesses of the municipal culture, which
helps the local government authorities and all interested parties reconsider the cultural potential of their town, from the perspective of objective research results. Listing and naming difficulties and deficits in this area should also become the first step towards remedial actions. A questionnaire called “What culture is wanted by the young people of Wielkopolska from [the name of the specific town]? The potentials and deficits of culture according to the A–level students”35 was completed by A–level students from six towns. The research team chose this particular social group for several reasons. Firstly, they thought that the opinions of young people should be exposed and treated as significant, especially since the cultural offer is mostly addressed to them. Besides A–level students are already independent and mobile enough to travel to other towns and compare the local level of culture and the cultural offer with their own. This social group usually has very specific interests and a critical approach to their environment. Besides, this is a group that is just about to face some life–changing choices, a lot of them will be leaving the locality to go and study in a larger city. The decision on whether or not they are going to return home after they finish their university studies is probably dictated by a number of factors, among them how satisfied they are with the local cultural offer. The purpose of the questionnaire was to obtain the broadest view on the culture of a given district town, therefore the questionnaire prepared for the purpose was an eight–page survey which included issues relating to the evaluation of different aspects of municipal culture. 36 It was the researchers’
33 ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� The seminar took place on 13 December 2010 in the Institute of Cultural Studies at the Faculty of Social Science of Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań. 34 The purposive sampling method was used along with multistage cluster sample (purposive/random), in which the purposive sampling focused on the higher strata: territorial: towns (6 research towns) and organization: schools (the largest grammar school in town) and class profile (humanities, mathematics and physics, geography, biology and chemistry). The lowest level of random sampling clustered groups not individuals – that was investigated was classes of A-level students. In each investigated town a minimum of 100 A-level students were questioned. 35 Based on one format of a research instrument a separate questionnaire was created for each of the six towns, which differed with the type of different local cultural event, evaluation of cultural institutions in the given town and the frequency of using their offer. So the title of each questionnaire was “What culture is wanted by the young people of Wielkopolska from [Czarnkowo/ Gniezno/Jarocin/Kępno/Turek/Wolsztyn]? Potentials and deficits of culture in Czarnkowo/Gniezno/Jarocin/Kępno/Turek/Wolsztyn according to the A-level students”. Owing to the almost identical questionnaire it was possible to compare the results from different towns and obtain general evaluations and trends characteristic for the entire group of respondents. 36 The questions included in the questionnaire covered: the most important cultural events taking place in the district towns and the visibility of their cultural offer; frequency of participation in cultural events; evaluation of the level of culture and cultural offer (in the areas of: number of events, their availability or variety); evaluation of the work of cultural institutions/organizations; importance of such factors as promotion of events, level of entrance fees, variety of offers – strengths and missing elements of the offer; specific events, cultural initiatives worthy of more promotion or financial support; events which are a business card of the town; source of information about cultural events; towns with the most interesting cultural offer; factors dictating the choice of place of studies; opinions of the respondents about the most excluded social group from the town’s cultural life; evaluation of the cultural policy of the town authorities; opinions about the impact of culture on other spheres of life (town promotion), the advantages it brings and expectations towards it.
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36 The questions included in the questionnaire covered: the most important cultural events taking place in the district towns and the visibility of their cultural offer; frequency of participation in cultural events; evaluation of the level of culture and cultural offer (in the areas of: number of events, their availability or variety); evaluation of the work of cultural institutions/organizations; importance of such factors as promotion of events, level of entrance fees, variety of offers – strengths and missing elements of the offer; specific events, cultural initiatives worthy of more promotion or financial support; events which are a business card of the town; source of information about cultural events; towns with the most interesting cultural offer; factors dictating the choice of place of studies; opinions of the respondents about the most excluded social group from the town’s cultural life; evaluation of the cultural policy of the town authorities; opinions about the impact of culture on other spheres of life (town promotion), the advantages it brings and expectations towards it. 35 Based on one format of a research instrument a separate questionnaire was created for each of the six towns, which differed with the type of different local cultural event, evaluation of cultural institutions in the given town and the frequency of using their offer. So the title of each questionnaire was “What culture is wanted by the young people of Wielkopolska from [Czarnkowo/ Gniezno/Jarocin/Kępno/Turek/Wolsztyn]? Potentials and deficits of culture in Czarnkowo/Gniezno/Jarocin/Kępno/Turek/Wolsztyn according to the A-level students”. Owing to the almost identical questionnaire it was possible to compare the results from different towns and obtain general evaluations and trends characteristic for the entire group of respondents. 34 The purposive sampling method was used along with multistage cluster sample (purposive/random), in which the purposive sampling focused on the higher strata: territorial: towns (6 research towns) and organization: schools (the largest grammar school in town) and class profile (humanities, mathematics and physics, geography, biology and chemistry). The lowest level of random sampling clustered groups not individuals – that was investigated was classes of A-level students. In each investigated town a minimum of 100 A-level students were questioned. 33 ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� The seminar took place on 13 December 2010 in the Institute of Cultural Studies at the Faculty of Social Science of Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań.
he project entitled “Cultural Potentials and Deficits of District Towns” consisted of two main phases of the research process, in which separate research methods were applied. In the first stage, a research poll was carried out with the use of an auditorium questionnaire with 726 respondents from all investigated towns taking part in it34. In the second phase, the team of the Regional Cultural Observatory used the FGI (focus group interview) quantitative method. Why is it that the research team described social reality using a dichotomous division into cultural potentials and deficits? Defining advantages and disadvantages is a necessary starting point of any strategic thinking. The theme of the research constructed in this way clearly and transparently defines the project as directed at the diagnosis of the condition of local culture. It also stipulates that it will propose further directions for town development in this area. The knowledge gathered in the report includes the specification of the strengths and weaknesses of the municipal culture, which
T
5. Research description This narration was consolidated in an open academic seminar33 which summarized the project and presented the research results with the representatives of towns, mayors and directors of cultural institutions who were invited along the employees of National Cultural Centre, Ministry of Culture and National Heritage, General Statistics Office (GUS) and also scientists, PhD students, students and journalists.
helps the local government authorities and all interested parties reconsider the cultural potential of their town, from the perspective of objective research results. Listing and naming difficulties and deficits in this area should also become the first step towards remedial actions. A questionnaire called “What culture is wanted by the young people of Wielkopolska from [the name of the specific town]? The potentials and deficits of culture according to the A–level students”35 was completed by A–level students from six towns. The research team chose this particular social group for several reasons. Firstly, they thought that the opinions of young people should be exposed and treated as significant, especially since the cultural offer is mostly addressed to them. Besides A–level students are already independent and mobile enough to travel to other towns and compare the local level of culture and the cultural offer with their own. This social group usually has very specific interests and a critical approach to their environment. Besides, this is a group that is just about to face some life–changing choices, a lot of them will be leaving the locality to go and study in a larger city. The decision on whether or not they are going to return home after they finish their university studies is probably dictated by a number of factors, among them how satisfied they are with the local cultural offer. The purpose of the questionnaire was to obtain the broadest view on the culture of a given district town, therefore the questionnaire prepared for the purpose was an eight–page survey which included issues relating to the evaluation of different aspects of municipal culture. 36 It was the researchers’
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6. Triangulation – the research quality enhancing technique.
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intention to create a quantitative tool that would produce an opportunity to find out everything about the A–level students’ opinions. Therefore the questionnaire also included open questions where opinions could be expressed freely.
It seems that triangulation is an effective response to the defects and limitations of various research methods. The concept itself has emerged from geodesy, where it is used to mean a technique of surveying and marking points on the land surface. In social science the concept of triangulation stands for using the perspective of at least two different points of view in one researched topic [ibidem, p. 79], i.e., “combining various methodologies while researching the same phenomenon”, as defined by Norman Denzin. [Ibidem, pp. 81–82]. We distinguish four types of triangulation: data triangulation (using data from a few different sources), investigator triangulation (involves multiple investigators in research), theory triangulation (using many theoretical concepts that explain the researched phenomena) and methodological triangulation (combining several research methods). Triangulation raises the quality of research owing to the broadening of the range of research activities. It should not be treated, however, as the
A picture of reality that only includes the opinions of A–level students is of course incomplete and therefore the researchers also approached experts – those who create, describe or co– decide about local culture on a daily basis. Expert panels were created in all researched towns in the format of focused group interviews. People who represented the opinion–making circles in each of the towns were invited to participate, such as the representatives of cultural institutions, authorities, leaders of non–governmental organizations and local initiatives, journalists, artists and cultural animators. Choosing focus group interviews as the second research tool was dictated by the fact that the Regional Cultural Observatory was convinced that only an open conversation, regardless of the form it might take, whether it be a dialogue or a dispute, and the exchange of arguments would enable them to identify problems, create and generate new ideas and indicate the areas that require intervention or correction of actions that are already in place.
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he problem of choosing an appropriate research method is not only a dilemma relating to the beliefs and approaches of a researcher to social reality, it is also dictated by the researched subject. It should be made clearer through giving an answer to a (apparently) simple question: what and who do we want to research? Still there is no one, proper and comprehensive method of researching culture (and there will never be one) just as there is no one definition and range of meaning of the word “culture” itself. Aaron Cicourel who says that “bureaucratic/ technological society finds numbers convincing” [Silveman 2007, p. 63] is probably quite right. Diagrams, correlations, percentages, numbers may seem more transparent, tangible and objective than non–numerical data. One has to remember, however, that qualitative tools may research those spheres of reality that cannot be measured by statistics and so–called “hard data”. Keeping in mind the advantages and disadvantages of applying each method, it is worth basing your work on two principles as defined by Marie Jahoda: 1. “For a reliable description of social reality it is advisable to work with both qualitative and quantitative methods simultaneously. 2. Both objective facts and subjective opinions should be gathered” [Flick 2011, p. 77].
he problem of choosing an appropriate research method is not only a dilemma relating to the beliefs and approaches of a researcher to social reality, it is also dictated by the researched subject. It should be made clearer through giving an answer to a (apparently) simple question: what and who do we want to research? Still there is no one, proper and comprehensive method of researching culture (and there will never be one) just as there is no one definition and range of meaning of the word “culture” itself. Aaron Cicourel who says that “bureaucratic/ technological society finds numbers convincing” [Silveman 2007, p. 63] is probably quite right. Diagrams, correlations, percentages, numbers may seem more transparent, tangible and objective than non–numerical data. One has to remember, however, that qualitative tools may research those spheres of reality that cannot be measured by statistics and so–called “hard data”. Keeping in mind the advantages and disadvantages of applying each method, it is worth basing your work on two principles as defined by Marie Jahoda: 1. “For a reliable description of social reality it is advisable to work with both qualitative and quantitative methods simultaneously. 2. Both objective facts and subjective opinions should be gathered” [Flick 2011, p. 77].
The focus group research doubled the advantages; on the one hand it made it possible to find out about the opinions, ideas and visions for the improvement of the town culture, expressed by the people who are directly involved in it. On the other hand, apart from the research objectives, they also served the purpose of integrating the circles of people responsible for giving shape to the cultural sector, defining their common goals with culture in focus. It is also worth mentioning here that giving the opportunity of expression to a varied group of people in each of the towns that have been researched was in some cases the first, yet elementary, step towards collectivising the decision–making process and beginning a partnership dialogue between decision–makers and individuals who wish to work for the improvement of operations of local culture. The expert panels were often the first broad forums of this type. Many of the participants saw the need for further, cyclical meetings, exchange of ideas and experiences in such a diverse group of people interested or involved in municipal culture.
T
It seems that triangulation is an effective response to the defects and limitations of various research methods. The concept itself has emerged from geodesy, where it is used to mean a technique of surveying and marking points on the land surface. In social science the concept of triangulation stands for using the perspective of at least two different points of view in one researched topic [ibidem, p. 79], i.e., “combining various methodologies while researching the same phenomenon”, as defined by Norman Denzin. [Ibidem, pp. 81–82]. We distinguish four types of triangulation: data triangulation (using data from a few different sources), investigator triangulation (involves multiple investigators in research), theory triangulation (using many theoretical concepts that explain the researched phenomena) and methodological triangulation (combining several research methods). Triangulation raises the quality of research owing to the broadening of the range of research activities. It should not be treated, however, as the
A picture of reality that only includes the opinions of A–level students is of course incomplete and therefore the researchers also approached experts – those who create, describe or co– decide about local culture on a daily basis. Expert panels were created in all researched towns in the format of focused group interviews. People who represented the opinion–making circles in each of the towns were invited to participate, such as the representatives of cultural institutions, authorities, leaders of non–governmental organizations and local initiatives, journalists, artists and cultural animators. Choosing focus group interviews as the second research tool was dictated by the fact that the Regional Cultural Observatory was convinced that only an open conversation, regardless of the form it might take, whether it be a dialogue or a dispute, and the exchange of arguments would enable them to identify problems, create and generate new ideas and indicate the areas that require intervention or correction of actions that are already in place.
6. Triangulation – the research quality enhancing technique.
The focus group research doubled the advantages; on the one hand it made it possible to find out about the opinions, ideas and visions for the improvement of the town culture, expressed by the people who are directly involved in it. On the other hand, apart from the research objectives, they also served the purpose of integrating the circles of people responsible for giving shape to the cultural sector, defining their common goals with culture in focus. It is also worth mentioning here that giving the opportunity of expression to a varied group of people in each of the towns that have been researched was in some cases the first, yet elementary, step towards collectivising the decision–making process and beginning a partnership dialogue between decision–makers and individuals who wish to work for the improvement of operations of local culture. The expert panels were often the first broad forums of this type. Many of the participants saw the need for further, cyclical meetings, exchange of ideas and experiences in such a diverse group of people interested or involved in municipal culture.
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intention to create a quantitative tool that would produce an opportunity to find out everything about the A–level students’ opinions. Therefore the questionnaire also included open questions where opinions could be expressed freely.
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golden means that ensures and guarantees the objectivity and validity of research. Any research will certainly benefit from using triangulation, as it will help to get a broader picture about the investigated phenomena and understand it in a greater depth. Norman Denzin and Yvonna Lincoln agree with Uwe Flick, who says that triangulation is not a tool or strategy for validation but its competition. Therefore it should be treated as a process of “summing up the rigour, impetus, complexity, richness and depth of each investigation” [see: Denzin, Lincoln 2009, pp. 26–27].
7. Research effects and beneficiaries
T
he effect of research is the knowledge we gain in the investigative process. Information, data, recommendations, conclusions, regardless of their character, are all its resources. If they are applied and research recommendations are followed they can change social reality. Research into the cultural sector is certainly beneficial. This exceptionally trivial statement must be complemented by the list of the beneficiaries of these advantages, in order to show the multiple aspects of the effects of research and the wide range of beneficiaries of these investigations. The first group of beneficiaries are the respondents themselves (the researched individuals). Because they agree to take part in the research they can feel that their opinions are significant and of interest to someone. The expression of their opinion may also be followed by the expectation of change. It is also worth noticing that another (not always conscious) benefit of research is the research itself, which makes the respondent think about the investigated issues and stimulates their interest in social reality. It is probably true to say that we usually approach many aspects of life without much reflection and it is only a focus on an issue that makes us truly notice it. Social research is often an impulse, which stimulates discussion or even changes. Unfortunately there are also examples of manipulating respondents as happened in a small place in the Kujawsko–Pomorskie Province where the idea of research was clearly perverted: the questionnaire was prepared by local clerks and it was then filled in by chance–met people. The three final questions concerned the evaluation of the work of the director of the local cultural centre. The change that the effects of these questions were to bring about was all about a post–election shift in the directorial position.
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The second group of beneficiaries are the institutions that commission research, such as the units of territorial local government and institutions that are directly interested in the research results. The research provides them with knowledge, which enables them to take specific actions in response to the opinions and expectations of the respondents. This knowledge gives them more confidence and courage in decision–making, and it also means that they are one step ahead of those who are merely guided by intuitions in their decision–making. Knowledge is an elementary element that allows for choosing the best and most effective model of programming and management for an institution or, in a broader sense, the issues of culture in the area under the authority of local government. Another benefit of research to decision–makers is getting closer to the consumers of the offer (residents) because research becomes a real dialogue with communities. This should, in turn, built trust towards institutions or local government, consolidate the attitude of involvement and being an agent of certain actions and not only an addressee of a cultural policy. It is obvious that such approach might also have an image–making aspect, suggesting a pro–development and understanding approach of the authority, administration and institutions to their statutory duties. It is, however, worth emphasizing that just as it is in the classic participatory model of company management, the leadership function is clearly essential. What is needed is leadership that not only asks and listens but also makes decisions and endorses changes, even when they prove to be difficult and not always acceptable. A positive example here is set by the authorities of Jarocin, who were awarded the national title of “Management Leader 2010. Cooperation between Local government and Non–governmental organizations” for a very high percentage of cultural and educational services, commissioned to social organizations. The third group of beneficiaries is both the largest and most difficult to describe. It comprises all those who do not participate directly in the research but its effects have an impact on their life, providing that its recommendations are implemented. In this sense the entire community, environment and people who take advantage of the solutions worked out as research results are the beneficiaries of research projects. The fourth group includes the investigators themselves, or in a broader sense, the academic circles and practitioners taking advantage of the
73
he effect of research is the knowledge we gain in the investigative process. Information, data, recommendations, conclusions, regardless of their character, are all its resources. If they are applied and research recommendations are followed they can change social reality. Research into the cultural sector is certainly beneficial. This exceptionally trivial statement must be complemented by the list of the beneficiaries of these advantages, in order to show the multiple aspects of the effects of research and the wide range of beneficiaries of these investigations. The first group of beneficiaries are the respondents themselves (the researched individuals). Because they agree to take part in the research they can feel that their opinions are significant and of interest to someone. The expression of their opinion may also be followed by the expectation of change. It is also worth noticing that another (not always conscious) benefit of research is the research itself, which makes the respondent think about the investigated issues and stimulates their interest in social reality. It is probably true to say that we usually approach many aspects of life without much reflection and it is only a focus on an issue that makes us truly notice it. Social research is often an impulse, which stimulates discussion or even changes. Unfortunately there are also examples of manipulating respondents as happened in a small place in the Kujawsko–Pomorskie Province where the idea of research was clearly perverted: the questionnaire was prepared by local clerks and it was then filled in by chance–met people. The three final questions concerned the evaluation of the work of the director of the local cultural centre. The change that the effects of these questions were to bring about was all about a post–election shift in the directorial position.
T
7. Research effects and beneficiaries golden means that ensures and guarantees the objectivity and validity of research. Any research will certainly benefit from using triangulation, as it will help to get a broader picture about the investigated phenomena and understand it in a greater depth. Norman Denzin and Yvonna Lincoln agree with Uwe Flick, who says that triangulation is not a tool or strategy for validation but its competition. Therefore it should be treated as a process of “summing up the rigour, impetus, complexity, richness and depth of each investigation” [see: Denzin, Lincoln 2009, pp. 26–27].
73
The second group of beneficiaries are the institutions that commission research, such as the units of territorial local government and institutions that are directly interested in the research results. The research provides them with knowledge, which enables them to take specific actions in response to the opinions and expectations of the respondents. This knowledge gives them more confidence and courage in decision–making, and it also means that they are one step ahead of those who are merely guided by intuitions in their decision–making. Knowledge is an elementary element that allows for choosing the best and most effective model of programming and management for an institution or, in a broader sense, the issues of culture in the area under the authority of local government. Another benefit of research to decision–makers is getting closer to the consumers of the offer (residents) because research becomes a real dialogue with communities. This should, in turn, built trust towards institutions or local government, consolidate the attitude of involvement and being an agent of certain actions and not only an addressee of a cultural policy. It is obvious that such approach might also have an image–making aspect, suggesting a pro–development and understanding approach of the authority, administration and institutions to their statutory duties. It is, however, worth emphasizing that just as it is in the classic participatory model of company management, the leadership function is clearly essential. What is needed is leadership that not only asks and listens but also makes decisions and endorses changes, even when they prove to be difficult and not always acceptable. A positive example here is set by the authorities of Jarocin, who were awarded the national title of “Management Leader 2010. Cooperation between Local government and Non–governmental organizations” for a very high percentage of cultural and educational services, commissioned to social organizations. The third group of beneficiaries is both the largest and most difficult to describe. It comprises all those who do not participate directly in the research but its effects have an impact on their life, providing that its recommendations are implemented. In this sense the entire community, environment and people who take advantage of the solutions worked out as research results are the beneficiaries of research projects. The fourth group includes the investigators themselves, or in a broader sense, the academic circles and practitioners taking advantage of the
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presenting the method of collectivising the decision making process by focusing on the opinion of young people and experts.
8. Conclusion
T
he research model described here, modified to suit specific conditions and local circumstances, should also work for other local governments. Sometimes a local culture club or library, which has not worked out a new, involving model of communication with consumers and a new model of cultural education is condemned to exist beyond the main communication trends and cultural development. They are as if bypassed by potential consumers who are discouraged by these institutions, incapable of inviting them to dialogue. Local government units, on the other hand, are not always aware of this deficit. It seems that the attempts to apply the elements of participatory management in the format proposed by the research project sketched in this paper may be one of the methods of changing this situation.
he research model described here, modified to suit specific conditions and local circumstances, should also work for other local governments. Sometimes a local culture club or library, which has not worked out a new, involving model of communication with consumers and a new model of cultural education is condemned to exist beyond the main communication trends and cultural development. They are as if bypassed by potential consumers who are discouraged by these institutions, incapable of inviting them to dialogue. Local government units, on the other hand, are not always aware of this deficit. It seems that the attempts to apply the elements of participatory management in the format proposed by the research project sketched in this paper may be one of the methods of changing this situation.
T
8. Conclusion Culture Management 2011, Vol 4 (4)
MM
presenting the method of collectivising the decision making process by focusing on the opinion of young people and experts. 74
results of research. Owing to research they have opportunities of continuous development and self– improvement. Investigators create new research tools, improve or modify existing ones, multiply them and, at the same time, by conducting research, they expand their knowledge and experience that they can then share with others.
Writing about the effects of research one should mention that they include both recommendations, solutions, conclusions, descriptions and diagnoses presented in research reports and “soft effects”, that are intangible and therefore perhaps more difficult to identify. Nevertheless they are still very important. In the case of the “Potentials and Deficits of District Towns” project among these immeasurable effects are: MM often the first meeting of this character of the local cultural circles and defining this group as a “community” or a “local impact group” MM realizing the possibilities given by a moderated discussion during the focus group research MM introducing the model of dialogue and partnership relations between the authorities and people involved in the sphere of culture
MM
Writing about the effects of research one should mention that they include both recommendations, solutions, conclusions, descriptions and diagnoses presented in research reports and “soft effects”, that are intangible and therefore perhaps more difficult to identify. Nevertheless they are still very important. In the case of the “Potentials and Deficits of District Towns” project among these immeasurable effects are: MM often the first meeting of this character of the local cultural circles and defining this group as a “community” or a “local impact group” MM realizing the possibilities given by a moderated discussion during the focus group research MM introducing the model of dialogue and partnership relations between the authorities and people involved in the sphere of culture
results of research. Owing to research they have opportunities of continuous development and self– improvement. Investigators create new research tools, improve or modify existing ones, multiply them and, at the same time, by conducting research, they expand their knowledge and experience that they can then share with others.
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Literature Denzin N. K., Lincoln Y. S. Metody badań jakościowych. Vol. I. PWN. Warszawa 2009. [Methods of Qualitative Research]. Flick U. Jakość w badaniach jakościowych. PWN. Warszawa 2011. [Quality in Qualitative Research] Hamel G. Strategy as Revolution. Harvard Business Review. July–August 1996. Hausner J. Instytucje kultury w czasach kryzysu. Wyzwania i zagrożenia – w jakich warunkach możliwa jest transformacja i nowoczesny model funkcjonowania instytucji? [Cultural Institutions in the Times of Crisis. Challenges and Threats – In what conditions is the transformation and a modern model of operations of institutions possible?] [in:] Kieliszewski P., Landsberg P., Poprawski M., Sójka J. (ed.), Instytucje kultury w czasach kryzysu [Cultural Institutions in the Times of Crisis], w serii Instytutu Kulturoznawstwa UAM: Studia kulturoznawcze. Polityka Kulturalna [Cultural Studies. Cultural Policy] Bogucki Wydawnictwo Naukowe. Poznań 2009. Kaźmierczak R. Biblioteki marnowanych potencjałów [Libraries of Wasted Potentials] [in:] Kieliszewski P., Landsberg P., Poprawski M., Sójka J. (ed.), Instytucje kultury w czasach kryzysu [Cultural Institutions in the Times of Crisis], w serii Instytutu Kulturoznawstwa UAM: Studia kulturoznawcze. Polityka Kulturalna [Cultural Studies. Cultural Policy] Bogucki Wydawnictwo Naukowe. Poznań 2009.
Kieliszewski P. Publiczne i prywatne. O nowym modelu relacji międzysektorowych [The Public and the Private. On the New Model of Inter–sectoral Relations] [in:] A. Gwóźdź (ed.), Od przemysłów kultury do kreatywnej gospodarki [From Cultural Industries to Creative Economy] Narodowe Centrum Kultury. Warszawa 2010. Kieliszewski P., Schmidt J. Badania marszałkowskich instytucji kultury w Wielkopolsce [Research on the Marshall’s Cultural Institutions in Wielkopolska Province [in:] “Przegląd Wielkopolski”. No. 3(73). Poznań 2006. Orlik J. (2011), Rozmowa jest działaniem [Conversation is Action] [in:] M. Śliwa (ed.), Strategie dla kultury. Kultura dla rozwoju. Zarządzanie strategiczne instytucja kultury [Strategies for Culture. Culture for Development. Strategic Management of Cultural Institution] MIK. Kraków. Silverman D, Interpretacja danych jakościowych [Interpretation of Qualitative Data] PWN. Warszawa 2007. Śliwa M. Zarządzanie strategiczne organizacją [Strategic Management of Organization] [in:] M. Śliwa (ed.), Strategie dla kultury. Kultura dla rozwoju. Zarządzanie strategiczne instytucja kultury [Strategies for Culture. Culture for Development. Strategic Management of Cultural Institution]. MIK. Kraków 2011.
Internet pages: John Paul II, Centesimus annus [online] available in Polish: http://ekai.pl/bib.php/dokumenty/centesimus_annus/centesimus_annus1.html [19.04.2011 r.] Pius XI Quadragesimo anno (1931) [online] available in Polish: http://ekai.pl/bib.php/dokumenty/quadrogesimo_ anno/quadrogesimo_anno .html [19.04.2011 r.] Roffiaen Ch., Rethinking the principle of subsidiarity. Brusseles report, March 2003 (Active Citizenship Network) [online]
Witek–Crabb A. (2007), Uczestnicy procesu zarządzania strategicznego w przedsiębiorstwie społecznie odpowiedzialnym [Participants in the Strategic Management Process in the Socially Responsible Company] [online] available in Polish: http://www. pdfebooksdownloads.com/doc/download/Anna%20 Witek–Crabb_aHR0cDovL2F3Y3JhYmIuYWUud3JvYy5wbC9kb2NzL2FydHlrdWx5L1VjemVzdG5pY3klMjBwcm9jZXN1JTIwenMlMjB3JTIwcHJ6ZWRzJTIwc3BvbCUyMG9kcC5kb2M= [18.04.2011 r.]
John Paul II, Centesimus annus [online] available in Polish: http://ekai.pl/bib.php/dokumenty/centesimus_annus/centesimus_annus1.html [19.04.2011 r.] Pius XI Quadragesimo anno (1931) [online] available in Polish: http://ekai.pl/bib.php/dokumenty/quadrogesimo_ anno/quadrogesimo_anno .html [19.04.2011 r.] Roffiaen Ch., Rethinking the principle of subsidiarity. Brusseles report, March 2003 (Active Citizenship Network) [online]
Witek–Crabb A. (2007), Uczestnicy procesu zarządzania strategicznego w przedsiębiorstwie społecznie odpowiedzialnym [Participants in the Strategic Management Process in the Socially Responsible Company] [online] available in Polish: http://www. pdfebooksdownloads.com/doc/download/Anna%20 Witek–Crabb_aHR0cDovL2F3Y3JhYmIuYWUud3JvYy5wbC9kb2NzL2FydHlrdWx5L1VjemVzdG5pY3klMjBwcm9jZXN1JTIwenMlMjB3JTIwcHJ6ZWRzJTIwc3BvbCUyMG9kcC5kb2M= [18.04.2011 r.]
Internet pages: Denzin N. K., Lincoln Y. S. Metody badań jakościowych. Vol. I. PWN. Warszawa 2009. [Methods of Qualitative Research]. Flick U. Jakość w badaniach jakościowych. PWN. Warszawa 2011. [Quality in Qualitative Research] Hamel G. Strategy as Revolution. Harvard Business Review. July–August 1996. Hausner J. Instytucje kultury w czasach kryzysu. Wyzwania i zagrożenia – w jakich warunkach możliwa jest transformacja i nowoczesny model funkcjonowania instytucji? [Cultural Institutions in the Times of Crisis. Challenges and Threats – In what conditions is the transformation and a modern model of operations of institutions possible?] [in:] Kieliszewski P., Landsberg P., Poprawski M., Sójka J. (ed.), Instytucje kultury w czasach kryzysu [Cultural Institutions in the Times of Crisis], w serii Instytutu Kulturoznawstwa UAM: Studia kulturoznawcze. Polityka Kulturalna [Cultural Studies. Cultural Policy] Bogucki Wydawnictwo Naukowe. Poznań 2009. Kaźmierczak R. Biblioteki marnowanych potencjałów [Libraries of Wasted Potentials] [in:] Kieliszewski P., Landsberg P., Poprawski M., Sójka J. (ed.), Instytucje kultury w czasach kryzysu [Cultural Institutions in the Times of Crisis], w serii Instytutu Kulturoznawstwa UAM: Studia kulturoznawcze. Polityka Kulturalna [Cultural Studies. Cultural Policy] Bogucki Wydawnictwo Naukowe. Poznań 2009.
Literature Culture Management 2011, Vol 4 (4)
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Kieliszewski P. Publiczne i prywatne. O nowym modelu relacji międzysektorowych [The Public and the Private. On the New Model of Inter–sectoral Relations] [in:] A. Gwóźdź (ed.), Od przemysłów kultury do kreatywnej gospodarki [From Cultural Industries to Creative Economy] Narodowe Centrum Kultury. Warszawa 2010. Kieliszewski P., Schmidt J. Badania marszałkowskich instytucji kultury w Wielkopolsce [Research on the Marshall’s Cultural Institutions in Wielkopolska Province [in:] “Przegląd Wielkopolski”. No. 3(73). Poznań 2006. Orlik J. (2011), Rozmowa jest działaniem [Conversation is Action] [in:] M. Śliwa (ed.), Strategie dla kultury. Kultura dla rozwoju. Zarządzanie strategiczne instytucja kultury [Strategies for Culture. Culture for Development. Strategic Management of Cultural Institution] MIK. Kraków. Silverman D, Interpretacja danych jakościowych [Interpretation of Qualitative Data] PWN. Warszawa 2007. Śliwa M. Zarządzanie strategiczne organizacją [Strategic Management of Organization] [in:] M. Śliwa (ed.), Strategie dla kultury. Kultura dla rozwoju. Zarządzanie strategiczne instytucja kultury [Strategies for Culture. Culture for Development. Strategic Management of Cultural Institution]. MIK. Kraków 2011.
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37 Source: Information presented on the web page of the Ministry of Culture and National Heritage http://www.mkidn.gov.pl
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Development and management of non–governmental organizations in the context of urban cultural policy.
37 Source: Information presented on the web page of the Ministry of Culture and National Heritage http://www.mkidn.gov.pl
Anna Lewanowicz
Non–governmental organizations clearly contribute to our culture. But who forms these organizations and in what ways? What influences their development and the way they function? Is culture management an abstract entity or reality? If we ask ourselves this last question in relation to non–governmental organizations operating in the cultural sector, the answers should be looked for not only in the internal but also their external environment. Most considerations of the issue of management of organizations in the third sector focus primarily on internal factors, such as an insufficient ability to attract funds, lack of professionalism, strategy and plan of organizational development etc. However, there is no doubt that the functioning of such organizations is very much determined by external factors, among others, legal regulations, financing mechanisms and the way the government and local government perceive the role and significance of non–governmental organizations, and also the importance of culture.
The 1990 reform of local government brought a welcome change – to a large degree the responsibility and direct management of culture were transferred from the Ministry of Culture and Arts to local governments. In spite of this, for a very long time the directions for cultural development and its models of management were undefined, neither on a local nor at state level. It was only in 2004 that the National Strategy for the Development of Culture for 2004–2013 was announced by the Ministry of Culture and Cultural Heritage, followed by the National Strategy for the Development of Culture in 2004–202037. Cities nationwide are now working on similar documents. In order to evaluate the operating conditions of cultural organizations in the third sector I shall conduct an analysis of the documents that specify the direction and realization of urban cultural policy, including those that define the strategy of cultural development, or more broadly, the strategy for urban development and the type of cultural presence they envisage, and the programme of cooperation with non–governmental organizations, along with the competition applications prepared by various cultural organizations. For the purposes of this paper, I will mostly consider the cultural policies of the three largest cities in Poland, where the significance of culture is very much emphasized by the authorities, and where there are many non–governmental organizations.
Today the contribution to culture by non– governmental organizations is obvious. But who forms such organizations and how are they formed? The aim of this study is to examine the operational conditions of cultural NGOs in three selected cities: Warsaw, Kraków and Wrocław.
Today the contribution to culture by non– governmental organizations is obvious. But who forms such organizations and how are they formed? The aim of this study is to examine the operational conditions of cultural NGOs in three selected cities: Warsaw, Kraków and Wrocław.
Lewanowicz Anna President of “Plan C” Foundation, assistant director of Krakow Theatrical Reminiscences. Graduate of Classical Philology and postgraduate studies of Project Management at Warsaw School of Economics.
Lewanowicz Anna President of “Plan C” Foundation, assistant director of Krakow Theatrical Reminiscences. Graduate of Classical Philology and postgraduate studies of Project Management at Warsaw School of Economics.
The 1990 reform of local government brought a welcome change – to a large degree the responsibility and direct management of culture were transferred from the Ministry of Culture and Arts to local governments. In spite of this, for a very long time the directions for cultural development and its models of management were undefined, neither on a local nor at state level. It was only in 2004 that the National Strategy for the Development of Culture for 2004–2013 was announced by the Ministry of Culture and Cultural Heritage, followed by the National Strategy for the Development of Culture in 2004–202037. Cities nationwide are now working on similar documents. In order to evaluate the operating conditions of cultural organizations in the third sector I shall conduct an analysis of the documents that specify the direction and realization of urban cultural policy, including those that define the strategy of cultural development, or more broadly, the strategy for urban development and the type of cultural presence they envisage, and the programme of cooperation with non–governmental organizations, along with the competition applications prepared by various cultural organizations. For the purposes of this paper, I will mostly consider the cultural policies of the three largest cities in Poland, where the significance of culture is very much emphasized by the authorities, and where there are many non–governmental organizations.
Anna Lewanowicz
Non–governmental organizations clearly contribute to our culture. But who forms these organizations and in what ways? What influences their development and the way they function? Is culture management an abstract entity or reality? If we ask ourselves this last question in relation to non–governmental organizations operating in the cultural sector, the answers should be looked for not only in the internal but also their external environment. Most considerations of the issue of management of organizations in the third sector focus primarily on internal factors, such as an insufficient ability to attract funds, lack of professionalism, strategy and plan of organizational development etc. However, there is no doubt that the functioning of such organizations is very much determined by external factors, among others, legal regulations, financing mechanisms and the way the government and local government perceive the role and significance of non–governmental organizations, and also the importance of culture.
Development and management of non–governmental organizations in the context of urban cultural policy.
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European documents are unambiguous in so far as defining the objectives of cultural policy are concerned. These are: MM Raising responsibility for creating conditions for the development of cultural activities, and creative expression to the benefit of the public, all those who participate in culture MM Working out the means of protecting and creating workplaces in the cultural sector MM Supporting the development of cultural activities, while maintaining the right to artistic freedom MM Improvement of the systems financing culture [Recommendations 1987]. MM Making up for economic disproportions, which affect the chances of meeting the cultural needs and participation in culture within local communities MM Giving support to innovation and experiments in the sphere of culture MM Research, analysis and observation of the cultural phenomena and effects of cultural activities MM Direct cooperation and exchange of experiences between the representatives of local communities and within them [Declaration 1983]. Through the analysis of the documents mentioned above, for each city we will next examine the selected instruments of cultural policy, relevant to non–governmental organizations. We will also consider these aspects, which help us evaluate the operating conditions of NGOs. Let us analyze the areas that refer to non– governmental cultural organizations and urban policies, such as: 1. Value and ideological aspect through the analysis of priorities defined in the city’s documents from the perspective of the perceptions of the role of culture, and the role of non– governmental organizations. 2. Economic aspect: types of financial support, dates of announcing competitions and evaluating competition applications, transparency of evaluation procedures, and evaluation of co–financed projects.
Development and management of non–governmental organizations in the context of urban cultural policy.
These cities are Warsaw, Kraków and Wrocław. Out of all the documents I have mentioned, the key document is the one that presents the strategy for cultural development and the plan of its realization. 38 One of the first definitions of strategy, formulated by K. Andrews at the beginning of the 1960s, is still valid today, as it emphasizes its most important aspects: “Strategy is a model (pattern) of decisions made in a company, which determines and explains the sense of its existence and its objectives, and which leads to creating basic policies and plans that serve the purpose of reaching those objectives; which defines the type of activities that the company strives for, its current and intended character and also the essence of the economic and non–economic benefits that the company wishes to attract for all involved parties, employees, clients and co–owners” [Andrews 1994, p. 40]. Translating these guidelines into the sphere of culture, Emil Orzechowski emphasizes the responsibility of public authorities and participation of organizations: “Cultural policy is the whole intentional and organized activity of the state and the political and social organizations, which inspires the development of artistic, creative work and ensures care over the development of creative circles that have an impact on the way and range of the society’s participation in culture, through the dissemination of cultural goods and the development of active forms of participation in cultural life. (...) Cultural policy aims at (...) developing and multiplying the achievements of national culture and the dissemination of the humanist content of human culture, enriching and meeting the cultural needs of the entire society (...), the expansion and modernization of a material and technical production and the transfer of cultural goods, activation of cultural institutions, and their transformation, according to the development of the society [Orzechowski 2004, pp. 9–10] It is also very important to emphasize another aspect here – cultural policy does not only involve artistic culture but also the consolidation of social ties and promoting active civil attitudes. (...) Cultural policy of public authorities of all levels – while encouraging full freedom of individual choices – should also support those activities of citizens and associations that refer
Let us analyze the areas that refer to non– governmental cultural organizations and urban policies, such as: 1. Value and ideological aspect through the analysis of priorities defined in the city’s documents from the perspective of the perceptions of the role of culture, and the role of non– governmental organizations. 2. Economic aspect: types of financial support, dates of announcing competitions and evaluating competition applications, transparency of evaluation procedures, and evaluation of co–financed projects.
Anna Lewanowicz
to tradition, the needs and expectations of local communities, and those which are socially credible. [Szulborska–Łukasiewicz 2009].
Anna Lewanowicz
38 For the purposes of this paper I use the terms cultural development strategy and cultural policy interchangeably.
Development and management of non–governmental organizations in the context of urban cultural policy.
These cities are Warsaw, Kraków and Wrocław. Out of all the documents I have mentioned, the key document is the one that presents the strategy for cultural development and the plan of its realization. 38 One of the first definitions of strategy, formulated by K. Andrews at the beginning of the 1960s, is still valid today, as it emphasizes its most important aspects: “Strategy is a model (pattern) of decisions made in a company, which determines and explains the sense of its existence and its objectives, and which leads to creating basic policies and plans that serve the purpose of reaching those objectives; which defines the type of activities that the company strives for, its current and intended character and also the essence of the economic and non–economic benefits that the company wishes to attract for all involved parties, employees, clients and co–owners” [Andrews 1994, p. 40]. Translating these guidelines into the sphere of culture, Emil Orzechowski emphasizes the responsibility of public authorities and participation of organizations: “Cultural policy is the whole intentional and organized activity of the state and the political and social organizations, which inspires the development of artistic, creative work and ensures care over the development of creative circles that have an impact on the way and range of the society’s participation in culture, through the dissemination of cultural goods and the development of active forms of participation in cultural life. (...) Cultural policy aims at (...) developing and multiplying the achievements of national culture and the dissemination of the humanist content of human culture, enriching and meeting the cultural needs of the entire society (...), the expansion and modernization of a material and technical production and the transfer of cultural goods, activation of cultural institutions, and their transformation, according to the development of the society [Orzechowski 2004, pp. 9–10] It is also very important to emphasize another aspect here – cultural policy does not only involve artistic culture but also the consolidation of social ties and promoting active civil attitudes. (...) Cultural policy of public authorities of all levels – while encouraging full freedom of individual choices – should also support those activities of citizens and associations that refer
38 For the purposes of this paper I use the terms cultural development strategy and cultural policy interchangeably.
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European documents are unambiguous in so far as defining the objectives of cultural policy are concerned. These are: MM Raising responsibility for creating conditions for the development of cultural activities, and creative expression to the benefit of the public, all those who participate in culture MM Working out the means of protecting and creating workplaces in the cultural sector MM Supporting the development of cultural activities, while maintaining the right to artistic freedom MM Improvement of the systems financing culture [Recommendations 1987]. MM Making up for economic disproportions, which affect the chances of meeting the cultural needs and participation in culture within local communities MM Giving support to innovation and experiments in the sphere of culture MM Research, analysis and observation of the cultural phenomena and effects of cultural activities MM Direct cooperation and exchange of experiences between the representatives of local communities and within them [Declaration 1983]. Through the analysis of the documents mentioned above, for each city we will next examine the selected instruments of cultural policy, relevant to non–governmental organizations. We will also consider these aspects, which help us evaluate the operating conditions of NGOs. to tradition, the needs and expectations of local communities, and those which are socially credible. [Szulborska–Łukasiewicz 2009].
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Tab. 1. Instruments of cultural policy
40 Source: Program rozwoju kultury w Warszawie w latach 2009-2020 [Programme for the development of culture in Warsaw for 2009-2020], http://www.um.warszawa.pl
Instruments of cultural policy
39 Among the 5200 non-governmental organizations operating in Warsaw, more or less every fifth one conducts active cultural operations. (Approximate data, source: Herbst J., Warszawski Sektor Pozarządowy, Stowarzyszenie Klon/Jawor, 2007) [Warsaw Non-governmental Sector, the Klon/Jawor Associations, 2007]
Instruments of cultural policy
Tab. 1. Instruments of cultural policy
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Hindering/repressive
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Enhancing/stimulating
40 Source: Program rozwoju kultury w Warszawie w latach 2009-2020 [Programme for the development of culture in Warsaw for 2009-2020], http://www.um.warszawa.pl
Character of activities Direction of activities
39 Among the 5200 non-governmental organizations operating in Warsaw, more or less every fifth one conducts active cultural operations. (Approximate data, source: Herbst J., Warszawski Sektor Pozarządowy, Stowarzyszenie Klon/Jawor, 2007) [Warsaw Non-governmental Sector, the Klon/Jawor Associations, 2007]
Taxation, payment of duties
Warsaw: At present Warsaw does not have a document stating its long–term cultural policy, but there are two documents that can serve as a reference point. The first one is the application for the competition for the title of the European Capital of Culture 2016 and the other is the Programme for the development of culture in Warsaw for 2009–2020. The creation of the Programme for the development of culture in Warsaw for 2009–2020, the so–called “White Book”, was initiated by Marek Kraszewski, the Director of the Cultural Office at the Warsaw Municipality, and was prepared in the second half of 2008 by the Pro Cultura Foundation. The “White Book” is an extensive document that consists of many parts and almost 600 pages, and it has been prepared by experts to provide the basis for preparation by the municipality of
Purchases, subsidies, stipends, credits
Value and ideological aspect:
Economic
It is also necessary to admit here that this analysis is very much narrowed down because of the restrictions imposed by the character of this work. It does not employ a historic approach, but only refers to the present day state of affairs by analyzing the currently available documents.
the directions of the cultural policy for the next decade, however, it is not a binding document. The programme is also consistent with the application for the title of the European Capital of Culture, which has been signed by the Mayor of Warsaw as a kind of declaration for the directions of cultural development in the city. The Director of the Cultural Office, Marek Kraszewski, specifies the following most important objectives of the Programme: MM increased participation of the city residents in culture MM development and expansion of the whole sphere of cultural education MM making it possible for all people who are in any way passionate about culture to create it The city wishes to base its development on two factors: culture and business [Pawłowski, electronic document]. In the Programme, there are also these areas that have been acknowledged and defined as the guarantors of the future–oriented development of culture in the city, such as: MM cultural infrastructure MM cultural heritage MM cultural institutions MM festivals 39 MM non–governmental organizations MM cultural variety and taking care of inter–cultural dialogue MM artists and authors MM cultural education MM new technologies and promotion 40 MM monitoring
Negative legal and standardizing regulations (persecution, censorship)
3. Legal aspect: legal and standardizing regulations 4. Organizational aspect: mechanisms of planning development and systemic support.
Positive legal and standardizing regulations (protection, stimulation)
Source: Dragićević–Šešić M., Stojković B., 2010, Kultura –zarządzanie, animacja, marketing [Culture – management, animation, marketing]
Legal/political
Imposition of one ideology
Planning restrictions, dissolution of institutions
Pluralism of concepts/ideas
Planning development, establishing institutions
Values/ideas
Organizational
Planning restrictions, dissolution of institutions
Imposition of one ideology
Planning development, establishing institutions
Pluralism of concepts/ideas
Organizational
Values/ideas
Negative legal and standardizing regulations (persecution, censorship)
Source: Dragićević–Šešić M., Stojković B., 2010, Kultura –zarządzanie, animacja, marketing [Culture – management, animation, marketing]
Positive legal and standardizing regulations (protection, stimulation)
3. Legal aspect: legal and standardizing regulations 4. Organizational aspect: mechanisms of planning development and systemic support.
Legal/political
It is also necessary to admit here that this analysis is very much narrowed down because of the restrictions imposed by the character of this work. It does not employ a historic approach, but only refers to the present day state of affairs by analyzing the currently available documents.
Taxation, payment of duties
Value and ideological aspect:
Purchases, subsidies, stipends, credits
the directions of the cultural policy for the next decade, however, it is not a binding document. The programme is also consistent with the application for the title of the European Capital of Culture, which has been signed by the Mayor of Warsaw as a kind of declaration for the directions of cultural development in the city. The Director of the Cultural Office, Marek Kraszewski, specifies the following most important objectives of the Programme: MM increased participation of the city residents in culture MM development and expansion of the whole sphere of cultural education MM making it possible for all people who are in any way passionate about culture to create it The city wishes to base its development on two factors: culture and business [Pawłowski, electronic document]. In the Programme, there are also these areas that have been acknowledged and defined as the guarantors of the future–oriented development of culture in the city, such as: MM cultural infrastructure MM cultural heritage MM cultural institutions MM festivals 39 MM non–governmental organizations MM cultural variety and taking care of inter–cultural dialogue MM artists and authors MM cultural education new technologies and promotion monitoring40
Economic
MM
Hindering/repressive
MM
Enhancing/stimulating
Warsaw: At present Warsaw does not have a document stating its long–term cultural policy, but there are two documents that can serve as a reference point. The first one is the application for the competition for the title of the European Capital of Culture 2016 and the other is the Programme for the development of culture in Warsaw for 2009–2020. The creation of the Programme for the development of culture in Warsaw for 2009–2020, the so–called “White Book”, was initiated by Marek Kraszewski, the Director of the Cultural Office at the Warsaw Municipality, and was prepared in the second half of 2008 by the Pro Cultura Foundation. The “White Book” is an extensive document that consists of many parts and almost 600 pages, and it has been prepared by experts to provide the basis for preparation by the municipality of
Character of activities Direction of activities
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The work on the Programme was preceded by research on the actual cultural needs of residents, community consultations and analysis of examples positively revised in other European metropolises. Each of these areas has been analysed in detail, the needs in different areas have been diagnosed and recommendations for action and methods of their realization have been put forward, together with proposals defining the timeframe for endorsement of each action, sources of their financing and agents responsible for their realization. As far as the non–governmental organizations are concerned the Programme marks out the increasing appreciation by local authorities of the role of the third sector in the realization of cultural objectives, but it also mentions the continued restrictions as far as covering of ongoing costs is concerned or the difficulties that the organizations encounter when trying to rent an office space. The recommendations included in the Programme regard minimizing the effects of these negative regulations. The city’s financial policy should also meet the needs of non–governmental organizations, so that they can develop and their operations can produce better effects. For a better presentation of the actions recommended by the Programme for the development of culture in Warsaw I have decided to include some of its proposals regarding the third sector below: MM in order to professionalize the cooperation with non–governmental organizations, the Warsaw Municipality organizes regular workshops, seminars and introduces other mechanisms for building a stable and effective cooperation platform. MM The Cultural Office continually increases the financing for non–governmental organizations, which includes endorsement of the Promesa programme, in support of projects applying for EU funding. MM The city’s priorities regarding competition requirements (theme, type of organizations, deadlines etc.) are defined in various timeframes: three–year and one–year, and are announced in advance. MM Introduction of new categorization of competitions:
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for long–term activities (three–year): cyclical events (i.e. festivals) or projects whose timeframe runs over the dates of the annual budget. —— for activities realized within one annual budget (one year) —— for small and young (newly created) organizations – so–called small grants (up to 10 000 PLN), granted once a year —— for international cultural activities relating to Warsaw (long–term and one–year) —— for administrative and infrastructural support for non–governmental organizations (long–term, one year) —— for re–granting activities (pilot scheme) – the winning organization announces a competition/competitions on a selected theme by itself, evaluates applications, transfers financing to other organizations and accepts projects’ reports on completion, within re–granting, MM The creation of the “Cultural Centre – the Place”, which will become home to many non–governmental organizations. The centre will be free of charge to its residents. The Warsaw Municipality will handle the maintenance and administration charges, and the centre will be managed by a non–governmental organization, chosen by competition. The surface area of the centre will be adapted to the specific profile of the organizations residing there, i.e., apart from offices it will also offer theatre, concert, dance, multimedia halls etc. A continued transfer of competences in the cultural sphere (supporting innovatory approaches) ——
The “White Book” as an extensive study, consisting of many parts, exists within the framework of the Strategy for the Development of Warsaw Capital City up to 2020, accepted by the City Council resolution in 2005. The mission and vision of the city’s strategy defined at the time are still valid today. What refers directly to culture in the strategy is the vision of Warsaw as an important centre of European culture, with well–organized public space. It is worth mentioning here that a lot of ideas and plans included in the strategy have been already realized. The awareness of the significance of cooperation of the capital’s self–government with the organizations of the third sector is also visible
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For a better presentation of the actions recommended by the Programme for the development of culture in Warsaw I have decided to include some of its proposals regarding the third sector below: MM in order to professionalize the cooperation with non–governmental organizations, the Warsaw Municipality organizes regular workshops, seminars and introduces other mechanisms for building a stable and effective cooperation platform. MM The Cultural Office continually increases the financing for non–governmental organizations, which includes endorsement of the Promesa programme, in support of projects applying for EU funding. MM The city’s priorities regarding competition requirements (theme, type of organizations, deadlines etc.) are defined in various timeframes: three–year and one–year, and are announced in advance. Introduction of new categorization of competitions: MM
As far as the non–governmental organizations are concerned the Programme marks out the increasing appreciation by local authorities of the role of the third sector in the realization of cultural objectives, but it also mentions the continued restrictions as far as covering of ongoing costs is concerned or the difficulties that the organizations encounter when trying to rent an office space. The recommendations included in the Programme regard minimizing the effects of these negative regulations. The city’s financial policy should also meet the needs of non–governmental organizations, so that they can develop and their operations can produce better effects. The work on the Programme was preceded by research on the actual cultural needs of residents, community consultations and analysis of examples positively revised in other European metropolises. Each of these areas has been analysed in detail, the needs in different areas have been diagnosed and recommendations for action and methods of their realization have been put forward, together with proposals defining the timeframe for endorsement of each action, sources of their financing and agents responsible for their realization.
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The “White Book” as an extensive study, consisting of many parts, exists within the framework of the Strategy for the Development of Warsaw Capital City up to 2020, accepted by the City Council resolution in 2005. The mission and vision of the city’s strategy defined at the time are still valid today. What refers directly to culture in the strategy is the vision of Warsaw as an important centre of European culture, with well–organized public space. It is worth mentioning here that a lot of ideas and plans included in the strategy have been already realized. The awareness of the significance of cooperation of the capital’s self–government with the organizations of the third sector is also visible —— for long–term activities (three–year): cyclical events (i.e. festivals) or projects whose timeframe runs over the dates of the annual budget. —— for activities realized within one annual budget (one year) —— for small and young (newly created) organizations – so–called small grants (up to 10 000 PLN), granted once a year —— for international cultural activities relating to Warsaw (long–term and one–year) —— for administrative and infrastructural support for non–governmental organizations (long–term, one year) —— for re–granting activities (pilot scheme) – the winning organization announces a competition/competitions on a selected theme by itself, evaluates applications, transfers financing to other organizations and accepts projects’ reports on completion, within re–granting, MM The creation of the “Cultural Centre – the Place”, which will become home to many non–governmental organizations. The centre will be free of charge to its residents. The Warsaw Municipality will handle the maintenance and administration charges, and the centre will be managed by a non–governmental organization, chosen by competition. The surface area of the centre will be adapted to the specific profile of the organizations residing there, i.e., apart from offices it will also offer theatre, concert, dance, multimedia halls etc. A continued transfer of competences in the cultural sphere (supporting innovatory approaches)
in the programme of cooperation with non– governmental organizations for 2011.41 The main forms and principles of cooperation of the Warsaw Municipality with non–governmental organizations are regulated by the programme, issued every year by the City Council, of cooperation of the Warsaw Capital City with non–governmental organizations, and other organizations as stipulated in Article 3, paragraph 3 of the Act of Parliament of 24 April 2003 on charitable activities and voluntary work. In order to coordinate this work, a special Representative of the Mayor of Warsaw, for cooperation with non–governmental organizations has been already appointed. The duty of preparing such annual programme is imposed on public administration by the Act of Parliament of 24 April 2003 on charitable activities and voluntary work. The amendment to the Act of March 2010 introduced the necessity to consult the draft cooperation programmes with non–governmental organizations (Art. 5a, paragraph 1). Warsaw prepares its cooperation programme with non–governmental organizations on an annual basis and has no long–term programme that would define the directions for development of such cooperation. Here are some priority public tasks stipulated in the Programme for the sphere of 2011 cooperations between the city of Warsaw and the cultural organizations: 1. Activities aimed at winning the title of European Capital of Culture for the city in 2016, focused around supporting independent culture and its centres, as a special sign of building civil society. 2. Activities in the sphere of culture and arts, especially: MM Innovatory forms of cultural education, activation of local circles, including new groups of participants, supporting creative work of amateurs MM Dissemination of culture in various areas and artistic forms MM Supporting the implementation of innovatory art projects Supporting cultural projects which animate public space MM
MM Supporting projects and enterprises that create a permanent cultural offer in Warsaw MM Supporting initiatives and enterprises that popularize tradition, history and Warsaw’s cultural heritage MM Intercultural dialogue with a special focus on national and ethnic minorities and groups of foreigners who reside in Warsaw MM International cooperation, including realization of common projects with partner cities. The evaluation of cooperation of the organizations with the city with regards to the realization of projects and evaluation of comments and proposals that are put forward during such cooperation is prepared every year in the annual report on programme realization by the Mayor’s Representative with the Warsaw Benefit Council (Warszawska Rada Pożytku). The report is submitted to the Mayor of Warsaw, who then submits it to the Warsaw City Council.
Kraków: The strategy for culture development in Kraków for 2010 – 201442, approved in September 2010, is the first strategy of its type in the city’s long history. Its priorities are specified as follows: The concept of sustained development, accepted for the next few years, is supposed to guarantee equal opportunities of development to institutions of culture and individual artists, non–governmental organizations and entrepreneurs who are actively involved in the cultural sector. (...) It is however important to consider that: 1. It is a priority task for the Municipality of Kraków to consistently support the development of municipal institutions of culture, both in their institutional and programme dimension, first of all by providing the financing necessary for sustaining their work in the sphere of culture, to maintain and develop the infrastructure. 2. The Municipality should stimulate the development of cultural offer addressed to various groups of consumers, including the tourists who visit the city in large numbers. 3. Culture and the national heritage of Kraków promote the city and have an impact on creating its
41 Appendix to the RESOLUTION No. XCIII/2731/2010 OF THE CITY COUNCIL OF WARSAW CAPITAL CITY dated 21 October 2010 on accepting the programme of cooperation between Warsaw Capital City and non-governmental organizations and other entities mentioned in Art.3, paragraph 3 of the Act of Parliament of 24 April 2003 on charitable and voluntary work 42 Appendix to the Resolution No. CXIV/1524/10 of the City Council dated 20 October 2010.
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It is however important to consider that: 1. It is a priority task for the Municipality of Kraków to consistently support the development of municipal institutions of culture, both in their institutional and programme dimension, first of all by providing the financing necessary for sustaining their work in the sphere of culture, to maintain and develop the infrastructure. 2. The Municipality should stimulate the development of cultural offer addressed to various groups of consumers, including the tourists who visit the city in large numbers. 3. Culture and the national heritage of Kraków promote the city and have an impact on creating its Kraków: The strategy for culture development in Kraków for 2010 – 201442, approved in September 2010, is the first strategy of its type in the city’s long history. Its priorities are specified as follows: The concept of sustained development, accepted for the next few years, is supposed to guarantee equal opportunities of development to institutions of culture and individual artists, non–governmental organizations and entrepreneurs who are actively involved in the cultural sector. (...) Supporting projects and enterprises that create a permanent cultural offer in Warsaw MM Supporting initiatives and enterprises that popularize tradition, history and Warsaw’s cultural heritage MM Intercultural dialogue with a special focus on national and ethnic minorities and groups of foreigners who reside in Warsaw MM International cooperation, including realization of common projects with partner cities. The evaluation of cooperation of the organizations with the city with regards to the realization of projects and evaluation of comments and proposals that are put forward during such cooperation is prepared every year in the annual report on programme realization by the Mayor’s Representative with the Warsaw Benefit Council (Warszawska Rada Pożytku). The report is submitted to the Mayor of Warsaw, who then submits it to the Warsaw City Council. MM
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80 42 Appendix to the Resolution No. CXIV/1524/10 of the City Council dated 20 October 2010.
41 Appendix to the RESOLUTION No. XCIII/2731/2010 OF THE CITY COUNCIL OF WARSAW CAPITAL CITY dated 21 October 2010 on accepting the programme of cooperation between Warsaw Capital City and non-governmental organizations and other entities mentioned in Art.3, paragraph 3 of the Act of Parliament of 24 April 2003 on charitable and voluntary work
in the programme of cooperation with non– governmental organizations for 2011.41 The main forms and principles of cooperation of the Warsaw Municipality with non–governmental organizations are regulated by the programme, issued every year by the City Council, of cooperation of the Warsaw Capital City with non–governmental organizations, and other organizations as stipulated in Article 3, paragraph 3 of the Act of Parliament of 24 April 2003 on charitable activities and voluntary work. In order to coordinate this work, a special Representative of the Mayor of Warsaw, for cooperation with non–governmental organizations has been already appointed. The duty of preparing such annual programme is imposed on public administration by the Act of Parliament of 24 April 2003 on charitable activities and voluntary work. The amendment to the Act of March 2010 introduced the necessity to consult the draft cooperation programmes with non–governmental organizations (Art. 5a, paragraph 1). Warsaw prepares its cooperation programme with non–governmental organizations on an annual basis and has no long–term programme that would define the directions for development of such cooperation. Here are some priority public tasks stipulated in the Programme for the sphere of 2011 cooperations between the city of Warsaw and the cultural organizations: 1. Activities aimed at winning the title of European Capital of Culture for the city in 2016, focused around supporting independent culture and its centres, as a special sign of building civil society. 2. Activities in the sphere of culture and arts, especially: MM Innovatory forms of cultural education, activation of local circles, including new groups of participants, supporting creative work of amateurs MM Dissemination of culture in various areas and artistic forms MM Supporting the implementation of innovatory art projects MM Supporting cultural projects which animate public space
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image in Poland and abroad, which translates into the development of other areas of life. The image has been built as a result of long–term and comprehensive impact. It is a collection of many elements, including those so characteristic for the city’s historic sites and cultural events which comprise the overall effect perceived by residents, tourists and people who have never visited the city before. The image of the city has an impact on the way the quality of life is perceived by the residents, the tourist’s decision whether to put the city on their itinerary or not, and finally the localization of investments. Kraków’s culture and cultural heritage are one of the most important, and for many the most important, accents in the city’s image. Kraków is mostly associated with historic sites, places, customs and cultural events.43 The Strategy lists the following strategic objectives: 1. The Municipality of Kraków as a patron of culture and artists 2. Kraków as a home to modern cultural institutions 3. Kraków as a creative city 4. Development of partnerships between Kraków’s Municipality and other organizations working in the cultural sector 5. Protection of cultural heritage. Let us examine these objectives, defined as operational, and the plans of activities which mention NGOs or may apply to them: Ad. 1: Kraków as a patron of culture and artists 1.1 Consolidation of the function of the Kraków Municipal Area as a patron of art and artists. priority: the preparation of an objective and transparent system of allocating financial resources and their accounts, in division for infrastructure and artistic events. 1.2. Development of various forms of support for cultural and arts sector MM priorities (among others): MM support for and realization of festivals MM support for and realization of initiatives of local creative circles MM diagnosis of the Municipality’s capacity for granting promises and working on the principles of their allocation.
1.3. Development of consumers’ competences in the sphere of participation in culture – cultural education. Ad. 2: Creative City 3.1. Kraków as a city of art and artists 3.2. Kraków as a city of great events and festivals MM Priorities (among others): MM Creation of strong festival brands in Kraków MM Formation and endorsement of a three–year plan of support for Kraków festivals, including: support for and promotion of the festivals organized by the municipal cultural institutions and other organizations that organize festivals in the city. 3.3. Kraków’s cultural cooperation with other cities Priority: The realization of the current Programme of International Cooperation for the Kraków Municipality – establishment and stimulation of international cooperation and initiating cultural exchange between the municipal cultural institutions, non–governmental organizations and institutions from other regions of Europe. Ad. 4: Partnership with other organizations 4.2. Cooperation of the Kraków Municipality with non–governmental organizations in the cultural sector priority: Working out the transparent criteria for the evaluation of co–financed projects, their monitoring and evaluation including: MM the participation of non–governmental organizations in the realization of public tasks implemented by the Kraków Municipality in the cultural sector, including promotion of the city nationwide and abroad (international cooperation), with annually increased funds designated for the purpose. The development of a system of communication with non–governmental organizations. Cooperation in creating ideas for the long–term cultural development strategy in Kraków, and the realization of monitoring the consecutive stages of its endorsement. MM Development of cooperation, dialogue and partnership with local creative circles MM Creating favourable conditions for the development of cultural industries in Kraków and
43 Appendix to the Resolution No. CXIV/1524/10 of the City Council dated 20 October 2010.
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43 Appendix to the Resolution No. CXIV/1524/10 of the City Council dated 20 October 2010.
Let us examine these objectives, defined as operational, and the plans of activities which mention NGOs or may apply to them: Ad. 1: Kraków as a patron of culture and artists 1.1 Consolidation of the function of the Kraków Municipal Area as a patron of art and artists. priority: the preparation of an objective and transparent system of allocating financial resources and their accounts, in division for infrastructure and artistic events. 1.2. Development of various forms of support for cultural and arts sector MM priorities (among others): MM support for and realization of festivals MM support for and realization of initiatives of local creative circles MM diagnosis of the Municipality’s capacity for granting promises and working on the principles of their allocation. The Strategy lists the following strategic objectives: 1. The Municipality of Kraków as a patron of culture and artists 2. Kraków as a home to modern cultural institutions 3. Kraków as a creative city 4. Development of partnerships between Kraków’s Municipality and other organizations working in the cultural sector 5. Protection of cultural heritage. image in Poland and abroad, which translates into the development of other areas of life. The image has been built as a result of long–term and comprehensive impact. It is a collection of many elements, including those so characteristic for the city’s historic sites and cultural events which comprise the overall effect perceived by residents, tourists and people who have never visited the city before. The image of the city has an impact on the way the quality of life is perceived by the residents, the tourist’s decision whether to put the city on their itinerary or not, and finally the localization of investments. Kraków’s culture and cultural heritage are one of the most important, and for many the most important, accents in the city’s image. Kraków is mostly associated with historic sites, places, customs and cultural events.43
Ad. 4: Partnership with other organizations 4.2. Cooperation of the Kraków Municipality with non–governmental organizations in the cultural sector priority: Working out the transparent criteria for the evaluation of co–financed projects, their monitoring and evaluation including: MM the participation of non–governmental organizations in the realization of public tasks implemented by the Kraków Municipality in the cultural sector, including promotion of the city nationwide and abroad (international cooperation), with annually increased funds designated for the purpose. The development of a system of communication with non–governmental organizations. Cooperation in creating ideas for the long–term cultural development strategy in Kraków, and the realization of monitoring the consecutive stages of its endorsement. MM Development of cooperation, dialogue and partnership with local creative circles Creating favourable conditions for the development of cultural industries in Kraków and MM
Ad. 2: Creative City 3.1. Kraków as a city of art and artists 3.2. Kraków as a city of great events and festivals MM Priorities (among others): MM Creation of strong festival brands in Kraków MM Formation and endorsement of a three–year plan of support for Kraków festivals, including: support for and promotion of the festivals organized by the municipal cultural institutions and other organizations that organize festivals in the city. 3.3. Kraków’s cultural cooperation with other cities Priority: The realization of the current Programme of International Cooperation for the Kraków Municipality – establishment and stimulation of international cooperation and initiating cultural exchange between the municipal cultural institutions, non–governmental organizations and institutions from other regions of Europe. 1.3. Development of consumers’ competences in the sphere of participation in culture – cultural education.
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Strategy of Kraków’s development The following equivalent strategic objectives have been established in order to realize the vision for the development of Kraków: 1. Kraków as a family–friendly city, an attractive place for residents and visitors alike 2. Kraków as a city with a competitive, modern economy 3. Kraków as a European metropolis with important academic, cultural and sports functions supporting the development of public/private partnerships in the cultural sector.
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It has been decided that two sectoral cultural programmes will be created: MM Programme of cooperation with the organizers of Kraków’s festivals and traditional city events MM Programme of artistic protectorate and public services in the sphere of culture. Both programmes are currently being prepared. The Kraków Municipality is also preparing a Long–term Programme of Cooperation with Non– governmental Organizations, which is a document regulating the long–term conditions of cooperation with non–governmental organizations and other subjects for the years 2012–2014. The 2011 Programme specifies three strategic objectives. One of them: “Kraków as a European metropolis with important academic, cultural and sports functions” is linked with the following operational objectives: MM Creation of material and institutional conditions for cultural development MM Creation of conditions for the development of sport, physical culture and recreation.44 The detailed objectives of the programme, which result from sectoral programmes realized by the Kraków Municipality, have been formed as the following in the sphere of culture, arts, protection of cultural heritage and tradition: MM consolidation of Kraków’s position as a cultural centre through the increased involvement of the Municipality in the realization of artistic projects such as concerts, exhibitions, theatre shows, music concerts, dance and ballet events and other artistic interdisciplinary events. MM development of Kraków’s brand as a festival city presentation of the artistic achievement of Kraków’s artists nationwide and abroad.45
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MM
45 Appendix to the Resolution No. CXI/1510/10 of the Kraków City Council dated 6 October 2010 Programme of Cooperation of the Kraków Municipality with Non-governmental organizations and Entities Identified in Art. 3, paragraph 3 of the Act of Parliament of 24 April 2001 on charitable and voluntary work (Dz. U. Nr 96, position 873 with further amendments) for 2011.
Among the operational objectives of the third strategic objective there is one that directly relates to culture, defined as “The creation of material and institutional conditions for the development of culture”. It reads as follows: “Kraków is a city of rich cultural life, with its many theatres, theatrical groups, and institutions of music, museums, libraries, cultural centres, cinemas, variety of cultural events, and also many historic monuments that are listed among the most precious sites of Europe. The consolidation of Kraków’s position as a cultural centre requires increased development by the city authorities in the realization of artistic projects, supporting cultural sites and institutions, supporting the activities of local creative circles. It also requires that the local material base is reconstructed and modernised. The availability of free of charge educational courses for children, teenagers and senior citizens will be increased in Kraków’s cultural centres and community centres. It is important for community integration that these courses take place locally, and are embedded in local residential areas. It is also necessary to expand the viewing and concert infrastructure to be able to organize a larger number of high quality cultural events. It is important to maintain and develop international contacts, including cooperation with partner cities. [Strategy for the Development of Kraków, p. 38]
44 Appendix to the Resolution No. CXI/1510/10 of the Kraków City Council dated 6 October 2010 Programme of Cooperation of the Kraków Municipality with Non-governmental organizations and Entities Identified in Art. 3, paragraph 3 of the Act of Parliament of 24 April 2001 on charitable and voluntary work (Dz. U. Nr 96, position 873 with further amendments) for 2011.
Wrocław: In 2006, a document under the title of The Strategy for Wrocław’s Culture was accepted in the city. Unfortunately, the document is not available at the moment. In 2010, the strategy was to be audited but the results of the audit are unavailable.
The sectoral programmes are considered necessary – as the document says – for the realization of operational objectives.
Wrocław: In 2006, a document under the title of The Strategy for Wrocław’s Culture was accepted in the city. Unfortunately, the document is not available at the moment. In 2010, the strategy was to be audited but the results of the audit are unavailable.
The sectoral programmes are considered necessary – as the document says – for the realization of operational objectives.
Among the operational objectives of the third strategic objective there is one that directly relates to culture, defined as “The creation of material and institutional conditions for the development of culture”. It reads as follows: “Kraków is a city of rich cultural life, with its many theatres, theatrical groups, and institutions of music, museums, libraries, cultural centres, cinemas, variety of cultural events, and also many historic monuments that are listed among the most precious sites of Europe. The consolidation of Kraków’s position as a cultural centre requires increased development by the city authorities in the realization of artistic projects, supporting cultural sites and institutions, supporting the activities of local creative circles. It also requires that the local material base is reconstructed and modernised. The availability of free of charge educational courses for children, teenagers and senior citizens will be increased in Kraków’s cultural centres and community centres. It is important for community integration that these courses take place locally, and are embedded in local residential areas. It is also necessary to expand the viewing and concert infrastructure to be able to organize a larger number of high quality cultural events. It is important to maintain and develop international contacts, including cooperation with partner cities. [Strategy for the Development of Kraków, p. 38]
44 Appendix to the Resolution No. CXI/1510/10 of the Kraków City Council dated 6 October 2010 Programme of Cooperation of the Kraków Municipality with Non-governmental organizations and Entities Identified in Art. 3, paragraph 3 of the Act of Parliament of 24 April 2001 on charitable and voluntary work (Dz. U. Nr 96, position 873 with further amendments) for 2011.
Strategy of Kraków’s development The following equivalent strategic objectives have been established in order to realize the vision for the development of Kraków: 1. Kraków as a family–friendly city, an attractive place for residents and visitors alike 2. Kraków as a city with a competitive, modern economy 3. Kraków as a European metropolis with important academic, cultural and sports functions
It has been decided that two sectoral cultural programmes will be created: MM Programme of cooperation with the organizers of Kraków’s festivals and traditional city events MM Programme of artistic protectorate and public services in the sphere of culture. Both programmes are currently being prepared. The Kraków Municipality is also preparing a Long–term Programme of Cooperation with Non– governmental Organizations, which is a document regulating the long–term conditions of cooperation with non–governmental organizations and other subjects for the years 2012–2014. The 2011 Programme specifies three strategic objectives. One of them: “Kraków as a European metropolis with important academic, cultural and sports functions” is linked with the following operational objectives: MM Creation of material and institutional conditions for cultural development MM Creation of conditions for the development of sport, physical culture and recreation.44 The detailed objectives of the programme, which result from sectoral programmes realized by the Kraków Municipality, have been formed as the following in the sphere of culture, arts, protection of cultural heritage and tradition: MM consolidation of Kraków’s position as a cultural centre through the increased involvement of the Municipality in the realization of artistic projects such as concerts, exhibitions, theatre shows, music concerts, dance and ballet events and other artistic interdisciplinary events. MM development of Kraków’s brand as a festival city MM presentation of the artistic achievement of Kraków’s artists nationwide and abroad.45
45 Appendix to the Resolution No. CXI/1510/10 of the Kraków City Council dated 6 October 2010 Programme of Cooperation of the Kraków Municipality with Non-governmental organizations and Entities Identified in Art. 3, paragraph 3 of the Act of Parliament of 24 April 2001 on charitable and voluntary work (Dz. U. Nr 96, position 873 with further amendments) for 2011.
supporting the development of public/private partnerships in the cultural sector.
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A document regarding the city’s cultural policy is currently being prepared, based on the application for the competition for the title of European Capital of Culture 2016. The following priorities have been listed in the application itself: – the endorsement of fixed solutions serving the purpose of the inclusion of various social groups which are currently excluded. Wrocław considers active participation in culture to be one of the most effective methods of solving even the most difficult social problems, discovering possibilities and including numerous social groups that are currently excluded in the common world. – Wrocław considers the right of every man to the access to arts, which is a necessary condition for building the agency of individuals. Wrocław wishes to create commonly accessible public spaces that will expose all people to works of authentic arts as a way of counteracting commodification and feelings of alienation. – Counteracting inter–passivity caused by common access to the latest technologies through active and interactive participation in culture.46 Wrocław took part in the competition for the title of the European Capital of Culture. The jurors liked the idea of “recovering beauty” included in the application. At the same time Wrocław has shown that it wishes to transform the neglected and forgotten areas and neighbourhoods in the city, and do a lot of good for its residents, and that it won’t focus solely on large investment into infrastructure (such as the building of the National Forum of Music or the Museum of Contemporary Arts. More than anything the city wishes to increase the participation of its residents in culture. The jurors have, however, charged Wrocław with a lack of social support, therefore in the second application Wrocław included 150 ideas out of the 600 sent to the Municipality by residents and non–governmental organizations.47 The Strategy Wrocław in 2020 plus perspective accepted in 2006 also includes a part on culture, which begins with a focus on those who create culture: “Culture is not so much about good
projects but about people with good projects. The essence of cultural policy is to identify the people for whom creative freedom (financing) should be provided in the first place”. Wrocław’s strategy for the city’s development emphasizes the following activities and areas: MM necessity of culture in the processes of forming Wrocław’s identity and creating the city’s image MM everyday presence of art; shaping tastes; continued demand for shows and concerts from the cultural canon; saturation of the visual public space of the city with art MM organizing large artistic events that testify to the city’s world class and splendour. MM participation in cyclical international events and domestic initiatives MM municipal patronage; providing chances for young and promising artists, and pensions for the “fathers of success” MM counteracting the crisis of participation in culture where observation has definitely replaced participation MM clear awareness of tastes that are being satisfied; defence from kitsch and intellectual trash, also the avant–garde trash; the need for responsible art criticism MM work on teaching the cultural canon; open schools for artists and art institutions for school pupils; dedicated concerts, theatre shows, exhibitions and workshops MM comprehensive care of culture in Wrocław; the present ownership structure of cultural institutions cannot determine the ways of thinking about cultural life in the city MM taking care of the cultural initiation of young generations: community centres in the estate, cultural clubs, art schools, Centre for Student Art MM research, documenting and popularisation of the past of Silesia and Wrocław MM investment into culture; new and converted buildings and premises; preparation of the city spaces for the organization of large outdoor events. MM pilot project: Cultural Incubator for JPII Generation MM actions for the city to be granted the title of European Capital of Culture 201648
46 Spaces for Beauty – Wrocław’s application for the title of European Capital of Culture 2016, 2010 Wrocław 47 www.wroclaw.pl, based on the preselection report 12-13.10. 2010. 48 Wrocław in the 2020 plus perspective, www.wroclaw.pl
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48 Wrocław in the 2020 plus perspective, www.wroclaw.pl 47 www.wroclaw.pl, based on the preselection report 12-13.10. 2010. 46 Spaces for Beauty – Wrocław’s application for the title of European Capital of Culture 2016, 2010 Wrocław
The Strategy Wrocław in 2020 plus perspective accepted in 2006 also includes a part on culture, which begins with a focus on those who create culture: “Culture is not so much about good Wrocław took part in the competition for the title of the European Capital of Culture. The jurors liked the idea of “recovering beauty” included in the application. At the same time Wrocław has shown that it wishes to transform the neglected and forgotten areas and neighbourhoods in the city, and do a lot of good for its residents, and that it won’t focus solely on large investment into infrastructure (such as the building of the National Forum of Music or the Museum of Contemporary Arts. More than anything the city wishes to increase the participation of its residents in culture. The jurors have, however, charged Wrocław with a lack of social support, therefore in the second application Wrocław included 150 ideas out of the 600 sent to the Municipality by residents and non–governmental organizations.47 A document regarding the city’s cultural policy is currently being prepared, based on the application for the competition for the title of European Capital of Culture 2016. The following priorities have been listed in the application itself: – the endorsement of fixed solutions serving the purpose of the inclusion of various social groups which are currently excluded. Wrocław considers active participation in culture to be one of the most effective methods of solving even the most difficult social problems, discovering possibilities and including numerous social groups that are currently excluded in the common world. – Wrocław considers the right of every man to the access to arts, which is a necessary condition for building the agency of individuals. Wrocław wishes to create commonly accessible public spaces that will expose all people to works of authentic arts as a way of counteracting commodification and feelings of alienation. – Counteracting inter–passivity caused by common access to the latest technologies through active and interactive participation in culture.46
projects but about people with good projects. The essence of cultural policy is to identify the people for whom creative freedom (financing) should be provided in the first place”. Wrocław’s strategy for the city’s development emphasizes the following activities and areas: MM necessity of culture in the processes of forming Wrocław’s identity and creating the city’s image MM everyday presence of art; shaping tastes; continued demand for shows and concerts from the cultural canon; saturation of the visual public space of the city with art MM organizing large artistic events that testify to the city’s world class and splendour. MM participation in cyclical international events and domestic initiatives MM municipal patronage; providing chances for young and promising artists, and pensions for the “fathers of success” MM counteracting the crisis of participation in culture where observation has definitely replaced participation MM clear awareness of tastes that are being satisfied; defence from kitsch and intellectual trash, also the avant–garde trash; the need for responsible art criticism MM work on teaching the cultural canon; open schools for artists and art institutions for school pupils; dedicated concerts, theatre shows, exhibitions and workshops MM comprehensive care of culture in Wrocław; the present ownership structure of cultural institutions cannot determine the ways of thinking about cultural life in the city MM taking care of the cultural initiation of young generations: community centres in the estate, cultural clubs, art schools, Centre for Student Art MM research, documenting and popularisation of the past of Silesia and Wrocław MM investment into culture; new and converted buildings and premises; preparation of the city spaces for the organization of large outdoor events. MM pilot project: Cultural Incubator for JPII Generation actions for the city to be granted the title of European Capital of Culture 201648 MM
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The main document, which specifies the objectives, principles, form and the evaluation of cooperation of local authorities of the Wrocław Municipality with non–governmental organizations is the programme updated and accepted by the Wrocław City Council. The 2011 programme was prepared on the basis of the Long–term Programme of Cooperation with Non–governmental Organizations for 2011–2012. The priorities accepted in the cooperation with the organizations for 2011 in the areas of culture, arts, protection of cultural goods and cultural heritage are as follows: MM supporting the development of culture and art, including artworks and organizing artistic events that enrich the city’s cultural offer MM cultural education for children and teenagers MM cultural education, including for society in general, as well as supporting the identity of national and ethnic minorities MM support for non–profit cultural activities, especially contemporary art MM dissemination of culture and art MM various activities in the areas of culture and art, and supporting tasks in the area of the protection of cultural goods and traditions supporting creativity and artistic education of the disabled.
T
SUMMARY OF THE IDEOLOLOGICAL AND VALUE–BASED ASPECT Culture Management 2011, Vol 4 (4)
MM
49 Programme of Cooperation with Non-governmental Organizations for 2011.
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he fragments quoted here of the documents identifying the directions for cultural development in the three cities, show us how different the perceptions of the role of culture actually are in those cities, and what are the regions that each city wants its residents to explore. Warsaw’s approach to the development of culture is comprehensive. It offers very specific solutions for each area, emphasizing that what matters is the participation of all residents in culture, cultural education and also stimulating creativity. Warsaw’s programme emphasizes the significance of well–organized public space. The city wishes to be a modern metropolis, reaching for the potential inherent in its residents. Warsaw’s documents are full of awareness of the significance and role of non–governmental organizations, which have been identified in the Programme of Cultural Development as one of the elements that provide for the cultural development of the city. The areas in which the activities of NGOs are to be supported are defined in detail. In Warsaw the preparation of strategic documents was preceded by research into the cultural needs of its residents. The Programme of Cultural Development not only recommends certain specific actions but also their timeframe, sources of financing and the organization that will be realizing them. It is worth emphasizing that some of the key instruments providing support for non–governmental organizations have been already endorsed, although the document is quite recent. Among these is the functioning of Promesa on a monthly application basis, or various types of competitions, including long–term ones. Re–granting is also one of the more interesting proposals of the city, as it is a testimony to the local government’s innovatory approach and its wish to commission more competences to various civil organizations. The direction of the cultural policy of the City of Warsaw can be seen in its strategy for obtaining the title of European Capital of Culture, namely giving support to independent culture and its centres as a sign of building civil society. The ECC Committee has appreciated this approach also.
he fragments quoted here of the documents identifying the directions for cultural development in the three cities, show us how different the perceptions of the role of culture actually are in those cities, and what are the regions that each city wants its residents to explore. Warsaw’s approach to the development of culture is comprehensive. It offers very specific solutions for each area, emphasizing that what matters is the participation of all residents in culture, cultural education and also stimulating creativity. Warsaw’s programme emphasizes the significance of well–organized public space. The city wishes to be a modern metropolis, reaching for the potential inherent in its residents. Warsaw’s documents are full of awareness of the significance and role of non–governmental organizations, which have been identified in the Programme of Cultural Development as one of the elements that provide for the cultural development of the city. The areas in which the activities of NGOs are to be supported are defined in detail. In Warsaw the preparation of strategic documents was preceded by research into the cultural needs of its residents. The Programme of Cultural Development not only recommends certain specific actions but also their timeframe, sources of financing and the organization that will be realizing them. It is worth emphasizing that some of the key instruments providing support for non–governmental organizations have been already endorsed, although the document is quite recent. Among these is the functioning of Promesa on a monthly application basis, or various types of competitions, including long–term ones. Re–granting is also one of the more interesting proposals of the city, as it is a testimony to the local government’s innovatory approach and its wish to commission more competences to various civil organizations. The direction of the cultural policy of the City of Warsaw can be seen in its strategy for obtaining the title of European Capital of Culture, namely giving support to independent culture and its centres as a sign of building civil society. The ECC Committee has appreciated this approach also.
The evaluation of cooperation is conducted by the Mayor of Wrocław and is then submitted to the Wrocław City Council as the report on the realization of the programme. The document also specifies the criteria for the evaluation of the realization of the programme, such as the following quantitative measures: MM number and structure of non–governmental organizations in cooperation with the city MM number and structure of competitions announced in 2011, and also of submitted offers and signed contracts MM completion of the co–financing plan for 2011, detailed according to budget classification, based on the report on the completion of the City Budget. MM completion of the programme of co–financing in the dynamic perspective, in years 2002–2011 number of completed trainings for non–governmental organizations.49
T
MM
The evaluation of cooperation is conducted by the Mayor of Wrocław and is then submitted to the Wrocław City Council as the report on the realization of the programme. The document also specifies the criteria for the evaluation of the realization of the programme, such as the following quantitative measures: MM number and structure of non–governmental organizations in cooperation with the city MM number and structure of competitions announced in 2011, and also of submitted offers and signed contracts MM completion of the co–financing plan for 2011, detailed according to budget classification, based on the report on the completion of the City Budget. MM completion of the programme of co–financing in the dynamic perspective, in years 2002–2011 MM number of completed trainings for non–governmental organizations.49
SUMMARY OF THE IDEOLOLOGICAL AND VALUE–BASED ASPECT
49 Programme of Cooperation with Non-governmental Organizations for 2011.
The main document, which specifies the objectives, principles, form and the evaluation of cooperation of local authorities of the Wrocław Municipality with non–governmental organizations is the programme updated and accepted by the Wrocław City Council. The 2011 programme was prepared on the basis of the Long–term Programme of Cooperation with Non–governmental Organizations for 2011–2012. The priorities accepted in the cooperation with the organizations for 2011 in the areas of culture, arts, protection of cultural goods and cultural heritage are as follows: MM supporting the development of culture and art, including artworks and organizing artistic events that enrich the city’s cultural offer MM cultural education for children and teenagers MM cultural education, including for society in general, as well as supporting the identity of national and ethnic minorities MM support for non–profit cultural activities, especially contemporary art MM dissemination of culture and art MM various activities in the areas of culture and art, and supporting tasks in the area of the protection of cultural goods and traditions MM supporting creativity and artistic education of the disabled.
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Non–governmental organizations are not mentioned in the strategic objectives of the Strategy of Cultural Development, but they do appear at the level of operational goals, above all in the context of cooperation with other organizations and in the context of supporting the organizers of festivals in the city, and stimulating and developing international cooperation and cultural exchange among the organizations of culture. In these documents the objectives are not formed in any measurable fashion but there is an annotation that the measures are specified in the annual cooperation programmes. It seems that the capital of the Małopolska Province, even though it appreciates the significance of culture, fails to sufficiently appreciate the potential of non–governmental organizations. However, this impression may be the result of the overall general character of operational programmes of the accepted cultural strategy. The evaluation of the situation in Kraków may seem a little critical, but it is at the same time the only city, out of the three analyzed, which has created a document on cultural policy, and so the only one which can be reviewed based on written plans and realized activities. The attempt to
In Kraków, the main emphasis lies in creating equal opportunities for all organizations and individuals that work in the cultural sector, while at the same time giving priority to municipal development institutions. The cultural offer should involve various groups of consumers, including tourists. Culture, in Kraków’s understanding, is a very important element of creating the city’s image; especially as the city wishes to play the role of patron of arts, and develop cooperations on many different levels and of varied ranges. It is without doubt that Kraków’s authorities appreciate the significance of culture and are interested in supporting it. They consider prestigious and large–scale events to be a priority. It is worth emphasizing that the preparation of the strategy for cultural development in Kraków has been preceded by a SWOT analysis. Part of the conclusions regarding non–governmental organizations has been included in the strategic documents. The most important of those that haven’t been included is the lack of a low–budget donation system, granted to NGOs in a process of competition and – in the opinion of Kraków’s creative circles and NGOs – the lack of clear criteria regarding the purchase of services in the cultural sphere.
In Kraków, the main emphasis lies in creating equal opportunities for all organizations and individuals that work in the cultural sector, while at the same time giving priority to municipal development institutions. The cultural offer should involve various groups of consumers, including tourists. Culture, in Kraków’s understanding, is a very important element of creating the city’s image; especially as the city wishes to play the role of patron of arts, and develop cooperations on many different levels and of varied ranges. It is without doubt that Kraków’s authorities appreciate the significance of culture and are interested in supporting it. They consider prestigious and large–scale events to be a priority. It is worth emphasizing that the preparation of the strategy for cultural development in Kraków has been preceded by a SWOT analysis. Part of the conclusions regarding non–governmental organizations has been included in the strategic documents. The most important of those that haven’t been included is the lack of a low–budget donation system, granted to NGOs in a process of competition and – in the opinion of Kraków’s creative circles and NGOs – the lack of clear criteria regarding the purchase of services in the cultural sphere.
Non–governmental organizations are not mentioned in the strategic objectives of the Strategy of Cultural Development, but they do appear at the level of operational goals, above all in the context of cooperation with other organizations and in the context of supporting the organizers of festivals in the city, and stimulating and developing international cooperation and cultural exchange among the organizations of culture. In these documents the objectives are not formed in any measurable fashion but there is an annotation that the measures are specified in the annual cooperation programmes. It seems that the capital of the Małopolska Province, even though it appreciates the significance of culture, fails to sufficiently appreciate the potential of non–governmental organizations. However, this impression may be the result of the overall general character of operational programmes of the accepted cultural strategy. The evaluation of the situation in Kraków may seem a little critical, but it is at the same time the only city, out of the three analyzed, which has created a document on cultural policy, and so the only one which can be reviewed based on written plans and realized activities. The attempt to
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rationalize the city’s cultural situation should be certainly appreciated, as Kraków made an attempt to analyze it and create one of the first strategies of cultural development in the country. The other two cities – Warsaw and Wrocław – are in a different situation – both are currently taking part in the ECC competition, which requires that plans of activities are drawn up that would at the same time meet the competition–defined criteria and expectations set at a very high level. Wrocław emphasizes the social aspects of culture: increased participation in culture by various social groups that are currently excluded, treating it as an instrument for solving social problems. The key issue is creating commonly accessible public spaces that will favour everybody’s exposure to authentic works of art, and which will at the same time serve the purpose of counteracting exclusion from culture. Active and interactive participation in culture is Wrocław’s response to passive attitudes shaped by contemporary technologies. Wrocław wants to take on the challenge of forming tastes while taking care of the quality of the city’s patronage of arts and participating in the dispersed memory of the city, through its historic sites and past. Because of the specific character of the documents discussed here, it is hard to establish how the role of NGOs is actually perceived in them. It seems that it is perhaps necessary to wait for the final version of Wrocław’s cultural policy document. It would appear that Wrocław remembers well whom culture is for but hasn’t yet adapted the democratic mechanisms for the creation of culture. The documents quoted here identify the direction for cultural activities but not the methods of their realization. None of them considers NGOs to be important enough, which has been noticed by the ECC Committee. Even so, it is a good sign that the cooperation between local government and the non–governmental organizations is evaluated by the Mayor and that there clear criteria for the evaluation of the realization of programmes. Let us conclude this part of the paper with a quote from one of the applications: “The city should take good care of its non–governmental organizations as they indeed co–create the cultural offer and consolidate the residents’ responsibility for what actually happens in their city”. [Programme of Development…] Now that we know about the directions of cultural activities planned by the three cities, let’s see how they are realizing their strategies in their individual aspects:
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rationalize the city’s cultural situation should be certainly appreciated, as Kraków made an attempt to analyze it and create one of the first strategies of cultural development in the country. The other two cities – Warsaw and Wrocław – are in a different situation – both are currently taking part in the ECC competition, which requires that plans of activities are drawn up that would at the same time meet the competition–defined criteria and expectations set at a very high level. Wrocław emphasizes the social aspects of culture: increased participation in culture by various social groups that are currently excluded, treating it as an instrument for solving social problems. The key issue is creating commonly accessible public spaces that will favour everybody’s exposure to authentic works of art, and which will at the same time serve the purpose of counteracting exclusion from culture. Active and interactive participation in culture is Wrocław’s response to passive attitudes shaped by contemporary technologies. Wrocław wants to take on the challenge of forming tastes while taking care of the quality of the city’s patronage of arts and participating in the dispersed memory of the city, through its historic sites and past. Because of the specific character of the documents discussed here, it is hard to establish how the role of NGOs is actually perceived in them. It seems that it is perhaps necessary to wait for the final version of Wrocław’s cultural policy document. It would appear that Wrocław remembers well whom culture is for but hasn’t yet adapted the democratic mechanisms for the creation of culture. The documents quoted here identify the direction for cultural activities but not the methods of their realization. None of them considers NGOs to be important enough, which has been noticed by the ECC Committee. Even so, it is a good sign that the cooperation between local government and the non–governmental organizations is evaluated by the Mayor and that there clear criteria for the evaluation of the realization of programmes. Let us conclude this part of the paper with a quote from one of the applications: “The city should take good care of its non–governmental organizations as they indeed co–create the cultural offer and consolidate the residents’ responsibility for what actually happens in their city”. [Programme of Development…] Now that we know about the directions of cultural activities planned by the three cities, let’s see how they are realizing their strategies in their individual aspects:
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Economic and organizational aspect
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costs in other types of financing are very much reduced. This is one of the more serious drawbacks in the system of supporting NGOs and their development. The amounts quoted in the breakdown above for open competitions of offers in each of the cities are only proximate. The structure of expenditure in the cities, for cultural activities in different areas, is another sphere worth researching but not the subject matter of this paper.
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oncepts: Competition of offers is understood as an open competition of offers for realization of public tasks as provided for by Article 11, Paragraph 2 of the Act of Parliament dated 24 April 2003 on charitable and voluntary Non–budgetary funds – financial resources from various funds, such as EU, structural funds, funds obtained from other countries and international organizations, Polish and foreign non–governmental organizations, commercial companies and central administration.
As far as the allocation of financial resources is concerned, Warsaw’s procedures are most favourable to non–governmental organizations, from the number of optional forms of giving grants, periods of project financing and the methods of calculating own input. Organizations that have signed long–term contracts with the municipality’s self–government, for the realization of projects, may take actions that will produce long–term effects. This will also enable them to manage their projects effectively, throughout their various phases. It would be advisable that all cities create competitions for realization of long–term projects. Many of them, e.g., those focusing on cultural education would have a much better chance of producing better effects, as compared to the annual planning procedures, which in practice are six–monthly procedures if one takes into account the deadlines for announcing the results of such competitions. The option of calculating voluntary workers’ involvement as own input is a very valuable solution, allowing NGOs to run projects that attract not only financing but also social resources. This is another measure that could be popularized. A rather difficult situation took place in Kraków, where so far only an open competition for offers valued at over 50,000PLN has been announced. This unfortunately means that smaller non– governmental organizations are excluded as their annual turnover is often below that figure. Only 5 organizations were beneficiaries in the competition for large projects. The remaining 23 organizations, whose projects were evaluated with positive results, will receive their grants later. It is certainly a worry for NGOs, unfortunately present in all Polish cities, that there are no grants for ongoing operations and the administrative
Kraków and Wrocław have well formulated the range of activities that may be undertaken by NGOs and financed by local government. Perhaps in this situation one should ask if this means openness by the authorities and freedom for the organizations? Is it clear at the stage of choosing offers which activities are preferred? And if so, are the activities that take place in the city profiled? It seems that Warsaw expects actions in specific areas and in this way it stimulates organizations to create and implement projects in the specified directions. The dates of announcing competitions for the tasks realized by non–governmental organizations in the sphere of culture and their results mark out the operational rhythm of these organizations. Wrocław NGOs are in the best situation as far as competitions are concerned and when the calendar of competition announcements and evaluation of applications is taken into the account. Wrocław Municipality evaluates applications in a short time (approximately 30 days) and it observes the deadlines for the announcement of competition results. Late announcement of results, as is the case in Warsaw and Kraków, influence the dynamics of cultural events in the city, which are then naturally cumulated in the second half of the year, which means, in turn, that the potential of NGOs in building culture in these cities is not entirely used, and the cultural offer in the first part of the year is poor. This means that when an organization employs people, it is not able to pay them throughout the first half of the year, which has an impact on the quality and level of employment in the cultural sector. It also affects the quality of project management and causes difficulties in planning, especially when the date of the announcement of results of a competition is unknown or considerably delayed. Another obstacle in the work of NGOs is the method of allocating funds for the projects submitted in competitions. Most often municipalities
Kraków and Wrocław have well formulated the range of activities that may be undertaken by NGOs and financed by local government. Perhaps in this situation one should ask if this means openness by the authorities and freedom for the organizations? Is it clear at the stage of choosing offers which activities are preferred? And if so, are the activities that take place in the city profiled? It seems that Warsaw expects actions in specific areas and in this way it stimulates organizations to create and implement projects in the specified directions. The dates of announcing competitions for the tasks realized by non–governmental organizations in the sphere of culture and their results mark out the operational rhythm of these organizations. Wrocław NGOs are in the best situation as far as competitions are concerned and when the calendar of competition announcements and evaluation of applications is taken into the account. Wrocław Municipality evaluates applications in a short time (approximately 30 days) and it observes the deadlines for the announcement of competition results. Late announcement of results, as is the case in Warsaw and Kraków, influence the dynamics of cultural events in the city, which are then naturally cumulated in the second half of the year, which means, in turn, that the potential of NGOs in building culture in these cities is not entirely used, and the cultural offer in the first part of the year is poor. This means that when an organization employs people, it is not able to pay them throughout the first half of the year, which has an impact on the quality and level of employment in the cultural sector. It also affects the quality of project management and causes difficulties in planning, especially when the date of the announcement of results of a competition is unknown or considerably delayed. Another obstacle in the work of NGOs is the method of allocating funds for the projects submitted in competitions. Most often municipalities
oncepts: Competition of offers is understood as an open competition of offers for realization of public tasks as provided for by Article 11, Paragraph 2 of the Act of Parliament dated 24 April 2003 on charitable and voluntary Non–budgetary funds – financial resources from various funds, such as EU, structural funds, funds obtained from other countries and international organizations, Polish and foreign non–governmental organizations, commercial companies and central administration.
As far as the allocation of financial resources is concerned, Warsaw’s procedures are most favourable to non–governmental organizations, from the number of optional forms of giving grants, periods of project financing and the methods of calculating own input. Organizations that have signed long–term contracts with the municipality’s self–government, for the realization of projects, may take actions that will produce long–term effects. This will also enable them to manage their projects effectively, throughout their various phases. It would be advisable that all cities create competitions for realization of long–term projects. Many of them, e.g., those focusing on cultural education would have a much better chance of producing better effects, as compared to the annual planning procedures, which in practice are six–monthly procedures if one takes into account the deadlines for announcing the results of such competitions. The option of calculating voluntary workers’ involvement as own input is a very valuable solution, allowing NGOs to run projects that attract not only financing but also social resources. This is another measure that could be popularized. A rather difficult situation took place in Kraków, where so far only an open competition for offers valued at over 50,000PLN has been announced. This unfortunately means that smaller non– governmental organizations are excluded as their annual turnover is often below that figure. Only 5 organizations were beneficiaries in the competition for large projects. The remaining 23 organizations, whose projects were evaluated with positive results, will receive their grants later. It is certainly a worry for NGOs, unfortunately present in all Polish cities, that there are no grants for ongoing operations and the administrative
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costs in other types of financing are very much reduced. This is one of the more serious drawbacks in the system of supporting NGOs and their development. The amounts quoted in the breakdown above for open competitions of offers in each of the cities are only proximate. The structure of expenditure in the cities, for cultural activities in different areas, is another sphere worth researching but not the subject matter of this paper.
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53 Resolution No. LIV/1554/10 of Wrocław City Council dated 9 September 2010. 52 According to Article 19 a of the Bill of Parliament dated 22 January 2010 On the changes to the Act of Parliament on charitable and voluntary work and of some other acts (Dz. U. dated 25 February 2010): In response to an application by a non-governmental organization or any of the entities mentioned in Article 3, paragraph 3, an executive organ of a local government unit may commission the realization of a public task of local character to a non-governmental organization or any of the entities mentioned in Article 3, paragraph 3, bypassing the open competitive procedure. 51 The amount for projects over 50.000 PLN is supposed to be announced with a competition within a separate order of the Mayor of Kraków.
50 Based on the competition documentation for 2011, bulletins of public information in different cities and information available on the official web pages of the cities.
Tab.2. Forms of cooperation between the city and organizations50:
Yes, basic financing instrument
1.Open competition of offers in a Yes, basic financing instrument form of commissioning the realization of a given task (transferring a donation for financing of its realization) or giving support to task realization (co–financing)
Wrocław
Year 2011
Own input Applications for the realization of a public task within a local initiative. 53 2. Commissioning the realization of a public task to an organization at its request, outside of the competition of offers, the so–called “small grants”52
Yes, when certain conditions are No met: the amount of co–financing or financing of such task cannot exceed 10 000 PLN and the timeframe for the realization of the task cannot be longer than 90 days.
3. An open competition of offers for the provision of support for public tasks realized by organizations within the programmes financed from non–budgetary funds, the so–called “Promesa”
No.
The programme of cooperation with Yes, in 2011–2012, applications are NGOs stipulates “the possibility of accepted on a monthly basis. granting an additional financial support by the City for the realization of tasks implemented by non–governmental organizations, in conjunction with those organizations actually applying for the financing of such tasks from other sources”, however such options and procedures are not advertised on the city’s web site.
4. Donations for ongoing work.
No.
No.
No.
Other instruments
Commissioning by the city of the realization of public tasks to other organizations and entities may be of the type of long–term cooperation for the time identified as no longer than 5 years. Contracts are annexed every year in accordance with the current and binding regulations, which grant the Mayor of Kraków the power to sign long–term contracts within the ongoing expenditure.
– Partnership contracts defined in the Act of 6 December 2006 on the principles of implementing development policy (Parliamentary Journal 2009/ No. 84, position 712 and No. 157, position. 1241).
The city can sign contracts with organizations for the provision of support or for commissioning public tasks for the time of task implementation, or for a specified period that can not be longer than 5 years.
Kraków
Warsaw Yes, basic financing instrument
A definite amount of own input is A definite amount of own input is A definite amount of own input is not required, however, the financial not required; non–financial input not required, however a share of structure is one of the evaluation (human resources, material input) is own funds is evaluated. criteria evaluated but cannot be considered The work of voluntary workers is the when evaluating costs. organization’s own input, the cost estimate of voluntary workers’ input may be the financial input of an organization but in the amount not exceeding 30% of the entire input.
The amount of funds designated 2011: 2.500.00 PLN 51 for the competition 2010: 4.323.500 PLN 2. Commissioning the realization of a public task to an organization at its request, outside of the competition of offers, the so–called “small grants”52 3. An open competition of offers for the provision of support for public tasks realized by organizations within the programmes financed from non–budgetary funds, the so–called “Promesa”
2011: 1.000.000 PLN 2010: 1.408.850 PLN
Yes, when certain conditions are No met: the amount of co–financing or financing of such task cannot exceed 10 000 PLN and the timeframe for the realization of the task cannot be longer than 90 days. No.
Commissioning by the city of the realization of public tasks to other organizations and entities may be of the type of long–term cooperation for the time identified as no longer than 5 years. Contracts are annexed every year in accordance with the current and binding regulations, which grant the Mayor of Kraków the power to sign long–term contracts within the ongoing expenditure.
Other instruments
No.
4. Donations for ongoing work.
The amount of funds designated 2011: 2.500.00 PLN 51 for the competition 2010: 4.323.500 PLN
Yes, when certain conditions are met: the amount of co–financing or financing of such task cannot exceed 10 000 PLN and the timeframe for the realization of the task cannot be longer than 90 days.
Wrocław
Warsaw
1.Open competition of offers in a Yes, basic financing instrument form of commissioning the realization of a given task (transferring a donation for financing of its realization) or giving support to task realization (co–financing)
Yes, basic financing instrument
Yes, basic financing instrument
Own input
A definite amount of own input is not required; non–financial input (human resources, material input) is evaluated but cannot be considered when evaluating costs.
A definite amount of own input is not required, however a share of own funds is evaluated. The work of voluntary workers is the organization’s own input, the cost estimate of voluntary workers’ input may be the financial input of an organization but in the amount not exceeding 30% of the entire input.
2011: 1.000.000 PLN 2010: 1.408.850 PLN
2011: 6.700.000 PLN 2010: 5 839 390 PLN
2011: 6.700.000 PLN 2010: 5 839 390 PLN Yes, when certain conditions are met: the amount of co–financing or financing of such task cannot exceed 10 000 PLN and the timeframe for the realization of the task cannot be longer than 90 days.
The programme of cooperation with Yes, in 2011–2012, applications are NGOs stipulates “the possibility of accepted on a monthly basis. granting an additional financial support by the City for the realization of tasks implemented by non–governmental organizations, in conjunction with those organizations actually applying for the financing of such tasks from other sources”, however such options and procedures are not advertised on the city’s web site. No. – Partnership contracts defined in the Act of 6 December 2006 on the principles of implementing development policy (Parliamentary Journal 2009/ No. 84, position 712 and No. 157, position. 1241).
No. The city can sign contracts with organizations for the provision of support or for commissioning public tasks for the time of task implementation, or for a specified period that can not be longer than 5 years.
Applications for the realization of a public task within a local initiative. 53
Year 2011
A definite amount of own input is not required, however, the financial structure is one of the evaluation criteria Kraków
Tab.2. Forms of cooperation between the city and organizations50:
50 Based on the competition documentation for 2011, bulletins of public information in different cities and information available on the official web pages of the cities. 51 The amount for projects over 50.000 PLN is supposed to be announced with a competition within a separate order of the Mayor of Kraków. 52 According to Article 19 a of the Bill of Parliament dated 22 January 2010 On the changes to the Act of Parliament on charitable and voluntary work and of some other acts (Dz. U. dated 25 February 2010): In response to an application by a non-governmental organization or any of the entities mentioned in Article 3, paragraph 3, an executive organ of a local government unit may commission the realization of a public task of local character to a non-governmental organization or any of the entities mentioned in Article 3, paragraph 3, bypassing the open competitive procedure. 53 Resolution No. LIV/1554/10 of Wrocław City Council dated 9 September 2010.
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Tab. 3. Procedures for open competitions of offers. year 2011 The objective of the task realization, specified in the competition.
Submission deadline
Announcement of results deadline
Kraków Wrocław Warsaw 1. The tasks that the local residents 1.Organization of concerts, theatre 1. Popularization of the tradition, are to benefit from are the subject of performances, exhibitions, reviews, history, cultural heritage and the competition, with the objective of competitions, festivals, music, multiculturalism of Warsaw. enriching the city’s cultural offer and theatrical, artistic, film, photographic, popularizing culture and art. video art and other cultural events, 2. Realization of cultural education including outdoor events combining projects, especially in an innovatory 2. The task may be realized in various areas of culture, workshops, form. Priorities: different forms, including through anniversary meetings, presentations, – realization of projects and the organization of concerts, theatre reviews, organized in the Municipality enterprises in arts, which will create a performances, outdoor shows, of Wrocław permanent cultural offer for Warsaw exhibitions, festivals, film viewing – art in public spaces or interdisciplinary events between 2. Provision of support for local – international cooperation of Warsaw March and December 2011, the total cultural initiatives creative circles cost cannot exceed 50 000 PLN. – projects supporting intercultural 3. Defining Wrocław as an important dialogue centre of music, theatre and arts. – popularization of the tradition, history, cultural heritage and multiculturalism of Warsaw – implementation of cultural education projects especially in innovatory forms. 1. 1 January, 21 January, 4 February, 18 February 2011 (dependent on the priority) 7 December 2010 (first round of applications) 14 January 2011 (second round of applications)
7 January 2011 (First round of applications) 26 January 2011 (Second round of applications) 7 January 2011 (First round of applications) 31 January (2011
No later than within 50 days from the date of submission of offers.
Not required by the Municipality, not conducted
Actual date of the announcement of results
Not required by Kraków Municipality, not conducted
Evaluation criteria specified, only the number of scored points given for evaluated applications; no information about the rejected applications available. At least 2 representatives of the Mayor and at least two representatives of organizations indicated by the appropriate Committee for Social Dialogue (KDS) Not required by the Municipality, not conducted Prior to the announcement of the competition of offers, various offices submit various types of competition tasks and detailed conditions of their realization to the Committee for Social Dialogue for consultation or to the Warsaw Council of Benefit, if there is no Committee for Social Dialogue operating at the given office.
Partial
Evaluation criteria specified, only the number of scored points given for evaluated applications; no information about the rejected applications available. At least 3 people representing the Municipality of Wrocław and at least 2 representatives of NGOs
2 March 2011 for projects over 50000PLN. The announcement of the open competition of offers for realization of tasks of the Kraków Municipality in 2011 in the areas of culture, arts and the protection of cultural goods and national heritage whose total cost do not exceed 50000PLN will take place on the basis of a separate regulation issued by the Mayor of Kraków None – “Information on the results of the competition will be announced in the Bulletin of Public Information as soon as the Mayor will issue the resolution” 29 April 2011 partial announcement: of the number of scored points for each application, and the amount actually granted was specified only for 6 organizations. Partial
Evaluation criteria specified, only the number of scored points given for evaluated applications; no information about the rejected applications available. Max. 2 people for max. 5 committee members
Percentage of the grant in relation to the amount applied for. Transparency of evaluation
Partial
Presence of NGO representatives in the evaluation committee
Partial
28 February 2011 23 March 2011 12 April 2011 The 1st priority still not evaluated 28 February 2011 23 March 2011 12 April 2011 The 1st priority still not evaluated Partial
2. Realization of cultural education projects, especially in an innovatory form. Priorities: – realization of projects and enterprises in arts, which will create a permanent cultural offer for Warsaw – art in public spaces – international cooperation of Warsaw creative circles – projects supporting intercultural dialogue – popularization of the tradition, history, cultural heritage and multiculturalism of Warsaw – implementation of cultural education projects especially in innovatory forms. 1. 1 January, 21 January, 4 February, 18 February 2011 (dependent on the priority) Warsaw 1. Popularization of the tradition, history, cultural heritage and multiculturalism of Warsaw.
Evaluation of co– financed project Comments
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No later than within 50 days from the date of submission of offers.
7 December 2010 (first round of applications) 14 January 2011 (second round of applications) 3. Defining Wrocław as an important centre of music, theatre and arts. 2. Provision of support for local cultural initiatives Wrocław 1.Organization of concerts, theatre performances, exhibitions, reviews, competitions, festivals, music, theatrical, artistic, film, photographic, video art and other cultural events, including outdoor events combining various areas of culture, workshops, anniversary meetings, presentations, reviews, organized in the Municipality of Wrocław
Evaluation criteria specified, only the Evaluation criteria specified, only the Evaluation criteria specified, only the number of scored points given for number of scored points given for number of scored points given for evaluated applications; no information evaluated applications; no information evaluated applications; no information about the rejected applications about the rejected applications about the rejected applications available. available. available. Max. 2 people for max. 5 committee At least 3 people representing the At least 2 representatives of members Municipality of Wrocław and at least 2 the Mayor and at least two representatives of NGOs representatives of organizations indicated by the appropriate Committee for Social Dialogue (KDS) Not required by Kraków Municipality, Not required by the Municipality, not Not required by the Municipality, not not conducted conducted conducted Prior to the announcement of the competition of offers, various offices submit various types of competition tasks and detailed conditions of their realization to the Committee for Social Dialogue for consultation or to the Warsaw Council of Benefit, if there is no Committee for Social Dialogue operating at the given office.
88 7 January 2011 (First round of applications) 26 January 2011 (Second round of applications) 7 January 2011 (First round of applications) 31 January (2011
2 March 2011 for projects over 50000PLN. The announcement of the open competition of offers for realization of tasks of the Kraków Municipality in 2011 in the areas of culture, arts and the protection of cultural goods and national heritage whose total cost do not exceed 50000PLN will take place on the basis of a separate regulation issued by the Mayor of Kraków None – “Information on the results of the competition will be announced in the Bulletin of Public Information as soon as the Mayor will issue the resolution” 29 April 2011 partial announcement: of the number of scored points for each application, and the amount actually granted was specified only for 6 organizations. Partial Kraków 1. The tasks that the local residents are to benefit from are the subject of the competition, with the objective of enriching the city’s cultural offer and popularizing culture and art.
88
Evaluation of co– financed project Comments Presence of NGO representatives in the evaluation committee Percentage of the grant in relation to the amount applied for. Transparency of evaluation Actual date of the announcement of results Announcement of results deadline Submission deadline
2. The task may be realized in different forms, including through the organization of concerts, theatre performances, outdoor shows, exhibitions, festivals, film viewing or interdisciplinary events between March and December 2011, the total cost cannot exceed 50 000 PLN. year 2011 The objective of the task realization, specified in the competition.
Tab. 3. Procedures for open competitions of offers.
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allocate some of the money applied for and then organizations face a dilemma on what part of the project should be done first. Usually, however, the allocation of a grant is conditional on maintaining the quality and range of a project in the form specified in the application. This situation leads to the organizations usually specifying a higher budget in their applications then necessary. It seems that the procedures for EU applications are in this respect more rational – when a project is accepted, organizations receive the money they apply for. It is also important to consider the fact that projects are at this stage neither monitored nor evaluated. This is one of the instruments of management which, when applied, could contribute to the improvement of quality of the projects and the way the organizations function. Additionally, it could be a good evaluation criterion of NGOs’ work for local government, both at the end of a project and as a valuable measure for the evaluation of applications in the future. The instruments specified above that support the development of NGOs are crucial to them at various stages of their life and work. It would be therefore advisable to include them as a necessary measure in the cultural policy of every city. The breakdown above partly indicates how cultural policies are realized in practice. Organizations come across various difficulties depending on how advanced their development is. The proposed solutions for allocating small grants, providing help in organizations’ promotional activities alongside other material resources, the possibility to cost estimate human resources as own input in the applications are the positive mechanisms of supporting NGOs in the first steps they take. Providing premises on preferential conditions, help in establishing international partnerships are the types of support for organizations in the next stage of development. It is without doubt the mechanisms of cultural policy that co–shape the development of culture and stimulate certain behaviours; just as a grant–
giving institution can stimulate the behaviour of organizations through appropriately construed regulations. Strategic planning, using management tools, the necessity to run evaluations, are all within the reach of non–governmental organizations. Why shouldn’t local government, which allocates grants, require that these are put in place in order to achieve higher quality, justification for the distribution of finance and improved management? Summarizing the breakdowns that I have presented above one can conclude that the level of preparation of the documents specifying cultural policy varies and is still rather insufficient. The principles of a city’s cultural policy, and even more so, the methods of their realization are only just being formed. This should come as no surprise but we must be aware of the fact that the quality of these strategies and their effective realization affects both the development of culture in our cities and the development of their residents, which means ourselves. As professor Dorota Ilczuk says in her study of the relationship between cultural policy and civil society [Ilczuk 2002] “Societies are truly cemented by cultural activities taking place at the local and regional level”. The awareness of this is very much visible in Europe. The Declaration of Brussels considers the lack of established cultural policy as the main obstacle hindering the development of the cultural sector. The European Committee also strongly emphasizes the role of cultural policies and considers the endorsement of an effective integrated cultural policy as a key ingredient of consolidating access to culture and creativity for all, for promoting cultural variety and supporting a sustained development of the cultural sector. The potential of the cultural sector in the development of people, societies, reducing poverty and enhancing economic growth can only be achieved in a structured environment, legally regulated, profitable and professional. And culture itself is defined as playing a fundamental role in the development of man and in a comprehensive structure of identity, and the customs of individuals and communities. 53
53 European Commission, Program Strengthening Capacities In the Cultural Sector, www.ec.europa.eu/culture
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53 European Commission, Program Strengthening Capacities In the Cultural Sector, www.ec.europa.eu/culture
The instruments specified above that support the development of NGOs are crucial to them at various stages of their life and work. It would be therefore advisable to include them as a necessary measure in the cultural policy of every city. The breakdown above partly indicates how cultural policies are realized in practice. Organizations come across various difficulties depending on how advanced their development is. The proposed solutions for allocating small grants, providing help in organizations’ promotional activities alongside other material resources, the possibility to cost estimate human resources as own input in the applications are the positive mechanisms of supporting NGOs in the first steps they take. Providing premises on preferential conditions, help in establishing international partnerships are the types of support for organizations in the next stage of development. It is without doubt the mechanisms of cultural policy that co–shape the development of culture and stimulate certain behaviours; just as a grant– allocate some of the money applied for and then organizations face a dilemma on what part of the project should be done first. Usually, however, the allocation of a grant is conditional on maintaining the quality and range of a project in the form specified in the application. This situation leads to the organizations usually specifying a higher budget in their applications then necessary. It seems that the procedures for EU applications are in this respect more rational – when a project is accepted, organizations receive the money they apply for. It is also important to consider the fact that projects are at this stage neither monitored nor evaluated. This is one of the instruments of management which, when applied, could contribute to the improvement of quality of the projects and the way the organizations function. Additionally, it could be a good evaluation criterion of NGOs’ work for local government, both at the end of a project and as a valuable measure for the evaluation of applications in the future.
giving institution can stimulate the behaviour of organizations through appropriately construed regulations. Strategic planning, using management tools, the necessity to run evaluations, are all within the reach of non–governmental organizations. Why shouldn’t local government, which allocates grants, require that these are put in place in order to achieve higher quality, justification for the distribution of finance and improved management? Summarizing the breakdowns that I have presented above one can conclude that the level of preparation of the documents specifying cultural policy varies and is still rather insufficient. The principles of a city’s cultural policy, and even more so, the methods of their realization are only just being formed. This should come as no surprise but we must be aware of the fact that the quality of these strategies and their effective realization affects both the development of culture in our cities and the development of their residents, which means ourselves. As professor Dorota Ilczuk says in her study of the relationship between cultural policy and civil society [Ilczuk 2002] “Societies are truly cemented by cultural activities taking place at the local and regional level”. The awareness of this is very much visible in Europe. The Declaration of Brussels considers the lack of established cultural policy as the main obstacle hindering the development of the cultural sector. The European Committee also strongly emphasizes the role of cultural policies and considers the endorsement of an effective integrated cultural policy as a key ingredient of consolidating access to culture and creativity for all, for promoting cultural variety and supporting a sustained development of the cultural sector. The potential of the cultural sector in the development of people, societies, reducing poverty and enhancing economic growth can only be achieved in a structured environment, legally regulated, profitable and professional. And culture itself is defined as playing a fundamental role in the development of man and in a comprehensive structure of identity, and the customs of individuals and communities. 53
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Tab. 4. Other types of support:
Wrocław
Warszawa
Organizations can, with the aid of an appropriate organizational unit of the Warsaw Municipality, establish contacts with the representatives of organizations and institutions from the cities/ towns with which the city has signed cooperation agreements.
Kraków
The city can, within a local initiative, sign a contract with an organization for the realization of a public task and transfer to it, for the time of the contract and based on the contract, all things necessary to realize the contracted local initiative.
Range
12) providing access to the premises and equipment necessary to hold meetings of the organizations that realize public tasks for the city and its residents.
Yes No details available.
From the “Programme of cooperation with NGOs”: the preparation of partner projects according to Article 28a of the Act dated 6 December 2006 on the principles of implementing the developmental policy
1.Yes. No details available. 2. Possibility of renting properties belonging to the Municipality on a preferential basis, for the requirements of the tasks realized for the benefit of Warsaw residents.
11) providing help in the preparation of applications for the programmes whose realization requires cooperation of various parties.
Other instruments supporting the development of NGOs
Yes There is a procedure in place for applying for such rental agreements and the principles of application. No restrictions, the justification for the application is evaluated.
Yes
Possibility of renting premises from the Municipality’s own property resources, without the need to participate in a public tender
Yes
Promotion support
No
Promotion of NGO on the webpage of www.wroclaw.pl – Information on events, news, announcements, offers of voluntary work. Contact details are included.
Municipality’s/Mayor’s representatives for NGOs’ affairs.
The “Programme of cooperation with NGOs” specifies: the promotion of achievements and activities of NGOs conducted for the benefit of the city residents and providing information about the projects realized by NGOs. No tools are specified.
Yes, active as far as the training for all NGOs is concerned, not only cultural organizations. There are plans for creating an incubator for cultural organizations.
Initiating and co–organizing training raising quality of work of non–governmental organizations in the sphere of public tasks. No details available. No information. No information about the training sessions that have already taken place.
Yes, used to a limited extent. Additionally there are plans for a Cultural Incubator
Incubator for NGO
Yes, used to a limited extent. Lack of plans for creating incubators for cultural organizations.
Yes, used to a limited extent. Additionally there are plans for a Cultural Incubator
Incubator for NGO
Yes, used to a limited extent. Lack of plans for creating incubators for cultural organizations.
Initiating and co–organizing training raising quality of work of non–governmental organizations in the sphere of public tasks. No details available. No information. No information about the training sessions that have already taken place.
Yes, active as far as the training for all NGOs is concerned, not only cultural organizations. There are plans for creating an incubator for cultural organizations.
Promotion of NGO on the webpage of www.wroclaw.pl – Information on events, news, announcements, offers of voluntary work. Contact details are included.
Yes
The “Programme of cooperation with NGOs” specifies: the promotion of achievements and activities of NGOs conducted for the benefit of the city residents and providing information about the projects realized by NGOs. No tools are specified.
Yes
Promotion support
No
1.Yes. No details available. 2. Possibility of renting properties belonging to the Municipality on a preferential basis, for the requirements of the tasks realized for the benefit of Warsaw residents.
Municipality’s/Mayor’s representatives for NGOs’ affairs.
Yes There is a procedure in place for applying for such rental agreements and the principles of application. No restrictions, the justification for the application is evaluated.
Other instruments supporting the development of NGOs
Yes No details available.
11) providing help in the preparation of applications for the programmes whose realization requires cooperation of various parties.
Possibility of renting premises from the Municipality’s own property resources, without the need to participate in a public tender
From the “Programme of cooperation with NGOs”: the preparation of partner projects according to Article 28a of the Act dated 6 December 2006 on the principles of implementing the developmental policy
Warszawa
12) providing access to the premises and equipment necessary to hold meetings of the organizations that realize public tasks for the city and its residents.
Wrocław
The city can, within a local initiative, sign a contract with an organization for the realization of a public task and transfer to it, for the time of the contract and based on the contract, all things necessary to realize the contracted local initiative.
Kraków
Organizations can, with the aid of an appropriate organizational unit of the Warsaw Municipality, establish contacts with the representatives of organizations and institutions from the cities/ towns with which the city has signed cooperation agreements.
Range
Tab. 4. Other types of support: 90
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2003 on public utility companies and voluntary work]. Available online: www.dialogspoleczny.krakow.pl Program współpracy z organizacjami pozarządowymi na rok 2011 – Załącznik do UCHWAŁY NR XCIII/2731/2010 RADY MIASTA STOŁECZNEGO WARSZAWY z dnia 21 października 2010 r. w sprawie przyjęcia programu współpracy m.st. Warszawy w 2011 roku z organizacjami pozarządowymi i podmiotami, o których mowa w art. 3 ust. 3 ustawy z dnia 24 kwietnia 2003 r. o działalności pożytku publicznego i o wolontariacie Program współpracy z NGO [electronic document] [Programme of Cooperation with Non–governmental Organizations for 2001 – appendix to the Resolution No. XCIII/2731/2010 of the City Council of Warsaw Capital City, dated 21 October 2010 on the approval of the programme of cooperation between Warsaw Capital City with non–governmental organizations and other institutions mentioned in Art. 3, Paragraph 3 of the Act of parliament dated 24 April 2003 on public utility companies and voluntary work. Programme of cooperation with NGOs.] Available online: http://www.um.warszawa.pl Program Współpracy z Organizacjami Pozarządowymi na rok 2011 [electronic documents] [Programme of Cooperation with Non–governmental Organizations for 2011] Available online: http://www.wroclaw.pl Przestrzenie dla piękna – Aplikacja Wrocławia o tytuł Europejskiej Stolicy Kultury 2016 [Spaces for Beauty – Wrocław’s Application for the Title of European Capital of Culture 2016 (2010), Wrocław Rekomendacja nr 1509 Zgromadzenia Parlamentarnego Rady Europy, 1.07.1987r. [Recommendation No. 1509 of the Parliamentary Assembly] Available online: http://www.bip.krakow.pl Strategia rozwoju kultury w Krakowie na lata 2010 – 2014, – Załącznik do uchwały Nr CXIV/1524/10 Rady Miasta Krakowa z dnia 20 października 2010r. [electronic document] [Strategy for the Development of Culture in Kraków for 2010–2014, Appendix to the Resolution No. CXIV/1524/10 of the Kraków City Council dated 20 October 2010]. Available online: http://www.bip.krakow.pl Strategia Rozwoju Miasta Stołecznego Warszawy do roku 2020 [electronic document [Development Strategy for Warsaw Capital City] Available online: http://www.um.warszawa.pl, [1.06.2011]. Uzupełnienie Narodowej Strategii Rozwoju Kultury na lata 2004– 2020 [electronic document [Amendment to the National Strategy for the Development of Culture for 2004–2020]. Available online: http:// www.mk.gov.pl [15.06.2011].
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Andrews K. What Strategy Is? [in:] B. De Wit, R. Mryer, M. Huygens, Strategy Process, Content, Context, an International Perspective. West Publishing Company. New York 1994. Deklaracja Bremeńska przyjęta przez Stałą Konferencję Władz Lokalnych i Regionalnych Europy w dniu 27.05.1983r [The Bremen Declaration accepted by the Standing Conference of Local and Regional Authorities of Europe on 27.05.1983] Program Strengthening Capacities In the Cultural Sector [electronic document.] Available online: www. ec.europa.eu/culture Herbst J. Warszawski Sektor Pozarządowy [Warsaw Non–governmental Sector]. Stowarzyszenie Klon/ Jawor. Warszawa 2007. Ilczuk D. Polityka kulturalna w społeczeństwie obywatelskim [Cultural Policy in the Civil Society]. Narodowe Centrum Kultury& Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego. Kraków 2002. Narodowa Strategia Rozwoju Kultury na lata 2004– 2013 [electronic dokument; National Strategy for the Development of Culture for 2004–2013]. Available online: www.mkidn.gov.pl [15.06.2011] Orzechowski E. Dlaczego w Polsce nie jest możliwa sensowna polityka kulturalna? [Why isn’t it possible to have a reasonable cultural policy in Poland] [in:] Zarządzanie w kulturze [Management in Culture]. Vol. 5 ed. Ł. Gaweł, K. Plebańczyk, E. Orzechowski, K. Barańska. Kraków 2004. Pawłowski R. 2010. Jesteśmy w finale i co dalej? [electronic document; We are in the finals, so what comes next?] Avaiable online: http://www.gazeta. pl, Warszawa nr 250, [25.10.2010]. Polityka kulturalna państwa [The State Cultural Policy] Założenia, MKiS, Warszawa, 10 sierpnia 1993, cyt. za: Szulborska– Łukaszewicz J., (2009), Polityka kulturalna w Krakowie, Attyka, Kraków Program rozwoju kultury w Warszawie w latach 2009–2020 [electronic document] [Programme of the Development of Culture in Warsaw for 2009–2020]. Available online: http://www.um.warszawa.pl, [1.06.2011] Program współpracy Gminy Miejskiej Kraków z organizacjami pozarządowymi oraz podmiotami, o których mowa w art. 3 ust. 3 ustawy z dnia 24 April 2003 r. o działalności pożytku publicznego i wolontariacie (Dz. U. Nr 96, poz. 873 z późn. zm.), na rok 2011 [electronic document] [Programme of Cooperation of the Municipality of Kraków with non–governmental organizations and institutions mentioned in Art. 3, Paragraph 3 of the Act of Parliament dated 24 April
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2003 on public utility companies and voluntary work]. Available online: www.dialogspoleczny.krakow.pl Program współpracy z organizacjami pozarządowymi na rok 2011 – Załącznik do UCHWAŁY NR XCIII/2731/2010 RADY MIASTA STOŁECZNEGO WARSZAWY z dnia 21 października 2010 r. w sprawie przyjęcia programu współpracy m.st. Warszawy w 2011 roku z organizacjami pozarządowymi i podmiotami, o których mowa w art. 3 ust. 3 ustawy z dnia 24 kwietnia 2003 r. o działalności pożytku publicznego i o wolontariacie Program współpracy z NGO [electronic document] [Programme of Cooperation with Non–governmental Organizations for 2001 – appendix to the Resolution No. XCIII/2731/2010 of the City Council of Warsaw Capital City, dated 21 October 2010 on the approval of the programme of cooperation between Warsaw Capital City with non–governmental organizations and other institutions mentioned in Art. 3, Paragraph 3 of the Act of parliament dated 24 April 2003 on public utility companies and voluntary work. Programme of cooperation with NGOs.] Available online: http://www.um.warszawa.pl Program Współpracy z Organizacjami Pozarządowymi na rok 2011 [electronic documents] [Programme of Cooperation with Non–governmental Organizations for 2011] Available online: http://www.wroclaw.pl Przestrzenie dla piękna – Aplikacja Wrocławia o tytuł Europejskiej Stolicy Kultury 2016 [Spaces for Beauty – Wrocław’s Application for the Title of European Capital of Culture 2016 (2010), Wrocław Rekomendacja nr 1509 Zgromadzenia Parlamentarnego Rady Europy, 1.07.1987r. [Recommendation No. 1509 of the Parliamentary Assembly] Available online: http://www.bip.krakow.pl Strategia rozwoju kultury w Krakowie na lata 2010 – 2014, – Załącznik do uchwały Nr CXIV/1524/10 Rady Miasta Krakowa z dnia 20 października 2010r. [electronic document] [Strategy for the Development of Culture in Kraków for 2010–2014, Appendix to the Resolution No. CXIV/1524/10 of the Kraków City Council dated 20 October 2010]. Available online: http://www.bip.krakow.pl Strategia Rozwoju Miasta Stołecznego Warszawy do roku 2020 [electronic document [Development Strategy for Warsaw Capital City] Available online: http://www.um.warszawa.pl, [1.06.2011]. Uzupełnienie Narodowej Strategii Rozwoju Kultury na lata 2004– 2020 [electronic document [Amendment to the National Strategy for the Development of Culture for 2004–2020]. Available online: http:// www.mk.gov.pl [15.06.2011].
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Resolution No. CXI/1510/10 of the Kraków City Council dated 6 October 2010] Available online: http://www. dialogspoleczny.krakow.pl Wrocław w perspektywie 2020 plus [electronic document] [Wrocław in the perspective of 2020 plus]. Available online: http://www.wroclaw.pl.
Resolution No. CXI/1510/10 of the Kraków City Council dated 6 October 2010] Available online: http://www. dialogspoleczny.krakow.pl Wrocław w perspektywie 2020 plus [electronic document] [Wrocław in the perspective of 2020 plus]. Available online: http://www.wroclaw.pl. Culture Management 2011, Vol 4 (4)
Wieloletni Program Współpracy z Organizacjami Pozarządowymi, Kraków – Załącznik do uchwały Nr CXI/1510/10 Rady Miasta Krakowa z dnia 6. Października 2010r. [electronic document] [Long– term Programme of Cooperation with Non–governmental Organizations, Kraków – Appendix to the
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Wieloletni Program Współpracy z Organizacjami Pozarządowymi, Kraków – Załącznik do uchwały Nr CXI/1510/10 Rady Miasta Krakowa z dnia 6. Października 2010r. [electronic document] [Long– term Programme of Cooperation with Non–governmental Organizations, Kraków – Appendix to the
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Culture Management 2011, Vol 4 (4)
Public Broadcasting in Europe in the Digital Age (A review) Bogusław Nierenberg
H
erman Hesse wrote in Steppenwolf: ‘When you listen to the radio you are a witness of the everlasting war between the idea and appearance, between time and eternity, between the human and the divine.’ The monograph entitled Public Broadcasting in Europe in the Digital Age by Stanisław Jędrzejewski seems to be an exemplification of Hesse’s thought. Indeed radio broadcasting has a truly magical power. It does not invade our houses like television does; radio provides a kind of intimate conversation with the listeners, which is still very much needed, and is surely going to be needed in the future. Those who prophesied the end of radio with the emergence of television were obviously wrong, yet contemporary radio is facing some fundamental changes. Jędrzejewski’s book Public Broadcasting in Europe in the Digital Age discusses various issues around European radio broadcasting. Radio, just like other media, faces the transformation into digital transmission. The World DAB Forum endorsed the DAB+ standard a few years ago, which means that the number of digital channels with different formats, created mainly by public broadcasters, will have to be considerably increased. This also opens new possibilities for expanding the range of programmes on offer, with new multimedia receivers allowing for parallel reception. It is now estimated that approximately 40% of all internauts in Europe use the internet to listen to the radio. In the 1920s, when John Reith was busy creating the framework of contemporary public broadcasting, he was unlikely to have predicted that this very medium would be so influential in shaping European thought in the first half of the 20th century. It is also improbable that he imag-
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ined the dilemmas facing contemporary public radio broadcasting. Jędrzejewski discusses these phenomena at the beginning of his monograph, following which he focuses on the development of public broadcasting in European democratic society. He presents the relationship between democratic culture, political processes and the development of public radio broadcasting. His considerations of the issues relating to the formatting of public radio programming are also interesting, as are his thoughts on the future of public radio broadcasting, with possible scenarios for future developments discussed at the end. Stanisław Jędrzejewski thinks that European broadcasting, after the present day period of transformations, will remain strong. He also predicts that Polish Radio SA will still play an important social role, as an essential ingredient of democracy and cultural progress. All these deliberations are the work of a researcher who knows his field more than anyone else. It is worth mentioning here that Prof. Stanisław Jędrzejewski is the head of the only Polish Department of the Theory and Practice of Radio Communication at the Catholic University in Lublin; he is a member of the International Radio Research Network IREN and the vice-chairman of the Research Section of European Radio by the European Communication Research and Education Association (ECREA). He was also a member of the management board of Polish Radio, its programme director and the director of Polish Radio 1. In 2005, he became a member of the National Council for Radio and TV Broadcasting. For 12 years, he participated in the work of the Radio Committee of the European Broadcasting Union. It is therefore important to emphasize that the monograph reviewed here, written by such a dis-
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Bogusław Nierenberg professor of the Opole University. Research worker, journalist, economist. He is the head of the Culture Institute, Faculty of Management and Social Communication, Jagiellonian University and the professor of Journalism and Social Communication at the Opole University. he runs unique in Poland Department of Management and Media Economics, Faculty of Management and Social Communication, JU. He specializes in media and culture economics, media management, trade communication and publicity. He is the author of 7 monographs and dozens scientific articles regarding media, publicity, management and trade communication as well as journalism and journalism and journalistic genres. He is the author of the poem’s volume “Dychotomia uczuć”.
In the 1920s, when John Reith was busy creating the framework of contemporary public broadcasting, he was unlikely to have predicted that this very medium would be so influential in shaping European thought in the first half of the 20th century. It is also improbable that he imagJędrzejewski’s book Public Broadcasting in Europe in the Digital Age discusses various issues around European radio broadcasting. Radio, just like other media, faces the transformation into digital transmission. The World DAB Forum endorsed the DAB+ standard a few years ago, which means that the number of digital channels with different formats, created mainly by public broadcasters, will have to be considerably increased. This also opens new possibilities for expanding the range of programmes on offer, with new multimedia receivers allowing for parallel reception. It is now estimated that approximately 40% of all internauts in Europe use the internet to listen to the radio. erman Hesse wrote in Steppenwolf: ‘When you listen to the radio you are a witness of the everlasting war between the idea and appearance, between time and eternity, between the human and the divine.’ The monograph entitled Public Broadcasting in Europe in the Digital Age by Stanisław Jędrzejewski seems to be an exemplification of Hesse’s thought. Indeed radio broadcasting has a truly magical power. It does not invade our houses like television does; radio provides a kind of intimate conversation with the listeners, which is still very much needed, and is surely going to be needed in the future. Those who prophesied the end of radio with the emergence of television were obviously wrong, yet contemporary radio is facing some fundamental changes.
H
It is therefore important to emphasize that the monograph reviewed here, written by such a disAll these deliberations are the work of a researcher who knows his field more than anyone else. It is worth mentioning here that Prof. Stanisław Jędrzejewski is the head of the only Polish Department of the Theory and Practice of Radio Communication at the Catholic University in Lublin; he is a member of the International Radio Research Network IREN and the vice-chairman of the Research Section of European Radio by the European Communication Research and Education Association (ECREA). He was also a member of the management board of Polish Radio, its programme director and the director of Polish Radio 1. In 2005, he became a member of the National Council for Radio and TV Broadcasting. For 12 years, he participated in the work of the Radio Committee of the European Broadcasting Union. ined the dilemmas facing contemporary public radio broadcasting. Jędrzejewski discusses these phenomena at the beginning of his monograph, following which he focuses on the development of public broadcasting in European democratic society. He presents the relationship between democratic culture, political processes and the development of public radio broadcasting. His considerations of the issues relating to the formatting of public radio programming are also interesting, as are his thoughts on the future of public radio broadcasting, with possible scenarios for future developments discussed at the end. Stanisław Jędrzejewski thinks that European broadcasting, after the present day period of transformations, will remain strong. He also predicts that Polish Radio SA will still play an important social role, as an essential ingredient of democracy and cultural progress.
Bogusław Nierenberg
Public Broadcasting in Europe in the Digital Age (A review)
Bogusław Nierenberg professor of the Opole University. Research worker, journalist, economist. He is the head of the Culture Institute, Faculty of Management and Social Communication, Jagiellonian University and the professor of Journalism and Social Communication at the Opole University. he runs unique in Poland Department of Management and Media Economics, Faculty of Management and Social Communication, JU. He specializes in media and culture economics, media management, trade communication and publicity. He is the author of 7 monographs and dozens scientific articles regarding media, publicity, management and trade communication as well as journalism and journalism and journalistic genres. He is the author of the poem’s volume “Dychotomia uczuć”.
Culture Management 2011, Vol 4 (4) Culture Management 2011, Vol 4 (4)
It appears that the relevance of these considerations today, and the author’s particular position in the field have made Stanisław Jędrzejewski’s Public Broadcasting in Europe in the Digital Age one of the most significant academic contributions to broadcasting analysis in recent years, not only in Poland but also in Europe.
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tinguished broadcasting researcher, is not only the source of knowledge for other researchers but also an important contribution into the understanding of the processes affecting Polish and European broadcasting. This monograph has been written both for media practitioners and those leading the way; journalists and students of journalism, social communications and various related fields.
Editorial note: Stanisław Jędrzejewski. Radiofonia publiczna w Europie w erze cyfrowej. Universitas. Kraków 2010. p. 283.
Editorial note: Stanisław Jędrzejewski. Radiofonia publiczna w Europie w erze cyfrowej. Universitas. Kraków 2010. p. 283.
It appears that the relevance of these considerations today, and the author’s particular position in the field have made Stanisław Jędrzejewski’s Public Broadcasting in Europe in the Digital Age one of the most significant academic contributions to broadcasting analysis in recent years, not only in Poland but also in Europe.
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tinguished broadcasting researcher, is not only the source of knowledge for other researchers but also an important contribution into the understanding of the processes affecting Polish and European broadcasting. This monograph has been written both for media practitioners and those leading the way; journalists and students of journalism, social communications and various related fields.
kulturmanagement kulturmanagement
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Einführung Emil Orzechowski
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ie vierte Ausgabe unserer Fachzeitschrift, die mit einem so geprägten Profil immer noch die einzige in diesem Teil Europas ist, ist nicht so umfangreich wie ihre früheren Ausgaben. Darüber entschieden finanzielle Gründe. Aus gleichartigen Gründen überwiegen in der Nummer polnische Texte sowie Texte, deren Elemente an die polnische Problematik anknüpfen. Es bedeutet aber nicht, dass es die Redaktion vorhat, das Profil der Zeitschrift zu modifizieren – im Gegenteil. Indem wir polnische Probleme manchmal sehr detailliert vorstellen, möchten wir auf identische Erscheinungen in anderen Ländern unserer Region hinweisen; voraussichtlich wird es in zukünftigen Ausgaben wiederspiegelt. Ter Text von D. Ilczuk und M. Nowak verdient besondere Aufmerksamkeit. Aus der Perspektive europäischer Erfahrungen stellen seine Autorinnen eine Frage: „Worin liegt das Problem einer Reform von Kultusressort in Polen” und streben nach der Antwort. Zu neuen Themen gehört die Rolle von Medien im Kultursektor mit Berücksichtigung techno-
logischen Wandels wie z.B. Digitalisierung. Ein weiterer, neuer Aspekt ist das Kulturerbe und Management, was am Beispiel vom immateriellen Kulturerbe (Märchen und Legenden) veranschaulicht wird. Ein einzelner Text, der als Schmuck der Nummer dient, ist die Analyse der Kulturpolitik Kasachstans. Das signalisiert das dauernde Interesse an dieser Thematik, was wir schon am Beispiel von Weißrussland oder der Ukraine zeigten. Die Redaktion hofft darauf, dass die zukünftigen Ausgaben mehr diversifiziert sein werden. Es hängt aber nur und ausschließlich vom Kreis zusammenarbeitender Autoren ab, wie auch – zum Teil – von finanzieller Realität. Im Moment streben wir intensiv danach, unsere Zeitschrift in Verzeichnisse von etablierten akademischen Fachzeitschriften einzutragen; es muss aber dauern, denn die polnische Realität blockiert diese Bemühungen. Man muss nicht zugeben, dass die Redaktion auf Ihr Interesse an der Zeitschrift und auf die Zusammenarbeit mit Autoren rechnet.
ie vierte Ausgabe unserer Fachzeitschrift, die mit einem so geprägten Profil immer noch die einzige in diesem Teil Europas ist, ist nicht so umfangreich wie ihre früheren Ausgaben. Darüber entschieden finanzielle Gründe. Aus gleichartigen Gründen überwiegen in der Nummer polnische Texte sowie Texte, deren Elemente an die polnische Problematik anknüpfen. Es bedeutet aber nicht, dass es die Redaktion vorhat, das Profil der Zeitschrift zu modifizieren – im Gegenteil. Indem wir polnische Probleme manchmal sehr detailliert vorstellen, möchten wir auf identische Erscheinungen in anderen Ländern unserer Region hinweisen; voraussichtlich wird es in zukünftigen Ausgaben wiederspiegelt. Ter Text von D. Ilczuk und M. Nowak verdient besondere Aufmerksamkeit. Aus der Perspektive europäischer Erfahrungen stellen seine Autorinnen eine Frage: „Worin liegt das Problem einer Reform von Kultusressort in Polen” und streben nach der Antwort. Zu neuen Themen gehört die Rolle von Medien im Kultursektor mit Berücksichtigung techno-
D
Emil Orzechowski
Einführung Kulturmanagement 2011, Vol 4 (4)
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logischen Wandels wie z.B. Digitalisierung. Ein weiterer, neuer Aspekt ist das Kulturerbe und Management, was am Beispiel vom immateriellen Kulturerbe (Märchen und Legenden) veranschaulicht wird. Ein einzelner Text, der als Schmuck der Nummer dient, ist die Analyse der Kulturpolitik Kasachstans. Das signalisiert das dauernde Interesse an dieser Thematik, was wir schon am Beispiel von Weißrussland oder der Ukraine zeigten. Die Redaktion hofft darauf, dass die zukünftigen Ausgaben mehr diversifiziert sein werden. Es hängt aber nur und ausschließlich vom Kreis zusammenarbeitender Autoren ab, wie auch – zum Teil – von finanzieller Realität. Im Moment streben wir intensiv danach, unsere Zeitschrift in Verzeichnisse von etablierten akademischen Fachzeitschriften einzutragen; es muss aber dauern, denn die polnische Realität blockiert diese Bemühungen. Man muss nicht zugeben, dass die Redaktion auf Ihr Interesse an der Zeitschrift und auf die Zusammenarbeit mit Autoren rechnet.
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Eine Reform des Kultursektors in Polen. Worin liegt das Problem?1 Dorota Ilczuk, Małgorzata Nowak 1. Einführung
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as vorliegende Referat stellt eine Aufzeichnung der Überlegungen über die in Polen im Verlauf der vergangenen 20 Jahre unternommenen Versuche einer Reform der Organisation und Finanzierung der Kulturarbeit dar. Die Autorin stellt darin die Hypothese, dass mindestens drei einander ergänzende Hauptursachen (was nicht bedeutet, dass es die einzigen wären) für das Scheitern in diesem Bereich verantwortlich sind. Die erste Ursache ist das Fehlen einer theoretischen Begründung der Reform, die Vernachlässigung von Expertenwissen und die Konstruktion der Reform ohne Berücksichtigung der Besonderheiten des Kultursektors. Eine unmittelbar damit verbundene Frage ist das Versäumnis einer regelmäßigen und konsequenten Überwachung des Kultursektors auf Landesebene, welche die Grundlage für solides Expertenwissen liefern würde. Zwei weitere Ursachen haben den Charakter des sprichwörtlichen „Widerstands der Materie“. Dies sind: die Angst des Kulturumfelds vor der Implementierung neuer Lösungen und das Fehlen politischer Entschlossenheit zum Vollzug von Systemveränderungen. Dieser flüchtige Versuch der Betrachtung ausgewählter Maßnahmen, die im Laufe der zwanzig Jahre Demokratie in Polen unternommen wurden, erlaubt es uns nicht, diese Hypothesen definitiv zu verifizieren oder zu falsifizieren. Aber wir hoffen, dass sie wenigstens einen Einstieg bieten zum Nachdenken und uns vielleicht vor einer weiteren Reform bewahren, die wieder nicht umgesetzt werden kann.
2. Was ist gelungen und was läuft schlecht im Kultursektor nach 1989?
I
n der Kultur und im Kulturmanagement hat sich seit 1989 viel geändert. In den neunziger Jahren erzwang die Umstellung der Wirtschaft von der Plan- zur Marktwirtschaft einer Reihe adaptativer Maßnahmen seitens des Kultursektors. Dies waren häufig radikale Maßnahmen, die jedoch nicht auf strategischem Denken über die Entwicklung der Kultur beruhten, sondern auf allgemeinen Veränderungen, die jedoch nicht eben viele positive Effekte zeitigten. Derweil fand ein Bewusstseinswandel der Polen statt, die heute frei über die modernen Methoden des Kulturmanagements, der Partnerschaft der Wirtschaftssektoren, der wirtschaftlichen Bedeutung der Kultur etc. diskutieren. Und nicht nur diskutieren, denn sie sind in verschiedenen Bereichen des Kultursektors und der Kulturindustrien tätig, zeigen leidenschaftliches bürgerliches Engagement bei der Herausbildung des Dritten Sektors, der sich sehr aktiv an der Kultur beteiligt, schöpfen mit großem Geschick aus den europäischen Vorbildern, erschließen Finanzmittel aus unterschiedlichen Quellen, darunter der Europäischen Union, schließlich finden sie sich im Bereich der neuen Technologien zurecht. Fast alle Ebenen der Selbstverwaltungen haben sich als geschickte Sachwalter der Kultur erwiesen, mehr noch, über die die laufende Verwaltung öffentlicher Mittel hinaus spüren sie den Bedarf nach langfristiger Planung im Kulturbereich. Das bedeutet, dass sich die Polen an die neuen Marktgegebenheiten
1 Das Referat wurde auf der Internationalen Konferenz „Kulturökonomie – von der Theorie zur Praxis“ präsentiert, die vom AdamMickiewicz-Institut und dem Nationalen Kulturzentrum in Zusammenarbeit mit der Hochschule für Sozialpsychologie und der Stiftung Pro Cultura am 29. November 2010 in Warschau veranstaltet wurde.
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Dorota Ilczuk Ökonomie-Professorin an der Hochschule für Sozialpsychologie in Warszawa, habilitiert im Bereich Management in Geisteswissenschaften. Prof. Ilczuk ist die Mitbegründerin und Präsidentin der Pro Cultura Stiftung. 2001–2007 war sie die Präsidentin von CIRCLE, einem europäischen Netzwerk von Institutionen für Kulturforschung, -dokumentation und -information. Mitglied des Europäischen Kulturparlaments. Seit 2003 gehört sie zum Künstlerischen Rat Polnischer Theaterunion. Sie arbeitet mit ausländischen Einrichtungen und Wissenschaftsinstituten wie ERICArts, ACEI, ISTR zusammen. Sie nahm an über 100 wissenschaftlichen Konferenzen im In- und Ausland aktiv teil. Prof. Ilczuk leitet zahlreiche Forschungsprogramme. Die Autorin und Mitautorin von Publikationen und über 100 Gutachten und Artikeln im Bereich Kulturökonomie, -industrien, -politik, sowie Zivilgesellschaft und Non-Profit-Sektor.
1 Das Referat wurde auf der Internationalen Konferenz „Kulturökonomie – von der Theorie zur Praxis“ präsentiert, die vom AdamMickiewicz-Institut und dem Nationalen Kulturzentrum in Zusammenarbeit mit der Hochschule für Sozialpsychologie und der Stiftung Pro Cultura am 29. November 2010 in Warschau veranstaltet wurde.
as vorliegende Referat stellt eine Aufzeichnung der Überlegungen über die in Polen im Verlauf der vergangenen 20 Jahre unternommenen Versuche einer Reform der Organisation und Finanzierung der Kulturarbeit dar. Die Autorin stellt darin die Hypothese, dass mindestens drei einander ergänzende Hauptursachen (was nicht bedeutet, dass es die einzigen wären) für das Scheitern in diesem Bereich verantwortlich sind. Die erste Ursache ist das Fehlen einer theoretischen Begründung der Reform, die Vernachlässigung von Expertenwissen und die Konstruktion der Reform ohne Berücksichtigung der Besonderheiten des Kultursektors. Eine unmittelbar damit verbundene Frage ist das Versäumnis einer regelmäßigen und konsequenten Überwachung des Kultursektors auf Landesebene, welche die Grundlage für solides Expertenwissen liefern würde. Zwei weitere Ursachen haben den Charakter des sprichwörtlichen „Widerstands der Materie“. Dies sind: die Angst des Kulturumfelds vor der Implementierung neuer Lösungen und das Fehlen politischer Entschlossenheit zum Vollzug von Systemveränderungen. Dieser flüchtige Versuch der Betrachtung ausgewählter Maßnahmen, die im Laufe der zwanzig Jahre Demokratie in Polen unternommen wurden, erlaubt es uns nicht, diese Hypothesen definitiv zu verifizieren oder zu falsifizieren. Aber wir hoffen, dass sie wenigstens einen Einstieg bieten zum Nachdenken und uns vielleicht vor einer weiteren Reform bewahren, die wieder nicht umgesetzt werden kann.
D
1. Einführung
n der Kultur und im Kulturmanagement hat sich seit 1989 viel geändert. In den neunziger Jahren erzwang die Umstellung der Wirtschaft von der Plan- zur Marktwirtschaft einer Reihe adaptativer Maßnahmen seitens des Kultursektors. Dies waren häufig radikale Maßnahmen, die jedoch nicht auf strategischem Denken über die Entwicklung der Kultur beruhten, sondern auf allgemeinen Veränderungen, die jedoch nicht eben viele positive Effekte zeitigten. Derweil fand ein Bewusstseinswandel der Polen statt, die heute frei über die modernen Methoden des Kulturmanagements, der Partnerschaft der Wirtschaftssektoren, der wirtschaftlichen Bedeutung der Kultur etc. diskutieren. Und nicht nur diskutieren, denn sie sind in verschiedenen Bereichen des Kultursektors und der Kulturindustrien tätig, zeigen leidenschaftliches bürgerliches Engagement bei der Herausbildung des Dritten Sektors, der sich sehr aktiv an der Kultur beteiligt, schöpfen mit großem Geschick aus den europäischen Vorbildern, erschließen Finanzmittel aus unterschiedlichen Quellen, darunter der Europäischen Union, schließlich finden sie sich im Bereich der neuen Technologien zurecht. Fast alle Ebenen der Selbstverwaltungen haben sich als geschickte Sachwalter der Kultur erwiesen, mehr noch, über die die laufende Verwaltung öffentlicher Mittel hinaus spüren sie den Bedarf nach langfristiger Planung im Kulturbereich. Das bedeutet, dass sich die Polen an die neuen Marktgegebenheiten
I
2. Was ist gelungen und was läuft schlecht im Kultursektor nach 1989?
Dorota Ilczuk, Małgorzata Nowak
Eine Reform des Kultursektors in Polen. Worin liegt das Problem?1
Dorota Ilczuk Ökonomie-Professorin an der Hochschule für Sozialpsychologie in Warszawa, habilitiert im Bereich Management in Geisteswissenschaften. Prof. Ilczuk ist die Mitbegründerin und Präsidentin der Pro Cultura Stiftung. 2001–2007 war sie die Präsidentin von CIRCLE, einem europäischen Netzwerk von Institutionen für Kulturforschung, -dokumentation und -information. Mitglied des Europäischen Kulturparlaments. Seit 2003 gehört sie zum Künstlerischen Rat Polnischer Theaterunion. Sie arbeitet mit ausländischen Einrichtungen und Wissenschaftsinstituten wie ERICArts, ACEI, ISTR zusammen. Sie nahm an über 100 wissenschaftlichen Konferenzen im In- und Ausland aktiv teil. Prof. Ilczuk leitet zahlreiche Forschungsprogramme. Die Autorin und Mitautorin von Publikationen und über 100 Gutachten und Artikeln im Bereich Kulturökonomie, -industrien, -politik, sowie Zivilgesellschaft und Non-Profit-Sektor.
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Małgorzata Nowak Kulturwissenschaftlerin, Absolventin der Hochschule für Sozialpsychologie in Warszawa. Seit Juli 2006 kooperiert sie mit Pro Cultura Stiftung, wo sie zur Zeit als Direktorin arbeitet. Sie nahm an zahlreichen Projekten der Stiftung teil, z.B. sie koordinierte das Projekt „Der Europäische Interkulturelle Campus” und redigierte eine Publikation zum interkulturellen Dialog Jak się pięknie różnić i porozumiewać? Dialog międzykulturowy we współczesnej metropolii mit. 2010 war sie zuständig für die Bewerbung der Stadt Warszawa zur Europäischen Kulturhauptstadt 2016, die die Pro Cultura Stiftung im Auftrag vom Stadtamt vorbereitete. Sie ist die Mitautorin des polnischen Profils auf einer Europarat- und ERICarts- Internetseite, die der Kulturpolitik in Europa gewidmet ist (www.culturalpolicies. net). Seit 2010 lehrt sie Kulturmanagement in Städten im Rahmen der Fachrichtung Kulturwissenschaften an der Hochschule für Sozialpsychologie in Warszawa.
2 Die Angaben stammen aus dem Bericht des Statistischen Hauptamts (GUS) Kultura 2008.
die Ausgaben aus dem Staatshaushalt betrugen 21,17% der gesamten öffentlichen Ausgaben und 0,53% des Gesamthaushalts2): MM die mangelhaft durchgeführte, die Besonderheiten des Sektors nicht berücksichtigende Dezentralisierung der öffentlichen Aufgaben im Kulturbereich; MM die Prinzipien der Organisation und Finanzierung von Kulturinstitutionen, die eine Mischung aus Lösungen, wie sie in kommerziellen Organisationen und Einheiten der haushaltsfernen Wirtschaft angewandt werden, darstellen, und eindeutig nicht der Eigenart der Institutionen entsprechen; MM die Finanzierung der Kultur auf der Grundlage der Festsetzung von Jahreshaushalten; MM die Möglichkeit der Nutzung von Finanzinstrumenten zur inhaltlichen Einflussnahme auf die Tätigkeit von Kulturistitutionen; MM die ungleiche Behandlung verschiedener Wirtschaftssubjekte im Prozess der Verteilung öffentlicher Mittel für Zielaufgaben; Bevorzugung von Institutionen auf Kosten von Projekten; MM Versäumnisse im Bereich der Kulturerziehung; MM der schlechte Zustand der Kulturfinanzen und der Entwicklung der Kulturindustrien; Eines gesonderten Kommentars bedarf das an letzter Stelle aufgeführte Fehlen einer systematischen Datenerhebung zum Zustand des Kultursektors. Die für Experten offensichtliche Tatsache, dass solche Informationen effizienteres Handeln ermöglichen, Reaktion auf Bedrohungen oder die Schaffung realer Entwicklungsvisionen, wird nach wie vor den für die Gestaltung der Kulturpolitik auf lokaler und staatlicher Ebene nicht ausreichend wahrgenommen. Dies ist sicherlich erstaunlich angesichts der zahlreichen Beispiele der Arbeit ausländischer Observatorien, Laboratorien und anderer Einrichtungen, die sich mit der Überwachung des Kultursektors beschäftigen, wie etwa das deutsche Institut ERICarts, die katalonische Stiftung Interarts, das Centre for Cultural Policy Research in Glasgow, die österreichische Kulturdokumentation oder das französische Observatoire des Politiques Culturelles. Diese Einrichtungen beschäftigen sich mit verschiedenen Sektoren der Kultur und unterscheiden sich durch ihre Rechtsund Organisationsform. Ihre Hauptaufgabe ist jedoch immer die Sammlung und Analyse von Daten, die es ermöglichen, auf Veränderungspro-
die Ausgaben aus dem Staatshaushalt betrugen 21,17% der gesamten öffentlichen Ausgaben und 0,53% des Gesamthaushalts2): MM die mangelhaft durchgeführte, die Besonderheiten des Sektors nicht berücksichtigende Dezentralisierung der öffentlichen Aufgaben im Kulturbereich; MM die Prinzipien der Organisation und Finanzierung von Kulturinstitutionen, die eine Mischung aus Lösungen, wie sie in kommerziellen Organisationen und Einheiten der haushaltsfernen Wirtschaft angewandt werden, darstellen, und eindeutig nicht der Eigenart der Institutionen entsprechen; MM die Finanzierung der Kultur auf der Grundlage der Festsetzung von Jahreshaushalten; MM die Möglichkeit der Nutzung von Finanzinstrumenten zur inhaltlichen Einflussnahme auf die Tätigkeit von Kulturistitutionen; MM die ungleiche Behandlung verschiedener Wirtschaftssubjekte im Prozess der Verteilung öffentlicher Mittel für Zielaufgaben; Bevorzugung von Institutionen auf Kosten von Projekten; MM Versäumnisse im Bereich der Kulturerziehung; MM der schlechte Zustand der Kulturfinanzen und der Entwicklung der Kulturindustrien; Eines gesonderten Kommentars bedarf das an letzter Stelle aufgeführte Fehlen einer systematischen Datenerhebung zum Zustand des Kultursektors. Die für Experten offensichtliche Tatsache, dass solche Informationen effizienteres Handeln ermöglichen, Reaktion auf Bedrohungen oder die Schaffung realer Entwicklungsvisionen, wird nach wie vor den für die Gestaltung der Kulturpolitik auf lokaler und staatlicher Ebene nicht ausreichend wahrgenommen. Dies ist sicherlich erstaunlich angesichts der zahlreichen Beispiele der Arbeit ausländischer Observatorien, Laboratorien und anderer Einrichtungen, die sich mit der Überwachung des Kultursektors beschäftigen, wie etwa das deutsche Institut ERICarts, die katalonische Stiftung Interarts, das Centre for Cultural Policy Research in Glasgow, die österreichische Kulturdokumentation oder das französische Observatoire des Politiques Culturelles. Diese Einrichtungen beschäftigen sich mit verschiedenen Sektoren der Kultur und unterscheiden sich durch ihre Rechtsund Organisationsform. Ihre Hauptaufgabe ist jedoch immer die Sammlung und Analyse von Daten, die es ermöglichen, auf Veränderungspro-
angepasst haben, dass sie sich als Bürger Europas verstehen, den Herausforderungen der Globalisierung und sogar der Finanz- und Wirtschaftskrise die Stirn bieten. Zusammenfassend lässt sich sagen, dass diejenigen, die im Kulturbereich tätig sind – Künstler, Animateure, Manager – sich an die neuen politischen, ökonomischen und administrativen Bedingungen in Polen und die neuen Herausforderungen der Welt angepasst haben. Lässt sich da noch mehr erwarten? Nun, das kann man immer, aber mit Sicherheit verspüren wir im Kontext dieser Veränderung eine starke Befriedigung. Währenddessen fehlt es aus der Sicht des Jahres 2010 an systemhaften Veränderungen, die einer eigenständigen, konsequent auf die neue Rechtsordnung gestützten Kulturpolitik entsprechen würden. Die Kultur ist der einzige noch nicht reformierte Wirtschaftssektor in Polen. Die Welle der ein europäisches Land nach dem anderen durchlaufenden Veränderungen hat uns umgangen, nach denen der Staat zwar nicht seine Verantwortlichkeit für den Kulturbereich aufgibt, aber seine Kompetenzen im Sinne einer Effizienzsteigerung der subsidierten Kulturarbeit und der Erzielung höherer Qualität modifiziert. In Westeuropa herrschen zwei neue Tendenzen der Organisation und Finanzierung der Kultur vor. Die eine beruht im Kulturmanagement auf der Einbeziehung vermittelnder Körperschaften (Agenturen, Stiftungen, Räte) , die als Quasi-Nichtregierungsorganisationen auftreten, sich mit der Verteilung öffentlicher Mittel für die Kulturarbeit beschäftigen und zugleich eine Beratungsrolle gegenüber dem Kulturministerium einnehmen. Die andere geht von einer Veränderung der Art und Weise des Managements öffentlicher (subsidierter) Kulturinstitutionen aus. Dieser neue Ansatz kann als eine Art Entfernung der Institutionen vom Staat beschrieben werden, in dem Sinne, dass ihnen eine größere Autonomie verliehen wird. Dies wird häufig als Deetatisierung der Kulturinstitutionen bezeichnet. Zu den größten Schwächen des geltenden Systems der Organisation und Finanzierung der Kultur gehören neben den im Vergleich zu anderen hochentwickelten Ländern Europas vergleichsweise niedrigen Aufwendungen öffentlicher Mittel (im Jahr 2008 betrugen die öffentlichen Ausgaben per capita für die Kultur 180,88 Złoty, also 0,58% BIP;
angepasst haben, dass sie sich als Bürger Europas verstehen, den Herausforderungen der Globalisierung und sogar der Finanz- und Wirtschaftskrise die Stirn bieten. Zusammenfassend lässt sich sagen, dass diejenigen, die im Kulturbereich tätig sind – Künstler, Animateure, Manager – sich an die neuen politischen, ökonomischen und administrativen Bedingungen in Polen und die neuen Herausforderungen der Welt angepasst haben. Lässt sich da noch mehr erwarten? Nun, das kann man immer, aber mit Sicherheit verspüren wir im Kontext dieser Veränderung eine starke Befriedigung. Währenddessen fehlt es aus der Sicht des Jahres 2010 an systemhaften Veränderungen, die einer eigenständigen, konsequent auf die neue Rechtsordnung gestützten Kulturpolitik entsprechen würden. Die Kultur ist der einzige noch nicht reformierte Wirtschaftssektor in Polen. Die Welle der ein europäisches Land nach dem anderen durchlaufenden Veränderungen hat uns umgangen, nach denen der Staat zwar nicht seine Verantwortlichkeit für den Kulturbereich aufgibt, aber seine Kompetenzen im Sinne einer Effizienzsteigerung der subsidierten Kulturarbeit und der Erzielung höherer Qualität modifiziert. In Westeuropa herrschen zwei neue Tendenzen der Organisation und Finanzierung der Kultur vor. Die eine beruht im Kulturmanagement auf der Einbeziehung vermittelnder Körperschaften (Agenturen, Stiftungen, Räte) , die als Quasi-Nichtregierungsorganisationen auftreten, sich mit der Verteilung öffentlicher Mittel für die Kulturarbeit beschäftigen und zugleich eine Beratungsrolle gegenüber dem Kulturministerium einnehmen. Die andere geht von einer Veränderung der Art und Weise des Managements öffentlicher (subsidierter) Kulturinstitutionen aus. Dieser neue Ansatz kann als eine Art Entfernung der Institutionen vom Staat beschrieben werden, in dem Sinne, dass ihnen eine größere Autonomie verliehen wird. Dies wird häufig als Deetatisierung der Kulturinstitutionen bezeichnet. Zu den größten Schwächen des geltenden Systems der Organisation und Finanzierung der Kultur gehören neben den im Vergleich zu anderen hochentwickelten Ländern Europas vergleichsweise niedrigen Aufwendungen öffentlicher Mittel (im Jahr 2008 betrugen die öffentlichen Ausgaben per capita für die Kultur 180,88 Złoty, also 0,58% BIP;
2 Die Angaben stammen aus dem Bericht des Statistischen Hauptamts (GUS) Kultura 2008.
Małgorzata Nowak Kulturwissenschaftlerin, Absolventin der Hochschule für Sozialpsychologie in Warszawa. Seit Juli 2006 kooperiert sie mit Pro Cultura Stiftung, wo sie zur Zeit als Direktorin arbeitet. Sie nahm an zahlreichen Projekten der Stiftung teil, z.B. sie koordinierte das Projekt „Der Europäische Interkulturelle Campus” und redigierte eine Publikation zum interkulturellen Dialog Jak się pięknie różnić i porozumiewać? Dialog międzykulturowy we współczesnej metropolii mit. 2010 war sie zuständig für die Bewerbung der Stadt Warszawa zur Europäischen Kulturhauptstadt 2016, die die Pro Cultura Stiftung im Auftrag vom Stadtamt vorbereitete. Sie ist die Mitautorin des polnischen Profils auf einer Europarat- und ERICarts- Internetseite, die der Kulturpolitik in Europa gewidmet ist (www.culturalpolicies. net). Seit 2010 lehrt sie Kulturmanagement in Städten im Rahmen der Fachrichtung Kulturwissenschaften an der Hochschule für Sozialpsychologie in Warszawa.
Kulturmanagement 2011, Vol 4 (4)
zesse zu reagieren und neue Lösungsvorschläge zu formulieren. Wir können auch einen Versuch der Konsolidierung der Überwachungseinrichtungen bemerken. Ein Beispiel dafür sind das von der UNESCO geschaffene internationale Kulturnetz CultureLink oder das Projekt CultureWatchEurope des Europarats, das Portale vernetzt, die Vergleichsinformationen aus um die 40 Ländern Europas in drei Bereichen liefern: Kulturpolitik, Kulturerbe und audiovisueller Sektor. In Polen hingegen „klappt“ das nicht so recht. Dabei ist der Begriff des „Kulturobservatoriums“ weder uns noch den Organisatoren des Kulturlebens fremd. Die ersten Versuche einer solchen Einrichtungen lassen sich auf das Jahr 1999 datieren, als das Kulturinstitut die Einrichtung eines Observatoriums des Kulturlebens in Polen3 vorschlug. Einen gewissen Anlass zur Hoffnung geben solche Initiativen wie das Observatorium der Lebendigen Kultur, das gemeinsam vom Kulturobservatorium des Nationalen Kulturzentrums, der Forschungsgruppe Methoden der Kulturforschung des Instituts für angewandte Sozialwissenschaften der Universität Warschau und es Vereins Klon/Jawor betrieben wird. Dabei handelt es sich aber um ein so junges Projekt, dass es unmöglich erscheint, schon jetzt seine Effizienz zu evaluieren. Ähnlich sieht es mit den vor unseren Augen aus dem Boden schießenden Regionalobservatorien aus. Ansonsten mangelt es aber an Systematik und Systemhaftigkeit, wie etwa in den Berichten über den Zustand der Kultur, die für den Kulturkongress 2009 erarbeitet wurden. Ihr Vorzug ist jedoch, trotz des sehr unterschiedlichen Grads der Detailliertheit, die Tatsache, dass sie von Experten erstellt wurden. Zu bedauern ist jedoch, dass diese Berichte eine einmalige Angelegenheit waren, die nur für den Kulturkongress gedacht war. Eine Fortsetzung und regelmäßige Aktualisierung, die es ermöglichen würde, die sich vollziehenden Veränderungen zu beobachten, ist jedoch nicht vorgesehen. Damit unser Referat nicht nur pessimistisch wirkt, möchten wir betonen, dass in letzter Zeit, vor allem durch die Bemühungen der Veranstalter dieser Konferenz, viele verschiedene Initiativen
auftauchen, die eine Einbeziehung von Überlegungen zum wirtschaftlichen Aspekt der Kultur in den öffentlichen Diskurs bezwecken. Initiativen wie die Kampagne des nationalen Kulturinstituts Kultur zählt!, die in ihrem Rahmen geführten Debatten, angefertigten Berichte und durchgeführten Forschungsberichte4 sind wichtig und machen Hoffnung auf eine Veränderung der Wahrnehmung von Kultur. Wir beobachten dies mit Interesse und hoffen, dass Kultur zählt! konsequent, systematisch und qualitätsorientiert umgesetzt wird. Wir möchten hier auch die Bedeutung der in weitem Sinne verstandenen Kultur (zusammen mit ihren Industrien) als Quelle der Kreativität und wesentlicher Wirtschaftssektor hervorheben. Ungemein wichtig ist, dass ein solcher Ansatz über theoretische Überlegungen hinausweist und seine Anwendung in der Praxis findet – sowohl der künstlerischen Arbeit als auch der alltäglichen Verfolgung der staatlichen Kulturpolitik. 3. Diagnosen und Reformversuche Das Fehlen systemhafter Veränderungen unter Einbeziehung der Besonderheit der Kultur, Überwachung und Evaluierung ist leider keine neue Feststellung. Die vergangene Dekade verlief unter ständigen Wiederholung, dass man sich nicht ins Unendliche mit mehr oder weniger kosmetischen Veränderungen, Modifizierungen des aus den Zeiten der Planwirtschaft ererbten Systems zufrieden geben darf, ihrer Anpassung an die Markterfordernisse, das Verwaltungssystems oder die Möglichkeit der Erschließung von EU-Mitteln. Das hat sich leider nach wie vor kaum geändert. Um nicht haltlose Behauptungen im Raum stehen zu lassen, weisen wir auf Arbeiten hin, die in der Kulturforschung als schlüsselhaft gelten: „Ein Entwurf für eine Systemreform öffentlichen Kulturistitutionen in Polen“ von Jacek Purchla und Andrzej Rottermund (1999) oder „Finanzierung und Organisation der Kulturarbeit in der Marktwirtschaft“ von Dorota Ilczuk und Wojciech Misiąg (2003). letztere enthält auch den niemals implementierten Entwurf für ein Gesetz über die Kulturarbeit von Wojciech Misiąg aus dem Jahr 2000.
3 Das Observatorium des Kulturlebens in Polen ist ein Projekt, dass von einer Arbeitsgruppe unter der Leitung von Prof. Andrzej Siciński und Dr. Zina Jarmoszuk 1999 am Kulturinstitut erarbeitet wurde. Es wurde niemals umgesetzt. 4 Der vom Institut für Strukturstudien im Auftrag des Kulturobservatoriums des Nationalen Kulturzentrums erstellte Bericht Die wirtschaftliche Bedeutung des Kultursektors. Einführung in eine Analyse des Problems ist der erste so umfangreiche und eingehende Versuch der Erfassung des wirtschaftlichen Werts des polnischen Kultursektors und seiner Industrien seit Jahren.
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4 Der vom Institut für Strukturstudien im Auftrag des Kulturobservatoriums des Nationalen Kulturzentrums erstellte Bericht Die wirtschaftliche Bedeutung des Kultursektors. Einführung in eine Analyse des Problems ist der erste so umfangreiche und eingehende Versuch der Erfassung des wirtschaftlichen Werts des polnischen Kultursektors und seiner Industrien seit Jahren. 3 Das Observatorium des Kulturlebens in Polen ist ein Projekt, dass von einer Arbeitsgruppe unter der Leitung von Prof. Andrzej Siciński und Dr. Zina Jarmoszuk 1999 am Kulturinstitut erarbeitet wurde. Es wurde niemals umgesetzt.
zesse zu reagieren und neue Lösungsvorschläge zu formulieren. Wir können auch einen Versuch der Konsolidierung der Überwachungseinrichtungen bemerken. Ein Beispiel dafür sind das von der UNESCO geschaffene internationale Kulturnetz CultureLink oder das Projekt CultureWatchEurope des Europarats, das Portale vernetzt, die Vergleichsinformationen aus um die 40 Ländern Europas in drei Bereichen liefern: Kulturpolitik, Kulturerbe und audiovisueller Sektor. In Polen hingegen „klappt“ das nicht so recht. Dabei ist der Begriff des „Kulturobservatoriums“ weder uns noch den Organisatoren des Kulturlebens fremd. Die ersten Versuche einer solchen Einrichtungen lassen sich auf das Jahr 1999 datieren, als das Kulturinstitut die Einrichtung eines Observatoriums des Kulturlebens in Polen3 vorschlug. Einen gewissen Anlass zur Hoffnung geben solche Initiativen wie das Observatorium der Lebendigen Kultur, das gemeinsam vom Kulturobservatorium des Nationalen Kulturzentrums, der Forschungsgruppe Methoden der Kulturforschung des Instituts für angewandte Sozialwissenschaften der Universität Warschau und es Vereins Klon/Jawor betrieben wird. Dabei handelt es sich aber um ein so junges Projekt, dass es unmöglich erscheint, schon jetzt seine Effizienz zu evaluieren. Ähnlich sieht es mit den vor unseren Augen aus dem Boden schießenden Regionalobservatorien aus. Ansonsten mangelt es aber an Systematik und Systemhaftigkeit, wie etwa in den Berichten über den Zustand der Kultur, die für den Kulturkongress 2009 erarbeitet wurden. Ihr Vorzug ist jedoch, trotz des sehr unterschiedlichen Grads der Detailliertheit, die Tatsache, dass sie von Experten erstellt wurden. Zu bedauern ist jedoch, dass diese Berichte eine einmalige Angelegenheit waren, die nur für den Kulturkongress gedacht war. Eine Fortsetzung und regelmäßige Aktualisierung, die es ermöglichen würde, die sich vollziehenden Veränderungen zu beobachten, ist jedoch nicht vorgesehen. Damit unser Referat nicht nur pessimistisch wirkt, möchten wir betonen, dass in letzter Zeit, vor allem durch die Bemühungen der Veranstalter dieser Konferenz, viele verschiedene Initiativen
3. Diagnosen und Reformversuche Das Fehlen systemhafter Veränderungen unter Einbeziehung der Besonderheit der Kultur, Überwachung und Evaluierung ist leider keine neue Feststellung. Die vergangene Dekade verlief unter ständigen Wiederholung, dass man sich nicht ins Unendliche mit mehr oder weniger kosmetischen Veränderungen, Modifizierungen des aus den Zeiten der Planwirtschaft ererbten Systems zufrieden geben darf, ihrer Anpassung an die Markterfordernisse, das Verwaltungssystems oder die Möglichkeit der Erschließung von EU-Mitteln. Das hat sich leider nach wie vor kaum geändert. Um nicht haltlose Behauptungen im Raum stehen zu lassen, weisen wir auf Arbeiten hin, die in der Kulturforschung als schlüsselhaft gelten: „Ein Entwurf für eine Systemreform öffentlichen Kulturistitutionen in Polen“ von Jacek Purchla und Andrzej Rottermund (1999) oder „Finanzierung und Organisation der Kulturarbeit in der Marktwirtschaft“ von Dorota Ilczuk und Wojciech Misiąg (2003). letztere enthält auch den niemals implementierten Entwurf für ein Gesetz über die Kulturarbeit von Wojciech Misiąg aus dem Jahr 2000. auftauchen, die eine Einbeziehung von Überlegungen zum wirtschaftlichen Aspekt der Kultur in den öffentlichen Diskurs bezwecken. Initiativen wie die Kampagne des nationalen Kulturinstituts Kultur zählt!, die in ihrem Rahmen geführten Debatten, angefertigten Berichte und durchgeführten Forschungsberichte4 sind wichtig und machen Hoffnung auf eine Veränderung der Wahrnehmung von Kultur. Wir beobachten dies mit Interesse und hoffen, dass Kultur zählt! konsequent, systematisch und qualitätsorientiert umgesetzt wird. Wir möchten hier auch die Bedeutung der in weitem Sinne verstandenen Kultur (zusammen mit ihren Industrien) als Quelle der Kreativität und wesentlicher Wirtschaftssektor hervorheben. Ungemein wichtig ist, dass ein solcher Ansatz über theoretische Überlegungen hinausweist und seine Anwendung in der Praxis findet – sowohl der künstlerischen Arbeit als auch der alltäglichen Verfolgung der staatlichen Kulturpolitik.
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Celiński versuchte, eine grundlegende Reform des Systems der Finanzierung und Organisation des Kultursektors durchzuführen. Die damals angefertigten Expertengutachten gingen von weit reichenden Veränderungen in der Form der Finanzierung der Kulturarbeit und des Kulturmanagements aus, der Rolle und der Aufgabe der Regierung in diesem Bereich, sowie der Schaffung von Bedingungen, die den Privatsektor zur Finanzierung der Kultur ermuntern sollen. Jedoch wurden diese Vorschläge nebst anderer, die legislative Änderungen im Bereich der Organisation der Kulturarbeit und der öffentlichen Förderung des Filmschaffens betrafen, nach dem vorzeitigen Rücktritt des Ministers zu den Akten gelegt. Ein maßgeblicher Effekt dieser „Revolution“ ist die Einbeziehung Polens in den Kreis der Länder, welche die Einnahmen aus der staatlichen Lotterie für Kulturbelange bestimmen. Die Möglichkeit der Gewinnung von Zuschüssen in Höhe von 5% auf den Preis der Sporttotoscheine stellt eine geringfügige, aber beständige Finanzspritze für die Kultur dar. Und der zweite Versuch: der Vorschlag des Teams von Jerzy Hausner, der auf dem Kulturkongress 2009 vorgestellt wurde und bezüglich der Hauptrichtungen der vorgeschlagenen Veränderungen mit den vorherigen Reformvorschlägen übereinstimmte, wobei er sich in den Einzelheiten natürlich von jenen unterschied. Viele der vorgesehenen Bestimmungen weckten jedoch Kontroversen, was zu einer stürmischen Debatte über diesen Reformvorsachlag führte. Warum? Vor allem sollte die Reform zu größerer Effizienz der der Arbeit der Kulturinstitutionen führen. Dagegen beinhaltet sie keine Ankündigungen von Hilfeleistungen bei der Umstrukturierung und auch keine konkreten Vorschläge für die Umstrukturierungen selbst. Dafür gab es den Ansatz, von einer Subjektförderung zu einer Objektförderung überzugehen, der unzureichende eingeführt sogar zu einem Zusammenbruch der schwächeren Kulturinstitutionen führen könnte. Einwände weckt auch die Tatsache, dass dieser Plan abgehoben von positiv verifizierten europäischen Praktiken erstellt wurde. Man mag die Pionierleistung würdigen, aber in diesem Fall wäre das Risiko einer Implementierung zu hoch gewesen. Zudem waren viele Bestimmungen unklar oder unpräzise, was Raum gab für unter-
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In der ersten Jahreshälfte 2004 nahm die Gruppe Kultur und Business des Polnischen Arbeitgeberbundes die Arbeiten an einem Gesellschaftlichen Entwurf eines Gesetzes über die Kulturarbeit auf. Die Mitglieder der Gruppe Kultur und Business beriefen eine Arbeitsgruppe, an deren Spitze Prof. Andrzej Rottermund stand. Außerdem gehörten dem Team an: Maciej Englert, Dorota Ilczuk, Janusz Pietkiewicz und Jacek Weksler. Die von dieser Gruppe erarbeiteten Thesen eines Entwurfs für eine Reform der Kulturarbeit blieben, wie die vorangegangenen Versuche auch, im luftleeren Raum stecken. Der Kulturkongress 2009 bestätigte dies erneut. Aus den Kreisen der Kultursachaffenden ertönten die Forderungen nach weitreichenden Veränderungen, wie etwa in der Analyse des Zbigniew-Raszewski-Theaterinstituts „Drei Schritte zu Verbesserungen in der polnischen Kultur“5. Die Autoren des erwähnten Texts postulieren die Anerkennung des künstlerischen Schaffens als Priorität der Kulturpolitik des Staates, die Flexibilisierung, Dynamisierung und richtige Einschätzung der Arbeit der Kulturinstitutionen sowie die Einführung neuer Finanzmechanismen (zum Beispiel Mechanismen außerhalb des Haushalts), die eine Diversifizierung der Finanzierungsquellen für die Tätigkeit von Kulturinstitutionen ermöglichen. Wenn also schon zu beginn des Jahrzehnts das Bewusstsein für den bedarf an einer modernen Verfassung des Kultursektors klar bezeichnet und veröffentlicht war, dann lohnt es sich darüber nachzudenken, ob 10 Jahre für die Umsetzung viel oder wenig sind und ob die Reformen gelungen sind. Vielleicht sind wir ja nach der schnell vollzogenen Systemtransformation der neunziger Jahre einfach zu ungeduldig. Vielleicht ist die Zeit zum Nachdenken gekommen, zur Schaffung einer Expertenbasis, die die Entwicklungslinien für die Organisation der Kulturarbeit in Polen und die Gestaltung des Profils einer eigenständigen Kulturpolitik schaffen könnte. Vielleicht. Eine solche Erklärung wäre sicherlich vernünftig, wären da nicht Beispiele für konkrete Maßnahmen im Verlauf der letzten 10 Jahre, die trotz der großen Mobilisierung nicht umgesetzt wurden. Wir möchten an dieser Stelle zwei solche Beispiele anführen. Kehren wir im Gedächtnis zurück ins Jahr 2002, als der damalige Kulturminister Andrzej
5 Der Text wurde erarbeitet von einer Arbeitsgruppe in der Besetzung: Eliza Durka, Dorota Mieszek, Hanna Trzeciak, Maciej Nowak, Paweł Płoski, Michał Wojtuś in Zusammenarbeit mit Klaudia Madziar, Warszawa 2009.
5 Der Text wurde erarbeitet von einer Arbeitsgruppe in der Besetzung: Eliza Durka, Dorota Mieszek, Hanna Trzeciak, Maciej Nowak, Paweł Płoski, Michał Wojtuś in Zusammenarbeit mit Klaudia Madziar, Warszawa 2009.
Celiński versuchte, eine grundlegende Reform des Systems der Finanzierung und Organisation des Kultursektors durchzuführen. Die damals angefertigten Expertengutachten gingen von weit reichenden Veränderungen in der Form der Finanzierung der Kulturarbeit und des Kulturmanagements aus, der Rolle und der Aufgabe der Regierung in diesem Bereich, sowie der Schaffung von Bedingungen, die den Privatsektor zur Finanzierung der Kultur ermuntern sollen. Jedoch wurden diese Vorschläge nebst anderer, die legislative Änderungen im Bereich der Organisation der Kulturarbeit und der öffentlichen Förderung des Filmschaffens betrafen, nach dem vorzeitigen Rücktritt des Ministers zu den Akten gelegt. Ein maßgeblicher Effekt dieser „Revolution“ ist die Einbeziehung Polens in den Kreis der Länder, welche die Einnahmen aus der staatlichen Lotterie für Kulturbelange bestimmen. Die Möglichkeit der Gewinnung von Zuschüssen in Höhe von 5% auf den Preis der Sporttotoscheine stellt eine geringfügige, aber beständige Finanzspritze für die Kultur dar. Und der zweite Versuch: der Vorschlag des Teams von Jerzy Hausner, der auf dem Kulturkongress 2009 vorgestellt wurde und bezüglich der Hauptrichtungen der vorgeschlagenen Veränderungen mit den vorherigen Reformvorschlägen übereinstimmte, wobei er sich in den Einzelheiten natürlich von jenen unterschied. Viele der vorgesehenen Bestimmungen weckten jedoch Kontroversen, was zu einer stürmischen Debatte über diesen Reformvorsachlag führte. Warum? Vor allem sollte die Reform zu größerer Effizienz der der Arbeit der Kulturinstitutionen führen. Dagegen beinhaltet sie keine Ankündigungen von Hilfeleistungen bei der Umstrukturierung und auch keine konkreten Vorschläge für die Umstrukturierungen selbst. Dafür gab es den Ansatz, von einer Subjektförderung zu einer Objektförderung überzugehen, der unzureichende eingeführt sogar zu einem Zusammenbruch der schwächeren Kulturinstitutionen führen könnte. Einwände weckt auch die Tatsache, dass dieser Plan abgehoben von positiv verifizierten europäischen Praktiken erstellt wurde. Man mag die Pionierleistung würdigen, aber in diesem Fall wäre das Risiko einer Implementierung zu hoch gewesen. Zudem waren viele Bestimmungen unklar oder unpräzise, was Raum gab für unter-
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In der ersten Jahreshälfte 2004 nahm die Gruppe Kultur und Business des Polnischen Arbeitgeberbundes die Arbeiten an einem Gesellschaftlichen Entwurf eines Gesetzes über die Kulturarbeit auf. Die Mitglieder der Gruppe Kultur und Business beriefen eine Arbeitsgruppe, an deren Spitze Prof. Andrzej Rottermund stand. Außerdem gehörten dem Team an: Maciej Englert, Dorota Ilczuk, Janusz Pietkiewicz und Jacek Weksler. Die von dieser Gruppe erarbeiteten Thesen eines Entwurfs für eine Reform der Kulturarbeit blieben, wie die vorangegangenen Versuche auch, im luftleeren Raum stecken. Der Kulturkongress 2009 bestätigte dies erneut. Aus den Kreisen der Kultursachaffenden ertönten die Forderungen nach weitreichenden Veränderungen, wie etwa in der Analyse des Zbigniew-Raszewski-Theaterinstituts „Drei Schritte zu Verbesserungen in der polnischen Kultur“5. Die Autoren des erwähnten Texts postulieren die Anerkennung des künstlerischen Schaffens als Priorität der Kulturpolitik des Staates, die Flexibilisierung, Dynamisierung und richtige Einschätzung der Arbeit der Kulturinstitutionen sowie die Einführung neuer Finanzmechanismen (zum Beispiel Mechanismen außerhalb des Haushalts), die eine Diversifizierung der Finanzierungsquellen für die Tätigkeit von Kulturinstitutionen ermöglichen. Wenn also schon zu beginn des Jahrzehnts das Bewusstsein für den bedarf an einer modernen Verfassung des Kultursektors klar bezeichnet und veröffentlicht war, dann lohnt es sich darüber nachzudenken, ob 10 Jahre für die Umsetzung viel oder wenig sind und ob die Reformen gelungen sind. Vielleicht sind wir ja nach der schnell vollzogenen Systemtransformation der neunziger Jahre einfach zu ungeduldig. Vielleicht ist die Zeit zum Nachdenken gekommen, zur Schaffung einer Expertenbasis, die die Entwicklungslinien für die Organisation der Kulturarbeit in Polen und die Gestaltung des Profils einer eigenständigen Kulturpolitik schaffen könnte. Vielleicht. Eine solche Erklärung wäre sicherlich vernünftig, wären da nicht Beispiele für konkrete Maßnahmen im Verlauf der letzten 10 Jahre, die trotz der großen Mobilisierung nicht umgesetzt wurden. Wir möchten an dieser Stelle zwei solche Beispiele anführen. Kehren wir im Gedächtnis zurück ins Jahr 2002, als der damalige Kulturminister Andrzej
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schiedliche Interpretationen, wie etwa bei der Konzeption der Kulturinstitutionen, die keine eindeutige Feststellung zuließ, ob es sich dabei um einen juristischen Terminus handelt, der konkrete Berechtigungen impliziert, oder um eine lockere Formel, die lediglich zur Registrierung der Institution benötigt wird. Ähnliche Kontroversen weckte der Vorschlag der Absetzung von 1% der Gewerbesteuer, der nicht von konkreten Kalkulierungen begleitet war und keine Antwort auf die Frage gab, ob damit nur die Kulturinstitiuonen gemeint waren. Infolge des Sturms, der über die Vorschläge des Hausner-Teams herging, verstrichen die ursprünglich Vorhaben einer großen Reform. Dafür wurde im September 2009 im Kulturministerium die so genannte „Kleine Reform“ erarbeitet, der „Grundsatzentwurf für das Gesetz über die Änderung des Gesetzes zur Organisation und Durchführung der Kulturarbeit und einiger anderer Gesetze“, also die x-te Novelle des Gesetzes über die Bedingungen der Kulturarbeit. Der Gesetzentwurf hat bereits einen langen Weg der gesellschaftlichen Konsultationen und Vereinbarungen zwischen den einzelnen Ressorts durchlaufen und wurde Ende Mai 2010 dem Kabinett vorgelegt. Seine Endfassung unterscheidet sich in einigen Punkten vom ursprünglichen Entwurf und berücksichtigt leider nicht überall die Postulate der im Kulturbereich tätigen Institutionen und Experten (was im Übrigen auch ausgesprochen schwierig gewesen wäre, da sich die Empfehlungen oftmals gegenseitig widersprachen). Der Entwurf sah eine Aufteilung der Kulturinstitutionen in künstlerische und andere vor, unter denen sich so heterogen Einrichtungen befanden wie Kulturhäuser, Bibliotheken und Museen, wobei die ursprüngliche Idee der Kategorie von Popularisierungsinstitutionen aufgegeben wurde. Er öffnete den Weg zu einer Beschäftigung auf der Grundlage von Managerkontrakten und einer begrenzten Amtsperiode der (in freiem Wettbewerb ermittelten) Direktoren und führt die Möglichkeit ein, das Management einer Kulturinstitution einer juristischen oder natürlichen Person zu übertragen, ohne allerdings die Mechanismen der Überwachung und Kontrolle festzulegen. Leider enthält er keine Möglichkeit der Haushaltplanung über einen längeren Zeitraum als ein Jahr hinaus. Nun bleibt nichts anderes übrig, als die Bestätigung des Entwurfs abzuwarten. Statt der lang erwarteten Systemreform werden wir es wohl wieder nur mit einer weiteren Novelle alter Vorschriften zu tun haben.
Kulturmanagement 2011, Vol 4 (4)
4. Die Gründe für die Misserfolge
I
nteressant wäre aus unserer Perspektive die Analyse der misslungenen Versuche der Durchführung nicht nur der großen Reformen, sondern auch der einzelnen neuen Lösungen und Regulierungen für den Kultursektor in Polen. Beispielhaft ist, was mit dem Vorschlag der Einführung von Treuhänderräten in die öffentlichen Kulturinstitutionen geschehen ist, die nota bene entgegen der Expertenmeinung in großem Maßstab umgesetzt werden sollte. Welches Schicksal werden die Vorschläge der Gesetzesnovelle haben, die Änderungen in der Organisation der künstlerischen Institute vorsehen? Wird die Möglichkeit eingeführt werden, 1% der Gewerbesteuer für kulturelle Zwecke abzusetzen und, wenn ja, nach welchen Prinzipien? Wir das Prinzip 1% Decorum eingeführt, über das noch vor kurzem diskutiert wurde? Und andere Fragen mehr. Ein Nachdenken über die Ursachen der Misserfolge trägt zur Erarbeitung konstruktiver Schlussfolgerungen bei und zur Vermeidung der Wiederholung derselben Fehler. Dies sollte eine Aufgabe für die Zukunft sein. Jetzt können wir lediglich die allgemeine Feststellung treffen, dass in jedem der angeführten Beispiele mindestens eines der unten genannten Elemente fehlt, die den Erfolg systemhafter Veränderungen bedingen. Dazu gehören: a. Eine starke Expertenbasis, die laufend auf Systemen der Überwachung und Evaluierung des Kultursektors in Polen zurückgreifen kann Es ist an der Zeit, klar zu betonen, dass eine sinnvolle Reform das Engagement von Spezialisten erfordert, die sowohl über Wissen über die Lösungen im Ausland verfügen als auch über die Situation in Polen. Beispielsweise sind die Versuche im Bereich der öffentlichen Finanzierung und Organisation im Kultursektor ohne Konsultationen mit Kulturwirten zum Scheitern verurteilt, denn es ist ja die Kulturwirtschaft, die sich mit der Bestimmung effizienter wirtschaftspolitischer Instrumente für den Kultursektor in solchen Bereichen wie Beschäftigung, Finanzen, Infrastruktur etc. beschäftigt. Die Kulturwirte analysieren unter Berücksichtigung der Besonderheiten der Kulturarbeit die Mechanismen, die in den verschiedenen Sektoren der Wirtschaft (öffentlicher, privater, verbandlicher Sektor) zur Anwendung kommen. Und genau nach solchen Mechanismen suchen wir bei unseren Reformmaßnahmen. Solche Disziplinen wie Kulturmanagement und Kultur-
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schiedliche Interpretationen, wie etwa bei der Konzeption der Kulturinstitutionen, die keine eindeutige Feststellung zuließ, ob es sich dabei um einen juristischen Terminus handelt, der konkrete Berechtigungen impliziert, oder um eine lockere Formel, die lediglich zur Registrierung der Institution benötigt wird. Ähnliche Kontroversen weckte der Vorschlag der Absetzung von 1% der Gewerbesteuer, der nicht von konkreten Kalkulierungen begleitet war und keine Antwort auf die Frage gab, ob damit nur die Kulturinstitiuonen gemeint waren. Infolge des Sturms, der über die Vorschläge des Hausner-Teams herging, verstrichen die ursprünglich Vorhaben einer großen Reform. Dafür wurde im September 2009 im Kulturministerium die so genannte „Kleine Reform“ erarbeitet, der „Grundsatzentwurf für das Gesetz über die Änderung des Gesetzes zur Organisation und Durchführung der Kulturarbeit und einiger anderer Gesetze“, also die x-te Novelle des Gesetzes über die Bedingungen der Kulturarbeit. Der Gesetzentwurf hat bereits einen langen Weg der gesellschaftlichen Konsultationen und Vereinbarungen zwischen den einzelnen Ressorts durchlaufen und wurde Ende Mai 2010 dem Kabinett vorgelegt. Seine Endfassung unterscheidet sich in einigen Punkten vom ursprünglichen Entwurf und berücksichtigt leider nicht überall die Postulate der im Kulturbereich tätigen Institutionen und Experten (was im Übrigen auch ausgesprochen schwierig gewesen wäre, da sich die Empfehlungen oftmals gegenseitig widersprachen). Der Entwurf sah eine Aufteilung der Kulturinstitutionen in künstlerische und andere vor, unter denen sich so heterogen Einrichtungen befanden wie Kulturhäuser, Bibliotheken und Museen, wobei die ursprüngliche Idee der Kategorie von Popularisierungsinstitutionen aufgegeben wurde. Er öffnete den Weg zu einer Beschäftigung auf der Grundlage von Managerkontrakten und einer begrenzten Amtsperiode der (in freiem Wettbewerb ermittelten) Direktoren und führt die Möglichkeit ein, das Management einer Kulturinstitution einer juristischen oder natürlichen Person zu übertragen, ohne allerdings die Mechanismen der Überwachung und Kontrolle festzulegen. Leider enthält er keine Möglichkeit der Haushaltplanung über einen längeren Zeitraum als ein Jahr hinaus. Nun bleibt nichts anderes übrig, als die Bestätigung des Entwurfs abzuwarten. Statt der lang erwarteten Systemreform werden wir es wohl wieder nur mit einer weiteren Novelle alter Vorschriften zu tun haben.
nteressant wäre aus unserer Perspektive die Analyse der misslungenen Versuche der Durchführung nicht nur der großen Reformen, sondern auch der einzelnen neuen Lösungen und Regulierungen für den Kultursektor in Polen. Beispielhaft ist, was mit dem Vorschlag der Einführung von Treuhänderräten in die öffentlichen Kulturinstitutionen geschehen ist, die nota bene entgegen der Expertenmeinung in großem Maßstab umgesetzt werden sollte. Welches Schicksal werden die Vorschläge der Gesetzesnovelle haben, die Änderungen in der Organisation der künstlerischen Institute vorsehen? Wird die Möglichkeit eingeführt werden, 1% der Gewerbesteuer für kulturelle Zwecke abzusetzen und, wenn ja, nach welchen Prinzipien? Wir das Prinzip 1% Decorum eingeführt, über das noch vor kurzem diskutiert wurde? Und andere Fragen mehr. Ein Nachdenken über die Ursachen der Misserfolge trägt zur Erarbeitung konstruktiver Schlussfolgerungen bei und zur Vermeidung der Wiederholung derselben Fehler. Dies sollte eine Aufgabe für die Zukunft sein. Jetzt können wir lediglich die allgemeine Feststellung treffen, dass in jedem der angeführten Beispiele mindestens eines der unten genannten Elemente fehlt, die den Erfolg systemhafter Veränderungen bedingen. Dazu gehören: a. Eine starke Expertenbasis, die laufend auf Systemen der Überwachung und Evaluierung des Kultursektors in Polen zurückgreifen kann Es ist an der Zeit, klar zu betonen, dass eine sinnvolle Reform das Engagement von Spezialisten erfordert, die sowohl über Wissen über die Lösungen im Ausland verfügen als auch über die Situation in Polen. Beispielsweise sind die Versuche im Bereich der öffentlichen Finanzierung und Organisation im Kultursektor ohne Konsultationen mit Kulturwirten zum Scheitern verurteilt, denn es ist ja die Kulturwirtschaft, die sich mit der Bestimmung effizienter wirtschaftspolitischer Instrumente für den Kultursektor in solchen Bereichen wie Beschäftigung, Finanzen, Infrastruktur etc. beschäftigt. Die Kulturwirte analysieren unter Berücksichtigung der Besonderheiten der Kulturarbeit die Mechanismen, die in den verschiedenen Sektoren der Wirtschaft (öffentlicher, privater, verbandlicher Sektor) zur Anwendung kommen. Und genau nach solchen Mechanismen suchen wir bei unseren Reformmaßnahmen. Solche Disziplinen wie Kulturmanagement und Kultur-
I
4. Die Gründe für die Misserfolge
flusses auf die Gestaltung unserer Identität und auch der Zivilgesellschaft. Es geht also darum, dass der geplanten Reform aufgrund ihrer Tiefe und ihres Wirkungskreises ein durchdachter und geplanter Prozess der Konsultation und Implementierung vorangehen muss. Die Erzielung des Endeffekts erfordert Änderungen, die Schritt für Schritt eigeführt werden, sodass die einzelnen Etappen eine evolutionäre Umsetzung der Reform unter der Berücksichtigung ihrer Vermittlung an die Adressaten gewährleistet.
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c. Der politische Wille zur Durchführung einer systemhafte Reform im Kulturbereich Es fällt schwer, sich den Aufbau einer modernen Kulturpolitik vorzustellen ohne die vorherige Antwort auf die Frage nach dem Umfang der staatlichen Intervention. Wenn auf dem 2009 organisierten Kulturkongress eine der Forumsdiskussionen dem Thema „Wie viel Staat in der Kultur: Regierung, Selbstverwaltung oder Zivilgesellschaft“ gewidmet war, dann bedeutet dies, dass in Polen ein solcher Diskurs nicht ernsthaft aufgegriffen wurde. Wir werden also nicht den disjunktiven Charakter der Fragestellung kommentieren (entweder das eine oder das andere), sondern gehen davon aus, dass es sich um einen Versprecher handelt, denn das Wesen des Problems steckt doch in der unter bestimmten Bedingungen vereinbarten Kooperation. Wie viel Staat in der sozialen Sphäre, zu der wir auch die Kultur rechnen; wie viel Staat in der Kultur selbst? Das sind fundamentale Fragen nach dem Umfang der staatlichen Intervention im Kulturbereich unter den Bedingungen der Marktwirtschaft, Fragen eines Diskurses über die von den heutigen europäischen Staaten vertretenen Modelle/Konzeptionen der gesamten Sozialpolitik. Wenn also die verstrichenen 10 Jahre keine Antworten auf diese Fragen geliefert haben und auch die Kulturpolitik nicht präzisiert wurde, bedeutet das wohl, dass die zuständigen Politiker in dieser Zeit auf der Stelle getreten sind und – während sie die unterschiedlichsten, mehr oder weniger professionell ausgearbeiteten Dokumente erstellten – in Wirklichkeit nur die laufenden Bedürfnisse des Sektors befriedigten. Seit 1989 hat sich keine der Parteien dazu durchgerungen oder verfügte über entsprechendes politisches Gewicht oder Kenntnisse über die Besonderheiten des Sektors, um von der Durchführung singulärer, adaptativer Veränderungen abzugehen und eine echte Systemwende in Angriff zu nehmen. Im Jahr 2007 stand im Programm der Partei Platforma Obywatelska (Bürgerplattform), dass eine
c. Der politische Wille zur Durchführung einer systemhafte Reform im Kulturbereich Es fällt schwer, sich den Aufbau einer modernen Kulturpolitik vorzustellen ohne die vorherige Antwort auf die Frage nach dem Umfang der staatlichen Intervention. Wenn auf dem 2009 organisierten Kulturkongress eine der Forumsdiskussionen dem Thema „Wie viel Staat in der Kultur: Regierung, Selbstverwaltung oder Zivilgesellschaft“ gewidmet war, dann bedeutet dies, dass in Polen ein solcher Diskurs nicht ernsthaft aufgegriffen wurde. Wir werden also nicht den disjunktiven Charakter der Fragestellung kommentieren (entweder das eine oder das andere), sondern gehen davon aus, dass es sich um einen Versprecher handelt, denn das Wesen des Problems steckt doch in der unter bestimmten Bedingungen vereinbarten Kooperation. Wie viel Staat in der sozialen Sphäre, zu der wir auch die Kultur rechnen; wie viel Staat in der Kultur selbst? Das sind fundamentale Fragen nach dem Umfang der staatlichen Intervention im Kulturbereich unter den Bedingungen der Marktwirtschaft, Fragen eines Diskurses über die von den heutigen europäischen Staaten vertretenen Modelle/Konzeptionen der gesamten Sozialpolitik. Wenn also die verstrichenen 10 Jahre keine Antworten auf diese Fragen geliefert haben und auch die Kulturpolitik nicht präzisiert wurde, bedeutet das wohl, dass die zuständigen Politiker in dieser Zeit auf der Stelle getreten sind und – während sie die unterschiedlichsten, mehr oder weniger professionell ausgearbeiteten Dokumente erstellten – in Wirklichkeit nur die laufenden Bedürfnisse des Sektors befriedigten. Seit 1989 hat sich keine der Parteien dazu durchgerungen oder verfügte über entsprechendes politisches Gewicht oder Kenntnisse über die Besonderheiten des Sektors, um von der Durchführung singulärer, adaptativer Veränderungen abzugehen und eine echte Systemwende in Angriff zu nehmen. Im Jahr 2007 stand im Programm der Partei Platforma Obywatelska (Bürgerplattform), dass eine
wirtschaft entwickeln sich in Polen systematisch. Dreißig Jahre nachdem Stanisława Golinowska als erste auf das Bestehen einer Kulturökonomie als einer wissenschaftlichen Disziplin hingewiesen hat, verfügen wir über vielfältige Erkenntnisse und Erfahrungen im Bereich der Kulturarbeit unter den Bedingungen der Marktwirtschaft. Auch wenn das Kulturinstitut Warschau, an dem die Forschungsgruppe Kulturwirtschaft Untersuchungsarbeit in diesem Bereich geleistet hat, inzwischen nicht mehr besteht, wurde seine Funktion von unabhängigen Wissenschaftlern und Institutionen (wie der Stiftung Pro Cultura) übernommen. Die Studenten der Studiengänge Kulturmanagement an der Jagiellonen-Universität Krakau und der Kulturkunde an der Hochschule für Sozialpsychologie haben Vorlesungen aus dem Beriech der Kulturwirtschaft. Das heißt, sowohl erfahrene als auch beginnende Kulturwirte können entweder allein oder mit Kollegen aus dem Ausland die für eine wirksame Kulturreform unabdingbare Expertenbasis stärken. Dazu benötigen sie jedoch ein konsolidiertes System der Überwachung der Kulturarbeit und einer Evaluierung nicht nur der Prozeduren selbst, sondern vor allen Dingen der Effekte der getroffenen Maßnahmen. b. Akzeptanz des Kulturumfelds für die vorgeschlagenen Lösungen Das Umfeld der Kulturarbeit in Polen ist sich der Notwendigkeit der Durchführung von Änderungen bewusst und akzeptiert dies. Die Sorgen und Ängste der Kulturschaffenden und Kulturinstitutionen, die wir als einen der Gründe für das Scheitern systemhafter Reformen anführen, betreffen nicht die Sinnhaftigkeit, sondern die Art und Weise ihrer Durchführung. Die Akteure des Kulturbereichs sind so lange mit den verschiedensten Beschränkungen auf eigene Faust zurechtgekommen, dass sie diesbezüglich über beträchtliche Erfahrung verfügen. Sie kennen sich bestens in den im Ausland implementierten Lösungen aus. Sie hegen also in der Regel recht klar präzisierte Erwartungen. Sie protestieren nicht gegen Lösungen, die positive Wirkungen zeitigen können: die Möglichkeit einer langfristigen Planung der Kulturarbeit, finanzielle Stabilisierung, Verbesserung der Bedingungen für künstlerische Arbeit, Transparenz der Grundsätze der öffentlichen Finanzierung, größere Unabhängigkeit und Entlastung von den bisherigen Beschränkungen der Kulturistitutionen, die zu größerer Effizienz und verbesserter Zugänglichkeit der Kultur führen und was daraus folgt: zur Erweiterung ihres Ein-
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flusses auf die Gestaltung unserer Identität und auch der Zivilgesellschaft. Es geht also darum, dass der geplanten Reform aufgrund ihrer Tiefe und ihres Wirkungskreises ein durchdachter und geplanter Prozess der Konsultation und Implementierung vorangehen muss. Die Erzielung des Endeffekts erfordert Änderungen, die Schritt für Schritt eigeführt werden, sodass die einzelnen Etappen eine evolutionäre Umsetzung der Reform unter der Berücksichtigung ihrer Vermittlung an die Adressaten gewährleistet.
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wirtschaft entwickeln sich in Polen systematisch. Dreißig Jahre nachdem Stanisława Golinowska als erste auf das Bestehen einer Kulturökonomie als einer wissenschaftlichen Disziplin hingewiesen hat, verfügen wir über vielfältige Erkenntnisse und Erfahrungen im Bereich der Kulturarbeit unter den Bedingungen der Marktwirtschaft. Auch wenn das Kulturinstitut Warschau, an dem die Forschungsgruppe Kulturwirtschaft Untersuchungsarbeit in diesem Bereich geleistet hat, inzwischen nicht mehr besteht, wurde seine Funktion von unabhängigen Wissenschaftlern und Institutionen (wie der Stiftung Pro Cultura) übernommen. Die Studenten der Studiengänge Kulturmanagement an der Jagiellonen-Universität Krakau und der Kulturkunde an der Hochschule für Sozialpsychologie haben Vorlesungen aus dem Beriech der Kulturwirtschaft. Das heißt, sowohl erfahrene als auch beginnende Kulturwirte können entweder allein oder mit Kollegen aus dem Ausland die für eine wirksame Kulturreform unabdingbare Expertenbasis stärken. Dazu benötigen sie jedoch ein konsolidiertes System der Überwachung der Kulturarbeit und einer Evaluierung nicht nur der Prozeduren selbst, sondern vor allen Dingen der Effekte der getroffenen Maßnahmen. b. Akzeptanz des Kulturumfelds für die vorgeschlagenen Lösungen Das Umfeld der Kulturarbeit in Polen ist sich der Notwendigkeit der Durchführung von Änderungen bewusst und akzeptiert dies. Die Sorgen und Ängste der Kulturschaffenden und Kulturinstitutionen, die wir als einen der Gründe für das Scheitern systemhafter Reformen anführen, betreffen nicht die Sinnhaftigkeit, sondern die Art und Weise ihrer Durchführung. Die Akteure des Kulturbereichs sind so lange mit den verschiedensten Beschränkungen auf eigene Faust zurechtgekommen, dass sie diesbezüglich über beträchtliche Erfahrung verfügen. Sie kennen sich bestens in den im Ausland implementierten Lösungen aus. Sie hegen also in der Regel recht klar präzisierte Erwartungen. Sie protestieren nicht gegen Lösungen, die positive Wirkungen zeitigen können: die Möglichkeit einer langfristigen Planung der Kulturarbeit, finanzielle Stabilisierung, Verbesserung der Bedingungen für künstlerische Arbeit, Transparenz der Grundsätze der öffentlichen Finanzierung, größere Unabhängigkeit und Entlastung von den bisherigen Beschränkungen der Kulturistitutionen, die zu größerer Effizienz und verbesserter Zugänglichkeit der Kultur führen und was daraus folgt: zur Erweiterung ihres Ein-
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Reform der Organisation und Finanzierung der Kulturarbeit geboten ist. Bis heute gibt es keine solche Reform. Die Geschichte wiederholt sich angeblich gern, aber muss es auch diesmal so sein?
5. Schlussbemerkungen
I
m Titel dieses Referats stellen wir die Frage, wo das Problem bei der Reformierung des Kultursektors liegt, worin die Ursachen für die bisherigen Misserfolge liegen. Die Erfüllung der von uns genannten Rahmenbedingungen könnte sich als Schlüssel zum Erfolg erweisen. Wird es aber gelingen, sie miteinander zu verknüpfen? Das wissen wir nicht. Dagegen wissen wir, dass jegliche Maßnahmen zu treffen sind, um Schritt für Schritt eine Situation zu schaffen, die einen systemhaften und systematischen (was wir mit allem Nachdruck nochmals unterstreichen wollen) Wandel begünstigen. Andernfalls sind wir dazu verurteilt, die bis zum Überdruss wiederholten Bonmots zu wiederholen, dass die Ausgaben für die Kultur in Polen im Bereich der statistischen Toleranz liegen und die Art und Weise des Kulturmanagements Polen zu einem Inseldasein in Europa verurteilt. All dies
mindert die Bedeutung der Kultur und beleidigt die Menschen der Kultur. Denn es muss ja keineswegs so sein, wenn wir es nicht selber wollen. In unseren Überlegungen taucht noch eine Frage auf: wer nämlich für die Durchführung der erwarteten Reform zuständig sein soll. Das Beispiel des Kulturkongresses hat gezeigt, wie stark die Stimme des Kulturumfelds in den Medien ist. Es ist also sehr wohl möglich, dass die Reform, um effektiv sein zu können, von untern her durchgeführt werden muss, als eine Basisinitiative, die vom Ministerium als vox populi angenommen werden muss. Ja, es ist gut möglich, dass das der richtige Weg ist, wenngleich wir jedoch dem Ministerium eine größere Rolle als Initiator und Vorkämpfer der Reform zuschreiben wollten. Vielleicht sollte man also auf die Stimme der Selbstverwaltungen hören und gemeinsam mit ihnen Pilotprojekte umsetzen, die eine Verifizierung der Reformvorgaben ermöglichen. Denken wir darüber gemeinsam nach. Eines ist sicher. Ein weiterer Aufschub der Reformbemühungen kann dazu führen, das die notwendigen Veränderungen schließlich nicht evolutionär, systematisch, nach einem durchdachten Plan durchgeführt werden müssen, sondern revolutionär – mit dem Risiko hoher Kosten.
m Titel dieses Referats stellen wir die Frage, wo das Problem bei der Reformierung des Kultursektors liegt, worin die Ursachen für die bisherigen Misserfolge liegen. Die Erfüllung der von uns genannten Rahmenbedingungen könnte sich als Schlüssel zum Erfolg erweisen. Wird es aber gelingen, sie miteinander zu verknüpfen? Das wissen wir nicht. Dagegen wissen wir, dass jegliche Maßnahmen zu treffen sind, um Schritt für Schritt eine Situation zu schaffen, die einen systemhaften und systematischen (was wir mit allem Nachdruck nochmals unterstreichen wollen) Wandel begünstigen. Andernfalls sind wir dazu verurteilt, die bis zum Überdruss wiederholten Bonmots zu wiederholen, dass die Ausgaben für die Kultur in Polen im Bereich der statistischen Toleranz liegen und die Art und Weise des Kulturmanagements Polen zu einem Inseldasein in Europa verurteilt. All dies
I
5. Schlussbemerkungen Reform der Organisation und Finanzierung der Kulturarbeit geboten ist. Bis heute gibt es keine solche Reform. Die Geschichte wiederholt sich angeblich gern, aber muss es auch diesmal so sein? Kulturmanagement 2011, Vol 4 (4)
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mindert die Bedeutung der Kultur und beleidigt die Menschen der Kultur. Denn es muss ja keineswegs so sein, wenn wir es nicht selber wollen. In unseren Überlegungen taucht noch eine Frage auf: wer nämlich für die Durchführung der erwarteten Reform zuständig sein soll. Das Beispiel des Kulturkongresses hat gezeigt, wie stark die Stimme des Kulturumfelds in den Medien ist. Es ist also sehr wohl möglich, dass die Reform, um effektiv sein zu können, von untern her durchgeführt werden muss, als eine Basisinitiative, die vom Ministerium als vox populi angenommen werden muss. Ja, es ist gut möglich, dass das der richtige Weg ist, wenngleich wir jedoch dem Ministerium eine größere Rolle als Initiator und Vorkämpfer der Reform zuschreiben wollten. Vielleicht sollte man also auf die Stimme der Selbstverwaltungen hören und gemeinsam mit ihnen Pilotprojekte umsetzen, die eine Verifizierung der Reformvorgaben ermöglichen. Denken wir darüber gemeinsam nach. Eines ist sicher. Ein weiterer Aufschub der Reformbemühungen kann dazu führen, das die notwendigen Veränderungen schließlich nicht evolutionär, systematisch, nach einem durchdachten Plan durchgeführt werden müssen, sondern revolutionär – mit dem Risiko hoher Kosten.
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Eine Analyse der Kulturpolitik Kasachstans
Kulturmanagement 2011, Vol 4 (4)
Galina Koretskaya
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1. Einführung6
6 Der Artikel wurde auf der 2. Wissenschaftlichen Konferenz für Studenten solcher Fachrichtungen wie Kunsttheorie, künstlerische Praxis, Kulturpolitik und Kulturmanagement vorgestellt, die vom Institut für Kunstforschung der Staatlichen Ilia-TschawtschawadseUniversität Tiflis in Kooperation mit der Kaukasusstiftung (Niederlande) veranstaltet wurde. Tiflis, 23.-25. Mai 2011.
2. Der historisch-kulturelle Hintergrund und die gegenwärtige Situation
n der Mitte des 13. Jahrhunderts wurde das Gebiet des heutigen Kasachstan ins Russische Imperium eingegliedert. Zu Beginn des 20. Jahrhunderts wurde Kasachstan als Kasachische Sozialistische Sowjetrepublik mit Hauptstadt in Alma-Ata (heute Almaty) zu einer der Republiken der UdSSR. Mehrere Wellen der Deportation und Immigration, die in der Folge das Land durchliefen (die stalinistischen Umsiedlungen in den dreißiger Jahren, die Evakuierungen in der Zeit des großen Vaterländischen Kriegs [des Zweiten Weltkriegs] in den vierziger Jahren, die Migrationen im Zusammenhang mit dem Großen Stalinplan zur Umgestaltung der Natur in den fünfziger Jahren) führten zu tief greifenden Veränderungen der demografischen Struktur des Landes, wobei die Kasachen nur 30% Prozent der Bevölkerung ausmachten. Außer ihnen bewohnten das Land u. a. Russen, Ukrainer, Weißrussen, Deutsche und Polen. Einerseits war die Ära der sowjetischen Dominanz eine Zeit, in der eine neue, gut ausgebildete Generation heranwuchs und viele Kulturinstitutionen geschaffen wurden. Die russische Sprache öffnete den Bewohnern Kasachstans die Tür zur Welt der Kultur und Kunst. Andererseits aber wurde die traditionelle kasachische Kultur abgelehnt und die kasachische Intelligenzija Repressionen ausgesetzt. Alle Bewohner Kasachstans sprachen Russisch. Kasachisch geriet nahezu völlig in Vergessenheit. Die Folge waren Entwurzelung und Verlust der ethnischen Identität.
D
Hinsichtlich der Thematik der Arbeit wurden deskriptive und evaluierende Untersuchungsmethoden gewählt. Eines der Hauptprobleme, vor denen die Autorin stand, war die Unzugänglichkeit von Materialien und unabhängigen Analysen über den aktuellen Zustand der künstlerischkulturellen Aktivität im Land, aber auch die wenig transparenten, idealisierten und häufig entstellten Daten aus den offiziellen Quellen. Als Informationsquellen mussten also vor allem Zeitungsartikel und Interviews mit Personen, die über entsprechendes Insiderwissen verfügen, herhalten.
I
I
ie Kultur- und Kunstszene Kasachstans wird von einer Reihe von Faktoren bestimmt, die sich aus der besonderen historischen Erfahrung dieses Landes ergeben. Weder die Kultur noch die Kunst des Landes werden sich entwickeln, wenn die Regierung nicht die Richtungen der Kulturpolitik vorgibt, die ihr seit 1991, also seit der Erlangung der Unabhängigkeit, untersteht. Bislang wurde die Kulturpolitik des Landes noch keiner Analyse unter Einsatz anerkannter Forschungsinstrumente unterzogen. Das Ziel der vorliegenden Magisterarbeit ist die Beschreibung der gesellschaftlichen und künstlerisch-kulturellen Situation in Kasachstan, eine Analyse der staatlichen Kulturpolitik seit der Unabhängigkeit, ihre Bewertung und die Aufstellung von Hypothesen bezüglich ihrer weiteren Entwicklung.
Galina Koretskaya Sie kommt aus Kasachstan und lebt in Almaty. Sie ist Absolventin der Leoš-JanáčekMusikakademie Brno. Der Artikel stellt eine Zusammenfassung ihrer Magisterarbeit dar, die sie im Juni 2011 verteidigt hat.
D
2. Der historisch-kulturelle Hintergrund und die gegenwärtige Situation
ie Kultur- und Kunstszene Kasachstans wird von einer Reihe von Faktoren bestimmt, die sich aus der besonderen historischen Erfahrung dieses Landes ergeben. Weder die Kultur noch die Kunst des Landes werden sich entwickeln, wenn die Regierung nicht die Richtungen der Kulturpolitik vorgibt, die ihr seit 1991, also seit der Erlangung der Unabhängigkeit, untersteht. Bislang wurde die Kulturpolitik des Landes noch keiner Analyse unter Einsatz anerkannter Forschungsinstrumente unterzogen. Das Ziel der vorliegenden Magisterarbeit ist die Beschreibung der gesellschaftlichen und künstlerisch-kulturellen Situation in Kasachstan, eine Analyse der staatlichen Kulturpolitik seit der Unabhängigkeit, ihre Bewertung und die Aufstellung von Hypothesen bezüglich ihrer weiteren Entwicklung.
1. Einführung6
n der Mitte des 13. Jahrhunderts wurde das Gebiet des heutigen Kasachstan ins Russische Imperium eingegliedert. Zu Beginn des 20. Jahrhunderts wurde Kasachstan als Kasachische Sozialistische Sowjetrepublik mit Hauptstadt in Alma-Ata (heute Almaty) zu einer der Republiken der UdSSR. Mehrere Wellen der Deportation und Immigration, die in der Folge das Land durchliefen (die stalinistischen Umsiedlungen in den dreißiger Jahren, die Evakuierungen in der Zeit des großen Vaterländischen Kriegs [des Zweiten Weltkriegs] in den vierziger Jahren, die Migrationen im Zusammenhang mit dem Großen Stalinplan zur Umgestaltung der Natur in den fünfziger Jahren) führten zu tief greifenden Veränderungen der demografischen Struktur des Landes, wobei die Kasachen nur 30% Prozent der Bevölkerung ausmachten. Außer ihnen bewohnten das Land u. a. Russen, Ukrainer, Weißrussen, Deutsche und Polen. Einerseits war die Ära der sowjetischen Dominanz eine Zeit, in der eine neue, gut ausgebildete Generation heranwuchs und viele Kulturinstitutionen geschaffen wurden. Die russische Sprache öffnete den Bewohnern Kasachstans die Tür zur Welt der Kultur und Kunst. Andererseits aber wurde die traditionelle kasachische Kultur abgelehnt und die kasachische Intelligenzija Repressionen ausgesetzt. Alle Bewohner Kasachstans sprachen Russisch. Kasachisch geriet nahezu völlig in Vergessenheit. Die Folge waren Entwurzelung und Verlust der ethnischen Identität.
Galina Koretskaya Sie kommt aus Kasachstan und lebt in Almaty. Sie ist Absolventin der Leoš-JanáčekMusikakademie Brno. Der Artikel stellt eine Zusammenfassung ihrer Magisterarbeit dar, die sie im Juni 2011 verteidigt hat.
Hinsichtlich der Thematik der Arbeit wurden deskriptive und evaluierende Untersuchungsmethoden gewählt. Eines der Hauptprobleme, vor denen die Autorin stand, war die Unzugänglichkeit von Materialien und unabhängigen Analysen über den aktuellen Zustand der künstlerischkulturellen Aktivität im Land, aber auch die wenig transparenten, idealisierten und häufig entstellten Daten aus den offiziellen Quellen. Als Informationsquellen mussten also vor allem Zeitungsartikel und Interviews mit Personen, die über entsprechendes Insiderwissen verfügen, herhalten.
Galina Koretskaya
6 Der Artikel wurde auf der 2. Wissenschaftlichen Konferenz für Studenten solcher Fachrichtungen wie Kunsttheorie, künstlerische Praxis, Kulturpolitik und Kulturmanagement vorgestellt, die vom Institut für Kunstforschung der Staatlichen Ilia-TschawtschawadseUniversität Tiflis in Kooperation mit der Kaukasusstiftung (Niederlande) veranstaltet wurde. Tiflis, 23.-25. Mai 2011.
Eine Analyse der Kulturpolitik Kasachstans
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Kulturmanagement 2011, Vol 4 (4)
3. Die Ziele der Regierung im Kulturbereich
E
s fällt schwer, kategorische Urteile zu formulieren, besonders was die Arbeit des Kulturministeriums und die Ausgaben der Regierung für die Kultur angeht. Das Ministerium bereitet ausschließlich kurzfristige strategische Pläne vor, ihre Rapporte sind ein Beweis für die Beständigkeit der sowjetischen Haltung gegenüber der Kultur, die auf Quantität statt Qualität setzt. Der Verlauf der der frühen Projektphasen wird weder überwacht noch evaluiert, es gibt keine eindeutigen Daten oder Expertengutachten. Im Endeffekt mangelt es nach wie vor an langfristigen Entwicklungszielen für die kasachische Kultur. Der Haushalt des Finanzministeriums ist nicht transparent, was weiterführende Entscheidungen verhindert. So ist etwa nicht bekannt, welche Kunst- und Kulturbereiche bislang von der
Eine Analyse der Kulturpolitik Kasachstans
s fällt schwer, kategorische Urteile zu formulieren, besonders was die Arbeit des Kulturministeriums und die Ausgaben der Regierung für die Kultur angeht. Das Ministerium bereitet ausschließlich kurzfristige strategische Pläne vor, ihre Rapporte sind ein Beweis für die Beständigkeit der sowjetischen Haltung gegenüber der Kultur, die auf Quantität statt Qualität setzt. Der Verlauf der der frühen Projektphasen wird weder überwacht noch evaluiert, es gibt keine eindeutigen Daten oder Expertengutachten. Im Endeffekt mangelt es nach wie vor an langfristigen Entwicklungszielen für die kasachische Kultur. Der Haushalt des Finanzministeriums ist nicht transparent, was weiterführende Entscheidungen verhindert. So ist etwa nicht bekannt, welche Kunst- und Kulturbereiche bislang von der
Galina Koretskaya
paganda erwarten [Mass-media v Kazakhstane… 2010, Webdokument]. Die Medien sollten – ähnlich wie die Kunst – eine beratende Rolle spielen, zeigen, wie man gegen die Widrigkeiten des Schicksals kämpft, motivierende Vorbilder liefern, Sicherheit, Toleranz und Patriotismus zum Ausdruck bringen. Die unabhängige Gegenwartskunst in Kasachstan und den übrigen Staaten Mittelasiens sind ein Bereich, der von Strukturen außerhalb der Regierungsstrukturen getragen wird. Die sich allmählich entwickelnde Kunst der jungen Staaten hat keinerlei Unterstützung seitens der Machthaber gefunden. Die kasachische Künstlerin und Kuratorin Julija Sorokina sagt: „Künstler/Kurator im Bereich der Gegenwartskunst zu sein, ist in diesem Land gleichbedeutend damit, ein Enthusiast zu sein, der nicht auf die Unterstützung durch Institutionen, ein festes Einkommen und Anerkennung zählen kann. Ab und an versuchen wir Ausstellungen, Workshops und Seminare in den Ländern Zentralasiens zu organisieren, aber bislang ist es uns nicht gelungen, die Aufmerksamkeit der Regierung oder der Geschäftswelt zu wecken. Ihre Vertreter sind noch nicht bereit für die Gegenwartskunst“ [Sorokina, 2008, Webdokument]. Das Prinzip der „kontrollierten Kunst“ hat zu einer tiefen Stagnation des künstlerischen Lebens in Kasachstan geführt, eine konformistische und traditionalistische Herangehensweise an Kunst inspiriert, den Weg der so genannten „Souvenirkunst“ bereitet und zu einer Degradierung des von den Kasachen in Sowjetzeiten erarbeiteten Kulturerbes geführt.
Galina Koretskaya
1991 wurde Kasachstan ein unabhängiger Staat. Dies war der Beginn des Erwachens der kasachischen Kultur, Tradition und Vaterlandsliebe. Damals entstand das Modell eines Staates, der von einem Volk bewohnt wird, den Kasachen, die sich der kasachischen Sprache als gemeinsamer Regionalsprache und des Russischen als Amtssprache bedienen. Die Regierung wollte eine neue gemeinsame nationale Identität für die ethnischen Kasachen und die Mitglieder der übrigen 130 Volksgruppen schaffen. In dieser Situation waren von entscheidender Bedeutung die Verhinderung von Konflikten und die Aufrechterhaltung des sozialen und wirtschaftlichen Gleichgewichts. Nach Ansicht der Analytiker nahm sich die kasachische Regierung der Umsetzung von zwei Hauptaufgaben an. Die erste war der Aufbau eines neuen, homogenen Volkes, die zweite bestand darin, dies in kurzer Zeit und auf demokratischem Weg zu erreichen. Dies erforderte die Implementierung der Idee der so genannten „kontrollierten Demokratie“ [Bekturganova, Webdokument]. Bis Ende der neunziger Jahre befasste sich die Regierung vor allem mit der Lösung der brennenden Wirtschaftsprobleme, wodurch die Fragen der Kultur in den Hintergrund gedrängt wurden. In der ersten Dekade des 21. Jahrhunderts, nach Überwindung der Wirtschaftskrise, begannen die Machthaber, die neu erschlossenen Finanzmittel nicht in die Förderung von Kunst- und Kulturprojekten zu investieren, sondern in eine Reihe von ideologischen Aktionen, die bezweckten, Kasachstan als modernes Land mit einer stabilen Wirtschaft und ohne ethnische Konflikte darzustellen sowie der neuen Hauptstadt Astana durch den Bau moderner, teurer Kulturpaläste, Konzerthallen etc. ein entsprechendes Image zu verleihen. Heute spielt die Kunst lediglich eine zivilisierende und evaluierende Rolle und stellt ein wesentliches Element der patriotischen Erziehung der Kasachen dar, die aus den Quellen des historischen Erbes des Landes schöpft. Auf finanzielle Unterstützung seitens der Regierung können staatliche akademische Institutionen im Kulturbereich zählen. Mehr noch, viele Kulturunternehmungen werden auf Geheiß der Regierung aus dem Staatshaushalt finanziert, weshalb sie in einer gewissen vorgegeben Stilistik gehalten sind und der Verbreitung bestimmter Ideologien dienen. Indem sie gewisse parallele Phänomene in der kasachischen Kultur und den Medien feststellten, haben die Analytiker aufgezeigt, dass die Machthaber von einer unterwürfigen Rolle der Medien und Journalisten ausgehen und vor allen Dingen eine Erfolgspro-
Eine Analyse der Kulturpolitik Kasachstans
1991 wurde Kasachstan ein unabhängiger Staat. Dies war der Beginn des Erwachens der kasachischen Kultur, Tradition und Vaterlandsliebe. Damals entstand das Modell eines Staates, der von einem Volk bewohnt wird, den Kasachen, die sich der kasachischen Sprache als gemeinsamer Regionalsprache und des Russischen als Amtssprache bedienen. Die Regierung wollte eine neue gemeinsame nationale Identität für die ethnischen Kasachen und die Mitglieder der übrigen 130 Volksgruppen schaffen. In dieser Situation waren von entscheidender Bedeutung die Verhinderung von Konflikten und die Aufrechterhaltung des sozialen und wirtschaftlichen Gleichgewichts. Nach Ansicht der Analytiker nahm sich die kasachische Regierung der Umsetzung von zwei Hauptaufgaben an. Die erste war der Aufbau eines neuen, homogenen Volkes, die zweite bestand darin, dies in kurzer Zeit und auf demokratischem Weg zu erreichen. Dies erforderte die Implementierung der Idee der so genannten „kontrollierten Demokratie“ [Bekturganova, Webdokument]. Bis Ende der neunziger Jahre befasste sich die Regierung vor allem mit der Lösung der brennenden Wirtschaftsprobleme, wodurch die Fragen der Kultur in den Hintergrund gedrängt wurden. In der ersten Dekade des 21. Jahrhunderts, nach Überwindung der Wirtschaftskrise, begannen die Machthaber, die neu erschlossenen Finanzmittel nicht in die Förderung von Kunst- und Kulturprojekten zu investieren, sondern in eine Reihe von ideologischen Aktionen, die bezweckten, Kasachstan als modernes Land mit einer stabilen Wirtschaft und ohne ethnische Konflikte darzustellen sowie der neuen Hauptstadt Astana durch den Bau moderner, teurer Kulturpaläste, Konzerthallen etc. ein entsprechendes Image zu verleihen. Heute spielt die Kunst lediglich eine zivilisierende und evaluierende Rolle und stellt ein wesentliches Element der patriotischen Erziehung der Kasachen dar, die aus den Quellen des historischen Erbes des Landes schöpft. Auf finanzielle Unterstützung seitens der Regierung können staatliche akademische Institutionen im Kulturbereich zählen. Mehr noch, viele Kulturunternehmungen werden auf Geheiß der Regierung aus dem Staatshaushalt finanziert, weshalb sie in einer gewissen vorgegeben Stilistik gehalten sind und der Verbreitung bestimmter Ideologien dienen. Indem sie gewisse parallele Phänomene in der kasachischen Kultur und den Medien feststellten, haben die Analytiker aufgezeigt, dass die Machthaber von einer unterwürfigen Rolle der Medien und Journalisten ausgehen und vor allen Dingen eine Erfolgspro-
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E
3. Die Ziele der Regierung im Kulturbereich paganda erwarten [Mass-media v Kazakhstane… 2010, Webdokument]. Die Medien sollten – ähnlich wie die Kunst – eine beratende Rolle spielen, zeigen, wie man gegen die Widrigkeiten des Schicksals kämpft, motivierende Vorbilder liefern, Sicherheit, Toleranz und Patriotismus zum Ausdruck bringen. Die unabhängige Gegenwartskunst in Kasachstan und den übrigen Staaten Mittelasiens sind ein Bereich, der von Strukturen außerhalb der Regierungsstrukturen getragen wird. Die sich allmählich entwickelnde Kunst der jungen Staaten hat keinerlei Unterstützung seitens der Machthaber gefunden. Die kasachische Künstlerin und Kuratorin Julija Sorokina sagt: „Künstler/Kurator im Bereich der Gegenwartskunst zu sein, ist in diesem Land gleichbedeutend damit, ein Enthusiast zu sein, der nicht auf die Unterstützung durch Institutionen, ein festes Einkommen und Anerkennung zählen kann. Ab und an versuchen wir Ausstellungen, Workshops und Seminare in den Ländern Zentralasiens zu organisieren, aber bislang ist es uns nicht gelungen, die Aufmerksamkeit der Regierung oder der Geschäftswelt zu wecken. Ihre Vertreter sind noch nicht bereit für die Gegenwartskunst“ [Sorokina, 2008, Webdokument]. Das Prinzip der „kontrollierten Kunst“ hat zu einer tiefen Stagnation des künstlerischen Lebens in Kasachstan geführt, eine konformistische und traditionalistische Herangehensweise an Kunst inspiriert, den Weg der so genannten „Souvenirkunst“ bereitet und zu einer Degradierung des von den Kasachen in Sowjetzeiten erarbeiteten Kulturerbes geführt.
Regierung in höherem Maße gefördert wurden als andere, da die Ausgaben des Ministeriums nicht klar klassifiziert werden. Die zugänglichen Informationen sind nicht aktuell, das Datenmaterial aus unterschiedlichen Quellen inkohärent. Es fehlt auch an Informationen über die Kulturpolitik vor dem Jahr 2006. Später erarbeitete das Kulturministerium zwei strategische Programme: für die Jahre 2006-2008 und die Jahre 2010-2015. Das Ziel des ersten war der Aufbau einer legislativen Basis, die Entwicklung der kulturellen Infrastruktur, die Intensivierung der internationalen Zusammenarbeit sowie die Erweiterung der Qualifikationen der Mitarbeiter an Kulturinstitutionen. Leider präzisierte dieses Dokument keine Mechanismen zur Umsetzung der festgelegten Aufgaben, und nach Abschluss des Programms wurden keinerlei Schlussfolgerungen gezogen. Das derzeitige Programm wiederum bezweckt eine Steigerung der globalen Wettbewerbsfähigkeit der kasachischen Kunst und Kulturproduktion. Diese Aufgabe wurde in die strategischen Pläne des Ministeriums aufgenommen, nachdem des Staatspräsident verkündet hatte, dass Kasachstan zu den 50 Staaten, die Globalen Wettbewerbsbericht aufgeführt werden, gehören werde. Dennoch fiel Kasachstan 2010 von Platz 62 auf Platz 72. Meiner Ansicht nach sollte dieses Ziel nicht als Priorität verfolgt werden, eben deshalb, weil die Grundfragen wie Gesetzgebung, Infrastruktur, Mitarbeiterqualifikationen weiterhin ungelöst sind, ganz zu schweigen von der Stagnation des Kunstbetriebs oder dem niedrigen Niveau der Kunsterziehung.
4. Ähnlichkeiten zu den bestehenden Modellen der Kulturpolitik und Schlussfolgerungen
I
ch möchte auf zwei Modelle der Kulturpolitik hinweisen, die am besten zu den derzeitigen Maßnahmen im Kunst- und Kulturbereich passen. Das erste basiert auf dem Prinzip der öffentlichen Förderung, das von Andreas Wiesand vorgeschlagen wurde. Seine Merkmale: MM Das Interesse der Regierungsinstitutionen konzentriert sich hauptsächlich auf die traditionellen Kulturinstitutionen wie Museen, Bibliotheken, Kulturzentren, die auf finanzielle Unterstützung der Regierung zählen können; die Künstler verbreiten als „Missionare“ den „wahren Wert der Kunst“; experimentelle Kunst gilt als zweitrangig;
MM Hauptziel ist die Unterstützung des institutionellen Gleichgewichts mit Hilfe der traditionellen, anerkannten Kunst; MM da die Hauptfinanzierungsquelle der Kultur der Staat ist, dienen vor allem Planung und die Erstellung strategischer Programme als Regulierungswerkzeuge; MM die Politik wird hauptsächlich auf Landesebene umgesetzt, die internationale Zusammenarbeit im Kulturbereich ist Domäne der Diplomatie. Dieses Modell impliziert die folgenden Probleme: MM Die Bedingungen für die Entwicklung von Innovationen sind ungenügend, neue Trends in der Kunst werden abgelehnt; MM die Verantwortlichen der Kulturpolitik verfügen nicht über ausreichendes Wissen über die Entwicklung der Kultur oder Innovationen; MM die Instrumente der Planung und Implementierung erlauben kein Abweichen vom Schema; MM Beschlüsse werden an der Spitze gefällt, die Regierung ist wichtiger als die Künstler [Vostrjakov, Webdokument]. Das zweite Model wurde von Milena DragićevićŠešić angeregt und betrifft die Kulturpolitik in Übergangsphasen. Sein Wesensmerkmal ist, dass sogar Projekte mit demokratischer Aussage mittels bürokratischer Regierungsstrukturen umgesetzt werden. Am Beispiel von Serbien zeigt Dragićević-Šešić, dass die Kulturpolitik vieler ehemaliger Ostblockstaaten und Republiken der ehemaligen Sowjetunion nach wie vor auf den überkommenen kulturpolitischen Modellen und der alten Organisation des institutionellen Systems basieren und gleichzeitig der Umsetzung von Postulaten einiger Intellektueller dienen, die sich vor allem auf nationale Fragen und die Nationalkultur konzentrieren. Die Vorstellung, der an Denken und Handeln nach den steifen totalitären Normen gewöhnte Verwaltungsapparat könnte glatt und schmerzlos von einem Tag auf den anderen dank der Übernahme der Rhetorik der „neuen“, posttotalitären, aber noch nicht konsolidierten demokratischen Gesellschaft umgearbeitet werden, birgt gewisse Risiken [In from the margins..., 1997]. MM Zum Abschluss habe ich die folgenden Folgerungen (Hypothesen) zusammengestellt, die weiterer Untersuchungen und Analysen bedürfen: MM Ein dringendes Problem ist die Revitalisierung des kulturellen und künstlerischen Potenzials des Landes, die Überwindung des niedrigen Niveaus der künstlerischen Bildung und des Fehlens prägnanter Künstlerpersönlichkeiten unter 35 Jahren;
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Hauptziel ist die Unterstützung des institutionellen Gleichgewichts mit Hilfe der traditionellen, anerkannten Kunst; MM da die Hauptfinanzierungsquelle der Kultur der Staat ist, dienen vor allem Planung und die Erstellung strategischer Programme als Regulierungswerkzeuge; MM die Politik wird hauptsächlich auf Landesebene umgesetzt, die internationale Zusammenarbeit im Kulturbereich ist Domäne der Diplomatie. Dieses Modell impliziert die folgenden Probleme: MM Die Bedingungen für die Entwicklung von Innovationen sind ungenügend, neue Trends in der Kunst werden abgelehnt; MM die Verantwortlichen der Kulturpolitik verfügen nicht über ausreichendes Wissen über die Entwicklung der Kultur oder Innovationen; MM die Instrumente der Planung und Implementierung erlauben kein Abweichen vom Schema; MM Beschlüsse werden an der Spitze gefällt, die Regierung ist wichtiger als die Künstler [Vostrjakov, Webdokument]. Das zweite Model wurde von Milena DragićevićŠešić angeregt und betrifft die Kulturpolitik in Übergangsphasen. Sein Wesensmerkmal ist, dass sogar Projekte mit demokratischer Aussage mittels bürokratischer Regierungsstrukturen umgesetzt werden. Am Beispiel von Serbien zeigt Dragićević-Šešić, dass die Kulturpolitik vieler ehemaliger Ostblockstaaten und Republiken der ehemaligen Sowjetunion nach wie vor auf den überkommenen kulturpolitischen Modellen und der alten Organisation des institutionellen Systems basieren und gleichzeitig der Umsetzung von Postulaten einiger Intellektueller dienen, die sich vor allem auf nationale Fragen und die Nationalkultur konzentrieren. Die Vorstellung, der an Denken und Handeln nach den steifen totalitären Normen gewöhnte Verwaltungsapparat könnte glatt und schmerzlos von einem Tag auf den anderen dank der Übernahme der Rhetorik der „neuen“, posttotalitären, aber noch nicht konsolidierten demokratischen Gesellschaft umgearbeitet werden, birgt gewisse Risiken [In from the margins..., 1997]. MM Zum Abschluss habe ich die folgenden Folgerungen (Hypothesen) zusammengestellt, die weiterer Untersuchungen und Analysen bedürfen: MM Ein dringendes Problem ist die Revitalisierung des kulturellen und künstlerischen Potenzials des Landes, die Überwindung des niedrigen Niveaus der künstlerischen Bildung und des Fehlens prägnanter Künstlerpersönlichkeiten unter 35 Jahren; MM
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ch möchte auf zwei Modelle der Kulturpolitik hinweisen, die am besten zu den derzeitigen Maßnahmen im Kunst- und Kulturbereich passen. Das erste basiert auf dem Prinzip der öffentlichen Förderung, das von Andreas Wiesand vorgeschlagen wurde. Seine Merkmale: MM Das Interesse der Regierungsinstitutionen konzentriert sich hauptsächlich auf die traditionellen Kulturinstitutionen wie Museen, Bibliotheken, Kulturzentren, die auf finanzielle Unterstützung der Regierung zählen können; die Künstler verbreiten als „Missionare“ den „wahren Wert der Kunst“; experimentelle Kunst gilt als zweitrangig;
I
4. Ähnlichkeiten zu den bestehenden Modellen der Kulturpolitik und Schlussfolgerungen Regierung in höherem Maße gefördert wurden als andere, da die Ausgaben des Ministeriums nicht klar klassifiziert werden. Die zugänglichen Informationen sind nicht aktuell, das Datenmaterial aus unterschiedlichen Quellen inkohärent. Es fehlt auch an Informationen über die Kulturpolitik vor dem Jahr 2006. Später erarbeitete das Kulturministerium zwei strategische Programme: für die Jahre 2006-2008 und die Jahre 2010-2015. Das Ziel des ersten war der Aufbau einer legislativen Basis, die Entwicklung der kulturellen Infrastruktur, die Intensivierung der internationalen Zusammenarbeit sowie die Erweiterung der Qualifikationen der Mitarbeiter an Kulturinstitutionen. Leider präzisierte dieses Dokument keine Mechanismen zur Umsetzung der festgelegten Aufgaben, und nach Abschluss des Programms wurden keinerlei Schlussfolgerungen gezogen. Das derzeitige Programm wiederum bezweckt eine Steigerung der globalen Wettbewerbsfähigkeit der kasachischen Kunst und Kulturproduktion. Diese Aufgabe wurde in die strategischen Pläne des Ministeriums aufgenommen, nachdem des Staatspräsident verkündet hatte, dass Kasachstan zu den 50 Staaten, die Globalen Wettbewerbsbericht aufgeführt werden, gehören werde. Dennoch fiel Kasachstan 2010 von Platz 62 auf Platz 72. Meiner Ansicht nach sollte dieses Ziel nicht als Priorität verfolgt werden, eben deshalb, weil die Grundfragen wie Gesetzgebung, Infrastruktur, Mitarbeiterqualifikationen weiterhin ungelöst sind, ganz zu schweigen von der Stagnation des Kunstbetriebs oder dem niedrigen Niveau der Kunsterziehung.
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MM unabhängige Kunstprojekte werden ausschließlich aus internationalen Fonds und durch internationale Organisationen finanziert (z. B. Soros-Stiftung); MM es besteht eine Selbstzensur der Künstler (ähnlich wie in den Medien die Selbstzensur der Journalisten); MM der Löwenanteil der Ausgaben des Justizministeriums sind die Ausgaben für die Gestaltung des neuen Images von Astana. Die Erarbeitung eines kulturpolitischen Modells erfordert vor allem konzeptuelle Begründung
und nicht nur die Erstellung kurzfristiger Aktionspläne. Nach Ansicht von Lew Wostrjakow darf die Suche nach einem Modell der Kulturpolitik nicht auf der reinen Übernahme der zeitgenössischen Theorien des Westens beruhen, sondern auf dem Verständnis der dahinterstehenden Prinzipien. Die gesellschaftlich-kulturellen Leistungen der Vergangenheit dürfen nicht vergessen werden. Die Kulturpolitik muss auf Analyse und Verallgemeinerung von Strukturen und Mechanismen der bestehenden kulturpolitischen Modelle beruhen [Vostrjakov, Webdokument].
Literatur:
Bekturganova B., Kazakhstanskaja identicnost: trudnosti obretenija (Die kasachische Identität. Schwierigkeit mit ihrer Feststellung), [in:] Respublikanskij politiceskij zhurnal „Bajterek“ Republikanisch-politische Zeitschrift „Bajterek“), 2006-12, Nr. 6 (21), http:// www.baiterek.kz/index.php?journal=3&page=95, abgerufen 24.04.2011. In from the margins. A contribution to the debate on Culture and Development in Europe (In from the margins. Ein Beitrag zur Debatte über Kultur und Entwicklung in Europa). Europarat, 1997, S. 83.
Mass-media v Kazakhstane. Zakony. Konflikty. Pravonarushenija. Itogy 2009 goda. Tom 1 (Die Massenmedien in Kasachstan. Recht, Konflikte, Rechtsverletzungen. Ergebnisse für 2009, Teil 1). Almaty 2010, S. 7, http://www.soros.kz/ru/publications/books, abgerufen 24.04.2011. Sorokina Y., Central Asian Art-Traffic (Der zentralasiatische Kunstverkehr) [in:] Collective online platform N.E.W.S., 2008, http://northeastwestsouth.net/ central-asian-art-traffic-0, abgerufen 25.04.11. Vostrjakov L., Kulturnaja politika: koncepciji, ponjatija, modely (Kulturpolitik: Konzepte, Begriffe, Modelle) [in:] Rossijsky institut kulturnoj politiky: Analitika, http://www.cpolicy.ru/analytics/80.html, abgerufen 24.04.2011.
Bekturganova B., Kazakhstanskaja identicnost: trudnosti obretenija (Die kasachische Identität. Schwierigkeit mit ihrer Feststellung), [in:] Respublikanskij politiceskij zhurnal „Bajterek“ Republikanisch-politische Zeitschrift „Bajterek“), 2006-12, Nr. 6 (21), http:// www.baiterek.kz/index.php?journal=3&page=95, abgerufen 24.04.2011. In from the margins. A contribution to the debate on Culture and Development in Europe (In from the margins. Ein Beitrag zur Debatte über Kultur und Entwicklung in Europa). Europarat, 1997, S. 83.
Mass-media v Kazakhstane. Zakony. Konflikty. Pravonarushenija. Itogy 2009 goda. Tom 1 (Die Massenmedien in Kasachstan. Recht, Konflikte, Rechtsverletzungen. Ergebnisse für 2009, Teil 1). Almaty 2010, S. 7, http://www.soros.kz/ru/publications/books, abgerufen 24.04.2011. Sorokina Y., Central Asian Art-Traffic (Der zentralasiatische Kunstverkehr) [in:] Collective online platform N.E.W.S., 2008, http://northeastwestsouth.net/ central-asian-art-traffic-0, abgerufen 25.04.11. Vostrjakov L., Kulturnaja politika: koncepciji, ponjatija, modely (Kulturpolitik: Konzepte, Begriffe, Modelle) [in:] Rossijsky institut kulturnoj politiky: Analitika, http://www.cpolicy.ru/analytics/80.html, abgerufen 24.04.2011.
Literatur: unabhängige Kunstprojekte werden ausschließlich aus internationalen Fonds und durch internationale Organisationen finanziert (z. B. Soros-Stiftung); MM es besteht eine Selbstzensur der Künstler (ähnlich wie in den Medien die Selbstzensur der Journalisten); MM der Löwenanteil der Ausgaben des Justizministeriums sind die Ausgaben für die Gestaltung des neuen Images von Astana. Die Erarbeitung eines kulturpolitischen Modells erfordert vor allem konzeptuelle Begründung MM
und nicht nur die Erstellung kurzfristiger Aktionspläne. Nach Ansicht von Lew Wostrjakow darf die Suche nach einem Modell der Kulturpolitik nicht auf der reinen Übernahme der zeitgenössischen Theorien des Westens beruhen, sondern auf dem Verständnis der dahinterstehenden Prinzipien. Die gesellschaftlich-kulturellen Leistungen der Vergangenheit dürfen nicht vergessen werden. Die Kulturpolitik muss auf Analyse und Verallgemeinerung von Strukturen und Mechanismen der bestehenden kulturpolitischen Modelle beruhen [Vostrjakov, Webdokument].
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Monika Murzyn-Kupisz
Aktuelle Tendenzen im Kulturerbemanagement
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1. Einführung
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D
Quelle: eigene Darstellung
Vergangenheit ererbten Kulturressourcen heute verfügen können und wollen. Sowohl das Verständnis des Kulturerbes als auch des Potenzials seiner möglichen Auswirkungen auf die Gegenwart haben sich an der Wende vom 20. zum 21. Jahrhundert erheblich gewandelt und eine wesentliche Transformation durchlaufen. Die im Titel gestellte Frage nach den Trends im Kulturerbemanagement bezieht sich also letztlich auf die Triade der wichtigsten Variablen (Abb. 1). Zum ersten ist es erforderlich, darauf hinzuweisen, was gegenwärtig unter dem Begriff des Kulturerbes zu verstehen ist (die Frage der Definition der zu managenden Ressource). Als nächstes scheint es zielführend zu besprechen, wer, d. h. welche Subjekte, Einheiten und Institutionen, am Kulturerbemanagement Interesse finden und Maßnahmen zu seiner Erschließung und Nutzung treffen können (also die Stakeholder). Schließlich stellt sich die Frage, in welcher Absicht sie das tun, das heißt durch das Prisma welcher Werte und Wirkungsebenen sie blicken.
Formen der Nutzung, Wirkungsebenen
Monika Murzyn-Kupisz Doktortitel in Wirtschaftswissenschaften, M.A. in Geisteswissenschaften (M.A. in European Leisure Studies). Wissenschaftliche Mitarbeiterin im UNESCO-Anstalt für Kulturerbe und Stadtstudien (Lehrstuhl für Wirtschafts- und Sozialgeschichte an der Universität für Wirtschaft in Kraków). Mitglied von PKN ICOMOS. Ihr Forschungsbereich umfasst Kulturökonomie, soziale und wirtschaftliche Aspekte im Bereich Kulturerbeschutz, -interpretation und -management, Kulturpolitik, Revitalisierung von innerstädtischen Räumen und Kulturraum Mitteleuropas.
Ressourcen – materielle und immaterielle Bestandteile des Kulturerbes
…Das [Kultur]erbe ist überall – in den Medien, im Kino, auf dem Markt – in allem, vom Gen bis zur Galaxis. Es fokussiert die Aufmerksamkeit des Patriotismus, ist eine grundlegende Attraktion, die Touristen anziehen soll. Wir begegnen ihm auf Schritt und Tritt. Jede seiner Äußerungen wird wahrgenommen. Von ethnischen Wurzeln bis hin zu historischen Themenparks, von Hollywood bis Holocaust: Die ganze Welt ist beschäftigt mit Lob – oder Lamento – bezüglich eines Typs von Vergangenheit, gleichgültig ob Wahrheit oder Fiktion.“ [Lowenthal 1998, S. XIII].
2. Das heutige Verständnis des Begriffs des Kulturerbes
Akteure/Stakeholder
„
er im weiten Sinne verstandene Begriff des Managements bezieht sich auf bestimmte Maßnahmen, die ein gegebenes Subjekt ergreift, um möglichst effizient bestimmte Ziele unter Rückgriff auf bestimmte Ressourcen zu erreichen. P. Drucker zufolge gehören zum Management, das sowohl in der Gesellschaft wie auch in der Kultur verwurzelt ist, die Aufgaben und die Menschen, die diese Aufgaben umsetzen [Drucker 1974, S. XIIXIII]. E. Kirejczyk hingegen definiert Management als eine „Art zielgerichteter menschlicher Tätigkeit, die auf der Verfügung über Sach-, Finanz- und Humanressourcen sowie der Übernahme von Verantwortung für die getroffenen Entscheidungen und Anordnungen beruht. Ein solchermaßen verstandenes Management kann v erschiedenen Bereiche des menschlichen Handelns betreffen“ [vgl. Carnea 2001; Heritage for the future…]. Ein wachsendes Interesse am Kulturerbe als einer Ressource in lokalem und regionalem Maßstab lässt sich seit Jahrzehnten weltweit beobachten. Dies regt uns dazu an, die sich wandelnden Herangehensweisen an das Kulturerbe unter dem Aspekt zu betrachten, welche Subjekte mit welchen definierten Zielen über welche in der
„
Abb. 1. Das Dreieck des Kulturerbemanagements
2. Das heutige Verständnis des Begriffs des Kulturerbes
Abb. 1. Das Dreieck des Kulturerbemanagements
er im weiten Sinne verstandene Begriff des Managements bezieht sich auf bestimmte Maßnahmen, die ein gegebenes Subjekt ergreift, um möglichst effizient bestimmte Ziele unter Rückgriff auf bestimmte Ressourcen zu erreichen. P. Drucker zufolge gehören zum Management, das sowohl in der Gesellschaft wie auch in der Kultur verwurzelt ist, die Aufgaben und die Menschen, die diese Aufgaben umsetzen [Drucker 1974, S. XIIXIII]. E. Kirejczyk hingegen definiert Management als eine „Art zielgerichteter menschlicher Tätigkeit, die auf der Verfügung über Sach-, Finanz- und Humanressourcen sowie der Übernahme von Verantwortung für die getroffenen Entscheidungen und Anordnungen beruht. Ein solchermaßen verstandenes Management kann v erschiedenen Bereiche des menschlichen Handelns betreffen“ [vgl. Carnea 2001; Heritage for the future…]. Ein wachsendes Interesse am Kulturerbe als einer Ressource in lokalem und regionalem Maßstab lässt sich seit Jahrzehnten weltweit beobachten. Dies regt uns dazu an, die sich wandelnden Herangehensweisen an das Kulturerbe unter dem Aspekt zu betrachten, welche Subjekte mit welchen definierten Zielen über welche in der
Akteure/Stakeholder
D
Vergangenheit ererbten Kulturressourcen heute verfügen können und wollen. Sowohl das Verständnis des Kulturerbes als auch des Potenzials seiner möglichen Auswirkungen auf die Gegenwart haben sich an der Wende vom 20. zum 21. Jahrhundert erheblich gewandelt und eine wesentliche Transformation durchlaufen. Die im Titel gestellte Frage nach den Trends im Kulturerbemanagement bezieht sich also letztlich auf die Triade der wichtigsten Variablen (Abb. 1). Zum ersten ist es erforderlich, darauf hinzuweisen, was gegenwärtig unter dem Begriff des Kulturerbes zu verstehen ist (die Frage der Definition der zu managenden Ressource). Als nächstes scheint es zielführend zu besprechen, wer, d. h. welche Subjekte, Einheiten und Institutionen, am Kulturerbemanagement Interesse finden und Maßnahmen zu seiner Erschließung und Nutzung treffen können (also die Stakeholder). Schließlich stellt sich die Frage, in welcher Absicht sie das tun, das heißt durch das Prisma welcher Werte und Wirkungsebenen sie blicken.
Formen der Nutzung, Wirkungsebenen
1. Einführung
Ressourcen – materielle und immaterielle Bestandteile des Kulturerbes
Monika Murzyn-Kupisz Doktortitel in Wirtschaftswissenschaften, M.A. in Geisteswissenschaften (M.A. in European Leisure Studies). Wissenschaftliche Mitarbeiterin im UNESCO-Anstalt für Kulturerbe und Stadtstudien (Lehrstuhl für Wirtschafts- und Sozialgeschichte an der Universität für Wirtschaft in Kraków). Mitglied von PKN ICOMOS. Ihr Forschungsbereich umfasst Kulturökonomie, soziale und wirtschaftliche Aspekte im Bereich Kulturerbeschutz, -interpretation und -management, Kulturpolitik, Revitalisierung von innerstädtischen Räumen und Kulturraum Mitteleuropas.
…Das [Kultur]erbe ist überall – in den Medien, im Kino, auf dem Markt – in allem, vom Gen bis zur Galaxis. Es fokussiert die Aufmerksamkeit des Patriotismus, ist eine grundlegende Attraktion, die Touristen anziehen soll. Wir begegnen ihm auf Schritt und Tritt. Jede seiner Äußerungen wird wahrgenommen. Von ethnischen Wurzeln bis hin zu historischen Themenparks, von Hollywood bis Holocaust: Die ganze Welt ist beschäftigt mit Lob – oder Lamento – bezüglich eines Typs von Vergangenheit, gleichgültig ob Wahrheit oder Fiktion.“ [Lowenthal 1998, S. XIII].
Monika Murzyn-Kupisz
Quelle: eigene Darstellung
Aktuelle Tendenzen im Kulturerbemanagement
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Aktuelle Tendenzen im Kulturerbemanagement
8 Einige Autoren betrachten dies als offiziellen Diskurs des Kulturerbes – „Authorised Heritage Discourse“. Vgl. L. Smith, (2006), Uses of heritage, Routledge, London and New York. 7 Vgl. z.B. A. Peacock, (1995), A future to the past: the political economy of heritage, „Proceedings of the British Academy“, Nr. 87, S. 189-226. Das fehlen von „Systematisierung“ und Heterogenität werden ebenfalls als allgemeine Eigenschaften von „Kulturerbestudien“ (heritage studies) genannt. Vgl. D. C. Harvey, (2001), Heritage pasts and heritage presents: temporality, meaning and the scope of heritage studies, „International Journal of Heritage Studies“, Nr. 4, S. 319-338. Verwiesen wird auch auf die Notwendigkeit weiterer theortetischer Überlegungen. W. Logan, L. Smith, (2009), Foreword, in: L. Smith, N. Akagawa (Red.), Intangible heritage, Routledge, London, S. XII.
Das Kulturerbe ist eine Bezeichnung, die heute gerne angeführt und angewandt wird, sowohl im wissenschaftlichen Diskurs als auch im alltäglichen Sprachgebrauch. Es ist ein in den Medien allgegenwärtiges zusammengesetztes Hauptwort und steht, wobei in der Regel das Bestimmungswort willkürlich in „National-“ geändert wird, an fester Stelle im Lexikon der allgemeinen Kulturpolitik von Institutionen und öffentlichen Einrichtungen. Bezugnahmen auf das Kulturerbe finden sich nicht nur in den obligatorischen, unmittelbar mit dem Thema verbundenen Dokumenten, wie in Polen etwa den Woiwodschaftsprogrammen für die Denkmalpflege, ihren Gegenstücken auf Gemeindeebene oder in Programmen und Strategien der Raumplanung, sondern auch in den allgemeinen Entwicklungsstrategien der Gemeinden und Regionen, in Revitalisierungs- und Inwertsetzungsprogrammen, in Operationsplänen für die Erschließung und Nutzung von EU-Fonds. Gleichzeitig bleibt der Begriff des Kulturerbes weitgehend vage und schwer zu definieren, unter anderem deshalb, weil er überaus heterogene Bestandteile umfasst7, aber auch, weil er in den Bedeutungsbereich anderer Wörter einfließt, wie etwa: „Tradition“, „Gedächtnis“, „Kultur“ [Nieroba, Czerner, Szczepański 2010, S. 35]. In einer maximalistischen Begriffsfassung können wir als Kulturerbe begreifen: „alles, was wir für uns aus der Vergangenheit übermittelt halten“ [Lowenthal 2005, S. 81], „alles, was die Menschen beibehalten wollen“ [Howard 2003, S. 1], sowohl für jetzige als auch zukünftige Generationen, oder auch eine „heutzutagige Exploitierung der Vergangenheit“ [Graham, Ashworth, Tunbridge 2002, S. 2]. Der Begriff ist also allgegenwärtig, betrifft uns alle und überall und ist eine Frucht jedweder menschlichen Tätigkeit, keineswegs nur künstlerischer oder kultureller Art, kann er sich doch sogar auf Örtlichkeiten und Naturerscheinungen beziehen. Er gilt auch nicht nur für das, was öffentlich anerkannt und gefördert wird,8 sondern funktioniert in höchst unterschiedlichen Maßstäben und Diskursen, vom privaten bis zum globalen, vom
Monika Murzyn-Kupisz
offiziellen bis zur Gegenkultur. P. Howard hat es so ausgedrückt: „Nicht alles ist Erbe, aber alles kann Erbe sein.“ [Howard 2003, S. 3] Um nicht bei dieser doch recht fruchtlosen, wenn auch viel über die Natur des heutigen Verständnisses des Begriffs Kulturerbe aussagenden Definition zu bleiben, lohnt es sich, auf die beiden grundlegenden Ansätze einzugehen. Als die praktischere erscheint uns, auch aus der Perspektive der hier vorgenommenen Erörterungen, eine objektiv ausgerichtete Definition, die darauf verweist, welche Bestandteile des Vermächtnisses der Vergangenheit in rechtlicher Hinsicht, sowohl im Internationalen Recht (Chartas, Konventionen) als auch den rechtlichen Regelungen der einzelnen Länder, als Kulturerbe bezeichnet werden können. Nicht zu übergehen ist jedoch auch der andere grundsätzliche Ansatz für das Verständnis des Kulturerbes, gemäß dem als Kulturerbe der ganze Prozess von Wahlentscheidungen, von Bedeutungsverleihung und Interpretation der Vergangenheit aufzufassen ist, ein Ansatz, der vielleicht weniger präzise erscheinen mag, dafür aber die Fallstricke einer „Standardisierung“ des Kulturerbes vermeidet [Skuonti 2009, S. 74-92]. Zum ersten Ansatz ist zu bemerken, dass der Begriff des Kulturerbes in den vergangenen zwanzig Jahren eine signifikante Veränderung durchgemacht hat. Ursprünglich galt als maßgeblich einzig und allein der Erhalt einzelner denkmalgeschützter Bauwerke und Kunstwerke, vor allem der ältesten und zum festen Kanon der jeweiligen Nationalkultur gehörenden. Schrittweise erweiterte sich das Spektrum der für bemerkens- und schützenswert erachteten Elemente um Bauensembles und größere Raumstrukturen, Industrieobjekte, Denkmäler der Technik und Ingenieurskunst, Kulturlandschaften und historische Umgebungen (historic environment) sowie auch die immateriellen Werte von Orten und Gesellschaften: ihre Traditionen9, Sitten und Rituale, historischen Toponymien und Symboliken. Innerhalb der jeweiligen Kategorie von Objekten, etwa den immobilen, lässt sich wiederum eine
Monika Murzyn-Kupisz
9 Eingeschlossen die herkömmliche Produktionstätigkeit, Landwirtschaft, künstlerisches Schaffen, kulinarische Traditionen.
Aktuelle Tendenzen im Kulturerbemanagement
Das Kulturerbe ist eine Bezeichnung, die heute gerne angeführt und angewandt wird, sowohl im wissenschaftlichen Diskurs als auch im alltäglichen Sprachgebrauch. Es ist ein in den Medien allgegenwärtiges zusammengesetztes Hauptwort und steht, wobei in der Regel das Bestimmungswort willkürlich in „National-“ geändert wird, an fester Stelle im Lexikon der allgemeinen Kulturpolitik von Institutionen und öffentlichen Einrichtungen. Bezugnahmen auf das Kulturerbe finden sich nicht nur in den obligatorischen, unmittelbar mit dem Thema verbundenen Dokumenten, wie in Polen etwa den Woiwodschaftsprogrammen für die Denkmalpflege, ihren Gegenstücken auf Gemeindeebene oder in Programmen und Strategien der Raumplanung, sondern auch in den allgemeinen Entwicklungsstrategien der Gemeinden und Regionen, in Revitalisierungs- und Inwertsetzungsprogrammen, in Operationsplänen für die Erschließung und Nutzung von EU-Fonds. Gleichzeitig bleibt der Begriff des Kulturerbes weitgehend vage und schwer zu definieren, unter anderem deshalb, weil er überaus heterogene Bestandteile umfasst7, aber auch, weil er in den Bedeutungsbereich anderer Wörter einfließt, wie etwa: „Tradition“, „Gedächtnis“, „Kultur“ [Nieroba, Czerner, Szczepański 2010, S. 35]. In einer maximalistischen Begriffsfassung können wir als Kulturerbe begreifen: „alles, was wir für uns aus der Vergangenheit übermittelt halten“ [Lowenthal 2005, S. 81], „alles, was die Menschen beibehalten wollen“ [Howard 2003, S. 1], sowohl für jetzige als auch zukünftige Generationen, oder auch eine „heutzutagige Exploitierung der Vergangenheit“ [Graham, Ashworth, Tunbridge 2002, S. 2]. Der Begriff ist also allgegenwärtig, betrifft uns alle und überall und ist eine Frucht jedweder menschlichen Tätigkeit, keineswegs nur künstlerischer oder kultureller Art, kann er sich doch sogar auf Örtlichkeiten und Naturerscheinungen beziehen. Er gilt auch nicht nur für das, was öffentlich anerkannt und gefördert wird,8 sondern funktioniert in höchst unterschiedlichen Maßstäben und Diskursen, vom privaten bis zum globalen, vom
7 Vgl. z.B. A. Peacock, (1995), A future to the past: the political economy of heritage, „Proceedings of the British Academy“, Nr. 87, S. 189-226. Das fehlen von „Systematisierung“ und Heterogenität werden ebenfalls als allgemeine Eigenschaften von „Kulturerbestudien“ (heritage studies) genannt. Vgl. D. C. Harvey, (2001), Heritage pasts and heritage presents: temporality, meaning and the scope of heritage studies, „International Journal of Heritage Studies“, Nr. 4, S. 319-338. Verwiesen wird auch auf die Notwendigkeit weiterer theortetischer Überlegungen. W. Logan, L. Smith, (2009), Foreword, in: L. Smith, N. Akagawa (Red.), Intangible heritage, Routledge, London, S. XII.
8 Einige Autoren betrachten dies als offiziellen Diskurs des Kulturerbes – „Authorised Heritage Discourse“. Vgl. L. Smith, (2006), Uses of heritage, Routledge, London and New York. 9 Eingeschlossen die herkömmliche Produktionstätigkeit, Landwirtschaft, künstlerisches Schaffen, kulinarische Traditionen.
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offiziellen bis zur Gegenkultur. P. Howard hat es so ausgedrückt: „Nicht alles ist Erbe, aber alles kann Erbe sein.“ [Howard 2003, S. 3] Um nicht bei dieser doch recht fruchtlosen, wenn auch viel über die Natur des heutigen Verständnisses des Begriffs Kulturerbe aussagenden Definition zu bleiben, lohnt es sich, auf die beiden grundlegenden Ansätze einzugehen. Als die praktischere erscheint uns, auch aus der Perspektive der hier vorgenommenen Erörterungen, eine objektiv ausgerichtete Definition, die darauf verweist, welche Bestandteile des Vermächtnisses der Vergangenheit in rechtlicher Hinsicht, sowohl im Internationalen Recht (Chartas, Konventionen) als auch den rechtlichen Regelungen der einzelnen Länder, als Kulturerbe bezeichnet werden können. Nicht zu übergehen ist jedoch auch der andere grundsätzliche Ansatz für das Verständnis des Kulturerbes, gemäß dem als Kulturerbe der ganze Prozess von Wahlentscheidungen, von Bedeutungsverleihung und Interpretation der Vergangenheit aufzufassen ist, ein Ansatz, der vielleicht weniger präzise erscheinen mag, dafür aber die Fallstricke einer „Standardisierung“ des Kulturerbes vermeidet [Skuonti 2009, S. 74-92]. Zum ersten Ansatz ist zu bemerken, dass der Begriff des Kulturerbes in den vergangenen zwanzig Jahren eine signifikante Veränderung durchgemacht hat. Ursprünglich galt als maßgeblich einzig und allein der Erhalt einzelner denkmalgeschützter Bauwerke und Kunstwerke, vor allem der ältesten und zum festen Kanon der jeweiligen Nationalkultur gehörenden. Schrittweise erweiterte sich das Spektrum der für bemerkens- und schützenswert erachteten Elemente um Bauensembles und größere Raumstrukturen, Industrieobjekte, Denkmäler der Technik und Ingenieurskunst, Kulturlandschaften und historische Umgebungen (historic environment) sowie auch die immateriellen Werte von Orten und Gesellschaften: ihre Traditionen9, Sitten und Rituale, historischen Toponymien und Symboliken. Innerhalb der jeweiligen Kategorie von Objekten, etwa den immobilen, lässt sich wiederum eine
künstlerischen oder wissenschaftlichen Gründen von außergewöhnlichem universellem Wert sind, MM Stätten: Werke von Menschenhand oder gemeinsame Werke von Natur und Mensch sowie Gebiete einschließlich archäologischer Stätten, die aus geschichtlichen, ästhetischen, ethnologischen oder anthropologischen Gründen von außergewöhnlichem universellem Wert sind.“ [Art. 1 der Konvention… 1996] Zu erinnern ist auch an den sowohl zum Begriff des Denkmals als auch dem Begriff des Kulturerbes häufig synonym verwendeten Begriffs des „Kulturguts“, der in der Haager Konvention zum Schutz von Kulturgut bei bewaffneten Konflikten aus dem Jahr 1954 Anwendung fand und der folgendermaßen definiert ist: a. bewegliches oder unbewegliches Gut, das für das kulturelle Erbe der Völker von großer Bedeutung ist, wie z.B. Bau-, Kunst- oder geschichtliche Denkmäler kirchlicher oder weltlicher Art, archäologische Stätten, Gruppen von Bauten, die als Ganzes von historischem oder künstlerischem Interesse sind, Kunstwerke, Manuskripte, Bücher und andere Gegenstände von künstlerischem, historischem oder archäologischem Interesse sowie wissenschaftliche Sammlungen und bedeutende Sammlungen von Büchern, von Archivalien oder von Reproduktionen des oben umschriebenen Kulturguts, b. Gebäude, die in der Hauptsache und tatsächlich der Erhaltung oder Ausstellung des unter a umschriebenen beweglichen Guts dienen, wie z.B. Museen, große Bibliotheken, Archive sowie Bergungsorte, in denen im Falle bewaffneter Konflikte das unter a umschriebene bewegliche Kulturgut in Sicherheit gebracht werden soll, c. Denkmalzentren, das heißt Orte, die in beträchtlichem Umfange Kulturgut im Sinne der Unterabsätze a und b aufweisen.“ [Konvention zum Schutz… 1957] Das steigende Bewusstsein, dass auch das immaterielle Kulturerbe betrachtens- und schützenswert ist, führte hingegen zur Verabschiedung des Übereinkommens zur Erhaltung des immateriellen Kulturerbes durch die UNESCO im Jahr 2003. Diese Konvention besagt: 1. Unter „immateriellem Kulturerbe“ sind Bräuche, Darstellungen, Ausdrucksformen, Wissen und Fertigkeiten – sowie die dazu gehörigen Instrumente, Objekte, Artefakte und kulturellen Räume – zu verstehen, die Gemeinschaften, Gruppen und gegebenenfalls Einzelpersonen als Bestandteil
Kulturmanagement 2011, Vol 4 (4)
beachtliche Differenziertheit erkennen: So kann etwa die Architektur so verschiedene Objekte enthalten wie Sakralbauten, Residenzen, Wohnungsbau, öffentliche Gebäude, Wehranlagen, Ingenieurskunst, Bauwerke als Holz und Stein. Heute wird also zum Kulturerbe, sowohl in der Theorie der Denkmalpflege, in sozialgeografischer Hinsicht als auch in der Kulturökonomie, eine enorm differenzierte Menge von materiellen und immateriellen Elementen, die sich ständig noch erweitert, sowohl in typologischer als auch chronologischer Hinsicht, und Bezug nimmt auf älteste und jüngste Zeiten [Benhamou 1996, S. 115-132]. Diese Evolution wird sichtbar, wenn wir uns die Definitionen des Gegenstands des Schutzes des Kulturerbes in den einschlägigen internationalen Rechtsakten betrachten. In der bis heute als für den Denkmalpflegebereich als maßgeblich erachteten Charta von Venedig steht: „Art. 1 Der Denkmalbegriff umfasst sowohl das einzelne Denkmal als auch das städtische oder ländliche Ensemble (Denkmalbereich), das von einer ihm eigentümlichen Kultur, einer bezeichnenden Entwicklung oder einem historischen Ereignis Zeugnis ablegt. Er bezieht sich nicht nur auf große künstlerische Schöpfungen, sondern auch auf bescheidene Werke, die im Lauf der Zeit eine kulturelle Bedeutung bekommen haben. Art. 7. Das Denkmal ist untrennbar mit der Geschichte verbunden, von der es Zeugnis ablegt, sowie mit der Umgebung, zu der es gehört. (…) Art. 8. Werke der Bildhauerei, der Malerei oder der dekorativen Ausstattung (… sind) integraler Bestandteil eines Denkmals (…) Art. 11 Die Beiträge aller Epochen zu einem Denkmal müssen respektiert werden.“ [Charta von Venedig 1996, S. 19-28] Die eine knappe Dekade später verabschiedete UNESCO-Konvention zum Weltkultur- und Naturerbe (die so genannte Pariser Konvention) bedient sich schon der Begriffe „Kulturerbe“ und „Naturerbe“. Als Kulturerbe gelten hier: MM Denkmäler: Werke der Architektur, Großplastik und Monumentalmalerei, Objekte oder Überreste archäologischer Art, Inschriften, Höhlen und Verbindungen solcher Erscheinungsformen, die aus geschichtlichen, künstlerischen oder wissenschaftlichen Gründen von außergewöhnlichem universellem Wert sind, MM Ensembles: Gruppen einzelner oder miteinander verbundener Gebäude, die wegen ihrer Architektur, ihrer Geschlossenheit oder ihrer Stellung in der Landschaft aus geschichtlichen,
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künstlerischen oder wissenschaftlichen Gründen von außergewöhnlichem universellem Wert sind, MM Stätten: Werke von Menschenhand oder gemeinsame Werke von Natur und Mensch sowie Gebiete einschließlich archäologischer Stätten, die aus geschichtlichen, ästhetischen, ethnologischen oder anthropologischen Gründen von außergewöhnlichem universellem Wert sind.“ [Art. 1 der Konvention… 1996] Zu erinnern ist auch an den sowohl zum Begriff des Denkmals als auch dem Begriff des Kulturerbes häufig synonym verwendeten Begriffs des „Kulturguts“, der in der Haager Konvention zum Schutz von Kulturgut bei bewaffneten Konflikten aus dem Jahr 1954 Anwendung fand und der folgendermaßen definiert ist: a. bewegliches oder unbewegliches Gut, das für das kulturelle Erbe der Völker von großer Bedeutung ist, wie z.B. Bau-, Kunst- oder geschichtliche Denkmäler kirchlicher oder weltlicher Art, archäologische Stätten, Gruppen von Bauten, die als Ganzes von historischem oder künstlerischem Interesse sind, Kunstwerke, Manuskripte, Bücher und andere Gegenstände von künstlerischem, historischem oder archäologischem Interesse sowie wissenschaftliche Sammlungen und bedeutende Sammlungen von Büchern, von Archivalien oder von Reproduktionen des oben umschriebenen Kulturguts, b. Gebäude, die in der Hauptsache und tatsächlich der Erhaltung oder Ausstellung des unter a umschriebenen beweglichen Guts dienen, wie z.B. Museen, große Bibliotheken, Archive sowie Bergungsorte, in denen im Falle bewaffneter Konflikte das unter a umschriebene bewegliche Kulturgut in Sicherheit gebracht werden soll, c. Denkmalzentren, das heißt Orte, die in beträchtlichem Umfange Kulturgut im Sinne der Unterabsätze a und b aufweisen.“ [Konvention zum Schutz… 1957] Das steigende Bewusstsein, dass auch das immaterielle Kulturerbe betrachtens- und schützenswert ist, führte hingegen zur Verabschiedung des Übereinkommens zur Erhaltung des immateriellen Kulturerbes durch die UNESCO im Jahr 2003. Diese Konvention besagt: 1. Unter „immateriellem Kulturerbe“ sind Bräuche, Darstellungen, Ausdrucksformen, Wissen und Fertigkeiten – sowie die dazu gehörigen Instrumente, Objekte, Artefakte und kulturellen Räume – zu verstehen, die Gemeinschaften, Gruppen und gegebenenfalls Einzelpersonen als Bestandteil
114
beachtliche Differenziertheit erkennen: So kann etwa die Architektur so verschiedene Objekte enthalten wie Sakralbauten, Residenzen, Wohnungsbau, öffentliche Gebäude, Wehranlagen, Ingenieurskunst, Bauwerke als Holz und Stein. Heute wird also zum Kulturerbe, sowohl in der Theorie der Denkmalpflege, in sozialgeografischer Hinsicht als auch in der Kulturökonomie, eine enorm differenzierte Menge von materiellen und immateriellen Elementen, die sich ständig noch erweitert, sowohl in typologischer als auch chronologischer Hinsicht, und Bezug nimmt auf älteste und jüngste Zeiten [Benhamou 1996, S. 115-132]. Diese Evolution wird sichtbar, wenn wir uns die Definitionen des Gegenstands des Schutzes des Kulturerbes in den einschlägigen internationalen Rechtsakten betrachten. In der bis heute als für den Denkmalpflegebereich als maßgeblich erachteten Charta von Venedig steht: „Art. 1 Der Denkmalbegriff umfasst sowohl das einzelne Denkmal als auch das städtische oder ländliche Ensemble (Denkmalbereich), das von einer ihm eigentümlichen Kultur, einer bezeichnenden Entwicklung oder einem historischen Ereignis Zeugnis ablegt. Er bezieht sich nicht nur auf große künstlerische Schöpfungen, sondern auch auf bescheidene Werke, die im Lauf der Zeit eine kulturelle Bedeutung bekommen haben. Art. 7. Das Denkmal ist untrennbar mit der Geschichte verbunden, von der es Zeugnis ablegt, sowie mit der Umgebung, zu der es gehört. (…) Art. 8. Werke der Bildhauerei, der Malerei oder der dekorativen Ausstattung (… sind) integraler Bestandteil eines Denkmals (…) Art. 11 Die Beiträge aller Epochen zu einem Denkmal müssen respektiert werden.“ [Charta von Venedig 1996, S. 19-28] Die eine knappe Dekade später verabschiedete UNESCO-Konvention zum Weltkultur- und Naturerbe (die so genannte Pariser Konvention) bedient sich schon der Begriffe „Kulturerbe“ und „Naturerbe“. Als Kulturerbe gelten hier: MM Denkmäler: Werke der Architektur, Großplastik und Monumentalmalerei, Objekte oder Überreste archäologischer Art, Inschriften, Höhlen und Verbindungen solcher Erscheinungsformen, die aus geschichtlichen, künstlerischen oder wissenschaftlichen Gründen von außergewöhnlichem universellem Wert sind, MM Ensembles: Gruppen einzelner oder miteinander verbundener Gebäude, die wegen ihrer Architektur, ihrer Geschlossenheit oder ihrer Stellung in der Landschaft aus geschichtlichen,
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ihres Kulturerbes ansehen. Dieses immaterielle Kulturerbe, das von einer Generation an die nächste weitergegeben wird, wird von den Gemeinschaften und Gruppen in Auseinandersetzung mit ihrer Umwelt, in ihrer Interaktion mit der Natur und mit ihrer Geschichte fortwährend neu gestaltet und vermittelt ihnen ein Gefühl von Identität und Kontinuität, wodurch die Achtung vor der kulturellen Vielfalt und der menschlichen Kreativität gefördert wird. (…) 2. Das „immaterielle Kulturerbe” im Sinne der Nummer 1 wird unter anderem in folgenden Bereichen zum Ausdruck gebracht: a. mündlich überlieferte Traditionen und Ausdrucksformen, einschließlich der Sprache als Träger des immateriellen Kulturerbes, b. darstellende Künste, c. gesellschaftliche Bräuche, Rituale und Feste, d. Wissen und Bräuche in Bezug auf die Natur und das Universum, e. raditionelle Handwerkstechniken.“ [Konvention zur Bewahrung… 2003, Webdokument] Objektiv gefasst wird demnach das Kulturerbe als etwas begriffen, was objektiv in materiellen oder immateriellen Äußerungsformen existiert. Es kann institutionell definiert und diagniositziert werden, etwa durch offizielle Aufnahme in ein Denkmalregister (auf lokaler, regionaler oder höherer Ebene), oder informell durch die Ansicht von Experten, aber auch einfachen Bürgern, dass ein solches Gut zu erhalten und schützen ist [Benhamou 2003, S. 255-262]. Nach dem zweiten Ansatz, den man als prozessiv oder subjektiv bezeichnen kann, ist das Kulturerbe dagegen ein soziales und politisches Konstrukt, „es existiert nicht, es wird geschaffen“ [Bendix 2009, S. 255]. Aus der Vergangenheit wird all das ausgewählt, fragmentarisch selegiert, was (soziale und wirtschaftliche) Wesenhaftigkeit, Wertigkeit verleiht. L. Smith definiert das Kulturerbe als „Akte der Kommunikation und Herausbildung von Bedeutungen“ [Smith 2006, S. 2; vgl. Harvey 2001, S. 326]. Danach „bezieht sich die Konzeption des Kulturerbes nicht auf materielle Objekte, sondern einen kulturellen und gesellschaftlichen Prozess, der sich mit Akten der Erinnerungen verbindet, die zum Zweck (…) des Verstehens und des Engagements für die Gegenwart unternommen werden.“ Diese Deskription sollte dabei eher im verbalen als im nominalen Sinn aufgefasst wer-
den. Dieselbe Autorin behauptet darüber hinaus, dass das Kulturerbe einen „Diskurs der Negation und Regulation sozialer Bedeutungen und Praktiken im Zusammenhang mit der Herstellung und Rekapitulierung von »Identität«“ [Smith 2006, S. 5] darstellt. Auch D. Harvey sieht das Kulturerbe als Prozess der Definierung von Identität, das heißt der Bekräftigung der Andersartigkeit gegenüber anderen Gruppen und Personen oder der Legitimierung der Herrschaft [Harvey 2001]. Ähnlich sehen es B. Graham und P. Howard, die behaupten, dass die materiellen Orte des Kulturerbes vielleicht nur „leere Hüllen von zweifelhafter Authentizität sind, während ihre wahre Bedeutung eine Resultante der Ideen und Werte ist, die durch es selbst vermittelt werden“ [Graham, Howard 2008, S. 4]. Noch anders fasst B. Kirshenblatt-Gimblett das Kulturerbe auf. Ihrer Ansicht nach „ist das Kulturerbe eine neue Form der Kulturproduktion in einer Gegenwart, die auf die Vergangenheit aufbaut“ [Kirshenblatt-Gimblett 1995, S. 369]. Es ist demnach etwas anderes als die Darbietung der Vergangenheit, denn es verwandelt diese und schafft dadurch eine neue Qualität. A. Peacock schlug dagegen einen neuen Blick auf das Kulturerbe aus dem Sichtwinkel von G. Becker10 vor – als eine „immaterielle Dienstleistung, welche die von den Verbrauchern erfahrene Nützlichkeit erweitert, wobei historische Baudenkmäler und Artefakte einen Input darstellen“ [Peacock 2008, S. 195]. Der Verbraucher ist somit selbst „Produzent“ seines eigenen Nutzens mit der Möglichkeit der Substitution zwischen den verschiedenen „Inputs“ des Kulturerbes. Zum Wesensbestand des Kulturerbes gehört nach diesem Ansatz also seine Selektivität, Immaterialität, Diskursivität und Veränderlichbarkeit, aber auch der Zusammenhang mit der Identität swoi die Erfüllung moderner, heutiger, aktueller Funktionen. Diese Nutzbarmachung also der Vergangenheit (das heißt, der Hinterlassenschaft vergangener Generationen) für heutige Zwecke entscheidet darüber, ob es sich tatsächlich um ein Erbe handelt, also ob es Subjekte gibt, die es erben – will heißen: an ihre aktuellen Bedürfnisse anpassen – wollen. Im Falle des Kulturerbes findet somit eine „permanente Neubestätigung ihrer Werte durch Nutzung“ statt [Prott 2005, S. 225-248]. Der Prozess der Hervorbringung und Verwandlung von Objekten und Assoziationen mit der
10 Notabene Nobelpreisträger für Wirtschaftswissenschaften 1992.
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115
10 Notabene Nobelpreisträger für Wirtschaftswissenschaften 1992.
ihres Kulturerbes ansehen. Dieses immaterielle Kulturerbe, das von einer Generation an die nächste weitergegeben wird, wird von den Gemeinschaften und Gruppen in Auseinandersetzung mit ihrer Umwelt, in ihrer Interaktion mit der Natur und mit ihrer Geschichte fortwährend neu gestaltet und vermittelt ihnen ein Gefühl von Identität und Kontinuität, wodurch die Achtung vor der kulturellen Vielfalt und der menschlichen Kreativität gefördert wird. (…) 2. Das „immaterielle Kulturerbe” im Sinne der Nummer 1 wird unter anderem in folgenden Bereichen zum Ausdruck gebracht: a. mündlich überlieferte Traditionen und Ausdrucksformen, einschließlich der Sprache als Träger des immateriellen Kulturerbes, b. darstellende Künste, c. gesellschaftliche Bräuche, Rituale und Feste, d. Wissen und Bräuche in Bezug auf die Natur und das Universum, e. raditionelle Handwerkstechniken.“ [Konvention zur Bewahrung… 2003, Webdokument] Objektiv gefasst wird demnach das Kulturerbe als etwas begriffen, was objektiv in materiellen oder immateriellen Äußerungsformen existiert. Es kann institutionell definiert und diagniositziert werden, etwa durch offizielle Aufnahme in ein Denkmalregister (auf lokaler, regionaler oder höherer Ebene), oder informell durch die Ansicht von Experten, aber auch einfachen Bürgern, dass ein solches Gut zu erhalten und schützen ist [Benhamou 2003, S. 255-262]. Nach dem zweiten Ansatz, den man als prozessiv oder subjektiv bezeichnen kann, ist das Kulturerbe dagegen ein soziales und politisches Konstrukt, „es existiert nicht, es wird geschaffen“ [Bendix 2009, S. 255]. Aus der Vergangenheit wird all das ausgewählt, fragmentarisch selegiert, was (soziale und wirtschaftliche) Wesenhaftigkeit, Wertigkeit verleiht. L. Smith definiert das Kulturerbe als „Akte der Kommunikation und Herausbildung von Bedeutungen“ [Smith 2006, S. 2; vgl. Harvey 2001, S. 326]. Danach „bezieht sich die Konzeption des Kulturerbes nicht auf materielle Objekte, sondern einen kulturellen und gesellschaftlichen Prozess, der sich mit Akten der Erinnerungen verbindet, die zum Zweck (…) des Verstehens und des Engagements für die Gegenwart unternommen werden.“ Diese Deskription sollte dabei eher im verbalen als im nominalen Sinn aufgefasst wer-
den. Dieselbe Autorin behauptet darüber hinaus, dass das Kulturerbe einen „Diskurs der Negation und Regulation sozialer Bedeutungen und Praktiken im Zusammenhang mit der Herstellung und Rekapitulierung von »Identität«“ [Smith 2006, S. 5] darstellt. Auch D. Harvey sieht das Kulturerbe als Prozess der Definierung von Identität, das heißt der Bekräftigung der Andersartigkeit gegenüber anderen Gruppen und Personen oder der Legitimierung der Herrschaft [Harvey 2001]. Ähnlich sehen es B. Graham und P. Howard, die behaupten, dass die materiellen Orte des Kulturerbes vielleicht nur „leere Hüllen von zweifelhafter Authentizität sind, während ihre wahre Bedeutung eine Resultante der Ideen und Werte ist, die durch es selbst vermittelt werden“ [Graham, Howard 2008, S. 4]. Noch anders fasst B. Kirshenblatt-Gimblett das Kulturerbe auf. Ihrer Ansicht nach „ist das Kulturerbe eine neue Form der Kulturproduktion in einer Gegenwart, die auf die Vergangenheit aufbaut“ [Kirshenblatt-Gimblett 1995, S. 369]. Es ist demnach etwas anderes als die Darbietung der Vergangenheit, denn es verwandelt diese und schafft dadurch eine neue Qualität. A. Peacock schlug dagegen einen neuen Blick auf das Kulturerbe aus dem Sichtwinkel von G. Becker10 vor – als eine „immaterielle Dienstleistung, welche die von den Verbrauchern erfahrene Nützlichkeit erweitert, wobei historische Baudenkmäler und Artefakte einen Input darstellen“ [Peacock 2008, S. 195]. Der Verbraucher ist somit selbst „Produzent“ seines eigenen Nutzens mit der Möglichkeit der Substitution zwischen den verschiedenen „Inputs“ des Kulturerbes. Zum Wesensbestand des Kulturerbes gehört nach diesem Ansatz also seine Selektivität, Immaterialität, Diskursivität und Veränderlichbarkeit, aber auch der Zusammenhang mit der Identität swoi die Erfüllung moderner, heutiger, aktueller Funktionen. Diese Nutzbarmachung also der Vergangenheit (das heißt, der Hinterlassenschaft vergangener Generationen) für heutige Zwecke entscheidet darüber, ob es sich tatsächlich um ein Erbe handelt, also ob es Subjekte gibt, die es erben – will heißen: an ihre aktuellen Bedürfnisse anpassen – wollen. Im Falle des Kulturerbes findet somit eine „permanente Neubestätigung ihrer Werte durch Nutzung“ statt [Prott 2005, S. 225-248]. Der Prozess der Hervorbringung und Verwandlung von Objekten und Assoziationen mit der
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Vergangenheit in Kulturerbe (ihre „Erbewerdung“) wird als „Heritagisierung“ („heritagisation“) bezeichnet [Berndix 2009; Harvey 2001; Smith, Akagawa 2009, S. 1-9]. Aufgrund der zahlreichen Produzenten und Konsumenten von Kulturerbe und ihrer vielfältigen, einander überlagernden Funktionen (politischen, sozialen, wirtschaftlichen), haben viele Autoren darauf hingewiesen, dass ein jeweiliger Ort nicht ein einziges Erbe besitzt, sondern, ähnlich wie es sich im Fall der Identität verhält, viele verschiedene Erbteile besitzen kann, die zueinander in Symbiose, Rivalität oder Konflikt stehen [Graham, Howard 2008]. Zugleich sind gemäß diesem Ansatz nicht sämtliche „Überbleibsel“ der Vergangenheit auf einem bestimmten Territorium ohne weiteres zum Erbe zu rechnen, sondern nur diejenigen, die sich durch Bedeutung auszeichnen, die gewisse Funktionen für die heute lebende Bevölkerung erfüllen: Schließlich finden nicht alle Bestandteile des Vermächtnisses der Vergangenheit noch heute Akzeptanz und sind, was sich unmittelbar daraus ergibt, in einem gegebenen politischen, wirtschaftlichen, sozialen oder kulturellen Kontext nutzbar, „brauchbar“. Wenn man also über die heutige Rollen und Funktionen des Kulturerbes nachdenkt, muss eine Unterscheidung vorgenommen werden zwischen dem akzeptierten und dem nicht gewollten, nicht anerkannten Kulturerbe, das „Dissonanzen hervorruft“ (dissonant heritage), keine Erben hat oder nur schwer Erben findet.11
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3. Ein multidisziplinärer Blick auf die Werte des Kulturerbes
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11 Z.B. das materielle Erbe ethnischer Gruppen, die nicht mehr auf dem jeweiligen Gebeit ansässig sind, das Erbe in zusammenhang mit tragischen historischen Geschehnissen, ethnischen Säuberungen, Völkermord etc. Vgl. J. E. Tunbridge, G. J. Ashworth, (1996), Dissonant heritage: the management of the past as a resource in conflict, John Wiley & Sons, Chichester; W. Logan, K. Reeves (red.), (2009), Places of pain and shame. Dealing with ‘difficult heritage’, Routledge, London.
Aus wirtschaftlicher Sicht lässt sich der Nutzen aus der Erhaltung und Verwendung eines Objekts, eines Ensembles, einer Funktion des Erbes oder einer mit dem Kulturerbe zusammenhängenden Unternehmung in Nutzwerte und sonstige Werte einteilen [Hutter, Rizzo 1997; Throsby 2001; Ready, Red., Navrud, Red. 2002; Peacock, Rizzo 2008; Avrami, Mason, Torre de la 2000; Cuccia, Signorello 2002, S. 119-146]. Die Nutzwerte betreffen alle Güter und Leistungen, die von dem jeweiligen Ort, Objekt oder Projekt unmittelbar generiert werden und die sich zumeist durch einen Preis ausdrücken lassen (z.B. Eintrittspreis zu einem Baudenkmal, der Preis für die Übernachtung in einem denkmalgeschützten Objekt, der Preis einer denkmalgeschützten Immobilie oder eines Kunstwerks in einer Galerie, die Kosten des Zugangs zu einem Kulturgut, etwa die Kosten der Zufahrt zu einem bestimmten Ort oder Objekt). Neben den reinen Nutzwerten sind die sonstigen Werte von nicht geringerer Bedeutung sowohl für größere gesellschaftliche Gruppen als auch für den Einzelnen: die Wahrnehmung und Würdigung der Tatsache, dass bestimmte Objekte und Traditionen existieren (Wert der Existenz), der Wert der Möglichkeit ihrer Erfahrung oder ihres Besuchs irgendwann in der Zukunft (optionaler Wert) sowie die Befriedigung durch die Möglichkeit, das Erbe an die nächsten Generationen weiterreichen zu können (Wert des Vermächtnisses). Wenn also Unternehmungen im Zusammenhang mit dem Kulturerbe angegangen werden, wird oft nicht nur ihr Nutzen für die heutigen Generationen bedacht, sondern auch die Notwendigkeit des Erhalts des Erbes für die Nachwelt. Die erwähnten Werte verbinden sich auch mit wesentlichen ethischen Dilemmata bezüglich der heutigen Nutzung des Kulturerbes, u. a. die Tatsache, dass viele Elemente des Erbes zu den öffentlichen Gütern zu rechnen sind, und die sich daraus ergebenden Implikationen [MurzynKupisz 2011] sowie die Frage der Nachhaltigkeit hinsichtlich der Weitergabe des Erbes in gutem Zustand an künftige Generationen, ohne dass es zu einer Schmälerung der Ressource durch unverantwortlichen übermäßigen Konsum kommt, das heißt, die Respektierung des Prinzips der Gleichheit zwischen den Generationen. Eine
er moderne multidisziplinäre und holistische Blick auf das Kulturerbe führt auch zur Identifizierung der Vielheit der es auszeichnenden Werte, zu denen sowohl kulturelle als auch ökonomische Werte gehören. Unter die kulturellen Werte des Erbes fallen unter anderem die mannigfaltigen künstlerischen, ästhetischen, wissenschaftlichen, geistigen und sozialen Werte (Patriotismus, Vertrautheit, Bei-sichselbst-Sein, Gefühl einer lokalen Gemeinschaft, Identität etc.) [Pawłowska 2002, S. 43-61].
er moderne multidisziplinäre und holistische Blick auf das Kulturerbe führt auch zur Identifizierung der Vielheit der es auszeichnenden Werte, zu denen sowohl kulturelle als auch ökonomische Werte gehören. Unter die kulturellen Werte des Erbes fallen unter anderem die mannigfaltigen künstlerischen, ästhetischen, wissenschaftlichen, geistigen und sozialen Werte (Patriotismus, Vertrautheit, Bei-sichselbst-Sein, Gefühl einer lokalen Gemeinschaft, Identität etc.) [Pawłowska 2002, S. 43-61].
D
11 Z.B. das materielle Erbe ethnischer Gruppen, die nicht mehr auf dem jeweiligen Gebeit ansässig sind, das Erbe in zusammenhang mit tragischen historischen Geschehnissen, ethnischen Säuberungen, Völkermord etc. Vgl. J. E. Tunbridge, G. J. Ashworth, (1996), Dissonant heritage: the management of the past as a resource in conflict, John Wiley & Sons, Chichester; W. Logan, K. Reeves (red.), (2009), Places of pain and shame. Dealing with ‘difficult heritage’, Routledge, London.
3. Ein multidisziplinärer Blick auf die Werte des Kulturerbes
Aus wirtschaftlicher Sicht lässt sich der Nutzen aus der Erhaltung und Verwendung eines Objekts, eines Ensembles, einer Funktion des Erbes oder einer mit dem Kulturerbe zusammenhängenden Unternehmung in Nutzwerte und sonstige Werte einteilen [Hutter, Rizzo 1997; Throsby 2001; Ready, Red., Navrud, Red. 2002; Peacock, Rizzo 2008; Avrami, Mason, Torre de la 2000; Cuccia, Signorello 2002, S. 119-146]. Die Nutzwerte betreffen alle Güter und Leistungen, die von dem jeweiligen Ort, Objekt oder Projekt unmittelbar generiert werden und die sich zumeist durch einen Preis ausdrücken lassen (z.B. Eintrittspreis zu einem Baudenkmal, der Preis für die Übernachtung in einem denkmalgeschützten Objekt, der Preis einer denkmalgeschützten Immobilie oder eines Kunstwerks in einer Galerie, die Kosten des Zugangs zu einem Kulturgut, etwa die Kosten der Zufahrt zu einem bestimmten Ort oder Objekt). Neben den reinen Nutzwerten sind die sonstigen Werte von nicht geringerer Bedeutung sowohl für größere gesellschaftliche Gruppen als auch für den Einzelnen: die Wahrnehmung und Würdigung der Tatsache, dass bestimmte Objekte und Traditionen existieren (Wert der Existenz), der Wert der Möglichkeit ihrer Erfahrung oder ihres Besuchs irgendwann in der Zukunft (optionaler Wert) sowie die Befriedigung durch die Möglichkeit, das Erbe an die nächsten Generationen weiterreichen zu können (Wert des Vermächtnisses). Wenn also Unternehmungen im Zusammenhang mit dem Kulturerbe angegangen werden, wird oft nicht nur ihr Nutzen für die heutigen Generationen bedacht, sondern auch die Notwendigkeit des Erhalts des Erbes für die Nachwelt. Die erwähnten Werte verbinden sich auch mit wesentlichen ethischen Dilemmata bezüglich der heutigen Nutzung des Kulturerbes, u. a. die Tatsache, dass viele Elemente des Erbes zu den öffentlichen Gütern zu rechnen sind, und die sich daraus ergebenden Implikationen [MurzynKupisz 2011] sowie die Frage der Nachhaltigkeit hinsichtlich der Weitergabe des Erbes in gutem Zustand an künftige Generationen, ohne dass es zu einer Schmälerung der Ressource durch unverantwortlichen übermäßigen Konsum kommt, das heißt, die Respektierung des Prinzips der Gleichheit zwischen den Generationen. Eine
116
Vergangenheit in Kulturerbe (ihre „Erbewerdung“) wird als „Heritagisierung“ („heritagisation“) bezeichnet [Berndix 2009; Harvey 2001; Smith, Akagawa 2009, S. 1-9]. Aufgrund der zahlreichen Produzenten und Konsumenten von Kulturerbe und ihrer vielfältigen, einander überlagernden Funktionen (politischen, sozialen, wirtschaftlichen), haben viele Autoren darauf hingewiesen, dass ein jeweiliger Ort nicht ein einziges Erbe besitzt, sondern, ähnlich wie es sich im Fall der Identität verhält, viele verschiedene Erbteile besitzen kann, die zueinander in Symbiose, Rivalität oder Konflikt stehen [Graham, Howard 2008]. Zugleich sind gemäß diesem Ansatz nicht sämtliche „Überbleibsel“ der Vergangenheit auf einem bestimmten Territorium ohne weiteres zum Erbe zu rechnen, sondern nur diejenigen, die sich durch Bedeutung auszeichnen, die gewisse Funktionen für die heute lebende Bevölkerung erfüllen: Schließlich finden nicht alle Bestandteile des Vermächtnisses der Vergangenheit noch heute Akzeptanz und sind, was sich unmittelbar daraus ergibt, in einem gegebenen politischen, wirtschaftlichen, sozialen oder kulturellen Kontext nutzbar, „brauchbar“. Wenn man also über die heutige Rollen und Funktionen des Kulturerbes nachdenkt, muss eine Unterscheidung vorgenommen werden zwischen dem akzeptierten und dem nicht gewollten, nicht anerkannten Kulturerbe, das „Dissonanzen hervorruft“ (dissonant heritage), keine Erben hat oder nur schwer Erben findet.11
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zweite wesentliche Frage ist die Einhaltung der Gleichheit des heutigen Zugangs zu Kulturgütern und -leistungen für alle Mitglieder der jeweiligen (lokalen, nationalen etc.) Allgemeinheit, das heißt, die Respektierung der Gleichheit innerhalb einer Generation [Ciccia, Signorello 2002, S. 120; Throsby 2001, S. 85-86].
4. Das breite Spektrum der auf das Kulturerbemanagement einwirkenden Subjekte
E
ine andere grundsätzliche Frage ist die Diagnose der Vielzahl der Stakeholder im Prozess der Nutzung des Kulturerbes – also der Subjekte, die das Kulturerbe beeinflussen – und die Differenziertheit ihrer Erwartungen gegenüber der Frage, ob, zu welchem Zweck und auf welche Weise das Kulturerbe für unterschiedliche Bedürfnisse – kommerzielle, soziale, politische oder kulturelle – verändert, genutzt und interpretiert werden kann/ darf [Graham, Ashworth, Tubridge 2002]. P. Howard unterscheidet fünf Gruppen von Subjekten, die auf das Erbe als Produzenten oder Konsumenten Einfluss nehmen. Dies sind: die Eigentümer des Kulturerbes, die so genannten „Hiesigen“ oder „Eingeweihten“ („insiders“), die emotional und geografisch eng mit dem Ort verbunden sind (Bewohner historischer Baudenkmäler, die im weiteren Sinne verstandenen lokale Gemeinschaft, örtliche Enthusiasten und Liebhaber des Kulturerbes), die „Fremden“ („outsiders“), die das jeweilige Kulturerbe nur zeitweise erfahren (Touristen, Wallfahrer), Wissenschaftler, öffentliche Behörden auf unterschiedlicher Ebene und die Medien [Howard 2003, S. 104]. K. Pawłowska und M. Swaryczewska betrachten dies aus einem ähnlichen Blickwinkel und nennen zwei grundsätzliche Gruppen: die lokale Gesellschaft und die Fremden. Zur ersten Gruppe gehören Einwohner, Eigentümer und Verwalter, Lokalpatrioten und Unternehmer, zur zweiten Gruppe Liebhaber, Touristen und Spezialisten. Zwischen ihnen können die lokalen Führungspersönlichkeiten und Behörden vermittelnd wirken [Pawłowska, Swaryczewska 2002, S. 72]. Bei der Beschreibung des Bedarfs an Kulturerbe unterscheidet G. Piccinato ebenfalls zwei Hauptgruppen von Konsumenten des Kulturerbes: die feste Bevölkerung und Dazugekommene – Nutzer, die Gewinn aus dem historischen Ort ziehen, Dienstleister, Touristen, Liebhaber und Spezialisten [Piccinato 2002, S. 19]. G. J. Ashworth unterscheidet dagegen die Nutzer
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des Kulturerbes in absichtliche und zufällige. So kann etwas ein Nutzer einer historischen Stadt ein zufälliger Besucher von außerhalb sein, ein Tourist, der extra zur Besichtigung der Sehenswürdigkeiten angereist ist, ein Einwohner, der das Kulturerbe „nebenbei“ im Alltag erlebt oder ein lokaler Unternehmer, der das Kulturerbe als Quelle von Einkünften betrachtet [Ashworth 1991, S. 70]. Schließlich kann dasselbe Erbe gleichzeitig zur Produktion unterschiedlicher Güter und Erbringung unterschiedlicher Leistungen genutzt und gleichzeitig von unterschiedlichen Marktsegmenten konsumiert werden. Ein weiterer Blickwinkel auf die wesentlichen Subjekte auf dem Markt des Kulturerbes ergibt sich durch ihre Einteilung in öffentlichen, privaten und verbandlichen Sektor. Jeder von ihnen lässt sich von unterschiedlichen Motivationen und Zielen leiten [vgl. Murzyn-Kupisz 2010, S. 61-80]. Zu berücksichtigen ist auch die Tatsache, dass diese Subjekte in unterschiedlichen räumlichen Maßstäben funktionieren: lokal, regional, landesweit und international, je nach Art des Kulturerbes, seines Renommees, Rechtsstatus und wahrgenommenen Funktionen [Howard 2003; Aa van der 2005]. Dies können sowohl Subjekte sein, die dazu verpflichtet sind, sich der Verwaltung des Kulturerbes anzunehmen (öffentliche Kultureinrichtungen wie Museen, Archive und Bibliotheken, lokale und regionale Behörden kraft Gesetz, Eigentümer von Objekten des Kulturerbes bei der Verwaltung ihrer Liegenschaften, Nichtregierungsorganisationen, deren Satzungsziel der Schutz oder die Popularisierung des Kulturerbes ist), wie auch solche, die häufig spontan und aus eigenem Willen am Kulturerbemanagement teilnehmen (Gruppen von Einwohnern, Bürgerinitiativen, nicht auf das Kulturerbe ausgerichtete NGOs, private Institutionen und Unternehmen, darunter auch Firmen aus der Tourismusbranche). Das Kulturerbe kann also gleichermaßen Feld der Kooperation wie des Konflikts sein [Pawłowska 2008]. Die einzelnen Subjekte auf dem Markt des Kulturerbes sind durch unterschiedliche Einstellungen zu den wichtigen Aspekten der Debatte über das Kulturerbe gekennzeichnet, das heißt den Arten, Möglichkeiten und Grenzen ihrer Nutzung und Interpretation, unter anderem die Haltung zu den Fragen der materiellen Authentizität, der wahrgenommenen Funktion, der Bedürfnisse nach Interpretation des Kulturerbes oder auch seiner Überlassung zur selbstständigen Entschlüsselung, seiner Anerkennung als Symbol (sacrum) oder einfacher Gegenstand (profanum), der Nutzung
117
ine andere grundsätzliche Frage ist die Diagnose der Vielzahl der Stakeholder im Prozess der Nutzung des Kulturerbes – also der Subjekte, die das Kulturerbe beeinflussen – und die Differenziertheit ihrer Erwartungen gegenüber der Frage, ob, zu welchem Zweck und auf welche Weise das Kulturerbe für unterschiedliche Bedürfnisse – kommerzielle, soziale, politische oder kulturelle – verändert, genutzt und interpretiert werden kann/ darf [Graham, Ashworth, Tubridge 2002]. P. Howard unterscheidet fünf Gruppen von Subjekten, die auf das Erbe als Produzenten oder Konsumenten Einfluss nehmen. Dies sind: die Eigentümer des Kulturerbes, die so genannten „Hiesigen“ oder „Eingeweihten“ („insiders“), die emotional und geografisch eng mit dem Ort verbunden sind (Bewohner historischer Baudenkmäler, die im weiteren Sinne verstandenen lokale Gemeinschaft, örtliche Enthusiasten und Liebhaber des Kulturerbes), die „Fremden“ („outsiders“), die das jeweilige Kulturerbe nur zeitweise erfahren (Touristen, Wallfahrer), Wissenschaftler, öffentliche Behörden auf unterschiedlicher Ebene und die Medien [Howard 2003, S. 104]. K. Pawłowska und M. Swaryczewska betrachten dies aus einem ähnlichen Blickwinkel und nennen zwei grundsätzliche Gruppen: die lokale Gesellschaft und die Fremden. Zur ersten Gruppe gehören Einwohner, Eigentümer und Verwalter, Lokalpatrioten und Unternehmer, zur zweiten Gruppe Liebhaber, Touristen und Spezialisten. Zwischen ihnen können die lokalen Führungspersönlichkeiten und Behörden vermittelnd wirken [Pawłowska, Swaryczewska 2002, S. 72]. Bei der Beschreibung des Bedarfs an Kulturerbe unterscheidet G. Piccinato ebenfalls zwei Hauptgruppen von Konsumenten des Kulturerbes: die feste Bevölkerung und Dazugekommene – Nutzer, die Gewinn aus dem historischen Ort ziehen, Dienstleister, Touristen, Liebhaber und Spezialisten [Piccinato 2002, S. 19]. G. J. Ashworth unterscheidet dagegen die Nutzer
E
4. Das breite Spektrum der auf das Kulturerbemanagement einwirkenden Subjekte zweite wesentliche Frage ist die Einhaltung der Gleichheit des heutigen Zugangs zu Kulturgütern und -leistungen für alle Mitglieder der jeweiligen (lokalen, nationalen etc.) Allgemeinheit, das heißt, die Respektierung der Gleichheit innerhalb einer Generation [Ciccia, Signorello 2002, S. 120; Throsby 2001, S. 85-86].
117
des Kulturerbes in absichtliche und zufällige. So kann etwas ein Nutzer einer historischen Stadt ein zufälliger Besucher von außerhalb sein, ein Tourist, der extra zur Besichtigung der Sehenswürdigkeiten angereist ist, ein Einwohner, der das Kulturerbe „nebenbei“ im Alltag erlebt oder ein lokaler Unternehmer, der das Kulturerbe als Quelle von Einkünften betrachtet [Ashworth 1991, S. 70]. Schließlich kann dasselbe Erbe gleichzeitig zur Produktion unterschiedlicher Güter und Erbringung unterschiedlicher Leistungen genutzt und gleichzeitig von unterschiedlichen Marktsegmenten konsumiert werden. Ein weiterer Blickwinkel auf die wesentlichen Subjekte auf dem Markt des Kulturerbes ergibt sich durch ihre Einteilung in öffentlichen, privaten und verbandlichen Sektor. Jeder von ihnen lässt sich von unterschiedlichen Motivationen und Zielen leiten [vgl. Murzyn-Kupisz 2010, S. 61-80]. Zu berücksichtigen ist auch die Tatsache, dass diese Subjekte in unterschiedlichen räumlichen Maßstäben funktionieren: lokal, regional, landesweit und international, je nach Art des Kulturerbes, seines Renommees, Rechtsstatus und wahrgenommenen Funktionen [Howard 2003; Aa van der 2005]. Dies können sowohl Subjekte sein, die dazu verpflichtet sind, sich der Verwaltung des Kulturerbes anzunehmen (öffentliche Kultureinrichtungen wie Museen, Archive und Bibliotheken, lokale und regionale Behörden kraft Gesetz, Eigentümer von Objekten des Kulturerbes bei der Verwaltung ihrer Liegenschaften, Nichtregierungsorganisationen, deren Satzungsziel der Schutz oder die Popularisierung des Kulturerbes ist), wie auch solche, die häufig spontan und aus eigenem Willen am Kulturerbemanagement teilnehmen (Gruppen von Einwohnern, Bürgerinitiativen, nicht auf das Kulturerbe ausgerichtete NGOs, private Institutionen und Unternehmen, darunter auch Firmen aus der Tourismusbranche). Das Kulturerbe kann also gleichermaßen Feld der Kooperation wie des Konflikts sein [Pawłowska 2008]. Die einzelnen Subjekte auf dem Markt des Kulturerbes sind durch unterschiedliche Einstellungen zu den wichtigen Aspekten der Debatte über das Kulturerbe gekennzeichnet, das heißt den Arten, Möglichkeiten und Grenzen ihrer Nutzung und Interpretation, unter anderem die Haltung zu den Fragen der materiellen Authentizität, der wahrgenommenen Funktion, der Bedürfnisse nach Interpretation des Kulturerbes oder auch seiner Überlassung zur selbstständigen Entschlüsselung, seiner Anerkennung als Symbol (sacrum) oder einfacher Gegenstand (profanum), der Nutzung
118
des Erbes im Alltagsleben, zu kommerziellen und erzieherischen Zwecken, seiner Klassifizierung als privat, lokal oder öffentlich. Infolgedessen unterscheiden sie sich auch durch den Blick auf die Frage der Erschließung des Kulturerbes, die Höhe der Kosten für den Zugang und wer diese Kosten tragen soll, schließlich die Einstellung zu der Schlüsselfrage, ob das jeweilige Objekt oder immaterielle Gut überhaupt als Kulturgut anzusehen ist oder nicht – und wie hoch dann der Akzeptanzgrad ist. Bei der Nutzung des Kulturerbes streben sie unterschiedliche Ziele an, etwa die Bewahrung der Identität, die Legitimierung der Herrschaft, die Formierung patriotischer Haltungen, die Erzielung von Gewinn durch Verkauf kommerzieller Güter und Dienstleistungen, die Schaffung eines bequemen privaten Raums, die Steigerung von Status und Prestige, Unterhaltung, wissenschaftliche Erkenntnis. Die heutigen Funktionen, die das Kulturerbe wahrnehmen kann, umfassen also unter anderem die Rolle als Kernbestands oder Bestanteils unterschiedlichster Produkte und Leistungen, sowohl kommerzieller als auch nichtkommerzieller Art, oder auch als Hintergrund für die Erbringung verschiedenartiger Leistungen, vor allem im Tourismus- und Kulturbereich, sowie als wichtiges Element für die Gestaltung der Identität und des Images von Orten. Die Vielheit der möglichen Ebenen der Einwirkung des Kulturerbes auf die sozio-ökonomische Wirklichkeit Ähnlich wie im Fall der Frage nach den Bestandteilen und Werten des Kulturerbes, ist bei der Erörterung der Nutzung des Kulturerbes zu berücksichtigen, das seine Auswirkungen sowohl ökonomischer als auch sozialer Natur sein können. Es kann aus kurz-, mittel- oder langfristiger Sicht betrachtet werden, immer jedoch in Bezug auf den weiteren sozio-ökonomischen Kontext des Funktionierens des Kulturerbes [vgl. Bowitz, Ibenholt 2009, S. 1-8; McLoughlin, Red., Kamiński, Red., Sodagar, Red. 2006]. Generell können nach Ansicht der Autorin sechs grundsätzliche Ebenen der potenziellen Auswirkung des Kulturerbes auf Entwicklungsprozesse unterschieden werden (Abb. 2).
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und Ausgaben der öffentlichen Hand, der Einfluss auf den Immobilienmarkt. Zum zweiten sind die Effekte zu berücksichtigen, die sich sowohl in kurzer als auch längerer Sicht aus dem Potenzial des Kulturerbes ergeben, um eine Unterstützung für den Aufbau einer auf Wissen und Kreativität basierenden Wirtschaft zu schaffen, als Ressource und Bildungsraum genutzt zu werden, beim Aufbau von Sozialkapital, individuellem und gemeinschaftlichem Kulturkapital zu helfen und Vorstellungskraft und Kreativität zu stimulieren. Das Kulturerbe kann auch die Entstehung origineller, hochwertiger Produkte im Rahmen der kreativen Sektoren und außerhalb von ihnen inspirieren. Als ausgesprochen wichtige Ebene der gesellschaftlichen Auswirkung des Kulturerbes gilt heute der Bereich des Lebensniveaus und der Lebensqualität am Wohnort durch Befriedigung kultureller Bedürfnisse, Gewährleistung von Möglichkeiten für Erholung und Rekreation, Sorge um eine gepflegten Ästhetik des öffentlichen und alltäglichen Raums, den Einfluss auf Selbstidentifikation und Selbsteinschätzung, das Gefühl „bei sich selbst zu sein“, die Bindungen zwischen den Generationen, den gesellschaftlichen Dialog und den allgemeinen Aufbau von sozialer Kohärenz, Identität und Heimatstolz. Das Kulturerbe stellt in der Regel auch ein integrales Element von Revitalisierungs- und Inwertsetzungsstrategien dar, sei es als Inspiration und Hintergrund für Entwicklungsprozesse, sei es als „Flaggschiff“ und Katalysator der Wiederbelebung von Räumen und Flächen. Das Kulturerbe bestimmt oft entscheidend das Image und Erscheinungsbild von Orten und Gebieten mit, ihre Attraktivität und Wahrnehmung sowohl bei Touristen als auch Investoren in verschiedenen Branchen. Es kann zudem ein wesentliches Element des internen, an die Einwohner gerichteten Marketings drstellen. Schließlich kann es mannigfaltige Auswirkungen auf die ökologischen Bedingungen des Funktionierens des jeweiligen Gebietes haben. Es kann eine nachhaltigere Raumplanung ermöglichen bzw. inspirieren und der Zersiedlung urbanisierter Flächen entgegenwirken, aber auch eine übermäßige Anthropression hervorrufen, zu viele Besucher anziehen und den die Dichte des Straßenverkehrs erhöhen.
ie gesellschaftlich-wirtschaftlichen Wandlungsprozesse des ausgehenden 20. Jahrhunderts haben zu einem Wandel der Einstel-
5. Zusammenfassung
D
D
118
5. Zusammenfassung
ie gesellschaftlich-wirtschaftlichen Wandlungsprozesse des ausgehenden 20. Jahrhunderts haben zu einem Wandel der Einstel-
Zum ersten sind von wesentlicher Bedeutung die wirtschaftlichen Effekte, die das Kulturerbe in kurz- oder langfristiger Perspektive produziert, wie etwa die Einkünfte, die unmittelbar dank der mit Erhalt, Erschließung oder Interpretation des Kulturerbes zusammenhängenden Tätigkeiten entstehen, Multiplikatoreffekte wie der Erhalt und die Schaffung von Arbeitsplätzen, die Einkünfte
und Ausgaben der öffentlichen Hand, der Einfluss auf den Immobilienmarkt. Zum zweiten sind die Effekte zu berücksichtigen, die sich sowohl in kurzer als auch längerer Sicht aus dem Potenzial des Kulturerbes ergeben, um eine Unterstützung für den Aufbau einer auf Wissen und Kreativität basierenden Wirtschaft zu schaffen, als Ressource und Bildungsraum genutzt zu werden, beim Aufbau von Sozialkapital, individuellem und gemeinschaftlichem Kulturkapital zu helfen und Vorstellungskraft und Kreativität zu stimulieren. Das Kulturerbe kann auch die Entstehung origineller, hochwertiger Produkte im Rahmen der kreativen Sektoren und außerhalb von ihnen inspirieren. Als ausgesprochen wichtige Ebene der gesellschaftlichen Auswirkung des Kulturerbes gilt heute der Bereich des Lebensniveaus und der Lebensqualität am Wohnort durch Befriedigung kultureller Bedürfnisse, Gewährleistung von Möglichkeiten für Erholung und Rekreation, Sorge um eine gepflegten Ästhetik des öffentlichen und alltäglichen Raums, den Einfluss auf Selbstidentifikation und Selbsteinschätzung, das Gefühl „bei sich selbst zu sein“, die Bindungen zwischen den Generationen, den gesellschaftlichen Dialog und den allgemeinen Aufbau von sozialer Kohärenz, Identität und Heimatstolz. Das Kulturerbe stellt in der Regel auch ein integrales Element von Revitalisierungs- und Inwertsetzungsstrategien dar, sei es als Inspiration und Hintergrund für Entwicklungsprozesse, sei es als „Flaggschiff“ und Katalysator der Wiederbelebung von Räumen und Flächen. Das Kulturerbe bestimmt oft entscheidend das Image und Erscheinungsbild von Orten und Gebieten mit, ihre Attraktivität und Wahrnehmung sowohl bei Touristen als auch Investoren in verschiedenen Branchen. Es kann zudem ein wesentliches Element des internen, an die Einwohner gerichteten Marketings drstellen. Schließlich kann es mannigfaltige Auswirkungen auf die ökologischen Bedingungen des Funktionierens des jeweiligen Gebietes haben. Es kann eine nachhaltigere Raumplanung ermöglichen bzw. inspirieren und der Zersiedlung urbanisierter Flächen entgegenwirken, aber auch eine übermäßige Anthropression hervorrufen, zu viele Besucher anziehen und den die Dichte des Straßenverkehrs erhöhen.
Zum ersten sind von wesentlicher Bedeutung die wirtschaftlichen Effekte, die das Kulturerbe in kurz- oder langfristiger Perspektive produziert, wie etwa die Einkünfte, die unmittelbar dank der mit Erhalt, Erschließung oder Interpretation des Kulturerbes zusammenhängenden Tätigkeiten entstehen, Multiplikatoreffekte wie der Erhalt und die Schaffung von Arbeitsplätzen, die Einkünfte
Kulturmanagement 2011, Vol 4 (4)
des Erbes im Alltagsleben, zu kommerziellen und erzieherischen Zwecken, seiner Klassifizierung als privat, lokal oder öffentlich. Infolgedessen unterscheiden sie sich auch durch den Blick auf die Frage der Erschließung des Kulturerbes, die Höhe der Kosten für den Zugang und wer diese Kosten tragen soll, schließlich die Einstellung zu der Schlüsselfrage, ob das jeweilige Objekt oder immaterielle Gut überhaupt als Kulturgut anzusehen ist oder nicht – und wie hoch dann der Akzeptanzgrad ist. Bei der Nutzung des Kulturerbes streben sie unterschiedliche Ziele an, etwa die Bewahrung der Identität, die Legitimierung der Herrschaft, die Formierung patriotischer Haltungen, die Erzielung von Gewinn durch Verkauf kommerzieller Güter und Dienstleistungen, die Schaffung eines bequemen privaten Raums, die Steigerung von Status und Prestige, Unterhaltung, wissenschaftliche Erkenntnis. Die heutigen Funktionen, die das Kulturerbe wahrnehmen kann, umfassen also unter anderem die Rolle als Kernbestands oder Bestanteils unterschiedlichster Produkte und Leistungen, sowohl kommerzieller als auch nichtkommerzieller Art, oder auch als Hintergrund für die Erbringung verschiedenartiger Leistungen, vor allem im Tourismus- und Kulturbereich, sowie als wichtiges Element für die Gestaltung der Identität und des Images von Orten. Die Vielheit der möglichen Ebenen der Einwirkung des Kulturerbes auf die sozio-ökonomische Wirklichkeit Ähnlich wie im Fall der Frage nach den Bestandteilen und Werten des Kulturerbes, ist bei der Erörterung der Nutzung des Kulturerbes zu berücksichtigen, das seine Auswirkungen sowohl ökonomischer als auch sozialer Natur sein können. Es kann aus kurz-, mittel- oder langfristiger Sicht betrachtet werden, immer jedoch in Bezug auf den weiteren sozio-ökonomischen Kontext des Funktionierens des Kulturerbes [vgl. Bowitz, Ibenholt 2009, S. 1-8; McLoughlin, Red., Kamiński, Red., Sodagar, Red. 2006]. Generell können nach Ansicht der Autorin sechs grundsätzliche Ebenen der potenziellen Auswirkung des Kulturerbes auf Entwicklungsprozesse unterschieden werden (Abb. 2).
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Abb. 2. Potenzielle Ebenen der Auswirkung des Kulturerbes auf die gesellschaftlich-wirtschaftliche Entwicklung
Wirtschaftliche Effekte: - Einkünfte, die sich unmittelbar aus der Tätigkeit für Erhalt, Erschließung und Interpretation des Kulturerbes ergeben, - Multiplikatoreffekte, darunter Erhaltung und Schaffung von Arbeitsplätzen, - Unterstützung struktureller Veränderungen in der Wirtschaft, - Steuereinkünfte des öffentlichen Sektors, - Immobilienmarkt
Aufbau einer auf Wissen und Kreativität gestützten Wirtschaft: - Nutzung des Kulturerbes für Erziehungsund Bildungszwecke, - Aufbau eines individuellen Kulturkapitals, Humankapitals und Kreativitätspotenzials, - Kulturerbe als Inspiration für Produkte und Dienstleistungen, die von den kreativen Sektoren angeboten werden, - Beitrag zur Entstehung origineller, hochwertiger Produkte
Image und Marke (branding) des Ortes: - für Touristen, - für Unternehmer und Investoren, - internes Marketing (an die Einwohner gerichtet)
Lebensniveau und -qualität der Einwohner (der Gemeinde/Region): - Befriedigung kultureller Bedürfnisse, - Erholung und Rekreation, - Raumästhetik, - soziale Kohärenz und Schaffung von Sozialkapital, - Identität und Lokalpatriotismus
Ebenen der Auswirkung des Kulturerbes auf die gesellschaftlichwirtschaftliche Entwicklung
Ökologische Rahmenbedingungen des Gebiets: - Vermeidung von Zersiedlung, Neunutzung von bereits bewirtschaftetem Gelände, - Zahl der Teilnehmer und ihr Druck (Straßenverkehr, Verschleiß der Infrastruktur)
Integrales Element des Revitalisierungsprozesses: - Hintergrund für Revitalisierungsprozesse, - Flaggschiffprojekt der Revitalisierung, Prozesskatalysator, - funktionelle „Animierung“ degradierter Räume
Quelle: eigene Darstellung
lungen zu den Relikten der Vergangenheit und ihrer Rolle in der Gesellschaft geführt (vgl. Tab. 1). Ständig erweitert sich das Verständnis des Begriffs Kulturerbe, der das bisherige Verständnis, das enger gefasst und vor allem auf Bauwerke und mobile Kunstwerke und archäologische Funde bezogen war, nach und nach zu ersetzen beginnt. Auch der Maßstab der Betrachtung ändert sich, geht von Einzelobjekten zu einem ganzheitlicheren Blick über, der ganze städtebauliche und landschaftsplanerische Gesamtheiten, Kulturlandschaften und die Verknüpfungen zwischen den Erzeugnissen der menschlichen Tätigkeit und immateriellen Werten erfasst. Wenn auch nach wie vor die Schaffung, Festigung und Unterstreichung der nationalen Identität eine sehr wichtige Funktion des Kulturerbes darstellt, so wird doch heute in zunehmendem Maße auch die Notwendig der Achtung für die kulturelle Vielfalt und die weiteren wirtschaftlichen und gesellschaftlichen Nutzeffekte des Kulturerbes, etwa durch seinen
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Einfluss auf die Lebensqualität oder das Image bzw. die Marke eines Ortes, berücksichtigt. Bei der klassischen, noch aus dem 19. Jahrhundert stammenden Herangehensweise an das Kulturerbe war der Maßstab für seine Relevanz ein schmales Spektrum von Werten wie Alter, ästhetischer Wert und Geschichtsbezug. Der moderne Kulturbegriff beruft sich dagegen auf ein breites Spektrum von Werten und erstreckt sich auf unterschiedliche Objekte, zu denen nicht nur Zeugnisse des künstlerischen Schaffens aus der Sphäre der so genannten Hochkultur oder aus fernen Zeiten gehören, um nur die große Mode für die Entdeckung des Industrieerbes, die Würdigung der hervorragenden modernen Architektur des 20. Jahrhunderts oder die Verknüpfung der Pflege des Kulturerbes mit dem Schutz des Naturerbes zu erwähnen. Die Bedeutung des Erbes und sein Wert hängen also nicht mehr nur mit einer konkreten Nationalkultur zusammen, sondern können sich auch auf ein breites Spektrum von Werten unterschiedlicher Kulturen und in unterschiedli-
119
lungen zu den Relikten der Vergangenheit und ihrer Rolle in der Gesellschaft geführt (vgl. Tab. 1). Ständig erweitert sich das Verständnis des Begriffs Kulturerbe, der das bisherige Verständnis, das enger gefasst und vor allem auf Bauwerke und mobile Kunstwerke und archäologische Funde bezogen war, nach und nach zu ersetzen beginnt. Auch der Maßstab der Betrachtung ändert sich, geht von Einzelobjekten zu einem ganzheitlicheren Blick über, der ganze städtebauliche und landschaftsplanerische Gesamtheiten, Kulturlandschaften und die Verknüpfungen zwischen den Erzeugnissen der menschlichen Tätigkeit und immateriellen Werten erfasst. Wenn auch nach wie vor die Schaffung, Festigung und Unterstreichung der nationalen Identität eine sehr wichtige Funktion des Kulturerbes darstellt, so wird doch heute in zunehmendem Maße auch die Notwendig der Achtung für die kulturelle Vielfalt und die weiteren wirtschaftlichen und gesellschaftlichen Nutzeffekte des Kulturerbes, etwa durch seinen
Einfluss auf die Lebensqualität oder das Image bzw. die Marke eines Ortes, berücksichtigt. Bei der klassischen, noch aus dem 19. Jahrhundert stammenden Herangehensweise an das Kulturerbe war der Maßstab für seine Relevanz ein schmales Spektrum von Werten wie Alter, ästhetischer Wert und Geschichtsbezug. Der moderne Kulturbegriff beruft sich dagegen auf ein breites Spektrum von Werten und erstreckt sich auf unterschiedliche Objekte, zu denen nicht nur Zeugnisse des künstlerischen Schaffens aus der Sphäre der so genannten Hochkultur oder aus fernen Zeiten gehören, um nur die große Mode für die Entdeckung des Industrieerbes, die Würdigung der hervorragenden modernen Architektur des 20. Jahrhunderts oder die Verknüpfung der Pflege des Kulturerbes mit dem Schutz des Naturerbes zu erwähnen. Die Bedeutung des Erbes und sein Wert hängen also nicht mehr nur mit einer konkreten Nationalkultur zusammen, sondern können sich auch auf ein breites Spektrum von Werten unterschiedlicher Kulturen und in unterschiedli-
Quelle: eigene Darstellung Integrales Element des Revitalisierungsprozesses: - Hintergrund für Revitalisierungsprozesse, - Flaggschiffprojekt der Revitalisierung, Prozesskatalysator, - funktionelle „Animierung“ degradierter Räume
Image und Marke (branding) des Ortes: - für Touristen, - für Unternehmer und Investoren, - internes Marketing (an die Einwohner gerichtet) Aufbau einer auf Wissen und Kreativität gestützten Wirtschaft: - Nutzung des Kulturerbes für Erziehungsund Bildungszwecke, - Aufbau eines individuellen Kulturkapitals, Humankapitals und Kreativitätspotenzials, - Kulturerbe als Inspiration für Produkte und Dienstleistungen, die von den kreativen Sektoren angeboten werden, - Beitrag zur Entstehung origineller, hochwertiger Produkte
Ebenen der Auswirkung des Kulturerbes auf die gesellschaftlichwirtschaftliche Entwicklung
Wirtschaftliche Effekte: - Einkünfte, die sich unmittelbar aus der Tätigkeit für Erhalt, Erschließung und Interpretation des Kulturerbes ergeben, - Multiplikatoreffekte, darunter Erhaltung und Schaffung von Arbeitsplätzen, - Unterstützung struktureller Veränderungen in der Wirtschaft, - Steuereinkünfte des öffentlichen Sektors, - Immobilienmarkt
Ökologische Rahmenbedingungen des Gebiets: - Vermeidung von Zersiedlung, Neunutzung von bereits bewirtschaftetem Gelände, - Zahl der Teilnehmer und ihr Druck (Straßenverkehr, Verschleiß der Infrastruktur)
Lebensniveau und -qualität der Einwohner (der Gemeinde/Region): - Befriedigung kultureller Bedürfnisse, - Erholung und Rekreation, - Raumästhetik, - soziale Kohärenz und Schaffung von Sozialkapital, - Identität und Lokalpatriotismus
Abb. 2. Potenzielle Ebenen der Auswirkung des Kulturerbes auf die gesellschaftlich-wirtschaftliche Entwicklung
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chem Maßstab, etwa auf lokaler oder regionaler Ebene, beziehen. Dadurch ändert sich auch die Rolle der Experten beim Kulturerbemanagement. Von Spezialisten, die autoritäre Entscheidungen vor allem Bereich der Konservierung, der Architektur und der Archäologie treffen, entwickeln sie sich zusehends zu Mentoren aus unterschiedlichen Fachbereichen, die assistieren, lenken und unterstützen („facilitators“), unter der Annahme, dass die Entscheidungen, die das Kulturerbe betreffen in höherem Maße als bisher demokratisch unter Beteiligung verschiedener Stakeholder, vor allem aber auch der örtlichen Gesellschaften, getroffen werden. Dieser Trend verbindet sich auch mit einer Verlagerung des Schwerpunkts vieler zu treffender Entscheidungen von den zentralen Behörden auf die regionale und lokale Ebene [vgl. Murzyn-Kupisz 2008, S. 155-182]. Entsprechend sind auch die Diagnose und Identifizierung der besonderen Kennzeichen des Kulturerbes und ihre Interpretation längst keine Domäne der staatlichen Verwaltung auf zentraler Ebene mehr, weshalb Zuständigkeit und Verantwortung immer häufiger den lokalen Gesellschaften und privaten, auf dem freien Markt tätigen Subjekten überlassen bleiben.
Kulturmanagement 2011, Vol 4 (4)
und Weise des Kulturerbemanagements verändert. Der Trend geht ab von einzelnen, von oben verordneten Konservierungsprojekten für offiziell anerkannte Denkmäler hin zur Einbeziehung eines symbolisch oder auch real zum Eigentum der heutigen Erben (Eigentümer, lokale Gesellschaften) gewordenen Kulturerbes in die weiter gefasste Konzeption der Entwicklung des jeweiligen Gebiets im Rahmen einer so genannten integrierten Konservierung, die nicht nur künstlerische und technische Aspekte berücksichtigt, sondern auch soziale und wirtschaftliche.12 Das Kulturerbe wird also immer häufiger als Ressource betrachtet, die eine Vielzahl aktueller Funktionen und Anwendungen erfüllen kann. Gelungene Projekte im Bereich des Kulturerbemanagements wirken sich in der Regel auf mehrere Dimensionen des Funktionierens der jeweiligen territorialen Einheit aus, reagieren auf lokale Bedürfnisse und Entwicklungsmöglichkeiten, beziehen sich sowohl auf den heutigen Tag als auch auf das Leben künftiger Generationen. Die genannten Trends sind jedoch in unterschiedlichem Maße in unterschiedlichen Ländern, regionalen und lokalen Kontexten sichtbar. Das Kulturerbe kann eine potenziell große, in der Praxis aber nicht vollends ausgeschöpfte Chance für Entwicklung sein, wenn sein Potenzial (viele verschiedene Elemente und Werte) nicht vom öffentlichen, privaten und ehrenamtlich-verbandlichen Sektor erkannt wird oder wenn es nicht gelingt, das Bewusstsein für das Potenzial des Kulturerbes in wirksames Handeln zu übersetzen. Die Vielzahl der heute möglichen Nutzungen des Kulturerbes führt dagegen häufig zu Konflikten zwischen den unterschiedlichen Funktionen, die es gleichzeitig erfüllt. Fehlt es an nachhaltiger Erschließung und Nutzung, kann es gar zur Degeneration oder Zerstörung seiner materiellen und immateriellen Bestandteile kommen.
120
Auf der Suche nach wirtschaftlichen Argumenten für den Erhalt des Kulturerbes stellt C. Koboldt fest, dass „viele, wenn nicht die meisten Nutzeffekte [die das Kulturerbe bringt] nur im Verlauf [seiner] tatsächlichen Nutzung erzielt werden“ [Koboldt 1997, S. 56]. In diesem Sinn hebt auch D. Netzer hervor, dass der „größte Erfolg (...) beim Schutz des Kulturerbes dann erreicht wird, wenn der Bestandteil des kulturellen Vermächtnisses tatsächlich genutzt wird“ [Netzer 1997, S. 4]. Ein solcher Ansatz bewirkt auch, dass sich die Art
12 Der Begriff der integrierten Konservierung in der Deklaration von Amsterdam, welche die Beschlüsse des Europäischen Denkmalschutzkongresses 1975 enthält, (1996), [in:] K. Pawłowski (Red.), Vademecum konserwatora zabytków. Międzynarodowe normy ochrony dziedzictwa kultury. Biuletyn Polskiego Komitetu Narodowego ICOMOS, ICOMOS (Vademecum des Denkmalpflegers. Internationale Normen für den Schutz des Kulturerbes. Bulletin des Polnischen Nationalkomitees des ICOMOS), Warszawa, S. 41-48.
12 Der Begriff der integrierten Konservierung in der Deklaration von Amsterdam, welche die Beschlüsse des Europäischen Denkmalschutzkongresses 1975 enthält, (1996), [in:] K. Pawłowski (Red.), Vademecum konserwatora zabytków. Międzynarodowe normy ochrony dziedzictwa kultury. Biuletyn Polskiego Komitetu Narodowego ICOMOS, ICOMOS (Vademecum des Denkmalpflegers. Internationale Normen für den Schutz des Kulturerbes. Bulletin des Polnischen Nationalkomitees des ICOMOS), Warszawa, S. 41-48.
Auf der Suche nach wirtschaftlichen Argumenten für den Erhalt des Kulturerbes stellt C. Koboldt fest, dass „viele, wenn nicht die meisten Nutzeffekte [die das Kulturerbe bringt] nur im Verlauf [seiner] tatsächlichen Nutzung erzielt werden“ [Koboldt 1997, S. 56]. In diesem Sinn hebt auch D. Netzer hervor, dass der „größte Erfolg (...) beim Schutz des Kulturerbes dann erreicht wird, wenn der Bestandteil des kulturellen Vermächtnisses tatsächlich genutzt wird“ [Netzer 1997, S. 4]. Ein solcher Ansatz bewirkt auch, dass sich die Art
und Weise des Kulturerbemanagements verändert. Der Trend geht ab von einzelnen, von oben verordneten Konservierungsprojekten für offiziell anerkannte Denkmäler hin zur Einbeziehung eines symbolisch oder auch real zum Eigentum der heutigen Erben (Eigentümer, lokale Gesellschaften) gewordenen Kulturerbes in die weiter gefasste Konzeption der Entwicklung des jeweiligen Gebiets im Rahmen einer so genannten integrierten Konservierung, die nicht nur künstlerische und technische Aspekte berücksichtigt, sondern auch soziale und wirtschaftliche.12 Das Kulturerbe wird also immer häufiger als Ressource betrachtet, die eine Vielzahl aktueller Funktionen und Anwendungen erfüllen kann. Gelungene Projekte im Bereich des Kulturerbemanagements wirken sich in der Regel auf mehrere Dimensionen des Funktionierens der jeweiligen territorialen Einheit aus, reagieren auf lokale Bedürfnisse und Entwicklungsmöglichkeiten, beziehen sich sowohl auf den heutigen Tag als auch auf das Leben künftiger Generationen. Die genannten Trends sind jedoch in unterschiedlichem Maße in unterschiedlichen Ländern, regionalen und lokalen Kontexten sichtbar. Das Kulturerbe kann eine potenziell große, in der Praxis aber nicht vollends ausgeschöpfte Chance für Entwicklung sein, wenn sein Potenzial (viele verschiedene Elemente und Werte) nicht vom öffentlichen, privaten und ehrenamtlich-verbandlichen Sektor erkannt wird oder wenn es nicht gelingt, das Bewusstsein für das Potenzial des Kulturerbes in wirksames Handeln zu übersetzen. Die Vielzahl der heute möglichen Nutzungen des Kulturerbes führt dagegen häufig zu Konflikten zwischen den unterschiedlichen Funktionen, die es gleichzeitig erfüllt. Fehlt es an nachhaltiger Erschließung und Nutzung, kann es gar zur Degeneration oder Zerstörung seiner materiellen und immateriellen Bestandteile kommen.
120
chem Maßstab, etwa auf lokaler oder regionaler Ebene, beziehen. Dadurch ändert sich auch die Rolle der Experten beim Kulturerbemanagement. Von Spezialisten, die autoritäre Entscheidungen vor allem Bereich der Konservierung, der Architektur und der Archäologie treffen, entwickeln sie sich zusehends zu Mentoren aus unterschiedlichen Fachbereichen, die assistieren, lenken und unterstützen („facilitators“), unter der Annahme, dass die Entscheidungen, die das Kulturerbe betreffen in höherem Maße als bisher demokratisch unter Beteiligung verschiedener Stakeholder, vor allem aber auch der örtlichen Gesellschaften, getroffen werden. Dieser Trend verbindet sich auch mit einer Verlagerung des Schwerpunkts vieler zu treffender Entscheidungen von den zentralen Behörden auf die regionale und lokale Ebene [vgl. Murzyn-Kupisz 2008, S. 155-182]. Entsprechend sind auch die Diagnose und Identifizierung der besonderen Kennzeichen des Kulturerbes und ihre Interpretation längst keine Domäne der staatlichen Verwaltung auf zentraler Ebene mehr, weshalb Zuständigkeit und Verantwortung immer häufiger den lokalen Gesellschaften und privaten, auf dem freien Markt tätigen Subjekten überlassen bleiben.
121
Kulturmanagement 2011, Vol 4 (4)
Tab. 1. Trends im Kulturerbemanagement an der Schwelle vom 20. zum 21. Jahrhundert früher (Konzentration auf):
heute (berücksichtigt wird):
Quelle: erstellt auf der Grundlage von S. Helseth, K. Clark, T. Copeland, P. Drury, M. Prytehregh, (2000), Forward planning: the functions of cultural heritage in a changing Europe, The London Group Discussion Paper for the Council of Europe, draft, London, www.arcchip.cz/w01/w01_appendix1.pdf [abgerufen am: 10.12.2010].
Begriff des Erbes und Wertverleihung Definition des Kulturerbes
wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zu technischen und technologischen Aspekten des Schutzes des Kulturerbes örtliche Maßnahmen
Bedeutung/Wert des Kulturerbes
Denkmäler
ständige Begriffserweiterung, z. B. um vernakulares Erbe, Kulturlandschaften, besondere Berücksichtigung des immateriellen Erbes
einzelne Bauwerke
städtebauliche/landschaftsbauliche Ensembles
Orte/Stätten
historisches Umfeld/Milieu
vor allem in Abhängigkeit vom Alter des Objekts (bei immateriellem Erbe: Dauer der Überlieferung)
hängt nicht nur vom Alter des Objekts ab; kann in jüngster Zeit entstandene Objekte umfassen, z. B. Industrieerbe, Objekte aus der zweiten Hälfte des 20. Jahrhunderts
enges Wertespektrum
breites Wertespektrum
Bedeutung für die Kultur des jeweiligen Volkes (Nationalerbe)
lokale (regionale) Bedingungen, Kennzeichen lokaler Eigenständigkeit
monokulturell
widerspiegelt die Werte unterschiedlicher Kulturen
Untersuchungen zur Philosophie des Schutzes des Kulturerbes und zu seinen sozialen und ökonomischen Aspekten breiter angelegte strategische Maßnahmen integrierte Konservierung
einzelne konservatorische Projekte
Bildungs- und Popularisierungstätigkeit für die lokale Gesellschaft, Eigentümer und Nutzer
offizielle Anerkennung als Denkmal (etwa durch Aufnahme in ein Denkmalregister) Art des Managements Sektor des Denkmalschutzes / der Kulturpflege
Ebenen der Auswirkung und Rolle des Kulturerbes in der Gesellschaft Stärkung der nationalen Identität und Einheit
Achtung der kulturellen Vielfalt, Achtung der lokalen Eigenständigkeit
Generierung von Einkünften durch Besucher/ Publikum
breiter wirtschaftlicher und sozialer Nutzen
Akteure im Managementprozess
Sektor des Umweltschutzes / der Kulturindustrien
führende Rolle des Staates
Verantwortlichkeit
führende Rolle der lokalen Gesellschaften
führende Rolle von Experten
Interpretation
Managerfertigkeiten
Geschichtswissen
multidisziplinärer Blick
repräsentieren einzelne Disziplinen (z. B. Architektur, Archäologie) Rolle von Spezialisten
Entscheidungen
getroffen auf staatlicher Ebene
getroffen auf vielen Stufen, von der internationalen bis zur lokalen Ebene, Erkenntnis der Vielheit der Subjekte, die sich auf das Kulturerbe auswirken
von oben, autoritär
Demokratisierung des Prozesses der Entscheidungsfindung, Partizipation z. B. von lokalen Gesellschaften/Stakeholdern
Experten
assistieren, helfen und unterstützen beim Managementprozess („facilitator“)
repräsentieren einzelne Disziplinen (z. B. Architektur, Archäologie)
multidisziplinärer Blick
Geschichtswissen
Managerfertigkeiten
Interpretation
führende Rolle von Experten
führende Rolle der lokalen Gesellschaften
Verantwortlichkeit
führende Rolle des Staates
lokale Gesellschaften, privater/marktwirtschaftlicher Sektor
Sektor des Denkmalschutzes / der Kulturpflege
Sektor des Umweltschutzes / der Kulturindustrien
Experten von oben, autoritär
Entscheidungen Rolle von Spezialisten
getroffen auf staatlicher Ebene
lokale Gesellschaften, privater/marktwirtschaftlicher Sektor assistieren, helfen und unterstützen beim Managementprozess („facilitator“) Demokratisierung des Prozesses der Entscheidungsfindung, Partizipation z. B. von lokalen Gesellschaften/Stakeholdern getroffen auf vielen Stufen, von der internationalen bis zur lokalen Ebene, Erkenntnis der Vielheit der Subjekte, die sich auf das Kulturerbe auswirken
Akteure im Managementprozess breiter wirtschaftlicher und sozialer Nutzen
Generierung von Einkünften durch Besucher/ Publikum
Achtung der kulturellen Vielfalt, Achtung der lokalen Eigenständigkeit
Stärkung der nationalen Identität und Einheit Ebenen der Auswirkung und Rolle des Kulturerbes in der Gesellschaft
Art des Managements offizielle Anerkennung als Denkmal (etwa durch Aufnahme in ein Denkmalregister)
Bildungs- und Popularisierungstätigkeit für die lokale Gesellschaft, Eigentümer und Nutzer
einzelne konservatorische Projekte
integrierte Konservierung
örtliche Maßnahmen
breiter angelegte strategische Maßnahmen
wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zu technischen und technologischen Aspekten des Schutzes des Kulturerbes
Untersuchungen zur Philosophie des Schutzes des Kulturerbes und zu seinen sozialen und ökonomischen Aspekten
Bedeutung/Wert des Kulturerbes
widerspiegelt die Werte unterschiedlicher Kulturen
monokulturell
lokale (regionale) Bedingungen, Kennzeichen lokaler Eigenständigkeit
Bedeutung für die Kultur des jeweiligen Volkes (Nationalerbe)
breites Wertespektrum
enges Wertespektrum vor allem in Abhängigkeit vom Alter des Objekts (bei immateriellem Erbe: Dauer der Überlieferung) Orte/Stätten einzelne Bauwerke Definition des Kulturerbes
Denkmäler
hängt nicht nur vom Alter des Objekts ab; kann in jüngster Zeit entstandene Objekte umfassen, z. B. Industrieerbe, Objekte aus der zweiten Hälfte des 20. Jahrhunderts historisches Umfeld/Milieu städtebauliche/landschaftsbauliche Ensembles ständige Begriffserweiterung, z. B. um vernakulares Erbe, Kulturlandschaften, besondere Berücksichtigung des immateriellen Erbes
Begriff des Erbes und Wertverleihung Quelle: erstellt auf der Grundlage von S. Helseth, K. Clark, T. Copeland, P. Drury, M. Prytehregh, (2000), Forward planning: the functions of cultural heritage in a changing Europe, The London Group Discussion Paper for the Council of Europe, draft, London, www.arcchip.cz/w01/w01_appendix1.pdf [abgerufen am: 10.12.2010].
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früher (Konzentration auf):
heute (berücksichtigt wird):
Tab. 1. Trends im Kulturerbemanagement an der Schwelle vom 20. zum 21. Jahrhundert
Literatur:
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Aa van der B. J. M., Preserving the heritage of humanity? Obtaining World Heritage status and the impacts of listing, Enschede 2005. Ashworth G. J., Heritage planning, Conservation as the management of urban change, Groningen 1991. Avrami E., Mason R., de la Torre M., Values and heritage conservation. Research Report, Los Angeles 2000. Bendix R, Heritage between economy and politics [in:] Intangible heritage, Red. L. Smith, N. Akagawa, London 2009. Benhamou F., Heritage, [in:] A handbook of cultural economics, Red. R. Towse, Cheltenham 2003. Benhamou F., Is increased public spending for the preservation of historic monuments inevitable? The French case, „Journal of Cultural Economics” 1996, Nr. 20. Bowitz E., Ibenholt K., Economic impacts of cultural heritage. Research and perspectives, „Journal of Cultural Heritage” 2009, Nr. 10. Cernea M., Cultural heritage and development. A framework for action in the Middle East and North Africa, Washington 2001. Convention for the safeguarding of the intangible cultural heritage, Paris 2003, http://www.unesco. org/culture/ich/doc/src/01852-EN.pdf (abgerufen am: 14.04.2011). Cuccia T., Signorello G., Methods for measuring the demand for the arts and heritage: theoretical issues [in:] The economics of heritage. A study in the political economy of culture in Sicily, Red. I. Rizzo, R. Towse, Cheltenham 2002. Drucker P., Management: tasks, responsibilities, practices, New York 1974. Graham B., Ashworth G. J., Tunbridge J. E., A geography of heritage, London 2002. Graham B., Howard P., Heritage and identity [in:] The Ashgate research companion to heritage and identity, Red. B. Graham, P. Howard, Aldershot 2008. Harvey D. C., Heritage pasts and heritage presents: temporality, meaning and the scope of heritage studies, „International Journal of Heritage Studies“ 2001, Nr. 4. Helseth S., Clark K., Copeland T., Drury P., Prytehregh M., Forward planning: the functions of cultural heritage in a changing Europe, London 2002, www. arcchip.cz/w01/w01_appendix1.pdf (abgerufen am: 10.12.2010). Heritage for the future – realizing the economic and social potential of a key asset, Council of Europe Publishing, Strasbourg 2005. Howard P., Heritage, management, interpretation, identity, London-New York 2003.
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Aa van der B. J. M., Preserving the heritage of humanity? Obtaining World Heritage status and the impacts of listing, Enschede 2005. Ashworth G. J., Heritage planning, Conservation as the management of urban change, Groningen 1991. Avrami E., Mason R., de la Torre M., Values and heritage conservation. Research Report, Los Angeles 2000. Bendix R, Heritage between economy and politics [in:] Intangible heritage, Red. L. Smith, N. Akagawa, London 2009. Benhamou F., Heritage, [in:] A handbook of cultural economics, Red. R. Towse, Cheltenham 2003. Benhamou F., Is increased public spending for the preservation of historic monuments inevitable? The French case, „Journal of Cultural Economics” 1996, Nr. 20. Bowitz E., Ibenholt K., Economic impacts of cultural heritage. Research and perspectives, „Journal of Cultural Heritage” 2009, Nr. 10. Cernea M., Cultural heritage and development. A framework for action in the Middle East and North Africa, Washington 2001. Convention for the safeguarding of the intangible cultural heritage, Paris 2003, http://www.unesco. org/culture/ich/doc/src/01852-EN.pdf (abgerufen am: 14.04.2011). Cuccia T., Signorello G., Methods for measuring the demand for the arts and heritage: theoretical issues [in:] The economics of heritage. A study in the political economy of culture in Sicily, Red. I. Rizzo, R. Towse, Cheltenham 2002. Drucker P., Management: tasks, responsibilities, practices, New York 1974. Graham B., Ashworth G. J., Tunbridge J. E., A geography of heritage, London 2002. Graham B., Howard P., Heritage and identity [in:] The Ashgate research companion to heritage and identity, Red. B. Graham, P. Howard, Aldershot 2008. Harvey D. C., Heritage pasts and heritage presents: temporality, meaning and the scope of heritage studies, „International Journal of Heritage Studies“ 2001, Nr. 4. Helseth S., Clark K., Copeland T., Drury P., Prytehregh M., Forward planning: the functions of cultural heritage in a changing Europe, London 2002, www. arcchip.cz/w01/w01_appendix1.pdf (abgerufen am: 10.12.2010). Heritage for the future – realizing the economic and social potential of a key asset, Council of Europe Publishing, Strasbourg 2005. Howard P., Heritage, management, interpretation, identity, London-New York 2003.
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Murzyn-Kupisz M., Zarządzanie dziedzictwem kulturowym na początku XXI wieku. Wyzwania stojące przed władzami lokalnymi Krakowa (Kulturerbemanagement zu Beginn des 21. Jahrhunderts) [in:] Barcelona i Kraków. Zmieniające się wizje – wizje zmian (Barcelona und Krakau. Sich ändernde Visionen – Visionen der Veränderung), Red. J. Purchla, Kraków 2008. Netzer D., The economic implications of heritage preservation, „The Urban Age” 1997, Nr. 4. Nieroba E., Czerner A., Szczepański M. S., Flirty tradycji z popkulturą. Dziedzictwo kulturowe w późnej nowoczesności /Flirts der Tradition mit der Popkultur. Das Kulturerbe in des späten Moderne/, Warszawa 2010. Pawłowska K., Swaryczewska M., Ochrona dziedzictwa kulturowego. Zarządzanie i partycypacja społeczna /Der Schutz des Kulturerbes. Management und gesellschaftliche Partizipation/, Kraków 2002. Pawłowska K., Przeciwdziałanie konfliktom wokół ochrony i kształtowania krajobrazu (Konfliktvermeidung bei Landschaftsschutz und –gestaltung), Kraków 2008. Peacock A., A future to the past: the political economy of heritage, „Proceedings of the British Academy” 1995, Nr. 87. Peacock A., Rizzo I., The heritage game. Economics, policy and practice, Oxford 2008.
Piccinato G., Specjaliści, mieszkańcy, użytkownicy. Ćwiczenia w zgodnym budowaniu (Spezialisten, Einwohner; Nutzer. Übungen zum einvernehmlichen Bauen) [in:] Dziedzictwo a turystyka (Erbe und Tourismus), Red. J. Purchla, Kraków 1999. Prott L., The international movement of cultural objects, „International Journal of Cultural Property” 2005, Nr. 12. Ready R. C., Navrud S. Red., Valuing cultural heritage. Applying environmental valuation techniques to historic buildings, monuments and artefacts, Cheltenham 2002. Skounti A., The authentic illusion. Humanity’s intangible cultural heritage, the Moroccan experience [in:] Intangible heritage, red. L. Smith, N. Akagawa, London 2009. Smith L., Uses of heritage, London and New York 2006. Throsby D., Economics and culture, Cambridge 2001. Tunbridge J. E., Ashworth G. J., Dissonant heritage: the management of the past as a resource in conflict, Chichester 1996. Ustawa z dn. 23 lipca 2003 r. o o ochronie zabytków i opiece nad zabytkami (Gesetz vom 23. Juli 2003 über Denkmalschutz und Denkmalpflege), polnisches Gesetzblatt „Dziennik Ustaw“ 2003, Nr. 162, Ziff. 1568).
Murzyn-Kupisz M., Zarządzanie dziedzictwem kulturowym na początku XXI wieku. Wyzwania stojące przed władzami lokalnymi Krakowa (Kulturerbemanagement zu Beginn des 21. Jahrhunderts) [in:] Barcelona i Kraków. Zmieniające się wizje – wizje zmian (Barcelona und Krakau. Sich ändernde Visionen – Visionen der Veränderung), Red. J. Purchla, Kraków 2008. Netzer D., The economic implications of heritage preservation, „The Urban Age” 1997, Nr. 4. Nieroba E., Czerner A., Szczepański M. S., Flirty tradycji z popkulturą. Dziedzictwo kulturowe w późnej nowoczesności /Flirts der Tradition mit der Popkultur. Das Kulturerbe in des späten Moderne/, Warszawa 2010. Pawłowska K., Swaryczewska M., Ochrona dziedzictwa kulturowego. Zarządzanie i partycypacja społeczna /Der Schutz des Kulturerbes. Management und gesellschaftliche Partizipation/, Kraków 2002. Pawłowska K., Przeciwdziałanie konfliktom wokół ochrony i kształtowania krajobrazu (Konfliktvermeidung bei Landschaftsschutz und –gestaltung), Kraków 2008. Peacock A., A future to the past: the political economy of heritage, „Proceedings of the British Academy” 1995, Nr. 87. Peacock A., Rizzo I., The heritage game. Economics, policy and practice, Oxford 2008. Kulturmanagement 2011, Vol 4 (4)
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Piccinato G., Specjaliści, mieszkańcy, użytkownicy. Ćwiczenia w zgodnym budowaniu (Spezialisten, Einwohner; Nutzer. Übungen zum einvernehmlichen Bauen) [in:] Dziedzictwo a turystyka (Erbe und Tourismus), Red. J. Purchla, Kraków 1999. Prott L., The international movement of cultural objects, „International Journal of Cultural Property” 2005, Nr. 12. Ready R. C., Navrud S. Red., Valuing cultural heritage. Applying environmental valuation techniques to historic buildings, monuments and artefacts, Cheltenham 2002. Skounti A., The authentic illusion. Humanity’s intangible cultural heritage, the Moroccan experience [in:] Intangible heritage, red. L. Smith, N. Akagawa, London 2009. Smith L., Uses of heritage, London and New York 2006. Throsby D., Economics and culture, Cambridge 2001. Tunbridge J. E., Ashworth G. J., Dissonant heritage: the management of the past as a resource in conflict, Chichester 1996. Ustawa z dn. 23 lipca 2003 r. o o ochronie zabytków i opiece nad zabytkami (Gesetz vom 23. Juli 2003 über Denkmalschutz und Denkmalpflege), polnisches Gesetzblatt „Dziennik Ustaw“ 2003, Nr. 162, Ziff. 1568).
Die besondere Bedeutung von Märchen und Legenden für die Entwicklung des Kulturtourismus in Kleinpolen
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Anna Góral
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Z
egenden sind Erzählungen, die in der Regel mit zahlreichen Elementen der Phantasie durchtränkt und häufig von volkstümlichen Motiven
Anna Góral Doktorandin an der Fakultät für Management und Soziale Kommunikation der Jagiellonen Universität. Beruflich beschäftigt sie sich mit Projektmanagement und internationaler Zusammenarbeit von Selbstverwaltungen. Ihr Forschungsbereich konzentriert sich auf das immaterielle Kulturerbe und KulturerbeÖkonomie.
L
iel des Artikels ist es, einen wichtigen Teil des Kulturerbes von Kleinpolen aufzuzeigen, zu dessen Besonderheiten die reiche Folklore und Volkskultur gehören, darunter auch Märchen, Sagen und Legenden, die eine echte „Visitenkarte” der Region im In- und Ausland darstellen können. Trotz ihrer zweifellosen Attraktivität wird die Folklore bislang nicht vollständig für den Tourismus nutzbar gemacht. Zu beanstanden ist das Fehlen eines Bewusstseins bei den Organen der territorialen Selbstverwaltung und den ihnen unterstellten Kulturinstitutionen für die Volkkultur der Region. In Kleinpolen gibt es zahlreiche Orte, die mit lokalen Märchen und Sagen verbunden sind, die es zu modernisieren, popularisieren und exponieren gilt. Dieser Artikel stellt die kleinpolnischen Märchen, Legenden vor, verweist auf die Möglichkeiten ihrer Verbreitung und Förderung am Beispiel guter Praktiken und macht Vorschläge, wie sie dazu beitragen können, die touristische Attraktivität der Region zu erhöhen. Es werden auch Ergebnisse von Untersuchungen vorgelegt, die den Wissensstand der Organe der territorialen Selbstverwaltung und der ihnen unterstellten Kulturinstitutionen im Bereich der Kenntnis des Kulturpotenzials örtlicher Märchen und Legenden sowie der Möglichkeiten ihrer Nutzung verifizieren.
1. Einführung
umgeben sind. Dennoch können sie zuweilen von bestimmten Ereignissen und Orten mehr erzählen als manche historisch gesicherte Tatsache. Auf dem Gebiet von Kleinpolen sind viele Märchen und Legenden lebendig geblieben. Die meisten mögen mit der Zeit in Vergessenheit geraten sein, aber was erhalten geblieben ist, stellt ein wesentliches Element der örtlichen Folklore dar, bildet die Besonderheit der Region ab. Die Geschichtenerzählerei ist ein wichtiger, wenn auch kaum erforschter Teilbereich der Folklore, der insbesondere auch im Kontext des Fremdenverkehrs von Bedeutung ist. Eine häufig gestellte Frage ist, ob und auf welche Weise die Geschichtenerzählerei bei der tieferen Kulturerfahrung des Touristen vermittelnd wirken kann. Ethnografische Untersuchungen zeigen auf, dass Märchen und Legenden nicht nur die Rolle eines Instruments spielen, als soziokultureller „Vermittler“ im Prozess der Darstellung offiziell sanktionierter Vorstellungen und Geschichte von Orten, sondern auch auf bildliche Weise die Vorstellung des Touristen von seinen Reisezielen beeinflussen [Krawczyk-Wasilewska 1979]. Als Kulturträger können Märchen und Legenden sowohl den Prozess des kennenlernenden Kontakts zwischen Touristen und der lokalen Kultur stimulieren als auch das Verständnis lokaler Sitten und Gebräuche, Zeremonien, Kulte und der allgemeinen Lebensart beeinflussen. Die bewusste und effiziente Erschließung des in Märchen und Legenden schlummernden Potenzials erfordert jedoch das Verständnis ihrer Rolle und Bedeutung sowohl seitens der Institutionen,
1. Einführung
iel des Artikels ist es, einen wichtigen Teil des Kulturerbes von Kleinpolen aufzuzeigen, zu dessen Besonderheiten die reiche Folklore und Volkskultur gehören, darunter auch Märchen, Sagen und Legenden, die eine echte „Visitenkarte” der Region im In- und Ausland darstellen können. Trotz ihrer zweifellosen Attraktivität wird die Folklore bislang nicht vollständig für den Tourismus nutzbar gemacht. Zu beanstanden ist das Fehlen eines Bewusstseins bei den Organen der territorialen Selbstverwaltung und den ihnen unterstellten Kulturinstitutionen für die Volkkultur der Region. In Kleinpolen gibt es zahlreiche Orte, die mit lokalen Märchen und Sagen verbunden sind, die es zu modernisieren, popularisieren und exponieren gilt. Dieser Artikel stellt die kleinpolnischen Märchen, Legenden vor, verweist auf die Möglichkeiten ihrer Verbreitung und Förderung am Beispiel guter Praktiken und macht Vorschläge, wie sie dazu beitragen können, die touristische Attraktivität der Region zu erhöhen. Es werden auch Ergebnisse von Untersuchungen vorgelegt, die den Wissensstand der Organe der territorialen Selbstverwaltung und der ihnen unterstellten Kulturinstitutionen im Bereich der Kenntnis des Kulturpotenzials örtlicher Märchen und Legenden sowie der Möglichkeiten ihrer Nutzung verifizieren.
umgeben sind. Dennoch können sie zuweilen von bestimmten Ereignissen und Orten mehr erzählen als manche historisch gesicherte Tatsache. Auf dem Gebiet von Kleinpolen sind viele Märchen und Legenden lebendig geblieben. Die meisten mögen mit der Zeit in Vergessenheit geraten sein, aber was erhalten geblieben ist, stellt ein wesentliches Element der örtlichen Folklore dar, bildet die Besonderheit der Region ab. Die Geschichtenerzählerei ist ein wichtiger, wenn auch kaum erforschter Teilbereich der Folklore, der insbesondere auch im Kontext des Fremdenverkehrs von Bedeutung ist. Eine häufig gestellte Frage ist, ob und auf welche Weise die Geschichtenerzählerei bei der tieferen Kulturerfahrung des Touristen vermittelnd wirken kann. Ethnografische Untersuchungen zeigen auf, dass Märchen und Legenden nicht nur die Rolle eines Instruments spielen, als soziokultureller „Vermittler“ im Prozess der Darstellung offiziell sanktionierter Vorstellungen und Geschichte von Orten, sondern auch auf bildliche Weise die Vorstellung des Touristen von seinen Reisezielen beeinflussen [Krawczyk-Wasilewska 1979]. Als Kulturträger können Märchen und Legenden sowohl den Prozess des kennenlernenden Kontakts zwischen Touristen und der lokalen Kultur stimulieren als auch das Verständnis lokaler Sitten und Gebräuche, Zeremonien, Kulte und der allgemeinen Lebensart beeinflussen. Die bewusste und effiziente Erschließung des in Märchen und Legenden schlummernden Potenzials erfordert jedoch das Verständnis ihrer Rolle und Bedeutung sowohl seitens der Institutionen,
Z
L
Anna Góral Doktorandin an der Fakultät für Management und Soziale Kommunikation der Jagiellonen Universität. Beruflich beschäftigt sie sich mit Projektmanagement und internationaler Zusammenarbeit von Selbstverwaltungen. Ihr Forschungsbereich konzentriert sich auf das immaterielle Kulturerbe und KulturerbeÖkonomie.
egenden sind Erzählungen, die in der Regel mit zahlreichen Elementen der Phantasie durchtränkt und häufig von volkstümlichen Motiven
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Anna Góral
124
Die besondere Bedeutung von Märchen und Legenden für die Entwicklung des Kulturtourismus in Kleinpolen
Kulturmanagement 2011, Vol 4 (4)
Die besondere Bedeutung von Märchen und Legenden für die Entwicklung des Kulturtourismus in Kleinpolen
A
kryphe Motive eingebunden. Die Übermittlung erfolgte ursprünglich mündlich, später wurden die Erzählungen auch schriftlich fixiert. Die ersten Legenden entstanden im Mittelalter zum Zweck der Verbreitung des christlichen Glaubens. Da sie von Mund zu Mund weitergegeben wurden, unterlagen sie mit der Zeit einer Evolution, in der sie an die aktuellen Bedürfnisse der lokalen Gesellschaften angepasst wurden [Sławiński 1999]. Legenden, Märchen und volkstümliche Erzählungen besitzen einen enormen kulturellen und historischen Informationswert. Sie erfüllen zahlreiche Funktionen in der lokalen Gesellschaft: Vor allem konsolidieren sie gemeinsame Vorstellungen und Symbole, prägen und festigen Geschichtsbewusstsein und zeichnen wichtige Vorkommnisse, die sich in der Region ereignet haben, auf. [Sławiński 1999]. Einstmals waren sie ein wesentlicher Bestandteil des historischen Bewusstseins und der nationalen Identität. Mag ihre Rolle heute auch geringer sein, so gehören sie dennoch nach wie vor zu den wichtigsten Äußerungen der regionalen Kultur, prägen Kenntnisse und Vorstellungen über die Geschichte des Volks [Odoj, Pec 2000]. Legenden wurden in der Volkskultur meistens an langen Herbst- und Winterabenden bei häuslichen Arbeiten wie Leinenspinnen, Erbsenentschoten oder Weben erzählt, oder auch bei der Feldarbeit oder beim abendlichen Zusammensein ganzer Familien und Nachbarschaften. Dank ihrer Transparenz und spannenden Handlungen waren sie für Alt und Jung verständlich, leicht zu merken und weiterzuerzählen. Neben ihrer unterhaltenden Funktion transportierten sie auch emotionale und erzieherische Inhalte. Sie stellten verschiedene Ereignisse in den Kategorien von Gut und Böse dar, wodurch sie moralische Grundsätze und Verhaltensweisen vermittelten wie auch die Beziehungen der Mitglieder der lokalen Gesellschaft untereinander als auch gegenüber der Welt. Ihr Zweck war auch die Verankerung historischer Momente und ungewöhnlicher Vorkommnisse im Bewusstsein des Volks, wodurch sie an der Schaffung eines Geschichtsbewusstseins mitwirkten. Die Weitergabe der Legenden von Generation zu Generation, wobei sich die Großeltern sich bei der Erzählung wiederum auf ihre eigenen Großeltern beriefen und so fort, stärkte dieses Bewusstsein und schuf Überlieferung [Pawlikowska-Wójcicka 2005]. Je reichhaltiger die Geschichte der Region und das Geschichtsbewusstsein ihrer Bewohner ist, desto reicher ist wohl auch der Reichtum an
2. Legenden als eine der wesentlichen ÄuSSerungen des Folklore
die für den Schutz und Erhalt der Überlieferung der lokalen Folklore verantwortlich sind, als auch derer, die Strategien zur Regionalentwicklung erarbeiten und verwalten (vor allem die territorialen und kommunalen Selbstverwaltungen). Das Problem der Nutzung von Märchen und Legenden zur kulturellen und touristischen Entwicklung einer Region ist Gegenstand der Aufmerksamkeit vieler Wissenschaftler, vor allem in der Fachliteratur im Ausland [vgl. Giaccardi 2006, S. 281-294; Kneafsey 2000; Lowenthal 1998]. Diese Veröffentlichungen konzentrieren sich auf die Rolle von Märchen und Legenden in der lokalen Folklore wie auch auf die Instrumente zu ihrer effizienten Einbeziehung in die Strategien der örtlichen Fremdenverkehrsentwicklung. In Polen ist die Problematik von Märchen und Legenden im Kontext der Stimulierung des Fremdenverkehrs nicht gegenwärtig. Zwar gibt es zahlreiche Publikationen zum regionalen Fremdenverkehrsmarketing, aber diese konzentrieren sich hauptsächlich auf solche Fragen wie Handwerkskunst, Küche, regionale Architektur, Sitten und Gebräuche [vgl. Ramczyk, Gutkowska 2008; Jessa 2010]. Dieser Artikel präsentiert die kleinpolnischen Märchen, Legenden und Sagen als wichtiges Element der lokalen Folklore. Aufgezeigt werden mögliche Formen und Werkzeuge des Regionalmarketings mittels Märchen und Legenden sowie ausgewählte gute Praktiken im Bereich der Projekte zur Erschließung von Märchen und Legenden zur Entwicklung des Fremdenverkehrs in der Region. Dargestellt werden auch die Ergebnisse von Meinungsumfragen, die den Wissensstand von Organen der territorialen Selbstverwaltung und der ihnen unterstellten Kulturinstitutionen bezüglich des Bewusstseins und der Kenntnis des kulturellen Potenzials von Märchen und Legenden sowie der Möglichkeiten ihrer Erschließung verifiziert.
Anna Góral
2. Legenden als eine der wesentlichen ÄuSSerungen des Folklore
A
kryphe Motive eingebunden. Die Übermittlung erfolgte ursprünglich mündlich, später wurden die Erzählungen auch schriftlich fixiert. Die ersten Legenden entstanden im Mittelalter zum Zweck der Verbreitung des christlichen Glaubens. Da sie von Mund zu Mund weitergegeben wurden, unterlagen sie mit der Zeit einer Evolution, in der sie an die aktuellen Bedürfnisse der lokalen Gesellschaften angepasst wurden [Sławiński 1999]. Legenden, Märchen und volkstümliche Erzählungen besitzen einen enormen kulturellen und historischen Informationswert. Sie erfüllen zahlreiche Funktionen in der lokalen Gesellschaft: Vor allem konsolidieren sie gemeinsame Vorstellungen und Symbole, prägen und festigen Geschichtsbewusstsein und zeichnen wichtige Vorkommnisse, die sich in der Region ereignet haben, auf. [Sławiński 1999]. Einstmals waren sie ein wesentlicher Bestandteil des historischen Bewusstseins und der nationalen Identität. Mag ihre Rolle heute auch geringer sein, so gehören sie dennoch nach wie vor zu den wichtigsten Äußerungen der regionalen Kultur, prägen Kenntnisse und Vorstellungen über die Geschichte des Volks [Odoj, Pec 2000]. Legenden wurden in der Volkskultur meistens an langen Herbst- und Winterabenden bei häuslichen Arbeiten wie Leinenspinnen, Erbsenentschoten oder Weben erzählt, oder auch bei der Feldarbeit oder beim abendlichen Zusammensein ganzer Familien und Nachbarschaften. Dank ihrer Transparenz und spannenden Handlungen waren sie für Alt und Jung verständlich, leicht zu merken und weiterzuerzählen. Neben ihrer unterhaltenden Funktion transportierten sie auch emotionale und erzieherische Inhalte. Sie stellten verschiedene Ereignisse in den Kategorien von Gut und Böse dar, wodurch sie moralische Grundsätze und Verhaltensweisen vermittelten wie auch die Beziehungen der Mitglieder der lokalen Gesellschaft untereinander als auch gegenüber der Welt. Ihr Zweck war auch die Verankerung historischer Momente und ungewöhnlicher Vorkommnisse im Bewusstsein des Volks, wodurch sie an der Schaffung eines Geschichtsbewusstseins mitwirkten. Die Weitergabe der Legenden von Generation zu Generation, wobei sich die Großeltern sich bei der Erzählung wiederum auf ihre eigenen Großeltern beriefen und so fort, stärkte dieses Bewusstsein und schuf Überlieferung [Pawlikowska-Wójcicka 2005]. Je reichhaltiger die Geschichte der Region und das Geschichtsbewusstsein ihrer Bewohner ist, desto reicher ist wohl auch der Reichtum an
Anna Góral
ls Legenden werden in der Fachliteratur Erzählungen bezeichnet, die sich durch Elemente des Außerordentlichen oder Wundersamen im Leben einer Gesellschaft oder Region auszeichnen. Sie informieren über die Gründung einer Stadt oder eines Staates, enthalten historische Vorkommnisse und wichtige Figuren der regionalen Geschichte, wie etwa Helden und Ritter. Häufig sind Legenden in folkloristische und apo-
125
Die besondere Bedeutung von Märchen und Legenden für die Entwicklung des Kulturtourismus in Kleinpolen
die für den Schutz und Erhalt der Überlieferung der lokalen Folklore verantwortlich sind, als auch derer, die Strategien zur Regionalentwicklung erarbeiten und verwalten (vor allem die territorialen und kommunalen Selbstverwaltungen). Das Problem der Nutzung von Märchen und Legenden zur kulturellen und touristischen Entwicklung einer Region ist Gegenstand der Aufmerksamkeit vieler Wissenschaftler, vor allem in der Fachliteratur im Ausland [vgl. Giaccardi 2006, S. 281-294; Kneafsey 2000; Lowenthal 1998]. Diese Veröffentlichungen konzentrieren sich auf die Rolle von Märchen und Legenden in der lokalen Folklore wie auch auf die Instrumente zu ihrer effizienten Einbeziehung in die Strategien der örtlichen Fremdenverkehrsentwicklung. In Polen ist die Problematik von Märchen und Legenden im Kontext der Stimulierung des Fremdenverkehrs nicht gegenwärtig. Zwar gibt es zahlreiche Publikationen zum regionalen Fremdenverkehrsmarketing, aber diese konzentrieren sich hauptsächlich auf solche Fragen wie Handwerkskunst, Küche, regionale Architektur, Sitten und Gebräuche [vgl. Ramczyk, Gutkowska 2008; Jessa 2010]. Dieser Artikel präsentiert die kleinpolnischen Märchen, Legenden und Sagen als wichtiges Element der lokalen Folklore. Aufgezeigt werden mögliche Formen und Werkzeuge des Regionalmarketings mittels Märchen und Legenden sowie ausgewählte gute Praktiken im Bereich der Projekte zur Erschließung von Märchen und Legenden zur Entwicklung des Fremdenverkehrs in der Region. Dargestellt werden auch die Ergebnisse von Meinungsumfragen, die den Wissensstand von Organen der territorialen Selbstverwaltung und der ihnen unterstellten Kulturinstitutionen bezüglich des Bewusstseins und der Kenntnis des kulturellen Potenzials von Märchen und Legenden sowie der Möglichkeiten ihrer Erschließung verifiziert.
ls Legenden werden in der Fachliteratur Erzählungen bezeichnet, die sich durch Elemente des Außerordentlichen oder Wundersamen im Leben einer Gesellschaft oder Region auszeichnen. Sie informieren über die Gründung einer Stadt oder eines Staates, enthalten historische Vorkommnisse und wichtige Figuren der regionalen Geschichte, wie etwa Helden und Ritter. Häufig sind Legenden in folkloristische und apo-
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3. Kleinpolnische Märchen und Legenden Legenden, Volkssagen, Märchen und Anekdoten [Kneafsey 2000, S. 35-50]. Dies entspricht der Tatsache, dass die Volkslegenden auf der Grundlage authentischer Ereignisse entstanden, wobei sie mit einer interessanten Handlung, Nebenhandlungen und eigenen Erklärungen unverständlicher Elemente versehen wurden. Da es keine maßgebliche schriftliche Fixierung gab und jederzeit Änderungen und Aktualisierungen möglich waren, kam es nicht selten zu einer Überlagerung und Durchdringung von Erzählungen aus unterschiedlichen Epochen. Da mal diejenigen Fragmente herausgearbeitet wurden, die für die Zuhörer besonders interessant waren, mal versucht wurde, die Unverständlichkeiten der Geschichte zu klären, unterlag die ganze Konstruktion der Botschaft einer permanenten Umformung. Infolge dieser Prozesse entstanden Legenden, die zwar auf wahren Ereignissen beruhen, aber dennoch vor allem ein faszinierendes Spiegelbild der regionalen Bevölkerung darstellen.
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egenden lasen sich in zwei Gruppen einteilen: (1) fantastische Legenden, die von übernatürlichen Erscheinungen berichten, von Geistern, Gespenstern, Teufeln und Spukorten, sowie (2) realistische Legenden, die etwa historische Ereignisse wiedergeben und deuten sowie meistens mit Elementen der Landschaft und Natur oder charakteristischen Bauwerken der jeweiligen Region verbunden sind. Die verbreitetesten und am besten erhaltenen Legenden sind mit der Herkunft von Ortsnamen verbunden. Fast jeder Ort besitzt eine solche märchenhafte Geschichte über die Entstehung ihres Namens. Bekannt ist etwa die Legende von der Gründung der Stadt Krakau, die ihren Namen dem Gründer, König Krak, verdanken soll [Rożek 2004, s. 59]. Eine der bekanntesten Sagenfiguren in Kleinpolen ist die heilige Kunigunde, mit der zahlreiche Orte der Region verbunden sind. Die Legende erzählt, dass, als der Herzog von Krakau und Sandomir Boleslaus um die Hand der ungarischen Königstochter Kunigunde anhielt, diese ihren Vater gebeten habe, ihr in der Mitgift statt Gold und Kostbarkeiten Salz mitzugeben, den größten Schatz des Königreichs Ungarn. Der König schenkte ihr also die reichste siebenbürgische Salzgrube in Maramuresch. Kunigunde warf dort ihren Ver-
lobungsring in einen Schacht des Bergwerks. Als sie sich auf die Reise in ihre neue Heimat begab, nahm sie eine Gruppe erfahrener ungarischer Bergleute mit sich. In Polen angekommen befahl sie ihnen nach Salz zu suchen. Als sie schließlich in Bochnia und Wieliczka tatsächlich auf Salz stießen, geschah es, dass, wie Piotr Skarga berichtet, „im ersten geförderten Salzgötzen ihr Ring steckte: Kunigunde erkannte ihn sogleich und dankte Gott, dem Herrn, dass er denen, die in lieben, Wunder erweist“ [Skarga 1995, S. 48]. Jede Burg, jeder Gutshof und jedes andere für die lokale Gesellschaft bedeutsame Bauwerk besitzt eine Legende, die mit seiner Geschichte zusammenhängt. Ein Beispiel ist das Schloss in Niepołomice mit seiner Legende von der Lotosblüte. Sie erzählt, dass König Kasimir der Große nach Niepołomice ein Stück des Felsens aus der Gereonkapelle auf dem Krakauer Wawel gebracht habe, unter der sich ein Chakram (was auf Indisch Lotosblüte bedeutet) befindet. Er wollte, dass der magische Wawelstein als Grundlage für den Bau des hiesigen Schlosses dienen möge. Der Stein ruht im ältesten, 650 Jahre alten Teil des Gebäudes, in dem während des Zweiten Weltkrieges die Deutschen ein Munitionslager einrichteten. Die Gegenwart des Chakram hingegen soll von wissenschaftlichen Geräten und Radiästheten bestätigt worden sein [Moskal 2004, S. 93]. Mit dem Schloss in Pieskowa Skała ist eine Legende verknüpft, die gleichzeitig den Namen des Ortes erklärt. So wird berichtet, dass in uralten Zeiten die schöne und junge Dorotka aus dem Geschlecht Toporczyk dem alten Szafraniec verheiratet worden sei. Natürlich hatte das Mädchen aber auch einen Geleibten, einen schönen und jungen Ritter. Dieser war allerdings arm, also verheiratete die Familie ihre Tochter an den alten, aber reichen Mann aus Pieskowa Skała. Eben dorthin zog der Ritter in Verkleidung als Lautenspieler. Der alte Szafraniec ließ ihn zu seiner jungen Frau, da diese die Musik liebte, und begab sich selber auf die Jagd. Jedoch kehrte er früher zurück als es die Jungen erwartete hatten und ertappte diese in flagranti. Wutentbrannt ließ er den jungen Mann von Pferden zerreißen, während er seine Gemahlin ins Hungerverlies sperrte. Jedoch überlebte Dorotka ihn dort dank der Treue ihres Hundes, der durch eine Mauerspalte seinen Hundefraß mit ihr teilte. Das polnische Wort für Hund ist „pies“ und daher soll der Name des Schlosses stammen. Die wissenschaftliche Deutung des Namens ist eine andere. Der Felsen, auf dem das Schloss steht, soll ursprünglich einem gewissen Piotr (Rufname Pieszko) gehört haben, weshalb
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3. Kleinpolnische Märchen und Legenden
egenden lasen sich in zwei Gruppen einteilen: (1) fantastische Legenden, die von übernatürlichen Erscheinungen berichten, von Geistern, Gespenstern, Teufeln und Spukorten, sowie (2) realistische Legenden, die etwa historische Ereignisse wiedergeben und deuten sowie meistens mit Elementen der Landschaft und Natur oder charakteristischen Bauwerken der jeweiligen Region verbunden sind. Die verbreitetesten und am besten erhaltenen Legenden sind mit der Herkunft von Ortsnamen verbunden. Fast jeder Ort besitzt eine solche märchenhafte Geschichte über die Entstehung ihres Namens. Bekannt ist etwa die Legende von der Gründung der Stadt Krakau, die ihren Namen dem Gründer, König Krak, verdanken soll [Rożek 2004, s. 59]. Eine der bekanntesten Sagenfiguren in Kleinpolen ist die heilige Kunigunde, mit der zahlreiche Orte der Region verbunden sind. Die Legende erzählt, dass, als der Herzog von Krakau und Sandomir Boleslaus um die Hand der ungarischen Königstochter Kunigunde anhielt, diese ihren Vater gebeten habe, ihr in der Mitgift statt Gold und Kostbarkeiten Salz mitzugeben, den größten Schatz des Königreichs Ungarn. Der König schenkte ihr also die reichste siebenbürgische Salzgrube in Maramuresch. Kunigunde warf dort ihren Ver-
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L
lobungsring in einen Schacht des Bergwerks. Als sie sich auf die Reise in ihre neue Heimat begab, nahm sie eine Gruppe erfahrener ungarischer Bergleute mit sich. In Polen angekommen befahl sie ihnen nach Salz zu suchen. Als sie schließlich in Bochnia und Wieliczka tatsächlich auf Salz stießen, geschah es, dass, wie Piotr Skarga berichtet, „im ersten geförderten Salzgötzen ihr Ring steckte: Kunigunde erkannte ihn sogleich und dankte Gott, dem Herrn, dass er denen, die in lieben, Wunder erweist“ [Skarga 1995, S. 48]. Jede Burg, jeder Gutshof und jedes andere für die lokale Gesellschaft bedeutsame Bauwerk besitzt eine Legende, die mit seiner Geschichte zusammenhängt. Ein Beispiel ist das Schloss in Niepołomice mit seiner Legende von der Lotosblüte. Sie erzählt, dass König Kasimir der Große nach Niepołomice ein Stück des Felsens aus der Gereonkapelle auf dem Krakauer Wawel gebracht habe, unter der sich ein Chakram (was auf Indisch Lotosblüte bedeutet) befindet. Er wollte, dass der magische Wawelstein als Grundlage für den Bau des hiesigen Schlosses dienen möge. Der Stein ruht im ältesten, 650 Jahre alten Teil des Gebäudes, in dem während des Zweiten Weltkrieges die Deutschen ein Munitionslager einrichteten. Die Gegenwart des Chakram hingegen soll von wissenschaftlichen Geräten und Radiästheten bestätigt worden sein [Moskal 2004, S. 93]. Mit dem Schloss in Pieskowa Skała ist eine Legende verknüpft, die gleichzeitig den Namen des Ortes erklärt. So wird berichtet, dass in uralten Zeiten die schöne und junge Dorotka aus dem Geschlecht Toporczyk dem alten Szafraniec verheiratet worden sei. Natürlich hatte das Mädchen aber auch einen Geleibten, einen schönen und jungen Ritter. Dieser war allerdings arm, also verheiratete die Familie ihre Tochter an den alten, aber reichen Mann aus Pieskowa Skała. Eben dorthin zog der Ritter in Verkleidung als Lautenspieler. Der alte Szafraniec ließ ihn zu seiner jungen Frau, da diese die Musik liebte, und begab sich selber auf die Jagd. Jedoch kehrte er früher zurück als es die Jungen erwartete hatten und ertappte diese in flagranti. Wutentbrannt ließ er den jungen Mann von Pferden zerreißen, während er seine Gemahlin ins Hungerverlies sperrte. Jedoch überlebte Dorotka ihn dort dank der Treue ihres Hundes, der durch eine Mauerspalte seinen Hundefraß mit ihr teilte. Das polnische Wort für Hund ist „pies“ und daher soll der Name des Schlosses stammen. Die wissenschaftliche Deutung des Namens ist eine andere. Der Felsen, auf dem das Schloss steht, soll ursprünglich einem gewissen Piotr (Rufname Pieszko) gehört haben, weshalb
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Legenden, Volkssagen, Märchen und Anekdoten [Kneafsey 2000, S. 35-50]. Dies entspricht der Tatsache, dass die Volkslegenden auf der Grundlage authentischer Ereignisse entstanden, wobei sie mit einer interessanten Handlung, Nebenhandlungen und eigenen Erklärungen unverständlicher Elemente versehen wurden. Da es keine maßgebliche schriftliche Fixierung gab und jederzeit Änderungen und Aktualisierungen möglich waren, kam es nicht selten zu einer Überlagerung und Durchdringung von Erzählungen aus unterschiedlichen Epochen. Da mal diejenigen Fragmente herausgearbeitet wurden, die für die Zuhörer besonders interessant waren, mal versucht wurde, die Unverständlichkeiten der Geschichte zu klären, unterlag die ganze Konstruktion der Botschaft einer permanenten Umformung. Infolge dieser Prozesse entstanden Legenden, die zwar auf wahren Ereignissen beruhen, aber dennoch vor allem ein faszinierendes Spiegelbild der regionalen Bevölkerung darstellen.
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der Ort Pieszko-Felsen, Pieszkowa Skała, und später Pieskowa Skała genannt wurde. [SukertowaBiedrawina 1928]. Auch Orte mit ungewöhnlichen Naturschöpfungen haben ihre Legenden und Erzählungen, die ihre Herkunft erklären. Bekannt ist die Legende über die markante Felsformation der Herkuleskeule im Nationalpark Ojców, einem 30 Meter hohen freistehenden und sich nach unten zu verjüngenden Felsturm, der in der Tat an eine Keule erinnert. Die älteste Legende über diesen Ort beruft sich auf die Zeiten von König Krak, dem die Keule bei seinem Kampf gegen den schrecklichen Drachen, der die Gegend verwüstete, gedient und später am Taleingang als Warnung für andere Drachen aufgestellt worden sein soll [Sukertowa-Biedrawina 1928]. Eine ähnliche Legende umgibt die Steinerne Stadt, ein Felslabyrinth bei dem Ort Ciężkowice. Nach alten Erzählungen waren es nicht die Kräfte der Natur, welche die Steinerne Stadt hervorbrachten, sondern ein Fluch, den die ehemaligen Bewohner der Stadt wegen der Verletzung des Gastrechts durch den Herrn von Ciężkowice traf. Eines Tages war zu ihm ein Mädchen gekommen, das aus der Gefangenschaft beim Herrn von Rożnów geflohen war. Dieser verlangte ihre Auslieferung und bot im Gegenzug den Besitz des benachbarten Dorfes Kąśna an. Das betrogene Mädchen starb vor Verzweiflung und die ganze Stadt wurde zur Strafe in Stein verwandelt [Staszewski 1968, S. 100]. Wie sich an den genannten Beispielen erkennen lässt, sind die kleinpolnischen Legenden nicht nur in der Kultur, sondern auch in der Geschichte der Region verwurzelt. Sie sind eine Quelle des Wissens über die Geschichte der Region, ihre Traditionen, Sitten, Gebräuche und zwischenmenschlichen Beziehungen. Dadurch werden sie zu einem besonderen Element der Identität der Region, prägen ihre Einzigartigkeit mit und können, entsprechend aufbereitet, als Ausgangspunkt für die Gestaltung eines attraktiven touristischen Images dienen.
4. Kulturtourismus und Regionaltourismus
W
. Gaworecki betont, dass „die Beziehungen zwischen Tourismus und Kultur eng und wechselseitig sind. Der Tourismus schützt, bereichert und popularisiert Kulturgüter, die Kultur wiederum inspiriert die Entwicklung des
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Tourismus“ [Gaworecki 2000]. Wie A. Kowalczyk bemerkt, betrachten viele Soziologen jede Form des Fremdenverkehrs vor allem als Begegnung unterschiedlicher Kulturen [Kowalczyk 2001]. Der Tourismus kann also sowohl Objekt als auch Subjekt dieser Beziehungen sein. Einerseits lässt sich also feststellen, dass der Tourismus ein Produkt der Kultur ist, andererseits hat diese auch einen wesentlichen Einfluss auf sein Erscheinungsbild. Diese besondere Beziehung lässt sich besonders klar im Bereich des Kulturtourismus erkennen dessen Betrachtung, sowohl in wissenschaftlichen Untersuchungen als auch bei Maßnahmen zu seiner Förderung, sich gegen Ende des 20. Jahrhunderts entscheidend gewandelt hat. Wie jedoch D. Lowenthal bemerkt, sind in den Zeiten der Postmoderne, in denen der Bereich des Kulturerbes bis an die Grenzen der Gegenwart ausgedehnt ist, alle Formen der menschlichen Tätigkeit in den Fokus des touristischen Interesses gerückt, nicht nur materielle Hervorbringungen, sondern auch das, was schwer zu erfassen ist, also das immaterielle Erbe, das oft auch als Folklore bezeichnet wird [Lowenthal 1998]. Die Encyclopedia of Tourism gibt an, dass die meisten Autoren bei der Definition des Kulturtourismus als ihr kennzeichnendes Merkmal die „Aneignung von Wissen über andere Menschen und ihre Lebensart“ nennen [ Jafari 2000]. Ein solcher Ansatz ermöglicht die Berücksichtigung aller Elemente der Kultur, aufgefasst auf moderne Weise, also nicht im Sinne der reinen Besichtigung von Sehenswürdigkeiten, sondern als aktiver Akt, durch den der Tourist selbst die lokalen Besonderheiten kennenlernen, erspüren, erfahren will. Andere Wissenschaftler, unter ihnen G. Adams und M. Kneafsey bezeichnen den Kulturtourismus als „Reise zur inneren Bereicherung“ („self-enrichment“) oder „Suche nach Wissen“ [vgl. Kneafsey 2000]. Die wesentlichen Elemente dieses Phänomens sind ihrer Ansicht nach „Entwicklung, Präsentation und Interpretation der Kulturressourcen“. Eine Frucht dieser Erwägungen ist die folgende Sammeldefinition des Kulturtourismus: „... er ist eine kommerzialisierte Äußerung des menschlichen Bedürfnisses danach zu sehen, wie die anderen leben, ihre Neugier zu befriedigen und ihre Lust, die anderen Menschen in ihrer »authentischen« Umgebung und zusammen mit den materiellen Äußerung ihres Handelns in Kunst, Handwerk, Musik, Literatur, Essen und Trinken, Spiel, Sprache und Ritualen zu sehen.“ [ Jafari 2000].
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. Gaworecki betont, dass „die Beziehungen zwischen Tourismus und Kultur eng und wechselseitig sind. Der Tourismus schützt, bereichert und popularisiert Kulturgüter, die Kultur wiederum inspiriert die Entwicklung des
W
4. Kulturtourismus und Regionaltourismus der Ort Pieszko-Felsen, Pieszkowa Skała, und später Pieskowa Skała genannt wurde. [SukertowaBiedrawina 1928]. Auch Orte mit ungewöhnlichen Naturschöpfungen haben ihre Legenden und Erzählungen, die ihre Herkunft erklären. Bekannt ist die Legende über die markante Felsformation der Herkuleskeule im Nationalpark Ojców, einem 30 Meter hohen freistehenden und sich nach unten zu verjüngenden Felsturm, der in der Tat an eine Keule erinnert. Die älteste Legende über diesen Ort beruft sich auf die Zeiten von König Krak, dem die Keule bei seinem Kampf gegen den schrecklichen Drachen, der die Gegend verwüstete, gedient und später am Taleingang als Warnung für andere Drachen aufgestellt worden sein soll [Sukertowa-Biedrawina 1928]. Eine ähnliche Legende umgibt die Steinerne Stadt, ein Felslabyrinth bei dem Ort Ciężkowice. Nach alten Erzählungen waren es nicht die Kräfte der Natur, welche die Steinerne Stadt hervorbrachten, sondern ein Fluch, den die ehemaligen Bewohner der Stadt wegen der Verletzung des Gastrechts durch den Herrn von Ciężkowice traf. Eines Tages war zu ihm ein Mädchen gekommen, das aus der Gefangenschaft beim Herrn von Rożnów geflohen war. Dieser verlangte ihre Auslieferung und bot im Gegenzug den Besitz des benachbarten Dorfes Kąśna an. Das betrogene Mädchen starb vor Verzweiflung und die ganze Stadt wurde zur Strafe in Stein verwandelt [Staszewski 1968, S. 100]. Wie sich an den genannten Beispielen erkennen lässt, sind die kleinpolnischen Legenden nicht nur in der Kultur, sondern auch in der Geschichte der Region verwurzelt. Sie sind eine Quelle des Wissens über die Geschichte der Region, ihre Traditionen, Sitten, Gebräuche und zwischenmenschlichen Beziehungen. Dadurch werden sie zu einem besonderen Element der Identität der Region, prägen ihre Einzigartigkeit mit und können, entsprechend aufbereitet, als Ausgangspunkt für die Gestaltung eines attraktiven touristischen Images dienen.
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Tourismus“ [Gaworecki 2000]. Wie A. Kowalczyk bemerkt, betrachten viele Soziologen jede Form des Fremdenverkehrs vor allem als Begegnung unterschiedlicher Kulturen [Kowalczyk 2001]. Der Tourismus kann also sowohl Objekt als auch Subjekt dieser Beziehungen sein. Einerseits lässt sich also feststellen, dass der Tourismus ein Produkt der Kultur ist, andererseits hat diese auch einen wesentlichen Einfluss auf sein Erscheinungsbild. Diese besondere Beziehung lässt sich besonders klar im Bereich des Kulturtourismus erkennen dessen Betrachtung, sowohl in wissenschaftlichen Untersuchungen als auch bei Maßnahmen zu seiner Förderung, sich gegen Ende des 20. Jahrhunderts entscheidend gewandelt hat. Wie jedoch D. Lowenthal bemerkt, sind in den Zeiten der Postmoderne, in denen der Bereich des Kulturerbes bis an die Grenzen der Gegenwart ausgedehnt ist, alle Formen der menschlichen Tätigkeit in den Fokus des touristischen Interesses gerückt, nicht nur materielle Hervorbringungen, sondern auch das, was schwer zu erfassen ist, also das immaterielle Erbe, das oft auch als Folklore bezeichnet wird [Lowenthal 1998]. Die Encyclopedia of Tourism gibt an, dass die meisten Autoren bei der Definition des Kulturtourismus als ihr kennzeichnendes Merkmal die „Aneignung von Wissen über andere Menschen und ihre Lebensart“ nennen [ Jafari 2000]. Ein solcher Ansatz ermöglicht die Berücksichtigung aller Elemente der Kultur, aufgefasst auf moderne Weise, also nicht im Sinne der reinen Besichtigung von Sehenswürdigkeiten, sondern als aktiver Akt, durch den der Tourist selbst die lokalen Besonderheiten kennenlernen, erspüren, erfahren will. Andere Wissenschaftler, unter ihnen G. Adams und M. Kneafsey bezeichnen den Kulturtourismus als „Reise zur inneren Bereicherung“ („self-enrichment“) oder „Suche nach Wissen“ [vgl. Kneafsey 2000]. Die wesentlichen Elemente dieses Phänomens sind ihrer Ansicht nach „Entwicklung, Präsentation und Interpretation der Kulturressourcen“. Eine Frucht dieser Erwägungen ist die folgende Sammeldefinition des Kulturtourismus: „... er ist eine kommerzialisierte Äußerung des menschlichen Bedürfnisses danach zu sehen, wie die anderen leben, ihre Neugier zu befriedigen und ihre Lust, die anderen Menschen in ihrer »authentischen« Umgebung und zusammen mit den materiellen Äußerung ihres Handelns in Kunst, Handwerk, Musik, Literatur, Essen und Trinken, Spiel, Sprache und Ritualen zu sehen.“ [ Jafari 2000].
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Zur Bestimmung, welche Chancen sich für Initiativen der Nutzung von Märchen und Legenden für das Regionalmarketing eröffnen, wurde zunächst der Wissensstand der Organe der territorialen Selbstverwaltung und der ihnen unterstellten Kulturinstitutionen (Kulturhäuser und Bibliotheken) einer Verifikation unterzogen, um herauszufinden, wie entwickelt das Wissen über lokale Märchen und Legenden ist, wie hoch das Bewusstsein für die Bedeutung von Märchen und Legenden für das Kulturerbe der Region ist und welche Möglichkeiten und Arten ihrer Popularisierung im Kontext des regionalen Kulturtourismus gesehen werden. Die Untersuchung stützte sich auf einen Fragebogen und die Auswertung guter Praktiken im Bereich der Nutzung von Märchen und Legenden zum Regionalmarketing.
5. Die Ergebnisse einer Meinungsuntersuchung
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Die Fragebogenuntersuchung wurde Ende März, Anfang April 2011 in der Woiwodschaft Kleinpolen durchgeführt. Die Fragebögen wurden auf elektronischem Weg an alle Gemeindeämter und Bibliotheken der Region in Ortschaften mit weniger als 40.000 Einwohnern versandt. Diese Selektion der Befragten hing damit zusammen, dass die Landgemeinden und Stadt-Land-Gemeinden in Kleinpolen über ausgesprochen reiche Ressourcen des immateriellen Kulturerbes verfügen, die gegenwärtig in nicht ausreichendem Maße genutzt werden. An der Untersuchung nahmen schließlich 75 Institutionen aus der Region (50 Gemeindeämter, 15 Kulturhäuser und 10 öffentliche Bibliotheken) teil. Aufgrund der geringen Probe (in Kleinpolen gibt es insgesamt 182 Gemeinden) können die Ergebnisse nicht ohne weiteres für die ganze Region verallgemeinert werden. Ihr Zweck ist es, das Problem zu signalisieren und die Notwendigkeit nach vertieften Untersuchungen aufzuzeigen.
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Eine besondere Abart des Kulturtourismus ist der so genannte Regionaltourismus, zu dem Reisen gehören, die aus Gründen von Kultur und Bildung unternommen werden [ Jessa 2010, S. 43]. Sein Ziel ist das Kennenlernen einer konkreten historischen oder kulturellen Region. Das Programm einer Fahrt im Rahmen des Regionaltourismus sollte im Wesentlichen auf den unmittelbaren Kontakt der Reisenden mit der regionalen Kultur sowie die Erweiterung ihres Wissens über die besuchte Region konzentriert sein [ Jessa 2010, S. 39-71]. Regionaler Kulturtourismus ist von anderen Formen touristischer Reisen zu unterschieden, deren Ziel eine konkrete geografische Region sein kann, während die Hauptmotivation Erholung, Rekreation, Sport und Unterhaltung sind. Der Begriff der (historischen oder kulturellen) Region unterscheidet sich von dem der touristischen Region. Im Kulturtourismus funktioniert eine abweichende Definition: „Es handelt sich um eine historische Region, die auf der Grundlage einer gemeinsamen Geschichte und der aus ihr hervorgehenden Typen der sozialen Bindungen, Sitten und Gebräuche, Traditionen, sprachlichen Besonderheiten, Bauformen usw. unterschieden werden kann, oder eine Kulturregion (oder (Kulturmikroregion) mit für das ganze Gebiet deutlichen kennzeichnenden Eigenschaften der geistigen (zum Beispiel Konfessionen, Volkstraditionen u. a.) und materiellen Kultur (z. B. Stil der Volksarchitektur, regionale Küche) oder anderen Eigenschaften (ethnische Herkunft, Dialekte), durch die sie sich in kultureller Hinsicht unterscheiden lässt.“ [Mikos von Rohrscheidt 2008]. Ein solcher Begriff der Region, analysiert aus der Sicht des Tourismus, unterstreicht vor allem die Vieldimensionalität der Region, wo nicht nur materielle Objekte eine wesentliche Bedeutung haben, sondern auch die mit ihnen verbundene immaterielle Kultur, die über die Bedeutung und Rolle des Objekts im kulturellen Leben der Region entscheidet.
Der Fragebogen bestand auf vier Teilen: (1) allgemeine Fragen über die touristische und kulturelle Attraktivität der Region, (2) detaillierte Fragen nach lokalen Legenden und Märchen, (3) Fragen zur Nutzung von Märchen und Legenden für die Gestaltung eines touristischen Images und (4) Fragen nach Institutionen, die für die Popularisierung, Archivierung und Aufrechterhaltung der Überlieferung lokaler Märchen und Legenden in der Region zuständig sind.
Die Fragebogenuntersuchung wurde Ende März, Anfang April 2011 in der Woiwodschaft Kleinpolen durchgeführt. Die Fragebögen wurden auf elektronischem Weg an alle Gemeindeämter und Bibliotheken der Region in Ortschaften mit weniger als 40.000 Einwohnern versandt. Diese Selektion der Befragten hing damit zusammen, dass die Landgemeinden und Stadt-Land-Gemeinden in Kleinpolen über ausgesprochen reiche Ressourcen des immateriellen Kulturerbes verfügen, die gegenwärtig in nicht ausreichendem Maße genutzt werden. An der Untersuchung nahmen schließlich 75 Institutionen aus der Region (50 Gemeindeämter, 15 Kulturhäuser und 10 öffentliche Bibliotheken) teil. Aufgrund der geringen Probe (in Kleinpolen gibt es insgesamt 182 Gemeinden) können die Ergebnisse nicht ohne weiteres für die ganze Region verallgemeinert werden. Ihr Zweck ist es, das Problem zu signalisieren und die Notwendigkeit nach vertieften Untersuchungen aufzuzeigen.
Der Fragebogen bestand auf vier Teilen: (1) allgemeine Fragen über die touristische und kulturelle Attraktivität der Region, (2) detaillierte Fragen nach lokalen Legenden und Märchen, (3) Fragen zur Nutzung von Märchen und Legenden für die Gestaltung eines touristischen Images und (4) Fragen nach Institutionen, die für die Popularisierung, Archivierung und Aufrechterhaltung der Überlieferung lokaler Märchen und Legenden in der Region zuständig sind.
Der vorliegende Artikel beschäftigt sich mit einer der polnischen ethnografischen Regionen, Kleinpolen, einer Gegend, die sich durch große Reichhaltigkeit und Vielfalt der Folklore auszeichnet. Er zeigt ihre Besonderheiten und die Möglichkeiten eines besseren Marketings für die Belange des Regionaltourismus. Die besondere Aufmerksamkeit der Autorin richtet sich jedoch auf eine der Kategorien der Folklore, nämlich Märchen und Legenden.
Zur Bestimmung, welche Chancen sich für Initiativen der Nutzung von Märchen und Legenden für das Regionalmarketing eröffnen, wurde zunächst der Wissensstand der Organe der territorialen Selbstverwaltung und der ihnen unterstellten Kulturinstitutionen (Kulturhäuser und Bibliotheken) einer Verifikation unterzogen, um herauszufinden, wie entwickelt das Wissen über lokale Märchen und Legenden ist, wie hoch das Bewusstsein für die Bedeutung von Märchen und Legenden für das Kulturerbe der Region ist und welche Möglichkeiten und Arten ihrer Popularisierung im Kontext des regionalen Kulturtourismus gesehen werden. Die Untersuchung stützte sich auf einen Fragebogen und die Auswertung guter Praktiken im Bereich der Nutzung von Märchen und Legenden zum Regionalmarketing.
Der vorliegende Artikel beschäftigt sich mit einer der polnischen ethnografischen Regionen, Kleinpolen, einer Gegend, die sich durch große Reichhaltigkeit und Vielfalt der Folklore auszeichnet. Er zeigt ihre Besonderheiten und die Möglichkeiten eines besseren Marketings für die Belange des Regionaltourismus. Die besondere Aufmerksamkeit der Autorin richtet sich jedoch auf eine der Kategorien der Folklore, nämlich Märchen und Legenden.
5. Die Ergebnisse einer Meinungsuntersuchung
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Eine besondere Abart des Kulturtourismus ist der so genannte Regionaltourismus, zu dem Reisen gehören, die aus Gründen von Kultur und Bildung unternommen werden [ Jessa 2010, S. 43]. Sein Ziel ist das Kennenlernen einer konkreten historischen oder kulturellen Region. Das Programm einer Fahrt im Rahmen des Regionaltourismus sollte im Wesentlichen auf den unmittelbaren Kontakt der Reisenden mit der regionalen Kultur sowie die Erweiterung ihres Wissens über die besuchte Region konzentriert sein [ Jessa 2010, S. 39-71]. Regionaler Kulturtourismus ist von anderen Formen touristischer Reisen zu unterschieden, deren Ziel eine konkrete geografische Region sein kann, während die Hauptmotivation Erholung, Rekreation, Sport und Unterhaltung sind. Der Begriff der (historischen oder kulturellen) Region unterscheidet sich von dem der touristischen Region. Im Kulturtourismus funktioniert eine abweichende Definition: „Es handelt sich um eine historische Region, die auf der Grundlage einer gemeinsamen Geschichte und der aus ihr hervorgehenden Typen der sozialen Bindungen, Sitten und Gebräuche, Traditionen, sprachlichen Besonderheiten, Bauformen usw. unterschieden werden kann, oder eine Kulturregion (oder (Kulturmikroregion) mit für das ganze Gebiet deutlichen kennzeichnenden Eigenschaften der geistigen (zum Beispiel Konfessionen, Volkstraditionen u. a.) und materiellen Kultur (z. B. Stil der Volksarchitektur, regionale Küche) oder anderen Eigenschaften (ethnische Herkunft, Dialekte), durch die sie sich in kultureller Hinsicht unterscheiden lässt.“ [Mikos von Rohrscheidt 2008]. Ein solcher Begriff der Region, analysiert aus der Sicht des Tourismus, unterstreicht vor allem die Vieldimensionalität der Region, wo nicht nur materielle Objekte eine wesentliche Bedeutung haben, sondern auch die mit ihnen verbundene immaterielle Kultur, die über die Bedeutung und Rolle des Objekts im kulturellen Leben der Region entscheidet.
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Unter den Befragten überwiegt die Überzeugung, dass ihre Gemeinde kulturell und touristisch attraktiv ist – 4% der Befragten hielten ihre Gemeinde für kulturell nicht attraktiv und ebenfalls 4% für touristisch nicht attraktiv. Alle Befragten bejahten auch, dass mit dem Begriff des Kulturtourismus alle Reisen gefasst werfen können, deren Hauptmotiv der Besuch und das Kennenlernen von Orten mit historischem, künstlerischem und kulturellem Wert ist, was dafür spricht, dass die Frage des Kulturtourismus selbst den Befragten nicht fremd ist. Die Befragten sollten diejenigen Elemente der Kultur nennen, die für ihre Gemeinde besonders kennzeichnend sind. Dabei verwiesen sie am häufigsten auf Baudenkmäler (62 Befragte), Regionalküche (45 Befragte), Kulturveranstaltungen und Feste (45 Befragte). Nur 12 Befragte nannten Märchen und Legenden unter den charakteristischsten Kulturelementen ihrer Region. Die oben genannten Elemente wurden von den Befragten als besonders attraktiv für Besucher der Region eingeschätzt. Alle Teilnehmer bejahten die Frage, ob es Legenden und Märchen gibt, die unmittelbar mit ihrer Region zusammenhängen. Zu den am häufigsten genannten Legenden und Erzählungen gehören: solche, die mit der Erklärung von Toponymen zusammenhängen, solche die mit charakteristischen Naturformen zusammenhängen (zum Beispiel die Herkuleskeule in der Gemeinde Sułoszowa oder die Legende vom Kmita-Felsen in der Gemeinde Zabierzów), mit Baudenkmälern (zum Beispiel die Legende von der Weißen Frau in Burg Wiśnicz in Nowy Wiśnicz oder dem Gespenst im Gutshof Diament in der Gemeinde Żabno) und Legenden um regional bedeutende Persönlichkeiten (zum Beispiel die Legende vom Ring der heiligen Kunigunde, die mit der Gemeinde Bochnia verbunden ist, und die Legende vom Räuberhauptmann Janosik in der Gemeinde Krościenko nad Dunajcem). Alle Institutionen, die an der Untersuchung teilnahmen, nannten mindestens zwei Legenden, die unmittelbar mit ihrer Region zusammenhängen. Die Gemeinden, die am meisten Legenden aufführten, waren Stadt und Kurbad Muszyna, Krościenko nad Dunajcem, Żabno, Nowy Wiśnicz und Bochnia. Dies zeigt, dass Legenden ein wesentliches Element des Kulturerbes der Region darstellen, das zunächst nicht als solches wahrgenommen wird – die Befragten waren häufig überrascht über die Frage nach Märchen und Legenden im Kontext des Kulturerbes der Region. Die Fragebogenuntersuchung zeigte, dass Märchen und Legenden kein häufig für das
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Regionalmarketing genutztes Element des regionalen Kulturerbes darstellen, obwohl zugleich alle Befragten angaben, dass sie durchaus ein wirksames Marketingelement der Gemeinde sein könnten. Nur zwanzig Befragte erklärten, dass in ihrer Gemeinde Elemente der lokalen Märchen und Legenden zur Fremdenverkehrswerbung eingesetzt werden. Am häufigsten sind sie im Logo der Gemeinde zu finden, sie dienen als Grundlage für Szenarios lokaler Festivals und Gemeindefeste, organisierte Begegnungen mit lokalen Geschichtenerzählern, Wettbewerbe für Kinder und Jugendliche. Elemente von Legenden sind häufig in den Marketingmaterialien der Gemeinden und in Reiseandenken (12 Befragte) zu finden. Die überwiegende Mehrheit (59 Befragte) gab jedoch an, dass Elemente lokaler Legenden in keiner Weise zur Gestaltung eines Images der Gemeinde als eines touristisch attraktiven Orts genutzt würden. Als Ursache für diese Situation wurden fehlende Ideen, wie Legenden einzusetzen sein könnten, (19 Antworten), fehlende Geldmittel (190 Antworten), mangelndes Wissen zum Thema der Möglichkeiten der Nutzung von Legenden und Erzählungen zum Regionalmarketing (20 Antworten) genannt. Der letzte Teil des Fragebogens betraf die Institutionen, die für das Management der Überlieferung und Popularisierung lokaler Märchen und Legenden als Element des regionalen Kulturerbes verantwortlich sind. Der Zweck der Fragen in diesem Teil des Fragebogens war die Untersuchung des Bewusstseinstandes der Befragten bezüglich der Aufgaben und Pflichten im Bereich des Schutzes des Kulturerbes, wie sie in den entsprechenden gesetzlichen Verordnungen geregelt sind (Gesetz über die Gemeindeselbstverwaltung aus dem Jahr 1990 mit späteren Änderungen, Gesetz über den Schutz von Baudenkmälern und die Denkmalpflege aus dem Jahr 2003 m. sp. Änd., Gesetz über die Organisation und Umsetzung von Kulturarbeit aus dem Jahr 1991 m. sp. Änd.). Die überwiegende Mehrheit der Befragten gab an, dass es auf dem Gebiet ihrer Gemeinde keine Institutionen gibt, die für die Erforschung, Dokumentierung und Popularisierung lokaler Märchen und Legenden zuständig wären. Bemerkenswert ist, dass die an der Untersuchung teilnehmenden Bibliotheken und Kulturinstitutionen nicht sich selbst benannten (trotz entsprechender gesetzlicher Vorschriften, die ihnen eine solche Pflicht auferlegen). Das immaterielle Kulturerbe (darunter lokale Märchen und Legenden) findet auch kaum in den Gemeindestrategien zur Regi-
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Die Fragebogenuntersuchung zeigte, dass Märchen und Legenden kein häufig für das Alle Teilnehmer bejahten die Frage, ob es Legenden und Märchen gibt, die unmittelbar mit ihrer Region zusammenhängen. Zu den am häufigsten genannten Legenden und Erzählungen gehören: solche, die mit der Erklärung von Toponymen zusammenhängen, solche die mit charakteristischen Naturformen zusammenhängen (zum Beispiel die Herkuleskeule in der Gemeinde Sułoszowa oder die Legende vom Kmita-Felsen in der Gemeinde Zabierzów), mit Baudenkmälern (zum Beispiel die Legende von der Weißen Frau in Burg Wiśnicz in Nowy Wiśnicz oder dem Gespenst im Gutshof Diament in der Gemeinde Żabno) und Legenden um regional bedeutende Persönlichkeiten (zum Beispiel die Legende vom Ring der heiligen Kunigunde, die mit der Gemeinde Bochnia verbunden ist, und die Legende vom Räuberhauptmann Janosik in der Gemeinde Krościenko nad Dunajcem). Alle Institutionen, die an der Untersuchung teilnahmen, nannten mindestens zwei Legenden, die unmittelbar mit ihrer Region zusammenhängen. Die Gemeinden, die am meisten Legenden aufführten, waren Stadt und Kurbad Muszyna, Krościenko nad Dunajcem, Żabno, Nowy Wiśnicz und Bochnia. Dies zeigt, dass Legenden ein wesentliches Element des Kulturerbes der Region darstellen, das zunächst nicht als solches wahrgenommen wird – die Befragten waren häufig überrascht über die Frage nach Märchen und Legenden im Kontext des Kulturerbes der Region. Unter den Befragten überwiegt die Überzeugung, dass ihre Gemeinde kulturell und touristisch attraktiv ist – 4% der Befragten hielten ihre Gemeinde für kulturell nicht attraktiv und ebenfalls 4% für touristisch nicht attraktiv. Alle Befragten bejahten auch, dass mit dem Begriff des Kulturtourismus alle Reisen gefasst werfen können, deren Hauptmotiv der Besuch und das Kennenlernen von Orten mit historischem, künstlerischem und kulturellem Wert ist, was dafür spricht, dass die Frage des Kulturtourismus selbst den Befragten nicht fremd ist. Die Befragten sollten diejenigen Elemente der Kultur nennen, die für ihre Gemeinde besonders kennzeichnend sind. Dabei verwiesen sie am häufigsten auf Baudenkmäler (62 Befragte), Regionalküche (45 Befragte), Kulturveranstaltungen und Feste (45 Befragte). Nur 12 Befragte nannten Märchen und Legenden unter den charakteristischsten Kulturelementen ihrer Region. Die oben genannten Elemente wurden von den Befragten als besonders attraktiv für Besucher der Region eingeschätzt.
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Regionalmarketing genutztes Element des regionalen Kulturerbes darstellen, obwohl zugleich alle Befragten angaben, dass sie durchaus ein wirksames Marketingelement der Gemeinde sein könnten. Nur zwanzig Befragte erklärten, dass in ihrer Gemeinde Elemente der lokalen Märchen und Legenden zur Fremdenverkehrswerbung eingesetzt werden. Am häufigsten sind sie im Logo der Gemeinde zu finden, sie dienen als Grundlage für Szenarios lokaler Festivals und Gemeindefeste, organisierte Begegnungen mit lokalen Geschichtenerzählern, Wettbewerbe für Kinder und Jugendliche. Elemente von Legenden sind häufig in den Marketingmaterialien der Gemeinden und in Reiseandenken (12 Befragte) zu finden. Die überwiegende Mehrheit (59 Befragte) gab jedoch an, dass Elemente lokaler Legenden in keiner Weise zur Gestaltung eines Images der Gemeinde als eines touristisch attraktiven Orts genutzt würden. Als Ursache für diese Situation wurden fehlende Ideen, wie Legenden einzusetzen sein könnten, (19 Antworten), fehlende Geldmittel (190 Antworten), mangelndes Wissen zum Thema der Möglichkeiten der Nutzung von Legenden und Erzählungen zum Regionalmarketing (20 Antworten) genannt. Der letzte Teil des Fragebogens betraf die Institutionen, die für das Management der Überlieferung und Popularisierung lokaler Märchen und Legenden als Element des regionalen Kulturerbes verantwortlich sind. Der Zweck der Fragen in diesem Teil des Fragebogens war die Untersuchung des Bewusstseinstandes der Befragten bezüglich der Aufgaben und Pflichten im Bereich des Schutzes des Kulturerbes, wie sie in den entsprechenden gesetzlichen Verordnungen geregelt sind (Gesetz über die Gemeindeselbstverwaltung aus dem Jahr 1990 mit späteren Änderungen, Gesetz über den Schutz von Baudenkmälern und die Denkmalpflege aus dem Jahr 2003 m. sp. Änd., Gesetz über die Organisation und Umsetzung von Kulturarbeit aus dem Jahr 1991 m. sp. Änd.). Die überwiegende Mehrheit der Befragten gab an, dass es auf dem Gebiet ihrer Gemeinde keine Institutionen gibt, die für die Erforschung, Dokumentierung und Popularisierung lokaler Märchen und Legenden zuständig wären. Bemerkenswert ist, dass die an der Untersuchung teilnehmenden Bibliotheken und Kulturinstitutionen nicht sich selbst benannten (trotz entsprechender gesetzlicher Vorschriften, die ihnen eine solche Pflicht auferlegen). Das immaterielle Kulturerbe (darunter lokale Märchen und Legenden) findet auch kaum in den Gemeindestrategien zur Regi-
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6. Gute Praktiken der Vermarktung und Popularisierung von Märchen und Legenden
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D
13 Die Rechtsgrundlage für den Schutz des Kulturerbes in Polen ist das Gesetz vom 23. Juli 2003 über den Denkmalschutz und die Denkmalpflege (Gesetzblatt „Dziennik Ustaw“ 2003, Nr. 162 Ziff. 1568), das auf ganzheitliche Weise den Begriff des Denkmals, des Denkmalschutzes und der Denkmalpflege, die Formen des Schutzes, die Zuständigkeiten der Denkmalschutzbehörden, darunter der Regierungsverwaltung und der kommunalen und territorialen Selbstverwaltung, Formen der Finanzierung der Denkmalpflege, ihre Registrierung etc. regelt. Nach diesem Gesetz besitzt ein Denkmal einen eindeutig materiellen Charakter, was auch in den Artikeln des Nationalen Instituts für Kulturerbe (!) hervorgehoben wird: „Denkmäler sind Elemente des Kulturerbes, sie stellen eine materielle Spur der Vergangenheit dar, häufig sind die Verkörperung und Zeugnis einer wichtigen Idee, bilden unsere Identität. Sie spielen auch eine wichtige Rolle bei der Gestaltung einer lebenswerten Umgebung.“ (http://www.nid.pl/ idm,316,co-to-jest-dziedzictwo-kulturowe-co-to-jest-zabytek.html).
onalentwicklung oder Fremdenverkehrsförderung Niederschlag. Nur vier Gemeinden gaben an, dass in ihrer Entwicklungsstrategie die Forderung nach Pflege und Popularisierung der lokalen Folklore, des Kulturerbes und regionaler Erzeugnisse enthalten ist. Dies zeigt, dass dieser Bereich des Kulturerbes der Region vernachlässigt wird, obwohl sehr häufig das immaterielle Kulturerbe ein grundlegendes Element der Kultur der Region darstellt, mit dem sie assoziiert wird (zum Beispiel die regionale Küche, Volksfeste etc.). Die Ursachen für einen solchen Stand der Dinge sind nicht nur in mangelndem Wissen und fehlenden Ideen für die Bewirtschaftung des immateriellen Kulturerbes zu suchen, sondern auch in fehlenden gesetzlichen Regelungen auf Landesebene.13 Der Schutz des Kulturerbes legt hier besonderen Nachdruck auf die Kategorie des Baudenkmals und des historischen Andenkens und überlässt das geistige, immaterielle Kulturerbe ohne Pflege und Schutz.
Wenn man auf gute Praktiken unter den wichtigsten Maßnahmen und Aktionen zur Popularisierung der lokalen Folklore zurückgreift, lassen sich die heimatkundliche Erziehung in Schulen und Kulturinstitutionen nennen sowie Projekte, die im größeren Maßstab umgesetzt werden, in
ie unzureichende Basis rund um den Fremdenverkehr und insbesondere die Schwäche von Hotellerie und Gastronomie, fehlende oder mangelnde Touristeninformation, das sind die Hauptprobleme, mit denen sich viele Gemeinden der Woiwodschaft Kleinpolen herumschlagen müssen [Zmyślony 2008, Webdokument]. Das bewirkt, dass die Möglichkeiten der Fremdenverkehrsentwicklung auf diesem Gebiet nicht völlig ausgeschöpft werden. Kleinpolen besitzt ein reiches Kulturangebot, nicht nur in der Hauptstadt Krakau, sondern auch in ländlichen Räumen, fernab der größeren Städte. Um aber größere Zahlen von Touristen anzuziehen und die Einwohner stärker zu interessieren, sind erheblich intensivierte Marketingmaßnahmen sowie eine Bereicherung des aktuellen Kulturangebots erforderlich. Diese Maßnahmen müssen nicht unbedingt große Investitionen in die kulturelle oder touristischen Infrastruktur bedeuten. Entscheidend sind dagegen das Verständnis und die geschickte Nutzbarmachung der kulturellen Ressourcen, insbesondere auch des immateriellen Kulturerbes.
In diesem Teil des Artikels werden ausgewählte Projekte in Zusammenhang mit der Popularisierung von Märchen und Legenden und ihrer Verwendung für die Entwicklung des regionalen Fremdenverkehrs vorgestellt, die als gute Praktiken im Bereich der Erschließung des Potenzials des Kulturerbes von Märchen und Legenden in Polen gelten können.
In diesem Teil des Artikels werden ausgewählte Projekte in Zusammenhang mit der Popularisierung von Märchen und Legenden und ihrer Verwendung für die Entwicklung des regionalen Fremdenverkehrs vorgestellt, die als gute Praktiken im Bereich der Erschließung des Potenzials des Kulturerbes von Märchen und Legenden in Polen gelten können.
ie unzureichende Basis rund um den Fremdenverkehr und insbesondere die Schwäche von Hotellerie und Gastronomie, fehlende oder mangelnde Touristeninformation, das sind die Hauptprobleme, mit denen sich viele Gemeinden der Woiwodschaft Kleinpolen herumschlagen müssen [Zmyślony 2008, Webdokument]. Das bewirkt, dass die Möglichkeiten der Fremdenverkehrsentwicklung auf diesem Gebiet nicht völlig ausgeschöpft werden. Kleinpolen besitzt ein reiches Kulturangebot, nicht nur in der Hauptstadt Krakau, sondern auch in ländlichen Räumen, fernab der größeren Städte. Um aber größere Zahlen von Touristen anzuziehen und die Einwohner stärker zu interessieren, sind erheblich intensivierte Marketingmaßnahmen sowie eine Bereicherung des aktuellen Kulturangebots erforderlich. Diese Maßnahmen müssen nicht unbedingt große Investitionen in die kulturelle oder touristischen Infrastruktur bedeuten. Entscheidend sind dagegen das Verständnis und die geschickte Nutzbarmachung der kulturellen Ressourcen, insbesondere auch des immateriellen Kulturerbes.
Wenn man auf gute Praktiken unter den wichtigsten Maßnahmen und Aktionen zur Popularisierung der lokalen Folklore zurückgreift, lassen sich die heimatkundliche Erziehung in Schulen und Kulturinstitutionen nennen sowie Projekte, die im größeren Maßstab umgesetzt werden, in
D
Im letzten Teil des Fragebogens standen auch Fragen nach Initiativen zur Unterstützung von Aktionen zum Schutz des regionalen Kulturerbes. Als häufigste Förderquelle der lokalen Selbstverwaltung wurde der Aufbau von Webseiten und Internetportalen genannt, auf denen interessierte Institutionen und Unternehmen Informationen über ihre Tätigkeit anbringen können, sowie die Möglichkeit an der Teilnahme an örtlichen Festveranstaltungen, bei denen sie ebenfalls ihre Tätigkeit präsentieren können. Diese Form der Unterstützung basiert jedoch nicht auf einem langfristigen und konkretisierten Programm. Es hat einen vorübergehenden, auf die aktuellen Bedürfnisse reagierenden Charakter. Die Zusammenarbeit mit den Gemeindeorganen durch die übrigen Teilnehmer der Untersuchung (Bibliotheken und Kulturhäuser) wurde als durchschnittlich bewertet. Alle Befragten verwiesen insbesondere auf die unzureichenden Finanzierungsmittel für die Kulturarbeit und das Fehlen von Unterstützung für lokale Initiativen im Bereich des Kulturerbes.
Im letzten Teil des Fragebogens standen auch Fragen nach Initiativen zur Unterstützung von Aktionen zum Schutz des regionalen Kulturerbes. Als häufigste Förderquelle der lokalen Selbstverwaltung wurde der Aufbau von Webseiten und Internetportalen genannt, auf denen interessierte Institutionen und Unternehmen Informationen über ihre Tätigkeit anbringen können, sowie die Möglichkeit an der Teilnahme an örtlichen Festveranstaltungen, bei denen sie ebenfalls ihre Tätigkeit präsentieren können. Diese Form der Unterstützung basiert jedoch nicht auf einem langfristigen und konkretisierten Programm. Es hat einen vorübergehenden, auf die aktuellen Bedürfnisse reagierenden Charakter. Die Zusammenarbeit mit den Gemeindeorganen durch die übrigen Teilnehmer der Untersuchung (Bibliotheken und Kulturhäuser) wurde als durchschnittlich bewertet. Alle Befragten verwiesen insbesondere auf die unzureichenden Finanzierungsmittel für die Kulturarbeit und das Fehlen von Unterstützung für lokale Initiativen im Bereich des Kulturerbes.
6. Gute Praktiken der Vermarktung und Popularisierung von Märchen und Legenden
13 Die Rechtsgrundlage für den Schutz des Kulturerbes in Polen ist das Gesetz vom 23. Juli 2003 über den Denkmalschutz und die Denkmalpflege (Gesetzblatt „Dziennik Ustaw“ 2003, Nr. 162 Ziff. 1568), das auf ganzheitliche Weise den Begriff des Denkmals, des Denkmalschutzes und der Denkmalpflege, die Formen des Schutzes, die Zuständigkeiten der Denkmalschutzbehörden, darunter der Regierungsverwaltung und der kommunalen und territorialen Selbstverwaltung, Formen der Finanzierung der Denkmalpflege, ihre Registrierung etc. regelt. Nach diesem Gesetz besitzt ein Denkmal einen eindeutig materiellen Charakter, was auch in den Artikeln des Nationalen Instituts für Kulturerbe (!) hervorgehoben wird: „Denkmäler sind Elemente des Kulturerbes, sie stellen eine materielle Spur der Vergangenheit dar, häufig sind die Verkörperung und Zeugnis einer wichtigen Idee, bilden unsere Identität. Sie spielen auch eine wichtige Rolle bei der Gestaltung einer lebenswerten Umgebung.“ (http://www.nid.pl/ idm,316,co-to-jest-dziedzictwo-kulturowe-co-to-jest-zabytek.html).
onalentwicklung oder Fremdenverkehrsförderung Niederschlag. Nur vier Gemeinden gaben an, dass in ihrer Entwicklungsstrategie die Forderung nach Pflege und Popularisierung der lokalen Folklore, des Kulturerbes und regionaler Erzeugnisse enthalten ist. Dies zeigt, dass dieser Bereich des Kulturerbes der Region vernachlässigt wird, obwohl sehr häufig das immaterielle Kulturerbe ein grundlegendes Element der Kultur der Region darstellt, mit dem sie assoziiert wird (zum Beispiel die regionale Küche, Volksfeste etc.). Die Ursachen für einen solchen Stand der Dinge sind nicht nur in mangelndem Wissen und fehlenden Ideen für die Bewirtschaftung des immateriellen Kulturerbes zu suchen, sondern auch in fehlenden gesetzlichen Regelungen auf Landesebene.13 Der Schutz des Kulturerbes legt hier besonderen Nachdruck auf die Kategorie des Baudenkmals und des historischen Andenkens und überlässt das geistige, immaterielle Kulturerbe ohne Pflege und Schutz.
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Form von digitalen Bibliotheken und Archiven, in denen in elektronischer Form verschiedenartige Materialien über die lokale Volkskultur zugänglich sind. Das Ziel dieser Maßnahmen ist es nicht nur, das breitere Publikum für die Folklore und auf diese Weise für die Region zu gewinnen, sondern vor allem „Grundlagenarbeit“, also Bildungsmaßnahmen auf lokaler Ebene. Damit das Potenzial von Märchen und Legenden effizient genutzt werden kann, muss zunächst ihr Wert von der örtlichen Gesellschaft, die der wichtigste Träger der Volkskultur ist, und den örtlichen Behörden, zu deren Pflichten die institutionelle Unterstützung der Aufrechterhaltung der Überlieferung des Kulturerbes der Region gehört, erkannt werden. Derartige Unternehmungen werden häufig von den öffentlichen Bibliotheken vor Ort unternommen. Als Beispiel mag die Initiative „Legenden aus Żabno“ der Stadt- und Gemeindebibliothek in Żabno dienen. Das Ziel des vom Ministerium für Kultur und Nationalerbe geförderten Projekts ist die Sammlung und Bearbeitung lokaler Legenden. Das Projekt war vor allen Dingen an die Jugend der Gemeinde Żabno adressiert und beruhte auf der Suche nach Legenden der Region und ihrer Aufzeichnung. Es ging vor allem darum, die Jugendlichen dazu zu ermuntern, die Geschichte und Kultur ihrer Heimat kennen zu lernen und ein Bewusstsein für die eigene kulturelle Identität zu wecken. Durch die Teilnahme an den Workshops konnte die Jugend auch nicht nur die Geschichte ihrer Heimatorte kennen lernen, sondern auch zu den Quellen der lokalen Traditionen vordringen. Zusätzlich hatte der Reichtum an gesammelten Legenden das Ziel, den jungen Projektteilnehmern vor Augen zu führen, dass sie über sehr große Kulturressourcen verfügen, die bei entsprechender Nutzung viel zur kulturellen Entwicklung ihrer Gemeinde beitragen können. Das Projekt diente auch zur Bewahrung fast schon verschütteter Legenden aus Żabno und Umgebung vor dem Vergessen, ihrer Dokumentierung und der Popularisierung der Kulturtraditionen der Region, darunter auch der Entwicklung der Literatur.14 Die Tätigkeit des Märchenmuseums in Konstancin-Jeziorna (Woiwodschaft Masowien) ist ebenfalls eine der interessanteren Initiativen zum
Zweck der Konservierung und Verbreitung der Tradition des Geschichtenerzählers. Das Museum besitzt eine einzigartige Sammlung von mündlich überliefertem Kulturgut, nicht nur aus Polen, sondern aus der ganzen Welt. Das Museum wirkt zudem im Bereich der Bekämpfung des Verlusts der mündlichen Überlieferung und des immateriellen Kulturerbes. Seine Ziele realisiert es nicht nur durch typische Museumstätigkeit, sondern auch durch die Ausrichtung des Festivals der Erzählkunst und der Workshops „Mit dem Wort schaffen“, die es sich zum Ziel gesetzt haben, die Kunst dieser uralten und heute weitgehende vergessenen Form der Expression weiterzuvermitteln. Durch seine Tätigkeit will das Museum die Kunst des Geschichtenerzählers als eines integralen Teils der regionalen Folklore neben der regionalen Küche, Volkstänzen, Volksmusik und Kunsthandwerk popularisieren, denn Legenden machen nach Ansicht der Museumsmacher die Einzigartigkeit einer Region aus und stellen ein wichtiges Element ihrer kulturellen Identität dar.15 Das Projekt „Der Ring der heiligen Kunigunde“ wurde vom kleinpolnischen Kulturinstitut gemeinsam mit lokalen Partnern – Kulturinstitutionen, Organen der kommunalen Selbstverwaltung und Privatunternehmen – getragen. Ziel des Projekts war es, ein attraktives touristisches Kulturangebot zu entwickeln, das sowohl an die Bewohner Kleinpolens als auch Touristen von außerhalb gerichtet ist und dessen Grundlage die Legende der heiligen Kunigunde ist. Das Projekt wird alljährlich in mehreren Orten der Woiwodschaft, unter anderem in Bochnia, Krościenko nad Dunajcem, Dębno, und Wieliczka, in Form von Spielaktionen und Workshops umgesetzt. Die populäre Legende von der heiligen Kunigunde wurde hier zur Inspiration für die Erarbeitung eines größeren Projekts, das zu einem festen Bestandteil des Tourismus und des Kulturangebots der Region geworden ist.16 Eine interessante Initiative ist auch das Projekt „Lebendige Schlösser“, das von der Kleinpolnischen Tourismusorganisation umgesetzt wird. Es soll einerseits den Kulturtourismus in der Region fördern, andererseits den Einwohnern der Region die Geschichten und Legenden näherbringen, die mit vielen charakteristischen Orten der Region ver-
14 Vgl. Informationen über das Projekt auf der Webseite der Stadt- und Gemeindebibliothek Żabno: http:// www.bibliotekazabno.tarman.pl. 15 Vgl. Informationen über das Projekt auf der Webseite des Märchenmuseums: http://www.storytellermuseum.org. 16 Vgl. Informationen über das Projekt auf der Webseite der Kleinpolnischen Kulturinstituts: http://www.mik.krakow.pl/piersciensw-kingi.html.
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16 Vgl. Informationen über das Projekt auf der Webseite der Kleinpolnischen Kulturinstituts: http://www.mik.krakow.pl/piersciensw-kingi.html. 15 Vgl. Informationen über das Projekt auf der Webseite des Märchenmuseums: http://www.storytellermuseum.org. 14 Vgl. Informationen über das Projekt auf der Webseite der Stadt- und Gemeindebibliothek Żabno: http:// www.bibliotekazabno.tarman.pl.
Form von digitalen Bibliotheken und Archiven, in denen in elektronischer Form verschiedenartige Materialien über die lokale Volkskultur zugänglich sind. Das Ziel dieser Maßnahmen ist es nicht nur, das breitere Publikum für die Folklore und auf diese Weise für die Region zu gewinnen, sondern vor allem „Grundlagenarbeit“, also Bildungsmaßnahmen auf lokaler Ebene. Damit das Potenzial von Märchen und Legenden effizient genutzt werden kann, muss zunächst ihr Wert von der örtlichen Gesellschaft, die der wichtigste Träger der Volkskultur ist, und den örtlichen Behörden, zu deren Pflichten die institutionelle Unterstützung der Aufrechterhaltung der Überlieferung des Kulturerbes der Region gehört, erkannt werden. Derartige Unternehmungen werden häufig von den öffentlichen Bibliotheken vor Ort unternommen. Als Beispiel mag die Initiative „Legenden aus Żabno“ der Stadt- und Gemeindebibliothek in Żabno dienen. Das Ziel des vom Ministerium für Kultur und Nationalerbe geförderten Projekts ist die Sammlung und Bearbeitung lokaler Legenden. Das Projekt war vor allen Dingen an die Jugend der Gemeinde Żabno adressiert und beruhte auf der Suche nach Legenden der Region und ihrer Aufzeichnung. Es ging vor allem darum, die Jugendlichen dazu zu ermuntern, die Geschichte und Kultur ihrer Heimat kennen zu lernen und ein Bewusstsein für die eigene kulturelle Identität zu wecken. Durch die Teilnahme an den Workshops konnte die Jugend auch nicht nur die Geschichte ihrer Heimatorte kennen lernen, sondern auch zu den Quellen der lokalen Traditionen vordringen. Zusätzlich hatte der Reichtum an gesammelten Legenden das Ziel, den jungen Projektteilnehmern vor Augen zu führen, dass sie über sehr große Kulturressourcen verfügen, die bei entsprechender Nutzung viel zur kulturellen Entwicklung ihrer Gemeinde beitragen können. Das Projekt diente auch zur Bewahrung fast schon verschütteter Legenden aus Żabno und Umgebung vor dem Vergessen, ihrer Dokumentierung und der Popularisierung der Kulturtraditionen der Region, darunter auch der Entwicklung der Literatur.14 Die Tätigkeit des Märchenmuseums in Konstancin-Jeziorna (Woiwodschaft Masowien) ist ebenfalls eine der interessanteren Initiativen zum
Zweck der Konservierung und Verbreitung der Tradition des Geschichtenerzählers. Das Museum besitzt eine einzigartige Sammlung von mündlich überliefertem Kulturgut, nicht nur aus Polen, sondern aus der ganzen Welt. Das Museum wirkt zudem im Bereich der Bekämpfung des Verlusts der mündlichen Überlieferung und des immateriellen Kulturerbes. Seine Ziele realisiert es nicht nur durch typische Museumstätigkeit, sondern auch durch die Ausrichtung des Festivals der Erzählkunst und der Workshops „Mit dem Wort schaffen“, die es sich zum Ziel gesetzt haben, die Kunst dieser uralten und heute weitgehende vergessenen Form der Expression weiterzuvermitteln. Durch seine Tätigkeit will das Museum die Kunst des Geschichtenerzählers als eines integralen Teils der regionalen Folklore neben der regionalen Küche, Volkstänzen, Volksmusik und Kunsthandwerk popularisieren, denn Legenden machen nach Ansicht der Museumsmacher die Einzigartigkeit einer Region aus und stellen ein wichtiges Element ihrer kulturellen Identität dar.15 Das Projekt „Der Ring der heiligen Kunigunde“ wurde vom kleinpolnischen Kulturinstitut gemeinsam mit lokalen Partnern – Kulturinstitutionen, Organen der kommunalen Selbstverwaltung und Privatunternehmen – getragen. Ziel des Projekts war es, ein attraktives touristisches Kulturangebot zu entwickeln, das sowohl an die Bewohner Kleinpolens als auch Touristen von außerhalb gerichtet ist und dessen Grundlage die Legende der heiligen Kunigunde ist. Das Projekt wird alljährlich in mehreren Orten der Woiwodschaft, unter anderem in Bochnia, Krościenko nad Dunajcem, Dębno, und Wieliczka, in Form von Spielaktionen und Workshops umgesetzt. Die populäre Legende von der heiligen Kunigunde wurde hier zur Inspiration für die Erarbeitung eines größeren Projekts, das zu einem festen Bestandteil des Tourismus und des Kulturangebots der Region geworden ist.16 Eine interessante Initiative ist auch das Projekt „Lebendige Schlösser“, das von der Kleinpolnischen Tourismusorganisation umgesetzt wird. Es soll einerseits den Kulturtourismus in der Region fördern, andererseits den Einwohnern der Region die Geschichten und Legenden näherbringen, die mit vielen charakteristischen Orten der Region ver-
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bunden sind: den zahlreichen Schlössern, Burgen und Gutshöfen. An dem Projekt nehmen gegenwärtig 11 Schlösser und Burgen in Kleinpolen (u. a. Lanckorona, Dębno, Niepołomice, Wieliczka) teil, die alljährlich Freiluftveranstaltungen organsiert, die sich auf regionale Märchen und Legenden stützen. Das Projekt erfreut sich großer Popularität und seine Sanktionen werden schrittweise um ein Kinder- und Jugendprogramm, Workshops und Begegnungen über das ganze Jahr hinweg erweitert.17 Die vorgestellten Initiativen und Projekte in Verbindung mit lokalen Märchen und Legenden sind nur ausgewählte Beispiele. Es gibt zahlreiche andere lokale Initiativen dieser Art in Kleinpolen, die im kleineren Maßstab von Bibliotheken, Kulturhäusern, Vereinen und Verbänden durchgeführt werden. Nach wie vor jedoch erkennen viele Institutionen und Behörden, worauf in den oben vorgestellten Untersuchungsergebnissen hingewiesen wurde, nicht das Potenzial, das in Märchen und Legenden schlummert oder es fehlt ihnen an zündenden Ideen für ihre Nutzung. Deshalb ist es notwendig, dass die guten Praktiken weite Verbreitung finden, um als Inspiration für andere dienen zu können, die an der Umsetzung ähnlicher Projekte interessiert sind.
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7. Reflexionen
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17 Vgl. Informationen über das Projekt auf der Webseite der „Lebendigen Schlösser“: http://www.zywezamki.pl.
Befragte gaben an, dass es auf dem Gebiet ihrer Gemeinde keine Institution gibt, zu deren Pflichten der Schutz und die Verbreitung des Erbes von Märchen und Legenden gehöre, obwohl diese Aufgabe nach den geltenden Gesetzen der Gemeindeebene anvertraut ist. Dieses Problem mag aus dem fehlenden Bewusstsein resultieren, dass Märchen und Legenden ein integraler Bestandteil des Kulturerbes der Region sind – gleichauf mit Volkskunst, kulinarischen Spezialitäten, regionalen Tänzen und Liedern. Dieser Zustand kann dazu beitragen, dass Märchen und Legenden aufgrund des Fehlens eines festen Programms zur Gewährleistung der ununterbrochenen unmittelbaren Überlieferung durch Bildungs-, Dokumentations- und Popularisierungsmaßnahmen, mit der Zeit verschwinden werden. Alle Befragten bestätigen, dass auf dem Gebiet ihrer Gemeinde Sagen und Legenden existieren, die unmittelbar mit der Region verbunden sind, sei es durch Bezug auf Elemente der Landschaft, der Natur, der Geschichte oder wichtige Persönlichkeiten. Von den meisten werden sie jedoch nicht als Element gesehen, das wertvoll genug wäre, um darauf die Gestaltung des Images der Gemeinde als eines touristisch und kulturell attraktiven Orts aufzubauen. Märchen und Legenden werden als Element des Alltagslebens wahrgenommen und nicht als etwas Einzigartiges und Besonderes. Durch ihren besonderen, immateriellen Charakter sind Märchen und Legenden auch derjenige Teil der Folklore, der am schwersten zu fassen und infolgedessen auch am schwersten zu Marketingzwecken zu verwerten ist. Die Befragten haben sowohl im Verlauf der Fragebogenaktion als auch bei späteren Interviews auf das Fehlen von Ideen hingewiesen, wie dieses Potenzial in Zukunft erschlossen werden könnte. Aus den durchgeführten Untersuchungen lässt sich schließen, dass der erste Schritt zu einer effizienten und bewussten Nutzung von Märchen und Legenden für eine Strategie des Regionalmarketings über eine Erweiterung des Wissens der für ihren Schutz und ihre Verbreitung zuständigen Institutionen (Bibliotheken, Kultureinrichtungen, kommunale Behörden) über ihre Pflichten und Aufgaben sowie über den Wert von Märchen und Legenden als einem wichtigen Element der kulturellen Identität der
ie durchgeführten Untersuchungen haben gezeigt, das das touristische Potenzial von lokalen Märchen und Legenden erkannt wird, und dass sie als wirksame Marketinginstrumente für die Imagebildung der Region wahrgenommen werden. Es fehlt jedoch an Einfällen, wie diese Ressourcen erschlossen werden können. Nur wenige Gemeinden in Kleinpolen haben sich an die Umsetzung von Marketingmaßnahmen gemacht, die sich auf die Nutzung von Märchen und Legenden stützen, da diese im Unterschied zu anderen Formen der lokalen Folklore (Kunsthandwerk, Küche, Volkslieder und -tänze) zu den weniger sichtbaren Elementen des regionalen Kulturerbes gehören. Die Untersuchungen haben zudem eine besorgniserregende Erscheinung zu Tage gebracht: Es mangelt nämlich an Verantwortungsbewusstsein für den Schutz des Kulturerbes von Märchen und Legenden seitens der eigentlich dafür zuständigen Instanzen. Immerhin 54
ie durchgeführten Untersuchungen haben gezeigt, das das touristische Potenzial von lokalen Märchen und Legenden erkannt wird, und dass sie als wirksame Marketinginstrumente für die Imagebildung der Region wahrgenommen werden. Es fehlt jedoch an Einfällen, wie diese Ressourcen erschlossen werden können. Nur wenige Gemeinden in Kleinpolen haben sich an die Umsetzung von Marketingmaßnahmen gemacht, die sich auf die Nutzung von Märchen und Legenden stützen, da diese im Unterschied zu anderen Formen der lokalen Folklore (Kunsthandwerk, Küche, Volkslieder und -tänze) zu den weniger sichtbaren Elementen des regionalen Kulturerbes gehören. Die Untersuchungen haben zudem eine besorgniserregende Erscheinung zu Tage gebracht: Es mangelt nämlich an Verantwortungsbewusstsein für den Schutz des Kulturerbes von Märchen und Legenden seitens der eigentlich dafür zuständigen Instanzen. Immerhin 54
D
17 Vgl. Informationen über das Projekt auf der Webseite der „Lebendigen Schlösser“: http://www.zywezamki.pl.
7. Reflexionen
Befragte gaben an, dass es auf dem Gebiet ihrer Gemeinde keine Institution gibt, zu deren Pflichten der Schutz und die Verbreitung des Erbes von Märchen und Legenden gehöre, obwohl diese Aufgabe nach den geltenden Gesetzen der Gemeindeebene anvertraut ist. Dieses Problem mag aus dem fehlenden Bewusstsein resultieren, dass Märchen und Legenden ein integraler Bestandteil des Kulturerbes der Region sind – gleichauf mit Volkskunst, kulinarischen Spezialitäten, regionalen Tänzen und Liedern. Dieser Zustand kann dazu beitragen, dass Märchen und Legenden aufgrund des Fehlens eines festen Programms zur Gewährleistung der ununterbrochenen unmittelbaren Überlieferung durch Bildungs-, Dokumentations- und Popularisierungsmaßnahmen, mit der Zeit verschwinden werden. Alle Befragten bestätigen, dass auf dem Gebiet ihrer Gemeinde Sagen und Legenden existieren, die unmittelbar mit der Region verbunden sind, sei es durch Bezug auf Elemente der Landschaft, der Natur, der Geschichte oder wichtige Persönlichkeiten. Von den meisten werden sie jedoch nicht als Element gesehen, das wertvoll genug wäre, um darauf die Gestaltung des Images der Gemeinde als eines touristisch und kulturell attraktiven Orts aufzubauen. Märchen und Legenden werden als Element des Alltagslebens wahrgenommen und nicht als etwas Einzigartiges und Besonderes. Durch ihren besonderen, immateriellen Charakter sind Märchen und Legenden auch derjenige Teil der Folklore, der am schwersten zu fassen und infolgedessen auch am schwersten zu Marketingzwecken zu verwerten ist. Die Befragten haben sowohl im Verlauf der Fragebogenaktion als auch bei späteren Interviews auf das Fehlen von Ideen hingewiesen, wie dieses Potenzial in Zukunft erschlossen werden könnte. Aus den durchgeführten Untersuchungen lässt sich schließen, dass der erste Schritt zu einer effizienten und bewussten Nutzung von Märchen und Legenden für eine Strategie des Regionalmarketings über eine Erweiterung des Wissens der für ihren Schutz und ihre Verbreitung zuständigen Institutionen (Bibliotheken, Kultureinrichtungen, kommunale Behörden) über ihre Pflichten und Aufgaben sowie über den Wert von Märchen und Legenden als einem wichtigen Element der kulturellen Identität der
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bunden sind: den zahlreichen Schlössern, Burgen und Gutshöfen. An dem Projekt nehmen gegenwärtig 11 Schlösser und Burgen in Kleinpolen (u. a. Lanckorona, Dębno, Niepołomice, Wieliczka) teil, die alljährlich Freiluftveranstaltungen organsiert, die sich auf regionale Märchen und Legenden stützen. Das Projekt erfreut sich großer Popularität und seine Sanktionen werden schrittweise um ein Kinder- und Jugendprogramm, Workshops und Begegnungen über das ganze Jahr hinweg erweitert.17 Die vorgestellten Initiativen und Projekte in Verbindung mit lokalen Märchen und Legenden sind nur ausgewählte Beispiele. Es gibt zahlreiche andere lokale Initiativen dieser Art in Kleinpolen, die im kleineren Maßstab von Bibliotheken, Kulturhäusern, Vereinen und Verbänden durchgeführt werden. Nach wie vor jedoch erkennen viele Institutionen und Behörden, worauf in den oben vorgestellten Untersuchungsergebnissen hingewiesen wurde, nicht das Potenzial, das in Märchen und Legenden schlummert oder es fehlt ihnen an zündenden Ideen für ihre Nutzung. Deshalb ist es notwendig, dass die guten Praktiken weite Verbreitung finden, um als Inspiration für andere dienen zu können, die an der Umsetzung ähnlicher Projekte interessiert sind.
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Region erfolgen muss. Erst dann kann damit begonnen werden, effiziente Projekte für ihren Schutz und ihre Verbreitung zu programmieren und implementieren.
8. Schlussbemerkungen
D
er Kulturtourismus spielt in letzter Zeit eine zunehmende Rolle. Wie Małek hervorhebt, ist der Kulturtourismus stärker als der Naturtourismus mit der lokalen Entwicklung verbunden. [Małek, Webdokument]. Bei seiner Planung ist jedoch auch an eventuelle Gefahren zu denken. Das Kulturerbe ist insbesondere in seinen immateriellen Äußerungen sehr sensibel. Es bedarf nachhaltigen Schutzes, am besten durch die Gewährleistung einer ununterbrochenen unmittelbaren Überlieferung. Wenn man sich dazu entschließt, ein immaterielles Produkt des Kulturtourismus zu verkaufen, ist zu bedenken, dass es sich – anders als im Fall von materiellen Kulturgütern – nicht um eine regenerative Ressource handelt. Deshalb gilt es, sich um ein behutsames Management zu be-
mühen, um nicht zum „Raubbau“ an der sensiblen Materie zu führen. Das immaterielle Kulturerbe, zu dem Märchen und Legenden als eine Erscheinungsform zu zählen sind, weist ein hohes touristisches Potenzial auf, das – auf angemessene Weise aufbereitet – zur Stimulierung der wirtschaftlichen Entwicklung der Region beitragen kann. Ein besonderer Wert dieses Kulturerbes steckt auch in der Tatsache, dass es durch Gestaltung der kulturellen Identität der Bewohner der Region selbst das Entstehen von Sozialkapital beeinflusst. Dennoch muss der erste Schritt sein, was im Übrigen bereits hervorgehoben wurde, den Wert der immateriellen Ressourcen wahrzunehmen und einzuschätzen. Häufig machen sich nicht einmal die Erben den Reichtum eines Kulturerbes bewusst. So scheint das Postulat richtig zu sein, dass entsprechendes Marketing nicht nur an die Touristen sondern auch die lokale Gesellschaft zu richten ist [Kneafsey 2000, S. 35-50]. Dabei ist daran zu erinnern, dass Unwissenheit nicht nur die Nutzung der Ressourcen verhindern, sondern auch auch zu ihrer Zerstörung führen kann.
Buczkowska K., (2008). Turystyka kulturowa. Przewodnik metodyczny (Kulturtourismus. Ein methodischer Führer), Poznań. Buczkowska K., (2009). Turysta kulturowy – klient nietuzinkowy (Der Kulturtourist. Ein anspruchsvoller Kunde), [in:] Stasiak A. (Red.), 2009, Kultura i Turystyka – wspólnie zyskać (Kultur und Tourismus. Gemeinsam gewinnen), Łódź, Wydawnictwo WSTH. Dobkiewiczowa, K. (1988). Drogocenne wiano. Zbiór legend o błogosławionej Kindze księżnie polskiej, patronce górników, obrończyni wiary, matce ludu polskiego w 700 rocznicę śmierci (Die kostbare Mitgift. Eine Sammlung der Legenden über die heilige Kunigunde, der polnischen Herzogin, Patronin der Bergleute, Beschützerin des Glaubens, Mutter des polnischen Volkes zu ihrem 700. Todestag), Katowice, Księgarnia Św. Jacka. Giaccardi, E. (2006). Collective Storytelling and Social Creativity in the Virtual Museum: A Case Study, „Design Issues“, 22:3, Summer 2006, S. 29-41. Jafari, J. (2000). Encyclopedia of Tourism. London, Routledge.
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Jarv, R. (2010). Fairy Tales and Tourism Trips. Fabula, Vol. 51, Issue 3-4, S. 281-294. Jessa, M. (2010). Specyfika i znaczenie folkloru łowickiego w turystyce regionalnej (Die Besonderheit und Bedeutung der Łowiczer Folklore im Regionaltourismus). „Turystyka kulturowa“, Nr. 1012/2010, S. 39-71. Jędrysiak T., (2008). Turystyka kulturowa (Kulturtourismus). Warszawa, PWE. Kneafsey, M. (2000) Tourism, place identities and social relations in the rural European periphery, „European Urban and Regional Studies“, 7 (1), S. 35-50. Kopaliński, W. (2011). Słownik mitów i tradycji kultury (Wörterbuch der Mythen und Traditionen der Kultur). Warszawa, Rytm. Kowalczyk A. (2001). Geografia turyzmu (Tourismusgeografie). Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN. Krawczyk-Wasilewska V. (1979). Wprowadzenie do folklorystyki (Einführung in die Folkloristik), Łódź. Krawczyk-Wasilewska V. (1986). Współczesna wiedza o folklorze (Das moderne Wissen über Folklore), Warszawa.
Literatur: Literatur: Buczkowska K., (2008). Turystyka kulturowa. Przewodnik metodyczny (Kulturtourismus. Ein methodischer Führer), Poznań. Buczkowska K., (2009). Turysta kulturowy – klient nietuzinkowy (Der Kulturtourist. Ein anspruchsvoller Kunde), [in:] Stasiak A. (Red.), 2009, Kultura i Turystyka – wspólnie zyskać (Kultur und Tourismus. Gemeinsam gewinnen), Łódź, Wydawnictwo WSTH. Dobkiewiczowa, K. (1988). Drogocenne wiano. Zbiór legend o błogosławionej Kindze księżnie polskiej, patronce górników, obrończyni wiary, matce ludu polskiego w 700 rocznicę śmierci (Die kostbare Mitgift. Eine Sammlung der Legenden über die heilige Kunigunde, der polnischen Herzogin, Patronin der Bergleute, Beschützerin des Glaubens, Mutter des polnischen Volkes zu ihrem 700. Todestag), Katowice, Księgarnia Św. Jacka. Giaccardi, E. (2006). Collective Storytelling and Social Creativity in the Virtual Museum: A Case Study, „Design Issues“, 22:3, Summer 2006, S. 29-41. Jafari, J. (2000). Encyclopedia of Tourism. London, Routledge.
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Jarv, R. (2010). Fairy Tales and Tourism Trips. Fabula, Vol. 51, Issue 3-4, S. 281-294. Jessa, M. (2010). Specyfika i znaczenie folkloru łowickiego w turystyce regionalnej (Die Besonderheit und Bedeutung der Łowiczer Folklore im Regionaltourismus). „Turystyka kulturowa“, Nr. 1012/2010, S. 39-71. Jędrysiak T., (2008). Turystyka kulturowa (Kulturtourismus). Warszawa, PWE. Kneafsey, M. (2000) Tourism, place identities and social relations in the rural European periphery, „European Urban and Regional Studies“, 7 (1), S. 35-50. Kopaliński, W. (2011). Słownik mitów i tradycji kultury (Wörterbuch der Mythen und Traditionen der Kultur). Warszawa, Rytm. Kowalczyk A. (2001). Geografia turyzmu (Tourismusgeografie). Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN. Krawczyk-Wasilewska V. (1979). Wprowadzenie do folklorystyki (Einführung in die Folkloristik), Łódź. Krawczyk-Wasilewska V. (1986). Współczesna wiedza o folklorze (Das moderne Wissen über Folklore), Warszawa.
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er Kulturtourismus spielt in letzter Zeit eine zunehmende Rolle. Wie Małek hervorhebt, ist der Kulturtourismus stärker als der Naturtourismus mit der lokalen Entwicklung verbunden. [Małek, Webdokument]. Bei seiner Planung ist jedoch auch an eventuelle Gefahren zu denken. Das Kulturerbe ist insbesondere in seinen immateriellen Äußerungen sehr sensibel. Es bedarf nachhaltigen Schutzes, am besten durch die Gewährleistung einer ununterbrochenen unmittelbaren Überlieferung. Wenn man sich dazu entschließt, ein immaterielles Produkt des Kulturtourismus zu verkaufen, ist zu bedenken, dass es sich – anders als im Fall von materiellen Kulturgütern – nicht um eine regenerative Ressource handelt. Deshalb gilt es, sich um ein behutsames Management zu be-
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8. Schlussbemerkungen Region erfolgen muss. Erst dann kann damit begonnen werden, effiziente Projekte für ihren Schutz und ihre Verbreitung zu programmieren und implementieren.
mühen, um nicht zum „Raubbau“ an der sensiblen Materie zu führen. Das immaterielle Kulturerbe, zu dem Märchen und Legenden als eine Erscheinungsform zu zählen sind, weist ein hohes touristisches Potenzial auf, das – auf angemessene Weise aufbereitet – zur Stimulierung der wirtschaftlichen Entwicklung der Region beitragen kann. Ein besonderer Wert dieses Kulturerbes steckt auch in der Tatsache, dass es durch Gestaltung der kulturellen Identität der Bewohner der Region selbst das Entstehen von Sozialkapital beeinflusst. Dennoch muss der erste Schritt sein, was im Übrigen bereits hervorgehoben wurde, den Wert der immateriellen Ressourcen wahrzunehmen und einzuschätzen. Häufig machen sich nicht einmal die Erben den Reichtum eines Kulturerbes bewusst. So scheint das Postulat richtig zu sein, dass entsprechendes Marketing nicht nur an die Touristen sondern auch die lokale Gesellschaft zu richten ist [Kneafsey 2000, S. 35-50]. Dabei ist daran zu erinnern, dass Unwissenheit nicht nur die Nutzung der Ressourcen verhindern, sondern auch auch zu ihrer Zerstörung führen kann.
Rożek, M. (2005). Kraków Magiczny (Magisches Krakau), Kraków, Verso. Skarga, P. (1995). Kazania sejmowe (Landtagsreden). Wrocław; Kraków: Zakład Narodowy im. Ossolińskich – Wydawnictwo. Sławiński, J., Red. (1999). Podręczny słownik terminów literackich (Handwörterbuch literarischer Fachbegriffe), Warszawa, Open. Staszewski, J. (1968). Mały słownik: pochodzenie i znaczenie nazw geograficznych (Kleines Wörterbuch der Entstehung und Bedeutung geografischer Namen). Warszawa, Wiedza Powszechna. Sukertowa-Biedrawina, E. (1998). Legendy nadprądnikowe (Legenden vom Fluss Prądnik). Warszawa: PTK. Ustawa o ochronie zabytków i opiece nad zabytkami z 2003 z późn. zm. (Gesetz über Denkmalschutz und Denkmalpflege au dem Jahr 2003 mit späteren Änderungen). Ustawa o organizowaniu i prowadzeniu działalności kulturalnej z 1991 z późn. zm. (Gesetz über die Organisation und Durchführung von Kulturarbeit aus dem Jahr 1991 mit späteren Änderungen). Ustawa o samorządzie gminnym z 1990 z późn. zm. (Gesetz über die Gemeindeselbstverwaltung aus dem Jahr 1990 mit späteren Änderungen). Zmyślony, M. et al. (2008). Kierunki Rozwoju Turystyki dla Województwa Małopolskiego na lata 2008-2013 (Entwicklungslinien für den Fremdenverkehr in der Woiwodschaft Kleinpolen für die Jahre 2008-2013), [Webdokument] http://www. malopolskie.pl/Pliki/2008/Kierunki.pdf [abgerufen am: 22.04.2011].
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Krzysztofowicz-Kozakowska S. (1972). O sztuce ludowej w Polsce (Über die Volkskunst in Polen), Warszawa. Lowenthal, D. (1998). The Heritage Crusade and the Spoils of History. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. Małek, J. (2003). Turystyka kulturowa jako czynnik rozwoju lokalnego (Kulturtourismus als Faktor der lokalen Entwicklung, [Webdokument] www.wgsr. uw.edu.pl/pub/uploads/pis03/malek.pdf [abgerufen am: 30.04.2011]. Mikos von Rohrscheidt, A. (2008). Turystyka kulturowa: fenomen, potencjał, perspektywy (Kulturtourismus: Phänomen, Potenzial, Perspektiven). Gniezno, GWSHM Milenium. Moskal, K. (2004). Zamki w dziejach Polski i Słowacji między Wisłą a Hornadem (Burgen in der Geschichte Polens und der Slowakei zwischen Weichsel und Hornad). Nowy Sącz, Wydawnictwo Fundacja. Noel, S.; Van den Branden, E. (2009). Cultural tourism storytelling in Flanders: the story behind the stories http:// www.steunpunttoerisme.be/main/publicaties. Odoj, G.; Pec, A. (2000). Dziedzictwo kulturowe. Edukacja regionalna (Kulturerbe. Heimaterziehung). Warszawa, Alex. Ogrodowska B. (2000). Zwyczaje, obrzędy i tradycje w Polsce. Mały słownik (Sitten, Gebräuche und Traditionen in Polen), Warszawa Pawlikowska-Wójcicka, A. (2005). Edukacja regionalna, Małopolska (Heimaterziehung. Kleinpolen). Kraków, Centrum Doskonalenia Nauczycieli. Pokropek M., (1978). Atlas Sztuki Ludowej i folkloru w Polsce (Atlas der Volkskunst und Folklore in Polen), Warszawa
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Rożek, M. (2005). Kraków Magiczny (Magisches Krakau), Kraków, Verso. Skarga, P. (1995). Kazania sejmowe (Landtagsreden). Wrocław; Kraków: Zakład Narodowy im. Ossolińskich – Wydawnictwo. Sławiński, J., Red. (1999). Podręczny słownik terminów literackich (Handwörterbuch literarischer Fachbegriffe), Warszawa, Open. Staszewski, J. (1968). Mały słownik: pochodzenie i znaczenie nazw geograficznych (Kleines Wörterbuch der Entstehung und Bedeutung geografischer Namen). Warszawa, Wiedza Powszechna. Sukertowa-Biedrawina, E. (1998). Legendy nadprądnikowe (Legenden vom Fluss Prądnik). Warszawa: PTK. Ustawa o ochronie zabytków i opiece nad zabytkami z 2003 z późn. zm. (Gesetz über Denkmalschutz und Denkmalpflege au dem Jahr 2003 mit späteren Änderungen). Ustawa o organizowaniu i prowadzeniu działalności kulturalnej z 1991 z późn. zm. (Gesetz über die Organisation und Durchführung von Kulturarbeit aus dem Jahr 1991 mit späteren Änderungen). Ustawa o samorządzie gminnym z 1990 z późn. zm. (Gesetz über die Gemeindeselbstverwaltung aus dem Jahr 1990 mit späteren Änderungen). Zmyślony, M. et al. (2008). Kierunki Rozwoju Turystyki dla Województwa Małopolskiego na lata 2008-2013 (Entwicklungslinien für den Fremdenverkehr in der Woiwodschaft Kleinpolen für die Jahre 2008-2013), [Webdokument] http://www. malopolskie.pl/Pliki/2008/Kierunki.pdf [abgerufen am: 22.04.2011].
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Krzysztofowicz-Kozakowska S. (1972). O sztuce ludowej w Polsce (Über die Volkskunst in Polen), Warszawa. Lowenthal, D. (1998). The Heritage Crusade and the Spoils of History. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. Małek, J. (2003). Turystyka kulturowa jako czynnik rozwoju lokalnego (Kulturtourismus als Faktor der lokalen Entwicklung, [Webdokument] www.wgsr. uw.edu.pl/pub/uploads/pis03/malek.pdf [abgerufen am: 30.04.2011]. Mikos von Rohrscheidt, A. (2008). Turystyka kulturowa: fenomen, potencjał, perspektywy (Kulturtourismus: Phänomen, Potenzial, Perspektiven). Gniezno, GWSHM Milenium. Moskal, K. (2004). Zamki w dziejach Polski i Słowacji między Wisłą a Hornadem (Burgen in der Geschichte Polens und der Slowakei zwischen Weichsel und Hornad). Nowy Sącz, Wydawnictwo Fundacja. Noel, S.; Van den Branden, E. (2009). Cultural tourism storytelling in Flanders: the story behind the stories http:// www.steunpunttoerisme.be/main/publicaties. Odoj, G.; Pec, A. (2000). Dziedzictwo kulturowe. Edukacja regionalna (Kulturerbe. Heimaterziehung). Warszawa, Alex. Ogrodowska B. (2000). Zwyczaje, obrzędy i tradycje w Polsce. Mały słownik (Sitten, Gebräuche und Traditionen in Polen), Warszawa Pawlikowska-Wójcicka, A. (2005). Edukacja regionalna, Małopolska (Heimaterziehung. Kleinpolen). Kraków, Centrum Doskonalenia Nauczycieli. Pokropek M., (1978). Atlas Sztuki Ludowej i folkloru w Polsce (Atlas der Volkskunst und Folklore in Polen), Warszawa
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Kulturmanagement 2011, Vol 4 (4)
Die Mission einer Medienorganisation im soziokulturellen Umfeld Justyna Przyborowicz
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ie öffentlichen Medien spielen eine maßgebliche Rolle beim Aufbau einer kulturbewussten Zivilgesellschaft. Die Kreierung einer den Anforderungen des Umfelds adäquaten Vision ist notwendig, wenn öffentliche Medienorganisationen ihrer Prioritäten umsetzen wollen. Das Wirken öffentlicher Medien verläuft gemäß den Veränderungen im soziokulturellen Umfeld, aber auch die Medienorganisationen selbst können Einfluss auf dieses Umfeld ausüben. In der vorliegenden Arbeit werden diese Dependenzen unter Berücksichtigung der gesetzgeberischen Lösungen bezüglich der Umsetzung der Mission der polnischen Medien dargestellt. Ziel der Arbeit ist es, die Eigenschaften des Missionscharakters der öffentlichen Medien im soziokulturellen Umfeld aufzuzeigen.
1. Der Charakter der öffentlichen Medien
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ie öffentlichen Sender haben besondere Pflichten, aber auch Berechtigungen. Zu diesen gehören die Einkünfte aus den Rundfunkgebühren und das Recht auf Verbreitung von Sendungen ohne Einholung einer Konzession. Art. 26 Abs. 1-3 des Rundfunkgesetzes bestimmt den Charakter einer Einheit des öffentlichen Rundfunks und Fernsehens, die immer in Form von Einpersonenaktiengesellschaften des Staatsvermögens verfasst sein müssen [Gesetz über Rundfunk und Fernsehen, 1992]. Der Gesetzgeber hat die Medien zur Wahrnehmung bestimmter Aufgaben verpflichtet. Zum weiten Feld dieser Aufgaben gehört ein Katalog von Arbeiten, darunter die Erzeugung und Ausstrahlung von landesweiten, regionalen und
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für Empfänger im Ausland bestimmten Sendungen in polnischer und anderen Sprachen sowie anderer Programme, die den demokratischen, sozialen und kulturellen Bedürfnissen der lokalen Gesellschaften nachkommen. Die öffentlichen Medien haben zudem auch Aufgaben im Bereich der Förderung künstlerischen, literarischen und wissenschaftlichen Schaffens sowie Bildungsaufgeben wahrzunehmen und Wissen über die polnische Sprache zu verbreiten. Wichtig ist, dass sowohl die landesweiten als auch die regionalen Medien auf die Bedürfnisse nationaler und ethnischer Minderheiten und Gemeinschaften, die sich einer regionalen Sprache bedienen, reagieren sollen. Zu diesem Zweck sollen sie auch Informationen über die nationalen und ethnischen Minderheiten und die regionalen Sprachen ausstrahlen. Nach Art. 21., Abs. 1 [Gesetz über Rundfunk und Fernsehen, 1992] soll ein öffentlicher Sender ebenfalls an die Gemeinschaften der Auslandspolen (Emigration) und sonstiger sich im Ausland aufhaltender Polen adressierte Bildungsprogramme hervorbringen und zugänglich machen. Die Konzeption der öffentlichen Medien ist auch mit einem ethischen Imperativ verbunden. Die Bedeutung eines öffentlichen Senders lässt sich auf drei Definitionsebenen betrachten [Napoli, Albarran, Chan-Olmsted, Wirtin, Red. 2006, S. 276]: einer konzeptuellen, einer operativen und einer applikativen Ebene. Auf der konzeptuellen Ebene, die am weitesten gefasst ist, konzentriert sich die Debatte auf den Begriff des Determinismus des öffentlichen Interesses. Zur operativen Ebene gehören auf natürliche Weise die konzeptuelle Arbeit und die Identifizierung des öffentlichen Interesses. Die applikative Ebene ist der Ort, an dem eine Debatte über die wichtigsten Werte und Prinzipien bezüg-
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Justyna Przyborowicz Doktorandin an der Fakultät für Management und Soziale Kommunikation der Jagiellonen Universität. Journalistin und Radiokommentatorin. Ihr Forschungsbereich umfasst Mediensysteme, EU-Medienpolitik, zeitgenössische Kultur.
ie öffentlichen Sender haben besondere Pflichten, aber auch Berechtigungen. Zu diesen gehören die Einkünfte aus den Rundfunkgebühren und das Recht auf Verbreitung von Sendungen ohne Einholung einer Konzession. Art. 26 Abs. 1-3 des Rundfunkgesetzes bestimmt den Charakter einer Einheit des öffentlichen Rundfunks und Fernsehens, die immer in Form von Einpersonenaktiengesellschaften des Staatsvermögens verfasst sein müssen [Gesetz über Rundfunk und Fernsehen, 1992]. Der Gesetzgeber hat die Medien zur Wahrnehmung bestimmter Aufgaben verpflichtet. Zum weiten Feld dieser Aufgaben gehört ein Katalog von Arbeiten, darunter die Erzeugung und Ausstrahlung von landesweiten, regionalen und
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1. Der Charakter der öffentlichen Medien ie öffentlichen Medien spielen eine maßgebliche Rolle beim Aufbau einer kulturbewussten Zivilgesellschaft. Die Kreierung einer den Anforderungen des Umfelds adäquaten Vision ist notwendig, wenn öffentliche Medienorganisationen ihrer Prioritäten umsetzen wollen. Das Wirken öffentlicher Medien verläuft gemäß den Veränderungen im soziokulturellen Umfeld, aber auch die Medienorganisationen selbst können Einfluss auf dieses Umfeld ausüben. In der vorliegenden Arbeit werden diese Dependenzen unter Berücksichtigung der gesetzgeberischen Lösungen bezüglich der Umsetzung der Mission der polnischen Medien dargestellt. Ziel der Arbeit ist es, die Eigenschaften des Missionscharakters der öffentlichen Medien im soziokulturellen Umfeld aufzuzeigen.
D
für Empfänger im Ausland bestimmten Sendungen in polnischer und anderen Sprachen sowie anderer Programme, die den demokratischen, sozialen und kulturellen Bedürfnissen der lokalen Gesellschaften nachkommen. Die öffentlichen Medien haben zudem auch Aufgaben im Bereich der Förderung künstlerischen, literarischen und wissenschaftlichen Schaffens sowie Bildungsaufgeben wahrzunehmen und Wissen über die polnische Sprache zu verbreiten. Wichtig ist, dass sowohl die landesweiten als auch die regionalen Medien auf die Bedürfnisse nationaler und ethnischer Minderheiten und Gemeinschaften, die sich einer regionalen Sprache bedienen, reagieren sollen. Zu diesem Zweck sollen sie auch Informationen über die nationalen und ethnischen Minderheiten und die regionalen Sprachen ausstrahlen. Nach Art. 21., Abs. 1 [Gesetz über Rundfunk und Fernsehen, 1992] soll ein öffentlicher Sender ebenfalls an die Gemeinschaften der Auslandspolen (Emigration) und sonstiger sich im Ausland aufhaltender Polen adressierte Bildungsprogramme hervorbringen und zugänglich machen. Die Konzeption der öffentlichen Medien ist auch mit einem ethischen Imperativ verbunden. Die Bedeutung eines öffentlichen Senders lässt sich auf drei Definitionsebenen betrachten [Napoli, Albarran, Chan-Olmsted, Wirtin, Red. 2006, S. 276]: einer konzeptuellen, einer operativen und einer applikativen Ebene. Auf der konzeptuellen Ebene, die am weitesten gefasst ist, konzentriert sich die Debatte auf den Begriff des Determinismus des öffentlichen Interesses. Zur operativen Ebene gehören auf natürliche Weise die konzeptuelle Arbeit und die Identifizierung des öffentlichen Interesses. Die applikative Ebene ist der Ort, an dem eine Debatte über die wichtigsten Werte und Prinzipien bezüg-
Justyna Przyborowicz
Die Mission einer Medienorganisation im soziokulturellen Umfeld
Justyna Przyborowicz Doktorandin an der Fakultät für Management und Soziale Kommunikation der Jagiellonen Universität. Journalistin und Radiokommentatorin. Ihr Forschungsbereich umfasst Mediensysteme, EU-Medienpolitik, zeitgenössische Kultur.
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lich der operativen Ebene stattfindet, die sich auf verschiedene spezifische Verhaltensformen und Rechtsnormen überträgt.
Medien. Um auf die soziokulturellen Bedürfnisse zu reagieren, müssen die öffentlichen Medien nach Spezialisierung streben, Themenblöcke und hochspezialisierte Kanäle schaffen. Die Umsetzung dieser Ziele erfordert eine Auffrischung des Charakters der polnischen Medien, ihres Images sowie umfassende Systemveränderungen. Zur Realisierung der Missionskonzeptionen müssen moderne Medienorganisationen die Marktbeziehungen und -erwartungen berücksichtigen, die Eigenschaften des Umfelds und die Anforderungen der sich entwickelnden Gesellschaft respektieren. Die Art des Managements hängt vom Charakter des Senders ab. Eine Organisation mit einer Mission muss vor allem den Erwartungen der Gesellschaft entgegenkommen. Der Journalismus verändert sich je nach Art der Finanzierung und der Erwartungen der Investoren. Wenn man berücksichtigt, dass der Investor in erster Linie der Gebührenzahler ist, so sollte es eine Priorität für die tägliche journalistische Arbeit sein, auf diese Bedürfnisse zu antworten. Dennoch ist die Mission der Medien auch journalistischer Dienst. Die Mitarbeiter der öffentlichen Medien sind verpflichtet, bei jeder Umsetzung einer Aufgabe an die Prioritäten ihrer Arbeit zu denken, die im öffentlichen Dienst enthalten sind.
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2. Das Umfeld einer Medienorganisation
as Umfeld der Organisation wird in modernistischen Konzeptionen üblicherweise durch seine Elemente definiert. Zu erwähnen ist hier das Netz zwischen den Organisationen und das internationale, allgemeine oder globale Umfeld. Das internationale Netz setzt sich aus allen Elementen zusammen, die mit der Organisation in Interaktion treten können. Die Medienorganisation produziert Waren in Form medialer Inhalte und erbringt Dienstleistungen (zum Beispiel Videotext oder Teleshopping), die dem Konsum durch das Umfeld unterstehen. Sie wirkt auch auf den Kunden, das heißt Zuschauer und Zuhörer ein. Das Netz zwischen den Organisationen besteht aus Lieferanten, Kunden, Wettbewerbern, Gewerkschaften, Kontrollinstitutionen und Interessenverbänden (Lobbys). Die Kontrollinstitutionen wiederum überwachen die Tätigkeit der Organisation; im Fall des polnischen Fernsehens (TVP) ist dies etwa der Rat für Medienethik [Der Rat für Medienethik, Webdokument]. Dieser wiederum hat im Jahr 1996 die Konferenz Polnischer Medien ins Leben
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Außer der Programmarbeit gehört zu den Aufgaben der Medien auch die Erzeugung und Verbreitung von spezialisierten Programmen, für die eine Konzession eingeholt wurde [Napoli, Albarran, Chan-Olmsted, Wirtin Red. 2006, S. 276], der Bau und die Nutzung von Rundfunk- und Fernsehsendern, die Verbreitung von Textbotschaften, die Arbeit an neuen Techniken der Erzeugung und Verbreitung von Rundfunk- und Fernsehprogrammen. Es handelt sich dabei auch um eine Geschäftstätigkeit im Bereich des audiovisuellen Schaffens, die Produktion, Dienstleistung und Handel, darunter Export und Import, umfasst. Auch die Botschaft selbst muss sich durch eine Mission auszeichnen. Der Gesetzgeber hat darüber hinaus inhaltlich Rahmenvorgaben geschaffen. Zu den Verpflichtungen der in den öffentlichen Medien ausgestrahlten Programme gehört [Gesetz über Rundfunk und Fernsehen, 1992]: 1. sich nach nach der Verantwortung für das Wort zu richten und für den guten Ruf des öffentlichen Rundfunks und Fernsehens zu sorgen, 2. solide und gründlich die ganze Vielfalt der Ereignisse und Erscheinungen im In- und Ausland wiederzugeben, 3. die freie Gestaltung der Ansichten der Bürger und die Formung der öffentlichen Meinung zu unterstützen, 4. den Bürgern und ihren Organisationen die Teilnahme am öffentlichen Leben durch Präsentierung unterschiedlicher Ansichten und Standpunkte zu ermöglichen und das Recht auf gesellschaftliche Kontrolle und Kritik wahrzunehmen, 5. der Entwicklung von Kultur, Wissenschaft und Bildungswesen zu dienen, mit besonderer Berücksichtigung der polnischen intellektuellen und künstlerischen Errungenschaften, 6. das christliche Wertesystem zu respektieren und als Grundlage die universellen Grundsätze der Ethik anzunehmen, 7. der Festigung der Institution der Familie zu dienen, 8. zu Gesundheitsbewusstsein beizutragen, 9. der Bekämpfung sozialer Missstände zu dienen.
Die modernen Gesellschaften haben ein immer größer werdendes Bewusstsein für die Inhalte, die sie empfangen wollen, und einen leichteren Zugang zu Information. Diese Faktoren determinieren die Erfüllung der Verpflichtungen der öffentlichen
2. Das Umfeld einer Medienorganisation
as Umfeld der Organisation wird in modernistischen Konzeptionen üblicherweise durch seine Elemente definiert. Zu erwähnen ist hier das Netz zwischen den Organisationen und das internationale, allgemeine oder globale Umfeld. Das internationale Netz setzt sich aus allen Elementen zusammen, die mit der Organisation in Interaktion treten können. Die Medienorganisation produziert Waren in Form medialer Inhalte und erbringt Dienstleistungen (zum Beispiel Videotext oder Teleshopping), die dem Konsum durch das Umfeld unterstehen. Sie wirkt auch auf den Kunden, das heißt Zuschauer und Zuhörer ein. Das Netz zwischen den Organisationen besteht aus Lieferanten, Kunden, Wettbewerbern, Gewerkschaften, Kontrollinstitutionen und Interessenverbänden (Lobbys). Die Kontrollinstitutionen wiederum überwachen die Tätigkeit der Organisation; im Fall des polnischen Fernsehens (TVP) ist dies etwa der Rat für Medienethik [Der Rat für Medienethik, Webdokument]. Dieser wiederum hat im Jahr 1996 die Konferenz Polnischer Medien ins Leben
Außer der Programmarbeit gehört zu den Aufgaben der Medien auch die Erzeugung und Verbreitung von spezialisierten Programmen, für die eine Konzession eingeholt wurde [Napoli, Albarran, Chan-Olmsted, Wirtin Red. 2006, S. 276], der Bau und die Nutzung von Rundfunk- und Fernsehsendern, die Verbreitung von Textbotschaften, die Arbeit an neuen Techniken der Erzeugung und Verbreitung von Rundfunk- und Fernsehprogrammen. Es handelt sich dabei auch um eine Geschäftstätigkeit im Bereich des audiovisuellen Schaffens, die Produktion, Dienstleistung und Handel, darunter Export und Import, umfasst. Auch die Botschaft selbst muss sich durch eine Mission auszeichnen. Der Gesetzgeber hat darüber hinaus inhaltlich Rahmenvorgaben geschaffen. Zu den Verpflichtungen der in den öffentlichen Medien ausgestrahlten Programme gehört [Gesetz über Rundfunk und Fernsehen, 1992]: 1. sich nach nach der Verantwortung für das Wort zu richten und für den guten Ruf des öffentlichen Rundfunks und Fernsehens zu sorgen, 2. solide und gründlich die ganze Vielfalt der Ereignisse und Erscheinungen im In- und Ausland wiederzugeben, 3. die freie Gestaltung der Ansichten der Bürger und die Formung der öffentlichen Meinung zu unterstützen, 4. den Bürgern und ihren Organisationen die Teilnahme am öffentlichen Leben durch Präsentierung unterschiedlicher Ansichten und Standpunkte zu ermöglichen und das Recht auf gesellschaftliche Kontrolle und Kritik wahrzunehmen, 5. der Entwicklung von Kultur, Wissenschaft und Bildungswesen zu dienen, mit besonderer Berücksichtigung der polnischen intellektuellen und künstlerischen Errungenschaften, 6. das christliche Wertesystem zu respektieren und als Grundlage die universellen Grundsätze der Ethik anzunehmen, 7. der Festigung der Institution der Familie zu dienen, 8. zu Gesundheitsbewusstsein beizutragen, 9. der Bekämpfung sozialer Missstände zu dienen.
Medien. Um auf die soziokulturellen Bedürfnisse zu reagieren, müssen die öffentlichen Medien nach Spezialisierung streben, Themenblöcke und hochspezialisierte Kanäle schaffen. Die Umsetzung dieser Ziele erfordert eine Auffrischung des Charakters der polnischen Medien, ihres Images sowie umfassende Systemveränderungen. Zur Realisierung der Missionskonzeptionen müssen moderne Medienorganisationen die Marktbeziehungen und -erwartungen berücksichtigen, die Eigenschaften des Umfelds und die Anforderungen der sich entwickelnden Gesellschaft respektieren. Die Art des Managements hängt vom Charakter des Senders ab. Eine Organisation mit einer Mission muss vor allem den Erwartungen der Gesellschaft entgegenkommen. Der Journalismus verändert sich je nach Art der Finanzierung und der Erwartungen der Investoren. Wenn man berücksichtigt, dass der Investor in erster Linie der Gebührenzahler ist, so sollte es eine Priorität für die tägliche journalistische Arbeit sein, auf diese Bedürfnisse zu antworten. Dennoch ist die Mission der Medien auch journalistischer Dienst. Die Mitarbeiter der öffentlichen Medien sind verpflichtet, bei jeder Umsetzung einer Aufgabe an die Prioritäten ihrer Arbeit zu denken, die im öffentlichen Dienst enthalten sind.
Die modernen Gesellschaften haben ein immer größer werdendes Bewusstsein für die Inhalte, die sie empfangen wollen, und einen leichteren Zugang zu Information. Diese Faktoren determinieren die Erfüllung der Verpflichtungen der öffentlichen
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lich der operativen Ebene stattfindet, die sich auf verschiedene spezifische Verhaltensformen und Rechtsnormen überträgt.
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gerufen. Heute arbeitet der Rat der 5. Amtszeit in elfköpfiger Besetzung. Nach der Satzung des Rats gehört es zu seinen Aufgaben, sich zu Fragen in Zusammenhang mit der Einhaltung der Charta für Medienethik aus dem Jahr 1995 zu Wort zu melden. Diese Charta bestimmt, dass ein Journalist sich von sieben Grundsätzen leiten lassen soll: Wahrheit, Objektivität, Trennung von Information und Kommentar, Ehrlichkeit, Achtung für Andere und Toleranz, Vorrang des Wohls des Empfängers, Freiheit und Verantwortung. Die in der Charta enthaltenen Grundsätze entwickelt der Journalistische Verhaltenskodex aus dem Jahr 2002 weiter. Der Rat verfügt über keinerlei Sanktionsmittel. Er kann nur Übertretungen feststellen, Meinungen äußern, Stellung in konkreten Angelegenheiten nehmen und appellieren. Nichtsdestotrotz gilt der Standpunkt des Rats als meinungsbildend, weshalb er häufig von anderen Institutionen, zum Beispiel Gerichten, um Stellungnahme angerufen wird [Ebenda]. Die Analyse des Netzes bedeutet für Modernisten auch die Bestimmung seiner rationalen Grenzen (ausgenommen einige Netze, die geschlossene Systeme darstellen). Manager haben eine Tendenz dazu, ihre Organisation im Zentrum des Netzes zu sehen, was zu einer Störung des objektiven Blickpunkts führen kann [Hatch 2001, S. 55]. Die Medienorganisation setzt dann nicht auf den Aufbau von Interaktionen mit der Gesellschaft, sondern läuft Gefahr, sich auf seine Produktionen zu beschränken, die unabhängig von den Bedürfnissen der Gesellschaft entstehen. Sie tritt dann in Wettbewerbssituationen ein, ohne den realen Bedarf der potenziellen Empfänger zu beachten. Auf die Organisation wirken sich viele externe Faktoren aus, die sich in verschiedenen Sektoren situieren lassen, aus denen sich das allgemeine Umfeld zusammensetzt. Neben dem rechtlichen, dem politischen, dem ökonomischen, dem technologischen und dem Umweltsektor sind auch der soziale und der Kultursektor zu nennen. Der soziale Sektor hängt unmittelbar mit der Klassenkultur zusammen, den Lebensstilen, welche die Gesellschaft angenommen hat, den herkömmlichen sozialen Institutionen (Bildungssystem, religiöse Praktiken, Handel, Berufe) und demografischen Aspekten. Für eine Medienorganisation ist dies bei der Aufgabenstellung deshalb von Belang, weil es zum Material der täglichen Arbeit der Abteilungen und Redaktionen wird, die daraus ihre Botschaft bilden. Dies geschieht sowohl im globalen als
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auch im nationalen und lokalen Maßstab. Wenn wir die öffentlichen Medien vergleichen wollen, die in verschiedenen Mediensystemen arbeiten, die kraft des dort jeweils geltenden Rechts gegründet wurden, werden wir Unterschiede in der Tätigkeit, der Funktionsweise, den Inhalten und der Art und Weise des Ausdrucks dieser Inhalte feststellen [Hatch 2001, S. 55]. Es lässt sich auch nicht negieren, dass Medienorganisationen im sozialen Umfeld auf der Grundlage der in diesem Umfeld geltenden Normen und Gesetze funktionieren. Allerdings können auch diese durchaus Veränderungen unterworfen sein. Deshalb ist das Umfeld für Medienmanager immer auch eine Quelle der Unsicherheit [Koźmiński 2000, S. 33]. Gut veranschaulichen dies Beispiele für die historische Entwicklung der Mediensysteme und das Systemmodell des Medienmanagements.
3. Die sozialen Beziehungen zum Medienumfeld
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ie Art und Weise der Gestaltung der sozialen Beziehungen zum Mediensektor verdeutlichen Beispiele der sich herausbildenden Mediensysteme in Europa. Politische und kulturelle Anregungen hatten einen enormen Einfluss auf die gefundenen medienrechtlichen Lösungen in Abhängigkeit von den in den einzelnen Ländern herrschenden Parteisystemen. In den Ländern des demokratischen Korporationismus im 19. Jahrhundert begannen Volksparteien zu entstehen, die mit der Zeit immer mehr an Stärke und Bedeutung zunahmen. Die Parteien formten ihre Strukturen, die in die gesellschaftlichen Schichten einzudringen begannen, ihre institutionellen Netze, die gewissermaßen eine Art Plattform zur Kommunikation mit den Parteimitgliedern dienten. Wichtig ist, dass sie auch Verbindungen mit den gesellschaftlichen Organisationen hatten, etwa mit den Gewerkschaften, Unternehmerverbänden und konfessionellen Gemeinschaften. Diese Verbindungen gestalteten die Trennlinien zwischen den Anhängern der einzelnen Parteien, und – was ebenfalls von Bedeutung ist – diese Trennlinien trugen einen sozialen Charakter gemäß den kulturellen Interessen und und der kulturellen Identität. Sie entsprachen den Klassen-, Konfessions- und Sprachgrenzen. Diese Gruppen bilden gewissermaßen Subkulturen der Gesellschaft und bewirken die Fragmentarisierung des pluralistischen Systems. Gruppen von gesellschaftlicher Bedeutung spielten auch eine
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Auf die Organisation wirken sich viele externe Faktoren aus, die sich in verschiedenen Sektoren situieren lassen, aus denen sich das allgemeine Umfeld zusammensetzt. Neben dem rechtlichen, dem politischen, dem ökonomischen, dem technologischen und dem Umweltsektor sind auch der soziale und der Kultursektor zu nennen. Der soziale Sektor hängt unmittelbar mit der Klassenkultur zusammen, den Lebensstilen, welche die Gesellschaft angenommen hat, den herkömmlichen sozialen Institutionen (Bildungssystem, religiöse Praktiken, Handel, Berufe) und demografischen Aspekten. Für eine Medienorganisation ist dies bei der Aufgabenstellung deshalb von Belang, weil es zum Material der täglichen Arbeit der Abteilungen und Redaktionen wird, die daraus ihre Botschaft bilden. Dies geschieht sowohl im globalen als gerufen. Heute arbeitet der Rat der 5. Amtszeit in elfköpfiger Besetzung. Nach der Satzung des Rats gehört es zu seinen Aufgaben, sich zu Fragen in Zusammenhang mit der Einhaltung der Charta für Medienethik aus dem Jahr 1995 zu Wort zu melden. Diese Charta bestimmt, dass ein Journalist sich von sieben Grundsätzen leiten lassen soll: Wahrheit, Objektivität, Trennung von Information und Kommentar, Ehrlichkeit, Achtung für Andere und Toleranz, Vorrang des Wohls des Empfängers, Freiheit und Verantwortung. Die in der Charta enthaltenen Grundsätze entwickelt der Journalistische Verhaltenskodex aus dem Jahr 2002 weiter. Der Rat verfügt über keinerlei Sanktionsmittel. Er kann nur Übertretungen feststellen, Meinungen äußern, Stellung in konkreten Angelegenheiten nehmen und appellieren. Nichtsdestotrotz gilt der Standpunkt des Rats als meinungsbildend, weshalb er häufig von anderen Institutionen, zum Beispiel Gerichten, um Stellungnahme angerufen wird [Ebenda]. Die Analyse des Netzes bedeutet für Modernisten auch die Bestimmung seiner rationalen Grenzen (ausgenommen einige Netze, die geschlossene Systeme darstellen). Manager haben eine Tendenz dazu, ihre Organisation im Zentrum des Netzes zu sehen, was zu einer Störung des objektiven Blickpunkts führen kann [Hatch 2001, S. 55]. Die Medienorganisation setzt dann nicht auf den Aufbau von Interaktionen mit der Gesellschaft, sondern läuft Gefahr, sich auf seine Produktionen zu beschränken, die unabhängig von den Bedürfnissen der Gesellschaft entstehen. Sie tritt dann in Wettbewerbssituationen ein, ohne den realen Bedarf der potenziellen Empfänger zu beachten.
ie Art und Weise der Gestaltung der sozialen Beziehungen zum Mediensektor verdeutlichen Beispiele der sich herausbildenden Mediensysteme in Europa. Politische und kulturelle Anregungen hatten einen enormen Einfluss auf die gefundenen medienrechtlichen Lösungen in Abhängigkeit von den in den einzelnen Ländern herrschenden Parteisystemen. In den Ländern des demokratischen Korporationismus im 19. Jahrhundert begannen Volksparteien zu entstehen, die mit der Zeit immer mehr an Stärke und Bedeutung zunahmen. Die Parteien formten ihre Strukturen, die in die gesellschaftlichen Schichten einzudringen begannen, ihre institutionellen Netze, die gewissermaßen eine Art Plattform zur Kommunikation mit den Parteimitgliedern dienten. Wichtig ist, dass sie auch Verbindungen mit den gesellschaftlichen Organisationen hatten, etwa mit den Gewerkschaften, Unternehmerverbänden und konfessionellen Gemeinschaften. Diese Verbindungen gestalteten die Trennlinien zwischen den Anhängern der einzelnen Parteien, und – was ebenfalls von Bedeutung ist – diese Trennlinien trugen einen sozialen Charakter gemäß den kulturellen Interessen und und der kulturellen Identität. Sie entsprachen den Klassen-, Konfessions- und Sprachgrenzen. Diese Gruppen bilden gewissermaßen Subkulturen der Gesellschaft und bewirken die Fragmentarisierung des pluralistischen Systems. Gruppen von gesellschaftlicher Bedeutung spielten auch eine
D
3. Die sozialen Beziehungen zum Medienumfeld auch im nationalen und lokalen Maßstab. Wenn wir die öffentlichen Medien vergleichen wollen, die in verschiedenen Mediensystemen arbeiten, die kraft des dort jeweils geltenden Rechts gegründet wurden, werden wir Unterschiede in der Tätigkeit, der Funktionsweise, den Inhalten und der Art und Weise des Ausdrucks dieser Inhalte feststellen [Hatch 2001, S. 55]. Es lässt sich auch nicht negieren, dass Medienorganisationen im sozialen Umfeld auf der Grundlage der in diesem Umfeld geltenden Normen und Gesetze funktionieren. Allerdings können auch diese durchaus Veränderungen unterworfen sein. Deshalb ist das Umfeld für Medienmanager immer auch eine Quelle der Unsicherheit [Koźmiński 2000, S. 33]. Gut veranschaulichen dies Beispiele für die historische Entwicklung der Mediensysteme und das Systemmodell des Medienmanagements.
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nommenen Arbeiten innerhalb dieser Einheiten darstellen sollte. Die lokalen Tätigkeiten sind also auf unmittelbare Kommunikation mit der lokalen Bevölkerung ausgerichtet und müssen permanent die gesellschaftlichen Wandlungsprozesse verfolgen und auf die in diesen Gesellschaften auftretenden Ereignisse und Veränderungen reagieren. Im lokalen Umfeld kann der Sender ein aktiver Animator des gesellschaftlichen Lebens sein, indem er Verbindungen für die lokalen Interessengruppen mit Förderinstitutionen und Nichtregierungsorganisationen herstellt [ChrisiduBudnik 2005, S. 202]. Unabhängig jedoch von der Ebene des Funktionierens der Medienorganisation ist der Bereich des Managements operativ zu betrachten, denn er tritt innerhalb einer ganzen Kette ökonomischer Dependenzen auf [Drucker 2009, S. 43]. Die Abhängigkeiten und Relationen, die im Umfeld eines öffentlichen Senders herrschen, übertragen sich wiederum auf die Art und Weise seines Funktionierens wie auch auf die Inhalte, die sie aufnimmt, sich aneignet und präsentiert. Dies findet seinen Niederschlag im Inhalt der journalistischen Arbeit, die sich per se im Fall eines öffentlichen Senders durch Missionshaftigkeit auszeichnet. Das öffentliche Management stützt sich diesbezüglich unter anderem auf die Definition des Problems, das der Intervention bedarf, auch auf die Legitimierung der jeweiligen Maßnahmen und Aktionen, was bedeutet, dass das Umfeld zu diesen Tätigkeiten überzeugt werden muss [Hausner 2008, S. 47]. Die Adressaten und Nutznießer einer sozial sichtbaren Verantwortung der öffentlichen Medien sind die Empfänger. Ihr Wohl hat demnach als Priorität zu gelten.
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4. Die Rolle der Medien im kulturellen Umfeld
ie öffentlichen Medien sollen Garnt der Unabhängigkeit und der Idee der Demokratie sein. Heute ist eine Demokratie ohne Medien nicht mehr vorstellbar, was bedeutet, dass diese einen eigenen Platz unter den Bestandteilen des demokratischen Systems beanspruchen [Regulationsstrategie…, Webdokument]. Die erwarteten Veränderungen in Form einer Entpolitisierung und die Hinwendung zu einer Unterstützung der kulturellen Entwicklung der Gesellschaften kann einen Anstieg der gesellschaftlichen Bedeutung der Medien nach sich ziehen. Vom Gesichtspunkt der Empfänger her wiederum sind die Unterschiede der gesellschaftlichen Gruppen und
Rolle bei der Organisation öffentlicher Medien, sie spiegelten sich in der Stärke journalistischer Gewerkschaften und Berufsverbänden wider [Mancini, Hallin 2007, S. 191]. Die Beziehungen zwischen Gesellschaft und Medien sind also historisch gewachsen und ausgeprägt. Einige Systeme weisen deutlich auf gesellschaftliche Einflüsse hinsichtlich der Gestaltung der Mediengesetzgebung, der Ziele und Marktverteilung der Medien hin. Das niederländische System etwa funktioniert auf der Grundlage einer spezifischen Form des externen Pluralismus, die sich durch das Vorhandensein separater Sendergesellschaften auszeichnet, die unterschiedliche gesellschaftliche Gruppen repräsentieren. Interner Pluralismus hingegen betrifft unter anderem den Inhalt der Medien, der die Vielfalt der Gesichtspunkte in der Gesellschaft widerspiegeln soll wie auch die Strukturen der Medienorganisation, die häufig Vertreter verschiedener sozialer, politischer und kultureller Gruppen umfasst. Eben das ist ein Faktor, der das Modell des demokratischen Korporationismus von liberalen Systemen unterscheidet. Die BBC hat die Medien von der Regierung, den politischen Parteien und anderen beteiligten Gesellschaftsgruppen unabhängig gemacht. Der Pluralismus in den liberalen Ländern steht in Verbindung mit einer Übertragung der Verantwortung für die Repräsentation der verschiedenen Stimmen und die Antwort auf die Bedürfnisse der Gesellschaften nach neutralen Medienmitarbeitern und Journalisten [Mancini, Hallin 2007, S. 191]. Unabhängig von der Art und Weise der Gestaltung der Mediensysteme ist auf eine große Abhängigkeit der gesellschaftlichen Stimmungen und Interaktionen hinsichtlich des sich herausbildenden Profils des Mediensektors in Europa hinzuweisen.
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D
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4. Die Rolle der Medien im kulturellen Umfeld
ie öffentlichen Medien sollen Garnt der Unabhängigkeit und der Idee der Demokratie sein. Heute ist eine Demokratie ohne Medien nicht mehr vorstellbar, was bedeutet, dass diese einen eigenen Platz unter den Bestandteilen des demokratischen Systems beanspruchen [Regulationsstrategie…, Webdokument]. Die erwarteten Veränderungen in Form einer Entpolitisierung und die Hinwendung zu einer Unterstützung der kulturellen Entwicklung der Gesellschaften kann einen Anstieg der gesellschaftlichen Bedeutung der Medien nach sich ziehen. Vom Gesichtspunkt der Empfänger her wiederum sind die Unterschiede der gesellschaftlichen Gruppen und
Die lokalen Beispiele wiederum machen die spezifischen Beziehungen der Gesellschaft zur Medienorganisation deutlich. Die in den lokalen Medien berührten Inhalte gestalten sich unmittelbar durch die Anstöße, die sie aus der Gesellschaft heraus erhalten. Sie sind häufig eine Reaktion auf die für die jeweilige Region oder ihre Gesellschaften wichtigen Vorkommnisse und Problemsituationen. Die präsentierten Inhalte können auch der Erfüllung einer Mission für einzelne Gesellschaftsgruppen dienen. Die Rahmenprogramme der regionalen Radio- und Fernsehsender werden eben gerade im Kontext der lokalen Bedürfnisse erstellt, was im Grunde genommen den Ausgangspunkt für die unter-
nommenen Arbeiten innerhalb dieser Einheiten darstellen sollte. Die lokalen Tätigkeiten sind also auf unmittelbare Kommunikation mit der lokalen Bevölkerung ausgerichtet und müssen permanent die gesellschaftlichen Wandlungsprozesse verfolgen und auf die in diesen Gesellschaften auftretenden Ereignisse und Veränderungen reagieren. Im lokalen Umfeld kann der Sender ein aktiver Animator des gesellschaftlichen Lebens sein, indem er Verbindungen für die lokalen Interessengruppen mit Förderinstitutionen und Nichtregierungsorganisationen herstellt [ChrisiduBudnik 2005, S. 202]. Unabhängig jedoch von der Ebene des Funktionierens der Medienorganisation ist der Bereich des Managements operativ zu betrachten, denn er tritt innerhalb einer ganzen Kette ökonomischer Dependenzen auf [Drucker 2009, S. 43]. Die Abhängigkeiten und Relationen, die im Umfeld eines öffentlichen Senders herrschen, übertragen sich wiederum auf die Art und Weise seines Funktionierens wie auch auf die Inhalte, die sie aufnimmt, sich aneignet und präsentiert. Dies findet seinen Niederschlag im Inhalt der journalistischen Arbeit, die sich per se im Fall eines öffentlichen Senders durch Missionshaftigkeit auszeichnet. Das öffentliche Management stützt sich diesbezüglich unter anderem auf die Definition des Problems, das der Intervention bedarf, auch auf die Legitimierung der jeweiligen Maßnahmen und Aktionen, was bedeutet, dass das Umfeld zu diesen Tätigkeiten überzeugt werden muss [Hausner 2008, S. 47]. Die Adressaten und Nutznießer einer sozial sichtbaren Verantwortung der öffentlichen Medien sind die Empfänger. Ihr Wohl hat demnach als Priorität zu gelten.
Die lokalen Beispiele wiederum machen die spezifischen Beziehungen der Gesellschaft zur Medienorganisation deutlich. Die in den lokalen Medien berührten Inhalte gestalten sich unmittelbar durch die Anstöße, die sie aus der Gesellschaft heraus erhalten. Sie sind häufig eine Reaktion auf die für die jeweilige Region oder ihre Gesellschaften wichtigen Vorkommnisse und Problemsituationen. Die präsentierten Inhalte können auch der Erfüllung einer Mission für einzelne Gesellschaftsgruppen dienen. Die Rahmenprogramme der regionalen Radio- und Fernsehsender werden eben gerade im Kontext der lokalen Bedürfnisse erstellt, was im Grunde genommen den Ausgangspunkt für die unter-
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Rolle bei der Organisation öffentlicher Medien, sie spiegelten sich in der Stärke journalistischer Gewerkschaften und Berufsverbänden wider [Mancini, Hallin 2007, S. 191]. Die Beziehungen zwischen Gesellschaft und Medien sind also historisch gewachsen und ausgeprägt. Einige Systeme weisen deutlich auf gesellschaftliche Einflüsse hinsichtlich der Gestaltung der Mediengesetzgebung, der Ziele und Marktverteilung der Medien hin. Das niederländische System etwa funktioniert auf der Grundlage einer spezifischen Form des externen Pluralismus, die sich durch das Vorhandensein separater Sendergesellschaften auszeichnet, die unterschiedliche gesellschaftliche Gruppen repräsentieren. Interner Pluralismus hingegen betrifft unter anderem den Inhalt der Medien, der die Vielfalt der Gesichtspunkte in der Gesellschaft widerspiegeln soll wie auch die Strukturen der Medienorganisation, die häufig Vertreter verschiedener sozialer, politischer und kultureller Gruppen umfasst. Eben das ist ein Faktor, der das Modell des demokratischen Korporationismus von liberalen Systemen unterscheidet. Die BBC hat die Medien von der Regierung, den politischen Parteien und anderen beteiligten Gesellschaftsgruppen unabhängig gemacht. Der Pluralismus in den liberalen Ländern steht in Verbindung mit einer Übertragung der Verantwortung für die Repräsentation der verschiedenen Stimmen und die Antwort auf die Bedürfnisse der Gesellschaften nach neutralen Medienmitarbeitern und Journalisten [Mancini, Hallin 2007, S. 191]. Unabhängig von der Art und Weise der Gestaltung der Mediensysteme ist auf eine große Abhängigkeit der gesellschaftlichen Stimmungen und Interaktionen hinsichtlich des sich herausbildenden Profils des Mediensektors in Europa hinzuweisen.
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Kategorien hervorzuheben. Die Vielschichtigkeit der Kulturebenen ist ein Grund für Komplexität der Beziehungen einer Medienorganisation zu ihrem kulturellen Umfeld [Hofstede 2000, S. 46]: bezüglich der Zughörigkeit zu einer regionalen, ethnischen, konfessionellen oder sprachlichen Bevölkerungsgruppe, der Zugehörigkeit zu einem der Geschlechter, im Zusammenhang mit Generationenkulturen oder sozialen Klassen, die wiederum mit bestimmten, zum Beispiel beruflichen Möglichkeiten und Beschränkungen verbunden sind, schließlich hinsichtlich der Organisations- oder Korporationskultur, die gewissermaßen Rolle und Stellung der Arbeit bestimmt. Das Bewusstsein, in verschiedenen sozialen Gruppen und Kategorien auf einem bestimmten Gebiet für eine Medienorganisation tätig zu sein, wird zum unmittelbaren Subjekt der Verteilung etwa der Sendeinhalte. Die Flexibilität des Senders ist in dieser Hinsicht von besonderer Bedeutung, weil die Entwicklung der Gesellschaft ungleichmäßig verläuft. Außerdem hat das Bevölkerungswachstum die Suche nach Lösungen, welche die Koexistenz der Menschen ermöglichen und eine gewisse stabile Struktur für die Gesellschaft schaffen, erzwungen [Hofstede 2000 S. 47]. Der Medienmanager steht in dieser Hinsicht vor einer doppelten Aufgabe: Einerseits muss er auf die Signale reagieren, die sich aus der Gesellschaft vernehmen lassen, andererseits vielfältige Stand- und Gesichtspunkte präsentieren, Sensibilität für die kulturelle Vielfalt beweisen, dabei aber oft auch gleichzeitig den Anspruch vertreten, nationale Werte zu stärken. Der Kultursektor steht in Verbindung mit Fragen der Geschichte, Tradition, der Erwartungen bezüglich der Verhaltensweisen und Werte der Gesellschaft oder der Gesellschaften, in denen die jeweilige Organisation funktioniert. Je nach dem, in welchem Kulturkreis die jeweilige Organisation tätig ist, wirkt sich dies unmittelbar auf die Art der Führung, den Grad der Rationalität und die Ressourcen dieser Organisation aus. Auch die beobachteten Trends im Kulturbereich können sich auf die Existenz der Organisation auswirken. Es kann zu einem Rückgang des Werts der hierarchischen Autorität kommen, wenn immer mehr Spezialisten auftreten. Immer besser ausgebildete Journalisten, die auch zu mehrdimensionaler Arbeit bereit sind (wenn sie etwa den Filmschnitt selbst besorgen oder selbst Produktionsteams gründen) tragen ebenso dazu bei. Andererseits schützt der Anstieg des Werts der Menschenrechte, zu der die gewachsene Verantwortung der Journalisten oder die
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Achtung der Mitarbeiterrechte beitragen, die Freiheit der Meinungsäußerung. Zu diesen Trends sind auch die Fragen der Qualität und des Schutzes der materiellen Umgebung zu rechnen Der Kultursektor und die in ihm zum Vorschein kommenden Trends können auch die zu berührenden Genderfragen, die steigende Rolle der Frauen in den Redaktionen und an leitenden Positionen, in den Programminhalt der öffentlichen Medien einbringen, indem etwa Fragen der Gleichberechtigung behandelt werden. Als Beispiel mag die von Montag bis Freitag ausgestrahlte Sendung „Klëka“ dienen, ein Programm mit Informationen aus der Kaschubei, über die Kaschuben und in kaschubischer Sprache [Das Polnische Radio Gdańsk, Webdokument]. Auf europäischer Ebene wiederum lassen sich gewisse assekurative Verhaltensweisen gegenüber der kulturellen Rolle der Medien beobachten. Die Kulturfunktion wird im Kontext der internen Handlungen der einzelnen Mitgliedsländer betrachtet und nicht als Element einer präzisierten Strategie für den Mediensektor in Europa. Man mag darüber nachdenken, ob die Erfüllung einer bestimmten Mission kohärent für die gesamte Europäische Union überhaupt möglich ist. Steht dem nicht etwa das Pluralismusprinzip entgegen? Wenn man berücksichtigt, dass die EU keine Grundlage in entsprechenden Abkommen hat, um den Medienbereich zu gestalten, lässt sich dieser Befund klar bestätigen. Das wichtigste Instrument der audiovisuellen Politik der EU ist die Richtlinie 2010/13/UE über die Bereitstellung audiovisueller Mediendienste, die vor allem die Fragen des Markts oder des Rechtsschutzes regelt und Fragen der Kultur unerwähnt lässt. Es lohnt sich jedoch, eine Mittelung der Kommission aus dem Jahr 2009 näher zu betrachten [Mitteilung der Kommission über die Anwendung der Vorschriften über staatliche Beihilfen…, 2009], die an die Stelle einer Mitteilung aus dem Jahr 2001 getreten ist. Die Mittelung erkennt die spezifischen Eigenschaften des öffentlichen Rundfunks und Fernsehens an und behandelt sie als Dienstleistungen, die in einem besonderen wirtschaftlichen Interesse (der öffentlichen Versorgung) erbracht werden. Die Mitteilung formuliert die wichtigsten Anforderungen, die an die Mitgliederstaaten gestellt werden, indem sie sich auf solche Fragen konzentriert wie [Ebenda]: MM die offizielle Definierung und Anvertrauung der Mission der öffentlichen Medien in der ausschließlichen Zuständigkeit des jeweiligen Staates, die Rolle der Europäischen Kommission beschränkt auf die Aufdeckung erheblicher Fehler,
139
Kategorien hervorzuheben. Die Vielschichtigkeit der Kulturebenen ist ein Grund für Komplexität der Beziehungen einer Medienorganisation zu ihrem kulturellen Umfeld [Hofstede 2000, S. 46]: bezüglich der Zughörigkeit zu einer regionalen, ethnischen, konfessionellen oder sprachlichen Bevölkerungsgruppe, der Zugehörigkeit zu einem der Geschlechter, im Zusammenhang mit Generationenkulturen oder sozialen Klassen, die wiederum mit bestimmten, zum Beispiel beruflichen Möglichkeiten und Beschränkungen verbunden sind, schließlich hinsichtlich der Organisations- oder Korporationskultur, die gewissermaßen Rolle und Stellung der Arbeit bestimmt. Das Bewusstsein, in verschiedenen sozialen Gruppen und Kategorien auf einem bestimmten Gebiet für eine Medienorganisation tätig zu sein, wird zum unmittelbaren Subjekt der Verteilung etwa der Sendeinhalte. Die Flexibilität des Senders ist in dieser Hinsicht von besonderer Bedeutung, weil die Entwicklung der Gesellschaft ungleichmäßig verläuft. Außerdem hat das Bevölkerungswachstum die Suche nach Lösungen, welche die Koexistenz der Menschen ermöglichen und eine gewisse stabile Struktur für die Gesellschaft schaffen, erzwungen [Hofstede 2000 S. 47]. Der Medienmanager steht in dieser Hinsicht vor einer doppelten Aufgabe: Einerseits muss er auf die Signale reagieren, die sich aus der Gesellschaft vernehmen lassen, andererseits vielfältige Stand- und Gesichtspunkte präsentieren, Sensibilität für die kulturelle Vielfalt beweisen, dabei aber oft auch gleichzeitig den Anspruch vertreten, nationale Werte zu stärken. Der Kultursektor steht in Verbindung mit Fragen der Geschichte, Tradition, der Erwartungen bezüglich der Verhaltensweisen und Werte der Gesellschaft oder der Gesellschaften, in denen die jeweilige Organisation funktioniert. Je nach dem, in welchem Kulturkreis die jeweilige Organisation tätig ist, wirkt sich dies unmittelbar auf die Art der Führung, den Grad der Rationalität und die Ressourcen dieser Organisation aus. Auch die beobachteten Trends im Kulturbereich können sich auf die Existenz der Organisation auswirken. Es kann zu einem Rückgang des Werts der hierarchischen Autorität kommen, wenn immer mehr Spezialisten auftreten. Immer besser ausgebildete Journalisten, die auch zu mehrdimensionaler Arbeit bereit sind (wenn sie etwa den Filmschnitt selbst besorgen oder selbst Produktionsteams gründen) tragen ebenso dazu bei. Andererseits schützt der Anstieg des Werts der Menschenrechte, zu der die gewachsene Verantwortung der Journalisten oder die
139
Auf europäischer Ebene wiederum lassen sich gewisse assekurative Verhaltensweisen gegenüber der kulturellen Rolle der Medien beobachten. Die Kulturfunktion wird im Kontext der internen Handlungen der einzelnen Mitgliedsländer betrachtet und nicht als Element einer präzisierten Strategie für den Mediensektor in Europa. Man mag darüber nachdenken, ob die Erfüllung einer bestimmten Mission kohärent für die gesamte Europäische Union überhaupt möglich ist. Steht dem nicht etwa das Pluralismusprinzip entgegen? Wenn man berücksichtigt, dass die EU keine Grundlage in entsprechenden Abkommen hat, um den Medienbereich zu gestalten, lässt sich dieser Befund klar bestätigen. Das wichtigste Instrument der audiovisuellen Politik der EU ist die Richtlinie 2010/13/UE über die Bereitstellung audiovisueller Mediendienste, die vor allem die Fragen des Markts oder des Rechtsschutzes regelt und Fragen der Kultur unerwähnt lässt. Es lohnt sich jedoch, eine Mittelung der Kommission aus dem Jahr 2009 näher zu betrachten [Mitteilung der Kommission über die Anwendung der Vorschriften über staatliche Beihilfen…, 2009], die an die Stelle einer Mitteilung aus dem Jahr 2001 getreten ist. Die Mittelung erkennt die spezifischen Eigenschaften des öffentlichen Rundfunks und Fernsehens an und behandelt sie als Dienstleistungen, die in einem besonderen wirtschaftlichen Interesse (der öffentlichen Versorgung) erbracht werden. Die Mitteilung formuliert die wichtigsten Anforderungen, die an die Mitgliederstaaten gestellt werden, indem sie sich auf solche Fragen konzentriert wie [Ebenda]: MM die offizielle Definierung und Anvertrauung der Mission der öffentlichen Medien in der ausschließlichen Zuständigkeit des jeweiligen Staates, die Rolle der Europäischen Kommission beschränkt auf die Aufdeckung erheblicher Fehler, Achtung der Mitarbeiterrechte beitragen, die Freiheit der Meinungsäußerung. Zu diesen Trends sind auch die Fragen der Qualität und des Schutzes der materiellen Umgebung zu rechnen Der Kultursektor und die in ihm zum Vorschein kommenden Trends können auch die zu berührenden Genderfragen, die steigende Rolle der Frauen in den Redaktionen und an leitenden Positionen, in den Programminhalt der öffentlichen Medien einbringen, indem etwa Fragen der Gleichberechtigung behandelt werden. Als Beispiel mag die von Montag bis Freitag ausgestrahlte Sendung „Klëka“ dienen, ein Programm mit Informationen aus der Kaschubei, über die Kaschuben und in kaschubischer Sprache [Das Polnische Radio Gdańsk, Webdokument].
MM MM
gierung jener Multikulturalität können sich jedoch die lokalen Medien annehmen und sie in den Kanon ihrer täglichen Mission aufnehmen.
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Überwachung der Umsetzung der Mission durch eine unabhängige Firma, Gewährleistung finanzieller Transparenz der öffentlichen Medien durch durch Trennung der Missions- und der übrigen Tätigkeit durch separate Rechnungsführung.
Im Kontext der Relationen zum kulturellen und sozialen Umfeld sind beide Bereiche der Selbstständigkeit der Sender von Bedeutung, die gewissermaßen die Unabhängigkeit dieser Institutionen garantieren. Wenn man das kulturelle Umfeld in Betracht zieht, sind die Vorgaben der Förderung der Vielfalt der Medieninhalte von Bedeutung. Diese Prinzipien dienen der Entwicklung demokratischer Ideen, der kulturellen Expression, die eben aus dem kulturellen Umfeld an die Medien dringt. Finanzielle Unterstützung ist wiederum eine reale Vorgabe, die es erlaubt, diese Prinzipien angemessen umzusetzen. Außer der Unterstützung für die nationalen Minderheiten im Bereich der Medien, der Kultivierung der Traditionen und der Unterstützung der Vielfalt,
Eine weitere wesentliche Frage im Kontext der kulturellen Voraussetzungen für eine Mission der öffentlichen Medien ist die Selbstständigkeit der Sender. Dies ist ein Schlüsselelement für die Freiheit der elektronischen Medien. Garant der Umsetzung dieser Selbstständigkeit sollte der Medienpluralismus sein, der sich in zwei Gruppen von Zielen ausdrückt [Regulationsstrategie…, Webdokument]: 1. Förderung des strukturellen Medienpluralismus durch: MM Streben nach Pluralismus der Eigentümerschaft und der geografischen Verteilung (lokale, regionale Medien); Unterstützung der Entwicklung der Medien der Minderheiten und ehrenamtlicher Medientätigkeit, MM Regulierung des Zugangs zur Interoperativität des Netzes und der Dienstleistungen der elektronischen Kommunikation, MM öffentliche Hilfe und andere Formen der Unterstützung, Gewährleistung der Transparenz der Eigentumsstrukturen, 2. Förderung der Vielfalt der Inhalte: MM Förderung der demokratischen Teilnahme und des internen inhaltlichen Pluralismus, einschließlich politischer Ansichten und Standpunkte wie auch der kulturellen Expression, MM Prozess der Konzessierung und entsprechend entworfene Prinzipien must carry / must offer, MM finanzielle Unterstützung für Produktion und Distribution der Inhalte, die der Vielfalt der Informationsquellen dienen, darunter für die Medien in den Minderheitensprachen.
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Eine weitere wesentliche Frage im Kontext der kulturellen Voraussetzungen für eine Mission der öffentlichen Medien ist die Selbstständigkeit der Sender. Dies ist ein Schlüsselelement für die Freiheit der elektronischen Medien. Garant der Umsetzung dieser Selbstständigkeit sollte der Medienpluralismus sein, der sich in zwei Gruppen von Zielen ausdrückt [Regulationsstrategie…, Webdokument]: 1. Förderung des strukturellen Medienpluralismus durch: MM Streben nach Pluralismus der Eigentümerschaft und der geografischen Verteilung (lokale, regionale Medien); Unterstützung der Entwicklung der Medien der Minderheiten und ehrenamtlicher Medientätigkeit, MM Regulierung des Zugangs zur Interoperativität des Netzes und der Dienstleistungen der elektronischen Kommunikation, MM öffentliche Hilfe und andere Formen der Unterstützung, Gewährleistung der Transparenz der Eigentumsstrukturen, 2. Förderung der Vielfalt der Inhalte: MM Förderung der demokratischen Teilnahme und des internen inhaltlichen Pluralismus, einschließlich politischer Ansichten und Standpunkte wie auch der kulturellen Expression, MM Prozess der Konzessierung und entsprechend entworfene Prinzipien must carry / must offer, MM finanzielle Unterstützung für Produktion und Distribution der Inhalte, die der Vielfalt der Informationsquellen dienen, darunter für die Medien in den Minderheitensprachen.
Im Kontext der Relationen zum kulturellen und sozialen Umfeld sind beide Bereiche der Selbstständigkeit der Sender von Bedeutung, die gewissermaßen die Unabhängigkeit dieser Institutionen garantieren. Wenn man das kulturelle Umfeld in Betracht zieht, sind die Vorgaben der Förderung der Vielfalt der Medieninhalte von Bedeutung. Diese Prinzipien dienen der Entwicklung demokratischer Ideen, der kulturellen Expression, die eben aus dem kulturellen Umfeld an die Medien dringt. Finanzielle Unterstützung ist wiederum eine reale Vorgabe, die es erlaubt, diese Prinzipien angemessen umzusetzen. Außer der Unterstützung für die nationalen Minderheiten im Bereich der Medien, der Kultivierung der Traditionen und der Unterstützung der Vielfalt,
Die Maßnahmen der EU gehen also in Richtung finanzieller Unterstützung und nicht Aufzeigung potenzieller Faktoren der Entwicklung der Interaktion der Medien mit ihrem kulturellen und gesellschaftlichen Umfeld. Es gibt demnach keinerlei Voraussetzungen für die Behauptung, dass die Charakteristik einer kohärenten europäischen Mission zur Plattform für die Vereinheitlichung der Entwicklung eines öffentlichen Senders im Kontext des modernen Kulturwandels werden könnte. Diese Kompetenzen stehen einzig und allein den Staaten zu, die selbst die Eigenschaften der Mission der auf ihrem Hoheitsgebiet tätigen öffentlichen Medien festlegen. Wenn man jedoch die Tendenzen in der EU hinsichtlich der in den Medien vorangetriebenen Interaktion mit der Kultur kommentiert, muss man den in der Debatte bevorzugten Begriff der Multikulturalität berücksichtigen, den die öffentlichen Medien in ihre Missionsaufgaben einzubeziehen hätten. Insbesondere kann dieser Begriff im Kontext eines Systemmodells der Medien von Bedeutung werden, das sich in unterschiedlicher Form in Europa entwickelt, häufig abhängig von der Politik und gesellschaftlichen Strömungen. Zum Verständnis dieser Dependenzen mag ein Zitat des Soziologen, Philosophen und Essayisten Zygmunt Bauman beitragen [Bauman 2011, S. 65]: „»Multikulturalität« ist die Antwort, die heutzutage vor allem die gebildeten, meinungsbildenden und politisch maßgeblichen Klassen erteilen auf die Frage nach den Werten, die der Pflege und Kultivierung in unseren unsicheren Zeiten bedürfen, und nach der Richtung, in die entschieden und unbeirrbar vorangeschritten werden sollte. Diese Antwort erwächst heute zum Rang eines Kanons der »politischen Korrektheit« - mehr noch, sie verwandelt sich zum Axiom, das keiner Begründung und keines Beweises bedarf, gewissermaßen zu Prolegomena zu jeglichen weiteren Erwägungen über die Wahl der politischen Linie, zum Grundstein der Doxa, also des Wissens, mit dem wir denken, aber über das wir selten, wenn überhaupt, nachdenken.“ Es scheint, dass diese Worte ihre Bestätigung in der Medienpolitik der Union finden, wo der Begriff der Multikulturalität häufig in den Debatten auftaucht, aber in konkreten Bestimmungen fehlt. Der Propa-
gierung jener Multikulturalität können sich jedoch die lokalen Medien annehmen und sie in den Kanon ihrer täglichen Mission aufnehmen.
Die Maßnahmen der EU gehen also in Richtung finanzieller Unterstützung und nicht Aufzeigung potenzieller Faktoren der Entwicklung der Interaktion der Medien mit ihrem kulturellen und gesellschaftlichen Umfeld. Es gibt demnach keinerlei Voraussetzungen für die Behauptung, dass die Charakteristik einer kohärenten europäischen Mission zur Plattform für die Vereinheitlichung der Entwicklung eines öffentlichen Senders im Kontext des modernen Kulturwandels werden könnte. Diese Kompetenzen stehen einzig und allein den Staaten zu, die selbst die Eigenschaften der Mission der auf ihrem Hoheitsgebiet tätigen öffentlichen Medien festlegen. Wenn man jedoch die Tendenzen in der EU hinsichtlich der in den Medien vorangetriebenen Interaktion mit der Kultur kommentiert, muss man den in der Debatte bevorzugten Begriff der Multikulturalität berücksichtigen, den die öffentlichen Medien in ihre Missionsaufgaben einzubeziehen hätten. Insbesondere kann dieser Begriff im Kontext eines Systemmodells der Medien von Bedeutung werden, das sich in unterschiedlicher Form in Europa entwickelt, häufig abhängig von der Politik und gesellschaftlichen Strömungen. Zum Verständnis dieser Dependenzen mag ein Zitat des Soziologen, Philosophen und Essayisten Zygmunt Bauman beitragen [Bauman 2011, S. 65]: „»Multikulturalität« ist die Antwort, die heutzutage vor allem die gebildeten, meinungsbildenden und politisch maßgeblichen Klassen erteilen auf die Frage nach den Werten, die der Pflege und Kultivierung in unseren unsicheren Zeiten bedürfen, und nach der Richtung, in die entschieden und unbeirrbar vorangeschritten werden sollte. Diese Antwort erwächst heute zum Rang eines Kanons der »politischen Korrektheit« - mehr noch, sie verwandelt sich zum Axiom, das keiner Begründung und keines Beweises bedarf, gewissermaßen zu Prolegomena zu jeglichen weiteren Erwägungen über die Wahl der politischen Linie, zum Grundstein der Doxa, also des Wissens, mit dem wir denken, aber über das wir selten, wenn überhaupt, nachdenken.“ Es scheint, dass diese Worte ihre Bestätigung in der Medienpolitik der Union finden, wo der Begriff der Multikulturalität häufig in den Debatten auftaucht, aber in konkreten Bestimmungen fehlt. Der Propa-
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Überwachung der Umsetzung der Mission durch eine unabhängige Firma, Gewährleistung finanzieller Transparenz der öffentlichen Medien durch durch Trennung der Missions- und der übrigen Tätigkeit durch separate Rechnungsführung.
140
MM
141
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sollten die öffentlichen Medien auch für weitere im kulturellen Umfeld auftretende Dependenzen sensibilisiert bleiben. Die Rolle der Medien ist erheblich auch beim Aufbau einer nationalen Kulturidentität, die sich im Sinne von Art. 6 der polnischen Verfassung vollziehen kann („Die Republik Polen schafft die Bedingungen für die Verbreitung von Kulturgütern, die eine Quelle der Identität des polnischen Volkes, seines Bestehens und seiner Entwicklung ist, sowie den gleichen Zugang zu ihnen“). Die Regulationsstrategie erlegt den öffentlichen Medien besondere Pflichten auf [Regulationsstrategie…, Webdokument]: MM Verpflichtung zur Erzeugung und Verbreitung von Programmen, welche u. a. die kulturellen Bedürfnisse der Empfänger befriedigen, MM Förderung künstlerischen, literarischen, wissenschaftlichen Schaffens und der Bildungstätigkeit, MM Einbeziehung der Bedürfnisse nationaler und ethnischer Minderheiten, MM aktive Teilnahme an der Kreierung und Produktion audiovisueller Inhalte, MM Propagierung des nationalen und europäischen Kulturerbes. Dieser Vorgabenkatalog lässt sich nur dann umsetzen, wenn es zu realen Interaktionen der Medienorganisationen mit dem soziokulturellen Umfeld kommt. Dann kann eine solche Organisation ihre Aktivitäten bewusst aufnehmen und eine Mission an ihre Umgebung erfüllen. Eine kohärente Medienbotschaft entsteht in Anlehnung an die Kontexte der Umwelt, die Sprache, derer
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sich die jeweilige Gesellschaft bedient, und sollte den Anspruch erfüllen, zur geistigen Entwicklung ihrer potenziellen Empfänger beizutragen.
5. Schlussbemerkungen
Z
wischen den gesteckten Zielen der Mission der öffentlichen Medien und ihrer Umsetzung können viele Widersprüche und falsche Interpretationen auftreten. Die in erheblichen wirtschaftlichen Schwierigkeiten steckenden Regionalsender zeugen ebenso von schlechtem Managements wie von Finanzmangel und legislativer Unbestimmtheit. Wenn wir die Missionstätigkeit der Medien durch das Prisma des soziokulturellen Umfelds analysieren, stellt sich jedoch heraus, dass gerade die regionalen Medien am nächsten an den Bedürfnissen der Bevölkerung sind und diese Mission erfüllen können. Die Europäische Union verfügt über keine zusätzlichen legislativen Kompetenzen in dieser Hinsicht, aber wenn solche rechtlichen Lösungen in Europa möglich wären, würde es zu einer Unifizierung der für das kulturelle Umfeld sensibilisierten und auf die gesellschaftlichen Bedürfnisse gestützten Mediensystemen kommen. Die in einem solchen Fall zu bildenden öffentlichen Organisationen wären nach dem Vorbild der BBC mit entpolitisierten Vorständen und pluralistischen Ideen zu bilden. Unabhängig von den Maßnahmen auf internationaler Ebene , garantiert das Verhalten der Sender auf regionaler Ebene eine unmittelbare Reaktion der Medieneinheiten auf die gesellschaftlichen und kulturellen Bedürfnisse der Gesellschaften.
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Dieser Vorgabenkatalog lässt sich nur dann umsetzen, wenn es zu realen Interaktionen der Medienorganisationen mit dem soziokulturellen Umfeld kommt. Dann kann eine solche Organisation ihre Aktivitäten bewusst aufnehmen und eine Mission an ihre Umgebung erfüllen. Eine kohärente Medienbotschaft entsteht in Anlehnung an die Kontexte der Umwelt, die Sprache, derer sollten die öffentlichen Medien auch für weitere im kulturellen Umfeld auftretende Dependenzen sensibilisiert bleiben. Die Rolle der Medien ist erheblich auch beim Aufbau einer nationalen Kulturidentität, die sich im Sinne von Art. 6 der polnischen Verfassung vollziehen kann („Die Republik Polen schafft die Bedingungen für die Verbreitung von Kulturgütern, die eine Quelle der Identität des polnischen Volkes, seines Bestehens und seiner Entwicklung ist, sowie den gleichen Zugang zu ihnen“). Die Regulationsstrategie erlegt den öffentlichen Medien besondere Pflichten auf [Regulationsstrategie…, Webdokument]: MM Verpflichtung zur Erzeugung und Verbreitung von Programmen, welche u. a. die kulturellen Bedürfnisse der Empfänger befriedigen, MM Förderung künstlerischen, literarischen, wissenschaftlichen Schaffens und der Bildungstätigkeit, MM Einbeziehung der Bedürfnisse nationaler und ethnischer Minderheiten, MM aktive Teilnahme an der Kreierung und Produktion audiovisueller Inhalte, Propagierung des nationalen und europäischen Kulturerbes. MM
wischen den gesteckten Zielen der Mission der öffentlichen Medien und ihrer Umsetzung können viele Widersprüche und falsche Interpretationen auftreten. Die in erheblichen wirtschaftlichen Schwierigkeiten steckenden Regionalsender zeugen ebenso von schlechtem Managements wie von Finanzmangel und legislativer Unbestimmtheit. Wenn wir die Missionstätigkeit der Medien durch das Prisma des soziokulturellen Umfelds analysieren, stellt sich jedoch heraus, dass gerade die regionalen Medien am nächsten an den Bedürfnissen der Bevölkerung sind und diese Mission erfüllen können. Die Europäische Union verfügt über keine zusätzlichen legislativen Kompetenzen in dieser Hinsicht, aber wenn solche rechtlichen Lösungen in Europa möglich wären, würde es zu einer Unifizierung der für das kulturelle Umfeld sensibilisierten und auf die gesellschaftlichen Bedürfnisse gestützten Mediensystemen kommen. Die in einem solchen Fall zu bildenden öffentlichen Organisationen wären nach dem Vorbild der BBC mit entpolitisierten Vorständen und pluralistischen Ideen zu bilden. Unabhängig von den Maßnahmen auf internationaler Ebene , garantiert das Verhalten der Sender auf regionaler Ebene eine unmittelbare Reaktion der Medieneinheiten auf die gesellschaftlichen und kulturellen Bedürfnisse der Gesellschaften.
Z
5. Schlussbemerkungen sich die jeweilige Gesellschaft bedient, und sollte den Anspruch erfüllen, zur geistigen Entwicklung ihrer potenziellen Empfänger beizutragen.
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Literatur: Landesrundfunkrat (Krajowa Rada Radiofonii i telewizji): http://www.krrit.gov.pl/bip/ Mancini Paolo. Hallin Daniel. Systemy medialne: trzy modele mediów i polityki w ujęciu porównawczym (Mediensysteme. Drei Modelle von Medien und Politik im Vergleich). Wyd UJ. Kraków 2007. Mitteilung der Kommission über die Anwendung der Vorschriften über staatliche Beihilfen auf den öffentlich-rechtlichen Rundfunk (2009/C257/1), Amtsblatt der Europäischen Union, C 257, 27-X-2009 für die Jahre 2011-2016. Napoli Philip. Issues In Media Management and Public Interest. [in:] Albarran Allan. Chan-Olmsted Sylvia. Wirtin Michael. Handbook of Media Managament and Economics. Routledge Taylor & Francis Group. New York 2006. Polnisches Radio Gdańsk (Polskie Radio Gdańsk): http:// www.radiogdansk.pl/?a=audycje Rat für Medienethik (Rada Etyki Mediów): http://www. radaetykimediow.pl/oradzie.html Regulationsstrategie für die Jahre 2011-2013 des Landesrundfunkrats (Strategia regulacyjna na lata 2011-2013 opublikowana przez KRRiTv): http://www. krrit.gov.pl/bip/
Barta Janusz. Markiewicz Ryszard. Matlak Andrzej. Prawo mediów (Medienrecht). LexisNexis. Warszawa 2002. Bauman Zygmunt. Kultura w płynnej nowoczesności (Kultur in der fließenden Moderne). Narodowy Instytut Audiowizualny. Agora S.A. Warszawa 2011. Drucker Peter. Zarządzanie XXI wieku – wyzwania (Das Management des 21. ����������������������������� Jahrhunderts. Herausforderungen). MT Biznes. Warszawa 2009. Chrisidu-Budnik Agnieszka. Organizacja i jej otoczenie (Die Organisation und ihr Umfeld). [in:] ChrisiduBudnik Agnieszka, Korczak Jerzy, Pakuła Andrzej, Supernat Jerzy. Nauka organizacji i zarządzania (Die Wissenschaft von Organisation und Management). Kolonia Limited. Wrocław 2005. Gesetz über Rundfunk und Fernsehen vom 29. ������ Dezember 1992, Gesetzblatt „Dziennik Ustaw“ 03.253.2531 (Ustawa o radiofonii i telewizji. z dnia 29 grudnia 1992 r. Dz.U.04.253.2531) Hatch Mary Jo. Teoria organizacji (Theorie der Organisation). PWN. Warszawa 2001. Hausner Jerzy. Zarządzanie publiczne (Öffentliche Verwaltung). Scholar. Warszawa 2008. Hofstede Geert. Kultury i organizacje (Kultur und Organisation). PWE. Warszawa 2000. Koźmiński Andrzej. Organziacja (Organisation). [in:] Zarządzanie: teoria i praktyka (Management. Theorie und Praxis). PWN. Warszawa 2000.
Landesrundfunkrat (Krajowa Rada Radiofonii i telewizji): http://www.krrit.gov.pl/bip/ Mancini Paolo. Hallin Daniel. Systemy medialne: trzy modele mediów i polityki w ujęciu porównawczym (Mediensysteme. Drei Modelle von Medien und Politik im Vergleich). Wyd UJ. Kraków 2007. Mitteilung der Kommission über die Anwendung der Vorschriften über staatliche Beihilfen auf den öffentlich-rechtlichen Rundfunk (2009/C257/1), Amtsblatt der Europäischen Union, C 257, 27-X-2009 für die Jahre 2011-2016. Napoli Philip. Issues In Media Management and Public Interest. [in:] Albarran Allan. Chan-Olmsted Sylvia. Wirtin Michael. Handbook of Media Managament and Economics. Routledge Taylor & Francis Group. New York 2006. Polnisches Radio Gdańsk (Polskie Radio Gdańsk): http:// www.radiogdansk.pl/?a=audycje Rat für Medienethik (Rada Etyki Mediów): http://www. radaetykimediow.pl/oradzie.html Regulationsstrategie für die Jahre 2011-2013 des Landesrundfunkrats (Strategia regulacyjna na lata 2011-2013 opublikowana przez KRRiTv): http://www. krrit.gov.pl/bip/
Barta Janusz. Markiewicz Ryszard. Matlak Andrzej. Prawo mediów (Medienrecht). LexisNexis. Warszawa 2002. Bauman Zygmunt. Kultura w płynnej nowoczesności (Kultur in der fließenden Moderne). Narodowy Instytut Audiowizualny. Agora S.A. Warszawa 2011. Drucker Peter. Zarządzanie XXI wieku – wyzwania (Das Management des 21. ����������������������������� Jahrhunderts. Herausforderungen). MT Biznes. Warszawa 2009. Chrisidu-Budnik Agnieszka. Organizacja i jej otoczenie (Die Organisation und ihr Umfeld). [in:] ChrisiduBudnik Agnieszka, Korczak Jerzy, Pakuła Andrzej, Supernat Jerzy. Nauka organizacji i zarządzania (Die Wissenschaft von Organisation und Management). Kolonia Limited. Wrocław 2005. Gesetz über Rundfunk und Fernsehen vom 29. ������ Dezember 1992, Gesetzblatt „Dziennik Ustaw“ 03.253.2531 (Ustawa o radiofonii i telewizji. z dnia 29 grudnia 1992 r. Dz.U.04.253.2531) Hatch Mary Jo. Teoria organizacji (Theorie der Organisation). PWN. Warszawa 2001. Hausner Jerzy. Zarządzanie publiczne (Öffentliche Verwaltung). Scholar. Warszawa 2008. Hofstede Geert. Kultury i organizacje (Kultur und Organisation). PWE. Warszawa 2000. Koźmiński Andrzej. Organziacja (Organisation). [in:] Zarządzanie: teoria i praktyka (Management. Theorie und Praxis). PWN. Warszawa 2000.
Literatur: 142
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Das Instrumentarium der Marketingkommunikation für neuentstehende Kulturorganisationen des Dritten Sektors Marcin Laberschek
1. Einführung
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er Verein Klon/Jawor, der systematische Untersuchungen von polnischen Non-ProfitOrganisationen durchführt, stellt fest, dass seit 2001 ein beunruhigender „Alterungs“-Trend des Sektors der Nichtregierungsorganisationen anhält. Im Bericht aus dem Jahr 2008 wurden einige entscheidende Elemente hervorgehoben: Einerseits vergrößerte sich der Anteil der ältesten Organisationen (über 15 Jahre), andererseits entstehen nicht nur immer weniger neue Organisationen, sondern es gehen auch viele von den erst seit kurzem bestehenden Organisationen wieder ein. Die Autoren des Berichts stellen fest, dass es nicht überrascht, dass ein großer Anteil der neuentstandenen Organisationen im Laufe einiger Jahre seine Tätigkeit einstellt, jedoch sei das Ausmaß dieses Phänomens bedenklich [Szołajska, Red. 2008]. Bei einer Anfang des 21. Jahrhunderts durchgeführten Analyse des Sektors der Nichtregierungsorganisationen wurde festgestellt, dass ungefähr 70 % der Non-Profit-Organisationen ihre Tätigkeit während der ersten drei Jahre einstellen [Bogacz-Wojtanowska 2006, S. 59]. 12,7% aller polnischen Organisationen des Dritten Sektors bezeichnen Kultur und Kunst als ihr direktes Tätigkeitsfeld und 24,1% als eines ihrer Tätigkeitsgebiete [Szołajska, Red. 2008]. Dies in Betracht ziehend lässt sich mit großer Sicherheit annehmen, dass die Probleme des gesamten Non-Profit-Sektors im gleichen Maße den Kunst- und Kulturbereich betreffen können. Mehr noch, das Phänomen des „Alterns“ des Sektors der
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Nichtregierungsorganisationen betrifft Organisationen im Kultursektor stärker als andere. Es wurde festgestellt, dass ein großer Anteil der Kulturinitiativen sich durch „Langlebigkeit“ auszeichnet [Herbst 2005]. Von der Außergewöhnlichkeit der Sphäre der Kultur und Kunst zeugen auch anderen Daten: 75% dieser Organisationen beschäftigen keinen einzigen Mitarbeiter (gegenüber 67% im ganzen Sektor), der Haushalt der Hälfte der Organisationen lag unter 8.500 Złoty (gegenüber 13.000 Złoty), und 30% von ihnen überschritten ein Jahreseinkommen von 1.000 Złoty nicht (gegenüber 21%) [Ebenda]. Aus dem Blickwinkel dieser Analyse ist neben allen vorab aufgeführten Informationen auch die Anmerkung wichtig, dass Nichtregierungsorganisationen, die sich allgemein mit Kultur und Kunst beschäftigen, Probleme bei der Erschließung externer Finanzmittel haben können. Der prozentuale Anteil der Mittel aus autonomen Quellen betrug in einer durchschnittlichen Kulturorganisation 16% bei 22,6 % im ganzen Sektor jedoch ist der Anteil der Mittel aus Regierungsquellen und von Institutionen und Firmen in beiden Fällen ähnlich. Andererseits ist bei den Kulturorganisationen ein geringfügig höherer Anteil der Mittel von Privatpersonen zu verzeichnen (12,9%: Kultur und Kunst; 10,7%: alle Organisationen) [Ebenda]. Die spürbarsten Schwierigkeiten, die 61,4% der Non-Profit-Organisationen aufzeigten, waren „Schwierigkeiten bei der Gewinnung von Mitteln oder benötigten Geräten zur Ausübung der Tätigkeit der Organisation“ [Szołajska, Red. 2008]. Vielleicht ist die Ursache für das frühe Scheitern neuer Nichtregierungsorganisationen ihre
143
Marcin Laberschek Doktorand an der Fakultät für Management und Soziale Kommunikation der Jagiellonen Universität. Seit 2001 führt er die Gewerbetätigkeit als Mitinhaber einer Künstleragentur. Manager.
er Verein Klon/Jawor, der systematische Untersuchungen von polnischen Non-ProfitOrganisationen durchführt, stellt fest, dass seit 2001 ein beunruhigender „Alterungs“-Trend des Sektors der Nichtregierungsorganisationen anhält. Im Bericht aus dem Jahr 2008 wurden einige entscheidende Elemente hervorgehoben: Einerseits vergrößerte sich der Anteil der ältesten Organisationen (über 15 Jahre), andererseits entstehen nicht nur immer weniger neue Organisationen, sondern es gehen auch viele von den erst seit kurzem bestehenden Organisationen wieder ein. Die Autoren des Berichts stellen fest, dass es nicht überrascht, dass ein großer Anteil der neuentstandenen Organisationen im Laufe einiger Jahre seine Tätigkeit einstellt, jedoch sei das Ausmaß dieses Phänomens bedenklich [Szołajska, Red. 2008]. Bei einer Anfang des 21. Jahrhunderts durchgeführten Analyse des Sektors der Nichtregierungsorganisationen wurde festgestellt, dass ungefähr 70 % der Non-Profit-Organisationen ihre Tätigkeit während der ersten drei Jahre einstellen [Bogacz-Wojtanowska 2006, S. 59]. 12,7% aller polnischen Organisationen des Dritten Sektors bezeichnen Kultur und Kunst als ihr direktes Tätigkeitsfeld und 24,1% als eines ihrer Tätigkeitsgebiete [Szołajska, Red. 2008]. Dies in Betracht ziehend lässt sich mit großer Sicherheit annehmen, dass die Probleme des gesamten Non-Profit-Sektors im gleichen Maße den Kunst- und Kulturbereich betreffen können. Mehr noch, das Phänomen des „Alterns“ des Sektors der
D
1. Einführung
Nichtregierungsorganisationen betrifft Organisationen im Kultursektor stärker als andere. Es wurde festgestellt, dass ein großer Anteil der Kulturinitiativen sich durch „Langlebigkeit“ auszeichnet [Herbst 2005]. Von der Außergewöhnlichkeit der Sphäre der Kultur und Kunst zeugen auch anderen Daten: 75% dieser Organisationen beschäftigen keinen einzigen Mitarbeiter (gegenüber 67% im ganzen Sektor), der Haushalt der Hälfte der Organisationen lag unter 8.500 Złoty (gegenüber 13.000 Złoty), und 30% von ihnen überschritten ein Jahreseinkommen von 1.000 Złoty nicht (gegenüber 21%) [Ebenda]. Aus dem Blickwinkel dieser Analyse ist neben allen vorab aufgeführten Informationen auch die Anmerkung wichtig, dass Nichtregierungsorganisationen, die sich allgemein mit Kultur und Kunst beschäftigen, Probleme bei der Erschließung externer Finanzmittel haben können. Der prozentuale Anteil der Mittel aus autonomen Quellen betrug in einer durchschnittlichen Kulturorganisation 16% bei 22,6 % im ganzen Sektor jedoch ist der Anteil der Mittel aus Regierungsquellen und von Institutionen und Firmen in beiden Fällen ähnlich. Andererseits ist bei den Kulturorganisationen ein geringfügig höherer Anteil der Mittel von Privatpersonen zu verzeichnen (12,9%: Kultur und Kunst; 10,7%: alle Organisationen) [Ebenda]. Die spürbarsten Schwierigkeiten, die 61,4% der Non-Profit-Organisationen aufzeigten, waren „Schwierigkeiten bei der Gewinnung von Mitteln oder benötigten Geräten zur Ausübung der Tätigkeit der Organisation“ [Szołajska, Red. 2008]. Vielleicht ist die Ursache für das frühe Scheitern neuer Nichtregierungsorganisationen ihre
Marcin Laberschek
Das Instrumentarium der Marketingkommunikation für neuentstehende Kulturorganisationen des Dritten Sektors
Marcin Laberschek Doktorand an der Fakultät für Management und Soziale Kommunikation der Jagiellonen Universität. Seit 2001 führt er die Gewerbetätigkeit als Mitinhaber einer Künstleragentur. Manager.
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schwere materielle Situation. Drei von vier Organisationen geben zu, keinerlei Finanzreserven zu besitzen. Im Jahr 2007 lagen die jährlichen Einnahmen bei der Hälfte der Non-Profit-Organisationen, die höchstens zwei Jahre existierten, unter 5.919 Złoty; bei der Hälfte der Organisationen, die 3 bis 5 Jahre existieren – unter 7.500 Złoty; und bei der Hälfte der Organisationen, die über 15 Jahre tätig sind, unter 54.000 Złoty [Ebenda]. Diese Disproportionen zeigen deutlich, wie schwer es für neuentstandene und junge Organisationen ist, mit den erfahreneren und bevorzugt behandelten alteingesessenen Organisationen zu rivalisieren.
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2. Der Charakter der Marketingkommunikation
m anzugeben, welche von den vorgestellten Instrumenten den neuentstandenen Organisationen des Dritten Sektors zu empfehlen sind, muss man sie evaluieren. Die Evaluierung erfolgt durch die Anwendung entsprechender zu diesem Zweck ausgewählter dichotomischer Parameterpaare: A. Werben für ein Produkt / eine Organisation – Ist der Effekt der Anwendung des Instruments einmalig (konkretes Kulturprodukt, z.B. Konzert) oder langfristig (Image der Organisation)? Für neuentstandene Organisationen werden solche Instrumente wichtiger sein, die langfristig wirken, bewirken, dass die Organisation wiedererkennbar, auf dem lokalen Kulturmarkt sichtbar wird. B. An einzelne Empfänger / eine Gruppe gerichtet – Bevor die Organisation erfährt, wer der Zielempfänger des Produkts ist, welche Bedürfnisse und Vorlieben er hat, sollten die Marketingaktivitäten eine größere Gruppe Empfänger erreichen. C. Kostspielig/kostengünstig – Welche finanzielle Belastung bringt die Nutzung von Marketingkommunikation mit sich? Diese sollte beim jeweils in Erwägung gezogenen Modell so niedrig wie möglich sein.
D
U
der einseitigen Vermittlung an, einer feedbacklosen Botschaft [Wiktor 2001]. In Zusammenhang damit verfügt die Marketingkommunikation über eine vielfältige Palette an Instrumenten, die Auswirkungen auf die Umgebung haben, darunter auch solchen, die sich nicht zur Werbung im herkömmlichen Sinn zählen lassen. Wenn man von Instrumenten der Marketingkommunikation spricht, sind zu berücksichtigen: 1. die Elemente der traditionellen Werbung, von Philip Kotler als Reklame, Werbung, Verkauf, persönlicher Verkauf, Public Relations und Direktmarketing bezeichnet [Kotler 2005, S. 16], 2. Produktelemente, die Träger von Informationen sind: Qualität, Verpackung, 3. moderne Instrumente der Marketingkommunikation: Schockwerbung, Merchandising, Product Placement, Ambient Media, Erfahrungsmarketing, Flüstermarketing, Ausstellungen und Messen, Event Marketing; 4. Instrumente der Marketingkommunikation in der virtuellen Welt: Internetwerbung, Web 2.0, Advertainment, E-Marketing (elektronisches Direktmarketing), elektronisches Flüstermarketing
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3. Die Evaluationsmethode
3. Die Evaluationsmethode
ie Grundkonzeption der vorliegenden Arbeit ist die Aufzeigung solcher Instrumente der Marketingkommunikation, die von neuen, kleinen Kulturorganisationen des Dritten Sektors, die nur über begrenzte finanzielle Mittel verfügen, genutzt werden können. Dank der Anwendung entsprechend ausgewählter Instrumente der Marketingkommunikation verlässt die Organisation die Anonymität, wird im (nicht nur) lokalen kulturellen und administrativen Umfeld wiedererkannt. Das Erreichen des angestrebten „Wiedererkennungseffekts“ kann einen leichteren Zugang zu externen Finanzquellen bedeuten: zu Mitteln von Privatpersonen, Budgets von Firmen und Institutionen oder auch autonomen Quellen. Der Einsatz angemessener Instrumente der Marketingkommunikation garantiert noch nicht den Erfolg, sie erhöht aber die Chancen auf ein Überdauern der ersten schwierigen Jahre. Marketingkommunikation wird oft auch einfach als Marketing bezeichnet. Das ist jedoch eine zu große Verallgemeinerung. Jim Blythe verweist darauf, dass, wenn von Marketingkommunikation die Rede ist, nur diejenigen Tätigkeiten der Organisation, die von den Empfängern wahrgenommen werden, gemeint sind. Die Operationen der Organisation, die mit der Distribution, der Festlegung von Preisen und der Vorbereitung des Produkts verbunden sind, sind gewissermaßen „versteckt“, für den Kunden unsichtbar [Blythe 2002, S. 11]. Andererseits ist Marketingkommunikation nicht nur Werbung im engeren Sinn. Wie schon der Ausdruck allein zeigt, setzt Marketingkommunikation eine gewisse Kommunikation voraus – eine gegenseitige, gleichrangige Beziehung, einen Dialog zwischen der Organisation und dem Empfänger. Die Werbung nimmt oft eine Form
U
D
m anzugeben, welche von den vorgestellten Instrumenten den neuentstandenen Organisationen des Dritten Sektors zu empfehlen sind, muss man sie evaluieren. Die Evaluierung erfolgt durch die Anwendung entsprechender zu diesem Zweck ausgewählter dichotomischer Parameterpaare: A. Werben für ein Produkt / eine Organisation – Ist der Effekt der Anwendung des Instruments einmalig (konkretes Kulturprodukt, z.B. Konzert) oder langfristig (Image der Organisation)? Für neuentstandene Organisationen werden solche Instrumente wichtiger sein, die langfristig wirken, bewirken, dass die Organisation wiedererkennbar, auf dem lokalen Kulturmarkt sichtbar wird. B. An einzelne Empfänger / eine Gruppe gerichtet – Bevor die Organisation erfährt, wer der Zielempfänger des Produkts ist, welche Bedürfnisse und Vorlieben er hat, sollten die Marketingaktivitäten eine größere Gruppe Empfänger erreichen. C. Kostspielig/kostengünstig – Welche finanzielle Belastung bringt die Nutzung von Marketingkommunikation mit sich? Diese sollte beim jeweils in Erwägung gezogenen Modell so niedrig wie möglich sein.
2. Der Charakter der Marketingkommunikation
der einseitigen Vermittlung an, einer feedbacklosen Botschaft [Wiktor 2001]. In Zusammenhang damit verfügt die Marketingkommunikation über eine vielfältige Palette an Instrumenten, die Auswirkungen auf die Umgebung haben, darunter auch solchen, die sich nicht zur Werbung im herkömmlichen Sinn zählen lassen. Wenn man von Instrumenten der Marketingkommunikation spricht, sind zu berücksichtigen: 1. die Elemente der traditionellen Werbung, von Philip Kotler als Reklame, Werbung, Verkauf, persönlicher Verkauf, Public Relations und Direktmarketing bezeichnet [Kotler 2005, S. 16], 2. Produktelemente, die Träger von Informationen sind: Qualität, Verpackung, 3. moderne Instrumente der Marketingkommunikation: Schockwerbung, Merchandising, Product Placement, Ambient Media, Erfahrungsmarketing, Flüstermarketing, Ausstellungen und Messen, Event Marketing; 4. Instrumente der Marketingkommunikation in der virtuellen Welt: Internetwerbung, Web 2.0, Advertainment, E-Marketing (elektronisches Direktmarketing), elektronisches Flüstermarketing
ie Grundkonzeption der vorliegenden Arbeit ist die Aufzeigung solcher Instrumente der Marketingkommunikation, die von neuen, kleinen Kulturorganisationen des Dritten Sektors, die nur über begrenzte finanzielle Mittel verfügen, genutzt werden können. Dank der Anwendung entsprechend ausgewählter Instrumente der Marketingkommunikation verlässt die Organisation die Anonymität, wird im (nicht nur) lokalen kulturellen und administrativen Umfeld wiedererkannt. Das Erreichen des angestrebten „Wiedererkennungseffekts“ kann einen leichteren Zugang zu externen Finanzquellen bedeuten: zu Mitteln von Privatpersonen, Budgets von Firmen und Institutionen oder auch autonomen Quellen. Der Einsatz angemessener Instrumente der Marketingkommunikation garantiert noch nicht den Erfolg, sie erhöht aber die Chancen auf ein Überdauern der ersten schwierigen Jahre. Marketingkommunikation wird oft auch einfach als Marketing bezeichnet. Das ist jedoch eine zu große Verallgemeinerung. Jim Blythe verweist darauf, dass, wenn von Marketingkommunikation die Rede ist, nur diejenigen Tätigkeiten der Organisation, die von den Empfängern wahrgenommen werden, gemeint sind. Die Operationen der Organisation, die mit der Distribution, der Festlegung von Preisen und der Vorbereitung des Produkts verbunden sind, sind gewissermaßen „versteckt“, für den Kunden unsichtbar [Blythe 2002, S. 11]. Andererseits ist Marketingkommunikation nicht nur Werbung im engeren Sinn. Wie schon der Ausdruck allein zeigt, setzt Marketingkommunikation eine gewisse Kommunikation voraus – eine gegenseitige, gleichrangige Beziehung, einen Dialog zwischen der Organisation und dem Empfänger. Die Werbung nimmt oft eine Form
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schwere materielle Situation. Drei von vier Organisationen geben zu, keinerlei Finanzreserven zu besitzen. Im Jahr 2007 lagen die jährlichen Einnahmen bei der Hälfte der Non-Profit-Organisationen, die höchstens zwei Jahre existierten, unter 5.919 Złoty; bei der Hälfte der Organisationen, die 3 bis 5 Jahre existieren – unter 7.500 Złoty; und bei der Hälfte der Organisationen, die über 15 Jahre tätig sind, unter 54.000 Złoty [Ebenda]. Diese Disproportionen zeigen deutlich, wie schwer es für neuentstandene und junge Organisationen ist, mit den erfahreneren und bevorzugt behandelten alteingesessenen Organisationen zu rivalisieren.
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D. Für eine Organisation mit einer starken/schwachen Marke – Interessant sind vor allem die Instrumente, die kaum bekannte Organisationen nutzen können, deren Marke sich erst herauskristallisiert, die in rationell schneller Weise eine stabile und wiedererkennbare Marke kreieren können. Für kleine/große Organisationen – das Instrument sollte der Spezifikation der kleinen Organisationen entsprechen: Sie haben nur einen Sitz, bei der Arbeit sind maximal fünf Personen direkt beschäftigt und teilweise (direkt) eine gleiche Anzahl von Freiwilligen. Ein zusätzliches Element bei der Evaluierung ist die Punktzahl, die von -4 bis 4 angegeben wird. In Zusammenhang mit jedem Parameter mit den einzelnen, entsprechenden Instrumenten werden Punkte verteilt – minimal -4, wenn Instruments für eine neu entstandene Kulturorganisation als extrem ungeeignet eingeschätzt wird, und maximal 4 im entgegengesetzten Fall. Auch die Vergabe aller dazwischen liegenden Punktzahlen, auch 0, ist selbstverständlich möglich. Die Punkte, welche die Instrumente nach der Konfrontation mit jedem einzelnen Parameterpaar bekommen, werden summiert – das Ergebnis stellt die Endeinschätzung der Eignung des Instruments dar (so bedeutet ein Ergebnis von 20 Punkten maximale Eignung).
4. Einschätzung der Eignung der Instrumente der Marketingkommunikation für neuentstandene Kulturorganisationen des Dritten Sektors Reklame Reklame ist eine der am weitesten verbreiteten Formen der Werbung. Das ist eine Form „der vermittelten kostenpflichtigen Botschaft mit Hilfe der Medien“ [Blythe 2002, S. 50]. Folgende Medien stellen Träger für die Botschaften dar: Presse, Radio, Fernsehen, Internet (deren Anwendung wird gesondert besprochen), aber auch Reklame in und auf Transportmitteln (Busse, Züge, Straßenbahnen usw.) sowie Außenreklame: Plakatwände, Plakate, Werbezettel und alle untypischen Träger (z.B. Luftballons, Kassenzettel). Reklame (z.B. ein Theaterplakat) ist das Instrument, das am häufigsten zur Werbung für ein konkretes Produkt angewendet wird, zugleich wird bei Gelegenheit ein positives Image der
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Organisation kreiert. Man kann sich eine Reklame vorstellen, die nur die Organisation als solche bewirbt, jedoch würde eine einmalige Reklameaktion wohl kaum die erwarteten Ergebnisse zeitigen, während eine langfristige sehr teuer wäre. Punkte im Kontext der Parameter der Gruppe A: -4. Aus dem Blickwinkel der neuen Organisation ist es eine wichtige Information, dass die Reklame an eine Gruppe gerichtet ist. Diesen Effekt erreicht man durch den Massencharakter der Reklame: eine große Anzahl von Plakaten, Flyern, allgemeiner Zugang zur Reklame in Transportmitteln oder an Plakatwänden. Verteilte Punkte: 4. Die Implementierung von Reklameaktionen (Radio, Presse, Plakate) sind oft mit Ausgaben verbunden, die neuentstandene Kulturorganisationen sich nicht leisten können. Es ist nicht sinnvoll, finanzielle Mittel in eine einmalige Reklamekampagne zu investieren; damit solche Aktionen auch wirksam sind, sollten sie systematisch durchgeführt werden, was in der Regel recht kostspielig ist. Dennoch gibt es einige Formen der Reklame, die von neuen Organisationen genutzt werden können, und die nicht einer übermäßigen Strapazierung des Haushalts verbunden ist: Kleine Verlage können Reklame auf ihren Produkten anbringen (Zeitungen, Bücher), auf den letzten Seiten ihrer sonstigen eigenen Publikationen – dann sind die Kosten der Reklame so hoch wie die Druckkosten; Kinos, Theater, Klubs können die Reklame auf ihre eigenen Eintrittskarten drucken, sogar auf Kassenzettel; auch Flyern sind nicht mit besonders hohen Kosten verbunden, jedoch hängt ihre Wirksamkeit vom Umfang der Maßnahme ab (wenn zu wenig Werbezettel zu den potenziellen Empfängern gelangen, könnte sich sogar eine kleine Investition als Verlust herausstellen). Punkte: -3. Wie schon erwähnt, dient die Reklame eher zur Bewerbung eines Produkts und weniger einer Organisation. Darum sollte Reklame immer von Subjekten mit einer starken, gefestigten Markenposition für ihre Konsolidierung eingesetzt werden. Reklamemaßnahmen erhöhen prinzipiell nicht den Wert der Marke – es sei denn, Form und der Inhalt der Reklame sind entsprechend raffiniert und es handelt sich nicht um eine einmalige Aktion. Punkte hinsichtlich der Parameter der Kategorie D: -3. Im Fall von Reklame ist die Größe der Organisation im Grunde ohne Bedeutung. Reklame wird zum großen Teil durch äußere Einheiten vorbereitet (Druck, Entwurf, Positionierung – Litfaßsäulen, Tafeln). Den Kontakt mit dieser Einheit
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Reklame (z.B. ein Theaterplakat) ist das Instrument, das am häufigsten zur Werbung für ein konkretes Produkt angewendet wird, zugleich wird bei Gelegenheit ein positives Image der Reklame Reklame ist eine der am weitesten verbreiteten Formen der Werbung. Das ist eine Form „der vermittelten kostenpflichtigen Botschaft mit Hilfe der Medien“ [Blythe 2002, S. 50]. Folgende Medien stellen Träger für die Botschaften dar: Presse, Radio, Fernsehen, Internet (deren Anwendung wird gesondert besprochen), aber auch Reklame in und auf Transportmitteln (Busse, Züge, Straßenbahnen usw.) sowie Außenreklame: Plakatwände, Plakate, Werbezettel und alle untypischen Träger (z.B. Luftballons, Kassenzettel).
4. Einschätzung der Eignung der Instrumente der Marketingkommunikation für neuentstandene Kulturorganisationen des Dritten Sektors Ein zusätzliches Element bei der Evaluierung ist die Punktzahl, die von -4 bis 4 angegeben wird. In Zusammenhang mit jedem Parameter mit den einzelnen, entsprechenden Instrumenten werden Punkte verteilt – minimal -4, wenn Instruments für eine neu entstandene Kulturorganisation als extrem ungeeignet eingeschätzt wird, und maximal 4 im entgegengesetzten Fall. Auch die Vergabe aller dazwischen liegenden Punktzahlen, auch 0, ist selbstverständlich möglich. Die Punkte, welche die Instrumente nach der Konfrontation mit jedem einzelnen Parameterpaar bekommen, werden summiert – das Ergebnis stellt die Endeinschätzung der Eignung des Instruments dar (so bedeutet ein Ergebnis von 20 Punkten maximale Eignung). D. Für eine Organisation mit einer starken/schwachen Marke – Interessant sind vor allem die Instrumente, die kaum bekannte Organisationen nutzen können, deren Marke sich erst herauskristallisiert, die in rationell schneller Weise eine stabile und wiedererkennbare Marke kreieren können. Für kleine/große Organisationen – das Instrument sollte der Spezifikation der kleinen Organisationen entsprechen: Sie haben nur einen Sitz, bei der Arbeit sind maximal fünf Personen direkt beschäftigt und teilweise (direkt) eine gleiche Anzahl von Freiwilligen.
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Organisation kreiert. Man kann sich eine Reklame vorstellen, die nur die Organisation als solche bewirbt, jedoch würde eine einmalige Reklameaktion wohl kaum die erwarteten Ergebnisse zeitigen, während eine langfristige sehr teuer wäre. Punkte im Kontext der Parameter der Gruppe A: -4. Aus dem Blickwinkel der neuen Organisation ist es eine wichtige Information, dass die Reklame an eine Gruppe gerichtet ist. Diesen Effekt erreicht man durch den Massencharakter der Reklame: eine große Anzahl von Plakaten, Flyern, allgemeiner Zugang zur Reklame in Transportmitteln oder an Plakatwänden. Verteilte Punkte: 4. Die Implementierung von Reklameaktionen (Radio, Presse, Plakate) sind oft mit Ausgaben verbunden, die neuentstandene Kulturorganisationen sich nicht leisten können. Es ist nicht sinnvoll, finanzielle Mittel in eine einmalige Reklamekampagne zu investieren; damit solche Aktionen auch wirksam sind, sollten sie systematisch durchgeführt werden, was in der Regel recht kostspielig ist. Dennoch gibt es einige Formen der Reklame, die von neuen Organisationen genutzt werden können, und die nicht einer übermäßigen Strapazierung des Haushalts verbunden ist: Kleine Verlage können Reklame auf ihren Produkten anbringen (Zeitungen, Bücher), auf den letzten Seiten ihrer sonstigen eigenen Publikationen – dann sind die Kosten der Reklame so hoch wie die Druckkosten; Kinos, Theater, Klubs können die Reklame auf ihre eigenen Eintrittskarten drucken, sogar auf Kassenzettel; auch Flyern sind nicht mit besonders hohen Kosten verbunden, jedoch hängt ihre Wirksamkeit vom Umfang der Maßnahme ab (wenn zu wenig Werbezettel zu den potenziellen Empfängern gelangen, könnte sich sogar eine kleine Investition als Verlust herausstellen). Punkte: -3. Wie schon erwähnt, dient die Reklame eher zur Bewerbung eines Produkts und weniger einer Organisation. Darum sollte Reklame immer von Subjekten mit einer starken, gefestigten Markenposition für ihre Konsolidierung eingesetzt werden. Reklamemaßnahmen erhöhen prinzipiell nicht den Wert der Marke – es sei denn, Form und der Inhalt der Reklame sind entsprechend raffiniert und es handelt sich nicht um eine einmalige Aktion. Punkte hinsichtlich der Parameter der Kategorie D: -3. Im Fall von Reklame ist die Größe der Organisation im Grunde ohne Bedeutung. Reklame wird zum großen Teil durch äußere Einheiten vorbereitet (Druck, Entwurf, Positionierung – Litfaßsäulen, Tafeln). Den Kontakt mit dieser Einheit
Infolgedessen beträgt also der Wert der Eignung von Reklame für neuentstandene Kulturorganisationen des Dritten Sektors: -2 Punkte (die Summe der Parameter A, B, C, D und E (-4) + 4 + (-3) + (-3) + 4 = (-2)). kann eigentlich eine Person aus der Organisation herstellen. Also werden 4 Punkte verteilt.
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Verkaufsmarketing Das ist eine Sammlung verschiedener Anwendungen, die den Empfänger zur Nutzung des Produkts anregen sollen. Meistens sind das kurze Aktivitäten [Ebenda, S. 240], obwohl die zyklische Durchführung Einfluss auf den Wert des Images der Firma haben kann. Die häufigsten Verkaufswerbungen sind: Proben, Coupons, Rabatte, Geschenke, Loyalitätsprogramme, Wettbewerbe, Gewinne, Karten, Zusätze, Garantien, Tests oder Cross Selling.
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Persönlicher Verkauf Einige Theoretiker des Marketings glauben, dass der persönliche Verkauf die erfolgreichste Form der Marketingkommunikation ist [Ebenda, S. 259]. Die Handelsvertreter der Organisation treten in persönlichen Kontakt mit potenziellen Kunden und informieren sie während des direkten Treffens über die Vorteile des Produkts. Der persönliche Verkauf zeichnet sich nicht durch erfolgreiches Überzeugen des Empfängers aus, was den Kauf des Produkts betrifft, sondern durch den Dialog und des Findens einer Gemeinsamkeit: seine Bedürfnisse – der Wert des Produkts. Es kann vorkommen, dass der persönliche Verkauf vor allem das Produkt der Organisation bewirbt und nicht sie selbst. Wenn der Vertreter sich natürlich nur mit den Endempfängern des Produkts in Verbindung setzt – den einzelnen Zuschauern, Partygästen, Buchhändlern, Musikladenbesitzern – wird er als Handelsvertreter wahrgenommen. Er kann jedoch als Vertreter einer Organisation auftreten und direkt mit den Direktoren einer Bildungseinrichtung Kontakt aufnehmen, deren Schüler Interesse haben, einen Film anzuschauen oder
wo man nicht von zusätzlichen Kosten spricht (einige Zusatzangebote, z.B. Treffen mit den Musikern nach einem Konzert). Im Kontext der Parameter C wird der Verkaufswerbung 1 Punkt gutgeschrieben. Verkaufswerbung kann nur in geringem Umfang zum Aufbau einer Marke eingesetzt werden, weil die Aktivitäten oft auch nur einen zusätzlichen Charakter haben. Der Aufbau des Werts der Marke kann auf Loyalitätsprogramme gestützt werden: Kundenklubs, Partnerkarten und viele andere, jedoch ist zu beachten, dass solche Strategien einen langen Umsetzungszeitraum erfordern und ihr Einfluss auf das Image der Organisation möglicherweise nicht direkt sichtbar wird. Trotzdem können Subjekte mit einer schwachen Marke diese Methode nutzen. Punkte: 1. Die Techniken der Verkaufswerbung können mit Erfolg in kleinen Organisationen angewendet werden. Mit der Vorbereitung dieser unkomplizierten Aktivitäten kann sich eine Person beschäftigen, und in besonderen Fällen zwei Personen. Neben der Vorbereitung von Geschenken werden die Arten der Verkaufswerbung innerhalb der Organisation kreiert. Es werden 3 Punkte vergeben. Die Eignung dieses Instruments der Marketingkommunikation wird also mit 3 Punkten beziffert.
Wie schon erwähnt, ist Verkaufsmarketing vor allem darauf ausgerichtet, den Empfänger durch ein breites Angebot von „Anregern“ zur Inanspruchnahme des Produkts zu bewegen. Jedoch können bestimmte permanente Maßnahmen zur Verbesserung des Firmenimages und zur Erhöhung der Loyalität des Kunden gegenüber der Organisation beitragen. Das können sein: Kundenkarten, dank derer der Empfänger Rabatte bei Büchern, Partys, etc. bekommt und sich gleichzeitig auf eine gewisse Art geehrt fühlt; Preise für gekaufte Tickets und Teilnahme an Wettbewerben, wie Alben oder kostenloser Eintritt bei organisierten Veranstaltungen, aber auch Medaillen, Einladungen in Ehrenmitgliedsklubs. Punkte: 1. Die Mechanismen des Verkaufsrabatts sind insbesondere an einzelne Empfänger gerichtet. Nicht jeder kann eine Kundenkarte bekommen oder beispielsweise als Preis oder als Zusatz zu einem anderen Ereignis an einem Treffen mit einem Regisseur teilnehmen. Einige Aktivitäten können an eine größere Gruppe von Empfängern gerichtet werden: ein Glas Wein für jeden Gast der Vernissage, kostenlose Tickets für Kinder für eine Vorführung, wenn sie mit zwei Erwachsenen kommen. Punkte: -3. Verkaufsmarketing ist nicht so teuer wie Reklame. Es gibt auch solche Aktivitäten, die mit unmittelbaren Kosten verbunden sind (Preise, Geschenke – Gadgets), und solche, die mit mittelbaren Kosten, das heißt geringeren Einkünften, verbunden sind (Cross Selling, z.B. zwei CDs zum Preis von einer, Rabatte). Es gibt auch solche,
Persönlicher Verkauf Einige Theoretiker des Marketings glauben, dass der persönliche Verkauf die erfolgreichste Form der Marketingkommunikation ist [Ebenda, S. 259]. Die Handelsvertreter der Organisation treten in persönlichen Kontakt mit potenziellen Kunden und informieren sie während des direkten Treffens über die Vorteile des Produkts. Der persönliche Verkauf zeichnet sich nicht durch erfolgreiches Überzeugen des Empfängers aus, was den Kauf des Produkts betrifft, sondern durch den Dialog und des Findens einer Gemeinsamkeit: seine Bedürfnisse – der Wert des Produkts. Es kann vorkommen, dass der persönliche Verkauf vor allem das Produkt der Organisation bewirbt und nicht sie selbst. Wenn der Vertreter sich natürlich nur mit den Endempfängern des Produkts in Verbindung setzt – den einzelnen Zuschauern, Partygästen, Buchhändlern, Musikladenbesitzern – wird er als Handelsvertreter wahrgenommen. Er kann jedoch als Vertreter einer Organisation auftreten und direkt mit den Direktoren einer Bildungseinrichtung Kontakt aufnehmen, deren Schüler Interesse haben, einen Film anzuschauen oder
Verkaufsmarketing Das ist eine Sammlung verschiedener Anwendungen, die den Empfänger zur Nutzung des Produkts anregen sollen. Meistens sind das kurze Aktivitäten [Ebenda, S. 240], obwohl die zyklische Durchführung Einfluss auf den Wert des Images der Firma haben kann. Die häufigsten Verkaufswerbungen sind: Proben, Coupons, Rabatte, Geschenke, Loyalitätsprogramme, Wettbewerbe, Gewinne, Karten, Zusätze, Garantien, Tests oder Cross Selling.
Wie schon erwähnt, ist Verkaufsmarketing vor allem darauf ausgerichtet, den Empfänger durch ein breites Angebot von „Anregern“ zur Inanspruchnahme des Produkts zu bewegen. Jedoch können bestimmte permanente Maßnahmen zur Verbesserung des Firmenimages und zur Erhöhung der Loyalität des Kunden gegenüber der Organisation beitragen. Das können sein: Kundenkarten, dank derer der Empfänger Rabatte bei Büchern, Partys, etc. bekommt und sich gleichzeitig auf eine gewisse Art geehrt fühlt; Preise für gekaufte Tickets und Teilnahme an Wettbewerben, wie Alben oder kostenloser Eintritt bei organisierten Veranstaltungen, aber auch Medaillen, Einladungen in Ehrenmitgliedsklubs. Punkte: 1. Die Mechanismen des Verkaufsrabatts sind insbesondere an einzelne Empfänger gerichtet. Nicht jeder kann eine Kundenkarte bekommen oder beispielsweise als Preis oder als Zusatz zu einem anderen Ereignis an einem Treffen mit einem Regisseur teilnehmen. Einige Aktivitäten können an eine größere Gruppe von Empfängern gerichtet werden: ein Glas Wein für jeden Gast der Vernissage, kostenlose Tickets für Kinder für eine Vorführung, wenn sie mit zwei Erwachsenen kommen. Punkte: -3. Verkaufsmarketing ist nicht so teuer wie Reklame. Es gibt auch solche Aktivitäten, die mit unmittelbaren Kosten verbunden sind (Preise, Geschenke – Gadgets), und solche, die mit mittelbaren Kosten, das heißt geringeren Einkünften, verbunden sind (Cross Selling, z.B. zwei CDs zum Preis von einer, Rabatte). Es gibt auch solche,
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Infolgedessen beträgt also der Wert der Eignung von Reklame für neuentstandene Kulturorganisationen des Dritten Sektors: -2 Punkte (die Summe der Parameter A, B, C, D und E (-4) + 4 + (-3) + (-3) + 4 = (-2)).
wo man nicht von zusätzlichen Kosten spricht (einige Zusatzangebote, z.B. Treffen mit den Musikern nach einem Konzert). Im Kontext der Parameter C wird der Verkaufswerbung 1 Punkt gutgeschrieben. Verkaufswerbung kann nur in geringem Umfang zum Aufbau einer Marke eingesetzt werden, weil die Aktivitäten oft auch nur einen zusätzlichen Charakter haben. Der Aufbau des Werts der Marke kann auf Loyalitätsprogramme gestützt werden: Kundenklubs, Partnerkarten und viele andere, jedoch ist zu beachten, dass solche Strategien einen langen Umsetzungszeitraum erfordern und ihr Einfluss auf das Image der Organisation möglicherweise nicht direkt sichtbar wird. Trotzdem können Subjekte mit einer schwachen Marke diese Methode nutzen. Punkte: 1. Die Techniken der Verkaufswerbung können mit Erfolg in kleinen Organisationen angewendet werden. Mit der Vorbereitung dieser unkomplizierten Aktivitäten kann sich eine Person beschäftigen, und in besonderen Fällen zwei Personen. Neben der Vorbereitung von Geschenken werden die Arten der Verkaufswerbung innerhalb der Organisation kreiert. Es werden 3 Punkte vergeben. Die Eignung dieses Instruments der Marketingkommunikation wird also mit 3 Punkten beziffert.
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kann eigentlich eine Person aus der Organisation herstellen. Also werden 4 Punkte verteilt.
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sich mit den Vertretern einer lokalen autonomen Einheit zu treffen, die für die Bezuschussung von Kulturorganisationen im Dritten Sektor zuständig ist. Solche Aktivitäten sind auch mit der Bewerbung der Organisation als solchen und nicht ihrer Produkte verbunden. Indirekt kann das Verhalten und das Aussehen eines Vertreters Einfluss auf die Wahrnehmung einer konkreten Organisation haben. Zusammengefasst: 1 Punkt. Der Nachteil beim persönlichen Verkauf ist das Fehlen der Möglichkeit, in kurzer Zeit auf eine große Anzahl potenzieller Empfänger zu treffen. Neuen Non-Profit-Organisationen ist es vor allem an der Zeit gelegen. In diesem Fall sollte man sich mit jedem Kunden einzeln treffen. Die neuen Organisationen können es sich oft nicht leisten, zusätzliche Angestellte zu beschäftigen. Insofern werden - 4 Punkte vergeben. Wie jedoch bereits betont, kann jeder zusätzliche Organisationsvertreter eine große finanzielle Belastung bedeuten. Jedoch kann die Organisation eine solche Aktion auch im eigenen Rahmen durchführen und trägt dadurch keine erheblichen Mehrkosten. Es ist jedoch zu bedenken, dass die Gefahr besteht, dass dadurch andere Funktionsbereiche der Organisation vernachlässigt werden und infolgedessen unvorhergesehenen Kosten entstehen können. In diesem Zusammenhang sind die Kunden, mit denen persönlicher Kontakt aufgenommen wird, sorgfältig auszuwählen. Punkte: 3. Der persönliche Verkauf ist kein Instrument, der Organisationen, die ihre eigene Marke aufbauen wollen, besonders zu empfehlen ist. Bestimmte Tätigkeiten können – wie erwähnt – Einfluss auf das Image der Organisation haben, jedoch ist der Aufbau einer Marke eine langfristige Aufgabe. Andererseits müssen einzelne Fehler der Handelsvertreter keinen Einfluss auf den bescheidenen Wert einer Marke einer neuen Organisation haben. Der persönliche Verkauf hat oft den Charakter eines Treffens „unter vier Augen“ mit dem Kunden, sodass von den erwähnten Fehlern letztendlich nur eine Person wissen kann. Erteilt: -2 Punkte. Der direkte Verkauf kann ein sehr gutes Instrument der Marketingkommunikation für kleine Organisationen sein. Diese Tätigkeiten kann man im eigenen, kleinen Personenkreis durchführen. Es könnte eine Problem sein, einzelne Mitglieder der Organisation zu engagieren. Der Handelsvertreter sollte sich durch körperliche und psychische Ausdauer charakterisieren (aufgrund der regelmäßigen und zahlreichen Treffen, die nach gleichem Schema verlaufen und bei denen er den
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spontanen Reaktionen der Empfänger ausgesetzt ist). Im Hinblick auf die Parameter der Gruppe E werden 3 Punkte vergeben. Die Eignung des Instruments „persönlicher Verkauf“ wird insgesamt mit 1 Punkt eingeschätzt. Public Relations „Es handelt sich um einen Komplex zielgerichteter organisierter Tätigkeiten mit dauerhaftem Charakter, die den Organisationen systematische Kommunikation mit der Umgebung gewährleistet.“ [Limański, Drabik 2007, S. 217-218]. Diese Tätigkeiten bezwecken letztendlich die Festigung des positiven Images der Organisation. Zu den Mitteln von Public Relations gehören u.a.: Veranstaltung von Treffen oder Konferenzen, die der Organisation gewidmet sind, aber auch Partys, Wohltätigkeitsveranstaltungen, Abendessen mit Teilnahme maßgeblicher Personen von außerhalb (Spender, Freiwillige, Kunden, autonome Vertreter, Medienvertreter usw.), Interviews, Vorbereitung von Presseartikeln, Einladung von einflussreichen Personen zur kostenlosen Nutzung der Produkte der Organisation (Ausstellungen, Konzerte oder Theatervorstellungen), Veranstaltung von Aktionen oder Werbehappenings, Lobbying, Organisation von Tagen der offenen Tür, Sponsoring von Events. Aktivitäten aus dem PR-Bereich dienen insbesondere zum Aufbau des angestrebten positiven Images der Organisation. Ihre Effekte auf die Umgebung haben eine langfristige Spezifikation, wobei es sich jedoch sowohl um dauerhafte als auch einmalige Aktionen handeln kann. Letztendlich haben alle das Ziel, das Prestige der Organisation im Bewusstsein der Empfänger zu stärken. Hinsichtlich der Parameter A wird den PR-Aktivitäten der maximale Wert von 4 Punkten erteilt. PR-Mittel werden oft als Instrumente der Kommunikation mit konkreten Personen, deren Entscheidungen maßgeblichen Einfluss auf das Funktionieren der Organisation haben können, angewendet. Es gibt jedoch auch solche Aktivitäten (Veranstaltungen innerhalb der Organisation oder Artikel), dank derer ein positives Image der Organisation im Bewusstsein lokaler oder regionaler Gesellschaftsgruppen aufgebaut wird. Vergebene Punkte: 1. PR-Aktivitäten werden oft ohne Aufwendung spezieller finanzieller Mittel durchgeführt (Lobbying, Presseartikel, Interviews, Einladung von speziellen Gästen zu internen Veranstaltungen der Organisation, Tage der offenen Tür). Wenn jedoch die durchgeführte Aktivität eine besonders vorbe-
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sich mit den Vertretern einer lokalen autonomen Einheit zu treffen, die für die Bezuschussung von Kulturorganisationen im Dritten Sektor zuständig ist. Solche Aktivitäten sind auch mit der Bewerbung der Organisation als solchen und nicht ihrer Produkte verbunden. Indirekt kann das Verhalten und das Aussehen eines Vertreters Einfluss auf die Wahrnehmung einer konkreten Organisation haben. Zusammengefasst: 1 Punkt. Der Nachteil beim persönlichen Verkauf ist das Fehlen der Möglichkeit, in kurzer Zeit auf eine große Anzahl potenzieller Empfänger zu treffen. Neuen Non-Profit-Organisationen ist es vor allem an der Zeit gelegen. In diesem Fall sollte man sich mit jedem Kunden einzeln treffen. Die neuen Organisationen können es sich oft nicht leisten, zusätzliche Angestellte zu beschäftigen. Insofern werden - 4 Punkte vergeben. Wie jedoch bereits betont, kann jeder zusätzliche Organisationsvertreter eine große finanzielle Belastung bedeuten. Jedoch kann die Organisation eine solche Aktion auch im eigenen Rahmen durchführen und trägt dadurch keine erheblichen Mehrkosten. Es ist jedoch zu bedenken, dass die Gefahr besteht, dass dadurch andere Funktionsbereiche der Organisation vernachlässigt werden und infolgedessen unvorhergesehenen Kosten entstehen können. In diesem Zusammenhang sind die Kunden, mit denen persönlicher Kontakt aufgenommen wird, sorgfältig auszuwählen. Punkte: 3. Der persönliche Verkauf ist kein Instrument, der Organisationen, die ihre eigene Marke aufbauen wollen, besonders zu empfehlen ist. Bestimmte Tätigkeiten können – wie erwähnt – Einfluss auf das Image der Organisation haben, jedoch ist der Aufbau einer Marke eine langfristige Aufgabe. Andererseits müssen einzelne Fehler der Handelsvertreter keinen Einfluss auf den bescheidenen Wert einer Marke einer neuen Organisation haben. Der persönliche Verkauf hat oft den Charakter eines Treffens „unter vier Augen“ mit dem Kunden, sodass von den erwähnten Fehlern letztendlich nur eine Person wissen kann. Erteilt: -2 Punkte. Der direkte Verkauf kann ein sehr gutes Instrument der Marketingkommunikation für kleine Organisationen sein. Diese Tätigkeiten kann man im eigenen, kleinen Personenkreis durchführen. Es könnte eine Problem sein, einzelne Mitglieder der Organisation zu engagieren. Der Handelsvertreter sollte sich durch körperliche und psychische Ausdauer charakterisieren (aufgrund der regelmäßigen und zahlreichen Treffen, die nach gleichem Schema verlaufen und bei denen er den
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Public Relations „Es handelt sich um einen Komplex zielgerichteter organisierter Tätigkeiten mit dauerhaftem Charakter, die den Organisationen systematische Kommunikation mit der Umgebung gewährleistet.“ [Limański, Drabik 2007, S. 217-218]. Diese Tätigkeiten bezwecken letztendlich die Festigung des positiven Images der Organisation. Zu den Mitteln von Public Relations gehören u.a.: Veranstaltung von Treffen oder Konferenzen, die der Organisation gewidmet sind, aber auch Partys, Wohltätigkeitsveranstaltungen, Abendessen mit Teilnahme maßgeblicher Personen von außerhalb (Spender, Freiwillige, Kunden, autonome Vertreter, Medienvertreter usw.), Interviews, Vorbereitung von Presseartikeln, Einladung von einflussreichen Personen zur kostenlosen Nutzung der Produkte der Organisation (Ausstellungen, Konzerte oder Theatervorstellungen), Veranstaltung von Aktionen oder Werbehappenings, Lobbying, Organisation von Tagen der offenen Tür, Sponsoring von Events. Aktivitäten aus dem PR-Bereich dienen insbesondere zum Aufbau des angestrebten positiven Images der Organisation. Ihre Effekte auf die Umgebung haben eine langfristige Spezifikation, wobei es sich jedoch sowohl um dauerhafte als auch einmalige Aktionen handeln kann. Letztendlich haben alle das Ziel, das Prestige der Organisation im Bewusstsein der Empfänger zu stärken. Hinsichtlich der Parameter A wird den PR-Aktivitäten der maximale Wert von 4 Punkten erteilt. PR-Mittel werden oft als Instrumente der Kommunikation mit konkreten Personen, deren Entscheidungen maßgeblichen Einfluss auf das Funktionieren der Organisation haben können, angewendet. Es gibt jedoch auch solche Aktivitäten (Veranstaltungen innerhalb der Organisation oder Artikel), dank derer ein positives Image der Organisation im Bewusstsein lokaler oder regionaler Gesellschaftsgruppen aufgebaut wird. Vergebene Punkte: 1. PR-Aktivitäten werden oft ohne Aufwendung spezieller finanzieller Mittel durchgeführt (Lobbying, Presseartikel, Interviews, Einladung von speziellen Gästen zu internen Veranstaltungen der Organisation, Tage der offenen Tür). Wenn jedoch die durchgeführte Aktivität eine besonders vorbespontanen Reaktionen der Empfänger ausgesetzt ist). Im Hinblick auf die Parameter der Gruppe E werden 3 Punkte vergeben. Die Eignung des Instruments „persönlicher Verkauf“ wird insgesamt mit 1 Punkt eingeschätzt.
reitete Aktion ist (Wohltätigkeitsball, Happening), dann ist das sehr wohl mit entsprechenden Kosten verbunden. Punkte: 2. Die Mechanismen von Public Relations können besonders den neuentstandenen Kulturorganisationen des Dritten Sektors empfohlen werden, denen an einem wirksamen Aufbau der Marke liegt. Obwohl das Aktionen mit einem langfristigen Charakter sind, kann eine interessant durchgeführte künstlerische Aktion ebenfalls in kurzer Zeit positiv auf das Image der Organisation und eine Stärkung der Marke einwirken. Zu den markenbildenden Aktivitäten sind zu zählen: Happenings, Konferenzen, Seminare, Wohltätigkeitsbälle, Presseartikel (besonders in der Lokal- und Branchenpresse). Erteilt: 4 Punkte. Nicht alle Mittel von Public Relations können ohne weiteres von kleinen Organisationen genutzt werden. Die Organisation von Konferenzen oder Wohltätigkeitsbällen kann den Einsatz von einer größeren Anzahl von Personen von außerhalb (Freiwilligen) erfordern. Die meisten Aktivitäten lassen sich jedoch auch ohne eine große Anzahl von Personen durchführen, z.B. Lobbying, Einladung von Gästen zu einer Theatervorstellung oder einem Konzert, oder der Kontakt mit den Medien. Künstlerische Aktionen lassen sich auch im eigenen Rahmen durchführen, wenn die Organisation aus Künstlern besteht: Schauspielern, Musikern, Malern. Erteilt: 1 Punkt. Zusammenfassend wird somit die Eignung von PR-Aktionen mit mit 12 Punkten beziffert.
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Für neue Non-Profit-Organisationen sind Telemarketing und Postmarketing vor allem Aktivitäten, die ein konkretes Produkt bewerben (Vernissage, Filmvorführung). Sie nehmen nur indirekt Einfluss auf das Image einer Organisation. Für erfahrenere Organisationen ist die Postmethode am wirksamsten (z. B. Briefe mit Glückwünschen an Stammkunden). Neuentstandene Organisationen sollten eher die Instrumente in Form von Katalogen oder Firmenpunkten (Werbestände) nutzen. Punkte: 0. Die Form des Direktmarketings ist sehr attraktiv für neuentstandene Organisationen des Dritten Sektors, weil eigentliche alle Aktivitäten an potenzielle Empfänger gerichtet werden können, also an eine größere Gruppe von Empfängern. Jedoch geht es in diesem Fall nicht um die Masse, mit der man es im Fall von traditioneller Reklame zu tun hat. Telemarketing, Postmarketing, Kataloge und Firmenpunkte sind Instrumente, die dabei helfen, Kontakt mit Empfängergruppen aufzunehmen, in der Regel mit konkreten Gruppen: Interessierten an Theater, bildender Kunst oder Kulturerbe. Erst als nächster Schritt geht es um die Suche nach an einer ständigen Nutzung des Angebots in diesem Bereich interessierten Personen, an die man dann individualisierte, maßgeschneiderte Marketingaktivitäten richten kann. Bezüglich der Parameter der Kategorie B werden den Aktivitäten des Direktmarketings 4 Punkte gegeben. In Bezug auf neuentstandene Organisationen des Dritten Sektors stellen die Einführungskosten einen relevanten Nachteil der Instrumente des Direktmarketings dar. Wenn man die teure und aus Sicht der Kulturorganisationen inadäquate Form des Fernsehens (Teleshopping) außer Acht lässt, kann die Versendung von Informationen zu einem Theaterstück, Konzert oder Festival per Post oder auch die Vorbereitung von gedruckten Werbekatalogen die finanziellen Möglichkeiten vieler Subjekte überschreiten. Man kann allerdings die Kosten reduzieren und ein Modell des Telemarketings mit einem bestimmten Budget anwenden, das heißt: bei einem Anbieter für eine bestimmte Summe ein Paket einer uneingeschränkten Anzahl von Verbindungen (z.B. für einen Monat) kaufen und dann nach telefonischer Sondierung nur an interessierte Personen Briefe mit Tickets, Einladungen usw. verschicken. Die geeignetste Form scheint jedoch der Aufbau von sogenannten Firmenpunkten zu sein. So kann man etwa mit Schulen zusammenarbeiten und ihnen die Anbringung ihres Logos auf den Werbeplakaten für die jeweilige Kulturveranstaltung anbieten. Dafür erhält man die Möglichkeit, einen
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Direktmarketing Direktmarketing ist eine Auswahl von Instrumenten, bei denen ein direkter Kommunikationskanal der Organisation mit dem Empfänger geschaffen wird, ohne Beteiligung von Marktvermittlern. Zu solchen Instrumenten zählt man: Postmarketing, Kataloge, Fernsehen, Telemarketing, Firmenpunkte (Kioske) [Kotler 2005, S. 632]. Es gibt auch Mittel des Direktmarketings, die auf die neuesten Technologien wie Internet oder Handys zurückgreifen und die im Folgenden noch gesondert besprochen werden. Einige Spezialisten zählen zu den Instrumenten dieser Technik auch den persönlichen Verkauf [Ebenda, S. 634], der hier jedoch gesondert besprochen wird. Die Aktivitäten des Direktmarketings sind direkt an die potenziellen Empfänger adressiert (aber nicht en masse; es geht um diejenigen Empfänger, die an dem Angebot interessiert sein könnten) [Blythe 2002, S. 208]) wie auch die aktuellen Empfänger [Kotler 2005, S. 632].
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Direktmarketing Direktmarketing ist eine Auswahl von Instrumenten, bei denen ein direkter Kommunikationskanal der Organisation mit dem Empfänger geschaffen wird, ohne Beteiligung von Marktvermittlern. Zu solchen Instrumenten zählt man: Postmarketing, Kataloge, Fernsehen, Telemarketing, Firmenpunkte (Kioske) [Kotler 2005, S. 632]. Es gibt auch Mittel des Direktmarketings, die auf die neuesten Technologien wie Internet oder Handys zurückgreifen und die im Folgenden noch gesondert besprochen werden. Einige Spezialisten zählen zu den Instrumenten dieser Technik auch den persönlichen Verkauf [Ebenda, S. 634], der hier jedoch gesondert besprochen wird. Die Aktivitäten des Direktmarketings sind direkt an die potenziellen Empfänger adressiert (aber nicht en masse; es geht um diejenigen Empfänger, die an dem Angebot interessiert sein könnten) [Blythe 2002, S. 208]) wie auch die aktuellen Empfänger [Kotler 2005, S. 632].
Für neue Non-Profit-Organisationen sind Telemarketing und Postmarketing vor allem Aktivitäten, die ein konkretes Produkt bewerben (Vernissage, Filmvorführung). Sie nehmen nur indirekt Einfluss auf das Image einer Organisation. Für erfahrenere Organisationen ist die Postmethode am wirksamsten (z. B. Briefe mit Glückwünschen an Stammkunden). Neuentstandene Organisationen sollten eher die Instrumente in Form von Katalogen oder Firmenpunkten (Werbestände) nutzen. Punkte: 0. Die Form des Direktmarketings ist sehr attraktiv für neuentstandene Organisationen des Dritten Sektors, weil eigentliche alle Aktivitäten an potenzielle Empfänger gerichtet werden können, also an eine größere Gruppe von Empfängern. Jedoch geht es in diesem Fall nicht um die Masse, mit der man es im Fall von traditioneller Reklame zu tun hat. Telemarketing, Postmarketing, Kataloge und Firmenpunkte sind Instrumente, die dabei helfen, Kontakt mit Empfängergruppen aufzunehmen, in der Regel mit konkreten Gruppen: Interessierten an Theater, bildender Kunst oder Kulturerbe. Erst als nächster Schritt geht es um die Suche nach an einer ständigen Nutzung des Angebots in diesem Bereich interessierten Personen, an die man dann individualisierte, maßgeschneiderte Marketingaktivitäten richten kann. Bezüglich der Parameter der Kategorie B werden den Aktivitäten des Direktmarketings 4 Punkte gegeben. In Bezug auf neuentstandene Organisationen des Dritten Sektors stellen die Einführungskosten einen relevanten Nachteil der Instrumente des Direktmarketings dar. Wenn man die teure und aus Sicht der Kulturorganisationen inadäquate Form des Fernsehens (Teleshopping) außer Acht lässt, kann die Versendung von Informationen zu einem Theaterstück, Konzert oder Festival per Post oder auch die Vorbereitung von gedruckten Werbekatalogen die finanziellen Möglichkeiten vieler Subjekte überschreiten. Man kann allerdings die Kosten reduzieren und ein Modell des Telemarketings mit einem bestimmten Budget anwenden, das heißt: bei einem Anbieter für eine bestimmte Summe ein Paket einer uneingeschränkten Anzahl von Verbindungen (z.B. für einen Monat) kaufen und dann nach telefonischer Sondierung nur an interessierte Personen Briefe mit Tickets, Einladungen usw. verschicken. Die geeignetste Form scheint jedoch der Aufbau von sogenannten Firmenpunkten zu sein. So kann man etwa mit Schulen zusammenarbeiten und ihnen die Anbringung ihres Logos auf den Werbeplakaten für die jeweilige Kulturveranstaltung anbieten. Dafür erhält man die Möglichkeit, einen
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reitete Aktion ist (Wohltätigkeitsball, Happening), dann ist das sehr wohl mit entsprechenden Kosten verbunden. Punkte: 2. Die Mechanismen von Public Relations können besonders den neuentstandenen Kulturorganisationen des Dritten Sektors empfohlen werden, denen an einem wirksamen Aufbau der Marke liegt. Obwohl das Aktionen mit einem langfristigen Charakter sind, kann eine interessant durchgeführte künstlerische Aktion ebenfalls in kurzer Zeit positiv auf das Image der Organisation und eine Stärkung der Marke einwirken. Zu den markenbildenden Aktivitäten sind zu zählen: Happenings, Konferenzen, Seminare, Wohltätigkeitsbälle, Presseartikel (besonders in der Lokal- und Branchenpresse). Erteilt: 4 Punkte. Nicht alle Mittel von Public Relations können ohne weiteres von kleinen Organisationen genutzt werden. Die Organisation von Konferenzen oder Wohltätigkeitsbällen kann den Einsatz von einer größeren Anzahl von Personen von außerhalb (Freiwilligen) erfordern. Die meisten Aktivitäten lassen sich jedoch auch ohne eine große Anzahl von Personen durchführen, z.B. Lobbying, Einladung von Gästen zu einer Theatervorstellung oder einem Konzert, oder der Kontakt mit den Medien. Künstlerische Aktionen lassen sich auch im eigenen Rahmen durchführen, wenn die Organisation aus Künstlern besteht: Schauspielern, Musikern, Malern. Erteilt: 1 Punkt. Zusammenfassend wird somit die Eignung von PR-Aktionen mit mit 12 Punkten beziffert.
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kostenlosen Firmenpunkt aufzustellen (Stand), der neben Werbezwecken auch die Funktion des Verkaufs erfüllen (Tickets, Bücher, CDs und anderes) kann. Letztendlich werden -2 Punkte vergeben. Die Mechanismen des Direktmarketings wendet man nicht an, um die Marke der Organisation aufzubauen. Nur langfristige und zyklische Vorbereitungen von Katalogen und die Schaffung von Firmenpunkten an den entsprechenden Plätzen können die Marke stärken – das sind jedoch keine Mittel, die sofortige Ergebnisse zeitigen. Besondere Beeinträchtigungen des Markenimages drohen nicht, jedoch ist zu machten, dass unzureichendes Telemarketing bei den Empfängern negative Assoziationen hervorrufen kann. Punkte: -1. Die meisten der Instrumente des Direktmarketings sind auch für kleine Organisationen relevant. Beim Einsatz von Postmarketing oder Firmenpunkten können bis zu drei Personen engagiert sein. Jedoch sind solche Praktiken (oft Telemarketing) häufig mit der Vorbereitung genauer Datensätze verbunden und eine schnelle (und genaue) Erstellung kann mit der Beschäftigung einer größeren Gruppe von Personen, oft Spezialisten, verbunden sein. Hinsichtlich der Parameter der Gruppe E werden 2 Punkte erteilt. Die letztendliche Nutzbarkeit der Mechanismen des Direktmarketing wird mit 3 Punkten eingeschätzt. Qualität Qualität ist nicht nur Eigenschaft eines Produkts, Kennzeichen seiner Besonderheit. Sie ist auch, und sogar vor allem, eine sichere Information für die Empfänger, eine Botschaft, dass diese Besonderheit (Alleinstellungsmerkmal) nur dieses eine Produkt besitzt. Eine Bestätigung dieser Botschaft (Feedback) und zugleich Abschluss des Kommunikationsprozesses (Kommunikationsverlaufs) ist der Kauf durch den Kunden. Wenn der Empfänger keine Informationen über die Außergewöhnlichkeit des Produkts besitzt, lässt sich auch nicht belegen, dass das Produkt eine entsprechende Qualität aufweist. Also sollten diese „Eigenschaft der Produkte oder Dienstleistungen, die über die Fähigkeit zur Befriedigung der festgestellten oder potenziellen Bedürfnisse entscheiden“ [Griffin 2004, s. 689], eigentlich allen Produkte eigen sein, die versuchen auf dem Markt mit anderen zu konkurrieren, und nicht nur derer, die, wie Ricky Griffin glaubt, sich durch Qualität auszeichnen. Durch Qualität hingegen (Außergewöhnlichkeit, Andersartigkeit) sollten sich alle
Kulturmanagement 2011, Vol 4 (4)
Produkte neuentstandener Kulturorganisationen des Dritten Sektors charakterisieren. Obwohl Qualität auf der Linie Produkt – Empfänger entsteht, kann sie einen direkten Einfluss auf das Image der Organisation als solche haben. Das Engagieren von bekannten Schauspielern in einem Theaterstück, die Musik eines bekannten Komponisten in einer Aufführung, die Durchführung von Autorentreffen mit einem anerkannten Bildhauer, aber auch die Nutzung einer alten Fabrik für ein Konzert oder die Durchführung einer Street-Art-Aktion in einer außergewöhnlichen Szenerie, führen dazu, dass sich, abgesehen von der Bedeutung der Veranstaltung, auch das Image der für die Durchführung zuständigen Organisation festigt. Punkte: 2. Qualität sollte von einem bestimmten Empfänger wahrgenommen werden. Bei Kulturgütern kommt die Qualität des Produkts jedoch einer größere Gruppe zugute: Besuchern von Filmvorführungen, Konzerten, Theateraufführungen, Buch- und Musikverlagen. Das betrifft auch Galerien, wo die Qualität nicht nur den Empfänger erreicht, der einen bestimmten Kunstgegenstand erwerben möchte, sondern auch indirekte Empfänger, die von der Information über die Qualität dieses Kunstgegenstands geleitet die gleiche Galerie besuchen. Punkte: 2. Die Aufrechterhaltung eines hohen künstlerischen Standards kann mit erheblichen Kosten für die Kulturorganisation verbunden sein, z.B.: Engagement bestimmter Künstler, Bereitstellung technischer Geräte (Computer, Beleuchtung, Beschallung), Saalmiete (Tonstudio, Theatersaal, Fabrik), Gebühren für die Nutzung öffentlicher Räume (Platz, Straße). Zur Kostensenkung sollte die Organisation ihre Beziehungen, insbesondere in Künstlerkreisen und bei der Raummiete (Kontakt mit der Verwaltung), ausspielen. Bezüglich der Parameter der Kategorie C: -2 Punkte. Qualitätsmanagement empfiehlt sich für NonProfit-Organisationen mit einer schwachen, erst im Aufbau befindlichen Marke. Die Erzielung höchster Produktqualität kann sich unmittelbar auf den schnellen Aufbau einer starken Marke der Organisation auswirken. Anschließende Aktivitäten können sich dann auf die Festigung des Bestands konzentrieren. Also: 4 Punkte. Die Pflege der Produktqualität muss nicht mit dem Engagement einer größeren Gruppe von Organisatoren verbunden sein. Die Suche nach entsprechenden Kreativen oder Veranstaltungsorten kann eine Gruppe von 4 bis 5 Personen durch-
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Qualität Qualität ist nicht nur Eigenschaft eines Produkts, Kennzeichen seiner Besonderheit. Sie ist auch, und sogar vor allem, eine sichere Information für die Empfänger, eine Botschaft, dass diese Besonderheit (Alleinstellungsmerkmal) nur dieses eine Produkt besitzt. Eine Bestätigung dieser Botschaft (Feedback) und zugleich Abschluss des Kommunikationsprozesses (Kommunikationsverlaufs) ist der Kauf durch den Kunden. Wenn der Empfänger keine Informationen über die Außergewöhnlichkeit des Produkts besitzt, lässt sich auch nicht belegen, dass das Produkt eine entsprechende Qualität aufweist. Also sollten diese „Eigenschaft der Produkte oder Dienstleistungen, die über die Fähigkeit zur Befriedigung der festgestellten oder potenziellen Bedürfnisse entscheiden“ [Griffin 2004, s. 689], eigentlich allen Produkte eigen sein, die versuchen auf dem Markt mit anderen zu konkurrieren, und nicht nur derer, die, wie Ricky Griffin glaubt, sich durch Qualität auszeichnen. Durch Qualität hingegen (Außergewöhnlichkeit, Andersartigkeit) sollten sich alle kostenlosen Firmenpunkt aufzustellen (Stand), der neben Werbezwecken auch die Funktion des Verkaufs erfüllen (Tickets, Bücher, CDs und anderes) kann. Letztendlich werden -2 Punkte vergeben. Die Mechanismen des Direktmarketings wendet man nicht an, um die Marke der Organisation aufzubauen. Nur langfristige und zyklische Vorbereitungen von Katalogen und die Schaffung von Firmenpunkten an den entsprechenden Plätzen können die Marke stärken – das sind jedoch keine Mittel, die sofortige Ergebnisse zeitigen. Besondere Beeinträchtigungen des Markenimages drohen nicht, jedoch ist zu machten, dass unzureichendes Telemarketing bei den Empfängern negative Assoziationen hervorrufen kann. Punkte: -1. Die meisten der Instrumente des Direktmarketings sind auch für kleine Organisationen relevant. Beim Einsatz von Postmarketing oder Firmenpunkten können bis zu drei Personen engagiert sein. Jedoch sind solche Praktiken (oft Telemarketing) häufig mit der Vorbereitung genauer Datensätze verbunden und eine schnelle (und genaue) Erstellung kann mit der Beschäftigung einer größeren Gruppe von Personen, oft Spezialisten, verbunden sein. Hinsichtlich der Parameter der Gruppe E werden 2 Punkte erteilt. Die letztendliche Nutzbarkeit der Mechanismen des Direktmarketing wird mit 3 Punkten eingeschätzt.
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Obwohl Qualität auf der Linie Produkt – Empfänger entsteht, kann sie einen direkten Einfluss auf das Image der Organisation als solche haben. Das Engagieren von bekannten Schauspielern in einem Theaterstück, die Musik eines bekannten Komponisten in einer Aufführung, die Durchführung von Autorentreffen mit einem anerkannten Bildhauer, aber auch die Nutzung einer alten Fabrik für ein Konzert oder die Durchführung einer Street-Art-Aktion in einer außergewöhnlichen Szenerie, führen dazu, dass sich, abgesehen von der Bedeutung der Veranstaltung, auch das Image der für die Durchführung zuständigen Organisation festigt. Punkte: 2. Qualität sollte von einem bestimmten Empfänger wahrgenommen werden. Bei Kulturgütern kommt die Qualität des Produkts jedoch einer größere Gruppe zugute: Besuchern von Filmvorführungen, Konzerten, Theateraufführungen, Buch- und Musikverlagen. Das betrifft auch Galerien, wo die Qualität nicht nur den Empfänger erreicht, der einen bestimmten Kunstgegenstand erwerben möchte, sondern auch indirekte Empfänger, die von der Information über die Qualität dieses Kunstgegenstands geleitet die gleiche Galerie besuchen. Punkte: 2. Die Aufrechterhaltung eines hohen künstlerischen Standards kann mit erheblichen Kosten für die Kulturorganisation verbunden sein, z.B.: Engagement bestimmter Künstler, Bereitstellung technischer Geräte (Computer, Beleuchtung, Beschallung), Saalmiete (Tonstudio, Theatersaal, Fabrik), Gebühren für die Nutzung öffentlicher Räume (Platz, Straße). Zur Kostensenkung sollte die Organisation ihre Beziehungen, insbesondere in Künstlerkreisen und bei der Raummiete (Kontakt mit der Verwaltung), ausspielen. Bezüglich der Parameter der Kategorie C: -2 Punkte. Qualitätsmanagement empfiehlt sich für NonProfit-Organisationen mit einer schwachen, erst im Aufbau befindlichen Marke. Die Erzielung höchster Produktqualität kann sich unmittelbar auf den schnellen Aufbau einer starken Marke der Organisation auswirken. Anschließende Aktivitäten können sich dann auf die Festigung des Bestands konzentrieren. Also: 4 Punkte. Die Pflege der Produktqualität muss nicht mit dem Engagement einer größeren Gruppe von Organisatoren verbunden sein. Die Suche nach entsprechenden Kreativen oder Veranstaltungsorten kann eine Gruppe von 4 bis 5 Personen durchProdukte neuentstandener Kulturorganisationen des Dritten Sektors charakterisieren.
Verpackung Scheinbar hat Verpackung nur mit materiellen Produkten etwas zu tun. Aber auch im Fall von Dienstleistungen ist Verpackung das, was nicht direkt eine Dienstleistung darstellt, aber mit ihrer Nutzung verbunden ist. Verpackungen sind also alle Elemente, die man kurz vor oder während des ganzen Prozesses der Nutzung der Dienstleistung mit Hilfe der Sinne identifizieren kann. Dank der im Inhalt der Verpackung enthaltenen Botschaft trifft der Empfänger eine Entscheidung, ob er das Produkt nutzen wird oder nicht. In einem Friseursalon könnte das z.B. sein: Kleidung der Frisörin, Gestaltung des Salons, Raumtemperatur, Hintergrundmusik. Im Fall von Dienstleistungen, die direkt in den Räumlichkeiten des Empfängers angeboten werden, bewerten wir diejenigen Elemente, die direkt mit der dienstleistenden Person verbunden sind (z.B. Aussehen, Verhalten, Verwendungen von Werkzeugen). Diese Lösungen lassen sich auch auf den Bereich der Kulturorganisation übertragen. führen. Allerdings muss sich die Organisation auf relative kleinformatige Veranstaltungen beschränken. Aktivitäten im größeren Rahmen würden die Anstellung von zusätzlichem Personal erfordern. In Kategorie E werden 2 Punkte gegeben. Die Aktivitäten des Qualitätsmanagement werden insgesamt mit 8 Punkten eingeschätzt.
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leraktionen, Filmvorführungen, Museumsausstellungen als Ganzes und nicht einzelne Exponate). Deshalb werden 0 Punkte vergeben. Das Verpackungsmanagement ist eine Technik, die mit der Entstehung von erheblichen Kosten für die Kulturorganisation verbunden sein kann, zum Beispiel, wenn der Entwurf der Verpackung (Titel) eines Buches oder einer Zeitschrift entsprechend kompetenten Künstlern oder Grafikern anvertraut wird. Diese Tätigkeiten können jedoch auch von den Organisationen eigenständig ausgeführt werden, von Mitarbeitern mit Kenntnissen der entsprechenden Programme kennen und künstlerischem Talent. Mit grundsätzlich hohen Kosten ist bei der Verpackung eines immateriellen Produkts (z. B. der Gestaltung eines Theatersaals) zu rechnen, da hier langfristige Wartungs- und Instandhaltungskosten ins Spiel kommen. Hinsichtlich der Parameter der Gruppe C werden -4 Punkte vergeben. Die Verpackung kann zum Aufbau der Marke einer neuentstandenen Kulturorganisation des Dritten Sektors verwendet werden. Bei materiellen Produkten ist ein solcher Effekt indirekt durch die Implementierung genau definierter Strategien für das Verpackungsmanagement zu erreichen, z.B. durch eine Buchreihe mit einem sichtbaren Logo des Verlags. Die immateriellen Verpackungen, z.B. interessante Innenarchitektur und andere Elemente, die der Erzeugung einer bestimmten Stimmung dienen, haben jedoch einen viel direkteren Einfluss auf die Kreierung einer entsprechenden Marke. Punkte: 2. Die Konzeptionen der Verpackung und ihrer Funktionen können auch von einer kleinen Gruppe von Personen durchgeführt werden. Innovative Lösungen können die Zusammenarbeit mit einer zusätzlichen externen Person erfordern. Das sind jedoch keine Tätigkeiten, die kleine Organisationen nicht im eigenen Kreis durchführen könnten. Erteilt: 3 Punkte. Gesamtwert der Instrumente: 0 Punkte
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Schockreklame Schockreklame (Shockvertising) erreicht Empfänger auf dem gleichen Weg wie traditionelle Werbung. Die besondere Eigenschaft der Schockreklame ist die in ihr enthaltene Botschaft, also eigentlich die Art der Präsentation dieser Botschaft, ob das nun visuell, akustisch oder inhaltlich geschieht. Schockreklame soll beim Empfänger extreme Emotionen hervorrufen, wie Angst, Empörung, Ekel, oder ein gesellschaftliches Tabu brechen. Zu diesem Zweck wird meistens auf Bereiche
Schockreklame Schockreklame (Shockvertising) erreicht Empfänger auf dem gleichen Weg wie traditionelle Werbung. Die besondere Eigenschaft der Schockreklame ist die in ihr enthaltene Botschaft, also eigentlich die Art der Präsentation dieser Botschaft, ob das nun visuell, akustisch oder inhaltlich geschieht. Schockreklame soll beim Empfänger extreme Emotionen hervorrufen, wie Angst, Empörung, Ekel, oder ein gesellschaftliches Tabu brechen. Zu diesem Zweck wird meistens auf Bereiche
Die Prozesse des Verpackungsmanagements im Kulturbereich kann man in zwei Arten unterteilen, je nach dem ob sie materielle Produkte (z.B. Bücher, CDs, Zeitschriften) oder immaterielle (z.B. Konzerte, Ausstellungen, Spektakel) betreffen. Die Verpackungen der ersten Gruppe dienen der Bewerbung der eigentlichen Produkte, die zweite Gruppe der Produkte und der Organisationen (Gestaltung eines Klubs, Kleidung des Personals, Sauberkeit, Düfte). Es scheint, dass Verpackung sich besser für die Produktwerbung eignet als für die Vermarktung einer Organisation. Demzufolge wird -1 Punkt vergeben. Die Unterscheidung von materiellen und nichtmateriellen Kulturprodukte ist ein wichtiges Element auch unter einem anderen Gesichtspunkt. Die Verpackung eines materiellen Produkts soll vor allem auf den einzelnen Empfänger wirken. Die Verpackung eines immateriellen Produkts ist in einem höheren Grad auf eine größere Gruppe ausgerichtet als auf einen individuellen Empfänger. Das hängt damit zusammen, dass immaterielle Kulturgüter in Gruppen rezipiert werden (Künst-
Die Prozesse des Verpackungsmanagements im Kulturbereich kann man in zwei Arten unterteilen, je nach dem ob sie materielle Produkte (z.B. Bücher, CDs, Zeitschriften) oder immaterielle (z.B. Konzerte, Ausstellungen, Spektakel) betreffen. Die Verpackungen der ersten Gruppe dienen der Bewerbung der eigentlichen Produkte, die zweite Gruppe der Produkte und der Organisationen (Gestaltung eines Klubs, Kleidung des Personals, Sauberkeit, Düfte). Es scheint, dass Verpackung sich besser für die Produktwerbung eignet als für die Vermarktung einer Organisation. Demzufolge wird -1 Punkt vergeben. Die Unterscheidung von materiellen und nichtmateriellen Kulturprodukte ist ein wichtiges Element auch unter einem anderen Gesichtspunkt. Die Verpackung eines materiellen Produkts soll vor allem auf den einzelnen Empfänger wirken. Die Verpackung eines immateriellen Produkts ist in einem höheren Grad auf eine größere Gruppe ausgerichtet als auf einen individuellen Empfänger. Das hängt damit zusammen, dass immaterielle Kulturgüter in Gruppen rezipiert werden (Künst-
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Verpackung Scheinbar hat Verpackung nur mit materiellen Produkten etwas zu tun. Aber auch im Fall von Dienstleistungen ist Verpackung das, was nicht direkt eine Dienstleistung darstellt, aber mit ihrer Nutzung verbunden ist. Verpackungen sind also alle Elemente, die man kurz vor oder während des ganzen Prozesses der Nutzung der Dienstleistung mit Hilfe der Sinne identifizieren kann. Dank der im Inhalt der Verpackung enthaltenen Botschaft trifft der Empfänger eine Entscheidung, ob er das Produkt nutzen wird oder nicht. In einem Friseursalon könnte das z.B. sein: Kleidung der Frisörin, Gestaltung des Salons, Raumtemperatur, Hintergrundmusik. Im Fall von Dienstleistungen, die direkt in den Räumlichkeiten des Empfängers angeboten werden, bewerten wir diejenigen Elemente, die direkt mit der dienstleistenden Person verbunden sind (z.B. Aussehen, Verhalten, Verwendungen von Werkzeugen). Diese Lösungen lassen sich auch auf den Bereich der Kulturorganisation übertragen.
leraktionen, Filmvorführungen, Museumsausstellungen als Ganzes und nicht einzelne Exponate). Deshalb werden 0 Punkte vergeben. Das Verpackungsmanagement ist eine Technik, die mit der Entstehung von erheblichen Kosten für die Kulturorganisation verbunden sein kann, zum Beispiel, wenn der Entwurf der Verpackung (Titel) eines Buches oder einer Zeitschrift entsprechend kompetenten Künstlern oder Grafikern anvertraut wird. Diese Tätigkeiten können jedoch auch von den Organisationen eigenständig ausgeführt werden, von Mitarbeitern mit Kenntnissen der entsprechenden Programme kennen und künstlerischem Talent. Mit grundsätzlich hohen Kosten ist bei der Verpackung eines immateriellen Produkts (z. B. der Gestaltung eines Theatersaals) zu rechnen, da hier langfristige Wartungs- und Instandhaltungskosten ins Spiel kommen. Hinsichtlich der Parameter der Gruppe C werden -4 Punkte vergeben. Die Verpackung kann zum Aufbau der Marke einer neuentstandenen Kulturorganisation des Dritten Sektors verwendet werden. Bei materiellen Produkten ist ein solcher Effekt indirekt durch die Implementierung genau definierter Strategien für das Verpackungsmanagement zu erreichen, z.B. durch eine Buchreihe mit einem sichtbaren Logo des Verlags. Die immateriellen Verpackungen, z.B. interessante Innenarchitektur und andere Elemente, die der Erzeugung einer bestimmten Stimmung dienen, haben jedoch einen viel direkteren Einfluss auf die Kreierung einer entsprechenden Marke. Punkte: 2. Die Konzeptionen der Verpackung und ihrer Funktionen können auch von einer kleinen Gruppe von Personen durchgeführt werden. Innovative Lösungen können die Zusammenarbeit mit einer zusätzlichen externen Person erfordern. Das sind jedoch keine Tätigkeiten, die kleine Organisationen nicht im eigenen Kreis durchführen könnten. Erteilt: 3 Punkte. Gesamtwert der Instrumente: 0 Punkte
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führen. Allerdings muss sich die Organisation auf relative kleinformatige Veranstaltungen beschränken. Aktivitäten im größeren Rahmen würden die Anstellung von zusätzlichem Personal erfordern. In Kategorie E werden 2 Punkte gegeben. Die Aktivitäten des Qualitätsmanagement werden insgesamt mit 8 Punkten eingeschätzt.
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zurückgegriffen wie „Sexualität, Tod, Leiden aber auch Geschmacklosigkeit, religiöse Gefühle oder Moral“ [Śliwińska, Pacut, Red. 2011, S. 18]. Wenn, wie bereits festgestellt, die traditionelle Reklame der Produktwerbung dient, so verhält es sich mit der Schockreklame etwas anders. Der Inhalt der Reklame ist ebenfalls ein Produkt (Ausstellung, eine gesellschaftlich-kulturelle Aktion), aber die erwähnte Art ihrer Präsentation kann gleichzeitig Einfluss auf die Beurteilung der Organisation durch die Empfänger haben. Bei angemessener Durchführung kann Schockreklame ein Instrument zur Stärkung des Images der Organisation sein. Erteilt: 1 Punkt. Wie bei traditioneller Reklame gelangt Schockreklame zu allen großen Gesellschaftsgruppen. Hinsichtlich der Parameter aus Gruppe B werden 4 Punkte vergeben. Die finanziellen Ausgaben für Schockreklame kann man mit den Ausgaben für traditionelle Reklame vergleichen. Punkte: -3 In Bezug auf klassische Reklame wurde festgestellt, dass die Reklame keinen direkten Einfluss auf die Marke der Organisation hat. Unter diesem Gesichtspunkt ist ihr Nutzen für Non-Profit-Organisationen gering. Bei unzureichend durchgeführten Schockreklamefeldzügen kann es passieren, dass die schwache Marke einer neuentstandenen Organisation komplett verloren geht. Es werden -4 Punkte vergeben. Traditionelle Reklame und Schockreklame können von kleinen Organisationen mit gleichem Erfolg verwendet werden. Die Punktzahl beträgt also analog: 4. Der Nutzen der Schockreklame insgesamt lässt sich auf 2 Punkte beziffern. Merchandising Das ist eine Sammlung von Instrumenten, die am Verkaufsort oder in seiner nahen Umgebung platziert werden, um den Empfänger zur Nutzung dieses Angebots anzuregen. Das können sein: Vitrinen, Plakate und Banner, Stände, Regale, interaktive Systeme, Beleuchtung und Audio-Video. Verkostungen, interaktive Geräte, Kleidung und Verhalten des Personals, „Fallen“. Im Fall von Kulturorganisationen des Dritten Sektors, wird ein Teil der Instrumente des Merchandisings zur Produktwerbung genutzt. Das sind Regale, Plakate, Stände, Banner, die für die Reklame und Präsentation eines konkreten Produkts vorbereitet wurden. Schaufenster (z.B. von Galerien, kleinen Museen, Buchhandlungen, Musikläden) können eine indirekte Rolle über-
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nehmen: beispielsweise die Empfänger zum Kauf anregen (Buch). Jedoch kann eine ungewöhnliche, interessante Schaufenstergestaltung analog auch ein positives Image der ganzen Organisation schaffen. Ähnlich kann der Mechanismus der „Falle“ funktionieren (z.B. eine verkleidete Person, welche die Empfänger animiert, das Lokal der Organisation zu betreten). Dennoch überwiegen diejenigen Mittel des Merchandisings, deren Aufgabe es ist, im Bewusstsein der Empfänger eine positive Vision der Organisation schaffen. Das sind interaktive Systeme (z.B. Computer mit Internetzugang oder ein Forum der Organisation). Audiosysteme (Musik, die auch außerhalb des Lokals zu hören ist und positive Assoziationen hervorruft, Beleuchtungssysteme, die (besonders in den Abendstunden) eine besondere Atmosphäre schaffen können, Verkostungen (die zum Beispiel die Möglichkeit geben, in aller Bequemlichkeit Bücher in einer Buchhandlung zu lesen, Musik von einer den Empfänger interessierenden CD zu hören). Auch stilisierte Einrichtung und arrangiertes Verhalten des Personals können direkt Einfluss darauf haben, wie die Organisation von den Empfängern wahrgenommen wird. Punkte: 4. Weil die Instrumente des Merchandisings innerhalb oder in unmittelbarer Nähe der Organisation situiert sind, sind sie demzufolge im Einzelnen an individuelle oder kleine Gruppen von Empfängern in seiner unmittelbaren Nachbarschaft gerichtet. Darum werden nach den Parametern der Kategorie B -2 Punkte vergeben. Die Mittel des Merchandisings lassen sich in zwei Gruppen einteilen: kostengenerierende – Stände, Banner, Plakate, Systeme mit moderner Technologie – und kreative (je nach Einfallsreichtum der Autoren, der nicht unbedingt mit der Aufwendung finanzieller Mittel verbunden sein muss) – Verkostung, Vitrinen, „Fallen“ und Aktivitäten des Personals. Erteilt: 0 Punkte Merchandising kann auch für die Bedürfnisse von Organisationen ohne Marke verwendet werden. Je größer die Kreativität der Mitglieder der Organisation ist, z.B. die Initiierung von arrangierten Handlungen, desto größer ist die Wahrscheinlichkeit des Aufbaus einer starken Marke. Andererseits kann ein übertriebener Einsatz dieser Art von Aktivitäten oder die unangemessene Nutzung technologischer Lösungen einen entgegengesetzten Effekt haben. Alles in allem können hinsichtlich der Parameter der Gruppe D 2 Punkte vergeben werden. Die meisten Aktivitäten dieser Kategorie lassen sich innerhalb der Organisation durchführen.
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Im Fall von Kulturorganisationen des Dritten Sektors, wird ein Teil der Instrumente des Merchandisings zur Produktwerbung genutzt. Das sind Regale, Plakate, Stände, Banner, die für die Reklame und Präsentation eines konkreten Produkts vorbereitet wurden. Schaufenster (z.B. von Galerien, kleinen Museen, Buchhandlungen, Musikläden) können eine indirekte Rolle überMerchandising Das ist eine Sammlung von Instrumenten, die am Verkaufsort oder in seiner nahen Umgebung platziert werden, um den Empfänger zur Nutzung dieses Angebots anzuregen. Das können sein: Vitrinen, Plakate und Banner, Stände, Regale, interaktive Systeme, Beleuchtung und Audio-Video. Verkostungen, interaktive Geräte, Kleidung und Verhalten des Personals, „Fallen“. zurückgegriffen wie „Sexualität, Tod, Leiden aber auch Geschmacklosigkeit, religiöse Gefühle oder Moral“ [Śliwińska, Pacut, Red. 2011, S. 18]. Wenn, wie bereits festgestellt, die traditionelle Reklame der Produktwerbung dient, so verhält es sich mit der Schockreklame etwas anders. Der Inhalt der Reklame ist ebenfalls ein Produkt (Ausstellung, eine gesellschaftlich-kulturelle Aktion), aber die erwähnte Art ihrer Präsentation kann gleichzeitig Einfluss auf die Beurteilung der Organisation durch die Empfänger haben. Bei angemessener Durchführung kann Schockreklame ein Instrument zur Stärkung des Images der Organisation sein. Erteilt: 1 Punkt. Wie bei traditioneller Reklame gelangt Schockreklame zu allen großen Gesellschaftsgruppen. Hinsichtlich der Parameter aus Gruppe B werden 4 Punkte vergeben. Die finanziellen Ausgaben für Schockreklame kann man mit den Ausgaben für traditionelle Reklame vergleichen. Punkte: -3 In Bezug auf klassische Reklame wurde festgestellt, dass die Reklame keinen direkten Einfluss auf die Marke der Organisation hat. Unter diesem Gesichtspunkt ist ihr Nutzen für Non-Profit-Organisationen gering. Bei unzureichend durchgeführten Schockreklamefeldzügen kann es passieren, dass die schwache Marke einer neuentstandenen Organisation komplett verloren geht. Es werden -4 Punkte vergeben. Traditionelle Reklame und Schockreklame können von kleinen Organisationen mit gleichem Erfolg verwendet werden. Die Punktzahl beträgt also analog: 4. Der Nutzen der Schockreklame insgesamt lässt sich auf 2 Punkte beziffern.
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nehmen: beispielsweise die Empfänger zum Kauf anregen (Buch). Jedoch kann eine ungewöhnliche, interessante Schaufenstergestaltung analog auch ein positives Image der ganzen Organisation schaffen. Ähnlich kann der Mechanismus der „Falle“ funktionieren (z.B. eine verkleidete Person, welche die Empfänger animiert, das Lokal der Organisation zu betreten). Dennoch überwiegen diejenigen Mittel des Merchandisings, deren Aufgabe es ist, im Bewusstsein der Empfänger eine positive Vision der Organisation schaffen. Das sind interaktive Systeme (z.B. Computer mit Internetzugang oder ein Forum der Organisation). Audiosysteme (Musik, die auch außerhalb des Lokals zu hören ist und positive Assoziationen hervorruft, Beleuchtungssysteme, die (besonders in den Abendstunden) eine besondere Atmosphäre schaffen können, Verkostungen (die zum Beispiel die Möglichkeit geben, in aller Bequemlichkeit Bücher in einer Buchhandlung zu lesen, Musik von einer den Empfänger interessierenden CD zu hören). Auch stilisierte Einrichtung und arrangiertes Verhalten des Personals können direkt Einfluss darauf haben, wie die Organisation von den Empfängern wahrgenommen wird. Punkte: 4. Weil die Instrumente des Merchandisings innerhalb oder in unmittelbarer Nähe der Organisation situiert sind, sind sie demzufolge im Einzelnen an individuelle oder kleine Gruppen von Empfängern in seiner unmittelbaren Nachbarschaft gerichtet. Darum werden nach den Parametern der Kategorie B -2 Punkte vergeben. Die Mittel des Merchandisings lassen sich in zwei Gruppen einteilen: kostengenerierende – Stände, Banner, Plakate, Systeme mit moderner Technologie – und kreative (je nach Einfallsreichtum der Autoren, der nicht unbedingt mit der Aufwendung finanzieller Mittel verbunden sein muss) – Verkostung, Vitrinen, „Fallen“ und Aktivitäten des Personals. Erteilt: 0 Punkte Merchandising kann auch für die Bedürfnisse von Organisationen ohne Marke verwendet werden. Je größer die Kreativität der Mitglieder der Organisation ist, z.B. die Initiierung von arrangierten Handlungen, desto größer ist die Wahrscheinlichkeit des Aufbaus einer starken Marke. Andererseits kann ein übertriebener Einsatz dieser Art von Aktivitäten oder die unangemessene Nutzung technologischer Lösungen einen entgegengesetzten Effekt haben. Alles in allem können hinsichtlich der Parameter der Gruppe D 2 Punkte vergeben werden. Die meisten Aktivitäten dieser Kategorie lassen sich innerhalb der Organisation durchführen.
Wahrscheinlich machen Installationen und die Anpassung moderner Technologie an die Bedürfnisse der Organisation die Nutzung spezieller Hilfe von außerhalb notwendig. Punkte: 2. Die abschließende Einschätzung der Eignung von Merchandising-Instrumenten für neuentstandene Kulturorganisationen des Dritten Sektors beträgt: 6 Punkte.
Ambient-Marketing Diese Gruppe von Aktivitäten der Marketingkommunikation beruht auf der Anknüpfung von Verbindungen mit dem Empfänger auf unkonventionelle Weise [Śliwińska, Pacut, Red. 2011, S. 21]. Die Botschaft sollte den Empfänger überraschen, verwundern, erstaunen. Am häufigsten werden untypische Oberflächen von Gegenständen eingesetzt (z.B. Toilettenpapier, alte Münzen, Flaschen), bauliche Elemente (z.B. Überdachungen, Bürgersteige), ganze Räume oder Oberflächen traditioneller Reklameträger auf ungewöhnliche Weise (z.B. Litfaßsäulen, Tafeln). Der Einfallsreichtum der Aktion hängt allein von der Kreativität des Teams der Organisation ab. sation an dem Aufbau einer soliden Marke in einem kurzen Zeitraum liegt. Allerdings ist es für neue Organisationen mit einer schwachen Marke schwer, im medialen Umfeld Fuß zu fassen – höchstens auf regionaler Ebene. Wenn man die Kosten dieser Lösung im Kontext der Parameter der Gruppe D beachtet, wird letztendlich nur 1 Punkt vergeben. Wie festgestellt wurde, nutzen kleine Kulturorganisationen (Künstler) aufgrund des erschwerten Zugangs zu den größten Medien diese Art von Maßnahmen selten. Man kann sich jedoch um die Teilnahme der Vertreter von Non-Profit-Organisation an lokalen Fernseh- und Radioprogrammen bemühen. Punkte: 3. 4 Punkte, das ist der Wert der Eignung der Instrumente des Product Placements für neuentstandene Kulturorganisationen des Dritten Sektors.
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Product Placement Das ist ein Mittel der Marketingkommunikation, die den Bereich Reklame und Public Relations verbinden [Ebenda, S. 19]. Es werden ähnliche Kommunikationskanäle wie bei der Reklame genutzt (Massenmedien), aber die ganze Marketingoperation ist versteckt, wie bei PR-Maßnahmen. Die Information über das Produkt oder die Organisation ist hinter verschiedenen Formen verborgen: in einer Filmhandlung, Radiosendung, einem Theaterspektakel, dem Szenario eines Fernsehprogramms oder im Inhalt eines Artikels (der eigentlich zu einem anderen Thema entstanden ist). Ein Beispiel kann die Teilnahme eines Mitglieds der Organisation in einer Serie sein, die Themen in der Serie sind der Organisation oder ihrem Produkt gewidmet, oder das Logo der Organisation oder andere Informationen über sie werden während der Ausstrahlung der Serie im Titel oder Abspann sichtbar. In der Kultursphäre kann Product Placement z. B. von Organisationen genutzt werden, bei so genannten Kultivierungsaktionen, also gesellschaftliche Aktivitäten zur Propagierung und Verbreitung von Kulturtechniken (z.B. Schreiben und Lesen lernen) [Dragicevic-Sesic, Stojkovic 2010, S. 129].
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Diese Art von Instrumenten eignet sich vor allem zur Bewerbung von konkreten Produkten benutzen: Konzerten, Festivals, Büchern, Autorenlesungen usw. Zweifellos kann jedoch eine Kampagne mit großem kreativen Anteil sich generell positiv auf das Image einer Organisation auswirken. Insgesamt wird -1 Punkt vergeben. Ambient-Marketing soll von sich her eine sichtbare Aktion mit Wiedererkennungswert darstellen. Sie ist an eine bestimmte Gruppe von Empfängern gerichtet. Deshalb werden 4 Punkte vergeben. Manche Ambiente-Aktionen können eine erhebliche Kostenbelastung für neue Organisationen darstellen, andere können kostenlos sein oder geringen finanziellen Aufwand bedeuten. Also: -1 Punkte. Es scheint, dass Ambient-Marketing ein wichtiges Instrument für Kulturorganisation mit einer
Diese Art von Instrumenten eignet sich vor allem zur Bewerbung von konkreten Produkten benutzen: Konzerten, Festivals, Büchern, Autorenlesungen usw. Zweifellos kann jedoch eine Kampagne mit großem kreativen Anteil sich generell positiv auf das Image einer Organisation auswirken. Insgesamt wird -1 Punkt vergeben. Ambient-Marketing soll von sich her eine sichtbare Aktion mit Wiedererkennungswert darstellen. Sie ist an eine bestimmte Gruppe von Empfängern gerichtet. Deshalb werden 4 Punkte vergeben. Manche Ambiente-Aktionen können eine erhebliche Kostenbelastung für neue Organisationen darstellen, andere können kostenlos sein oder geringen finanziellen Aufwand bedeuten. Also: -1 Punkte. Es scheint, dass Ambient-Marketing ein wichtiges Instrument für Kulturorganisation mit einer
Diese Mechanismen werden von Kulturorganisationen des Dritten Sektors eingesetzt, um den Empfängern gewisse negative Kulturerscheinungen zu zeigen. Dadurch bewirbt die Organisation ihr eigenes Produkt und kann diesen Problemen entgegenwirken. Gleichzeitig wirbt sie für sich selbst. Punkte: 0 Aufgrund der Nutzung von Massenmedien haben die Non-Profit-Organisationen die Möglichkeit, zu vielen Empfängern zu gelangen. Vergeben: 4 Punkte. Über die Instrumente des Product Placements lässt sich prinzipiell sagen, dass sie eine kostenlose Form der Marketingkommunikation darstellen. Daher wird die maximale Punktzahl vergeben: 4 Punkte. Andererseits kann Product Placement eine sehr geeignete Lösung sein, wenn der Organi-
Ambient-Marketing Diese Gruppe von Aktivitäten der Marketingkommunikation beruht auf der Anknüpfung von Verbindungen mit dem Empfänger auf unkonventionelle Weise [Śliwińska, Pacut, Red. 2011, S. 21]. Die Botschaft sollte den Empfänger überraschen, verwundern, erstaunen. Am häufigsten werden untypische Oberflächen von Gegenständen eingesetzt (z.B. Toilettenpapier, alte Münzen, Flaschen), bauliche Elemente (z.B. Überdachungen, Bürgersteige), ganze Räume oder Oberflächen traditioneller Reklameträger auf ungewöhnliche Weise (z.B. Litfaßsäulen, Tafeln). Der Einfallsreichtum der Aktion hängt allein von der Kreativität des Teams der Organisation ab.
Diese Mechanismen werden von Kulturorganisationen des Dritten Sektors eingesetzt, um den Empfängern gewisse negative Kulturerscheinungen zu zeigen. Dadurch bewirbt die Organisation ihr eigenes Produkt und kann diesen Problemen entgegenwirken. Gleichzeitig wirbt sie für sich selbst. Punkte: 0 Aufgrund der Nutzung von Massenmedien haben die Non-Profit-Organisationen die Möglichkeit, zu vielen Empfängern zu gelangen. Vergeben: 4 Punkte. Über die Instrumente des Product Placements lässt sich prinzipiell sagen, dass sie eine kostenlose Form der Marketingkommunikation darstellen. Daher wird die maximale Punktzahl vergeben: 4 Punkte. Andererseits kann Product Placement eine sehr geeignete Lösung sein, wenn der Organi-
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Product Placement Das ist ein Mittel der Marketingkommunikation, die den Bereich Reklame und Public Relations verbinden [Ebenda, S. 19]. Es werden ähnliche Kommunikationskanäle wie bei der Reklame genutzt (Massenmedien), aber die ganze Marketingoperation ist versteckt, wie bei PR-Maßnahmen. Die Information über das Produkt oder die Organisation ist hinter verschiedenen Formen verborgen: in einer Filmhandlung, Radiosendung, einem Theaterspektakel, dem Szenario eines Fernsehprogramms oder im Inhalt eines Artikels (der eigentlich zu einem anderen Thema entstanden ist). Ein Beispiel kann die Teilnahme eines Mitglieds der Organisation in einer Serie sein, die Themen in der Serie sind der Organisation oder ihrem Produkt gewidmet, oder das Logo der Organisation oder andere Informationen über sie werden während der Ausstrahlung der Serie im Titel oder Abspann sichtbar. In der Kultursphäre kann Product Placement z. B. von Organisationen genutzt werden, bei so genannten Kultivierungsaktionen, also gesellschaftliche Aktivitäten zur Propagierung und Verbreitung von Kulturtechniken (z.B. Schreiben und Lesen lernen) [Dragicevic-Sesic, Stojkovic 2010, S. 129].
sation an dem Aufbau einer soliden Marke in einem kurzen Zeitraum liegt. Allerdings ist es für neue Organisationen mit einer schwachen Marke schwer, im medialen Umfeld Fuß zu fassen – höchstens auf regionaler Ebene. Wenn man die Kosten dieser Lösung im Kontext der Parameter der Gruppe D beachtet, wird letztendlich nur 1 Punkt vergeben. Wie festgestellt wurde, nutzen kleine Kulturorganisationen (Künstler) aufgrund des erschwerten Zugangs zu den größten Medien diese Art von Maßnahmen selten. Man kann sich jedoch um die Teilnahme der Vertreter von Non-Profit-Organisation an lokalen Fernseh- und Radioprogrammen bemühen. Punkte: 3. 4 Punkte, das ist der Wert der Eignung der Instrumente des Product Placements für neuentstandene Kulturorganisationen des Dritten Sektors.
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Wahrscheinlich machen Installationen und die Anpassung moderner Technologie an die Bedürfnisse der Organisation die Nutzung spezieller Hilfe von außerhalb notwendig. Punkte: 2. Die abschließende Einschätzung der Eignung von Merchandising-Instrumenten für neuentstandene Kulturorganisationen des Dritten Sektors beträgt: 6 Punkte.
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schwachen Marke sein kann. Je höher das kreative Potenzial der Ambient-Kampagne, desto größer die Wahrscheinlichkeit, dass der Empfänger dieses Potenzial auch in der Organisation selbst erkennt. Weil Ambient Marketing nicht nur auf der Erzeugung von negativen Emotionen beim Empfänger beruht (wie eventuell im Fall der Schockreklame), besteht hier kein Risiko eines ungünstigen Einflusses einer missglückten Aktion auf den Stand der Marke. Im Kontext der Parameter der Kategorie D beträgt die Anzahl der Punkte: 3. Viele Ideen aus dem Bereich des AmbientMarketings können nicht von kleinen Nichtregierungsorganisationen durchgeführt werden, selbst mit Hilfe von Freiweilligen. Die größten Aktivitäten dieser Art können nur von erfahrenen großen Organisationen durchgeführt werden. Dank ihres Einfallsreichtums kann eine Gruppe von wenigen Personen dennoch durchaus in der Lage sein, viele interessante Aktivitäten umzusetzen, oft aber nur mit geringem Wirkungskreis (z.B. Guerilla-Marketing: Aufkleber oder Graffiti). Erteilte Punkte: 0. Gesamtsumme der Punkte: 5. Erfahrungsmarketing Erfahrungsmarketing (Experimental Marketing) kann Schockreklame und Aktivitäten von Public Relations (besonders Happenings) beinhalten. Es ist jedoch keine Schockreklame, wo nur Reklametechnik eingesetzt wird, sondern ihr Ziel ist das Hervorrufen von starken Emotionen beim Empfänger – obwohl keine negativen und nicht unbedingt durch einen Schock hervorgerufenen, sondern durch den Effekt der Assoziation des Inhaltes der Botschaft mit eigenen Erfahrungen (z. B. ein Plakat, auf dem ein Kind, das in ein Heft ein einfaches Wort mit falscher Orthografie schreibt, dargestellt ist). In der Kultursphäre wird diese Art von Instrumenten von Organisationen verwendet, die kulturpädagogische Aktionen durchführen (Werbung für Lesen, Singen) aber auch Verlage, die in sozialen Nischen aktiv sind oder Kulturklubs unabhängiger Organisationen, deren Ziel die Pflege von vernachlässigten Elementen des Kulturerbes ist. Aktivitäten dieses Typs wollen (wie auch im Fall des Product Placements) dem Empfänger bewusst zu machen, dass es ein bestimmtes an den Rand gedrängtes gesellschaftlich-kulturelles Problem gibt (Nischen und vergessene Aspekte der Kultur), mit dessen Pflege sich die jeweilige Organisation auf diese oder jene Weise beschäftigt.
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Es geht hier gleichzeitig um die Beleuchtung des Problems und eine Aufzeigung von Lösungen (Aufbau des Images der Organisation, die auf diesem Gebiet tätig ist) sowie die Art des Entgegenwirkens (Produktwerbung): Kulturaktionen, Konzerte usw. Punkte: 0. Die Aktivitäten des Erfahrungsmarketings sollten immer an ein größeres Auditorium adressiert sein. Ziel ist es, eine gesellschaftliches Bewusstsein für die Randexistenz dieses Problems aufzubauen. Erteilt: 4 Punkte. Ein Teil der Instrumente des Erfahrungsmarketings (vor allem diejenigen, die sich an die Mechanismen der Reklame anlehnen) können mit der Aufwendung erheblicher finanzieller Mittel verbunden sein. Die meisten Instrumente (im Vergleich zu PR-Lösungen) können jedoch durchaus kostengünstig sein. Erteilt: 1 Punkt. Für Organisationen mit einer schwachen Marke kann das Erfahrungsmarketing eine nützliche Lösung sein. Durch effektives Handeln kann sehr schnell der Status einer starken Marke erreicht werden. Zu intensive Unterstützung extremer Kulturtrends kann jedoch auch eine entgegengesetzte Wirkung haben. In Bezug auf die Parameter der Kategorie D werden 2 Punkte verteilt. Die Durchführung von Kulturaktionen, besonders solcher mit überregionaler Bedeutung, kann für kleine Organisationen eine große Herausforderung bedeuten. Kleinere Aktionen oder Happenings können nur teilweise das Engagement einer größeren Anzahl von Freiwilligen verlangen. Wenn Erfahrungsmarketing die Lösungen der Standardreklame nutzt, lässt es sich auch durch ein kleines Team koordinieren. Punkte: -1. Der Gesamtwert des Erfahrungsmarketings wird also auf 6 Punkte eingeschätzt. Flüstermarketing Das ist eine Sammlung von Werkzeugen der Marketingkommunikation, durch die sich eine einmalige Botschaft der Organisation ohne ihr weiteres Engagement spontan unter den Empfängern verbreitet (der Prozess erinnert an die Verbreitung von Gerüchten). Voraussetzung für das Auftreten dieses Phänomens ist eine Botschaft mit einer entsprechend starken potenziellen Information [Hughes 2008, S. 13-14] (z. B. das letzte Spektakel vor der Auflösung eines Theaters, ein Konzert eines bekannten Musikers nach zwanzig Jahren Pause etc.). Die Botschaft kann zu gleichen Maßen das Produkt der Organisation oder sie selbst betreffen.
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Erfahrungsmarketing Erfahrungsmarketing (Experimental Marketing) kann Schockreklame und Aktivitäten von Public Relations (besonders Happenings) beinhalten. Es ist jedoch keine Schockreklame, wo nur Reklametechnik eingesetzt wird, sondern ihr Ziel ist das Hervorrufen von starken Emotionen beim Empfänger – obwohl keine negativen und nicht unbedingt durch einen Schock hervorgerufenen, sondern durch den Effekt der Assoziation des Inhaltes der Botschaft mit eigenen Erfahrungen (z. B. ein Plakat, auf dem ein Kind, das in ein Heft ein einfaches Wort mit falscher Orthografie schreibt, dargestellt ist). In der Kultursphäre wird diese Art von Instrumenten von Organisationen verwendet, die kulturpädagogische Aktionen durchführen (Werbung für Lesen, Singen) aber auch Verlage, die in sozialen Nischen aktiv sind oder Kulturklubs unabhängiger Organisationen, deren Ziel die Pflege von vernachlässigten Elementen des Kulturerbes ist. Aktivitäten dieses Typs wollen (wie auch im Fall des Product Placements) dem Empfänger bewusst zu machen, dass es ein bestimmtes an den Rand gedrängtes gesellschaftlich-kulturelles Problem gibt (Nischen und vergessene Aspekte der Kultur), mit dessen Pflege sich die jeweilige Organisation auf diese oder jene Weise beschäftigt. schwachen Marke sein kann. Je höher das kreative Potenzial der Ambient-Kampagne, desto größer die Wahrscheinlichkeit, dass der Empfänger dieses Potenzial auch in der Organisation selbst erkennt. Weil Ambient Marketing nicht nur auf der Erzeugung von negativen Emotionen beim Empfänger beruht (wie eventuell im Fall der Schockreklame), besteht hier kein Risiko eines ungünstigen Einflusses einer missglückten Aktion auf den Stand der Marke. Im Kontext der Parameter der Kategorie D beträgt die Anzahl der Punkte: 3. Viele Ideen aus dem Bereich des AmbientMarketings können nicht von kleinen Nichtregierungsorganisationen durchgeführt werden, selbst mit Hilfe von Freiweilligen. Die größten Aktivitäten dieser Art können nur von erfahrenen großen Organisationen durchgeführt werden. Dank ihres Einfallsreichtums kann eine Gruppe von wenigen Personen dennoch durchaus in der Lage sein, viele interessante Aktivitäten umzusetzen, oft aber nur mit geringem Wirkungskreis (z.B. Guerilla-Marketing: Aufkleber oder Graffiti). Erteilte Punkte: 0. Gesamtsumme der Punkte: 5.
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Die Botschaft kann zu gleichen Maßen das Produkt der Organisation oder sie selbst betreffen. Flüstermarketing Das ist eine Sammlung von Werkzeugen der Marketingkommunikation, durch die sich eine einmalige Botschaft der Organisation ohne ihr weiteres Engagement spontan unter den Empfängern verbreitet (der Prozess erinnert an die Verbreitung von Gerüchten). Voraussetzung für das Auftreten dieses Phänomens ist eine Botschaft mit einer entsprechend starken potenziellen Information [Hughes 2008, S. 13-14] (z. B. das letzte Spektakel vor der Auflösung eines Theaters, ein Konzert eines bekannten Musikers nach zwanzig Jahren Pause etc.). Es geht hier gleichzeitig um die Beleuchtung des Problems und eine Aufzeigung von Lösungen (Aufbau des Images der Organisation, die auf diesem Gebiet tätig ist) sowie die Art des Entgegenwirkens (Produktwerbung): Kulturaktionen, Konzerte usw. Punkte: 0. Die Aktivitäten des Erfahrungsmarketings sollten immer an ein größeres Auditorium adressiert sein. Ziel ist es, eine gesellschaftliches Bewusstsein für die Randexistenz dieses Problems aufzubauen. Erteilt: 4 Punkte. Ein Teil der Instrumente des Erfahrungsmarketings (vor allem diejenigen, die sich an die Mechanismen der Reklame anlehnen) können mit der Aufwendung erheblicher finanzieller Mittel verbunden sein. Die meisten Instrumente (im Vergleich zu PR-Lösungen) können jedoch durchaus kostengünstig sein. Erteilt: 1 Punkt. Für Organisationen mit einer schwachen Marke kann das Erfahrungsmarketing eine nützliche Lösung sein. Durch effektives Handeln kann sehr schnell der Status einer starken Marke erreicht werden. Zu intensive Unterstützung extremer Kulturtrends kann jedoch auch eine entgegengesetzte Wirkung haben. In Bezug auf die Parameter der Kategorie D werden 2 Punkte verteilt. Die Durchführung von Kulturaktionen, besonders solcher mit überregionaler Bedeutung, kann für kleine Organisationen eine große Herausforderung bedeuten. Kleinere Aktionen oder Happenings können nur teilweise das Engagement einer größeren Anzahl von Freiwilligen verlangen. Wenn Erfahrungsmarketing die Lösungen der Standardreklame nutzt, lässt es sich auch durch ein kleines Team koordinieren. Punkte: -1. Der Gesamtwert des Erfahrungsmarketings wird also auf 6 Punkte eingeschätzt.
Darum kann dieser Mechanismus bei Bedarf durch die Organisation mit dem Ziel ihrer alleinigen Werbung und Kreierung ihres Images genutzt werden, aber auch in Gestalt einer einmaligen oder auch langfristigen Aktivität. Es werden 4 Punkte vergeben. Auch wenn die Botschaft an einen konkreten Empfänger gerichtet sein kann, ist es das Ziel des Flüstermarketing eine öffentliche Diskussion zum Thema der Botschaft hervorzurufen (über ein Buch, ein Konzert oder eine Aktivität der Organisation). Es werden ebenfalls 4 Punkte verteilt. Flüstermarketing verursacht keine größeren Kosten. Ob die Botschaft Verbreitung findet oder nicht, hängt, wie erwähnt, allein vom Wert ihrer Information ab; es steht in keinem Zusammenhang mit den investierten finanziellen Mitteln. Wieder werden 4 Punkte vergeben. Flüstermarketing bietet die Möglichkeit, das angestrebte Image der Organisation zu kreieren. Jedoch darf sich der Aufbau der Marke nicht nur auf die Botschaft stützen, sondern auch auf andere Aktionen der Organisation. Unkontrollierte Informationen können letztendlich den Aufbau einer starken Marke der Organisation beeinträchtigen. Nach den Parametern der Gruppe D werden 2 Punkte verteilt. Für die entsprechende Vorbereitung der Information und ihre Verbreitung im Umfeld der Organisation ist eigentlich nur eine verantwortliche Person erforderlich. Deshalb sind 4 Punkte zu vergeben. Insgesamt werden 14 Punkte vergeben.
Event Marketing Das ist ein Instrument der Marketingkommunikation, das vor kurzem noch zur Gruppe der PR-Instrumente gezählt wurde. Jedoch wird es aufgrund der Besonderheit des Kunstsektors seit Ende der neunziger Jahre des 20. Jahrhunderts gesondert betrachtet [Grzegorczyk, Red. 2009, S. 7]. eine Organisation zusätzliches Prestige. Es wird 1 Punkt gegeben. Messen werden von vielen potenziellen Empfängern besucht. Ein entsprechend vorbereiteter Stand ist eine erfolgreiche Art und Weise, mit dem eigenen Angebot eine große Gruppe von Empfängern zu erreichen. In diesem Fall werden 4 Punkte vergeben. Messeteilnahmen sind teuer, jedoch nicht so kostspielig wie eine Werbekampagne und auch nicht so häufig. In Bezug auf die Parameter der Kategorie C werden -3 Punkte verteilt. Für eine Organisation mit einer schwachen Marke können Messen ein natürliches Instrument ihrer Stärkung sein. Dass lässt sich erreichen, indem man zum Beispiel einen eigenen Stand zwischen bekannten Branchenorganisationen aufstellt. Punktezahl: 3. Die Absicht einer Messeteilnahme kann jede Organisation anmelden. Die ganze Unternehmung kann mit einer Gruppe von drei, vier Personen durchgeführt werden. Es ist jedoch ein genauer Aktionsplan aufzustellen, da Messen zumeist an anderen Orten als dem des Standorts der Organisation stattfinden und in der Regel einige Tage dauern. Punkte: 3. Das Endergebnis beträgt 8 Punkte.
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Ausstellungen und Messen Das ist ein Instrument der Marketingkommunikation, das die Werbung (und den Verkauf) von Kulturprodukten außerhalb des Sitzes der Organisation im öffentlichen Raum, wo sich am Kulturbereich interessierte Personen versammeln bezweckt. Es werden folgende Bereich von Messen und Ausstellungen unterschieden: Bücher, Musik (Instrumente und Musikgeräte sowie Fotografie), Künstler (große Galerien), Theater und Ballet, Fernseh- und Radioproduktionen, Filme [Dragicevic-Sesic, Stojkovic 2010, S. 129], Mode und Folklore.
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Künstlerische Veranstaltungen sind nicht nur Kulturereignisse im engeren Sinne. Solche Unternehmungen werden immer öfter im Ganzen als Werbeinstrument einer Organisation vorbereitet, also als Mechanismus, der einen Kommunikationskanal auf der Ebene Organisation – Empfänger aufbaut. Ein so verstandenes Ereignis kann auch von Kulturorganisationen des Dritten Sektors genutzt werden. Dabei kann es zu der Situation kommen, dass z.B. ein Spektakel ein Instrument der Marketingkommunikation eines Theaters ist und nicht sein Produkt. Die Aktivitäten des Event Marketings dienen, wie alle aus dem Bereich der Public Relations der Stärkung des Images der Organisation. Punktbewertung: 4. Alle immateriellen Kulturprodukte (z.B. Theaterstücke, Konzerte, künstlerische und kulturelle Aktionen) sind an eine Gruppe von Empfängern
Künstlerische Veranstaltungen sind nicht nur Kulturereignisse im engeren Sinne. Solche Unternehmungen werden immer öfter im Ganzen als Werbeinstrument einer Organisation vorbereitet, also als Mechanismus, der einen Kommunikationskanal auf der Ebene Organisation – Empfänger aufbaut. Ein so verstandenes Ereignis kann auch von Kulturorganisationen des Dritten Sektors genutzt werden. Dabei kann es zu der Situation kommen, dass z.B. ein Spektakel ein Instrument der Marketingkommunikation eines Theaters ist und nicht sein Produkt. Die Aktivitäten des Event Marketings dienen, wie alle aus dem Bereich der Public Relations der Stärkung des Images der Organisation. Punktbewertung: 4. Alle immateriellen Kulturprodukte (z.B. Theaterstücke, Konzerte, künstlerische und kulturelle Aktionen) sind an eine Gruppe von Empfängern
Messen und Ausstellungen sind vor allem Orte der Werbung für ein Produkt (auch wenn sie oft auch die Möglichkeit seines Kaufs bieten), jedoch stellt Jim Blythe fest, dass sie wesentlich auch ein Instrument zur Imagebildung darstellen [Blythe 2002, S. 195]. Messeteilnahmen bedeuten für
Event Marketing Das ist ein Instrument der Marketingkommunikation, das vor kurzem noch zur Gruppe der PR-Instrumente gezählt wurde. Jedoch wird es aufgrund der Besonderheit des Kunstsektors seit Ende der neunziger Jahre des 20. Jahrhunderts gesondert betrachtet [Grzegorczyk, Red. 2009, S. 7].
Messen und Ausstellungen sind vor allem Orte der Werbung für ein Produkt (auch wenn sie oft auch die Möglichkeit seines Kaufs bieten), jedoch stellt Jim Blythe fest, dass sie wesentlich auch ein Instrument zur Imagebildung darstellen [Blythe 2002, S. 195]. Messeteilnahmen bedeuten für
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Ausstellungen und Messen Das ist ein Instrument der Marketingkommunikation, das die Werbung (und den Verkauf) von Kulturprodukten außerhalb des Sitzes der Organisation im öffentlichen Raum, wo sich am Kulturbereich interessierte Personen versammeln bezweckt. Es werden folgende Bereich von Messen und Ausstellungen unterschieden: Bücher, Musik (Instrumente und Musikgeräte sowie Fotografie), Künstler (große Galerien), Theater und Ballet, Fernseh- und Radioproduktionen, Filme [Dragicevic-Sesic, Stojkovic 2010, S. 129], Mode und Folklore.
eine Organisation zusätzliches Prestige. Es wird 1 Punkt gegeben. Messen werden von vielen potenziellen Empfängern besucht. Ein entsprechend vorbereiteter Stand ist eine erfolgreiche Art und Weise, mit dem eigenen Angebot eine große Gruppe von Empfängern zu erreichen. In diesem Fall werden 4 Punkte vergeben. Messeteilnahmen sind teuer, jedoch nicht so kostspielig wie eine Werbekampagne und auch nicht so häufig. In Bezug auf die Parameter der Kategorie C werden -3 Punkte verteilt. Für eine Organisation mit einer schwachen Marke können Messen ein natürliches Instrument ihrer Stärkung sein. Dass lässt sich erreichen, indem man zum Beispiel einen eigenen Stand zwischen bekannten Branchenorganisationen aufstellt. Punktezahl: 3. Die Absicht einer Messeteilnahme kann jede Organisation anmelden. Die ganze Unternehmung kann mit einer Gruppe von drei, vier Personen durchgeführt werden. Es ist jedoch ein genauer Aktionsplan aufzustellen, da Messen zumeist an anderen Orten als dem des Standorts der Organisation stattfinden und in der Regel einige Tage dauern. Punkte: 3. Das Endergebnis beträgt 8 Punkte.
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Darum kann dieser Mechanismus bei Bedarf durch die Organisation mit dem Ziel ihrer alleinigen Werbung und Kreierung ihres Images genutzt werden, aber auch in Gestalt einer einmaligen oder auch langfristigen Aktivität. Es werden 4 Punkte vergeben. Auch wenn die Botschaft an einen konkreten Empfänger gerichtet sein kann, ist es das Ziel des Flüstermarketing eine öffentliche Diskussion zum Thema der Botschaft hervorzurufen (über ein Buch, ein Konzert oder eine Aktivität der Organisation). Es werden ebenfalls 4 Punkte verteilt. Flüstermarketing verursacht keine größeren Kosten. Ob die Botschaft Verbreitung findet oder nicht, hängt, wie erwähnt, allein vom Wert ihrer Information ab; es steht in keinem Zusammenhang mit den investierten finanziellen Mitteln. Wieder werden 4 Punkte vergeben. Flüstermarketing bietet die Möglichkeit, das angestrebte Image der Organisation zu kreieren. Jedoch darf sich der Aufbau der Marke nicht nur auf die Botschaft stützen, sondern auch auf andere Aktionen der Organisation. Unkontrollierte Informationen können letztendlich den Aufbau einer starken Marke der Organisation beeinträchtigen. Nach den Parametern der Gruppe D werden 2 Punkte verteilt. Für die entsprechende Vorbereitung der Information und ihre Verbreitung im Umfeld der Organisation ist eigentlich nur eine verantwortliche Person erforderlich. Deshalb sind 4 Punkte zu vergeben. Insgesamt werden 14 Punkte vergeben.
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Internetreklame Reklame im Internet tritt in vielen Formen auf. Am populärsten sind Display- und Browserwerbung. Displaywerbung ist ein grafisches, statisches oder dynamisches (bewegliches) „Fenster“, entweder an verschiedenen Stellen der Website eingebettet, oder nicht auf der Seite selbst enthalten, sondern unerwartet erscheinend. Displaywerbung kann verschiedene Formen der Computeranimation (animierte Flashszenen oder Effekte wie Einrollen, Verschwinden oder „Herausschwimmen“ der Reklame) annehmen, es können auch Audiodateien und/oder Videos enthalten sein. Formen der Displaywerbung sind: Banner, Billboard, Button, Pop-up, Pop-under, Skyscraper, Top-layer, Intermercials [Śliwińska, Pacut, Red. 2011, S. 36]. Browserwerbung beruht auf der Platzierung in der Linkdatenbank zu Webseiten (Katalog) und Verlinkung der eigenen Seite. Der Erfolg dieser Art von Reklame wird erreicht, wenn der Link zu der Seite der Organisation am höchsten in der Internetdatenbank positioniert ist. Im Internet ist auch Reklame zu finden, bei der Videos vor dem Öffnen eines Films online gezeigt werden, aber auch WWW-Seiten, die insgesamt als Ganzes eine Reklame darstellen [Ebenda, S.
gerichtet, oft an lokale Gemeinschaften, aber nie an Individuen. Punkte: 4 Wenn ein künstlerisches Ereignis mit den Aktivitäten einer Organisation übereinstimmt (z.B. Event Marketing eines Theaters), müssen die Kosten dieser Unternehmung kein Hindernis für die Organisation darstellen (schließlich kann man auf das eigene Ensemble und eigene Kostüme zurückgreifen). Trotzallem generiert jede künstlerische (oder parakünstlerische) Unternehmung entsprechende Kosten. Punkte:1. Event Marketing ist ein Instrument, dank dem eine neue Organisation realistisch an den Aufbau des Werts seiner Marke denken kann. Es sind Maßnahmen, die eine Organisation durchaus bei der Vorbereitung ihrer Marketingstrategie in Betracht ziehen sollte. Punkte: 4. Wenn die Aktivitäten des Event Marketings sich mit den Zweigen der Aktivitäten der Kulturorganisation decken (z.B. Vorstellungen und Theater oder Street Art und Kunstgalerie), besteht keine Notwendigkeit, zusätzliches Personal zu engagieren. Wenn ein kleines Kino ein Werbekonzert organisieren möchte, muss es aber mit Personen von außerhalb der Organisation zusammenarbeiten. Insgesamt wird 1 Punkt vergeben.
gerichtet, oft an lokale Gemeinschaften, aber nie an Individuen. Punkte: 4 Wenn ein künstlerisches Ereignis mit den Aktivitäten einer Organisation übereinstimmt (z.B. Event Marketing eines Theaters), müssen die Kosten dieser Unternehmung kein Hindernis für die Organisation darstellen (schließlich kann man auf das eigene Ensemble und eigene Kostüme zurückgreifen). Trotzallem generiert jede künstlerische (oder parakünstlerische) Unternehmung entsprechende Kosten. Punkte:1. Event Marketing ist ein Instrument, dank dem eine neue Organisation realistisch an den Aufbau des Werts seiner Marke denken kann. Es sind Maßnahmen, die eine Organisation durchaus bei der Vorbereitung ihrer Marketingstrategie in Betracht ziehen sollte. Punkte: 4. Wenn die Aktivitäten des Event Marketings sich mit den Zweigen der Aktivitäten der Kulturorganisation decken (z.B. Vorstellungen und Theater oder Street Art und Kunstgalerie), besteht keine Notwendigkeit, zusätzliches Personal zu engagieren. Wenn ein kleines Kino ein Werbekonzert organisieren möchte, muss es aber mit Personen von außerhalb der Organisation zusammenarbeiten. Insgesamt wird 1 Punkt vergeben.
Internetreklame Reklame im Internet tritt in vielen Formen auf. Am populärsten sind Display- und Browserwerbung. Displaywerbung ist ein grafisches, statisches oder dynamisches (bewegliches) „Fenster“, entweder an verschiedenen Stellen der Website eingebettet, oder nicht auf der Seite selbst enthalten, sondern unerwartet erscheinend. Displaywerbung kann verschiedene Formen der Computeranimation (animierte Flashszenen oder Effekte wie Einrollen, Verschwinden oder „Herausschwimmen“ der Reklame) annehmen, es können auch Audiodateien und/oder Videos enthalten sein. Formen der Displaywerbung sind: Banner, Billboard, Button, Pop-up, Pop-under, Skyscraper, Top-layer, Intermercials [Śliwińska, Pacut, Red. 2011, S. 36]. Browserwerbung beruht auf der Platzierung in der Linkdatenbank zu Webseiten (Katalog) und Verlinkung der eigenen Seite. Der Erfolg dieser Art von Reklame wird erreicht, wenn der Link zu der Seite der Organisation am höchsten in der Internetdatenbank positioniert ist. Im Internet ist auch Reklame zu finden, bei der Videos vor dem Öffnen eines Films online gezeigt werden, aber auch WWW-Seiten, die insgesamt als Ganzes eine Reklame darstellen [Ebenda, S.
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36-37]. Wie im Fall der herkömmlichen Reklame wird Internetreklame kostenpflichtig von äußeren Anbietern angeboten, die nicht im Bereich der WWW-Seite der Organisation liegen. Reklame ist ein Werkzeug der Produktwerbung. Grundsätzlich wirkt sie sich nicht auf das Image der Organisation aus. Desungeachtet kann eine hohe Browserposition einen positiven und eine niedrige einen negativen Imageeffekt zeitigen. Punkte: -3 Es wurde erwähnt, dass die Reklame sich an eine möglichst große Gruppe von Empfängern gleichzeitig wendet. So auch im Internet. Wenn man nach der Eingabe des Wortes „Konzert“ in die Suchmaschine einen Link zu der WWW-Seite der Organisation z.B. auf zweiter Position auf der Ergebnisliste erhält, kann man annehmen, dass viele Nutzer diese Seite besuchen werden. Erteilt: 4 Punkte. Reklame ist eine der teuersten Formen der Marketingkommunikation. Zwar stimmt, dass Reklame im Internet weniger kostet als herkömmliche Werbung und dass eine befriedigende Position im Browser durch die kostenlose Technik der Positionierung erreichbar ist; jedoch sind erfolgreiche Werbeaktivitäten durch die Organisation im Internet auch mit entsprechenden Kosten verbunden. Im Kontext der angenommen Ausgangspunkte für die Gruppe der Parameter C werden -2 Punkte verteilt. So wie bei der traditionellen Reklame lässt sich feststellen, dass Internetreklame nur in einem geringen Umfang auf die Stärke der Marke Einfluss hat. Punkte: -3. Werbeaktivitäten werden meistens von externen Agenturen durchgeführt, die Positionierung jedoch kann auch von einer Person aus der Organisation vorgenommen werden. Punkte: 4. Die Eignung von Internetreklame wird insgesamt auf 0 Punkte veranschlagt. Web 2.0 Web 2.0 bedeutet die Konzipierung von Internetseiten (oder ganzen Services) durch die Nutzer selbst. Das sind kostenlose Aktivitäten, die den Nutzern für die Platzierung von Reklame (auch verschiedene zusätzliche kostenpflichtige Optionen) auf den übrigen Seiten angeboten wird. Zu Web 2.0-Lösungen sind zu zählen: Blogs, Portale (z.B. Facebook, MySpace) Internetforen, und Chats, Mediengemeinschaften (Informations- und Journalistenportale, welche durch Amateure geschaffen werden) oder Services mit
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Web 2.0 Web 2.0 bedeutet die Konzipierung von Internetseiten (oder ganzen Services) durch die Nutzer selbst. Das sind kostenlose Aktivitäten, die den Nutzern für die Platzierung von Reklame (auch verschiedene zusätzliche kostenpflichtige Optionen) auf den übrigen Seiten angeboten wird. Zu Web 2.0-Lösungen sind zu zählen: Blogs, Portale (z.B. Facebook, MySpace) Internetforen, und Chats, Mediengemeinschaften (Informations- und Journalistenportale, welche durch Amateure geschaffen werden) oder Services mit Reklame ist ein Werkzeug der Produktwerbung. Grundsätzlich wirkt sie sich nicht auf das Image der Organisation aus. Desungeachtet kann eine hohe Browserposition einen positiven und eine niedrige einen negativen Imageeffekt zeitigen. Punkte: -3 Es wurde erwähnt, dass die Reklame sich an eine möglichst große Gruppe von Empfängern gleichzeitig wendet. So auch im Internet. Wenn man nach der Eingabe des Wortes „Konzert“ in die Suchmaschine einen Link zu der WWW-Seite der Organisation z.B. auf zweiter Position auf der Ergebnisliste erhält, kann man annehmen, dass viele Nutzer diese Seite besuchen werden. Erteilt: 4 Punkte. Reklame ist eine der teuersten Formen der Marketingkommunikation. Zwar stimmt, dass Reklame im Internet weniger kostet als herkömmliche Werbung und dass eine befriedigende Position im Browser durch die kostenlose Technik der Positionierung erreichbar ist; jedoch sind erfolgreiche Werbeaktivitäten durch die Organisation im Internet auch mit entsprechenden Kosten verbunden. Im Kontext der angenommen Ausgangspunkte für die Gruppe der Parameter C werden -2 Punkte verteilt. So wie bei der traditionellen Reklame lässt sich feststellen, dass Internetreklame nur in einem geringen Umfang auf die Stärke der Marke Einfluss hat. Punkte: -3. Werbeaktivitäten werden meistens von externen Agenturen durchgeführt, die Positionierung jedoch kann auch von einer Person aus der Organisation vorgenommen werden. Punkte: 4. Die Eignung von Internetreklame wird insgesamt auf 0 Punkte veranschlagt. 36-37]. Wie im Fall der herkömmlichen Reklame wird Internetreklame kostenpflichtig von äußeren Anbietern angeboten, die nicht im Bereich der WWW-Seite der Organisation liegen.
gemeinschaftlichem Inhalt (z.B. You Tube) Die Kulturorganisationen des Dritten Sektors können alle vorab aufgeführten Lösungen nutzen.
Diese Art von Instrumenten hat nicht in erster Linie die Produktwerbung zum Ziel. Geeignet ausgewählt dienen sie zur Stärkung des Images der Organisation. Punkte: 4. Diese Instrumente werden nur auf den Webseiten der Organisation platziert. Dadurch werden keine zahlreichen Empfängergruppen erreicht, die zugleich auch nicht konkret identifizierbar sind. Im Kontext der Parameter aus Gruppe B bedeutet dies: -3 Punkte. Die Herstellung von Anwendungen, die nicht zufällig sind und sich thematisch mit der kulturellen Aktivität der jeweiligen Organisation decken, bedeutet entsprechende Kosten. Wenn die Strategie einen positiven und attraktiven Eindruck erwecken soll, können die Kosten die Möglichkeiten der Organisation übersteigen. Daher werden nur -3 Punkte vergeben. Diese Art von Lösungen ist mit Vorsicht zu genießen. Das sind keine Instrumente, die direkt dem Aufbau und der Festigung der Marke dienen (es sein denn, die Kulturaktivität der Organisation richtet sich an Jugendliche), und ihre falsche Anwendung kann dazu führen, dass das erwartete Prestige nicht erreicht wird, und die Organisation in ihrer Umgebung nicht mehr ernst genommen wird. Punkte: -1. Die Vorbereitung der Anwendungen wird zumeist an externe Subjekte delegiert, die Einstellung ins Internet hingegen kann auch von einem Mitarbeiter der Organisation vorgenommen werden. In Bezug auf die Parameter der Kategorie E werden 4 Punkte verteilt. Die Eignung dieses Instrumentariums wird auf 1 Punkt eingeschätzt. Videodateien, Audiodateien. Einige dieser „Gadgets“ gibt es auch in der Handy-Version.
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Einige Lösungen können der Werbung für ein konkretes Kulturprodukt dienen, z.B. eine Information über ein Konzert auf Facebook, oder über ein Literaturfestival auf den Seiten einer Mediengemeinschaft. Die meisten Techniken bieten jedoch die Möglichkeit, ein positives Image der Organisation zu gestalten, wie etwa: ein festes FacebookKonto oder ein laufend aktualisierter Blog. Auch die Einstellung von Filmen über Kulturaktivitäten auf You Tube, kann bei der Imagepflege behilflich sein. Insgesamt werden 2 Punkte vergeben. Derartige Maßnahmen sind kaum individualisiert. Die ins Internet eingestellten Informationen sind allgemein zugänglich, allerdings werden sie nicht an zufälligen Stellen platziert, sondern dort, wo sie von potenziellen Empfängern registriert werden können. 4 Punkte. Die Bereitstellung von Informationen durch die Nutzung der Möglichkeiten von Web 2.0 ist komplett kostenfrei (die Kosten für die Unterhaltung des Services trägt nur der Anbieter). Daher werden 4 Punkte vergeben. Die Lösungen des Web 2.0 stellen eine reale Möglichkeit zur Markenstabilisierung einer neuentstandenen Organisation dar. Je nach Art der Aktivitäten der Kulturorganisation und ihres gesellschaftlichen Stellenwerts (z. B. Nischen- oder Elitecharakter) kann eine Information in unterschiedlichen Portalen oder auf verschiedene Art und Weise platziert werden (z.B. seriös oder mit einer gewissen Distanz), ganz so wie es der Kulturpolitik der jeweiligen Organisation entspricht. Solche Aktivitäten haben einen positiven Einfluss auf die Stärkung der Marke. Punkte: 4. Der nächste Vorteil von Web 2.0 ist seine unkomplizierte Benutzung. Die Managementstrategie der Marketingkommunikation unter Einsatz der Lösungen von Web 2.0 kann im Grunde eine Person aus der Organisation umsetzen. In Bezug auf das letzte Parameterpaar werden 4 Punkte verteilt. Gesamtpunktzahl: 18 Punkte
Während E-Mailing und E-Kataloge der Produktwerbung der Organisation dienen, sind Webseiten (neben der Seite „Angebot“) wichtige Instrumente zur Stärkung des Images. Ein positives Image lässt sich durch professionell vorbe-
E-Marketing E-Marketing (elektronisches Direktmarketing) ist eine Abart des traditionellen Direktmarketings die auf Webmechanismen zurückgreift. Auch hier handelt es sich um ein Instrumentarium, mit dessen Hilfe die Organisation direkt (ohne Vermittlung anderer Marktsubjekte) potenzielle und aktuelle Empfänger, in diesem Fall die Internetnutzer, erreichen kann, also Webseiten, E-Mailing und E-Kataloge.
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E-Marketing E-Marketing (elektronisches Direktmarketing) ist eine Abart des traditionellen Direktmarketings die auf Webmechanismen zurückgreift. Auch hier handelt es sich um ein Instrumentarium, mit dessen Hilfe die Organisation direkt (ohne Vermittlung anderer Marktsubjekte) potenzielle und aktuelle Empfänger, in diesem Fall die Internetnutzer, erreichen kann, also Webseiten, E-Mailing und E-Kataloge.
Während E-Mailing und E-Kataloge der Produktwerbung der Organisation dienen, sind Webseiten (neben der Seite „Angebot“) wichtige Instrumente zur Stärkung des Images. Ein positives Image lässt sich durch professionell vorbe-
Advertainment Das ist eine Technik, die auf Technologien des Internets und anderer elektronischer Medien (z. B. Handys) zurückgreift. Sie beruht auf dem Gebrauch von Webseiten mit elektronischen Nutzeranwendungen, die oft direkt mit der Organisation selbst verbunden sind: einfache Flashspiele (z.B. Logo-Puzzle), Bildschirmschoner, Desktops, Bilder,
Diese Art von Instrumenten hat nicht in erster Linie die Produktwerbung zum Ziel. Geeignet ausgewählt dienen sie zur Stärkung des Images der Organisation. Punkte: 4. Diese Instrumente werden nur auf den Webseiten der Organisation platziert. Dadurch werden keine zahlreichen Empfängergruppen erreicht, die zugleich auch nicht konkret identifizierbar sind. Im Kontext der Parameter aus Gruppe B bedeutet dies: -3 Punkte. Die Herstellung von Anwendungen, die nicht zufällig sind und sich thematisch mit der kulturellen Aktivität der jeweiligen Organisation decken, bedeutet entsprechende Kosten. Wenn die Strategie einen positiven und attraktiven Eindruck erwecken soll, können die Kosten die Möglichkeiten der Organisation übersteigen. Daher werden nur -3 Punkte vergeben. Diese Art von Lösungen ist mit Vorsicht zu genießen. Das sind keine Instrumente, die direkt dem Aufbau und der Festigung der Marke dienen (es sein denn, die Kulturaktivität der Organisation richtet sich an Jugendliche), und ihre falsche Anwendung kann dazu führen, dass das erwartete Prestige nicht erreicht wird, und die Organisation in ihrer Umgebung nicht mehr ernst genommen wird. Punkte: -1. Die Vorbereitung der Anwendungen wird zumeist an externe Subjekte delegiert, die Einstellung ins Internet hingegen kann auch von einem Mitarbeiter der Organisation vorgenommen werden. In Bezug auf die Parameter der Kategorie E werden 4 Punkte verteilt. Die Eignung dieses Instrumentariums wird auf 1 Punkt eingeschätzt.
Advertainment Das ist eine Technik, die auf Technologien des Internets und anderer elektronischer Medien (z. B. Handys) zurückgreift. Sie beruht auf dem Gebrauch von Webseiten mit elektronischen Nutzeranwendungen, die oft direkt mit der Organisation selbst verbunden sind: einfache Flashspiele (z.B. Logo-Puzzle), Bildschirmschoner, Desktops, Bilder,
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Einige Lösungen können der Werbung für ein konkretes Kulturprodukt dienen, z.B. eine Information über ein Konzert auf Facebook, oder über ein Literaturfestival auf den Seiten einer Mediengemeinschaft. Die meisten Techniken bieten jedoch die Möglichkeit, ein positives Image der Organisation zu gestalten, wie etwa: ein festes FacebookKonto oder ein laufend aktualisierter Blog. Auch die Einstellung von Filmen über Kulturaktivitäten auf You Tube, kann bei der Imagepflege behilflich sein. Insgesamt werden 2 Punkte vergeben. Derartige Maßnahmen sind kaum individualisiert. Die ins Internet eingestellten Informationen sind allgemein zugänglich, allerdings werden sie nicht an zufälligen Stellen platziert, sondern dort, wo sie von potenziellen Empfängern registriert werden können. 4 Punkte. Die Bereitstellung von Informationen durch die Nutzung der Möglichkeiten von Web 2.0 ist komplett kostenfrei (die Kosten für die Unterhaltung des Services trägt nur der Anbieter). Daher werden 4 Punkte vergeben. Die Lösungen des Web 2.0 stellen eine reale Möglichkeit zur Markenstabilisierung einer neuentstandenen Organisation dar. Je nach Art der Aktivitäten der Kulturorganisation und ihres gesellschaftlichen Stellenwerts (z. B. Nischen- oder Elitecharakter) kann eine Information in unterschiedlichen Portalen oder auf verschiedene Art und Weise platziert werden (z.B. seriös oder mit einer gewissen Distanz), ganz so wie es der Kulturpolitik der jeweiligen Organisation entspricht. Solche Aktivitäten haben einen positiven Einfluss auf die Stärkung der Marke. Punkte: 4. Der nächste Vorteil von Web 2.0 ist seine unkomplizierte Benutzung. Die Managementstrategie der Marketingkommunikation unter Einsatz der Lösungen von Web 2.0 kann im Grunde eine Person aus der Organisation umsetzen. In Bezug auf das letzte Parameterpaar werden 4 Punkte verteilt. Gesamtpunktzahl: 18 Punkte
Videodateien, Audiodateien. Einige dieser „Gadgets“ gibt es auch in der Handy-Version.
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gemeinschaftlichem Inhalt (z.B. You Tube) Die Kulturorganisationen des Dritten Sektors können alle vorab aufgeführten Lösungen nutzen.
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reitete Services erreichen; die Seite sollte sich durch Benutzerfreundlichkeit auszeichnen und Zusatzfunktionen anbieten: Newsletter, Umfragen (Kommentare und Bewertungen), Forum, Zugang zum Onlinekatalog und viele andere. Es werden 3 Punkte gegeben. Wie bei der traditionellen Form des Direktmarketings lassen sich Botschaften durch E-Marketing (besonders E-Mails) direkt an eine große Gruppe potenzieller Empfänger richten. Einen besonderen Wert des E-Marketings stellt die Möglichkeit dar, den Empfängern, die ihre Zustimmung dazu gegeben und sich für den Newsletter eingetragen haben, Angebote zu schicken. Deshalb: 4 Punkte. Die Implementierung von E-Marketing-Aktivitäten bringt Kosten mit sich: die Erstellung einer Website oder von E-Katalogen. Das sind jedoch geringere Kosten als bei Direktmarketing außerhalb des Internets. Die Kosten eines gedruckten Katalogs übersteigen die Kosten eines E-Kataloges. Dasselbe betrifft herkömmliche Postsendungen und E-Mails. Punkte: -1. E-Marketing hat keinen direkten Einfluss auf den Aufbau der Marke der Organisation, obwohl die Möglichkeit der Aktualisierung und Modifizierung des Services der Organisation bessere Ergebnisse bringen kann als im Fall von Techniken des Direktmarketings außerhalb des Internets. 0 Punkte. Letztendlich könnte lediglich die Erstellung einer genauen E-Mail-Datenbank eine kleine Organisation vor Probleme stellen. Moderne technologische Lösungen bieten die Möglichkeit der Bedienung der Website der Organisation (nach ihrer Online-Freischaltung) durch jede Person aus der Organisation, da keine fortgeschrittenen Informatikkenntnisse erforderlich sind. Erteilt: 2 Punkte. Insgesamt also: 8 Punkte. Elektronisches Flüstermarketing Das ist eine für das Internet und andere elektronische Technologien (z. B. Handys) charakteristische Variante des Flüstermarketings. Die Grundsätze, wie das elektronische Flüstermarketing funktioniert, ähneln dem traditionellen. Jedoch wird hier die Botschaft in schriftlicher Form über Internetforen oder Portale verbreitet. Eine spezifische Form des Flüstermarketings ist das Virale Marketing, das auf demselben Mechanismus beruht, aber anstelle von Informationen schicken die Personen sich gegenseitig per E-Mail, MMS oder auf andere Weise Filme, Audiodateien, Bilder usw. In allen fünf Kategorien wurden dieselben Punktzahlen vergeben wie beim (herkömmlichen) Flüs-
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termanagement. Es ist nochmals zu betonen, dass der Absender nach dem Abschicken der Botschaft keine Kontrolle mehr ausüben, die Informationen steuern oder ihrer spontanen Verbreitung vorbeugen kann. Die Organisation sollte sich überlegen, ob dies das richtige Instrument zum Aufbau einer starken, stabilen Marke ist. Nützlich ist es auf jeden Fall für neuentstehende, kleine Non-Profit-Organisationen. Die Nützlichkeit des elektronischen Flüstermarketings wird auf 14 Punkte eingeschätzt.
5. Das Modell der Eignung der Instrumente der Marketingkommunikation für neuentstandene Kulturorganisationen des Dritten Sektors
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orangehend wurde die Nutzbarkeit von 20 Instrumenten der Marketingkommunikation unter dem Gesichtspunkt ihrer potenziellen Verwendung durch neuentstandene Kulturorganisationen des Dritten Sektors eingeschätzt. Keines der Instrumente bekam die extrem niedrige Bewertung von -20 Punkten, aber auch die maximale Anzahl von 20 Punkten wurde nicht vergeben. Die Evaluationsergebnisse divergieren zwischen -2 (Reklame) und 18 Punkten (Web 2.0). Am niedrigsten, nämlich mit -2 Punkten, wurde Reklame bewertet. Sie ist das einzige Instrument, das bei der Gesamteinschätzung einen negativen Wert bekam. Damit scheint es auch dasjenige Instrument zu sein, von dem neuentstandenen Kulturorganisationen des Dritten Sektors am ehesten abzuraten ist. Zwei Instrumente wurden mit 0 Punkte bewertet: Verpackungsmanagement und Internetreklame. Das sind Instrumente, deren Nützlichkeit an der Grenze vom negativen zum positiven Bereich oszilliert. Zwei Instrumenten wurde ebenfalls jeweils 1 Punkt zugeteilt: Advertainment und persönlichem Verkauf. 2 Punkte bekam auch Schockreklame. Jeweils 3 Punkte erhielten Direktmarketing und Verkaufswerbung. Ambient Marketing wurde mit 5 Punkten eingeschätzt. Product Placement kam dagegen auf 6 Punkte. Mit ebenfalls 6 Punkten wurden Merchandising und Erfahrungsmarketing bewertet. Die Nutzbarkeit von E-Marketing, Ausstellungen und Messen sowie Qualität wurde mit 8 Punkten eingeschätzt.
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In allen fünf Kategorien wurden dieselben Punktzahlen vergeben wie beim (herkömmlichen) FlüsElektronisches Flüstermarketing Das ist eine für das Internet und andere elektronische Technologien (z. B. Handys) charakteristische Variante des Flüstermarketings. Die Grundsätze, wie das elektronische Flüstermarketing funktioniert, ähneln dem traditionellen. Jedoch wird hier die Botschaft in schriftlicher Form über Internetforen oder Portale verbreitet. Eine spezifische Form des Flüstermarketings ist das Virale Marketing, das auf demselben Mechanismus beruht, aber anstelle von Informationen schicken die Personen sich gegenseitig per E-Mail, MMS oder auf andere Weise Filme, Audiodateien, Bilder usw. reitete Services erreichen; die Seite sollte sich durch Benutzerfreundlichkeit auszeichnen und Zusatzfunktionen anbieten: Newsletter, Umfragen (Kommentare und Bewertungen), Forum, Zugang zum Onlinekatalog und viele andere. Es werden 3 Punkte gegeben. Wie bei der traditionellen Form des Direktmarketings lassen sich Botschaften durch E-Marketing (besonders E-Mails) direkt an eine große Gruppe potenzieller Empfänger richten. Einen besonderen Wert des E-Marketings stellt die Möglichkeit dar, den Empfängern, die ihre Zustimmung dazu gegeben und sich für den Newsletter eingetragen haben, Angebote zu schicken. Deshalb: 4 Punkte. Die Implementierung von E-Marketing-Aktivitäten bringt Kosten mit sich: die Erstellung einer Website oder von E-Katalogen. Das sind jedoch geringere Kosten als bei Direktmarketing außerhalb des Internets. Die Kosten eines gedruckten Katalogs übersteigen die Kosten eines E-Kataloges. Dasselbe betrifft herkömmliche Postsendungen und E-Mails. Punkte: -1. E-Marketing hat keinen direkten Einfluss auf den Aufbau der Marke der Organisation, obwohl die Möglichkeit der Aktualisierung und Modifizierung des Services der Organisation bessere Ergebnisse bringen kann als im Fall von Techniken des Direktmarketings außerhalb des Internets. 0 Punkte. Letztendlich könnte lediglich die Erstellung einer genauen E-Mail-Datenbank eine kleine Organisation vor Probleme stellen. Moderne technologische Lösungen bieten die Möglichkeit der Bedienung der Website der Organisation (nach ihrer Online-Freischaltung) durch jede Person aus der Organisation, da keine fortgeschrittenen Informatikkenntnisse erforderlich sind. Erteilt: 2 Punkte. Insgesamt also: 8 Punkte.
Am niedrigsten, nämlich mit -2 Punkten, wurde Reklame bewertet. Sie ist das einzige Instrument, das bei der Gesamteinschätzung einen negativen Wert bekam. Damit scheint es auch dasjenige Instrument zu sein, von dem neuentstandenen Kulturorganisationen des Dritten Sektors am ehesten abzuraten ist. Zwei Instrumente wurden mit 0 Punkte bewertet: Verpackungsmanagement und Internetreklame. Das sind Instrumente, deren Nützlichkeit an der Grenze vom negativen zum positiven Bereich oszilliert. Zwei Instrumenten wurde ebenfalls jeweils 1 Punkt zugeteilt: Advertainment und persönlichem Verkauf. 2 Punkte bekam auch Schockreklame. Jeweils 3 Punkte erhielten Direktmarketing und Verkaufswerbung. Ambient Marketing wurde mit 5 Punkten eingeschätzt. Product Placement kam dagegen auf 6 Punkte. Mit ebenfalls 6 Punkten wurden Merchandising und Erfahrungsmarketing bewertet. Die Nutzbarkeit von E-Marketing, Ausstellungen und Messen sowie Qualität wurde mit 8 Punkten eingeschätzt. orangehend wurde die Nutzbarkeit von 20 Instrumenten der Marketingkommunikation unter dem Gesichtspunkt ihrer potenziellen Verwendung durch neuentstandene Kulturorganisationen des Dritten Sektors eingeschätzt. Keines der Instrumente bekam die extrem niedrige Bewertung von -20 Punkten, aber auch die maximale Anzahl von 20 Punkten wurde nicht vergeben. Die Evaluationsergebnisse divergieren zwischen -2 (Reklame) und 18 Punkten (Web 2.0).
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5. Das Modell der Eignung der Instrumente der Marketingkommunikation für neuentstandene Kulturorganisationen des Dritten Sektors termanagement. Es ist nochmals zu betonen, dass der Absender nach dem Abschicken der Botschaft keine Kontrolle mehr ausüben, die Informationen steuern oder ihrer spontanen Verbreitung vorbeugen kann. Die Organisation sollte sich überlegen, ob dies das richtige Instrument zum Aufbau einer starken, stabilen Marke ist. Nützlich ist es auf jeden Fall für neuentstehende, kleine Non-Profit-Organisationen. Die Nützlichkeit des elektronischen Flüstermarketings wird auf 14 Punkte eingeschätzt.
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chandising, E-Marketing, Ausstellungen und Messen, Qualität „Unentbehrlich“ sind 5 Instrumente: Public Relations, Eventmarketing, Flüstermarketing, elektronisches Flüstermarketing, Web 2.0.
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Das Model zeigt deutlich, auf welche Werkzeuge neue Organisationen in erster Linie zurückgreifen sollten. Das bedeutet jedoch nicht, dass die Organisationen sich nur auf die Gruppe der „unentbehrlichen“ Instrumente konzentrieren und andere bagatellisieren sollten. In einzelnen Situationen, auch in Bezug auf bestimmte außergewöhnliche Kulturorganisationen, kann es vorkommen, dass zum Beispiel die Instrumente der Qualität (8 Punkte) nützlicher sind als Flüstermarketing (14 Punkte).
Erstens gibt es Instrumente wie Public Relations, Direktmarketing, Verkaufswerbung oder Merchandising, die eigentlich eine ganze Kategorie von Werkzeugen darstellen. Zum Beispiel gehören zu Public Relations unter anderem: Konferenzen, Wohltätigkeitsbälle, Lobbying oder Kontaktpflege mit den Medien. Wenn man eine Analyse für jedes dieser Instrumente einzeln (und nicht für das ganze Instrument) durchführen wollte, so würden sich einzelne von ihnen in verschiedenen Eignungsklassen befinden. Solch eine Operation würde den Rahmen der vorliegenden Arbeit überschreiten. Hier soll nur der Bedarf einer vertieften Analyse signalisiert werden. Andererseits müsste zur Objektivierung der Einschätzung der einzelnen eine vergleichende Analyse von mehreren unabhängigen Experten – Spezialisten in den Bereichen Marketingkommunikation, NGO-Management oder Kulturmarkt – durchgeführt werden. Drittens schließlich wären die so ermittelten einer empirischen Überprüfung durch Umfragen, Interviews oder Fallstudien zu unterziehen, um ein genaueres Bild von der Eignung der Anwendung der Instrumente der Marketingkommunikation in den neuentstehenden Kulturorganisationen des Dritten Sektors zu erhalten.
6.Schlussbemerkungen
um Abschluss der Ausführungen zur Eignung einzelner Instrumente der Marketingkommunikation für neuentstandene Kulturorganisationen des Dritten Sektors soll auf einige besondere Aspekte kurz eingegangen werden.
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Z
um Abschluss der Ausführungen zur Eignung einzelner Instrumente der Marketingkommunikation für neuentstandene Kulturorganisationen des Dritten Sektors soll auf einige besondere Aspekte kurz eingegangen werden.
6.Schlussbemerkungen
4 Punkte mehr (12) bekamen die Aktivitäten aus dem Bereich Public Relations. Im Bereich zwischen 10 und 13 Punkten befindet sich keines der Instrumente, während 14 Punkte drei Instrumenten zugesprochen wurden: Event Marketing, Flüstermarketing und elektronischem Flüstermarketing. Wie erwähnt, wurde die Nützlichkeit von Web 2.0 mit 18 Punkten (nur 2 weniger als das Maximum) am höchsten eingeschätzt. Es scheint, dass die Möglichkeiten, welche die Technologien des Web 2.0 schaffen, von Organisationen, die sich in der Gründungs- oder frühen Entwicklungsphase befinden, nicht ignoriert werden sollten. Das dargestellte Ranking der Instrumente der Marketingkommunikation sollte Hinweis darauf geben, welchen Nutzwert den einzelnen Werkzeugen zukommt und in welcher Reihenfolge idealtypisch an eine Verwendung zu denken sein sollte. Ein Zweifelsfall soll an dieser Stelle nicht übergangen werden: Während man nämlich mit ziemlicher Sicherheit feststellen kann, dass die Instrumente des Web 2.0 (18 Punkte) oder sogar die Aktivitäten des Event Marketings (14 Punkte) nützlicher für neuentstandene Kulturorganisationen des Dritten Sektors sind als z. B. Direktmarketing, so fällt es schwer objektiv und eindeutig zu entscheiden, ob Merchandising (6 Punkte) solchen Organisationen wirklich mehr Nutzen bringt als Ambient Marketings (5 Punkte). Dies kann nämlich auch von der jeweiligen Kulturorganisation abhängen, deren Tätigkeitsspezifikation in großem Maß das Ambient Marketing vorzieht. Abschließend lässt sich ein Eignungsmodell für von Instrumentengruppen der Marketingkommunikation für neuentstandene Kulturorganisationen des Dritten Sektors erstellen. Dieses Modell wird sich aus drei Gruppen der Instrumente zusammensetzen: ungeeignet, geeignet und unentbehrlich. Ungeeignete Instrumente sind diejenigen, die Punkte zwischen -2 und 4 bekommen haben, geeignet liegt zwischen 5 bis 11 Punkten und unentbehrlich zwischen 12 und 18 Punkten. Hier die grafische Darstellung:
158
Das Model zeigt deutlich, auf welche Werkzeuge neue Organisationen in erster Linie zurückgreifen sollten. Das bedeutet jedoch nicht, dass die Organisationen sich nur auf die Gruppe der „unentbehrlichen“ Instrumente konzentrieren und andere bagatellisieren sollten. In einzelnen Situationen, auch in Bezug auf bestimmte außergewöhnliche Kulturorganisationen, kann es vorkommen, dass zum Beispiel die Instrumente der Qualität (8 Punkte) nützlicher sind als Flüstermarketing (14 Punkte).
Erstens gibt es Instrumente wie Public Relations, Direktmarketing, Verkaufswerbung oder Merchandising, die eigentlich eine ganze Kategorie von Werkzeugen darstellen. Zum Beispiel gehören zu Public Relations unter anderem: Konferenzen, Wohltätigkeitsbälle, Lobbying oder Kontaktpflege mit den Medien. Wenn man eine Analyse für jedes dieser Instrumente einzeln (und nicht für das ganze Instrument) durchführen wollte, so würden sich einzelne von ihnen in verschiedenen Eignungsklassen befinden. Solch eine Operation würde den Rahmen der vorliegenden Arbeit überschreiten. Hier soll nur der Bedarf einer vertieften Analyse signalisiert werden. Andererseits müsste zur Objektivierung der Einschätzung der einzelnen eine vergleichende Analyse von mehreren unabhängigen Experten – Spezialisten in den Bereichen Marketingkommunikation, NGO-Management oder Kulturmarkt – durchgeführt werden. Drittens schließlich wären die so ermittelten einer empirischen Überprüfung durch Umfragen, Interviews oder Fallstudien zu unterziehen, um ein genaueres Bild von der Eignung der Anwendung der Instrumente der Marketingkommunikation in den neuentstehenden Kulturorganisationen des Dritten Sektors zu erhalten.
So wie oben dargestellt, befinden sich 8 Instrumente in der Gruppe der „ungeeigneten“ Werkzeuge: Reklame, Verpackung, Internetreklame, Advertainment, persönlicher Verkauf, Schockreklame, Verkaufswerbung, Direktmarketing; die Gruppe der „geeigneten“ Werkzeuge setzt sich aus 7 Instrumenten zusammen: Ambient-Marketing, Product Placement, Erfahrungsmarketing, Mer-
chandising, E-Marketing, Ausstellungen und Messen, Qualität „Unentbehrlich“ sind 5 Instrumente: Public Relations, Eventmarketing, Flüstermarketing, elektronisches Flüstermarketing, Web 2.0.
So wie oben dargestellt, befinden sich 8 Instrumente in der Gruppe der „ungeeigneten“ Werkzeuge: Reklame, Verpackung, Internetreklame, Advertainment, persönlicher Verkauf, Schockreklame, Verkaufswerbung, Direktmarketing; die Gruppe der „geeigneten“ Werkzeuge setzt sich aus 7 Instrumenten zusammen: Ambient-Marketing, Product Placement, Erfahrungsmarketing, Mer-
Kulturmanagement 2011, Vol 4 (4)
4 Punkte mehr (12) bekamen die Aktivitäten aus dem Bereich Public Relations. Im Bereich zwischen 10 und 13 Punkten befindet sich keines der Instrumente, während 14 Punkte drei Instrumenten zugesprochen wurden: Event Marketing, Flüstermarketing und elektronischem Flüstermarketing. Wie erwähnt, wurde die Nützlichkeit von Web 2.0 mit 18 Punkten (nur 2 weniger als das Maximum) am höchsten eingeschätzt. Es scheint, dass die Möglichkeiten, welche die Technologien des Web 2.0 schaffen, von Organisationen, die sich in der Gründungs- oder frühen Entwicklungsphase befinden, nicht ignoriert werden sollten. Das dargestellte Ranking der Instrumente der Marketingkommunikation sollte Hinweis darauf geben, welchen Nutzwert den einzelnen Werkzeugen zukommt und in welcher Reihenfolge idealtypisch an eine Verwendung zu denken sein sollte. Ein Zweifelsfall soll an dieser Stelle nicht übergangen werden: Während man nämlich mit ziemlicher Sicherheit feststellen kann, dass die Instrumente des Web 2.0 (18 Punkte) oder sogar die Aktivitäten des Event Marketings (14 Punkte) nützlicher für neuentstandene Kulturorganisationen des Dritten Sektors sind als z. B. Direktmarketing, so fällt es schwer objektiv und eindeutig zu entscheiden, ob Merchandising (6 Punkte) solchen Organisationen wirklich mehr Nutzen bringt als Ambient Marketings (5 Punkte). Dies kann nämlich auch von der jeweiligen Kulturorganisation abhängen, deren Tätigkeitsspezifikation in großem Maß das Ambient Marketing vorzieht. Abschließend lässt sich ein Eignungsmodell für von Instrumentengruppen der Marketingkommunikation für neuentstandene Kulturorganisationen des Dritten Sektors erstellen. Dieses Modell wird sich aus drei Gruppen der Instrumente zusammensetzen: ungeeignet, geeignet und unentbehrlich. Ungeeignete Instrumente sind diejenigen, die Punkte zwischen -2 und 4 bekommen haben, geeignet liegt zwischen 5 bis 11 Punkten und unentbehrlich zwischen 12 und 18 Punkten. Hier die grafische Darstellung:
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Tab. 1. Eignungsmodell der Instrumente der Marketingkommunikation für neuentstandene Kulturorganisationen des Dritten Sektors Einschätzung der Eignung von Instrumenten
Punkte
Instrumente (Punkteanzahl)
ungeeignet
-2 – 4
- Reklame (-2) - Verpackung (0) - Internetreklame (0) - Advertainment (1) - persönlicher Verkauf (1) - Schockreklame (2) - Verkaufswerbung (3) - Direktmarketing (3)
geeignet
5 – 11
- Ambient-Marketing (5) - Product Placement (6) - Erfahrungsmarketing(6) - Merchandising (6) - E-Marketing (8) - Ausstellungen und Messen (8) - Qualität (8)
unentbehrlich
12 – 18
- Public Relations (12) - Eventmarketing (14) - Flüstermarketing (14) - elektronisches Flüstermarketing (14) - Web 2.0 (18)
Quelle: Eigene Darstellung.
Trotzdem scheint es, dass das vorgestellte Modell (mit einer gewissen Dosis Vorsicht) von Kulturorganisationen im Moment des Aufbaus ihrer Marketingstrategien in Betracht gezogen werden kann. Mit großer Wahrscheinlichkeit lässt sich sagen, dass die Instrumente, die als unentbehrlich eingeschätzt wurden, nicht von
kulturellen Nichtregierungsorganisationen in der Anfangsphase ihrer Tätigkeit außer Acht gelassen werden dürfen. Besonders, wenn man noch einmal die Schwierigkeiten in Erwägung zieht, denen junge und neuentstandene Nichtregierungsorganisationen ausgesetzt sind, wovon eingangs der vorliegenden Analyse die Rede war.
Trotzdem scheint es, dass das vorgestellte Modell (mit einer gewissen Dosis Vorsicht) von Kulturorganisationen im Moment des Aufbaus ihrer Marketingstrategien in Betracht gezogen werden kann. Mit großer Wahrscheinlichkeit lässt sich sagen, dass die Instrumente, die als unentbehrlich eingeschätzt wurden, nicht von
kulturellen Nichtregierungsorganisationen in der Anfangsphase ihrer Tätigkeit außer Acht gelassen werden dürfen. Besonders, wenn man noch einmal die Schwierigkeiten in Erwägung zieht, denen junge und neuentstandene Nichtregierungsorganisationen ausgesetzt sind, wovon eingangs der vorliegenden Analyse die Rede war.
Quelle: Eigene Darstellung. 12 – 18
unentbehrlich
5 – 11
geeignet
-2 – 4
ungeeignet
Punkte
Einschätzung der Eignung von Instrumenten
- Public Relations (12) - Eventmarketing (14) - Flüstermarketing (14) - elektronisches Flüstermarketing (14) - Web 2.0 (18) - Ambient-Marketing (5) - Product Placement (6) - Erfahrungsmarketing(6) - Merchandising (6) - E-Marketing (8) - Ausstellungen und Messen (8) - Qualität (8) - Reklame (-2) - Verpackung (0) - Internetreklame (0) - Advertainment (1) - persönlicher Verkauf (1) - Schockreklame (2) - Verkaufswerbung (3) - Direktmarketing (3) Instrumente (Punkteanzahl)
Tab. 1. Eignungsmodell der Instrumente der Marketingkommunikation für neuentstandene Kulturorganisationen des Dritten Sektors Kulturmanagement 2011, Vol 4 (4)
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Literatur: Hughes M., Marketing szeptany. Buzzmarketing (Flüstermarketing. Buzzmarketing), Warszawa 2008. Kotler P., Marketing, Poznań 2005. Limański A., Drabik I., Marketing w organizacjach nonprofit (Marketing in Non-Profit-Organisationen), Warszawa 2007. Szołajska J., Red., Podstawowe fakty o organizacjach pozarządowych. Raport z badania 2008 (Grundlegende Fakten über Nichtregierungsorganisationen), 2008, http://civicpedia.ngo.pl/files/civicpedia. pl/public/kondycja2008.pdf (abgerufen am: 28.04.2011). Śliwińska K., Pacut M., Red., Narzędzia i techniki komunikacji marketingowej XXI. Przykłady aplikacji w wybranych organizacjach non profit (Werkzeuge und Techniken der Marketingkommunikation in ausgewählten Non-Profit-Organisationen), Warszawa 2011. Wiktor J. W., Teoretyczne podstawy systemu komunikacji marketingowej (Theoretische Grundlagen der Marketingkommunikation), „Świat Marketingu. Czasopismo internetowe”, 2001, http://swiatmarketingu.pl/index.php?rodzaj=01&id_numer=719231 (abgerufen am: 28.04.2011). Blythe J., Komunikacja marketingowa (Marketingkommunikation), Warszawa 2002. Bogacz-Wojtanowska E., Zarządzanie organizacjami pozarządowymi na przykładzie stowarzyszeń krakowskich (Das Management von Nichtregierungsorganisationen am Beispiel Krakau), Kraków 2006. Dragicevic-Sesic M., Stojkovic B., Kultura: zarządzanie, animacja, marketing (Kultur: Management, Animation, Marketing), Warszawa 2010. Griffin R. W., Podstawy zarządzania organizacjami (Grundlagen des Managements von Organisationen), Warszawa 2004. Grzegorczyk A., Red., Event marketing jako nowa forma organizacji procesów komunikacyjnych (Eventmarketing als neue Organisationsform von Komunikationsprozessen), Warszawa 2009. Herbst J., Wewnętrzne zróżnicowanie sektora. Podstawowe fakty o branżach sektora organizacji pozarządowych w Polsce. Kultura i sztuka (Die Binnendifferenzierung eines Sektors. Grundlegende Tatsachen über den NGO-Sektor in Polen. Kultur und Kunst), 2005, http://www.ngo.pl/files/badania.ngo. pl/public/branze/kultura_i_sztuka.pdf (abgerufen am: 28.04.2011).
Blythe J., Komunikacja marketingowa (Marketingkommunikation), Warszawa 2002. Bogacz-Wojtanowska E., Zarządzanie organizacjami pozarządowymi na przykładzie stowarzyszeń krakowskich (Das Management von Nichtregierungsorganisationen am Beispiel Krakau), Kraków 2006. Dragicevic-Sesic M., Stojkovic B., Kultura: zarządzanie, animacja, marketing (Kultur: Management, Animation, Marketing), Warszawa 2010. Griffin R. W., Podstawy zarządzania organizacjami (Grundlagen des Managements von Organisationen), Warszawa 2004. Grzegorczyk A., Red., Event marketing jako nowa forma organizacji procesów komunikacyjnych (Eventmarketing als neue Organisationsform von Komunikationsprozessen), Warszawa 2009. Herbst J., Wewnętrzne zróżnicowanie sektora. Podstawowe fakty o branżach sektora organizacji pozarządowych w Polsce. Kultura i sztuka (Die Binnendifferenzierung eines Sektors. Grundlegende Tatsachen über den NGO-Sektor in Polen. Kultur und Kunst), 2005, http://www.ngo.pl/files/badania.ngo. pl/public/branze/kultura_i_sztuka.pdf (abgerufen am: 28.04.2011).
Hughes M., Marketing szeptany. Buzzmarketing (Flüstermarketing. Buzzmarketing), Warszawa 2008. Kotler P., Marketing, Poznań 2005. Limański A., Drabik I., Marketing w organizacjach nonprofit (Marketing in Non-Profit-Organisationen), Warszawa 2007. Szołajska J., Red., Podstawowe fakty o organizacjach pozarządowych. Raport z badania 2008 (Grundlegende Fakten über Nichtregierungsorganisationen), 2008, http://civicpedia.ngo.pl/files/civicpedia. pl/public/kondycja2008.pdf (abgerufen am: 28.04.2011). Śliwińska K., Pacut M., Red., Narzędzia i techniki komunikacji marketingowej XXI. Przykłady aplikacji w wybranych organizacjach non profit (Werkzeuge und Techniken der Marketingkommunikation in ausgewählten Non-Profit-Organisationen), Warszawa 2011. Wiktor J. W., Teoretyczne podstawy systemu komunikacji marketingowej (Theoretische Grundlagen der Marketingkommunikation), „Świat Marketingu. Czasopismo internetowe”, 2001, http://swiatmarketingu.pl/index.php?rodzaj=01&id_numer=719231 (abgerufen am: 28.04.2011).
Literatur: 160
Kulturmanagement 2011, Vol 4 (4)
Kulturmanagement 2011, Vol 4 (4)
Untersuchungen des Kultursektors als Element eines Partizipationsmodells des Kulturmanagements am Beispiel von Untersuchungen des Regionalen Kulturobservatoriums Przemysław Kieliszewski, Michał Mękarski
In dem vorliegenden Text versuchen wir, ein Forschungsprojekt vom Gesichtspunkt seiner Nutzbarkeit für das Kulturmanagement (die Kulturpolitik) darzustellen, wobei wir uns auf Elemente des aus der Theorie des Managements bekannten Partizipationsmodells berufen. Deshalb beziehen wir uns zunächst im ersten Teil der Arbeit auf Elemente dieses Modells, das eine Alternative für die derzeitigen Praktiken des öffentlichen Kulturmanagements darstellt. Es geht uns vor allem um das Management auf auf der Ebene der Selbstverwaltungen und weniger auf der Ebene der Institutionen. Als nächstes präsentieren wir einen Abriss des vom Regionalen Kulturobservatorium in Posen durchgeführten Forschungsprojekts „Kulturelle Potenziale und Defizite der Kreisstädte“, das ein interessantes und wiederholbares Beispiel für die Anwendung von Forschungsinstrumenten bei der Erarbeitung einer lokalen Kulturstrategie sein kann und gleichzeitig eines der Instrumente eines den Bedürfnissen und Besonderheiten des jeweiligen Kulturraums angemessenen Managementmodells.
1. Abriss des Partizipationsmodells der Managements im öffentlichen Sektor
D
as Partizipationsmodell des Managements stammt ursprünglich aus dem Unternehmensmanagement. Wir möchten es nicht direkt auf das
Kulturmanagement 2011, Vol 4 (4)
Management einer Kulturinstitution übertragen, sondern eher auf die Situation des kommunalen Kulturmanagements. In der Praxis sind es eben gerade die kommunalen Selbstverwaltungen, die über entsprechende Finanzmittel verfügen und Initiatoren sein können für ein strategisches Denken und Handeln im Kultursektor. Am Ursprung der Konzeption des partizipativen Managements steht die Frage nach dem Gegenstand des Managements, danach, wer Teilnehmer und wer Adressat des Prozesses ist. „Der traditionelle Ansatz für die Frage nach den Teilnehmern eines strategischen Managementprozesses ist eng verbunden mit planwirtschaftlichen Grundsätzen, für die Zentralisierung, Formalisierung und eine klare Rollenverteilung kennzeichnend sind. Üblicherweise unterscheidet man also Manager auf Körperschafts-, Unternehemens- und funktionaler Ebene.“ [Witecka-Crabb, Webdokument]. Eine Analyse des strategischen Managements, die reich mit Quelltexten versehen ist und Bezüge auf Kulturinstitutionen enthält, liefert ein Artikel von Martyna Śliwa [Śliwa 2011, S. 10-25]. Nach dem planwirtschaftlichen Ansatz sind die Mitarbeiter eines Unternehmens nicht am Prozess der Schaffung einer Strategie und dem Unternehmensmanagement beteiligt. Beteiligung aber ist eben gerade das Schlüsselelement des Partizipationsmodells. Umso mehr ist in Bereichen, in denen der Gewinn nicht der wichtigste motivierende Faktor ist und sein kann, das persönliche Engagement des Mitarbeiters unverzichtbar. Genau
161
Przemysław Kieliszewski Jurist mit einem Doktortitel in Geisteswissenschaften. Der wissenschaftliche Mitarbeiter im Institut für Kulturwissenschaften an der Adam-MickiewiczUniversität, Mitarbeiter des Regionalen Kulturobservatoriums, Kulturprojektmanager in Im- und Ausland. Er vertrat Nichtregierungsorganisationen im vom Präsidenten der Stadt Poznań gebildeten Kulturausschuss. Dr. Kieliszewski realisierte Forschungen u.a. für das Marschallamt der Woiwodschaft Wielkopolska (2006–2007), Kultusministerium und AdamMickiewicz-Institut (2008) mit. Der Autor einer Dissertation Polityka kulturalna wobec rozwoju społeczeństwa obywatelskiego w Polsce (Kulturpolitik versus Entwicklung der Zivilgesellschaft), wie auch von Fachpublika-
as Partizipationsmodell des Managements stammt ursprünglich aus dem Unternehmensmanagement. Wir möchten es nicht direkt auf das
D
1. Abriss des Partizipationsmodells der Managements im öffentlichen Sektor In dem vorliegenden Text versuchen wir, ein Forschungsprojekt vom Gesichtspunkt seiner Nutzbarkeit für das Kulturmanagement (die Kulturpolitik) darzustellen, wobei wir uns auf Elemente des aus der Theorie des Managements bekannten Partizipationsmodells berufen. Deshalb beziehen wir uns zunächst im ersten Teil der Arbeit auf Elemente dieses Modells, das eine Alternative für die derzeitigen Praktiken des öffentlichen Kulturmanagements darstellt. Es geht uns vor allem um das Management auf auf der Ebene der Selbstverwaltungen und weniger auf der Ebene der Institutionen. Als nächstes präsentieren wir einen Abriss des vom Regionalen Kulturobservatorium in Posen durchgeführten Forschungsprojekts „Kulturelle Potenziale und Defizite der Kreisstädte“, das ein interessantes und wiederholbares Beispiel für die Anwendung von Forschungsinstrumenten bei der Erarbeitung einer lokalen Kulturstrategie sein kann und gleichzeitig eines der Instrumente eines den Bedürfnissen und Besonderheiten des jeweiligen Kulturraums angemessenen Managementmodells.
161
Management einer Kulturinstitution übertragen, sondern eher auf die Situation des kommunalen Kulturmanagements. In der Praxis sind es eben gerade die kommunalen Selbstverwaltungen, die über entsprechende Finanzmittel verfügen und Initiatoren sein können für ein strategisches Denken und Handeln im Kultursektor. Am Ursprung der Konzeption des partizipativen Managements steht die Frage nach dem Gegenstand des Managements, danach, wer Teilnehmer und wer Adressat des Prozesses ist. „Der traditionelle Ansatz für die Frage nach den Teilnehmern eines strategischen Managementprozesses ist eng verbunden mit planwirtschaftlichen Grundsätzen, für die Zentralisierung, Formalisierung und eine klare Rollenverteilung kennzeichnend sind. Üblicherweise unterscheidet man also Manager auf Körperschafts-, Unternehemens- und funktionaler Ebene.“ [Witecka-Crabb, Webdokument]. Eine Analyse des strategischen Managements, die reich mit Quelltexten versehen ist und Bezüge auf Kulturinstitutionen enthält, liefert ein Artikel von Martyna Śliwa [Śliwa 2011, S. 10-25]. Nach dem planwirtschaftlichen Ansatz sind die Mitarbeiter eines Unternehmens nicht am Prozess der Schaffung einer Strategie und dem Unternehmensmanagement beteiligt. Beteiligung aber ist eben gerade das Schlüsselelement des Partizipationsmodells. Umso mehr ist in Bereichen, in denen der Gewinn nicht der wichtigste motivierende Faktor ist und sein kann, das persönliche Engagement des Mitarbeiters unverzichtbar. Genau
Przemysław Kieliszewski, Michał Mękarski
Untersuchungen des Kultursektors als Element eines Partizipationsmodells des Kulturmanagements am Beispiel von Untersuchungen des Regionalen Kulturobservatoriums
Przemysław Kieliszewski Jurist mit einem Doktortitel in Geisteswissenschaften. Der wissenschaftliche Mitarbeiter im Institut für Kulturwissenschaften an der Adam-MickiewiczUniversität, Mitarbeiter des Regionalen Kulturobservatoriums, Kulturprojektmanager in Im- und Ausland. Er vertrat Nichtregierungsorganisationen im vom Präsidenten der Stadt Poznań gebildeten Kulturausschuss. Dr. Kieliszewski realisierte Forschungen u.a. für das Marschallamt der Woiwodschaft Wielkopolska (2006–2007), Kultusministerium und AdamMickiewicz-Institut (2008) mit. Der Autor einer Dissertation Polityka kulturalna wobec rozwoju społeczeństwa obywatelskiego w Polsce (Kulturpolitik versus Entwicklung der Zivilgesellschaft), wie auch von Fachpublika-
tionen und -berichten. Er war der Koordinator einer Konferenz „Instytucje kultury w czasach kryzysu” („Kultureinrichtungen in Zeiten der Krise“) (Poznań 2009). Der Leiter der Arbeitsgruppe für Kultur im Rat der Metropole Poznań (2010), Mitautor des Strategischen Programms für Kulturentwicklung in Wielkopolska, wie auch der Forschungen und des Berichts „Kulturalne potencjały i deficyty miast powiatowych” („Kulturelle Potenziale und Defizite der Kreisstädte“) (2010). Der Koordinator einer innovativen Trainingsreihe „Kultureinrichtungen im 21. Jh.”, die von Europäischen Sozialfonds (ESF) in der Woiwodschaft Kujawien-Pommern finanziert wird. Der Direktor des Polish Guitar Academy Festivals.
Kulturmanagement 2011, Vol 4 (4)
erschienenen Buch: „Gespräch ist Handeln“ [Orlik 2011, S. 7]. Dieser kurze und bündige Satz enthält möglicherweise die Quintessenz der Partizipation. Orlik postuliert die Berufung lokaler und regionaler Kulturräte, in deren Rahmen eine Strategie für die Tätigkeit von Kulturinstitutionen und in weitem Sinn für eine kohärente Kulturpolitik vereinbart werden könnte. Partizipatives Management im öffentlichen Sektor ist auch in einem gewissen Umfang eine Emanation des Subsidiaritätsprinzips, das für das Funktionieren der demokratischen Ordnung von fundamentaler Bedeutung ist. Es ist eines der Grundprinzipien für das Funktionieren einer Verwaltung und gewährleistet, dass sie nicht wuchert und neue Bereiche verschluckt, die bis dahin im Zuständigkeitsbereich zum Beispiel von Verbänden, Kulturinstitutionen, Wohnviertelgemeinschaften, caritativen Organisationen, Unternehmen, Familien und Einzelpersonen lagen. Das Subsidiaritätsprinzip gehört zum allgemeinen Erbe der Gesellschaftsphilosophie. Am deutlichsten und umfassendsten wurde es in der Katholischen Soziallehre formuliert und ausgeformt.18 Es besagt, dass kleineren Organisationen ein Handlungsspielraum belassen werden muss, dass diese nicht vereinnahmt werden dürfen, sondern dass sie bei ihrer Tätigkeit zu fördern und unterstützen sind. In diesem Kontext ist ein Aspekt von besonderer Relevanz, der als „horizontale Subsidiarität“ bezeichnet wird. In einem Rapport aus dem Jahr 2002 unter dem Titel Das Subsidiaritätsprinzip aufs neue durchdacht wird festgestellt, dass „sich die horizontale Subsidiarität auf Komplementarität und Zusammenwirken der Bürger und der öffentlichen Einrichtungen stützt; ihr Ziel ist die Verbesserung des Gemeinwohls. [...] Bürgervereine und Einzelpersonen haben das Recht zur Tätigkeit für die Interessen der Allgemeinheit, ohne dass sie dazu behördliche Bevollmächtigungen und Ge-
162
so verhält es sich bei Kulturinstitutionen. Es wird also oft eine lokale Kulturstrategie „von oben“ den Mitarbeitern (aber auch den Direktoren von Kulturinstitutionen) oktroyiert. Dabei fehlt ein weiteres wichtiges Merkmal der Partizipation, nämlich die Identifikation mit der Strategie. Es kann sogar zu einer ablehnenden Haltung kommen, wenn der Eindruck entstehet, dass sie „von Leuten gemacht wurden, die keine Ahnung haben, was sich an der Basis tut“, die sich nur ungenügend in den realen Bedingungen der Implementierung der Strategie und ihrer praktischen Anwendbarkeit auskennen. „Auf diese Weise verliert man ein enormes Potenzial an Wissen, Fähigkeiten und Kreativität, das im gesamten Unternehmen verstreut ist und sich sich unnatürlich auf die Etappen der Planung bis zur Etappe der Implementierung aufteilt.“ [Śliwa 2011, S. 2]. Dementgegen beruht das Partizipationsmodell auf Offenheit bei der Erweiterung des Kreises der Teilnehmer an dem Prozess, der Einbeziehung unterschiedlicher Gesichtspunkte, Erfahrungen und unterschiedlichen – häufig ausgesprochen praktischen – Wissens. Aus der Praxis geht hervor, dass häufig revolutionäre Lösungen für das Funktionieren eines Unternehmens auf den niedrigeren Hierarchieebenen entstehen. Die subjektive Behandlung der Mitarbeiter löst oft auf natürliche Weise ihre kreative Arbeitseinstellung und infolgedessen ihre Effizienz aus. Anna Witek-Crabb hat hingegen, darin Gary Hamel folgend, auch für dieses Modell die Notwendigkeit einer klaren Führung betont, die der Vielstimmigkeit, wie sie sich aus Situationen mit sehr großer Offenheit ergibt, eine klare Richtung weist und zugleich für „Vielfalt der Perspektiven und Einheit der Ziele“ sorgt [Hamel 1996, s. 80-81]. Das Engagement der Mitarbeiter für die Schaffung einer Strategie gewährleistet also ihre Aktivität bei der Implementierung. Joanna Orlik betitelte die Einführung zu ihrem unlängst
18 In der Enzyklika Quadragesimo anno (1931) von Papst Pius XI. heißt es: „Was der Einzelmensch aus eigener Initiative und mit seinen eigenen Kräften leisten kann, darf ihm nicht entzogen und der Gesellschaftstätigkeit zugewiesen werden, so verstößt es gegen die Gerechtigkeit, das, was die kleineren und untergeordneten Gemeinwesen leisten und zum guten Ende führen können, für die weitere und übergeordnete Gemeinschaft in Anspruch zu nehmen; zugleich ist es überaus nachteilig und verwirrt die ganze Gesellschaftsordnung. Jedwede Gesellschaftstätigkeit ist ja ihrem Wesen und Begriff nach subsidiär; sie soll die Glieder des Sozialkörpers unterstützen, darf sie aber niemals zerschlagen oder aufsaugen.“ Vgl. Pius XI., Quadragesimo anno (http://www. uibk.ac.at/theol/leseraum/texte/319.html#ch1). [abgerufen am: 12.09.2011 r.] Das Subsidiaritätsprinzip wurde auch zum Gegenstand einer weiteren päpstlichen Enzyklika: Mater et magistra von Johannes XXIII. aus dem Jahr 1961. In der neuen Wirklichkeit nach dem Zweiten Weltkrieg wurde das Prinzip folgendermaßen formuliert „Immer aber muss dabei festgehalten werden: Die Sorge des Staates für die Wirtschaft, so weit und so tief sie auch in das Gemeinschaftsleben eingreift, muss dergestalt sein, dass sieden Raum der Privatinitiative der einzelnen Bürger nicht nur nicht einschränkt, sondern vielmehr ausweitet, allerdings so, dass die wesentlichen Rechte jeder menschlichen Person gewahrt bleiben.“ In dieser Enzyklika wird das Subsidiaritätsprinzip als eine Art Maßstab für staatliche Intervention begriffen, die „fördert, anregt, regelt, Lücken schließt und Vollständigkeit gewährleistet.” Dieses Verständnis wurde von Papst Johannes Paul II. in seiner Enzyklika Centesimus annus bestätigt. Vgl. Johannes Paul II., Centesimus annus (http://www.vatican.va/edocs/DEU0071/_INDEX.HTM). [abgerufen am: 12.09.2011].
18 In der Enzyklika Quadragesimo anno (1931) von Papst Pius XI. heißt es: „Was der Einzelmensch aus eigener Initiative und mit seinen eigenen Kräften leisten kann, darf ihm nicht entzogen und der Gesellschaftstätigkeit zugewiesen werden, so verstößt es gegen die Gerechtigkeit, das, was die kleineren und untergeordneten Gemeinwesen leisten und zum guten Ende führen können, für die weitere und übergeordnete Gemeinschaft in Anspruch zu nehmen; zugleich ist es überaus nachteilig und verwirrt die ganze Gesellschaftsordnung. Jedwede Gesellschaftstätigkeit ist ja ihrem Wesen und Begriff nach subsidiär; sie soll die Glieder des Sozialkörpers unterstützen, darf sie aber niemals zerschlagen oder aufsaugen.“ Vgl. Pius XI., Quadragesimo anno (http://www. uibk.ac.at/theol/leseraum/texte/319.html#ch1). [abgerufen am: 12.09.2011 r.] Das Subsidiaritätsprinzip wurde auch zum Gegenstand einer weiteren päpstlichen Enzyklika: Mater et magistra von Johannes XXIII. aus dem Jahr 1961. In der neuen Wirklichkeit nach dem Zweiten Weltkrieg wurde das Prinzip folgendermaßen formuliert „Immer aber muss dabei festgehalten werden: Die Sorge des Staates für die Wirtschaft, so weit und so tief sie auch in das Gemeinschaftsleben eingreift, muss dergestalt sein, dass sieden Raum der Privatinitiative der einzelnen Bürger nicht nur nicht einschränkt, sondern vielmehr ausweitet, allerdings so, dass die wesentlichen Rechte jeder menschlichen Person gewahrt bleiben.“ In dieser Enzyklika wird das Subsidiaritätsprinzip als eine Art Maßstab für staatliche Intervention begriffen, die „fördert, anregt, regelt, Lücken schließt und Vollständigkeit gewährleistet.” Dieses Verständnis wurde von Papst Johannes Paul II. in seiner Enzyklika Centesimus annus bestätigt. Vgl. Johannes Paul II., Centesimus annus (http://www.vatican.va/edocs/DEU0071/_INDEX.HTM). [abgerufen am: 12.09.2011].
erschienenen Buch: „Gespräch ist Handeln“ [Orlik 2011, S. 7]. Dieser kurze und bündige Satz enthält möglicherweise die Quintessenz der Partizipation. Orlik postuliert die Berufung lokaler und regionaler Kulturräte, in deren Rahmen eine Strategie für die Tätigkeit von Kulturinstitutionen und in weitem Sinn für eine kohärente Kulturpolitik vereinbart werden könnte. Partizipatives Management im öffentlichen Sektor ist auch in einem gewissen Umfang eine Emanation des Subsidiaritätsprinzips, das für das Funktionieren der demokratischen Ordnung von fundamentaler Bedeutung ist. Es ist eines der Grundprinzipien für das Funktionieren einer Verwaltung und gewährleistet, dass sie nicht wuchert und neue Bereiche verschluckt, die bis dahin im Zuständigkeitsbereich zum Beispiel von Verbänden, Kulturinstitutionen, Wohnviertelgemeinschaften, caritativen Organisationen, Unternehmen, Familien und Einzelpersonen lagen. Das Subsidiaritätsprinzip gehört zum allgemeinen Erbe der Gesellschaftsphilosophie. Am deutlichsten und umfassendsten wurde es in der Katholischen Soziallehre formuliert und ausgeformt.18 Es besagt, dass kleineren Organisationen ein Handlungsspielraum belassen werden muss, dass diese nicht vereinnahmt werden dürfen, sondern dass sie bei ihrer Tätigkeit zu fördern und unterstützen sind. In diesem Kontext ist ein Aspekt von besonderer Relevanz, der als „horizontale Subsidiarität“ bezeichnet wird. In einem Rapport aus dem Jahr 2002 unter dem Titel Das Subsidiaritätsprinzip aufs neue durchdacht wird festgestellt, dass „sich die horizontale Subsidiarität auf Komplementarität und Zusammenwirken der Bürger und der öffentlichen Einrichtungen stützt; ihr Ziel ist die Verbesserung des Gemeinwohls. [...] Bürgervereine und Einzelpersonen haben das Recht zur Tätigkeit für die Interessen der Allgemeinheit, ohne dass sie dazu behördliche Bevollmächtigungen und Ge-
Michał Mękarski Der Soziologe, Mitarbeiter des Zentrums „Regionale Kulturobservatorium” an der AdamMickiewicz-Universität, Trainer im Projekt „Kultureinrichtungen im 21. Jh.”. Er arbeitete am Kulturentwicklungsprogramm der Woiwodschaft Wielkopolska für die Jahre 2011-2020. Er nahm an vielen Forschungsprojekten teil, u.a. „Kulturalne potencjały i deficyty miast powiatowych” („Kulturelle Potenziale und Defizite der Kreisstädte“), „Oglądalność mediów lokalnych” („Zuschauerzahlen von lokalen Medien“), „Eurequal. Nierówności społeczne, ich znaczenie
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Michał Mękarski Der Soziologe, Mitarbeiter des Zentrums „Regionale Kulturobservatorium” an der AdamMickiewicz-Universität, Trainer im Projekt „Kultureinrichtungen im 21. Jh.”. Er arbeitete am Kulturentwicklungsprogramm der Woiwodschaft Wielkopolska für die Jahre 2011-2020. Er nahm an vielen Forschungsprojekten teil, u.a. „Kulturalne potencjały i deficyty miast powiatowych” („Kulturelle Potenziale und Defizite der Kreisstädte“), „Oglądalność mediów lokalnych” („Zuschauerzahlen von lokalen Medien“), „Eurequal. Nierówności społeczne, ich znaczenie
so verhält es sich bei Kulturinstitutionen. Es wird also oft eine lokale Kulturstrategie „von oben“ den Mitarbeitern (aber auch den Direktoren von Kulturinstitutionen) oktroyiert. Dabei fehlt ein weiteres wichtiges Merkmal der Partizipation, nämlich die Identifikation mit der Strategie. Es kann sogar zu einer ablehnenden Haltung kommen, wenn der Eindruck entstehet, dass sie „von Leuten gemacht wurden, die keine Ahnung haben, was sich an der Basis tut“, die sich nur ungenügend in den realen Bedingungen der Implementierung der Strategie und ihrer praktischen Anwendbarkeit auskennen. „Auf diese Weise verliert man ein enormes Potenzial an Wissen, Fähigkeiten und Kreativität, das im gesamten Unternehmen verstreut ist und sich sich unnatürlich auf die Etappen der Planung bis zur Etappe der Implementierung aufteilt.“ [Śliwa 2011, S. 2]. Dementgegen beruht das Partizipationsmodell auf Offenheit bei der Erweiterung des Kreises der Teilnehmer an dem Prozess, der Einbeziehung unterschiedlicher Gesichtspunkte, Erfahrungen und unterschiedlichen – häufig ausgesprochen praktischen – Wissens. Aus der Praxis geht hervor, dass häufig revolutionäre Lösungen für das Funktionieren eines Unternehmens auf den niedrigeren Hierarchieebenen entstehen. Die subjektive Behandlung der Mitarbeiter löst oft auf natürliche Weise ihre kreative Arbeitseinstellung und infolgedessen ihre Effizienz aus. Anna Witek-Crabb hat hingegen, darin Gary Hamel folgend, auch für dieses Modell die Notwendigkeit einer klaren Führung betont, die der Vielstimmigkeit, wie sie sich aus Situationen mit sehr großer Offenheit ergibt, eine klare Richtung weist und zugleich für „Vielfalt der Perspektiven und Einheit der Ziele“ sorgt [Hamel 1996, s. 80-81]. Das Engagement der Mitarbeiter für die Schaffung einer Strategie gewährleistet also ihre Aktivität bei der Implementierung. Joanna Orlik betitelte die Einführung zu ihrem unlängst
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tionen und -berichten. Er war der Koordinator einer Konferenz „Instytucje kultury w czasach kryzysu” („Kultureinrichtungen in Zeiten der Krise“) (Poznań 2009). Der Leiter der Arbeitsgruppe für Kultur im Rat der Metropole Poznań (2010), Mitautor des Strategischen Programms für Kulturentwicklung in Wielkopolska, wie auch der Forschungen und des Berichts „Kulturalne potencjały i deficyty miast powiatowych” („Kulturelle Potenziale und Defizite der Kreisstädte“) (2010). Der Koordinator einer innovativen Trainingsreihe „Kultureinrichtungen im 21. Jh.”, die von Europäischen Sozialfonds (ESF) in der Woiwodschaft Kujawien-Pommern finanziert wird. Der Direktor des Polish Guitar Academy Festivals.
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nehmigungen einziehen müssen.“ [Roffiaen 2003, S. 7]. Diese „selbstständige Tätigkeit der Bürger muss von den öffentlichen Behörden unterstützt werden“ [Roffiaen 2003, S. 2] und zwar unter Einbeziehung verschiedener Formen der Förderung, darunter auch finanzieller.
2. Die Anwendung des Partizipationsmodells des Managements im Kultursektor
V
ersuchen wir nun, die Eigenschaften dieses Modells auf das Management von Kulturinstitutionen zu übertragen, und zwar im breiteren Kotext: dem Management des Kultursektors durch eine kommunale Selbstverwaltung. Bei unserer heutigen rechtlichen Situation und den üblichen Praktiken lässt es sich nämlich schwerlich von der Selbstständigkeit einer Kulturinstitution sprechen – vergleichbar mit mit der Anwendung von Lösungen auf der Ebene des Firmenmanagements (der Direktion einer Institution). Einer der Vorwürfe, die öffentlichen Kulturinstitutionen vonseiten des „Markts“ gemacht werden, ist eine gewisse strukturelle „Inkompatibilität“ mit dessen Gesetzen. Das Ziel eines Unternehmens ist Gewinn und Gewinnmaximierung. Das Ziel des öffentlichen Sektors, zu dem auch die Kulturinstitutuionen gehören, ist das Erzielen eines direkt oder indirekt formulierten gesellschaftlichen Nutzens. Die Umsetzung dieser Ziele rechtfertigt die Förderung aus öffentlichen Mitteln. Auch wenn der öffentliche Sektor nicht unmittelbar auf die Gewinnerzielung ausgerichtet ist, bedient sich das Management in diesem Bereich doch immer häufiger derselben Regeln, wie sie für Unternehmen gelten. So ist auch das „strategische Management“ zu einer Art Imperativ für das Funktionieren des öffentlichen Sektors und die Effizienz seines Managements geworden. In diesem Sinne versucht sich der öffentliche Sektor an den privaten anzugleichen.19 Es scheint, dass in den Selbstverwaltungen und den von ihnen geführten Kultureinrichtungen das Partizipationsmodell bislang keine Chance hatte, Fuß zu fassen. In vielen Fällen behandeln die Kommunalbehörden die Direktoren von Kultureinrichtungen wie eine unterstellte Verwaltungsebene,
die – indem sie Fördermittel einstreicht – nicht allzu selbstständig auftreten sollte. Die Organe der Selbstverwaltung erwarten von den Kulturinstitutionen, dass ihre Tätigkeit sich in die allgemeine Politik der Stadt oder Gemeinde einfügt. Sie legen selbst den Haushalt der Institution fest und weisen ihnen bestimmte kurzfristige Aufgaben zu. In größeren Städten besitzen Kultureinrichtungen oft eine scheinbar größere Autarkie (zum Beispiel wenn ihnen starke Persönlichkeiten, anerkannte Künstler vorstehen). Häufiger jedoch müssen auch sie die kurzfristigen Ziele der Kommune umsetzen. Direktoren, die eine andere Art von Pragmatismus erkennen lassen, den man als dienstbereit bezeichnen könnte, werden bevorzugt. Über solche Institutionen und ihre Direktoren schreibt Jerzy Hausner: „Kulturinstitutionen erklären sich im Prinzip mit bürokratischer Einmischung in ihre Belange einverstanden, wenn ihnen das den Zugang zu mehr Finanzmitteln ermöglicht, durch die sie sich entwickeln oder überhaupt überleben können. So entsteht auf diese Weise ein Modell der Entwicklung einer Kulturinstitution nach dem Prinzip von Unterordnung und Belohnung. Ein Modell, in dem Entwicklung vor allen Dingen in sachlichen und nicht programmatisch-künstlerischen Kategorien aufgefasst wird. (…) In dieser Situation muss der Direktor einer Kulturinstitution vor allem ein geschickter und vorhersehbarer Spieler/Administrator sein und in weitaus geringem Maße ein Manager, der es versteht, eine eigene langfristige Programmvision für seine Institution aufzustellen und umzusetzen.“ [Hausner 2009, S. 45-46]. Natürlich sollte irgendein Planvorhaben vorhanden sein, das man als kommunale Kulturpolitik bezeichnen könnte. Sehr selten handelt es sich dabei um eine echte Strategie oder Kulturpolitik, selbst wenn ein entsprechendes Dokument verabschiedet wurde. Die Direktoren und Mitarbeiter von Kulturinstitutionen sind dabei zumeist lediglich Ausführende, die keinen Einfluss auf die inhaltliche Gestaltung haben. Es sollte auch so etwas wie einen Puffer zwischen Selbstverwaltung und Kulturinstitution in Form von vermittelnden Kulturräten oder ähnlichen Gremien geben. Die Versuche, solche Räte einzurichten, haben in Polen keine lange Tradition, obwohl fast jede Kulturinstitution einen Programmrat besitzt, der meistens lediglich Fassadencharakter aufweist
19 Mehr dazu vgl.: P. Kieliszewski, Publiczne i prywatne. O nowym modelu relacji międzysektorowych (Öffentlich und privat. Über ein neues Modell der intersektorialen Beziehungen) [in:] A. Gwóźdź (Red.), Od przemysłów kultury do kreatywnej gospodarki (Von den Kulturindustrien zur kreativen Wirtschaft), Narodowe Centrum Kultury, Warszawa 2010, S. 34-46.
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dla gospodarczego i demokratycznego rozwoju Europy i obywateli” („Eurequal. Soziale Ungleichheit und ihre Bedeutung für die wirtschaftliche und demokratische Entwicklung Europas und seiner Bürger”). Er spezialisiert sich im Gebiet Forschungsinstrumente zur quantitativen und qualitativen Forschung.
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19 Mehr dazu vgl.: P. Kieliszewski, Publiczne i prywatne. O nowym modelu relacji międzysektorowych (Öffentlich und privat. Über ein neues Modell der intersektorialen Beziehungen) [in:] A. Gwóźdź (Red.), Od przemysłów kultury do kreatywnej gospodarki (Von den Kulturindustrien zur kreativen Wirtschaft), Narodowe Centrum Kultury, Warszawa 2010, S. 34-46.
ersuchen wir nun, die Eigenschaften dieses Modells auf das Management von Kulturinstitutionen zu übertragen, und zwar im breiteren Kotext: dem Management des Kultursektors durch eine kommunale Selbstverwaltung. Bei unserer heutigen rechtlichen Situation und den üblichen Praktiken lässt es sich nämlich schwerlich von der Selbstständigkeit einer Kulturinstitution sprechen – vergleichbar mit mit der Anwendung von Lösungen auf der Ebene des Firmenmanagements (der Direktion einer Institution). Einer der Vorwürfe, die öffentlichen Kulturinstitutionen vonseiten des „Markts“ gemacht werden, ist eine gewisse strukturelle „Inkompatibilität“ mit dessen Gesetzen. Das Ziel eines Unternehmens ist Gewinn und Gewinnmaximierung. Das Ziel des öffentlichen Sektors, zu dem auch die Kulturinstitutuionen gehören, ist das Erzielen eines direkt oder indirekt formulierten gesellschaftlichen Nutzens. Die Umsetzung dieser Ziele rechtfertigt die Förderung aus öffentlichen Mitteln. Auch wenn der öffentliche Sektor nicht unmittelbar auf die Gewinnerzielung ausgerichtet ist, bedient sich das Management in diesem Bereich doch immer häufiger derselben Regeln, wie sie für Unternehmen gelten. So ist auch das „strategische Management“ zu einer Art Imperativ für das Funktionieren des öffentlichen Sektors und die Effizienz seines Managements geworden. In diesem Sinne versucht sich der öffentliche Sektor an den privaten anzugleichen.19 Es scheint, dass in den Selbstverwaltungen und den von ihnen geführten Kultureinrichtungen das Partizipationsmodell bislang keine Chance hatte, Fuß zu fassen. In vielen Fällen behandeln die Kommunalbehörden die Direktoren von Kultureinrichtungen wie eine unterstellte Verwaltungsebene,
V
2. Die Anwendung des Partizipationsmodells des Managements im Kultursektor nehmigungen einziehen müssen.“ [Roffiaen 2003, S. 7]. Diese „selbstständige Tätigkeit der Bürger muss von den öffentlichen Behörden unterstützt werden“ [Roffiaen 2003, S. 2] und zwar unter Einbeziehung verschiedener Formen der Förderung, darunter auch finanzieller.
die – indem sie Fördermittel einstreicht – nicht allzu selbstständig auftreten sollte. Die Organe der Selbstverwaltung erwarten von den Kulturinstitutionen, dass ihre Tätigkeit sich in die allgemeine Politik der Stadt oder Gemeinde einfügt. Sie legen selbst den Haushalt der Institution fest und weisen ihnen bestimmte kurzfristige Aufgaben zu. In größeren Städten besitzen Kultureinrichtungen oft eine scheinbar größere Autarkie (zum Beispiel wenn ihnen starke Persönlichkeiten, anerkannte Künstler vorstehen). Häufiger jedoch müssen auch sie die kurzfristigen Ziele der Kommune umsetzen. Direktoren, die eine andere Art von Pragmatismus erkennen lassen, den man als dienstbereit bezeichnen könnte, werden bevorzugt. Über solche Institutionen und ihre Direktoren schreibt Jerzy Hausner: „Kulturinstitutionen erklären sich im Prinzip mit bürokratischer Einmischung in ihre Belange einverstanden, wenn ihnen das den Zugang zu mehr Finanzmitteln ermöglicht, durch die sie sich entwickeln oder überhaupt überleben können. So entsteht auf diese Weise ein Modell der Entwicklung einer Kulturinstitution nach dem Prinzip von Unterordnung und Belohnung. Ein Modell, in dem Entwicklung vor allen Dingen in sachlichen und nicht programmatisch-künstlerischen Kategorien aufgefasst wird. (…) In dieser Situation muss der Direktor einer Kulturinstitution vor allem ein geschickter und vorhersehbarer Spieler/Administrator sein und in weitaus geringem Maße ein Manager, der es versteht, eine eigene langfristige Programmvision für seine Institution aufzustellen und umzusetzen.“ [Hausner 2009, S. 45-46]. Natürlich sollte irgendein Planvorhaben vorhanden sein, das man als kommunale Kulturpolitik bezeichnen könnte. Sehr selten handelt es sich dabei um eine echte Strategie oder Kulturpolitik, selbst wenn ein entsprechendes Dokument verabschiedet wurde. Die Direktoren und Mitarbeiter von Kulturinstitutionen sind dabei zumeist lediglich Ausführende, die keinen Einfluss auf die inhaltliche Gestaltung haben. Es sollte auch so etwas wie einen Puffer zwischen Selbstverwaltung und Kulturinstitution in Form von vermittelnden Kulturräten oder ähnlichen Gremien geben. Die Versuche, solche Räte einzurichten, haben in Polen keine lange Tradition, obwohl fast jede Kulturinstitution einen Programmrat besitzt, der meistens lediglich Fassadencharakter aufweist
dla gospodarczego i demokratycznego rozwoju Europy i obywateli” („Eurequal. Soziale Ungleichheit und ihre Bedeutung für die wirtschaftliche und demokratische Entwicklung Europas und seiner Bürger”). Er spezialisiert sich im Gebiet Forschungsinstrumente zur quantitativen und qualitativen Forschung.
Kulturmanagement 2011, Vol 4 (4) Kulturmanagement 2011, Vol 4 (4)
Kępno im Süden der Woiwodschaft Großpolen, die sich mit der Archivierung historischer Fotos ihrer Heimatregion und in einer späteren Aktion der gemeinsamen Sanierung des vernachlässigten evangelischen Friedhofs beschäftigte, brachte die Stadt dazu, Maßnahmen zu ergreifen, um die Bürger zur Aktivität zu ermuntern. Dazu gehörte nicht nur die Wiedereröffnung des seit 17 Jahren geschlossenen Kulturhauses, sondern auch der Mut der Verantwortlichen zuzugeben, selbst nicht zu wissen, wozu das Kulturhaus dienen, welche Funktionen es übernehmen soll, und stattdessen externe Experten zur Erarbeitung eines neuen Modells einzuladen. Die Podiumsdiskussionen und Fokusuntersuchungen waren der Anfang des im Weiteren beschriebenen Projekts. Ein interessanter Versuch, ein Partizipationsfeld gemäß dem Subsidiaritätsprinzip zu gewinnen, ist der Posener Krisenstab. Er stellt einen Versuch der Einbeziehung von Personen, Vereinen und Kulturinstitutionen in die Gestaltung der Kulturpolitik und eine Strategie der Entwicklung der Kultur in der Stadt dar. Die gemeinsame Anstrengung von zahlreichen Mithelfern äußert sich in der Programmierung und Durchführung eines neuen Modells der Zusammenarbeit, von Motivations- und Kontrollmechanismen, die auf eine möglichst objektive Auswahl des Personals (Direktoren, Mitarbeiter) der Kultureinrichtungen und eine Qualitätsbewertung der Institutionen und Personen einwirken. Dieser Stab organisiert, wie eine ähnliche Gruppe in Bydgoszcz, einen lokalen Kulturkongress. Und hier tauchen Dilemmata und Frustrationen in Zusammenhang mit dem Funktionieren des Partizipationsmodells auf. Seine Effizienz wird beeinträchtigt durch die Debatte über zu viele Fragen, die eine bestimmte Kompetenz erfordern. Andererseits muss das neue Posener Modell auf dieser Etappe seiner Entstehung so viele Personen wie möglich bei der Implementierung der erarbeiteten Lösungen engagieren. Hier jedoch erweist sich als Ungunstfaktor dieser Arbeit die Tatsache, dass sie sich in einer gewissen Opposition zu den Posener Kommunalbehörden vollzieht.21 Dies wiederum bewirkt eine Distanz der Beamten zu diesem Projekt und – was verständlich ist – auch der oben von Jerzy Hausner charakterisierten Direktoren.
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und und ohne besonderes Engagement nur die Jahresberichte der Institution absegnet. Es kommt immer häufiger vor, dass eine Strategie auf der Grundlage wissenschaftlicher Untersuchungen entwickelt wird. Gut ist es, wenn sie von einer unabhängigen Einrichtung und mit entsprechender Sorgfalt durchgeführt wird. Beispiele für Untersuchungen, die Erkenntnisse über die tatsächlichen Verhältnisse liefern und zugleich den Dialog mit den Teilnehmern des Managementprozesses suchen, lassen sich immer häufiger finden. Ein solches Projekt waren die von der Woiwodschaft Großpolen (Posen) groß angelegten Feldforschungen (2006-2007) [Kieliszewski, Schmidt 2006, S. 20-25]. Ein anderes interessantes Beispiel für die Nutzung von Untersuchungen als Element der Konfrontation der von Organen der Selbstverwaltung getroffenen Entscheidungen mit den Meinungen der Bürger ist auch eine von der Gemeinde Jarocin in Auftrag gegebene Untersuchung, die zum Ziel hat, die vor einem Jahr erfolgte Zusammenlegung der Schulbibliotheken und der öffentlichen Bibliotheken in dieser Stadt zu evaluieren.20 Überall dort, wo die Selbstverwaltungen nicht vor einer realistischen Diagnose oder Bewertung ihrer Tätigkeit zurückschrecken, können Untersuchungen durchgeführt werden, die den Managementprozess im Kultursektor unterstützen. Die in guter Absicht handelnden Selbstverwaltungsorgane sind überzeugt von der Richtigkeit ihrer Intuitionen und bereits getroffenen Maßnahmen. Diese wollen sie jedoch mit der Resonanz der Bürger oder ausgewählter Vertreter der Einwohnerschaft konfrontieren. So kommt es also auch hier zu einer solchen Akzentverschiebung, Verlagerung der Schwerpunkte im Management, die den Mitarbeitern der Kulturinstitutionen und den Adressaten des Kulturangebots eine Stimme verleiht. Der Empfänger hört damit auf, passiver Rezipient eines von einem Instrukteur oder Kurator programmierten Angebots zu sein. Nach dem Vorbild der sozialen Netzwerke im Internet kann (und will) er so Gemeinschaft, Phänomene, Kulturereignisse mitgestalten. So wie beim digitalen Fernsehen, wo man beliebig ein Programm wählen und zu einer beliebigen Zeit abrufen kann. Unter anderem eine solche Initiative von Internetnutzern, Einwohnern und Liebhabern der Stadt
21������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� Der Posener Krisenstab entstand infolge des Ausscheidens Posens aus dem Wettbewerb um den Titel der Europäischen Kulturhauptstadt 2016, aber auch aufgrund der Kritik an dem für Kulturangelegenheiten zuständigen stellvertretenden Stadtpräsidenten.
20 Mehr zum Projekt selbst vgl.: R. Kaźmierczak, Biblioteki marnowanych potencjałów (Eine Bibliothek vergeudeter Potenziale) [in:] Kieliszewski P., Landsberg P., Poprawski M., Sójka J. (Red.), Instytucje kultury w czasach kryzysu (Kulturinstitutionen in Krisenzeiten) in der Serie des Instituts für Kulturwissenschaft der Adam-Mickiewicz-Universität Posen: Studia kulturoznawcze. Polityka Kulturalna (Kulturwissenschaftliche Studien. Kulturpolitik), Bogucki Wydawnictwo Naukowe, Poznań, S. 73-80.
20 Mehr zum Projekt selbst vgl.: R. Kaźmierczak, Biblioteki marnowanych potencjałów (Eine Bibliothek vergeudeter Potenziale) [in:] Kieliszewski P., Landsberg P., Poprawski M., Sójka J. (Red.), Instytucje kultury w czasach kryzysu (Kulturinstitutionen in Krisenzeiten) in der Serie des Instituts für Kulturwissenschaft der Adam-Mickiewicz-Universität Posen: Studia kulturoznawcze. Polityka Kulturalna (Kulturwissenschaftliche Studien. Kulturpolitik), Bogucki Wydawnictwo Naukowe, Poznań, S. 73-80.
21������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� Der Posener Krisenstab entstand infolge des Ausscheidens Posens aus dem Wettbewerb um den Titel der Europäischen Kulturhauptstadt 2016, aber auch aufgrund der Kritik an dem für Kulturangelegenheiten zuständigen stellvertretenden Stadtpräsidenten.
Kępno im Süden der Woiwodschaft Großpolen, die sich mit der Archivierung historischer Fotos ihrer Heimatregion und in einer späteren Aktion der gemeinsamen Sanierung des vernachlässigten evangelischen Friedhofs beschäftigte, brachte die Stadt dazu, Maßnahmen zu ergreifen, um die Bürger zur Aktivität zu ermuntern. Dazu gehörte nicht nur die Wiedereröffnung des seit 17 Jahren geschlossenen Kulturhauses, sondern auch der Mut der Verantwortlichen zuzugeben, selbst nicht zu wissen, wozu das Kulturhaus dienen, welche Funktionen es übernehmen soll, und stattdessen externe Experten zur Erarbeitung eines neuen Modells einzuladen. Die Podiumsdiskussionen und Fokusuntersuchungen waren der Anfang des im Weiteren beschriebenen Projekts. Ein interessanter Versuch, ein Partizipationsfeld gemäß dem Subsidiaritätsprinzip zu gewinnen, ist der Posener Krisenstab. Er stellt einen Versuch der Einbeziehung von Personen, Vereinen und Kulturinstitutionen in die Gestaltung der Kulturpolitik und eine Strategie der Entwicklung der Kultur in der Stadt dar. Die gemeinsame Anstrengung von zahlreichen Mithelfern äußert sich in der Programmierung und Durchführung eines neuen Modells der Zusammenarbeit, von Motivations- und Kontrollmechanismen, die auf eine möglichst objektive Auswahl des Personals (Direktoren, Mitarbeiter) der Kultureinrichtungen und eine Qualitätsbewertung der Institutionen und Personen einwirken. Dieser Stab organisiert, wie eine ähnliche Gruppe in Bydgoszcz, einen lokalen Kulturkongress. Und hier tauchen Dilemmata und Frustrationen in Zusammenhang mit dem Funktionieren des Partizipationsmodells auf. Seine Effizienz wird beeinträchtigt durch die Debatte über zu viele Fragen, die eine bestimmte Kompetenz erfordern. Andererseits muss das neue Posener Modell auf dieser Etappe seiner Entstehung so viele Personen wie möglich bei der Implementierung der erarbeiteten Lösungen engagieren. Hier jedoch erweist sich als Ungunstfaktor dieser Arbeit die Tatsache, dass sie sich in einer gewissen Opposition zu den Posener Kommunalbehörden vollzieht.21 Dies wiederum bewirkt eine Distanz der Beamten zu diesem Projekt und – was verständlich ist – auch der oben von Jerzy Hausner charakterisierten Direktoren.
164
und und ohne besonderes Engagement nur die Jahresberichte der Institution absegnet. Es kommt immer häufiger vor, dass eine Strategie auf der Grundlage wissenschaftlicher Untersuchungen entwickelt wird. Gut ist es, wenn sie von einer unabhängigen Einrichtung und mit entsprechender Sorgfalt durchgeführt wird. Beispiele für Untersuchungen, die Erkenntnisse über die tatsächlichen Verhältnisse liefern und zugleich den Dialog mit den Teilnehmern des Managementprozesses suchen, lassen sich immer häufiger finden. Ein solches Projekt waren die von der Woiwodschaft Großpolen (Posen) groß angelegten Feldforschungen (2006-2007) [Kieliszewski, Schmidt 2006, S. 20-25]. Ein anderes interessantes Beispiel für die Nutzung von Untersuchungen als Element der Konfrontation der von Organen der Selbstverwaltung getroffenen Entscheidungen mit den Meinungen der Bürger ist auch eine von der Gemeinde Jarocin in Auftrag gegebene Untersuchung, die zum Ziel hat, die vor einem Jahr erfolgte Zusammenlegung der Schulbibliotheken und der öffentlichen Bibliotheken in dieser Stadt zu evaluieren.20 Überall dort, wo die Selbstverwaltungen nicht vor einer realistischen Diagnose oder Bewertung ihrer Tätigkeit zurückschrecken, können Untersuchungen durchgeführt werden, die den Managementprozess im Kultursektor unterstützen. Die in guter Absicht handelnden Selbstverwaltungsorgane sind überzeugt von der Richtigkeit ihrer Intuitionen und bereits getroffenen Maßnahmen. Diese wollen sie jedoch mit der Resonanz der Bürger oder ausgewählter Vertreter der Einwohnerschaft konfrontieren. So kommt es also auch hier zu einer solchen Akzentverschiebung, Verlagerung der Schwerpunkte im Management, die den Mitarbeitern der Kulturinstitutionen und den Adressaten des Kulturangebots eine Stimme verleiht. Der Empfänger hört damit auf, passiver Rezipient eines von einem Instrukteur oder Kurator programmierten Angebots zu sein. Nach dem Vorbild der sozialen Netzwerke im Internet kann (und will) er so Gemeinschaft, Phänomene, Kulturereignisse mitgestalten. So wie beim digitalen Fernsehen, wo man beliebig ein Programm wählen und zu einer beliebigen Zeit abrufen kann. Unter anderem eine solche Initiative von Internetnutzern, Einwohnern und Liebhabern der Stadt
165
Kulturmanagement 2011, Vol 4 (4)
Es gibt eine ganze Reihe anderer Orte in Polen, wo auf ähnliche Weise versucht wird, strategisches Planen in der Kultur zu implementieren und das Partizipationsfeld zu erweitern. Ein Zentrum, das solche Maßnahmen auf regionaler Ebene aktiv fördert, ist etwa das Kleinpolnische Kulturinstitut, auf Landesebene ist das Nationale Kulturzentrum führend, in dessen Strukturen das Kulturobservatorium funktioniert, das ein Netz von lokalen Observatorien im ganzen Land aufbaut. So bildet sich eine neue Qualität des strategischen Denkens über Kultur heraus. Es lohnt sich, darauf zu achten, dass es seinen partizipativen Charakter beibehält.
einer lokalen Kulturpolitik beschäftigt. Seine Beratungsleistungen für Selbstverwaltungsorgane und Kulturinstitutionen wird immer sehnlicher erwartet. Es besteht ein Bedarf nach Stimulierung von Maßnahmen, die eine Kooperation und Debatte über den Zustand der Kultur unterstützen, gute Praktiken verbreiten und solche Modelle empfehlen, die als Träger von Innovation und Optimierung funktionieren können. Die Anhebung des Niveaus der Auseinandersetzung und des Bewusstseins des gemeinsamen Zusammenwirkens unterschiedlicher Subjekte äußert sich auch in den vom regionalen Kulturzentrum verfolgten Forschungsprojekten.
3. Die Regionalen Kulturobservatorien – als Institution (nicht) nur wissenschaftlicher Untersuchung
4. Das Forschungsprojekt – als Dialog
W
enn wir über den Bedarf nach Dialog und Zusammenarbeit schreiben, die unverzichtbare Elemente des Partizipationsmodells des Managements im Kulturbereich sind, lohnt es sich, an dieser Stelle auf die Tatsache und Umstände der Entstehung des regionalen Kulturobservatoriums hinzuweisen. Im Jahr 2010 unterzeichnete der Rektor der Adam-Mickiewicz-Universität Posen mit dem Präsidenten der Stadt Posen ein Intentionsschreiben, das die Einrichtung eines universitären Zentrum als Plattform der Zusammenarbeit der Universität mit der Stadt Posen im Bereich der Überwachung und Untersuchung des Kultursektors beinhaltete. Dieser beidseitige Wille zur Zusammenarbeit für die Kultur unter Beibehaltung partnerschaftlicher Beziehungen war auch ein Ergebnis pragmatischen Denkens und Antwort auf den Bedarf, der in der europaweiten Tendenz zur Schaffung solcher Einrichtungen, die sich mit Überwachung und Untersuchung der mit der Kultur verbundenen Bereiche befassen, zum Ausdruck kommt. Das Observatorium ist tätig (oder beabsichtigt dies) in vielen verschiedenen Bereichen, wobei es sich nicht nur auf Überwachung und Untersuchungen des Kultursektors im Kontext der Gestaltung
I
m Jahr 2010 führte ein Team um das Regionale Kulturobservatorium und die Polnische Kulturstiftung das Forschungsprojekt „Kulturelle Potenziale und Defizite der Kreisstädte“ durch, das aus Mitteln des Nationalen Kulturzentrums gefördert wurde. Die Untersuchung umfasste sechs ausgewählte Städte der Woiwodschaft Großpolen: Czarnków, Gniezno, Jarocin, Kępno, Turek und Wolsztyn22. Die aufgrund ihrer räumlichen Lage und Einwohnerzahl ausgewählten Städte ermöglichten es, im Abschlussbericht23 die Vielfalt (sowohl in der Menge der Chancen und des Potenzials der lokalen Kultur als auch der Komplexität und Differenziertheit ihrer Defizite und Bedrohungen) der Kultur der ganzen Woiwodschaft zum Vorschein zu bringen. Die Wahl kleinerer Städte brachte noch ein weiteres Resultat: Sie führte dazu, dass die durch ihre niedrige Einwohnerzahl und die Entfernung von der Hauptstadt Großpolens häufig marginalisierten und übersehenen Kreisstädte wahrgenommen und an der Diskussion über die Kultur beteiligt wurden – ein wesentliches Ergebnis, wenn man an das Partizipationsmodell denkt, in dem alle (auch die kleinsten) interessierten Parteien (gleichberechtigte und partnerschaftlich behandelte) Teilnehmer sind. Die Untersuchungen schufen zudem die Mög-
22 Das Forscherteam wählte sechs mittelgroße Kreisstädte (mit Ausnahme des mit ca. 30.000 Einwohnern etwas größeren Gniezno), die in verschiedenen Gegenden der Woiwodschaft gelegen sind und unterschiedlich weit von der Hauptstadt Posen entfernt sind (von Gnesen mit 50 km bis Kępna mit 170 km). Diese Auswahl der Städte ermöglichte es, die Vielfalt der Kultur in Großpolen mit ihren Potenzialen und Defiziten zu erfassen. Die Untersuchungsergebnisse gingen in die Diagnose Programm zur Kulturentwicklung in der Woiwodschaft Großpolen für die Jahre 2011-2020 ein. 23 Der Bericht kann auf der Webseite http://platformakultury.pl/files/2011-01-04/kulturalne_potencjay_i_deficyty _miast_powiatowych__raport.pdf eingesehen werden [abgerufen am: 22.04.2011 r.].
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23 Der Bericht kann auf der Webseite http://platformakultury.pl/files/2011-01-04/kulturalne_potencjay_i_deficyty _miast_powiatowych__raport.pdf eingesehen werden [abgerufen am: 22.04.2011 r.]. 22 Das Forscherteam wählte sechs mittelgroße Kreisstädte (mit Ausnahme des mit ca. 30.000 Einwohnern etwas größeren Gniezno), die in verschiedenen Gegenden der Woiwodschaft gelegen sind und unterschiedlich weit von der Hauptstadt Posen entfernt sind (von Gnesen mit 50 km bis Kępna mit 170 km). Diese Auswahl der Städte ermöglichte es, die Vielfalt der Kultur in Großpolen mit ihren Potenzialen und Defiziten zu erfassen. Die Untersuchungsergebnisse gingen in die Diagnose Programm zur Kulturentwicklung in der Woiwodschaft Großpolen für die Jahre 2011-2020 ein.
enn wir über den Bedarf nach Dialog und Zusammenarbeit schreiben, die unverzichtbare Elemente des Partizipationsmodells des Managements im Kulturbereich sind, lohnt es sich, an dieser Stelle auf die Tatsache und Umstände der Entstehung des regionalen Kulturobservatoriums hinzuweisen. Im Jahr 2010 unterzeichnete der Rektor der Adam-Mickiewicz-Universität Posen mit dem Präsidenten der Stadt Posen ein Intentionsschreiben, das die Einrichtung eines universitären Zentrum als Plattform der Zusammenarbeit der Universität mit der Stadt Posen im Bereich der Überwachung und Untersuchung des Kultursektors beinhaltete. Dieser beidseitige Wille zur Zusammenarbeit für die Kultur unter Beibehaltung partnerschaftlicher Beziehungen war auch ein Ergebnis pragmatischen Denkens und Antwort auf den Bedarf, der in der europaweiten Tendenz zur Schaffung solcher Einrichtungen, die sich mit Überwachung und Untersuchung der mit der Kultur verbundenen Bereiche befassen, zum Ausdruck kommt. Das Observatorium ist tätig (oder beabsichtigt dies) in vielen verschiedenen Bereichen, wobei es sich nicht nur auf Überwachung und Untersuchungen des Kultursektors im Kontext der Gestaltung
W
m Jahr 2010 führte ein Team um das Regionale Kulturobservatorium und die Polnische Kulturstiftung das Forschungsprojekt „Kulturelle Potenziale und Defizite der Kreisstädte“ durch, das aus Mitteln des Nationalen Kulturzentrums gefördert wurde. Die Untersuchung umfasste sechs ausgewählte Städte der Woiwodschaft Großpolen: Czarnków, Gniezno, Jarocin, Kępno, Turek und Wolsztyn22. Die aufgrund ihrer räumlichen Lage und Einwohnerzahl ausgewählten Städte ermöglichten es, im Abschlussbericht23 die Vielfalt (sowohl in der Menge der Chancen und des Potenzials der lokalen Kultur als auch der Komplexität und Differenziertheit ihrer Defizite und Bedrohungen) der Kultur der ganzen Woiwodschaft zum Vorschein zu bringen. Die Wahl kleinerer Städte brachte noch ein weiteres Resultat: Sie führte dazu, dass die durch ihre niedrige Einwohnerzahl und die Entfernung von der Hauptstadt Großpolens häufig marginalisierten und übersehenen Kreisstädte wahrgenommen und an der Diskussion über die Kultur beteiligt wurden – ein wesentliches Ergebnis, wenn man an das Partizipationsmodell denkt, in dem alle (auch die kleinsten) interessierten Parteien (gleichberechtigte und partnerschaftlich behandelte) Teilnehmer sind. Die Untersuchungen schufen zudem die Mög-
I
4. Das Forschungsprojekt – als Dialog
3. Die Regionalen Kulturobservatorien – als Institution (nicht) nur wissenschaftlicher Untersuchung
einer lokalen Kulturpolitik beschäftigt. Seine Beratungsleistungen für Selbstverwaltungsorgane und Kulturinstitutionen wird immer sehnlicher erwartet. Es besteht ein Bedarf nach Stimulierung von Maßnahmen, die eine Kooperation und Debatte über den Zustand der Kultur unterstützen, gute Praktiken verbreiten und solche Modelle empfehlen, die als Träger von Innovation und Optimierung funktionieren können. Die Anhebung des Niveaus der Auseinandersetzung und des Bewusstseins des gemeinsamen Zusammenwirkens unterschiedlicher Subjekte äußert sich auch in den vom regionalen Kulturzentrum verfolgten Forschungsprojekten.
Es gibt eine ganze Reihe anderer Orte in Polen, wo auf ähnliche Weise versucht wird, strategisches Planen in der Kultur zu implementieren und das Partizipationsfeld zu erweitern. Ein Zentrum, das solche Maßnahmen auf regionaler Ebene aktiv fördert, ist etwa das Kleinpolnische Kulturinstitut, auf Landesebene ist das Nationale Kulturzentrum führend, in dessen Strukturen das Kulturobservatorium funktioniert, das ein Netz von lokalen Observatorien im ganzen Land aufbaut. So bildet sich eine neue Qualität des strategischen Denkens über Kultur heraus. Es lohnt sich, darauf zu achten, dass es seinen partizipativen Charakter beibehält.
Kulturmanagement 2011, Vol 4 (4)
lichkeit – was aufgrund der Seltenheit derartiger Untersuchungen nicht häufig vorkommt – eines objektiven Vergleichs der eigenen Stadt und der Ebene der lokalen Kultur mit anderen, ähnlich gearteten Städten in der Region. Das Forschungsprojekt selbst wurde zu einem Instrument eines Denk- und Bewusstseinswandels, der die Notwendigkeit von Änderungen der lokalen Kulturpolitiken deutlich machte. Es rief unterschiedliche Gesellschaftsgruppen zu Diskussion und Engagement auf. Zusätzlich wurde bei beinahe jeder Etappe des Untersuchungsprozesses darauf geachtet, die dank der Studie initiierte Debatte über den Zustand der lokalen Kultur zu weiterzuführen. Dies geschah sowohl durch den Kontakt mit den örtlichen Medien (u. a. durch die Übermittelung von Informationen und Materialien über das Projekt) wie auch durch die Beteiligung der Medien an der zweiten Etappe der Untersuchung (Expertendebatten in Form von fokussierten Gruppeninterviews). Dies war keine leichte Aufgabe, denn der Untersuchungszeitraum und die Begleitmaßnahmen der Debatte fanden in der Zeit des Kommunalwahlkampfs statt und wurden dadurch zuweilen als „weniger wichtig“ betrachtet. Das Projekt wurde durch ein offenes wissenschaftliches Seminar24 abgerundet, in dem die Ergebnisse vorgestellt wurden. Dabei waren auch Vertreter der untersuchten Städte – Bürgermeister und Direktoren von Kulturinstituten, Vertreter des nationalen Kulturzentrums, des Ministeriums für Kultur und Nationalerbe, des Statistischen Hauptamts, Doktoranden, Studenten und Journalisten vertreten.
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5. Beschreibung der Untersuchung
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bei dem unterschiedliche Methoden angewandt wurden. In der ersten Etappe wurde eine Meinungsumfrage durch persönliche Befragung durchgeführt, an der insgesamt 726 Befragte aus allen untersuchten Städten teilnahmen.25 In der zweiten Phase der Untersuchung bediente sich das Team des Regionalen Kulturobservatoriums einer qualitativen Methode in Form von Fokusgruppeninterviews. Warum hat das Forschungsteam die gesellschaftliche Wirklichkeit durch eine dichotomische Unterteilung in Kulturpotenziale und -defizite beschrieben? Die Ermittlung von Stärken und Schwächen ist ein unabdingbarer Ausgangspunkt für jegliches strategisches Denken. Der so konstruierte Forschungsgegenstand ermöglichte es, in klarer und transparenter Form darzustellen, dass das Projekt auf eine Diagnose des Zustands der lokalen Kultur und die Skizzierung der weiteren Entwicklungslinien in diesem Bereich zielt. Das Wissen, das sich aus dem Abschlussbericht ergibt, zeigt genau die Stärken und Schwächen des städtischen Kulturlebens auf, was wiederum den kommunalen Behörden und allen Interessierten dabei hilft, aufs Neue, durch das Prisma objektivierter Untersuchungsergebnisse, das Kulturpotenzial des eigenen Orts zu konkludieren. Die Wahrnehmung und Benennung von Schwierigkeiten und Defiziten in diesem Bereich sollte wiederum den ersten Schritt zu effektiven Sanierungsmaßnahmen darstellen. Den Fragebogen „Was für eine Kultur wollen junge Großpolen aus (…)? Kulturelle Potenziale und Defizite nach Ansicht der Abiturienten“26 füllten die Lyzeumsabgänger aus den sechs untersuchten Städten aus. Das Forschungsteam hatte eben diese Gesellschaftsgruppe aus mehreren Gründen heraus gewählt. Zum ersten aus der Überzeugung, dass die Ansichten der Jugend stärker exponiert und beachtet werden sollten, wenn man bedenkt, dass das Kulturangebot zu einem großen Teil an eben diese
26 Für jede der sechs Städte wurde ein auf einem gemeinsamen Format des Untersuchungsinstruments beruhender separater Fragebogen entworfen, der sich von den übrigen durch die Anführung lokaler Kulturereignisse, der Bewertung der jeweiligen örtlichen Kulturinstitutionen und der Frequenz der Inanspruchnahme des Kulturangebots unterschieden. Infolgedessen lauteten die Titel der einzelnen Fragebögen: „Was für eine Kultur wollen junge Großpolen aus Czarnków/Gniezno/Jarocin/Kępno/Turek/ Wolsztyn? Kulturelle Potenziale und Defizite nach Ansicht der Abiturienten“ Dank der Verwendung beinahe identischer Fragebögen, war es möglich, sowohl die Ergebnisse der einzelnen Städte untereinander zu vergleichen als auch allgemeine Einschätzungen und gemeinsame Tendenzen zu deduzieren.
D
25 Es wurde eine Zielselektion angewandt und eine integrierte mehrstufige-Ziel-Los-Probegruppe, wobei die Zielauswahl die Zielmengen höherer Ordnung betraf: territorial – die sechs Städte – und organisatorisch – Schulen (das größte allgemeinbildende Lyzeum am Ort) und Klassenprofile (geisteswissenschaftliche, mathematisch-physische, geografische und biologisch-chemische Klassen). Die niedrigere Ebene der Losentscheidung betraf hingegen Gruppen und nicht Einzelpersonen – untersucht wurden einzelne Abiturklassen. In jeder Stadt wurden mindestens 100 Abiturienten untersucht.
as Projekt „Kulturelle Potenziale und Defizite der Kreisstädte“ bestand aus zwei grundsätzlichen Phasen des Untersuchungsprozesses,
24 Das Seminar fand am 13. Dezember 2010 im Institut für Kulturwissenschaft an der Fakultät für Sozialwissenschaften der AdamMickiewicz-Universität Posen statt.
24 Das Seminar fand am 13. Dezember 2010 im Institut für Kulturwissenschaft an der Fakultät für Sozialwissenschaften der AdamMickiewicz-Universität Posen statt.
as Projekt „Kulturelle Potenziale und Defizite der Kreisstädte“ bestand aus zwei grundsätzlichen Phasen des Untersuchungsprozesses,
25 Es wurde eine Zielselektion angewandt und eine integrierte mehrstufige-Ziel-Los-Probegruppe, wobei die Zielauswahl die Zielmengen höherer Ordnung betraf: territorial – die sechs Städte – und organisatorisch – Schulen (das größte allgemeinbildende Lyzeum am Ort) und Klassenprofile (geisteswissenschaftliche, mathematisch-physische, geografische und biologisch-chemische Klassen). Die niedrigere Ebene der Losentscheidung betraf hingegen Gruppen und nicht Einzelpersonen – untersucht wurden einzelne Abiturklassen. In jeder Stadt wurden mindestens 100 Abiturienten untersucht.
D
26 Für jede der sechs Städte wurde ein auf einem gemeinsamen Format des Untersuchungsinstruments beruhender separater Fragebogen entworfen, der sich von den übrigen durch die Anführung lokaler Kulturereignisse, der Bewertung der jeweiligen örtlichen Kulturinstitutionen und der Frequenz der Inanspruchnahme des Kulturangebots unterschieden. Infolgedessen lauteten die Titel der einzelnen Fragebögen: „Was für eine Kultur wollen junge Großpolen aus Czarnków/Gniezno/Jarocin/Kępno/Turek/ Wolsztyn? Kulturelle Potenziale und Defizite nach Ansicht der Abiturienten“ Dank der Verwendung beinahe identischer Fragebögen, war es möglich, sowohl die Ergebnisse der einzelnen Städte untereinander zu vergleichen als auch allgemeine Einschätzungen und gemeinsame Tendenzen zu deduzieren.
5. Beschreibung der Untersuchung
bei dem unterschiedliche Methoden angewandt wurden. In der ersten Etappe wurde eine Meinungsumfrage durch persönliche Befragung durchgeführt, an der insgesamt 726 Befragte aus allen untersuchten Städten teilnahmen.25 In der zweiten Phase der Untersuchung bediente sich das Team des Regionalen Kulturobservatoriums einer qualitativen Methode in Form von Fokusgruppeninterviews. Warum hat das Forschungsteam die gesellschaftliche Wirklichkeit durch eine dichotomische Unterteilung in Kulturpotenziale und -defizite beschrieben? Die Ermittlung von Stärken und Schwächen ist ein unabdingbarer Ausgangspunkt für jegliches strategisches Denken. Der so konstruierte Forschungsgegenstand ermöglichte es, in klarer und transparenter Form darzustellen, dass das Projekt auf eine Diagnose des Zustands der lokalen Kultur und die Skizzierung der weiteren Entwicklungslinien in diesem Bereich zielt. Das Wissen, das sich aus dem Abschlussbericht ergibt, zeigt genau die Stärken und Schwächen des städtischen Kulturlebens auf, was wiederum den kommunalen Behörden und allen Interessierten dabei hilft, aufs Neue, durch das Prisma objektivierter Untersuchungsergebnisse, das Kulturpotenzial des eigenen Orts zu konkludieren. Die Wahrnehmung und Benennung von Schwierigkeiten und Defiziten in diesem Bereich sollte wiederum den ersten Schritt zu effektiven Sanierungsmaßnahmen darstellen. Den Fragebogen „Was für eine Kultur wollen junge Großpolen aus (…)? Kulturelle Potenziale und Defizite nach Ansicht der Abiturienten“26 füllten die Lyzeumsabgänger aus den sechs untersuchten Städten aus. Das Forschungsteam hatte eben diese Gesellschaftsgruppe aus mehreren Gründen heraus gewählt. Zum ersten aus der Überzeugung, dass die Ansichten der Jugend stärker exponiert und beachtet werden sollten, wenn man bedenkt, dass das Kulturangebot zu einem großen Teil an eben diese
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lichkeit – was aufgrund der Seltenheit derartiger Untersuchungen nicht häufig vorkommt – eines objektiven Vergleichs der eigenen Stadt und der Ebene der lokalen Kultur mit anderen, ähnlich gearteten Städten in der Region. Das Forschungsprojekt selbst wurde zu einem Instrument eines Denk- und Bewusstseinswandels, der die Notwendigkeit von Änderungen der lokalen Kulturpolitiken deutlich machte. Es rief unterschiedliche Gesellschaftsgruppen zu Diskussion und Engagement auf. Zusätzlich wurde bei beinahe jeder Etappe des Untersuchungsprozesses darauf geachtet, die dank der Studie initiierte Debatte über den Zustand der lokalen Kultur zu weiterzuführen. Dies geschah sowohl durch den Kontakt mit den örtlichen Medien (u. a. durch die Übermittelung von Informationen und Materialien über das Projekt) wie auch durch die Beteiligung der Medien an der zweiten Etappe der Untersuchung (Expertendebatten in Form von fokussierten Gruppeninterviews). Dies war keine leichte Aufgabe, denn der Untersuchungszeitraum und die Begleitmaßnahmen der Debatte fanden in der Zeit des Kommunalwahlkampfs statt und wurden dadurch zuweilen als „weniger wichtig“ betrachtet. Das Projekt wurde durch ein offenes wissenschaftliches Seminar24 abgerundet, in dem die Ergebnisse vorgestellt wurden. Dabei waren auch Vertreter der untersuchten Städte – Bürgermeister und Direktoren von Kulturinstituten, Vertreter des nationalen Kulturzentrums, des Ministeriums für Kultur und Nationalerbe, des Statistischen Hauptamts, Doktoranden, Studenten und Journalisten vertreten.
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Gruppe adressiert ist. Abiturienten sind selbstständig und mobil genug, um durch Reisen in andere Städte Vergleiche des Kulturangebots und seiner Qualität ziehen zu können. Diese Gesellschaftsgruppe besitzt in der Regel präzisierte Interessen und einen kritischen Blick auf die uns umgebende Wirklichkeit. Außerdem steht diese Gruppe vor der Wahl ihres weiteren Lebensweges – ein großer Teil von ihnen begibt sich zum Studium in eine größere Stadt. Darüber, ob sie in ihre Heimatstädte zurückkehren werden, entscheiden verschiedene Faktoren. Einer davon kann die Zufriedenheit mit dem Niveau des örtlichen Kulturlebens sein. Um ein möglichst genaues Wissen über die Kultur der jeweiligen Stadt zu gewinnen, wurde ein achtseitiger Fragebogen konstruiert, der die Bewertung verschiedener Aspekte des städtischen Kulturlebens enthielt27. Die Intention der Forscher war die Erarbeitung eines solchen Instruments, das die Möglichkeit bietet, sich ein umfassendes Bild von der Meinung der Abiturienten zu machen. Zu diesem Zweck wurden auch offene Fragen in den Fragebogen aufgenommen, in denen jeder die Möglichkeit hatte, seine Ansichten frei und ausführlich darzulegen. Ein Bild der Wirklichkeit nur auf der Grundlage der Meinungen der Abiturienten wäre nicht vollständig, deswegen wandte man sich auch an Experten, die täglich das örtliche Kulturleben mitgestalten. In allen untersuchten Städten wurden Expertenforen als Fokusgruppen eingerichtet. Dazu wurden Vertreter der meinungsbildenden Kreise der Städte eingeladen (Vertreter von Kulturinstitutionen, Behörden, Nichtregierungsorganisationen, Bürgerinitiativen, Lokaljournalisten, Kulturanimateure). Das Kulturobservatorium ging von der Überzeugung aus, dass nur durch offenes Gespräch – ob Dialog oder Streit – und Austausch von Argumenten die Probleme benannt und neue Ideen generiert, Bereiche für erforderliche Interventionen oder Korrekturen der bisherigen Maßnahmen aufgezeigt werden können. Diese Fokussierung brachte einen doppelten Nutzen. Einerseits ermöglichte sie die Erfassung
von Meinungen, Ideen und Visionen für die Verbesserung des Zustands der städtischen Kultur, die von Menschen zum Ausdruck gebracht wurde, die unmittelbar mit diesem Bereich verbunden sind. Andererseits diente sie – abgesehen von den Untersuchungszielen – der Integration des die Kultur gestaltenden Umfelds, um gemeinsame Ziele formulieren zu können. An dieser Stelle ist anzumerken, dass die Möglichkeit der Meinungsäußerung einer derart differenzierten Gruppe in jeder der untersuchten Städte in einigen Fällen einen ersten (und außerordentlich elementaren) Schritt in Richtung einer Vergesellschaftung des Entscheidungsprozesses und der Aufnahme eines partnerschaftlichen Dialogs zwischen den Entscheidungsträgern und denjenigen, die zu einer Verbesserung des örtlichen Kulturlebens beitragen möchten, darstellte. Die Expertenforen bildeten oft die erste Gelegenheit zu einer derart breit angelegten Diskussion. Viele der Teilnehmer merkten den Bedarf nach einer regelmäßigen Fortsetzung solcher Begegnungen an.
6. Triangulation – eine Methode zur Qualitätssteigerung einer Untersuchung
D
as Problem der Auswahl einer geeigneten Forschungsmethode ist nicht nur ein Dilemma, das sich aus bestimmten Überzeugungen und Herangehensweisen des Wissenschaftlers an die gesellschaftliche Wirklichkeit ergibt – es hängt auch vom Forschungsgegenstand ab. Das äußert sich in der Antwort auf die (scheinbar) simple Frage: Wen und was wollen wir untersuchen? Es gibt keine (und wird es niemals geben) einzige, angemessene und vollständige Methode der Untersuchung von Kultur, so wie es auch nicht eine einzige Definition und Begrifflichkeit der Kultur gibt. Mit Sicherheit hat Aaron Cicourel durchaus recht, wenn er behauptet, dass „Zahlen für eine bürokratisch-technologische Gesellschaft anspre-
27��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� Die Fragen berührten unter anderem: die wichtigsten Kulturereignisse in den Kreisstädten und den Erkennungswert des Kulturangebots; die Frequenz der Inanspruchnahme des Kulturangebots; die Bewertung der Qualität des Kulturangebots (unter anderem unter den Aspekten: Zahl der Veranstaltungen, ihre Zugänglichkeit und Vielfalt); die Bewertung der Tätigkeit der einzelnen Kulturinstitutionen/ Kulturorganisationen); das Gewicht von Faktoren wie Werbung für die Veranstaltung, Höhe des Eintrittsgeldes oder Erweiterung des Angebots; Stärken und Mängel im Angebot; konkrete Veranstaltungen, die einer besseren Vermarktung oder finanziellen Förderung bedürfen; Veranstaltungen, die als Visitenkarten der Stadt gelten dürfen; die Informationsquellen über Kulturveranstaltungen; die Städte mit dem interessantesten Kulturangebot; die entscheidenden Faktoren für die Wahl des Studienortes; die am stärksten aus dem kulturellen Leben ausgegrenzten sozialen Gruppen; die Bewertung der Kulturpolitik der Kommunen, den Einfluss der Kultur auf andere Sphären des Lebens (zum Beispiel Stadtmarketing); den Nutzen der Kultur und die persönlichen Erwartungen.
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27��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� Die Fragen berührten unter anderem: die wichtigsten Kulturereignisse in den Kreisstädten und den Erkennungswert des Kulturangebots; die Frequenz der Inanspruchnahme des Kulturangebots; die Bewertung der Qualität des Kulturangebots (unter anderem unter den Aspekten: Zahl der Veranstaltungen, ihre Zugänglichkeit und Vielfalt); die Bewertung der Tätigkeit der einzelnen Kulturinstitutionen/ Kulturorganisationen); das Gewicht von Faktoren wie Werbung für die Veranstaltung, Höhe des Eintrittsgeldes oder Erweiterung des Angebots; Stärken und Mängel im Angebot; konkrete Veranstaltungen, die einer besseren Vermarktung oder finanziellen Förderung bedürfen; Veranstaltungen, die als Visitenkarten der Stadt gelten dürfen; die Informationsquellen über Kulturveranstaltungen; die Städte mit dem interessantesten Kulturangebot; die entscheidenden Faktoren für die Wahl des Studienortes; die am stärksten aus dem kulturellen Leben ausgegrenzten sozialen Gruppen; die Bewertung der Kulturpolitik der Kommunen, den Einfluss der Kultur auf andere Sphären des Lebens (zum Beispiel Stadtmarketing); den Nutzen der Kultur und die persönlichen Erwartungen.
Gruppe adressiert ist. Abiturienten sind selbstständig und mobil genug, um durch Reisen in andere Städte Vergleiche des Kulturangebots und seiner Qualität ziehen zu können. Diese Gesellschaftsgruppe besitzt in der Regel präzisierte Interessen und einen kritischen Blick auf die uns umgebende Wirklichkeit. Außerdem steht diese Gruppe vor der Wahl ihres weiteren Lebensweges – ein großer Teil von ihnen begibt sich zum Studium in eine größere Stadt. Darüber, ob sie in ihre Heimatstädte zurückkehren werden, entscheiden verschiedene Faktoren. Einer davon kann die Zufriedenheit mit dem Niveau des örtlichen Kulturlebens sein. Um ein möglichst genaues Wissen über die Kultur der jeweiligen Stadt zu gewinnen, wurde ein achtseitiger Fragebogen konstruiert, der die Bewertung verschiedener Aspekte des städtischen Kulturlebens enthielt27. Die Intention der Forscher war die Erarbeitung eines solchen Instruments, das die Möglichkeit bietet, sich ein umfassendes Bild von der Meinung der Abiturienten zu machen. Zu diesem Zweck wurden auch offene Fragen in den Fragebogen aufgenommen, in denen jeder die Möglichkeit hatte, seine Ansichten frei und ausführlich darzulegen. Ein Bild der Wirklichkeit nur auf der Grundlage der Meinungen der Abiturienten wäre nicht vollständig, deswegen wandte man sich auch an Experten, die täglich das örtliche Kulturleben mitgestalten. In allen untersuchten Städten wurden Expertenforen als Fokusgruppen eingerichtet. Dazu wurden Vertreter der meinungsbildenden Kreise der Städte eingeladen (Vertreter von Kulturinstitutionen, Behörden, Nichtregierungsorganisationen, Bürgerinitiativen, Lokaljournalisten, Kulturanimateure). Das Kulturobservatorium ging von der Überzeugung aus, dass nur durch offenes Gespräch – ob Dialog oder Streit – und Austausch von Argumenten die Probleme benannt und neue Ideen generiert, Bereiche für erforderliche Interventionen oder Korrekturen der bisherigen Maßnahmen aufgezeigt werden können. Diese Fokussierung brachte einen doppelten Nutzen. Einerseits ermöglichte sie die Erfassung
as Problem der Auswahl einer geeigneten Forschungsmethode ist nicht nur ein Dilemma, das sich aus bestimmten Überzeugungen und Herangehensweisen des Wissenschaftlers an die gesellschaftliche Wirklichkeit ergibt – es hängt auch vom Forschungsgegenstand ab. Das äußert sich in der Antwort auf die (scheinbar) simple Frage: Wen und was wollen wir untersuchen? Es gibt keine (und wird es niemals geben) einzige, angemessene und vollständige Methode der Untersuchung von Kultur, so wie es auch nicht eine einzige Definition und Begrifflichkeit der Kultur gibt. Mit Sicherheit hat Aaron Cicourel durchaus recht, wenn er behauptet, dass „Zahlen für eine bürokratisch-technologische Gesellschaft anspre-
D
6. Triangulation – eine Methode zur Qualitätssteigerung einer Untersuchung von Meinungen, Ideen und Visionen für die Verbesserung des Zustands der städtischen Kultur, die von Menschen zum Ausdruck gebracht wurde, die unmittelbar mit diesem Bereich verbunden sind. Andererseits diente sie – abgesehen von den Untersuchungszielen – der Integration des die Kultur gestaltenden Umfelds, um gemeinsame Ziele formulieren zu können. An dieser Stelle ist anzumerken, dass die Möglichkeit der Meinungsäußerung einer derart differenzierten Gruppe in jeder der untersuchten Städte in einigen Fällen einen ersten (und außerordentlich elementaren) Schritt in Richtung einer Vergesellschaftung des Entscheidungsprozesses und der Aufnahme eines partnerschaftlichen Dialogs zwischen den Entscheidungsträgern und denjenigen, die zu einer Verbesserung des örtlichen Kulturlebens beitragen möchten, darstellte. Die Expertenforen bildeten oft die erste Gelegenheit zu einer derart breit angelegten Diskussion. Viele der Teilnehmer merkten den Bedarf nach einer regelmäßigen Fortsetzung solcher Begegnungen an.
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überein, der behauptet, dass Triangulation nicht ein Werkzeug oder eine Strategie der Treffsicherheit ist, sondern seine Konkurrenz. Deshalb ist sie als Prozess zu verstehen, als „Summierung der Rigorosität, Dynamik, Komplexität, Reichhaltigkeit und Tiefe einer jeden Untersuchung” [vgl. Denzin, Lincoln 2009, S. 26-27].
as Untersuchungsergebnis sind die gewonnenen Einsichten. Informationen, Daten, Empfehlungen, Schlussfolgerungen liefern – ungeachtet ihres unterschiedlichen Charakters – Wissensressourcen. Werden diese ausgewertet und die sich daraus ergebenden Empfehlungen implementiert, dann können sie die gesellschaftliche Wirklichkeit ändern. Untersuchungen des Kultursektors sind nutzbringend. Diese triviale Feststellung ist allerdings zu erweitern um die Liste ihrer Nutznießer, um die Differenziertheit der Ergebnisse und die große Zahl der Parteien, die durch diese Untersuchungen gewinnen können, zu vergegenwärtigen. Die erste Gruppe sind die Befragten selbst. Dadurch, dass sie an der Umfrage teilnehmen, gewinnen sie das Gefühl, dass ihre Meinung zählt und ernst genommen wird. Die Äußerung der eigenen Meinung kann auch mit der Erwartung von Veränderungen zusammenhängen. Ein weiterer (nicht immer bewusst gemachter) Nutzen besteht darin, dass die Untersuchung die Befragten zum Nachdenken anregt und sie ermuntert, die gesellschaftliche Wirklichkeit ihrer Lebensumgebung eingehender zu betrachten. Im Alltag neigen wir dazu, ohne vertieftes Nachdenken an viele Aspekte des Lebens heranzutreten, und erst die „Hervorrufung“ eines Themas bewirkt, dass wir beginnen, das Problem als solches wahrzunehmen. Gesellschaftswissenschaftliche Untersuchungen wirken oft als Impuls, der zur Diskussion oder gar zu Veränderungen anspornt. Leider kommt es auch vor, dass die Befragten manipuliert werden, so etwa in einem kleinen Ort in der Woiwodschaft Kujawien-Pommern, wo die Idee der Untersuchung entstellt wurde. Man verzichtete dort auf die Beteiligung von Wissenschaftlern. Die Beamten formulierten selbst einen Fragebogen, der von zufälligen Personen ausgefüllt wurde. Aus den drei letzten Fragen sollte eine Bewertung der Tätigkeit des bisherigen Direktors des örtlichen Kulturzentrums hervorgehen. Die Veränderung, die aufgrund des Ergebnisses vorgenommen werden
7. Die Untersuchungsergebnisse und ihre NutznieSSer
D
D
7. Die Untersuchungsergebnisse und ihre NutznieSSer
as Untersuchungsergebnis sind die gewonnenen Einsichten. Informationen, Daten, Empfehlungen, Schlussfolgerungen liefern – ungeachtet ihres unterschiedlichen Charakters – Wissensressourcen. Werden diese ausgewertet und die sich daraus ergebenden Empfehlungen implementiert, dann können sie die gesellschaftliche Wirklichkeit ändern. Untersuchungen des Kultursektors sind nutzbringend. Diese triviale Feststellung ist allerdings zu erweitern um die Liste ihrer Nutznießer, um die Differenziertheit der Ergebnisse und die große Zahl der Parteien, die durch diese Untersuchungen gewinnen können, zu vergegenwärtigen. Die erste Gruppe sind die Befragten selbst. Dadurch, dass sie an der Umfrage teilnehmen, gewinnen sie das Gefühl, dass ihre Meinung zählt und ernst genommen wird. Die Äußerung der eigenen Meinung kann auch mit der Erwartung von Veränderungen zusammenhängen. Ein weiterer (nicht immer bewusst gemachter) Nutzen besteht darin, dass die Untersuchung die Befragten zum Nachdenken anregt und sie ermuntert, die gesellschaftliche Wirklichkeit ihrer Lebensumgebung eingehender zu betrachten. Im Alltag neigen wir dazu, ohne vertieftes Nachdenken an viele Aspekte des Lebens heranzutreten, und erst die „Hervorrufung“ eines Themas bewirkt, dass wir beginnen, das Problem als solches wahrzunehmen. Gesellschaftswissenschaftliche Untersuchungen wirken oft als Impuls, der zur Diskussion oder gar zu Veränderungen anspornt. Leider kommt es auch vor, dass die Befragten manipuliert werden, so etwa in einem kleinen Ort in der Woiwodschaft Kujawien-Pommern, wo die Idee der Untersuchung entstellt wurde. Man verzichtete dort auf die Beteiligung von Wissenschaftlern. Die Beamten formulierten selbst einen Fragebogen, der von zufälligen Personen ausgefüllt wurde. Aus den drei letzten Fragen sollte eine Bewertung der Tätigkeit des bisherigen Direktors des örtlichen Kulturzentrums hervorgehen. Die Veränderung, die aufgrund des Ergebnisses vorgenommen werden
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überein, der behauptet, dass Triangulation nicht ein Werkzeug oder eine Strategie der Treffsicherheit ist, sondern seine Konkurrenz. Deshalb ist sie als Prozess zu verstehen, als „Summierung der Rigorosität, Dynamik, Komplexität, Reichhaltigkeit und Tiefe einer jeden Untersuchung” [vgl. Denzin, Lincoln 2009, S. 26-27].
chend sind“ [Silveman 2007, S. 63]. Diagramme, Korrelationen, Prozente, Zahlen können immer transparenter, wissenschaftlicher und objektiver wirken als Daten, die in anderer Form aufbereitet werden. Es ist jedoch ständig daran zu erinnern, dass qualitative Instrumente diejenigen Sphären der gesellschaftlichen Wirklichkeit untersuchen können, die Statistiken und so genannte „harte“ Daten ohnehin nicht messen können. Indem wir uns über die Stärken und Schwächen der einzelnen Methoden im Klaren sind, wollen wir uns insbesondere auf zwei von Marie Jahoda formulierte Grundsätze stützen: 1. Für die Erkenntnis der gesellschaftlichen Wirklichkeit ist es geraten, zugleich auf qualifizierende und auf quantifizierende Methoden zurückzugreifen. 2. Man sollte sowohl objektive Fakten als auch subjektive Meinungen sammeln.“ [Flick 2011, S. 77] Es scheint, dass die Anwendung des Prinzips der Triangulation im Untersuchungsprozess eine wirksame Antwort auf die Schwächen und Beschränktheiten der einzelnen Methoden bietet. Der Begriff selbst entstammt der Landvermessung, wo er die Technik der Bestimmung einzelner Vermessungspunkte auf der Erdoberfläche bezeichnet. In den Sozialwissenschaften lässt sich die Konzeption der Triangulation begreifen als Anwendung von mindestens zwei verschiedenen Gesichtspunkten auf ein und denselben Forschungsgegenstand [Flick 2011, S. 79]. Es geht um die „Verbindung verschiedener Methodologien bei der Untersuchung desselben Phänomens“, wie es Norman Denzin definiert [Flick 2011, S. 81-82]. Es lassen sich vier verschiedene Arten der Triangulation unterscheiden: Triangulation der Daten (das Zurückgreifen auf mehrere verschiedene Datenquellen), der Forscher (die Untersuchungen werden von mehreren Wissenschaftlern durchgeführt), der Theorien (die Anwendung mehrerer theoretische Konzepte, die dasselbe Phänomen erklären) und der Methoden (Verbindung mehrerer Untersuchungsmethoden). Fast alle diese Arten der Triangulation wurden in dem beschriebenen Projekt eingesetzt. Diese führte zu einer Qualitätsverbesserung der Untersuchung durch Erweiterung der Untersuchungsvorgänge. Sie darf jedoch nicht als Allheilmittel betrachtet werden, dessen Anwendung Objektivität und Zuverlässigkeit der Ergebnisse garantieren würde. Triangulation hat mit Sicherheit einen positiven Einfluss auf die Erweiterung des Wissens über die untersuchte Erscheinung und ihr tieferes Verständnis. Norman Denzin und Yvonna Lincoln stimmen mit Uwe Flick
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chend sind“ [Silveman 2007, S. 63]. Diagramme, Korrelationen, Prozente, Zahlen können immer transparenter, wissenschaftlicher und objektiver wirken als Daten, die in anderer Form aufbereitet werden. Es ist jedoch ständig daran zu erinnern, dass qualitative Instrumente diejenigen Sphären der gesellschaftlichen Wirklichkeit untersuchen können, die Statistiken und so genannte „harte“ Daten ohnehin nicht messen können. Indem wir uns über die Stärken und Schwächen der einzelnen Methoden im Klaren sind, wollen wir uns insbesondere auf zwei von Marie Jahoda formulierte Grundsätze stützen: 1. Für die Erkenntnis der gesellschaftlichen Wirklichkeit ist es geraten, zugleich auf qualifizierende und auf quantifizierende Methoden zurückzugreifen. 2. Man sollte sowohl objektive Fakten als auch subjektive Meinungen sammeln.“ [Flick 2011, S. 77] Es scheint, dass die Anwendung des Prinzips der Triangulation im Untersuchungsprozess eine wirksame Antwort auf die Schwächen und Beschränktheiten der einzelnen Methoden bietet. Der Begriff selbst entstammt der Landvermessung, wo er die Technik der Bestimmung einzelner Vermessungspunkte auf der Erdoberfläche bezeichnet. In den Sozialwissenschaften lässt sich die Konzeption der Triangulation begreifen als Anwendung von mindestens zwei verschiedenen Gesichtspunkten auf ein und denselben Forschungsgegenstand [Flick 2011, S. 79]. Es geht um die „Verbindung verschiedener Methodologien bei der Untersuchung desselben Phänomens“, wie es Norman Denzin definiert [Flick 2011, S. 81-82]. Es lassen sich vier verschiedene Arten der Triangulation unterscheiden: Triangulation der Daten (das Zurückgreifen auf mehrere verschiedene Datenquellen), der Forscher (die Untersuchungen werden von mehreren Wissenschaftlern durchgeführt), der Theorien (die Anwendung mehrerer theoretische Konzepte, die dasselbe Phänomen erklären) und der Methoden (Verbindung mehrerer Untersuchungsmethoden). Fast alle diese Arten der Triangulation wurden in dem beschriebenen Projekt eingesetzt. Diese führte zu einer Qualitätsverbesserung der Untersuchung durch Erweiterung der Untersuchungsvorgänge. Sie darf jedoch nicht als Allheilmittel betrachtet werden, dessen Anwendung Objektivität und Zuverlässigkeit der Ergebnisse garantieren würde. Triangulation hat mit Sicherheit einen positiven Einfluss auf die Erweiterung des Wissens über die untersuchte Erscheinung und ihr tieferes Verständnis. Norman Denzin und Yvonna Lincoln stimmen mit Uwe Flick
169
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sollte, bezweckte nichts anderes als eine Rochade auf diesem Posten nach den Kommunalwahlen. Die zweite Gruppe der Nutznießer sind die Auftraggeber der Untersuchung, also die Organe der kommunalen Selbstverwaltungen und Institutionen, die unmittelbar an den Ergebnissen interessiert sind. Die Untersuchung liefert ihnen das nötige Wissen, das die Ergreifung konkreter Maßnahmen gemäß den von den Befragten geäußerten Meinungen ermöglicht bzw. erleichtert. Dieses Wissen verleiht ein stärkeres Gefühl der Sicherheit und Mut bei den zu treffenden Entscheidungen. Es ist ein elementarer Faktor, der dabei behilflich ist, das beste/effizienteste Modell der Programmierung und Verwaltung der Kultur im Zuständigkeitsbereich der Selbstverwaltung zu wählen. Ein weiterer Vorteil für die Entscheidungsträger ist die faktische Annäherung an die Adressaten des Kulturangebots (die Einwohner), denn die Untersuchung stellte einen echten Dialog mit der Bevölkerung dar. Dies sollte das Vertrauen zu den Institutionen und Behörden, das Engagement der Menschen und ihr Gefühl, in der Kulturpolitik berücksichtigt zu werden, stärken. Natürlich hat dies auch Auswirkungen auf das Image der Kommune, die sich als fortschrittsfreundlich, offen und verständnisvoll und ihrer Aufgaben bewusst darstellen kann. Es ist jedoch auch darauf hinzuweisen, dass – nicht anders als beim klassischen Partizipationsmodell im Unternehmensmanagement – auch in diesem Fall eine entsprechende Leitung von großer Bedeutung ist, die nicht nur fragt und zuhört, sondern auch Entscheidungen trifft und Veränderungen bewirkt – auch wenn diese schwer fallen und vielleicht nicht allseits Akzeptanz finden. Ein klares Vorbild ist in dieser Beziehung die bereits erwähnte Stadt Jarocin, die mit dem Titel „Leader im Management 2010. Kooperation von Kommune und Verbänden“ für den außerordentlichen Anteil von Kultur- und Bildungsleistungen, die ehrenamtlichen Vereinen zur Umsetzung anvertraut wurden. Die dritte Gruppe der Nutznießer ist am zahlreichsten und am schwersten zu fassen. Zu ihr gehören Personen, die nicht unmittelbar an der Untersuchung teilgenommen haben. Dennoch beeinflussen die Untersuchungsergebnisse auch ihr Leben, wenn die darin enthaltenen Empfehlungen in die Tat umgesetzt werden. In diesem Sinne gehört das gesamte Umfeld, also alle Bürger, die von den neuen, dank der Untersuchung entwickelten Lösungen Gebrauch machen und profitieren, zu den Nutznießern.
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Zu der vierten Gruppe gehören die Wissenschaftler selbst, das gesamte wissenschaftliche Umfeld und alle Praktiker, die auf die Untersuchungsergebnisse zurückgreifen. Ihnen bietet sich die Möglichkeit der ständigen Entwicklung und Weiterbildung. Die Wissenschaftler entwickeln neue Forschungsinstrumente, verbessern und modifizieren die bisherigen, multiplizieren sie und erweitern dadurch gleichzeitig ihr Wissen und ihre Erfahrung, die sie anschließend an andere weitergeben können. Hier ist anzufügen, dass zu den Ergebnissen sowohl konkrete Empfehlungen und Lösungen, Schlussfolgerungen, Beschreibungen, Diagnosen gehören als auch „weiche“ Effekte. Letztere haben einen immateriellen Charakter und sind daher schwieriger zu fassen, wenn auch keineswegs weniger bedeutsam. Im Fall des Projekts „Kulturelle Potenziale und Defizite der Kreisstädte“ gehören zu diesen „nicht messbaren“ Folgen unter anderem: MM das häufig erste Zusammentreffen der örtlichen Kulturszene und die Konsolidierung dieser Gruppe als Milieu und Lobby, MM die Veranschaulichung der Möglichkeiten, die eine moderierte Diskussion in Fokusgruppen bietet, MM die Entstehung eines Dialogmodells und partnerschaftlicher Beziehungen zwischen Behörden und Bürgern im Kulturbereich, MM die Präsentierung einer Methode zur Vergesellschaftung des Entscheidungsprozesses durch Einbeziehung der Stimmen junger Menschen und anerkannter Experten.
7. Zusammenfassung
D
as dargestellte Untersuchungsmodell lässt sich nach Modifizierung an die jeweiligen spezifischen Bedingungen auch in anderen Kommunen anwenden. Manchmal ist es einem Kulturhaus oder einer Bibliothek noch nicht gelungen, ein neues, engagierendes Modell der Kommunikation mit den Adressaten und eines neuen Modell der Kulturerziehung zu entwickeln. Sie verurteilen sich damit selbst zu einer Existenz außerhalb der Hauptströmungen der Kommunikation und der Kulturentwicklung. Kulturinstitutionen werden von den potenziellen Empfängern „gemieden“, wenn es ihnen nicht gelingt, sie für sich zu gewinnen, ihnen eine Stimme im Dialog zu geben. Es scheint, dass der Versuch einer Anwendung von Elementen des Pratizipationsmangements in Form des hier dargestellten Forschungsprojekts eine der Formen sein kann, diesen Ist-Zustand zu ändern.
169
sollte, bezweckte nichts anderes als eine Rochade auf diesem Posten nach den Kommunalwahlen. Die zweite Gruppe der Nutznießer sind die Auftraggeber der Untersuchung, also die Organe der kommunalen Selbstverwaltungen und Institutionen, die unmittelbar an den Ergebnissen interessiert sind. Die Untersuchung liefert ihnen das nötige Wissen, das die Ergreifung konkreter Maßnahmen gemäß den von den Befragten geäußerten Meinungen ermöglicht bzw. erleichtert. Dieses Wissen verleiht ein stärkeres Gefühl der Sicherheit und Mut bei den zu treffenden Entscheidungen. Es ist ein elementarer Faktor, der dabei behilflich ist, das beste/effizienteste Modell der Programmierung und Verwaltung der Kultur im Zuständigkeitsbereich der Selbstverwaltung zu wählen. Ein weiterer Vorteil für die Entscheidungsträger ist die faktische Annäherung an die Adressaten des Kulturangebots (die Einwohner), denn die Untersuchung stellte einen echten Dialog mit der Bevölkerung dar. Dies sollte das Vertrauen zu den Institutionen und Behörden, das Engagement der Menschen und ihr Gefühl, in der Kulturpolitik berücksichtigt zu werden, stärken. Natürlich hat dies auch Auswirkungen auf das Image der Kommune, die sich als fortschrittsfreundlich, offen und verständnisvoll und ihrer Aufgaben bewusst darstellen kann. Es ist jedoch auch darauf hinzuweisen, dass – nicht anders als beim klassischen Partizipationsmodell im Unternehmensmanagement – auch in diesem Fall eine entsprechende Leitung von großer Bedeutung ist, die nicht nur fragt und zuhört, sondern auch Entscheidungen trifft und Veränderungen bewirkt – auch wenn diese schwer fallen und vielleicht nicht allseits Akzeptanz finden. Ein klares Vorbild ist in dieser Beziehung die bereits erwähnte Stadt Jarocin, die mit dem Titel „Leader im Management 2010. Kooperation von Kommune und Verbänden“ für den außerordentlichen Anteil von Kultur- und Bildungsleistungen, die ehrenamtlichen Vereinen zur Umsetzung anvertraut wurden. Die dritte Gruppe der Nutznießer ist am zahlreichsten und am schwersten zu fassen. Zu ihr gehören Personen, die nicht unmittelbar an der Untersuchung teilgenommen haben. Dennoch beeinflussen die Untersuchungsergebnisse auch ihr Leben, wenn die darin enthaltenen Empfehlungen in die Tat umgesetzt werden. In diesem Sinne gehört das gesamte Umfeld, also alle Bürger, die von den neuen, dank der Untersuchung entwickelten Lösungen Gebrauch machen und profitieren, zu den Nutznießern.
as dargestellte Untersuchungsmodell lässt sich nach Modifizierung an die jeweiligen spezifischen Bedingungen auch in anderen Kommunen anwenden. Manchmal ist es einem Kulturhaus oder einer Bibliothek noch nicht gelungen, ein neues, engagierendes Modell der Kommunikation mit den Adressaten und eines neuen Modell der Kulturerziehung zu entwickeln. Sie verurteilen sich damit selbst zu einer Existenz außerhalb der Hauptströmungen der Kommunikation und der Kulturentwicklung. Kulturinstitutionen werden von den potenziellen Empfängern „gemieden“, wenn es ihnen nicht gelingt, sie für sich zu gewinnen, ihnen eine Stimme im Dialog zu geben. Es scheint, dass der Versuch einer Anwendung von Elementen des Pratizipationsmangements in Form des hier dargestellten Forschungsprojekts eine der Formen sein kann, diesen Ist-Zustand zu ändern.
D
7. Zusammenfassung Zu der vierten Gruppe gehören die Wissenschaftler selbst, das gesamte wissenschaftliche Umfeld und alle Praktiker, die auf die Untersuchungsergebnisse zurückgreifen. Ihnen bietet sich die Möglichkeit der ständigen Entwicklung und Weiterbildung. Die Wissenschaftler entwickeln neue Forschungsinstrumente, verbessern und modifizieren die bisherigen, multiplizieren sie und erweitern dadurch gleichzeitig ihr Wissen und ihre Erfahrung, die sie anschließend an andere weitergeben können. Hier ist anzufügen, dass zu den Ergebnissen sowohl konkrete Empfehlungen und Lösungen, Schlussfolgerungen, Beschreibungen, Diagnosen gehören als auch „weiche“ Effekte. Letztere haben einen immateriellen Charakter und sind daher schwieriger zu fassen, wenn auch keineswegs weniger bedeutsam. Im Fall des Projekts „Kulturelle Potenziale und Defizite der Kreisstädte“ gehören zu diesen „nicht messbaren“ Folgen unter anderem: MM das häufig erste Zusammentreffen der örtlichen Kulturszene und die Konsolidierung dieser Gruppe als Milieu und Lobby, MM die Veranschaulichung der Möglichkeiten, die eine moderierte Diskussion in Fokusgruppen bietet, MM die Entstehung eines Dialogmodells und partnerschaftlicher Beziehungen zwischen Behörden und Bürgern im Kulturbereich, MM die Präsentierung einer Methode zur Vergesellschaftung des Entscheidungsprozesses durch Einbeziehung der Stimmen junger Menschen und anerkannter Experten.
170
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Literatur:
zur kreativen Wirtschaft), Narodowe Centrum Kultury, Warszawa 2010. Kieliszewski P., Schmidt J., Badania marszałkowskich instytucji kultury w Wielkopolsce (Untersuchungen der Woiwodschaftskulturinstitutionen in Großpolen), [in:] „Przegląd Wielkopolski” Nr. 3(73), Poznań 2006. Orlik J., Rozmowa jest działaniem (Gespräch ist Handeln), [in:] M. Śliwa (Red.), Strategie dla kultury. Kultura dla rozwoju. Zarządzanie strategiczne instytucja kultury (Strategien für die Kultur. Kultur für Fortschritt. Strategisches Management für Kulturinstitutionen), MIK, Kraków 2011. Pius XI., Quadragesimo anno (1931) [Webdokument] http://ekai.pl/bib.php/dokumenty/quadrogesimo_anno/ quadrogesimo_anno .html [19.04.2011]. Roffiaen Ch., Rethinking the principle of subsidiarity. Brusseles report, March 2003 (Active Citizenship Network) [Webdokument]. Silverman D., Interpretacja danych jakościowych (Die Interpretation qualitativer Daten), PWN, Warszawa 2007. Śliwa M., Zarządzanie strategiczne organizacją (Strategisches Organisationsmanagement), [in:] M. Śliwa (Red.), Strategie dla kultury. Kultura dla rozwoju. Zarządzanie strategiczne instytucja kultury (Strategien für die Kultur. Kultur für Fortschritt. Strategisches Management für Kulturinstitutionen), MIK, Kraków 2011. Witek-Crabb A., Uczestnicy procesu zarządzania strategicznego w przedsiębiorstwie społecznie odpowiedzialnym (Die Teilnehmer des strategischen Managementsprozesses in einem sozialverantwortlichen Unternehmen), 2007 [Webdokument] http:// www.pdfebooksdownloads.com/doc/download/ Anna%20Witek-Crabb_aHR0cDovL2F3Y3JhYmIuYWUud3JvYy5wbC9kb2NzL2FydHlrdWx5L1VjemVzdG5pY3klMjBwcm9jZXN1JTIwenMlMjB3JTIwcHJ6ZWRzJTIwc3BvbCUyMG9kcC5kb2M= [18.04.2011].
zur kreativen Wirtschaft), Narodowe Centrum Kultury, Warszawa 2010. Kieliszewski P., Schmidt J., Badania marszałkowskich instytucji kultury w Wielkopolsce (Untersuchungen der Woiwodschaftskulturinstitutionen in Großpolen), [in:] „Przegląd Wielkopolski” Nr. 3(73), Poznań 2006. Orlik J., Rozmowa jest działaniem (Gespräch ist Handeln), [in:] M. Śliwa (Red.), Strategie dla kultury. Kultura dla rozwoju. Zarządzanie strategiczne instytucja kultury (Strategien für die Kultur. Kultur für Fortschritt. Strategisches Management für Kulturinstitutionen), MIK, Kraków 2011. Pius XI., Quadragesimo anno (1931) [Webdokument] http://ekai.pl/bib.php/dokumenty/quadrogesimo_anno/ quadrogesimo_anno .html [19.04.2011]. Roffiaen Ch., Rethinking the principle of subsidiarity. Brusseles report, March 2003 (Active Citizenship Network) [Webdokument]. Silverman D., Interpretacja danych jakościowych (Die Interpretation qualitativer Daten), PWN, Warszawa 2007. Śliwa M., Zarządzanie strategiczne organizacją (Strategisches Organisationsmanagement), [in:] M. Śliwa (Red.), Strategie dla kultury. Kultura dla rozwoju. Zarządzanie strategiczne instytucja kultury (Strategien für die Kultur. Kultur für Fortschritt. Strategisches Management für Kulturinstitutionen), MIK, Kraków 2011. Witek-Crabb A., Uczestnicy procesu zarządzania strategicznego w przedsiębiorstwie społecznie odpowiedzialnym (Die Teilnehmer des strategischen Managementsprozesses in einem sozialverantwortlichen Unternehmen), 2007 [Webdokument] http:// www.pdfebooksdownloads.com/doc/download/ Anna%20Witek-Crabb_aHR0cDovL2F3Y3JhYmIuYWUud3JvYy5wbC9kb2NzL2FydHlrdWx5L1VjemVzdG5pY3klMjBwcm9jZXN1JTIwenMlMjB3JTIwcHJ6ZWRzJTIwc3BvbCUyMG9kcC5kb2M= [18.04.2011].
Denzin N. K., Lincoln Y. S., Metody badań jakościowych (Methoden qualitativer Forschung), Bd. I, PWN, Warszawa 2009. Flick U., Jakość w badaniach jakościowych (Die Qualität in qualitativer Forschung), PWN, Warszawa 2011. Hamel G., Strategy as Revolution. Harvard Business Review, July-August 1996. Hausner J. Instytucje kultury w czasach kryzysu. Wyzwania i zagrożenia – w jakich warunkach możliwa jest transformacja i nowoczesny model funkcjonowania instytucji? (Kulturinstitutionen in Krisenzeiten. Unter welchen Bedingungen sind eine Transformation und ein modernes Funktionsmodell von Kulturinstitutionen zu erreichen?) [in:] Kieliszewski P., Landsberg P., Poprawski M., Sójka J. (Red.), Instytucje kultury w czasach kryzysu /Kulturinstitutionen in Krisenzeiten/ in der Serie des Instituts für Kulturwissenschaft der Adam-Mickiewicz-Universität Posen: Studia kulturoznawcze. Polityka Kulturalna (Kulturwissenschaftliche Studien. Kulturpolitik), Bogucki Wydawnictwo Naukowe, Poznań 2009. Johannes Paul II., Centesimus annus [Webdokument] http://ekai.pl/bib.php/dokumenty/centesimus_annus/centesimus_annus1.html [19.04.2011]. Kaźmierczak R. Biblioteki marnowanych potencjałów /Bibliotheken vergeudeter Potenziale/, [in:] Kieliszewski P., Landsberg P., Poprawski M., Sójka J. (Red.), Instytucje kultury w czasach kryzysu (Kulturinstitutionen in Krisenzeiten) in der Serie des Instituts für Kulturwissenschaft der Adam-Mickiewicz-Universität Posen: Studia kulturoznawcze. Polityka Kulturalna (Kulturwissenschaftliche Studien. Kulturpolitik), Bogucki Wydawnictwo Naukowe, Poznań 2009. Kieliszewski P. Publiczne i prywatne. O nowym modelu relacji międzysektorowych (Öffentlich und privat. Über ein neues Modell der intersektoralen Beziehungen), [in:] A. Gwóźdź (Red.), Od przemysłów kultury do kreatywnej gospodarki (Von den Kulturindustrien
Denzin N. K., Lincoln Y. S., Metody badań jakościowych (Methoden qualitativer Forschung), Bd. I, PWN, Warszawa 2009. Flick U., Jakość w badaniach jakościowych (Die Qualität in qualitativer Forschung), PWN, Warszawa 2011. Hamel G., Strategy as Revolution. Harvard Business Review, July-August 1996. Hausner J. Instytucje kultury w czasach kryzysu. Wyzwania i zagrożenia – w jakich warunkach możliwa jest transformacja i nowoczesny model funkcjonowania instytucji? (Kulturinstitutionen in Krisenzeiten. Unter welchen Bedingungen sind eine Transformation und ein modernes Funktionsmodell von Kulturinstitutionen zu erreichen?) [in:] Kieliszewski P., Landsberg P., Poprawski M., Sójka J. (Red.), Instytucje kultury w czasach kryzysu /Kulturinstitutionen in Krisenzeiten/ in der Serie des Instituts für Kulturwissenschaft der Adam-Mickiewicz-Universität Posen: Studia kulturoznawcze. Polityka Kulturalna (Kulturwissenschaftliche Studien. Kulturpolitik), Bogucki Wydawnictwo Naukowe, Poznań 2009. Johannes Paul II., Centesimus annus [Webdokument] http://ekai.pl/bib.php/dokumenty/centesimus_annus/centesimus_annus1.html [19.04.2011]. Kaźmierczak R. Biblioteki marnowanych potencjałów /Bibliotheken vergeudeter Potenziale/, [in:] Kieliszewski P., Landsberg P., Poprawski M., Sójka J. (Red.), Instytucje kultury w czasach kryzysu (Kulturinstitutionen in Krisenzeiten) in der Serie des Instituts für Kulturwissenschaft der Adam-Mickiewicz-Universität Posen: Studia kulturoznawcze. Polityka Kulturalna (Kulturwissenschaftliche Studien. Kulturpolitik), Bogucki Wydawnictwo Naukowe, Poznań 2009. Kieliszewski P. Publiczne i prywatne. O nowym modelu relacji międzysektorowych (Öffentlich und privat. Über ein neues Modell der intersektoralen Beziehungen), [in:] A. Gwóźdź (Red.), Od przemysłów kultury do kreatywnej gospodarki (Von den Kulturindustrien
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29 In dieser Arbeit verwende ich die Begriffe Strategie für die Kulturentwicklung und Kulturpolitik alternativ. 28 Nach: Informationen auf der Website des Ministeriums für Kultur und Nationalerbe, http://www.mkidn.gov.pl.
Entwicklung und Management von Nichtregierungsorganisationen im Kontext der städtischen Kulturpolitik Anna Lewanowicz
H
eute es ist es offensichtlich, dass die Kultur auch von Nichtregierungsorganisationen (NGO) mitgestaltet wird. Wer aber bildet diese Organisationen und wie? Was beeinflusst ihre Entwicklung und Funktionsweise? Ist Kulturmanagement Abstraktion oder Wirklichkeit? Wenn wir uns die letzte Frage im Bezug auf NGOs im Kultursektor stellen, dann ist die Antwort nicht nur im inneren, sondern auch im äußeren Umfeld zu suchen. Bei der Betrachtung des Managements in Organisationen des 3. Sektors werden vor allem die intrinsischen Faktoren berücksichtigt, solche wie unzureichende Fähigkeiten zur Erschließung von Finanzierungsmitteln, fehlende Professionalität, fehlende Handlungsstrategien, fehlende Entwicklungspläne der Organisation etc. Dagegen steht außer Zweifel, dass das Funktionieren solcher Organisationen auch stark von extrinsichen Faktoren determiniert wird, unter anderem durch rechtliche Regelungen, Finanzierungsmechanismen, die Einschätzung von Rolle und Gewicht von NGOs, aber auch der Bedeutung der Kultur selbst, durch Regierungs- und Selbstverwaltungsorgane. Die Verwaltungsreform von 1990 brachte eine psoitive Veränderung: In hohem Maße wurden die Zuständigkeiten für den Kultursektor und das Kulturmanagement vom Ministerium für Kultur und Kunst auf die Selbstverwaltungen übertragen. Dennoch wurden noch lange Zeit die Leitlinien der Kulturentwicklung und die Modelle des Kulturmanagements
weder auf lokaler noch auf staatlicher Ebene festgelegt. Erst das Jahr 2004 brachte eine Nationale Strategie der Kulturentwicklung für die Jahre 2004- 2013 des Ministeriums für Kultur und Nationalerbe und das Jahr 2005 eine Ergänzung der Nationalen Strategie der Kulturentwicklung für die Jahre 2004-2020.28 Auch die einzelnen Städte bemühen sich um die Erstellung ähnlicher Programmpapiere. Zur Bewertung der Bedingungen für das Funktionieren von Kulturorganisationen des Dritten Sektors bediene ich mich einer Analyse der Unterlagen, aus denen die Richtlinien für die Umsetzung der städtischen Kulturpolitik hervorgehen sowie umfassender – die Strategien der Stadtentwicklung, der Platz, der der Kultur darin zugewiesen wird, die Programme der Zusammenarbeit mit NGOs und die Wettbewerbsdokumentationen für Kulturorganisationen. Für den Bedarf der vorliegenden Arbeit beschränke ich mich darauf, die Kulturpolitik der drei größten polnischen Städte, in denen die Kultur von den Stadtobrigen besonders deutlich hervorgehoben wird und in denen zahlreiche NGOs existieren, zu betrachten. Das sind: Warschau, Krakau und Breslau. Unter den oben genannten Unterlagen steht für uns diejenige an erster Stelle, die eine Entwicklungsstrategie und den Plan für ihre Umsetzung enthält.29 Eine der ersten Definitionen der Strategie, die K. Andrews zu Beginn der sechziger Jahre formulierte, bleibt weiterhin aktuell und enthält ihre wichtigsten Aspekte: „Strategie ist
28 Nach: Informationen auf der Website des Ministeriums für Kultur und Nationalerbe, http://www.mkidn.gov.pl. 29 In dieser Arbeit verwende ich die Begriffe Strategie für die Kulturentwicklung und Kulturpolitik alternativ.
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Anna Lewanowicz Die Präsidentin der Stiftung für Sozialinitiativen PLAN C, Vizedirektorin des Krakauer Theaterfestivals „Krakowskie Reminiscencje Teatralne“. Die Absolventin der klassischen Philologie und des postgradualen Studiums im Bereich Projektmanagement an der Handelsfachhochschule in Warszawa (Szkoła Główna Handlowa).
eute es ist es offensichtlich, dass die Kultur auch von Nichtregierungsorganisationen (NGO) mitgestaltet wird. Wer aber bildet diese Organisationen und wie? Was beeinflusst ihre Entwicklung und Funktionsweise? Ist Kulturmanagement Abstraktion oder Wirklichkeit? Wenn wir uns die letzte Frage im Bezug auf NGOs im Kultursektor stellen, dann ist die Antwort nicht nur im inneren, sondern auch im äußeren Umfeld zu suchen. Bei der Betrachtung des Managements in Organisationen des 3. Sektors werden vor allem die intrinsischen Faktoren berücksichtigt, solche wie unzureichende Fähigkeiten zur Erschließung von Finanzierungsmitteln, fehlende Professionalität, fehlende Handlungsstrategien, fehlende Entwicklungspläne der Organisation etc. Dagegen steht außer Zweifel, dass das Funktionieren solcher Organisationen auch stark von extrinsichen Faktoren determiniert wird, unter anderem durch rechtliche Regelungen, Finanzierungsmechanismen, die Einschätzung von Rolle und Gewicht von NGOs, aber auch der Bedeutung der Kultur selbst, durch Regierungs- und Selbstverwaltungsorgane. Die Verwaltungsreform von 1990 brachte eine psoitive Veränderung: In hohem Maße wurden die Zuständigkeiten für den Kultursektor und das Kulturmanagement vom Ministerium für Kultur und Kunst auf die Selbstverwaltungen übertragen. Dennoch wurden noch lange Zeit die Leitlinien der Kulturentwicklung und die Modelle des Kulturmanagements
H
weder auf lokaler noch auf staatlicher Ebene festgelegt. Erst das Jahr 2004 brachte eine Nationale Strategie der Kulturentwicklung für die Jahre 2004- 2013 des Ministeriums für Kultur und Nationalerbe und das Jahr 2005 eine Ergänzung der Nationalen Strategie der Kulturentwicklung für die Jahre 2004-2020.28 Auch die einzelnen Städte bemühen sich um die Erstellung ähnlicher Programmpapiere. Zur Bewertung der Bedingungen für das Funktionieren von Kulturorganisationen des Dritten Sektors bediene ich mich einer Analyse der Unterlagen, aus denen die Richtlinien für die Umsetzung der städtischen Kulturpolitik hervorgehen sowie umfassender – die Strategien der Stadtentwicklung, der Platz, der der Kultur darin zugewiesen wird, die Programme der Zusammenarbeit mit NGOs und die Wettbewerbsdokumentationen für Kulturorganisationen. Für den Bedarf der vorliegenden Arbeit beschränke ich mich darauf, die Kulturpolitik der drei größten polnischen Städte, in denen die Kultur von den Stadtobrigen besonders deutlich hervorgehoben wird und in denen zahlreiche NGOs existieren, zu betrachten. Das sind: Warschau, Krakau und Breslau. Unter den oben genannten Unterlagen steht für uns diejenige an erster Stelle, die eine Entwicklungsstrategie und den Plan für ihre Umsetzung enthält.29 Eine der ersten Definitionen der Strategie, die K. Andrews zu Beginn der sechziger Jahre formulierte, bleibt weiterhin aktuell und enthält ihre wichtigsten Aspekte: „Strategie ist
Anna Lewanowicz
Entwicklung und Management von Nichtregierungsorganisationen im Kontext der städtischen Kulturpolitik
Anna Lewanowicz Die Präsidentin der Stiftung für Sozialinitiativen PLAN C, Vizedirektorin des Krakauer Theaterfestivals „Krakowskie Reminiscencje Teatralne“. Die Absolventin der klassischen Philologie und des postgradualen Studiums im Bereich Projektmanagement an der Handelsfachhochschule in Warszawa (Szkoła Główna Handlowa).
172
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ren Aspekt zu: „Kulturpolitik betrifft nicht künstlerisches Schaffen, sondern auch die Festigung der sozialen Bindungen und Förderungen aktiver zivilgesellschaftlicher Haltungen der Bürger. (…) Die Kulturpolitik der öffentlichen Behörden auf allen Ebenen muss – unter Aufrechterhaltung der völligen individuellen Wahlfreiheit – diejenigen Tätigkeiten von Bürgern und Vereinen unterstützen, die den Traditionen, Bedürfnissen und Erwartungen der lokalen Gesellschaften entsprechen und gesellschaftliche Glaubwürdigkeit besitzen.“ [Szulborska-Łukasiewicz 2009]. Die europäischen Dokumente definieren recht eindeutig die Aufgaben der Kulturpolitik: MM Anhebung der Verantwortlichkeit für die Schaffung von Bedingungen für die Entwicklung kultureller Betätigung und schöpferischer Aussage mit Nutzen für das Publikum, die Teilnehmer an der Kultur, MM Erarbeitung von Schutzmaßnahmen und Schaffung von Arbeitsplätzen im Kultursektor, MM Unterstützung der Entwicklung kultureller Betätigung, Einhaltung des Rechts auf freies künstlerisches Schaffen, MM Verbesserung der Systeme zur Finanzierung der Kultur, MM Verbesserung der Kooperation und Finanzierung durch unterschiedliche Subjekte (öffentliche, private, gesellschaftliche) [Empfehlungen… 1987], MM Ausgleich der ökonomischen Disproportionen, welche die Befriedigung kultureller Bedürfnisse und die Teilnahme an der Kultur innerhalb der lokalen Gesellschaften beeinflussen, MM Förderung von Innovationen und Experimenten im Kulturbereich, MM Untersuchung, Analyse, Beobachtung der Kulturphänomene und der Ergebnisse getroffener Maßnahmen,
Quelle: Dragićević-Šešić M., Stojković B., 2010, Kultura –zarządzanie, animacja, marketing (Kultur – Management, Animation, Marketing).
ein Modell (Muster) der in einer Firma getroffenen Entscheidungen, die den Sinn ihres Bestehens determinieren und erklären, zur Entstehung der grundlegenden Politiken und Pläne führen, durch die sie ihre Ziele erreicht, die Arten der Tätigkeiten bestimmen, die von der Firma angestrebt werden, ihre aktuelle und beabsichtigte Verfassung, wie auch das Wesen der ökonomischen und außerökonomischen Nutzeffekte, welche die Firma allen Interessierten, Mitarbeitern, Kunden und Gesellschaftern zuteilwerden lassen will.“ [Andrews 1994, S. 40]. Bei der Übertragung der obigen Vorgaben auf den Kulturbereich hebt Emil Orzechowski die Zuständigkeit der öffentlichen Behörden und die Beteiligung der Organisationen hervor: „Kulturpolitik ist die Gesamtheit der zielgerichteten und organisierten Tätigkeit des Staates sowie der politischen und gesellschaftlichen Organisationen, welche die Entwicklung des künstlerischen Schaffens inspiriert und Obhut über die Entwicklung der kreativen Gruppen und Milieus gewährt, die Einfluss auf Art und Umfang der Teilnahme der Gesellschaft an der Kultur nehmen, sei es durch Verbreitung von Kulturgütern oder durch Entwicklung aktiver Formen der Teilnahme am kulturellen Leben. (…) Kulturpolitik strebt (…) die Entwicklung und Vervielfältigung der Errungenschaften der nationalen Kultur und Verbreitung der humanistischen Inhalte der allgemeinen Menschheitskultur, die Bereicherung und Befriedigung der kulturellen Bedürfnisse der ganzen Gesellschaft an, (…) den Ausbau und die Modernisierung der materiellen und technischen Basis der Produktion und Vermittlung von Kulturgütern, die Aktivierung der Kulturinstitutionen und ihre Transformation im Einklang mit dem gesellschaftlichen Wandel.“ [Orzechowski 2004, S. 9-10] Eine Schlüsselbedeutung kommt einem weite-
Oktroyierung einer Ideologie
Tab. 1. Instrumente der Kulturpolitik
Pluralismus von Konzeptionen und Ideen
Instrumente der Kulturpolitik
Axiologisch-ideell
hemmend/repressiv
Planung von Restriktionen, Liquidierung von Institutionen
anregend/stimulativ
Entwicklungsplanung, Gründung von Institutionen
Art der Tätigkeit Handlungsrichtungen
Organisatorisch
Besteuerung, Verzollung
Negative rechtlich-normative Regulierung (Unterdrückung), Zensur
Ankauf, Zuschüsse, Stipendien, Kredite
Positive rechtlich-normative Regulierungen (Schutz, Stimulierung)
Wirtschaftlich
Rechtlich-politisch
Negative rechtlich-normative Regulierung (Unterdrückung), Zensur
Besteuerung, Verzollung
Positive rechtlich-normative Regulierungen (Schutz, Stimulierung)
Ankauf, Zuschüsse, Stipendien, Kredite
Rechtlich-politisch
Wirtschaftlich
Planung von Restriktionen, Liquidierung von Institutionen
hemmend/repressiv
Entwicklungsplanung, Gründung von Institutionen
anregend/stimulativ
Organisatorisch
Art der Tätigkeit Handlungsrichtungen
Oktroyierung einer Ideologie
Instrumente der Kulturpolitik
Pluralismus von Konzeptionen und Ideen
Tab. 1. Instrumente der Kulturpolitik
Axiologisch-ideell
ren Aspekt zu: „Kulturpolitik betrifft nicht künstlerisches Schaffen, sondern auch die Festigung der sozialen Bindungen und Förderungen aktiver zivilgesellschaftlicher Haltungen der Bürger. (…) Die Kulturpolitik der öffentlichen Behörden auf allen Ebenen muss – unter Aufrechterhaltung der völligen individuellen Wahlfreiheit – diejenigen Tätigkeiten von Bürgern und Vereinen unterstützen, die den Traditionen, Bedürfnissen und Erwartungen der lokalen Gesellschaften entsprechen und gesellschaftliche Glaubwürdigkeit besitzen.“ [Szulborska-Łukasiewicz 2009]. Die europäischen Dokumente definieren recht eindeutig die Aufgaben der Kulturpolitik: MM Anhebung der Verantwortlichkeit für die Schaffung von Bedingungen für die Entwicklung kultureller Betätigung und schöpferischer Aussage mit Nutzen für das Publikum, die Teilnehmer an der Kultur, MM Erarbeitung von Schutzmaßnahmen und Schaffung von Arbeitsplätzen im Kultursektor, MM Unterstützung der Entwicklung kultureller Betätigung, Einhaltung des Rechts auf freies künstlerisches Schaffen, MM Verbesserung der Systeme zur Finanzierung der Kultur, MM Verbesserung der Kooperation und Finanzierung durch unterschiedliche Subjekte (öffentliche, private, gesellschaftliche) [Empfehlungen… 1987], MM Ausgleich der ökonomischen Disproportionen, welche die Befriedigung kultureller Bedürfnisse und die Teilnahme an der Kultur innerhalb der lokalen Gesellschaften beeinflussen, MM Förderung von Innovationen und Experimenten im Kulturbereich, MM Untersuchung, Analyse, Beobachtung der Kulturphänomene und der Ergebnisse getroffener Maßnahmen,
Quelle: Dragićević-Šešić M., Stojković B., 2010, Kultura –zarządzanie, animacja, marketing (Kultur – Management, Animation, Marketing).
ein Modell (Muster) der in einer Firma getroffenen Entscheidungen, die den Sinn ihres Bestehens determinieren und erklären, zur Entstehung der grundlegenden Politiken und Pläne führen, durch die sie ihre Ziele erreicht, die Arten der Tätigkeiten bestimmen, die von der Firma angestrebt werden, ihre aktuelle und beabsichtigte Verfassung, wie auch das Wesen der ökonomischen und außerökonomischen Nutzeffekte, welche die Firma allen Interessierten, Mitarbeitern, Kunden und Gesellschaftern zuteilwerden lassen will.“ [Andrews 1994, S. 40]. Bei der Übertragung der obigen Vorgaben auf den Kulturbereich hebt Emil Orzechowski die Zuständigkeit der öffentlichen Behörden und die Beteiligung der Organisationen hervor: „Kulturpolitik ist die Gesamtheit der zielgerichteten und organisierten Tätigkeit des Staates sowie der politischen und gesellschaftlichen Organisationen, welche die Entwicklung des künstlerischen Schaffens inspiriert und Obhut über die Entwicklung der kreativen Gruppen und Milieus gewährt, die Einfluss auf Art und Umfang der Teilnahme der Gesellschaft an der Kultur nehmen, sei es durch Verbreitung von Kulturgütern oder durch Entwicklung aktiver Formen der Teilnahme am kulturellen Leben. (…) Kulturpolitik strebt (…) die Entwicklung und Vervielfältigung der Errungenschaften der nationalen Kultur und Verbreitung der humanistischen Inhalte der allgemeinen Menschheitskultur, die Bereicherung und Befriedigung der kulturellen Bedürfnisse der ganzen Gesellschaft an, (…) den Ausbau und die Modernisierung der materiellen und technischen Basis der Produktion und Vermittlung von Kulturgütern, die Aktivierung der Kulturinstitutionen und ihre Transformation im Einklang mit dem gesellschaftlichen Wandel.“ [Orzechowski 2004, S. 9-10] Eine Schlüsselbedeutung kommt einem weite-
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unmittelbare Zusammenarbeit und Erfahrungsaustausch innerhalb und zwischen den Vertretern der lokalen Gesellschaften [Bremer Erklärung… 1983].
Bei der Analyse der oben genannten Dokumente in den einzelnen Städten richten wir unsere Aufmerksamkeit auf ausgewählte Instrumente der Kulturpolitik bezüglich der Tätigkeiten von NGOs. Betrachten wir diese Faktoren näher: Versuchen wir also die genannten Bereiche entsprechend auf die Kulturinstitutionen des Dritten Sektors und die städtischen Politiken zu beziehen: 1. Axiologisch-ideeller Aspekt: durch Analyse der Prioritäten, die in den Dokumenten der Städte bezüglich ihrer Einschätzung der Rolle der Kultur und der NGOs festgeschrieben sind. 2. Wirtschaftlicher Aspekt: Arten der finanziellen Förderung, Fristen der ausgeschriebenen Wettbewerbe und der Evaluierung der Wettbewerbsbeiträge, Transparenz der Bewertungskriterien, Evaluierung des bezuschussten Projekts. 3. Rechtlicher Aspekt: rechtlich-normative Regelungen. 4. Organisatorischer Aspekt: Mechanismen der Entwicklungsplanung und der Förderungssysteme. Anzumerken ist hierbei unbedingt, dass diese Analyse aus Platzgründen sehr eng gefasst ist. Sie verzichtet auf eine historische Darstellung und bezieht sich auf der Grundlage der aktuellen und allgemein zugänglichen Dokumente ausschließlich auf die Gegenwart.
Der axiologisch-ideelle Aspekt: Warschau: In Warschau gibt es derzeit kein Dokument, das eine langfristige Kulturpolitik umreißen würde. Hingegen sind zwei Dokumente erarbeitet worden, die einen Bezugspunkt in diesem Bereich vorgeben können: die Bewerbung zum Wettbewerb um die Verleihung des Titels der Europäischen Kulturstadt 2016 sowie das Programm für die Entwicklung der Kultur in Warschau für die Jahre 2009-2020.
Die Entstehung des Programms für die Entwicklung der Kultur in Warschau für die Jahre 20092020, also des so genannten Weißbuchs, wurde von Marek Kraszewski, dem Direktor des Kulturbüros der Stadt Warschau, angeregt und in der zweiten Hälfte des Jahres 2008 von der Stiftung Pro Cultura ausgearbeitet. Das Weißbuch stellt ein ausführliches und mehrteiliges Expertengutachten dar (ca. 600 Seiten) und soll die Grundlage bilden für die Erarbeitung der städtischen Kulturpolitik für das nächste Jahrzehnt, auch wenn es sich nicht um verbindliche Vorgaben handelt. Das Programm stimmt mit der Bewerbung um den Titel der Europäischen Kulturstadt überein, die von der Präsidentin der Stadt Warschau unterschrieben wurde und eine Art Deklaration der Entwicklungsrichtungen der Kulturpolitik darstellt. Der Direktor des Kulturbüros Marek Kraszewski nennt als wichtigste Ziele des Programms: MM Steigerung der Bürgerbeteiligung im Kulturbereich, MM Entwicklung und Ausbau der ganzen Sphäre der Kulturerziehung, MM Schöpferische Selbstverwirklichung für alle Kulturbegeisterten. Die Stadt möchte ihre Entwicklung auf zwei Faktoren stützen: Kultur und Business [Pawłowski, Webdokument]. Im Programm wurden diejenigen Bereiche elaboriert, die als diejenigen zukunftsträchtig für die städtische Kultur eingeschätzt wurden, nämlich: MM Kulturinfrastruktur, MM Kulturerbe, MM Kulturinstitutionen, MM Festivals, 30 MM Nichtregierungsorganisation , MM kulturelle Vielfalt und Pflege des interkulturellen Dialogs, MM Künstler und Kunstschaffende, MM Kulturerziehung, MM neue Technologien und Kulturmarketing, 31 MM Monitoring. Den Arbeiten an dem Programm gingen eine Untersuchung der kulturellen Bedürfnisse der Einwohner, Konsultationen im kulturellen Umfeld und eine Analyse von positiv verifizierten Lösungen in anderen Städten Europas voraus.
31 Nach: Programm für die Kulturentwicklung in Warschau für die Jahre 2009-2020, http://www.um.warszawa.pl. 30 Unter den über 5.200 NGO in Warschau betrieb etwa jede fünfte eine aktive Kulturpolitik (Schätzwerte nach: Herbst J., Warszawski Sektor Pozarządowy (Der Warschauer Nichtregierungssektor), Stowarzyszenie Klon/Jawor, 2007).
Warschau: In Warschau gibt es derzeit kein Dokument, das eine langfristige Kulturpolitik umreißen würde. Hingegen sind zwei Dokumente erarbeitet worden, die einen Bezugspunkt in diesem Bereich vorgeben können: die Bewerbung zum Wettbewerb um die Verleihung des Titels der Europäischen Kulturstadt 2016 sowie das Programm für die Entwicklung der Kultur in Warschau für die Jahre 2009-2020.
Der axiologisch-ideelle Aspekt: Anzumerken ist hierbei unbedingt, dass diese Analyse aus Platzgründen sehr eng gefasst ist. Sie verzichtet auf eine historische Darstellung und bezieht sich auf der Grundlage der aktuellen und allgemein zugänglichen Dokumente ausschließlich auf die Gegenwart. Versuchen wir also die genannten Bereiche entsprechend auf die Kulturinstitutionen des Dritten Sektors und die städtischen Politiken zu beziehen: 1. Axiologisch-ideeller Aspekt: durch Analyse der Prioritäten, die in den Dokumenten der Städte bezüglich ihrer Einschätzung der Rolle der Kultur und der NGOs festgeschrieben sind. 2. Wirtschaftlicher Aspekt: Arten der finanziellen Förderung, Fristen der ausgeschriebenen Wettbewerbe und der Evaluierung der Wettbewerbsbeiträge, Transparenz der Bewertungskriterien, Evaluierung des bezuschussten Projekts. 3. Rechtlicher Aspekt: rechtlich-normative Regelungen. 4. Organisatorischer Aspekt: Mechanismen der Entwicklungsplanung und der Förderungssysteme. Bei der Analyse der oben genannten Dokumente in den einzelnen Städten richten wir unsere Aufmerksamkeit auf ausgewählte Instrumente der Kulturpolitik bezüglich der Tätigkeiten von NGOs. Betrachten wir diese Faktoren näher:
30 Unter den über 5.200 NGO in Warschau betrieb etwa jede fünfte eine aktive Kulturpolitik (Schätzwerte nach: Herbst J., Warszawski Sektor Pozarządowy (Der Warschauer Nichtregierungssektor), Stowarzyszenie Klon/Jawor, 2007). 31 Nach: Programm für die Kulturentwicklung in Warschau für die Jahre 2009-2020, http://www.um.warszawa.pl.
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MM
unmittelbare Zusammenarbeit und Erfahrungsaustausch innerhalb und zwischen den Vertretern der lokalen Gesellschaften [Bremer Erklärung… 1983].
Den Arbeiten an dem Programm gingen eine Untersuchung der kulturellen Bedürfnisse der Einwohner, Konsultationen im kulturellen Umfeld und eine Analyse von positiv verifizierten Lösungen in anderen Städten Europas voraus. Im Programm wurden diejenigen Bereiche elaboriert, die als diejenigen zukunftsträchtig für die städtische Kultur eingeschätzt wurden, nämlich: MM Kulturinfrastruktur, MM Kulturerbe, MM Kulturinstitutionen, MM Festivals, 30 MM Nichtregierungsorganisation , MM kulturelle Vielfalt und Pflege des interkulturellen Dialogs, MM Künstler und Kunstschaffende, MM Kulturerziehung, neue Technologien und Kulturmarketing, Monitoring. 31 MM MM
Die Entstehung des Programms für die Entwicklung der Kultur in Warschau für die Jahre 20092020, also des so genannten Weißbuchs, wurde von Marek Kraszewski, dem Direktor des Kulturbüros der Stadt Warschau, angeregt und in der zweiten Hälfte des Jahres 2008 von der Stiftung Pro Cultura ausgearbeitet. Das Weißbuch stellt ein ausführliches und mehrteiliges Expertengutachten dar (ca. 600 Seiten) und soll die Grundlage bilden für die Erarbeitung der städtischen Kulturpolitik für das nächste Jahrzehnt, auch wenn es sich nicht um verbindliche Vorgaben handelt. Das Programm stimmt mit der Bewerbung um den Titel der Europäischen Kulturstadt überein, die von der Präsidentin der Stadt Warschau unterschrieben wurde und eine Art Deklaration der Entwicklungsrichtungen der Kulturpolitik darstellt. Der Direktor des Kulturbüros Marek Kraszewski nennt als wichtigste Ziele des Programms: MM Steigerung der Bürgerbeteiligung im Kulturbereich, MM Entwicklung und Ausbau der ganzen Sphäre der Kulturerziehung, MM Schöpferische Selbstverwirklichung für alle Kulturbegeisterten. Die Stadt möchte ihre Entwicklung auf zwei Faktoren stützen: Kultur und Business [Pawłowski, Webdokument].
Jeder dieser Bereiche wurde einer eingehenden Analyse unterzogen. Diagnostiziert wurden die Bedürfnisse in den einzelnen Bereichen, für die anschließend Empfehlungen für Maßnahmen und deren Umsetzung formuliert wurden, aber auch Vorschläge für die Zeitrahmen der Implementierung der einzelnen Maßnahmen, ihre Finanzierungsquellen und die für ihre Umsetzung verantwortlichen Subjekte. Im Bezug auf Nichtregierungsorganisationen, notiert das Entwicklungsprogramm eine steigende Beachtung des Dritten Sektors seitens der Selbstverwaltungen, was die Übernahme von Aufgaben im Kultursektor angeht. Aber es macht auch aufmerksam auf die nach wie vor bestehenden Restriktionen bezüglich der Deckung der laufenden Kosten und der Schwierigkeiten, mit denen NGOs bei der Raummiete zu tun haben. Die Empfehlungen des Programms betreffen die Minimierung dieser negativen Regulierungen. Die Finanzpolitik der Stadt sollte an die Bedürfnisse von NGOs angepasst sein, damit diese sich entwickeln können und ihre Arbeit besserer Ergebnisse zeitigt. Zur Verdeutlichung der Richtung der im Entwicklungsprogramm der Stadt Warschau empfohlenen Maßnahmen stelle ich einige Vorschläge für den Dritten Sektor heraus: MM Zwecks Professionalisierung der Zusammenarbeit mit Nichtregierungsorganisationen organisiert die Stadt Warschau regelmäßige Workshops und Seminare und implementiert anderer Mechanismen zum Aufbau einer stabilen und effizienten Kooperationsebene. MM Das Kulturbüro vergrößert den Umfang der Finanzierung von NGO, darunter eines Promesseprogramms zur Unterstützung von Projekten, die sich um eine Förderung aus europäischen Fonds bewerben. MM Die Prioritäten der Stadt im Bezug auf die Wettbewerbsanforderungen (Thematik, Art der Subjekte, Fristen) werden in verschiedenen Zeitperspektiven bestimmt, einer dreijährigen und einer jährlichen, und im Voraus verkündet. —— Einführung einer neuen Kategorisierung von Wettbewerben: —— für langjährige (dreijährige) regelmäßige Veranstaltungen (z. B. Festivals) oder Projekte, die für einen längeren Zeitraum als ein Haushaltjahr geplant sind,
—— Für Maßnahmen, die im jeweiligen Haushaltsjahr (jährlich) geplant sind, —— für kleine und junge (neuentstandene) Organisationen – so genannte „kleine Zuschüsse“ (bis 10.000 Złoty), die einmal jährlich vergeben werden, —— für die Unterstützung internationaler Tätigkeiten im Kultursektor in Zusammenhang mit Warschau (mehr- und einjährige), —— für die administrative und infrastrukturelle Unterstützung von Nichtregierungsorganisationen (mehr- und einjährige), —— für Regranting (Pilotprojekt) – die siegreiche Organisation schreibt selbst einen oder mehrere Wettbewerbe aus, evaluiert die Anträge, überweist Zuschussmittel an andere Organisationen und nimmt die Berichterstattung ab. MM die Einrichtung des „Kulturzentrums – Treffpunkt“ als Sitz mehrerer NGOs. Das Zentrum stellt Räumlichkeiten kostenfrei zur Verfügung. Die Unterhaltungs- und Verwaltungskosten übernimmt das Amt der Stadt Warschau und das Management wird einer in einem Wettbewerb ermittelten NGO anvertraut. Das Raumangebot des Zentrums wird an die Besonderheiten der Tätigkeit angepasst, das heißt außer Büroraum gibt es dort auch Theater-, Konzert, Tanz-, Multimediasäle u. a. MM die schrittweise Übertragung weiterer Zuständigkeiten im Kulturbereich (wobei auf Innovation gesetzt wird). Das Weißbuch als ausführliches und vielteiliges Gutachten fügt sich in den Rahmen der vom Stadtrat im Jahr 2005 verabschiedeten Entwicklungsstrategie der Hauptstadt Warschau bis zum Jahr 2020 ein. Die dabei umrissene Mission und Vision der Strategie der Stadt ist weiterhin aktuell. Unmittelbar auf den Kulturbereich bezieht sich die Vision von Warschau als einem wichtigen Zentrum der europäischen Kultur mit einem gut organsierten öffentlichen Raum. Bemerkenswert ist durchaus, dass viele dieser Vorgaben bereits umgesetzt wurden. Das Bewusstsein der Bedeutung der Zusammenarbeit der hauptstädtischen Selbstverwaltung mit den Organisationen des Dritten Sektors ist ebenfalls im Programm für die Zusammenarbeit mit Nichtregierungsorganisationen für das Jahr 2011 sichtbar. 32
32 Anlage zum BESCHLUSS NR. XCIII/2731/2010 DES RATS DER HAUPTSTADT WARSCHAU vom 21. Oktober 2010 in der Sache der Annahme des Programms für die Zusammenarbeit der Hauptstadt Warschau im Jahr 2011 mit Nichtregierungsorgansisationen und Subjekten, von denen in Art. 3, Abs. 3 des Gesetzes vom 24. April 2003 über die gemeinnützige und ehrenamtliche Tätigkeit die Rede ist.
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Für Maßnahmen, die im jeweiligen Haushaltsjahr (jährlich) geplant sind, —— für kleine und junge (neuentstandene) Organisationen – so genannte „kleine Zuschüsse“ (bis 10.000 Złoty), die einmal jährlich vergeben werden, —— für die Unterstützung internationaler Tätigkeiten im Kultursektor in Zusammenhang mit Warschau (mehr- und einjährige), —— für die administrative und infrastrukturelle Unterstützung von Nichtregierungsorganisationen (mehr- und einjährige), —— für Regranting (Pilotprojekt) – die siegreiche Organisation schreibt selbst einen oder mehrere Wettbewerbe aus, evaluiert die Anträge, überweist Zuschussmittel an andere Organisationen und nimmt die Berichterstattung ab. MM die Einrichtung des „Kulturzentrums – Treffpunkt“ als Sitz mehrerer NGOs. Das Zentrum stellt Räumlichkeiten kostenfrei zur Verfügung. Die Unterhaltungs- und Verwaltungskosten übernimmt das Amt der Stadt Warschau und das Management wird einer in einem Wettbewerb ermittelten NGO anvertraut. Das Raumangebot des Zentrums wird an die Besonderheiten der Tätigkeit angepasst, das heißt außer Büroraum gibt es dort auch Theater-, Konzert, Tanz-, Multimediasäle u. a. MM die schrittweise Übertragung weiterer Zuständigkeiten im Kulturbereich (wobei auf Innovation gesetzt wird). Das Weißbuch als ausführliches und vielteiliges Gutachten fügt sich in den Rahmen der vom Stadtrat im Jahr 2005 verabschiedeten Entwicklungsstrategie der Hauptstadt Warschau bis zum Jahr 2020 ein. Die dabei umrissene Mission und Vision der Strategie der Stadt ist weiterhin aktuell. Unmittelbar auf den Kulturbereich bezieht sich die Vision von Warschau als einem wichtigen Zentrum der europäischen Kultur mit einem gut organsierten öffentlichen Raum. Bemerkenswert ist durchaus, dass viele dieser Vorgaben bereits umgesetzt wurden. Das Bewusstsein der Bedeutung der Zusammenarbeit der hauptstädtischen Selbstverwaltung mit den Organisationen des Dritten Sektors ist ebenfalls im Programm für die Zusammenarbeit mit Nichtregierungsorganisationen für das Jahr 2011 sichtbar. 32 ——
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32 Anlage zum BESCHLUSS NR. XCIII/2731/2010 DES RATS DER HAUPTSTADT WARSCHAU vom 21. Oktober 2010 in der Sache der Annahme des Programms für die Zusammenarbeit der Hauptstadt Warschau im Jahr 2011 mit Nichtregierungsorgansisationen und Subjekten, von denen in Art. 3, Abs. 3 des Gesetzes vom 24. April 2003 über die gemeinnützige und ehrenamtliche Tätigkeit die Rede ist.
Jeder dieser Bereiche wurde einer eingehenden Analyse unterzogen. Diagnostiziert wurden die Bedürfnisse in den einzelnen Bereichen, für die anschließend Empfehlungen für Maßnahmen und deren Umsetzung formuliert wurden, aber auch Vorschläge für die Zeitrahmen der Implementierung der einzelnen Maßnahmen, ihre Finanzierungsquellen und die für ihre Umsetzung verantwortlichen Subjekte. Im Bezug auf Nichtregierungsorganisationen, notiert das Entwicklungsprogramm eine steigende Beachtung des Dritten Sektors seitens der Selbstverwaltungen, was die Übernahme von Aufgaben im Kultursektor angeht. Aber es macht auch aufmerksam auf die nach wie vor bestehenden Restriktionen bezüglich der Deckung der laufenden Kosten und der Schwierigkeiten, mit denen NGOs bei der Raummiete zu tun haben. Die Empfehlungen des Programms betreffen die Minimierung dieser negativen Regulierungen. Die Finanzpolitik der Stadt sollte an die Bedürfnisse von NGOs angepasst sein, damit diese sich entwickeln können und ihre Arbeit besserer Ergebnisse zeitigt. Zur Verdeutlichung der Richtung der im Entwicklungsprogramm der Stadt Warschau empfohlenen Maßnahmen stelle ich einige Vorschläge für den Dritten Sektor heraus: MM Zwecks Professionalisierung der Zusammenarbeit mit Nichtregierungsorganisationen organisiert die Stadt Warschau regelmäßige Workshops und Seminare und implementiert anderer Mechanismen zum Aufbau einer stabilen und effizienten Kooperationsebene. MM Das Kulturbüro vergrößert den Umfang der Finanzierung von NGO, darunter eines Promesseprogramms zur Unterstützung von Projekten, die sich um eine Förderung aus europäischen Fonds bewerben. MM Die Prioritäten der Stadt im Bezug auf die Wettbewerbsanforderungen (Thematik, Art der Subjekte, Fristen) werden in verschiedenen Zeitperspektiven bestimmt, einer dreijährigen und einer jährlichen, und im Voraus verkündet. —— Einführung einer neuen Kategorisierung von Wettbewerben: —— für langjährige (dreijährige) regelmäßige Veranstaltungen (z. B. Festivals) oder Projekte, die für einen längeren Zeitraum als ein Haushaltjahr geplant sind,
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33 Anlage zum Beschluss Nr. CXIV/1524/10 des Rats der Stadt Krakau vom 20. Oktober 2010.
Die wesentlichen Formen und Grundsätze des Zusammenarbeit der Hauptstadt Warschau mit NGOs werden im alljährlich vom Rat der Hauptstadt Warschau verabschiedeten Programm für die Zusammenarbeit der Hauptstadt Warschau mit Nichtregierungsorganisationen und Subjekten, von denen in Art. 3, Abs. 3 des Gesetzes vom 24. April 2003 über gemeinnützige und ehrenamtliche Tätigkeit die Rede ist. Zur Koordination der Zusammenarbeit wurde ein Bevollmächtigter der Hauptstadt Warschau für die Zusammenarbeit mit NGOs berufen. Die Pflicht zur Erstellung eines Jahresprogramms wird den Organen der öffentlichen Verwaltung bei der Wahrnehmung ihrer öffentlichen Aufgaben durch das Gesetz vom 24. April 2003 über gemeinnützige und ehrenamtliche Tätigkeit auferlegt. Eine Novelle dieses Gesetzes, die seit März 2010 gültig ist, hat die Notwendigkeit der Konsultierung des Entwurfs für das Kooperationsprogramm mit den NGOs eingeführt (Art. 5a, Abs. 1). Warschau erstellt sein Kooperationsprogramm für den Zeitraum eines Jahres. Die Stadt besitzt kein mehrjähriges Programm, das eine Entwicklungsrichtung für diese Zusammenarbeit mit Organisationen vorgeben würde. Als Prioritäten für die Zusammenarbeit der Stadt Warschau mit Organisationen im Kulturbereich nennt das Programm: 1. Maßnahmen zur Erlangung des Titels Europäische Kulturhauptstadt 2016, konzentriert unter anderem auf die Unterstützung der unabhängigen Kultur und ihrer Zentren als einer besonderen Äußerung des Aufbaus der Zivilgesellschaft. 2. Maßnahmen im Bereich von Kunst und Kultur, insbesondere: MM innovative Formen der Kulturerziehung, Aktivierung lokaler Milieus, Einbeziehung neuer Teilnehmergruppen, Unterstützung von Amateurkünstlern, MM Verbreitung der Kultur in verschiedenen Gebieten und künstlerischen Ausdrucksformen, MM Unterstützung der Realisierung von innovativen künstlerischen Projekten, MM Unterstützung von Kulturprojekten zur Animierung des öffentlichen Raums, MM Unterstützung von Projekten und Unternehmungen, die das feste Kulturangebots Warschaus prägen,
Krakau: Die Strategie für die Entwicklung der Kultur in Krakau für die Jahre 2010-201433, die im September 2010 angenommen wurde, ist die erste solche Strategie in der Geschichte der Stadt. Ihre Prioritäten sind: Die für die kommenden Jahre angenommene Konzeption der nachhaltigen Entwicklung soll gleiche Entwicklungsmöglichkeiten für Kulturorganisationen, Künstler, NGOs und Unternehmen im Kultursektor gewährleisten. (…) Zugleich ist zu berücksichtigen, dass: 1. die übergeordnete Aufgabe der Gemeinde Krakau im Kulturbereich die konsequente Unterstützung der Kulturinstitutionen der Gemeinde darstellt, sowohl in institutioneller als auch programmatischer Hinsicht, vor allem durch Gewährleistung finanzieller Mittel, die für ihre Kulturtätigkeit sowie Unterhaltung und Ausbau ihrer Infrastruktur unabdingbar sind, 2. die Gemeinde die Entwicklung des an verschiedene Zielgruppen gerichteten, darunter die zahlreichen Besucher der Stadt, Kulturangebots stimulieren soll, 3. Kultur und Nationalerbe muss für die Stadt werben, die Gestaltung ihres Images im In- und Ausland beeinflussen, was sich auf unterschiedliche Lebensbereiche auswirkt. Das Image bildet sich infolge eines langfristigen, komplexen Unterstützung von Initiativen und Unternehmungen zur Popularisierung von Traditionen, Geschichte und Kulturerbe von Warschau, MM der interkulturelle Dialog unter besonderer Berücksichtigung nationaler und ethnischer Minderheiten und der in Warschau ansässigen Ausländer, MM internationale Zusammenarbeit, etwa bei der Umsetzung gemeinsamer Projekte mit den Partnerstädten. Die Bewertung des Stands der Zusammenarbeit mit der Stadt im Bereich der Umsetzung von Projekten und die Bewertung der Bemerkungen, Anregungen und Vorschläge, die sich aus dieser Zusammenarbeit ergeben, wird im Jahresbericht des Bevollmächtigten zusammen mit dem Warschauer Rat für Gemeinwohl vorgenommen. Dieser Bericht wird dem Stadtpräsidenten vorgelegt, der seinerseits dem Rat der Hauptstadt Warschau Rechenschaft ablegt. MM
Die wesentlichen Formen und Grundsätze des Zusammenarbeit der Hauptstadt Warschau mit NGOs werden im alljährlich vom Rat der Hauptstadt Warschau verabschiedeten Programm für die Zusammenarbeit der Hauptstadt Warschau mit Nichtregierungsorganisationen und Subjekten, von denen in Art. 3, Abs. 3 des Gesetzes vom 24. April 2003 über gemeinnützige und ehrenamtliche Tätigkeit die Rede ist. Zur Koordination der Zusammenarbeit wurde ein Bevollmächtigter der Hauptstadt Warschau für die Zusammenarbeit mit NGOs berufen. Die Pflicht zur Erstellung eines Jahresprogramms wird den Organen der öffentlichen Verwaltung bei der Wahrnehmung ihrer öffentlichen Aufgaben durch das Gesetz vom 24. April 2003 über gemeinnützige und ehrenamtliche Tätigkeit auferlegt. Eine Novelle dieses Gesetzes, die seit März 2010 gültig ist, hat die Notwendigkeit der Konsultierung des Entwurfs für das Kooperationsprogramm mit den NGOs eingeführt (Art. 5a, Abs. 1). Warschau erstellt sein Kooperationsprogramm für den Zeitraum eines Jahres. Die Stadt besitzt kein mehrjähriges Programm, das eine Entwicklungsrichtung für diese Zusammenarbeit mit Organisationen vorgeben würde. Als Prioritäten für die Zusammenarbeit der Stadt Warschau mit Organisationen im Kulturbereich nennt das Programm: 1. Maßnahmen zur Erlangung des Titels Europäische Kulturhauptstadt 2016, konzentriert unter anderem auf die Unterstützung der unabhängigen Kultur und ihrer Zentren als einer besonderen Äußerung des Aufbaus der Zivilgesellschaft. 2. Maßnahmen im Bereich von Kunst und Kultur, insbesondere: MM innovative Formen der Kulturerziehung, Aktivierung lokaler Milieus, Einbeziehung neuer Teilnehmergruppen, Unterstützung von Amateurkünstlern, MM Verbreitung der Kultur in verschiedenen Gebieten und künstlerischen Ausdrucksformen, MM Unterstützung der Realisierung von innovativen künstlerischen Projekten, MM Unterstützung von Kulturprojekten zur Animierung des öffentlichen Raums, MM Unterstützung von Projekten und Unternehmungen, die das feste Kulturangebots Warschaus prägen,
MM Unterstützung von Initiativen und Unternehmungen zur Popularisierung von Traditionen, Geschichte und Kulturerbe von Warschau, MM der interkulturelle Dialog unter besonderer Berücksichtigung nationaler und ethnischer Minderheiten und der in Warschau ansässigen Ausländer, MM internationale Zusammenarbeit, etwa bei der Umsetzung gemeinsamer Projekte mit den Partnerstädten. Die Bewertung des Stands der Zusammenarbeit mit der Stadt im Bereich der Umsetzung von Projekten und die Bewertung der Bemerkungen, Anregungen und Vorschläge, die sich aus dieser Zusammenarbeit ergeben, wird im Jahresbericht des Bevollmächtigten zusammen mit dem Warschauer Rat für Gemeinwohl vorgenommen. Dieser Bericht wird dem Stadtpräsidenten vorgelegt, der seinerseits dem Rat der Hauptstadt Warschau Rechenschaft ablegt.
Krakau: Die Strategie für die Entwicklung der Kultur in Krakau für die Jahre 2010-201433, die im September 2010 angenommen wurde, ist die erste solche Strategie in der Geschichte der Stadt. Ihre Prioritäten sind: Die für die kommenden Jahre angenommene Konzeption der nachhaltigen Entwicklung soll gleiche Entwicklungsmöglichkeiten für Kulturorganisationen, Künstler, NGOs und Unternehmen im Kultursektor gewährleisten. (…) Zugleich ist zu berücksichtigen, dass: 1. die übergeordnete Aufgabe der Gemeinde Krakau im Kulturbereich die konsequente Unterstützung der Kulturinstitutionen der Gemeinde darstellt, sowohl in institutioneller als auch programmatischer Hinsicht, vor allem durch Gewährleistung finanzieller Mittel, die für ihre Kulturtätigkeit sowie Unterhaltung und Ausbau ihrer Infrastruktur unabdingbar sind, 2. die Gemeinde die Entwicklung des an verschiedene Zielgruppen gerichteten, darunter die zahlreichen Besucher der Stadt, Kulturangebots stimulieren soll, 3. Kultur und Nationalerbe muss für die Stadt werben, die Gestaltung ihres Images im In- und Ausland beeinflussen, was sich auf unterschiedliche Lebensbereiche auswirkt. Das Image bildet sich infolge eines langfristigen, komplexen
33 Anlage zum Beschluss Nr. CXIV/1524/10 des Rats der Stadt Krakau vom 20. Oktober 2010.
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Wirkungsprozesses. Dabei handelt es sich um ein Zusammenspiel vieler verschiedener Teilelemente, zu denen die stadtbildprägenden Baudenkmäler und Kulturveranstaltungen gehören, welche die Wahrnehmung der Stadt bestimmen, sowohl in den Augen ihrer Einwohner als auch der Touristen als auch all jener, die niemals in Krakau gewesen sind. Das Image der Stadt hat Einfluss auf die Lebensqualität der Einwohner, auf die Entscheidung, Krakau als Tourist zu besuchen oder hier zu investieren. Kultur und Nationalerbe bilden einen der wichtigsten, wenn nicht den wichtigsten Akzent des Images. Mit Krakau werden einzelne Baudenkmäler, Orte, Bräuche und Kulturereignisse assoziiert.34
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Ad. 3: Kreative Stadt 3.1. Krakau als Stadt der Kunst und Künstler, 3.2 Krakau als Stadt großer Kunstereignisse und Festivals, Prioritäten u. a.: MM Schaffung starker Krakauer Festivalmarken, MM Formulierung und Implementierung eines Dreijahresprogramms für die Unterstützung der Krakauer Festivals. Darin: Förderung und Vermarktung der städtischen Kulturinstitute und anderer Subjekte, die Festivals auf dem Gebiet der Stadt umsetzen. 3.3 Kulturkooperation mit anderen Städten, Priorität: Umsetzung des aktuellen Programms für die Internationale Zusammenarbeit der Stadtgemeinde Krakau – Anknüpfung und Stimulierung der internationalen Zusammenarbeit und Initiierung eines Kulturaustauschs zwischen den städtischen Kulturinstitutionen, NGOs und Institutionen aus anderen Regionen Europas.
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Die Strategie führt die folgenden strategischen Hauptziele auf: 1. die Stadtgemeinde Krakau als Mäzen für Kultur und Künstler, 2. Krakaus als Sitz von modernen Kulturinstitutionen, 3. Krakau als kreative Stadt, 4. der Ausbau der Partnerschaft der Stadtgemeinde Krakau mit anderen Subjekten, die einer Tätigkeit im Kultursektor nachgehen, 5. Schutz des Kulturerbes.
34 Ebenda.
Ad. 4: Partnerschaft mit anderen Subjekten. 4.2 Zusammenarbeit der Stadtgemeinde Krakau mit NGOs im Bereich des Kultursektors, Priorität: Aufstellung transparenter Kriterien zur Evaluierung und Überwachung der bezuschussten Unternehmungen, darin: MM Beteiligung von NGOs an der Umsetzung von öffentlichen Aufgaben durch die Stadtgemeinde Krakau im Kulturbereich, darunter die Vermarktung der Stadt im In- und Ausland (internationale Zusammenarbeit) bei gleichzeitiger jährlichen Erweiterung der Geldmittel für diesen Zweck; Entwicklung des Systems der Kommunikation mit Nichtregierungsorganisationen; Zusammenarbeit im Bereich der Erstellung einer langfristigen Strategie für die Entwicklung der Kultur in Krakau und Umsetzung der Überwachung ihrer Implementierungsetappen, MM Entwicklung der Zusammenarbeit, des Dialogs und der Partnerschaft mit Kunstschaffenden, MM Schaffung günstiger Voraussetzungen für die Entwicklung der Kulturindustrien in Krakau und Unterstützung der Entwicklung der ÖffentlichPrivaten Partnerschaft im Kultursektor.
Entwicklungsstrategie der Stadt Krakau Für die Verwirklichung der vorgegebenen Vision der Stadtentwicklung werden die folgenden, gleichwertigen strategischen Ziele formuliert:
Entwicklungsstrategie der Stadt Krakau Für die Verwirklichung der vorgegebenen Vision der Stadtentwicklung werden die folgenden, gleichwertigen strategischen Ziele formuliert:
Betrachten wir nun die vorgegebenen operativen Pläne und die Maßnahmenpläne, in denen NGOs erwähnt werden oder die für NGOs relevant sein können: Ad. 1: Krakau als Mäzen 1.1 Stärkung der Funktion der Stadtgemeinde Krakau als Mäzen der Kunst und Künstler, Priorität: Erarbeitung eines objektiven und transparenten Systems der Aufteilung und Abrechnung von Geldmitteln mit Unterscheidung von Infrastruktur und Kunstereignissen. 1.2. Ausbau differenzierter Formen der Unterstützung des Sektors Kunst und Kultur, Prioritäten, u. a.: MM Förderung und Veranstaltung von Festivals, MM Unterstützung und Veranstaltung von Unternehmungen der lokalen Kunstszene, MM Diagnose der Möglichkeiten der Gemeinde im Bereich der Gewährung von Promessen und die Aufstellung von Prinzipien für ihre Gewährung. 1.3. Entwicklung der Kompetenzen der Empfänger im Bereich der Teilnahme an der Kultur – Kulturerziehung.
Ad. 4: Partnerschaft mit anderen Subjekten. 4.2 Zusammenarbeit der Stadtgemeinde Krakau mit NGOs im Bereich des Kultursektors, Priorität: Aufstellung transparenter Kriterien zur Evaluierung und Überwachung der bezuschussten Unternehmungen, darin: MM Beteiligung von NGOs an der Umsetzung von öffentlichen Aufgaben durch die Stadtgemeinde Krakau im Kulturbereich, darunter die Vermarktung der Stadt im In- und Ausland (internationale Zusammenarbeit) bei gleichzeitiger jährlichen Erweiterung der Geldmittel für diesen Zweck; Entwicklung des Systems der Kommunikation mit Nichtregierungsorganisationen; Zusammenarbeit im Bereich der Erstellung einer langfristigen Strategie für die Entwicklung der Kultur in Krakau und Umsetzung der Überwachung ihrer Implementierungsetappen, MM Entwicklung der Zusammenarbeit, des Dialogs und der Partnerschaft mit Kunstschaffenden, MM Schaffung günstiger Voraussetzungen für die Entwicklung der Kulturindustrien in Krakau und Unterstützung der Entwicklung der ÖffentlichPrivaten Partnerschaft im Kultursektor.
Betrachten wir nun die vorgegebenen operativen Pläne und die Maßnahmenpläne, in denen NGOs erwähnt werden oder die für NGOs relevant sein können: Ad. 1: Krakau als Mäzen 1.1 Stärkung der Funktion der Stadtgemeinde Krakau als Mäzen der Kunst und Künstler, Priorität: Erarbeitung eines objektiven und transparenten Systems der Aufteilung und Abrechnung von Geldmitteln mit Unterscheidung von Infrastruktur und Kunstereignissen. 1.2. Ausbau differenzierter Formen der Unterstützung des Sektors Kunst und Kultur, Prioritäten, u. a.: MM Förderung und Veranstaltung von Festivals, MM Unterstützung und Veranstaltung von Unternehmungen der lokalen Kunstszene, MM Diagnose der Möglichkeiten der Gemeinde im Bereich der Gewährung von Promessen und die Aufstellung von Prinzipien für ihre Gewährung. 1.3. Entwicklung der Kompetenzen der Empfänger im Bereich der Teilnahme an der Kultur – Kulturerziehung.
Die Strategie führt die folgenden strategischen Hauptziele auf: 1. die Stadtgemeinde Krakau als Mäzen für Kultur und Künstler, 2. Krakaus als Sitz von modernen Kulturinstitutionen, 3. Krakau als kreative Stadt, 4. der Ausbau der Partnerschaft der Stadtgemeinde Krakau mit anderen Subjekten, die einer Tätigkeit im Kultursektor nachgehen, 5. Schutz des Kulturerbes.
Ad. 3: Kreative Stadt 3.1. Krakau als Stadt der Kunst und Künstler, 3.2 Krakau als Stadt großer Kunstereignisse und Festivals, Prioritäten u. a.: MM Schaffung starker Krakauer Festivalmarken, MM Formulierung und Implementierung eines Dreijahresprogramms für die Unterstützung der Krakauer Festivals. Darin: Förderung und Vermarktung der städtischen Kulturinstitute und anderer Subjekte, die Festivals auf dem Gebiet der Stadt umsetzen. 3.3 Kulturkooperation mit anderen Städten, Priorität: Umsetzung des aktuellen Programms für die Internationale Zusammenarbeit der Stadtgemeinde Krakau – Anknüpfung und Stimulierung der internationalen Zusammenarbeit und Initiierung eines Kulturaustauschs zwischen den städtischen Kulturinstitutionen, NGOs und Institutionen aus anderen Regionen Europas.
34 Ebenda.
Wirkungsprozesses. Dabei handelt es sich um ein Zusammenspiel vieler verschiedener Teilelemente, zu denen die stadtbildprägenden Baudenkmäler und Kulturveranstaltungen gehören, welche die Wahrnehmung der Stadt bestimmen, sowohl in den Augen ihrer Einwohner als auch der Touristen als auch all jener, die niemals in Krakau gewesen sind. Das Image der Stadt hat Einfluss auf die Lebensqualität der Einwohner, auf die Entscheidung, Krakau als Tourist zu besuchen oder hier zu investieren. Kultur und Nationalerbe bilden einen der wichtigsten, wenn nicht den wichtigsten Akzent des Images. Mit Krakau werden einzelne Baudenkmäler, Orte, Bräuche und Kulturereignisse assoziiert.34
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1. Krakau als familienfreundliche Stadt und attraktiver Wohn- und Aufenthaltsort, 2. Krakau als Stadt einer wettbewerbsfähigen und modernen Wirtschaft, 3. Krakau als europäische Metropole mit wichtigen Funktionen in Wissenschaft, Kultur und Sport. Unter den operativen Zielen des dritten strategischen Ziels betrifft eines die Kultur: „Schaffung von materiellen und institutionellen Voraussetzungen für die Entwicklung von Kultur“. Es lautet folgendermaßen: „Krakau ist eine Stadt mit einem reichen Kulturleben, wovon etwa die Zahl der Theater, Theatergruppen, Musikinstitutionen, Museen, Bibliotheken, Kulturzentren, Kinos und vielfältiger Kulturereignisse sowie das historische Stadtensemble, das zu den wertvollsten in Europa zählt, zeugen. Die Festigung der Position Krakaus als eines kulturellen Mittelpunkts erfordert verstärktes Engagement der Stadt für die Umsetzung von Kunst- und Kulturprojekten, die Unterstützung der Tätigkeit von Institutionen und und Kultureinrichtungen, die Unterstützung des kreativen Umfelds, erfordert auch eine Rekonstruktion und Modernisierung der materiellen Basis. Auszubauen ist das Angebot an kostenlosem Unterricht in Kulturhäusern und -zentren für Kinder, Jugendliche und Senioren, insbesondere in der Nähe ihres Wohnortes, und die Unterstützung der nachbarschaftlichen Integration. Notwendig ist zudem eine ausgebaute Infrastruktur für Konzerte und Spektakel, damit eine größere Zahl von hochrangigen Kulturveranstaltungen durchgeführt werden kann. Wichtig ist zudem die Aufrechterhaltung und Weiterentwicklung internationaler Kontakte, darunter der Zusammenarbeit mit den Partnerstädten.“35 Zur Umsetzung der Operationsziele werden die erforderlichen Sektorenprogramme aufgestellt. Es wurde entschieden, dass zwei Sektorenprogramme für den Kultursektor entstehen sollen:
MM
MM
Programm für die Zusammenarbeit mit den Veranstaltern der Krakauer Festivals und traditionellen Festen der Stadt, Programm für ein Kunstmäzenatentum und öffentliche Dienstleistungen im Kulturbereich.
Beide Programme befinden sich in Vorbereitung. Die Stadtgemeinde Krakau arbeitet an einem Langfristigen Programm für die Zusammenarbeit mit Nichtregierungsorganisationen, einem Dokument, das die langfristigen Richtungen der Zusammenarbeit mit Nichtregierungsorganisationen und anderen Subjekten für die Jahre 2012-2014 regelt. Das Programm für 2011 bestimmt drei strategische Ziele. Eines davon lautet „Krakau als europäische Metropole mit wichtigen Funktionen in Wissenschaft, Kultur und Sport“ und beinhaltet die folgenden Operationsziele: MM Schaffung materieller und institutioneller Grundlagen für die Kulturentwicklung, MM Schaffung von Voraussetzungen für die Entwicklung von Sport, Physiokultur und Rekreation. 36 Die besonderen Programmziele, die sich aus der von der Stadtgemeinde Krakau ergebenden Sektorenprogramme ergeben, wurde für den Bereich Kultur, Kunst, Schutz von Kulturgütern und Traditionen folgendermaßen formuliert: MM Stärkung der Position Krakaus als eines kulturellen Mittelpunkts durch verstärktes Engagement der Stadt bei der Umsetzung von Kunstprojekten: Konzerten, Ausstellungen, Theaterstücken, Musik- und Tanzspektakeln, Ballettaufführungen und interdisziplinären Projekten, MM Förderung der Marke von Krakau als Stadt der Festivals, MM Präsentation der künstlerischen Errungenschaften Krakauer Kunstschaffender im In- und Ausland. 37
35 Strategie für die Entwicklung Krakaus, S. 38 36 Anlage zum Beschluss Nr. CXI/1510/10 des Rates der stadt Krakau Rady Miasta Krakowa z dnia 6. Października 2010r. Program współpracy Gminy Miejskiej Kraków z organizacjami pozarządowymi oraz podmiotami, o których mowa w art. 3 ust.3 ustawy z dnia 24 kwietnia 2003r. o działalności pożytku publicznego i o wolontariacie (Dz. U. Nr 96, poz. 873 z późn. Zm.), na rok 2011. Programm für die Zusammenarbeit der Stadtgemeinde Krakau mit Nichtregierungsorganisationen und Subjekten, von denen in Art. 3, Abs. 3 des Gesetzes vom 24. April 2003 über die gemeinnützige und ehrenamtliche Tätigkeit die Rede ist (polnisches Gesetzblatt „Dziennik Ustaw“ Nr. 96, Ziff. 873 mit späteren Änderungen) für das Jahr 2011. 37 Ebenda.
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37 Ebenda. 36 Anlage zum Beschluss Nr. CXI/1510/10 des Rates der stadt Krakau Rady Miasta Krakowa z dnia 6. Października 2010r. Program współpracy Gminy Miejskiej Kraków z organizacjami pozarządowymi oraz podmiotami, o których mowa w art. 3 ust.3 ustawy z dnia 24 kwietnia 2003r. o działalności pożytku publicznego i o wolontariacie (Dz. U. Nr 96, poz. 873 z późn. Zm.), na rok 2011. Programm für die Zusammenarbeit der Stadtgemeinde Krakau mit Nichtregierungsorganisationen und Subjekten, von denen in Art. 3, Abs. 3 des Gesetzes vom 24. April 2003 über die gemeinnützige und ehrenamtliche Tätigkeit die Rede ist (polnisches Gesetzblatt „Dziennik Ustaw“ Nr. 96, Ziff. 873 mit späteren Änderungen) für das Jahr 2011. 35 Strategie für die Entwicklung Krakaus, S. 38
Zur Umsetzung der Operationsziele werden die erforderlichen Sektorenprogramme aufgestellt. Es wurde entschieden, dass zwei Sektorenprogramme für den Kultursektor entstehen sollen: Unter den operativen Zielen des dritten strategischen Ziels betrifft eines die Kultur: „Schaffung von materiellen und institutionellen Voraussetzungen für die Entwicklung von Kultur“. Es lautet folgendermaßen: „Krakau ist eine Stadt mit einem reichen Kulturleben, wovon etwa die Zahl der Theater, Theatergruppen, Musikinstitutionen, Museen, Bibliotheken, Kulturzentren, Kinos und vielfältiger Kulturereignisse sowie das historische Stadtensemble, das zu den wertvollsten in Europa zählt, zeugen. Die Festigung der Position Krakaus als eines kulturellen Mittelpunkts erfordert verstärktes Engagement der Stadt für die Umsetzung von Kunst- und Kulturprojekten, die Unterstützung der Tätigkeit von Institutionen und und Kultureinrichtungen, die Unterstützung des kreativen Umfelds, erfordert auch eine Rekonstruktion und Modernisierung der materiellen Basis. Auszubauen ist das Angebot an kostenlosem Unterricht in Kulturhäusern und -zentren für Kinder, Jugendliche und Senioren, insbesondere in der Nähe ihres Wohnortes, und die Unterstützung der nachbarschaftlichen Integration. Notwendig ist zudem eine ausgebaute Infrastruktur für Konzerte und Spektakel, damit eine größere Zahl von hochrangigen Kulturveranstaltungen durchgeführt werden kann. Wichtig ist zudem die Aufrechterhaltung und Weiterentwicklung internationaler Kontakte, darunter der Zusammenarbeit mit den Partnerstädten.“35 1. Krakau als familienfreundliche Stadt und attraktiver Wohn- und Aufenthaltsort, 2. Krakau als Stadt einer wettbewerbsfähigen und modernen Wirtschaft, 3. Krakau als europäische Metropole mit wichtigen Funktionen in Wissenschaft, Kultur und Sport.
Die besonderen Programmziele, die sich aus der von der Stadtgemeinde Krakau ergebenden Sektorenprogramme ergeben, wurde für den Bereich Kultur, Kunst, Schutz von Kulturgütern und Traditionen folgendermaßen formuliert: MM Stärkung der Position Krakaus als eines kulturellen Mittelpunkts durch verstärktes Engagement der Stadt bei der Umsetzung von Kunstprojekten: Konzerten, Ausstellungen, Theaterstücken, Musik- und Tanzspektakeln, Ballettaufführungen und interdisziplinären Projekten, MM Förderung der Marke von Krakau als Stadt der Festivals, MM Präsentation der künstlerischen Errungenschaften Krakauer Kunstschaffender im In- und Ausland. 37 Das Programm für 2011 bestimmt drei strategische Ziele. Eines davon lautet „Krakau als europäische Metropole mit wichtigen Funktionen in Wissenschaft, Kultur und Sport“ und beinhaltet die folgenden Operationsziele: MM Schaffung materieller und institutioneller Grundlagen für die Kulturentwicklung, MM Schaffung von Voraussetzungen für die Entwicklung von Sport, Physiokultur und Rekreation. 36 Beide Programme befinden sich in Vorbereitung. Die Stadtgemeinde Krakau arbeitet an einem Langfristigen Programm für die Zusammenarbeit mit Nichtregierungsorganisationen, einem Dokument, das die langfristigen Richtungen der Zusammenarbeit mit Nichtregierungsorganisationen und anderen Subjekten für die Jahre 2012-2014 regelt. MM MM
Programm für die Zusammenarbeit mit den Veranstaltern der Krakauer Festivals und traditionellen Festen der Stadt, Programm für ein Kunstmäzenatentum und öffentliche Dienstleistungen im Kulturbereich.
Kulturmanagement 2011, Vol 4 (4)
Breslau: Im Jahr 2006 wurde die Strategie für die Kultur Breslaus verabschiedet. Leider ist sie bis heute nicht öffentlich zugänglich. Im Jahr 2010 sollte eine Audit der Strategie stattfinden. Seine Ergebnisse sind ebenfalls nicht publik. Gegenwärtig ist ein Dokument zur Kulturpolitik der Stadt in Vorbereitung – auf der Grundlage der Bewertung um den Titel der Europäischen Kulturhauptstadt 2016. Aus der Bewerbung selbst lassen sich hingegen folgende Prioritäten ersehen: MM Einführung beständiger Lösungen zur Steigerungen der Beteiligung unterschiedlicher derzeit noch ausgegrenzter Gesellschaftsgruppen am Kulturleben. In der aktiven Teilnahme am Kulturleben sieht die Stadt Breslau eine der wirkungsvollsten Methoden der Lösung selbst schwierigster sozialer Probleme sowie der Einbindung defavorisierter Gruppen in eine gemeinsame Welt. MM Unter Bezugnahme auf das Recht eines jeden auf Zugang zur Kunst als einer unverzichtbaren Voraussetzung für die Gestaltung der Subjekthaftigkeit menschlicher Individuen will die Stadt Breslau allgemein zugängliche öffentliche Räume schaffen, die allen die Begegnung mit authentischen Kunstwerken vermitteln (Bekämpfung von Kommodifikation und Entfremdung). MM Bekämpfung von Interpassivität aufgrund der Allgegenwärtigkeit der neuesten Technologien durch aktive und interaktive Teilnahme an der Kultur. 38
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600 von den Bürgern und NGO eingesandten Vorschlägen und Anregungen auf. 39 Die 2006 angenommene Strategie Breslau in der Perspektive 2010 plus enthält auch einen Abschnitt, der der Kultur gewidmet ist. Er beginnt mit einem Bezug auf die Kulturschaffenden: „In der Kultur zählen weniger gute Projekte als vielmehr Menschen mit guten Projekten. Das Wesen der Kulturpolitik besteht in der Identifizierung derjenigen Personen, denen ihre künstlerische Freiheit zu gewährleisten (das heißt zu finanzieren) ist.“ Die Breslauer Strategie für Stadtentwicklung hebt unter anderem die folgenden Maßnahmen und Aktionsfelder hervor: MM die Unabdingbarkeit der Kultur für die Prozesse der Gestaltung der Breslauer Identität und der Kreierung des Images der Stadt, MM die alltägliche Gegenwart von Kunst; Prägung von Kunstgeschmack; ständiges Angebot von Vorstellungen und Konzerten aus dem Kulturkanon; Durchdringung des öffentlichen Raums mit visueller Kunst, MM die Veranstaltung großer Kunstveranstaltungen, die Klasse und Rang der Stadt bestätigen, MM die Beteiligung an internationalen Unternehmungen und eigene Initiativen, MM städtisches Mäzenatentum; Chancen für junge und vielversprechende Künstler, Pensionen für die Väter des Erfolgs, MM Bekämpfung einer Krise der Teilnahme an der Kultur, in der Konsum statt Partizipation steht, MM das klare Bewusstsein der zu befriedigenden Geschmäcker; Bekämpfung von Kitsch und intellektueller (auch avantgardistischer) Schmiere; Bedarf nach einer verantwortungsbewussten Kunstkritik, MM Arbeit an einer Erklärung des Kunstkanons; Künstlern offen stehende Schulen und Kunstinstitutionen für Schüler; dedizierte Konzerte, Aufführungen, Ausstellungen und Workshops, MM ganzheitliche Obhut über die Kultur in Breslau; die derzeitige Eigentumsstruktur der Kulturinstitutionen darf nicht das Denken über das Kulturleben der Stadt vorbestimmen, MM Sorge um die kulturelle Initiation der künftigen Generationen: Wohnviertelkulturarbeit und Kulturhäuser, Kunstschulen, Studentische Kulturzentren,
178
Auch Breslau beteiligte sich an dem Wettbewerb um den Titel der Europäischen Kulturhauptstadt. Den Juroren gefiel die Idee der „Widergewinnung der Schönheit“. Breslau zeigte damit, dass es verwahrloste und vergessene Orte und Milieus verändern will, das es viel Gutes für seine Bewohner tun will und nicht nur große infrastrukturelle Maßnahmen wie den Bau des nationalen Musikforums oder des Museums für Gegenwartskunst in Angriff nehmen. Vor allem will die Stadt die Beteiligung ihrer Einwohner an der Kultur stärken. Allerdings warfen die Juroren Breslau fehlende soziale Unterstützung vor, deshalb nahm die Stadt in ihrer Bewerbung für die zweite Runde 150 von
39 (www.wroclaw.pl, auf der Grundlage des Berichts über die Vorauswahl der Städte, 12.-13.10. 2010).
38 Räume für das Schöne – Bewerbung Breslaus um den Titel der Europäischen Kulturhauptstadt 2016.
38 Räume für das Schöne – Bewerbung Breslaus um den Titel der Europäischen Kulturhauptstadt 2016.
39 (www.wroclaw.pl, auf der Grundlage des Berichts über die Vorauswahl der Städte, 12.-13.10. 2010).
Auch Breslau beteiligte sich an dem Wettbewerb um den Titel der Europäischen Kulturhauptstadt. Den Juroren gefiel die Idee der „Widergewinnung der Schönheit“. Breslau zeigte damit, dass es verwahrloste und vergessene Orte und Milieus verändern will, das es viel Gutes für seine Bewohner tun will und nicht nur große infrastrukturelle Maßnahmen wie den Bau des nationalen Musikforums oder des Museums für Gegenwartskunst in Angriff nehmen. Vor allem will die Stadt die Beteiligung ihrer Einwohner an der Kultur stärken. Allerdings warfen die Juroren Breslau fehlende soziale Unterstützung vor, deshalb nahm die Stadt in ihrer Bewerbung für die zweite Runde 150 von
600 von den Bürgern und NGO eingesandten Vorschlägen und Anregungen auf. 39 Die 2006 angenommene Strategie Breslau in der Perspektive 2010 plus enthält auch einen Abschnitt, der der Kultur gewidmet ist. Er beginnt mit einem Bezug auf die Kulturschaffenden: „In der Kultur zählen weniger gute Projekte als vielmehr Menschen mit guten Projekten. Das Wesen der Kulturpolitik besteht in der Identifizierung derjenigen Personen, denen ihre künstlerische Freiheit zu gewährleisten (das heißt zu finanzieren) ist.“ Die Breslauer Strategie für Stadtentwicklung hebt unter anderem die folgenden Maßnahmen und Aktionsfelder hervor: MM die Unabdingbarkeit der Kultur für die Prozesse der Gestaltung der Breslauer Identität und der Kreierung des Images der Stadt, MM die alltägliche Gegenwart von Kunst; Prägung von Kunstgeschmack; ständiges Angebot von Vorstellungen und Konzerten aus dem Kulturkanon; Durchdringung des öffentlichen Raums mit visueller Kunst, MM die Veranstaltung großer Kunstveranstaltungen, die Klasse und Rang der Stadt bestätigen, MM die Beteiligung an internationalen Unternehmungen und eigene Initiativen, MM städtisches Mäzenatentum; Chancen für junge und vielversprechende Künstler, Pensionen für die Väter des Erfolgs, MM Bekämpfung einer Krise der Teilnahme an der Kultur, in der Konsum statt Partizipation steht, MM das klare Bewusstsein der zu befriedigenden Geschmäcker; Bekämpfung von Kitsch und intellektueller (auch avantgardistischer) Schmiere; Bedarf nach einer verantwortungsbewussten Kunstkritik, MM Arbeit an einer Erklärung des Kunstkanons; Künstlern offen stehende Schulen und Kunstinstitutionen für Schüler; dedizierte Konzerte, Aufführungen, Ausstellungen und Workshops, MM ganzheitliche Obhut über die Kultur in Breslau; die derzeitige Eigentumsstruktur der Kulturinstitutionen darf nicht das Denken über das Kulturleben der Stadt vorbestimmen, MM Sorge um die kulturelle Initiation der künftigen Generationen: Wohnviertelkulturarbeit und Kulturhäuser, Kunstschulen, Studentische Kulturzentren,
178
Breslau: Im Jahr 2006 wurde die Strategie für die Kultur Breslaus verabschiedet. Leider ist sie bis heute nicht öffentlich zugänglich. Im Jahr 2010 sollte eine Audit der Strategie stattfinden. Seine Ergebnisse sind ebenfalls nicht publik. Gegenwärtig ist ein Dokument zur Kulturpolitik der Stadt in Vorbereitung – auf der Grundlage der Bewertung um den Titel der Europäischen Kulturhauptstadt 2016. Aus der Bewerbung selbst lassen sich hingegen folgende Prioritäten ersehen: MM Einführung beständiger Lösungen zur Steigerungen der Beteiligung unterschiedlicher derzeit noch ausgegrenzter Gesellschaftsgruppen am Kulturleben. In der aktiven Teilnahme am Kulturleben sieht die Stadt Breslau eine der wirkungsvollsten Methoden der Lösung selbst schwierigster sozialer Probleme sowie der Einbindung defavorisierter Gruppen in eine gemeinsame Welt. MM Unter Bezugnahme auf das Recht eines jeden auf Zugang zur Kunst als einer unverzichtbaren Voraussetzung für die Gestaltung der Subjekthaftigkeit menschlicher Individuen will die Stadt Breslau allgemein zugängliche öffentliche Räume schaffen, die allen die Begegnung mit authentischen Kunstwerken vermitteln (Bekämpfung von Kommodifikation und Entfremdung). MM Bekämpfung von Interpassivität aufgrund der Allgegenwärtigkeit der neuesten Technologien durch aktive und interaktive Teilnahme an der Kultur. 38
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Kulturmanagement 2011, Vol 4 (4) MM
41 Programm für die Zusammenarbeit mit Nichtregierungsorganisationen für das Jahr 2011. 40 Breslau in der Perspektive 2020 plus, www.wroclaw.pl.
MM
MM
MM
Erforschung, Dokumentierung und Popularisierung der schlesischen und Breslauer Vergangenheit, Investitionen für die Kultur; neue und adoptierte Objekte; Vorbereitung des öffentlichen Raums für große Freiluftveranstaltungen, Pilotprojekt: Kulturinkubator der Generation JP II (der zur Zeit des Pontifikats Johannes Pauls II. herangewachsenen Jugend), Maßnahmen für die Anerkennung Breslaus als Europäische Kulturhauptstadt 2016.40
Das grundlegende Dokument, das die Ziele, Prinzipien, Formen und eine Bewertung der Zusammenarbeit der Organe der Selbstverwaltung der Stadt Breslaus mit NGOs bestimmt, ist ein alljährlich vom Rat der Stadt Breslau verabschiedetes Programm. Das Programm für das Jahr 2011 entstand auf der Grundlage des Mehrjährigen Programms für die Zusammenarbeit mit Nichtregierungsorganisationen 2011-2012. Die Prioritäten der Zusammenarbeit für das Jahr 2011 mit Organisationen in den Bereichen Kunst, Kultur, Schutz von Kulturgütern und des Nationalerbes sind: MM Unterstützung der Entwicklung von Kunst und Kultur, darunter der künstlerischen Tätigkeit, sowie die Veranstaltung künstlerischer Unternehmungen, die das Angebot der Stadt bereichern, MM Kulturerziehung von Kindern und Jugendlichen, MM Kulturerziehung, darunter der Mehrheitsbevölkerung, und Unterstützung der Identität der nationalen und ethnischen Minderheiten, MM Unterstützung der Formen der Non-ProfitKulturarbeit, insbesondere im Bereich der Gegenwartskunst, MM Verbreitung von Kunst und Kultur, MM Maßnahmen für die Förderung von Kunst und Kultur sowie die Unterstützung von Aufgaben im Bereich des Schutzes von Kulturgütern und Traditionen, MM Unterstützung des Schaffens und der künstlerischen Ausbildung von Personen mit Behinderungen. Die Evaluierung der Zusammenarbeit nimmt der Präsident der Stadt Breslau vor und legt
anschließend dem Rat der Stadt Breslau Rechenschaft über die Umsetzung des Programms ab. Das Dokument bestimmt zudem die Kriterien zur Evaluierung des Programms, und zwar die folgenden quantitativen Indikatoren: MM Zahl und Struktur der mit der Stadt kooperierenden NGOs, MM Zahl und Struktur der im Jahr 2011 ausgeschriebenen Wettbewerbe, der eingereichten Angebote und der unterzeichneten Verträge, MM Ausführung des Subventionsplans für 2011 insbesondere nach der Haushaltsklassifizierung auf der Grundlage des Berichts über die Ausführung des städtischen Haushalts, MM Ausführung des Subventionsplans in dynamischer Darstellung in den Jahre 2002-2011, MM Zahl der durchgeführten Fortbildungen für NGOs.41
ZUSAMMENFASSUNG DES IDEELL-AXIOLOGISCHEN ASPEKTS
D
ie angeführten Fragmente der Papiere, die die Vorgehensrichtungen in den drei Städten weisen, zeigen, wie sie die Rolle der Kultur betrachten und in welche Regionen sie ihre Einwohner führen möchten. Warschau geht ganzheitlich an die Entwicklung der Kultur heran und bietet sehr konkrete Lösungen in den einzelnen Bereichen, betont die Teilnahme aller Einwohner an der Kultur, Kulturerziehung und Stimulierung kreativer Potenziale und unterstreicht die Bedeutung eines gut organisierten öffentlichen Raums. Warschau will eine moderne Metropole sein, die sich auf das Potenzial ihrer Einwohner stützt. In den Warschauer Programmpaieren ist das Bewusstsein der Bedeutung von Nichtregierungsorganisationen sichtbar. NGO wurden im im Programm für die Entwicklung der Kultur als eines der wichtigsten Elemente der Gewährleistung der kulturellen Entwicklung der Stadt bezeichnet und die Bereiche ihrer Förderung klar definiert. In Warschau ging der Erstellung von Strategiepapieren eine Untersuchung der kulturellen Bedürfnisse der Bürger voraus. Das Programm für die Entwicklung der Kultur empfiehlt nicht nur bestimmte Maßnahmen, sondern gibt auch Zeitrah-
Die Evaluierung der Zusammenarbeit nimmt der Präsident der Stadt Breslau vor und legt Das grundlegende Dokument, das die Ziele, Prinzipien, Formen und eine Bewertung der Zusammenarbeit der Organe der Selbstverwaltung der Stadt Breslaus mit NGOs bestimmt, ist ein alljährlich vom Rat der Stadt Breslau verabschiedetes Programm. Das Programm für das Jahr 2011 entstand auf der Grundlage des Mehrjährigen Programms für die Zusammenarbeit mit Nichtregierungsorganisationen 2011-2012. Die Prioritäten der Zusammenarbeit für das Jahr 2011 mit Organisationen in den Bereichen Kunst, Kultur, Schutz von Kulturgütern und des Nationalerbes sind: MM Unterstützung der Entwicklung von Kunst und Kultur, darunter der künstlerischen Tätigkeit, sowie die Veranstaltung künstlerischer Unternehmungen, die das Angebot der Stadt bereichern, MM Kulturerziehung von Kindern und Jugendlichen, MM Kulturerziehung, darunter der Mehrheitsbevölkerung, und Unterstützung der Identität der nationalen und ethnischen Minderheiten, MM Unterstützung der Formen der Non-ProfitKulturarbeit, insbesondere im Bereich der Gegenwartskunst, MM Verbreitung von Kunst und Kultur, MM Maßnahmen für die Förderung von Kunst und Kultur sowie die Unterstützung von Aufgaben im Bereich des Schutzes von Kulturgütern und Traditionen, MM Unterstützung des Schaffens und der künstlerischen Ausbildung von Personen mit Behinderungen. MM MM MM
40 Breslau in der Perspektive 2020 plus, www.wroclaw.pl. 41 Programm für die Zusammenarbeit mit Nichtregierungsorganisationen für das Jahr 2011.
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MM
Erforschung, Dokumentierung und Popularisierung der schlesischen und Breslauer Vergangenheit, Investitionen für die Kultur; neue und adoptierte Objekte; Vorbereitung des öffentlichen Raums für große Freiluftveranstaltungen, Pilotprojekt: Kulturinkubator der Generation JP II (der zur Zeit des Pontifikats Johannes Pauls II. herangewachsenen Jugend), Maßnahmen für die Anerkennung Breslaus als Europäische Kulturhauptstadt 2016.40
ie angeführten Fragmente der Papiere, die die Vorgehensrichtungen in den drei Städten weisen, zeigen, wie sie die Rolle der Kultur betrachten und in welche Regionen sie ihre Einwohner führen möchten. Warschau geht ganzheitlich an die Entwicklung der Kultur heran und bietet sehr konkrete Lösungen in den einzelnen Bereichen, betont die Teilnahme aller Einwohner an der Kultur, Kulturerziehung und Stimulierung kreativer Potenziale und unterstreicht die Bedeutung eines gut organisierten öffentlichen Raums. Warschau will eine moderne Metropole sein, die sich auf das Potenzial ihrer Einwohner stützt. In den Warschauer Programmpaieren ist das Bewusstsein der Bedeutung von Nichtregierungsorganisationen sichtbar. NGO wurden im im Programm für die Entwicklung der Kultur als eines der wichtigsten Elemente der Gewährleistung der kulturellen Entwicklung der Stadt bezeichnet und die Bereiche ihrer Förderung klar definiert. In Warschau ging der Erstellung von Strategiepapieren eine Untersuchung der kulturellen Bedürfnisse der Bürger voraus. Das Programm für die Entwicklung der Kultur empfiehlt nicht nur bestimmte Maßnahmen, sondern gibt auch Zeitrah-
D
ZUSAMMENFASSUNG DES IDEELL-AXIOLOGISCHEN ASPEKTS anschließend dem Rat der Stadt Breslau Rechenschaft über die Umsetzung des Programms ab. Das Dokument bestimmt zudem die Kriterien zur Evaluierung des Programms, und zwar die folgenden quantitativen Indikatoren: MM Zahl und Struktur der mit der Stadt kooperierenden NGOs, MM Zahl und Struktur der im Jahr 2011 ausgeschriebenen Wettbewerbe, der eingereichten Angebote und der unterzeichneten Verträge, MM Ausführung des Subventionsplans für 2011 insbesondere nach der Haushaltsklassifizierung auf der Grundlage des Berichts über die Ausführung des städtischen Haushalts, MM Ausführung des Subventionsplans in dynamischer Darstellung in den Jahre 2002-2011, Zahl der durchgeführten Fortbildungen für NGOs.41 MM
werden die Ziele nicht auf quantifizierbare Weise formuliert, aber eine Anmerkung besagt, dass die genauen Maßstäbe in den Jahresprogrammen für die Zusammenarbeit vorgegeben werden. Es scheint, dass die Hauptstadt Kleinpolens zwar um die Bedeutung der Kultur weiß, aber nicht in ausreichendem Maße das Potenzial würdigt, das in Nichtregierungsorganisationen steckt. Allerdings mag dieser Eindruck auch durch den hohen Verallgemeinerungsgrad der Operationspläne der Strategie für die Entwicklung der Kultur entstehen. Die Bewertung der Situation in Krakau mag recht kritisch erscheinen. Dabei ist allerdings zu bedenken, dass Krakau die einzige Stadt ist, die ein Papier zur Kulturpolitik erstellt hat, also auch die einzige Stadt, die auf der Grundlage schriftlich fixierter Pläne und Maßnahmen verifizierbar ist. Der Versuch einer Ordnung der Kultursituation der Stadt durch Analyse und Erstellung einer der ersten Kulturstrategien im Land sollte also durchaus gewürdigt werden. Die beiden anderen Städte – Warschau und Breslau – befinden sich hierbei in einer anderen Lage: Beide bewarben sich um den Titel der Europäischen Kulturhauptstadt, was von beiden die Erstellung aktueller Maßnahmenpläne, die zugleich den vorgegebenen Wettbewerbskriterien und den hohen Erwartungen des Wettbewerbs entsprechen mussten, verlangte. Breslau hebt die gesellschaftlichen Aspekte der Kultur hervor: die Steigerung der Teilnahme an der Kultur durch Gesellschaftsgruppen, die gegenwärtig aus dem Kulturbetrieb ausgeschlossen sind, was zugleich als Instrument zur Lösung sozialer Probleme angesehen wird. Die Schlüsselfrage ist die Schaffung eines allgemein zugänglichen öffentlichen Raums, der die Begegnung aller Bürger mit authentischen Kunstwerken ermöglicht, was ebenfalls der Ausgrenzung vorbeugen soll. Aktivität und Interaktivität der Partizipation – so lautet die Antwort Breslaus auf die von den modernen Technologien mitgeprägte verbreitete passive Konsumentenhaltung. Breslau will Geschmack bilden, auf Qualität achten, Mäzenatentum ausüben, dem diffusen Gedächtnis der Stadt an seine Vergangenheit durch Denkmalpflege begegnen. Es fällt schwer, auf der Grundlage der genannten Unterlagen festzustellen, welche Rolle den NGOs zugeschrieben wird. Es ist wohl auf das Erscheinen eines abschließenden Dokuments zur Breslauer Kulturpolitik zu warten. Bis dahin überwiegt der Eindruck, dass Breslau zwar daran denkt, für wen die Kultur da sein soll, aber noch nicht mit den demokratischen Mechanismen der Schaffung von Kultur vertraut ist. Die angeführten
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men, Finanzierungsquellen und sogar die Subjekte für ihre Umsetzung vor. Hervorzuheben ist, dass ein Teil der der Schlüsselinstrumente der Unterstützung von NGOs bereits implementiert wurde, obwohl noch nicht viel Zeit seit der Erstellung der Strategie vergangen ist. Darunter sind zu erwähnen das Funktionieren einer Promesse im Modus allmonatlicher Antragstellung oder verschiedenen Wettbewerbe. Eine sehr interessante Initiative ist das Regranting, eine Idee, die die innovative Herangehensweise der Selbstverwaltung und den Willen zur Übertragung von Kompetenzen an Bürgerorganisationen besonders deutlich macht. Die Richtung der Warschauer Kulturpolitik ist aus der Bewerbung um den Titel der Europäischen Kulturhauptstadt ersichtlich: Förderung der unabhängigen Kultur und ihre Zentren als eine Äußerung des Aufbaus der Zivilgesellschaft. Dieser Ansatz wurde auch von der EKH-Kommission gewürdigt. Krakau unterstreicht die Notwendigkeit der Schaffung von Chancengleichheit für alle Subjekte des Kultursektors, wobei gleichzeitig die Vorrangstellung der Gemeindeentwicklungsinstitutionen hervorgehoben wird. Das Kulturangebot sollte verschiedene Gruppen von Empfängern ansprechen, darunter auch die Besucher der Stadt. Kultur ist für Krakau ein sehr wichtiges Element für die Gestaltung des Images als einer Stadt, die eine Rolle als Mäzen einnehmen will und die Zusammenarbeit auf verschiedenen Ebenen und mit unterschiedlichem Wirkungsbereich vorantreiben möchte. Ohne Zweifel würdigen die Krakauer Behörden die Bedeutung der Kultur und sind an ihrer Unterstützung interessiert. Priorität haben großformatige Prestigeunternehmungen. Hervorzuheben ist, dass der Erstellung der Entwicklungsstrategie in Krakau unter anderem die Anfertigung einer SWOT-Analyse voranging. Ein Teil der Ergebnisse bezüglich NGO wurde im Strategiepapier berücksichtigt. Zu den wichtigsten Versäumnissen zählen das Fehlen kleinerer, im Wettbewerbsmodus vergebener Förderbeträge für NGOs und – nach Ansicht der Krakauer Künstlerszene und der NGOs selbst – das Fehlen klarer Kriterien für den Erwerb von Dienstleistungen im Kulturbereich. In den strategischen Zielen der Strategie für die Entwicklung der Kultur finden NGOs keine Erwähnung. Auf der Ebene der Operationsziele hingegen tauchen sie auf – vor allem im Kontext der Zusammenarbeit mit anderen Subjekten, aber auch im Kontext der Unterstützung von Subjekten, die Festivals in der Stadt organisieren und die internationale Zusammenarbeit und den Kulturaustausch zwischen Kulturinstitutionen stimulieren. In diesem Dokument
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werden die Ziele nicht auf quantifizierbare Weise formuliert, aber eine Anmerkung besagt, dass die genauen Maßstäbe in den Jahresprogrammen für die Zusammenarbeit vorgegeben werden. Es scheint, dass die Hauptstadt Kleinpolens zwar um die Bedeutung der Kultur weiß, aber nicht in ausreichendem Maße das Potenzial würdigt, das in Nichtregierungsorganisationen steckt. Allerdings mag dieser Eindruck auch durch den hohen Verallgemeinerungsgrad der Operationspläne der Strategie für die Entwicklung der Kultur entstehen. Die Bewertung der Situation in Krakau mag recht kritisch erscheinen. Dabei ist allerdings zu bedenken, dass Krakau die einzige Stadt ist, die ein Papier zur Kulturpolitik erstellt hat, also auch die einzige Stadt, die auf der Grundlage schriftlich fixierter Pläne und Maßnahmen verifizierbar ist. Der Versuch einer Ordnung der Kultursituation der Stadt durch Analyse und Erstellung einer der ersten Kulturstrategien im Land sollte also durchaus gewürdigt werden. Die beiden anderen Städte – Warschau und Breslau – befinden sich hierbei in einer anderen Lage: Beide bewarben sich um den Titel der Europäischen Kulturhauptstadt, was von beiden die Erstellung aktueller Maßnahmenpläne, die zugleich den vorgegebenen Wettbewerbskriterien und den hohen Erwartungen des Wettbewerbs entsprechen mussten, verlangte. Breslau hebt die gesellschaftlichen Aspekte der Kultur hervor: die Steigerung der Teilnahme an der Kultur durch Gesellschaftsgruppen, die gegenwärtig aus dem Kulturbetrieb ausgeschlossen sind, was zugleich als Instrument zur Lösung sozialer Probleme angesehen wird. Die Schlüsselfrage ist die Schaffung eines allgemein zugänglichen öffentlichen Raums, der die Begegnung aller Bürger mit authentischen Kunstwerken ermöglicht, was ebenfalls der Ausgrenzung vorbeugen soll. Aktivität und Interaktivität der Partizipation – so lautet die Antwort Breslaus auf die von den modernen Technologien mitgeprägte verbreitete passive Konsumentenhaltung. Breslau will Geschmack bilden, auf Qualität achten, Mäzenatentum ausüben, dem diffusen Gedächtnis der Stadt an seine Vergangenheit durch Denkmalpflege begegnen. Es fällt schwer, auf der Grundlage der genannten Unterlagen festzustellen, welche Rolle den NGOs zugeschrieben wird. Es ist wohl auf das Erscheinen eines abschließenden Dokuments zur Breslauer Kulturpolitik zu warten. Bis dahin überwiegt der Eindruck, dass Breslau zwar daran denkt, für wen die Kultur da sein soll, aber noch nicht mit den demokratischen Mechanismen der Schaffung von Kultur vertraut ist. Die angeführten
180
men, Finanzierungsquellen und sogar die Subjekte für ihre Umsetzung vor. Hervorzuheben ist, dass ein Teil der der Schlüsselinstrumente der Unterstützung von NGOs bereits implementiert wurde, obwohl noch nicht viel Zeit seit der Erstellung der Strategie vergangen ist. Darunter sind zu erwähnen das Funktionieren einer Promesse im Modus allmonatlicher Antragstellung oder verschiedenen Wettbewerbe. Eine sehr interessante Initiative ist das Regranting, eine Idee, die die innovative Herangehensweise der Selbstverwaltung und den Willen zur Übertragung von Kompetenzen an Bürgerorganisationen besonders deutlich macht. Die Richtung der Warschauer Kulturpolitik ist aus der Bewerbung um den Titel der Europäischen Kulturhauptstadt ersichtlich: Förderung der unabhängigen Kultur und ihre Zentren als eine Äußerung des Aufbaus der Zivilgesellschaft. Dieser Ansatz wurde auch von der EKH-Kommission gewürdigt. Krakau unterstreicht die Notwendigkeit der Schaffung von Chancengleichheit für alle Subjekte des Kultursektors, wobei gleichzeitig die Vorrangstellung der Gemeindeentwicklungsinstitutionen hervorgehoben wird. Das Kulturangebot sollte verschiedene Gruppen von Empfängern ansprechen, darunter auch die Besucher der Stadt. Kultur ist für Krakau ein sehr wichtiges Element für die Gestaltung des Images als einer Stadt, die eine Rolle als Mäzen einnehmen will und die Zusammenarbeit auf verschiedenen Ebenen und mit unterschiedlichem Wirkungsbereich vorantreiben möchte. Ohne Zweifel würdigen die Krakauer Behörden die Bedeutung der Kultur und sind an ihrer Unterstützung interessiert. Priorität haben großformatige Prestigeunternehmungen. Hervorzuheben ist, dass der Erstellung der Entwicklungsstrategie in Krakau unter anderem die Anfertigung einer SWOT-Analyse voranging. Ein Teil der Ergebnisse bezüglich NGO wurde im Strategiepapier berücksichtigt. Zu den wichtigsten Versäumnissen zählen das Fehlen kleinerer, im Wettbewerbsmodus vergebener Förderbeträge für NGOs und – nach Ansicht der Krakauer Künstlerszene und der NGOs selbst – das Fehlen klarer Kriterien für den Erwerb von Dienstleistungen im Kulturbereich. In den strategischen Zielen der Strategie für die Entwicklung der Kultur finden NGOs keine Erwähnung. Auf der Ebene der Operationsziele hingegen tauchen sie auf – vor allem im Kontext der Zusammenarbeit mit anderen Subjekten, aber auch im Kontext der Unterstützung von Subjekten, die Festivals in der Stadt organisieren und die internationale Zusammenarbeit und den Kulturaustausch zwischen Kulturinstitutionen stimulieren. In diesem Dokument
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Dokumente wiesen in eine Richtung, aber sie klären nicht die Arten ihrer Umsetzung. Keines weist NGOs eine bedeutsame Rolle zu, was auch von der EKH-Kommission angemerkt wurde. Ein gutes Signal ist jedoch die Tatsache, dass die Evaluierung der Zusammenarbeit der Selbstverwaltung mit Nichtregierungsorganisationen vom Stadtpräsidenten durchgeführt wird und dass die Bewertungskriterien für die Umsetzung des Programms definiert sind. Als Konklusion dieses Teils mag die Überzeugung dienen, die in einer der Bewerbungen formuliert ist: Die Stadt muss sich um ihre Nichtregierungsorganisationen kümmern, da sie das kulturelle Angebot mitgestalten und gleichzeitig das Gefühl der Verantwortung der Bürger für das, was in ihrer Stadt geschieht, stärken.42 Wir wissen nun also, in welche Richtungen die Maßnahmen in den drei Städten gehen sollen. Sehen wir nun, auf welche weise sie ihre Strategien in den einzelnen Aspekten realisieren.
Der wirtschaftliche und der organisatorische Aspekt
B
egriffe: Angebotswettbewerb – darunter ist zu verstehen ein offener Wettbewerb von Angeboten für die Umsetzung öffentlicher Aufgaben, wovon in Art. 11, Abs. 2 des Gesetzes vom 24. April 2003 über die gemeinnützige und ehrenamtliche Tätigkeit die rede ist. Haushaltsexterne Mittel – darunter sind zu verstehen Finanzmittel, die aus Fonds der Europäischen Union, Strukturfonds, anderen Staaten und internationalen Organisationen, polnischen und ausländischen NGOS, kommerziellen Subjekten und der Zentralverwaltung stammen. Im Bereich der Vergabe von Fördermitteln sind die Warschauer Lösungen als besonders günstig für NGOs zu bezeichnen – von den unterschiedlichen Zuschussformen bis hin zur Kalkulation des Eigenbeitrags. Organisationen, mit denen die Stadtgemeinde mehrjährige Verträge über die Umsetzung von Projekten unterzeichnet hat, können langfristige Maßnahmen mit langfristigen Effekten treffen. Dies ermöglicht auch ein angemessenes Projektmanagement in allen Phasen. Es wäre geraten, dass alle Städte Wettbewerbe für die Umsetzung
mehrjähriger Projekte einführen. Viele von ihnen, zum Beispiel im Bereich der Kulturerziehung, hätten Chancen, bessere Effekte zu erzielen im Vergleich zur Planung im Jahresverfahren und de facto Halbjahresverfahren, wenn man die Fristen für die Verkündung der Wettbewerbsergebnisse berücksichtigt. Eine überaus wertvolle Lösung ist die Möglichkeit der Einkalkulierung der ehrenamtlichen und Freiwilligenarbeit als Eigenbeitrag. Dadurch kann die NGO Projekte durchführen, indem sie nicht nur finanzielle Mittel erschließt, sondern auch soziale Ressourcen. Eine weitere empfehlenswerte Lösung. Eine recht schwierige Situation ist in Krakau aufgetaucht: Bislang wurde ein offener Angebotswettbewerb nur für Projekte über 50.000 Zł. durchgeführt. Das bedeutet leider eine Ausgrenzung kleinerer NGO, die häufig keinen Jahresumsatz in dieser Höhe machen. Außerdem wurden in Wettbewerben für größere Projekte nur 5 Organisationen Geldmittel zuerkannt. Die übrigen 23 Organisationen, deren Projekte ebenfalls positiv bewertet wurden, bekommen Zuschüsse erst zu einem späteren Zeitpunkt. Ein Problem von NGOs in wohl allen polnischen Städten ist das Fehlen von Zuschussmitteln für die laufende Arbeit der Organisation bei großer Einschränkung der Verwaltungskosten bei den übrigen Zuschüssen. Dies ist eines der ernsteren Mankos im System der Förderung der Tätigkeit und Entwicklung von NGOs. Die angegebenen Beträge, die für einen offenen Angebotswettbewerb in den einzelnen Städten aufgewandt werden, sollen lediglich der allgemeinen Orientierung dienen. Die Struktur der Ausgaben der Stadt für kulturelle Tätigkeit in den einzelnen Bereichen ist ein weiteres Thema, das einer Untersuchung wert ist, allerdings den Rahmen dieser Arbeit überschreiten würde. Der Bereich der Maßnahmen, die von NGOs durchgeführt und von der Selbstverwaltung mitfinanziert werden können, ist in Krakau und Breslau recht weit gefasst. Es ist zu fragen, ob dies Offenheit und Handlungsfreiheit bedeutet oder ob die Präferenzen bei der Wahl der Angebote sichtbar werden, sodass erst auf dieser Etappe eine Profilierung stattfindet. In Warschau hingegen werden Maßnahmen in konkreten Bereichen erwartet, sodass die Organisationen zur Vorlage von Projekten in diesen abgesteckten Richtungen stimuliert werden.
42 Programm für die Entwicklung , op. cit.
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181
42 Programm für die Entwicklung , op. cit.
egriffe: Angebotswettbewerb – darunter ist zu verstehen ein offener Wettbewerb von Angeboten für die Umsetzung öffentlicher Aufgaben, wovon in Art. 11, Abs. 2 des Gesetzes vom 24. April 2003 über die gemeinnützige und ehrenamtliche Tätigkeit die rede ist. Haushaltsexterne Mittel – darunter sind zu verstehen Finanzmittel, die aus Fonds der Europäischen Union, Strukturfonds, anderen Staaten und internationalen Organisationen, polnischen und ausländischen NGOS, kommerziellen Subjekten und der Zentralverwaltung stammen. Im Bereich der Vergabe von Fördermitteln sind die Warschauer Lösungen als besonders günstig für NGOs zu bezeichnen – von den unterschiedlichen Zuschussformen bis hin zur Kalkulation des Eigenbeitrags. Organisationen, mit denen die Stadtgemeinde mehrjährige Verträge über die Umsetzung von Projekten unterzeichnet hat, können langfristige Maßnahmen mit langfristigen Effekten treffen. Dies ermöglicht auch ein angemessenes Projektmanagement in allen Phasen. Es wäre geraten, dass alle Städte Wettbewerbe für die Umsetzung
B
Der wirtschaftliche und der organisatorische Aspekt Dokumente wiesen in eine Richtung, aber sie klären nicht die Arten ihrer Umsetzung. Keines weist NGOs eine bedeutsame Rolle zu, was auch von der EKH-Kommission angemerkt wurde. Ein gutes Signal ist jedoch die Tatsache, dass die Evaluierung der Zusammenarbeit der Selbstverwaltung mit Nichtregierungsorganisationen vom Stadtpräsidenten durchgeführt wird und dass die Bewertungskriterien für die Umsetzung des Programms definiert sind. Als Konklusion dieses Teils mag die Überzeugung dienen, die in einer der Bewerbungen formuliert ist: Die Stadt muss sich um ihre Nichtregierungsorganisationen kümmern, da sie das kulturelle Angebot mitgestalten und gleichzeitig das Gefühl der Verantwortung der Bürger für das, was in ihrer Stadt geschieht, stärken.42 Wir wissen nun also, in welche Richtungen die Maßnahmen in den drei Städten gehen sollen. Sehen wir nun, auf welche weise sie ihre Strategien in den einzelnen Aspekten realisieren.
Der Bereich der Maßnahmen, die von NGOs durchgeführt und von der Selbstverwaltung mitfinanziert werden können, ist in Krakau und Breslau recht weit gefasst. Es ist zu fragen, ob dies Offenheit und Handlungsfreiheit bedeutet oder ob die Präferenzen bei der Wahl der Angebote sichtbar werden, sodass erst auf dieser Etappe eine Profilierung stattfindet. In Warschau hingegen werden Maßnahmen in konkreten Bereichen erwartet, sodass die Organisationen zur Vorlage von Projekten in diesen abgesteckten Richtungen stimuliert werden. mehrjähriger Projekte einführen. Viele von ihnen, zum Beispiel im Bereich der Kulturerziehung, hätten Chancen, bessere Effekte zu erzielen im Vergleich zur Planung im Jahresverfahren und de facto Halbjahresverfahren, wenn man die Fristen für die Verkündung der Wettbewerbsergebnisse berücksichtigt. Eine überaus wertvolle Lösung ist die Möglichkeit der Einkalkulierung der ehrenamtlichen und Freiwilligenarbeit als Eigenbeitrag. Dadurch kann die NGO Projekte durchführen, indem sie nicht nur finanzielle Mittel erschließt, sondern auch soziale Ressourcen. Eine weitere empfehlenswerte Lösung. Eine recht schwierige Situation ist in Krakau aufgetaucht: Bislang wurde ein offener Angebotswettbewerb nur für Projekte über 50.000 Zł. durchgeführt. Das bedeutet leider eine Ausgrenzung kleinerer NGO, die häufig keinen Jahresumsatz in dieser Höhe machen. Außerdem wurden in Wettbewerben für größere Projekte nur 5 Organisationen Geldmittel zuerkannt. Die übrigen 23 Organisationen, deren Projekte ebenfalls positiv bewertet wurden, bekommen Zuschüsse erst zu einem späteren Zeitpunkt. Ein Problem von NGOs in wohl allen polnischen Städten ist das Fehlen von Zuschussmitteln für die laufende Arbeit der Organisation bei großer Einschränkung der Verwaltungskosten bei den übrigen Zuschüssen. Dies ist eines der ernsteren Mankos im System der Förderung der Tätigkeit und Entwicklung von NGOs. Die angegebenen Beträge, die für einen offenen Angebotswettbewerb in den einzelnen Städten aufgewandt werden, sollen lediglich der allgemeinen Orientierung dienen. Die Struktur der Ausgaben der Stadt für kulturelle Tätigkeit in den einzelnen Bereichen ist ein weiteres Thema, das einer Untersuchung wert ist, allerdings den Rahmen dieser Arbeit überschreiten würde.
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Tab.2. Formen der finanziellen Zusammenarbeit der Stadt mit Organisationen:43
46 Beschluss Nr. LIV/1554/10 des Rates der Stadt Breslau vom 9. September 2010.
Breslau Ja, grundlegendes Werkzeug der Finanzierung
Warschau Ja, grundlegendes Werkzeug der Finanzierung
Ein bestimmter Eigenbeitrag ist nicht erforderlich; der nichtfinanzielle Beitrag (personell, materiell) wird bewertet, aber nicht in die Kostenkalkulation aufgenommen.
Ein bestimmter Eigenbeitrag ist nicht erforderlich, allerdings wird der Anteil der Eigenmittel mitbewertet.
Höhe der Mittel für den Wettbewerb 2. Vergabe eines Auftrags an eine Organisation auf deren Antrag unter Umgehung eines Angebotswettbewerbs, sog. „kleine Zuschüsse“45
2011: 1.000.000 Zł. 2010: 1.408.850 Zł. Nein
Ein bestimmter Eigenbeitrag ist nicht erforderlich, allerdings ist die Finanzierungsstruktur eines der Kriterien bei der Bewertung des Antrags.
JAHR 2011 Krakau 1. Offener Angebotswettbewerb Ja, grundlegendes Werkzeug der in Form der Übergabe der Finanzierung Ausführung einer Aufgabe (Finanzierung der Umsetzung der Aufgabe) oder Unterstützung der Ausführung einer Aufgabe (Bezuschussung) Eigenbeitrag
Breslau Ja, grundlegendes Werkzeug der Finanzierung
Warschau Ja, grundlegendes Werkzeug der Finanzierung
Tab.2. Formen der finanziellen Zusammenarbeit der Stadt mit Organisationen:43
182
Höhe der Mittel für den Wettbewerb 2. Vergabe eines Auftrags an eine Organisation auf deren Antrag unter Umgehung eines Angebotswettbewerbs, sog. „kleine Zuschüsse“45
46 Beschluss Nr. LIV/1554/10 des Rates der Stadt Breslau vom 9. September 2010.
2011: 2.500.00 Zł. 44 2010: 4.323.500 Zł. Ja, bei Erfüllung der Voraussetzungen: Der Bezusschussungs- oder Finanzierungsbetrag darf nicht 10.000 Zł. überschreiten und die Umsetzungsfrist darf nicht länger sein als 90 Tage. Nein
45 Gemäß Art. 19 a des Gesetzes vom 22. Januar 2010 über die Änderung des gesetzes über die gemeinnützige und ehrenamtliche tätigkeit und andere andere Gesetze (polnisches Gestezblatt „Dziennik Ustaw” vom 25. Februar 2010): Auf Antrag einer Nichtregierungsorganisation oder eines anderen in Art. 3, Abs. 3 gennanten Subjekts kann ein exekutives Organ der territorialen Selbstverwaltung einer Nichtregierungsorganisation oder einem anderen in Art. 3, Abs. 3 genannten Subjekt ohne öffentliche Ausschreibung die Wahrnehmung einer öffentlichen Aufgabe mit kommunalem oder regionalem Charakter anvertrauen.
3. Offener Angebotswettbewerb für die Unterstützung öffentlicher aufgaben, die von Organisationen im Rahmen von Finanzprogrammen aus haushaltsexternen Mitteln finanziert werden, sog. „Promesse“
Ein bestimmter Eigenbeitrag Ein bestimmter Eigenbeitrag ist nicht erforderlich; der ist nicht erforderlich, allerdings nichtfinanzielle Beitrag (personell, wird der Anteil der Eigenmittel materiell) wird bewertet, aber mitbewertet. nicht in die Kostenkalkulation aufgenommen. Die Arbeit von Freiwilligen stellt einen personellen Eigenbeitrag der Organisation dar, ihre Kostenveranschlagung kann als Eigenbeitrag der Organisation anerkannt werden, solange sie nicht 30% des Eigenbeitrags der Organisation übersteigt. 2011: 1.000.000 Zł. 2011: 6.700.000 Zł. 2010: 1.408.850 Zł. 2010: 5 839 390 Zł. Nein Ja, bei Erfüllung der Voraussetzungen: Der Bezusschussungs- oder Finanzierungsbetrag darf nicht 10.000 Zł. überschreiten und die Umsetzungsfrist darf nicht länger sein als 90 Tage. Das Programm für die Ja, in den Jahren 2011-2012, Zusammenarbeit mit NGO lässt Antragstellung monatlich. die „Möglichkeit der Erteilung zusätzlicher Förderung durch die Stadt für die Umsetzung von Aufgaben, die von NGO in Zusammenhang mit der Beantragung von Bezuschussung aus anderen Quellen durch diese Organisation“ zu, allerdings fehlen Hinweise auf die Möglichkeit einer solchen Prozedur im städtischen Internetprotal. Nein Nein
44 Beträge für Projekte über 50.000 Złoty werden zusammen mit einem Wettbewerb durch eine gesonderte Verordnung des Präsidenten der Stadt Krakau angekündigt.
Nein
43 Auf der Grundlage der Wettbewerbsdokumentation für 2011, Bulletins der einzelnen Städte und Informationen auf den offiziellen Webseiten der Städte.
4. Zuschüsse für die laufende Arbeit Andere Werkzeuge
- Anträge auf Umsetzung öffentlicher Aufgaben im Rahmen der Lokalinitiative46
Die Stadt kann mit Organisationen Verträge über die Unterstützung oder Anvertrauung von öffentlichen Aufgaben für den Zeit der Umsetzung der Aufgabe oder einen unbestimmten Zeitraum bis zu 5 Jahren abschließen.
- Partnerschaftsverträge nach dem Gesetz vom 6. Dezember 2006 über die Grundsätze der Entwicklungspolitik („Dz.U.“ 2009 Nr. 84, Ziff. 712 und Nr. 157, Ziff. 1241).
- Partnerschaftsverträge nach dem Gesetz vom 6. Dezember 2006 über die Grundsätze der Entwicklungspolitik („Dz.U.“ 2009 Nr. 84, Ziff. 712 und Nr. 157, Ziff. 1241).
Die Stadt kann mit Organisationen Verträge über die Unterstützung oder Anvertrauung von öffentlichen Aufgaben für den Zeit der Umsetzung der Aufgabe oder einen unbestimmten Zeitraum bis zu 5 Jahren abschließen.
Das Programm für die Zusammenarbeit mit NGO lässt die „Möglichkeit der Erteilung zusätzlicher Förderung durch die Stadt für die Umsetzung von Aufgaben, die von NGO in Zusammenhang mit der Beantragung von Bezuschussung aus anderen Quellen durch diese Organisation“ zu, allerdings fehlen Hinweise auf die Möglichkeit einer solchen Prozedur im städtischen Internetprotal. Nein Nein
- Anträge auf Umsetzung öffentlicher Aufgaben im Rahmen der Lokalinitiative46
Die Anvertrauung öffentlicher Aufgaben durch die Stadt an Organisationen und andere Subjekte in Form langjähriger Zusammenarbeit bis zu 5 Jahren. Die Verträge werden jährlich aktualisiert, gemäß den geltenden Bestimmungen, die den Präsidenten der Stadt Krakau dazu ermächtigen, mehrjährige Verträge im Rahmen der laufenden Ausgaben zu schließen.
Die Arbeit von Freiwilligen stellt einen personellen Eigenbeitrag der Organisation dar, ihre Kostenveranschlagung kann als Eigenbeitrag der Organisation anerkannt werden, solange sie nicht 30% des Eigenbeitrags der Organisation übersteigt. 2011: 6.700.000 Zł. 2010: 5 839 390 Zł. Ja, bei Erfüllung der Voraussetzungen: Der Bezusschussungs- oder Finanzierungsbetrag darf nicht 10.000 Zł. überschreiten und die Umsetzungsfrist darf nicht länger sein als 90 Tage. Ja, in den Jahren 2011-2012, Antragstellung monatlich.
Die Anvertrauung öffentlicher Aufgaben durch die Stadt an Organisationen und andere Subjekte in Form langjähriger Zusammenarbeit bis zu 5 Jahren. Die Verträge werden jährlich aktualisiert, gemäß den geltenden Bestimmungen, die den Präsidenten der Stadt Krakau dazu ermächtigen, mehrjährige Verträge im Rahmen der laufenden Ausgaben zu schließen.
Nein
43 Auf der Grundlage der Wettbewerbsdokumentation für 2011, Bulletins der einzelnen Städte und Informationen auf den offiziellen Webseiten der Städte.
4. Zuschüsse für die laufende Arbeit Andere Werkzeuge
44 Beträge für Projekte über 50.000 Złoty werden zusammen mit einem Wettbewerb durch eine gesonderte Verordnung des Präsidenten der Stadt Krakau angekündigt.
3. Offener Angebotswettbewerb für die Unterstützung öffentlicher aufgaben, die von Organisationen im Rahmen von Finanzprogrammen aus haushaltsexternen Mitteln finanziert werden, sog. „Promesse“
2011: 2.500.00 Zł. 44 2010: 4.323.500 Zł. Ja, bei Erfüllung der Voraussetzungen: Der Bezusschussungs- oder Finanzierungsbetrag darf nicht 10.000 Zł. überschreiten und die Umsetzungsfrist darf nicht länger sein als 90 Tage. Nein
45 Gemäß Art. 19 a des Gesetzes vom 22. Januar 2010 über die Änderung des gesetzes über die gemeinnützige und ehrenamtliche tätigkeit und andere andere Gesetze (polnisches Gestezblatt „Dziennik Ustaw” vom 25. Februar 2010): Auf Antrag einer Nichtregierungsorganisation oder eines anderen in Art. 3, Abs. 3 gennanten Subjekts kann ein exekutives Organ der territorialen Selbstverwaltung einer Nichtregierungsorganisation oder einem anderen in Art. 3, Abs. 3 genannten Subjekt ohne öffentliche Ausschreibung die Wahrnehmung einer öffentlichen Aufgabe mit kommunalem oder regionalem Charakter anvertrauen.
JAHR 2011 Krakau 1. Offener Angebotswettbewerb Ja, grundlegendes Werkzeug der in Form der Übergabe der Finanzierung Ausführung einer Aufgabe (Finanzierung der Umsetzung der Aufgabe) oder Unterstützung der Ausführung einer Aufgabe (Bezuschussung) Eigenbeitrag Ein bestimmter Eigenbeitrag ist nicht erforderlich, allerdings ist die Finanzierungsstruktur eines der Kriterien bei der Bewertung des Antrags.
Kulturmanagement 2011, Vol 4 (4)
Kulturmanagement 2011, Vol 4 (4)
Tab. 3. Die Prozeduren eines offenen Angebotswettberbs JAHR 2011 Ziel der umzusetzenden Aufgabe
Prozentanteil der Zuerteilweise kennung des beantragten Betrags Transparenz der BewerBewertungskriterien bekannt, in tung den bewerteten Anträgen wird nur die Punktzahl bekanntgegebenen, Fehlen von Informationen über abgelehnte Anträge Anwesenheit von Vertre- max. 2 Personen auf max. 5 Komtern der NGO in den Be- missionsmitglieder wertungskommissionen
teilweise
Evaluation des bezuschussten Projekts Anmerkungen
nicht durchgeführt, nicht erforderlich
nicht durchgeführt, nicht erforderlich
Bewertungskriterien bekannt, in den bewerteten Anträgen wird nur die Punktzahl bekanntgegeben, Fehlen von Informationen über abgelehnte Anträge mindestens 3 Personen als Vertreter der Gemeinde Breslau und mindestens 2 Vertreter von NGO.
183 Bewertungskriterien bekannt, in den bewerteten Anträgen wird nur die Punktzahl bekanntgegeben, Fehlen von Informationen über abgelehnte Anträge mindestens 2 Vertreter des Präsidenten und mindestens zwei Vertreter der von den zuständigen Kommissionen für den Gesellschaftlichen Dialog nominierten Organisationen nicht durchgeführt, nicht erforderlich Vor Ankündigung des Angebotswettbewerbs werden die Arten von Wettbewerbsaufgaben und die besonderen Bedingungen ihrer Umsetzung von den Büros mit den Kommissionen für den Gesellschaftlichen Dialog oder dem Warschauer Rat für Gemeinwohl, wenn bei dem jeweiligen Büro keine Kommission für den Gesellschaftlichen Dialog besteht, konsultiert.
JAHR 2011 Ziel der umzusetzenden Aufgabe
Krakau 1. Gegenstand des Wettbewerbs sind Aufgaben für die Krakauer Gesellschaft mit dem Ziel einer Bereicherung des kulturellen Angebots der Stadt sowie der Verbreitung von Kunst und Kultur. 2. Die Aufgabe kann in unterschiedlicher Form realisiert werden, darunter durch Organisationen: Konzerte, Open-Air-Spektakel, Ausstellungen, Festivals, Filmfeste, interdisziplinäre Maßnahmen von März bis Dezember 2011, deren Gesamtkosten nicht 50.000 Zł. überschreiten.
Breslau 1. Organisierung und Durchführung von Konzerten, Theateraufführungen, Ausstellungen, Wettbewerben, Festivals, Musik-, Theater-, Kunstereignissen, Fotografie, Video Art oder anderen Kulturereignissen, darunter Freiluftveranstaltungen, die verschiedene Kulturbereiche miteinander verbinden, Workshops, Begegnungen, Präsentationen auf dem Gebiet der Stadtgemeinde Breslau, 2. Unterstützung lokaler Kulturinitiativen, 3. Kreierung Breslaus als eines wichtigen Mittelpunkts des musikalischen, theatralischen und künstlerischen Lebens.
Frist der Einreichung des Angebots
2. März 2011 (für Projekte über 50.000 Zł.): Die Ankündigung eines offenen Angebotswettbewerbs für das Jahr 2011 ,im Bereich der Umsetzung von Aufgaben der Stadtgemeinde Krakau im Bereich der Kunst und Kultur, des Schutzes von Kulturgütern und des Nationalerbes, deren Gesamtkosten 50.000 Zł. nicht überschreiten,. erfolgt durch eine Sonderverordnung des Präsidenten der Stadt Krakau. keine – „Die Information über die Entscheidung des Wettbewerbs wird im Informationsbulletin unverzüglich nach der Verordnung des Präsidenten der Stadt Krakau veröffentlicht.“ 29. April 2011. Teilweise: Angabe der Punktevergabe für alle Bewerbungen, Angabe der Zuschusshöhe nur für 6 Organisationen
7. Dezmeber 2010 (I1. Runde) 14. Januar 2011 (2. Runde)
Warschau 1. Popularisierung von Traditionen, Geschichte, Nationalerbe und Multikulturalität Warschaus, 2. Umsetzung von Projekten aus dem Bereich der Kulturerziehung, insbesondere in ihren innovativen Formen. Die einzelnen Prioritäten: - Umsetzung von Projekten und Kunstereignissen, die das ständige Kulturangebot Warschaus mitgestalten, - Kunst im öffentlichen Raum, - internationale Zusammenarbeit, - interkultureller Dialog, - Popularisierung von Traditionen, Geschichte, Nationalerbe und Multikulturalität Warschaus, - Kulturerziehung, insbesondere in ihren innovativen Erscheinungsformen. 4. Januar, 21. Januar, 4. Februar, 18. Februar 2011 (je nach Priorität)
7. Januar 2011 (1. Runde) 26. Januar 2011 (2. Runde)
innerhalb von 50Tagen nach Abschluss der Angebotsunterbreitung
7. Januar 2011 (1. Runde) 31. Januar 2011 (2. Runde)
28. Februar 2011 23. März 2011 12. April 2011 1 nach wie vor nicht bewertete Priorität teilweise
Frist der Einreichung des Angebots
Tatsächlicher Termin der Verkündung der Wettbewerbsergebnisse Frist der Verkündung der Wettbewerbsergebnisse
Frist der Verkündung der Wettbewerbsergebnisse
Tatsächlicher Termin der Verkündung der Wettbewerbsergebnisse
Krakau 1. Gegenstand des Wettbewerbs sind Aufgaben für die Krakauer Gesellschaft mit dem Ziel einer Bereicherung des kulturellen Angebots der Stadt sowie der Verbreitung von Kunst und Kultur. 2. Die Aufgabe kann in unterschiedlicher Form realisiert werden, darunter durch Organisationen: Konzerte, Open-Air-Spektakel, Ausstellungen, Festivals, Filmfeste, interdisziplinäre Maßnahmen von März bis Dezember 2011, deren Gesamtkosten nicht 50.000 Zł. überschreiten.
2. März 2011 (für Projekte über 50.000 Zł.): Die Ankündigung eines offenen Angebotswettbewerbs für das Jahr 2011 ,im Bereich der Umsetzung von Aufgaben der Stadtgemeinde Krakau im Bereich der Kunst und Kultur, des Schutzes von Kulturgütern und des Nationalerbes, deren Gesamtkosten 50.000 Zł. nicht überschreiten,. erfolgt durch eine Sonderverordnung des Präsidenten der Stadt Krakau. keine – „Die Information über die Entscheidung des Wettbewerbs wird im Informationsbulletin unverzüglich nach der Verordnung des Präsidenten der Stadt Krakau veröffentlicht.“ 29. April 2011. Teilweise: Angabe der Punktevergabe für alle Bewerbungen, Angabe der Zuschusshöhe nur für 6 Organisationen
Prozentanteil der Zuerteilweise kennung des beantragten Betrags Transparenz der Bewertung
Anwesenheit von Vertretern der NGO in den Bewertungskommissionen Evaluation des bezuschussten Projekts Anmerkungen
Bewertungskriterien bekannt, in den bewerteten Anträgen wird nur die Punktzahl bekanntgegebenen, Fehlen von Informationen über abgelehnte Anträge max. 2 Personen auf max. 5 Kommissionsmitglieder
nicht durchgeführt, nicht erforderlich
Tab. 3. Die Prozeduren eines offenen Angebotswettberbs
Breslau Warschau 1. Organisierung und Durchführung 1. Popularisierung von Traditionen, von Konzerten, TheateraufführunGeschichte, Nationalerbe und Multigen, Ausstellungen, Wettbewerben, kulturalität Warschaus, Festivals, Musik-, Theater-, Kuns2. Umsetzung von Projekten aus tereignissen, Fotografie, Video Art dem Bereich der Kulturerziehung, oder anderen Kulturereignissen, insbesondere in ihren innovativen darunter Freiluftveranstaltungen, Formen. Die einzelnen Prioritäten: die verschiedene Kulturbereiche - Umsetzung von Projekten und Kunsmiteinander verbinden, Workshops, tereignissen, die das ständige KulturBegegnungen, Präsentationen auf angebot Warschaus mitgestalten, dem Gebiet der Stadtgemeinde - Kunst im öffentlichen Raum, Breslau, 2. Unterstützung lokaler - internationale Zusammenarbeit, Kulturinitiativen, - interkultureller Dialog, 3. Kreierung Breslaus als eines - Popularisierung von Traditionen, wichtigen Mittelpunkts des musika- Geschichte, Nationalerbe und Multilischen, theatralischen und künstle- kulturalität Warschaus, rischen Lebens. - Kulturerziehung, insbesondere in ihren innovativen Erscheinungsformen. 4. Januar, 21. Januar, 4. Februar, 18. Februar 2011 (je nach Priorität) 7. Dezmeber 2010 (I1. Runde) 14. Januar 2011 (2. Runde)
7. Januar 2011 (1. Runde) 26. Januar 2011 (2. Runde)
7. Januar 2011 (1. Runde) 31. Januar 2011 (2. Runde)
teilweise
innerhalb von 50Tagen nach Abschluss der Angebotsunterbreitung
28. Februar 2011 23. März 2011 12. April 2011 1 nach wie vor nicht bewertete Priorität teilweise
Bewertungskriterien bekannt, in Bewertungskriterien bekannt, in den bewerteten Anträgen wird nur den bewerteten Anträgen wird nur die Punktzahl bekanntgegeben, die Punktzahl bekanntgegeben, Fehlen von Informationen über ab- Fehlen von Informationen über abgelehnte Anträge gelehnte Anträge mindestens 3 Personen als Vertreter mindestens 2 Vertreter des Präsider Gemeinde Breslau und mindes- denten und mindestens zwei Vertretens 2 Vertreter von NGO. ter der von den zuständigen Kommissionen für den Gesellschaftlichen Dialog nominierten Organisationen nicht durchgeführt, nicht erfordernicht durchgeführt, nicht erforderlich lich Vor Ankündigung des Angebotswettbewerbs werden die Arten von Wettbewerbsaufgaben und die besonderen Bedingungen ihrer Umsetzung von den Büros mit den Kommissionen für den Gesellschaftlichen Dialog oder dem Warschauer Rat für Gemeinwohl, wenn bei dem jeweiligen Büro keine Kommission für den Gesellschaftlichen Dialog besteht, konsultiert.
183
Kulturmanagement 2011, Vol 4 (4)
Die Fristen der Ankündigung der Wettbewerbe und der Verkündung der Ergebnisse prägen den Rhythmus der Tätigkeit der Organisationen. In dieser Hinsicht befinden sich die NGOs in Breslau in der besten Situation. Die dortige Stadtverwaltung bewertet die Anträge sehr schnell (ca. 30 Tage) und hält den vorgegeben Termin der Verkündung der Ergebnisse ein. Verspätete Entscheidungen der Stadt – so wie es in Warschau und Krakau vorkommt – beeinflussen die Dynamik der Kulturereignisse in der Stadt negativ, da es zu einer tendenziellen Kumulierung in der zweiten Jahreshälfte kommt, was bedeutet, dass das Potenzial der NGOs in nicht völlig ausgeschöpft wird und in der ersten Jahreshälfte eine geringeres Kulturangebot entsteht. Wenn eine Organisation Mitarbeiter beschäftigt, bedeutet dies, dass sie in der ersten Jahreshälfte nicht in der Lage ist, diese zu bezahlen, was sich wiederum auf die Qualität und das Niveau der Beschäftigung im Kultursektor auswirkt. Auch die Qualität des Projektmanagements wird davon berührt und es entstehen Schwierigkeiten bei der Planung von Maßnahmen.
Kulturmanagement 2011, Vol 4 (4)
Die genannten Instrumente zur Unterstützung der Entwicklung von NGOs haben für diese eine Schlüsselbedeutung in allen Etappen ihres Bestehens. Es ist also angezeigt, sie in der Kulturpolitik einer jeden Stadt anzuwenden. Die Darstellung zeigt teilweise, wie die Kulturpolitiken in praktischer Hinsicht umgesetzt werden. Organisationen stoßen auf unterschiedliche Schwierigkeiten, je nach der Etappe ihrer Entwicklung. Einige vorgeschlagene Lösungen – „kleine Zuschüsse“, Hilfe bei der Vermarktung der Organisation, Zurverfügungstellung von Sachmitteln, Möglichkeit der Anerkennung des Einsatzes von Freiwilligen als Eigenmittel – sind positive Mechanismen der Unterstützung von NGOs, die ihre ersten Schritte unternehmen. Die Zurverfügungstellung eines Lokals zu Vorzugsbedingungen und die Hilfe bei der Anknüpfung internationaler Partnerschaften sind Instrument zur Unterstützung einer Organisation in einer fortgeschrittenen Entwicklungsphase. Ohne Zweifel gestalten die Mechanismen der Kulturpolitik die Entwicklung der Kultur mit und können bestimmte Verhaltensweisen von Organisationen durch entsprechend konstruierte Satzungen stimulieren. Strategische Planung, Einsatz von Managementinstrumenten, Durchführung von Evaluierungen liegen für NGO im Bereich des Möglichen. Warum kann die Selbstverwaltung bei der Gewährung von Zuschüssen dieses nicht zwecks Qualitätssicherung und -steigerung, Begründung der Verteilung der Mittel und ihrer besseren Verwendung zwingend vorschreiben? Wenn man die oben durchgeführten Vergleichstabellen betrachtet, fällt auf, dass das Niveau der Richtlinien der Kulturpolitik unterschiedlich und nicht überall befriedigend ist. Die Grundsätze der städtischen Kulturpolitik und umso mehr die Methoden ihrer Umsetzung sind erst im Entstehen begriffen. Das sollte nicht erstaunen. Allerdings müssen wir uns darüber im Klaren sein, dass die Qualität dieser Strategien und ihre effiziente Umsetzung Einfluss nehmen sowohl auf die Entwicklung der Kultur in unseren Städten als auch auf die Entwicklung ihrer Einwohner, also uns. „Der wahre Zement einer Gesellschaft ist ihre kulturelle Aktivität auf lokaler und regionaler Ebene“, stellt Prof. Ilczuk in ihrem Studium über die Zusammenhänge zwischen Kulturpolitik und Zivilgesellschaft fest [Ilczuk 2002]. Dieses Bewusstsein ist in Europa deutlich spürbar. Die Brüsseler Erklärung nennt als Haupthindernis für die Entwicklung des Kultursektors das Fehlen einer ausformulierten Politik für diesen Sektor.
184
Ein weiteres Hindernis für die Tätigkeit von NGOs ist die Art und Weise der Vergabe von Mitteln für die im Wettbewerb eingereichten Projekte. Meistens vergibt die Stadt einen Teil des beantragten Betrags – und stellt damit die Organisation vor das Dilemma, welchen Teil des Projekts sie durchführen soll. Dabei hängt doch in der Regel die Bezuschussung von der Gewährleistung von Qualität und Umfang des Projekts in der beantragten Form ab. Diese Situation führt dazu, dass die Organisationen den Haushalt schon auf der Etappe der Antragstellung begrenzen. Es scheint, dass die Prozeduren der EU in dieser Hinsicht besser begründet sind: Wenn ein Projekt akzeptiert wird, bekommt die Organisation den beantragten Betrag ausgezahlt. Auch die fehlende Notwendigkeit von Überwachung und Evaluierung der Projekte ist erstaunlich., handelt es sich doch um eine Werkzeug des Managements, deren unbedingte Anwendung zu einer Qualitätsverbesserung sowohl der Projekte selbst als auch der Funktion der Organisation führen müsste. Außerdem könnte es ein gutes Kriterium für die Bewertung der Tätigkeit der NGO durch die Selbstverwaltung und eine wertvoller Indikator für die Bewertung von Wettbewerbsangeboten in den kommenden Jahren sein.
Kulturmanagement 2011, Vol 4 (4)
Ein weiteres Hindernis für die Tätigkeit von NGOs ist die Art und Weise der Vergabe von Mitteln für die im Wettbewerb eingereichten Projekte. Meistens vergibt die Stadt einen Teil des beantragten Betrags – und stellt damit die Organisation vor das Dilemma, welchen Teil des Projekts sie durchführen soll. Dabei hängt doch in der Regel die Bezuschussung von der Gewährleistung von Qualität und Umfang des Projekts in der beantragten Form ab. Diese Situation führt dazu, dass die Organisationen den Haushalt schon auf der Etappe der Antragstellung begrenzen. Es scheint, dass die Prozeduren der EU in dieser Hinsicht besser begründet sind: Wenn ein Projekt akzeptiert wird, bekommt die Organisation den beantragten Betrag ausgezahlt. Auch die fehlende Notwendigkeit von Überwachung und Evaluierung der Projekte ist erstaunlich., handelt es sich doch um eine Werkzeug des Managements, deren unbedingte Anwendung zu einer Qualitätsverbesserung sowohl der Projekte selbst als auch der Funktion der Organisation führen müsste. Außerdem könnte es ein gutes Kriterium für die Bewertung der Tätigkeit der NGO durch die Selbstverwaltung und eine wertvoller Indikator für die Bewertung von Wettbewerbsangeboten in den kommenden Jahren sein.
Die genannten Instrumente zur Unterstützung der Entwicklung von NGOs haben für diese eine Schlüsselbedeutung in allen Etappen ihres Bestehens. Es ist also angezeigt, sie in der Kulturpolitik einer jeden Stadt anzuwenden. Die Darstellung zeigt teilweise, wie die Kulturpolitiken in praktischer Hinsicht umgesetzt werden. Organisationen stoßen auf unterschiedliche Schwierigkeiten, je nach der Etappe ihrer Entwicklung. Einige vorgeschlagene Lösungen – „kleine Zuschüsse“, Hilfe bei der Vermarktung der Organisation, Zurverfügungstellung von Sachmitteln, Möglichkeit der Anerkennung des Einsatzes von Freiwilligen als Eigenmittel – sind positive Mechanismen der Unterstützung von NGOs, die ihre ersten Schritte unternehmen. Die Zurverfügungstellung eines Lokals zu Vorzugsbedingungen und die Hilfe bei der Anknüpfung internationaler Partnerschaften sind Instrument zur Unterstützung einer Organisation in einer fortgeschrittenen Entwicklungsphase. Ohne Zweifel gestalten die Mechanismen der Kulturpolitik die Entwicklung der Kultur mit und können bestimmte Verhaltensweisen von Organisationen durch entsprechend konstruierte Satzungen stimulieren. Strategische Planung, Einsatz von Managementinstrumenten, Durchführung von Evaluierungen liegen für NGO im Bereich des Möglichen. Warum kann die Selbstverwaltung bei der Gewährung von Zuschüssen dieses nicht zwecks Qualitätssicherung und -steigerung, Begründung der Verteilung der Mittel und ihrer besseren Verwendung zwingend vorschreiben? Wenn man die oben durchgeführten Vergleichstabellen betrachtet, fällt auf, dass das Niveau der Richtlinien der Kulturpolitik unterschiedlich und nicht überall befriedigend ist. Die Grundsätze der städtischen Kulturpolitik und umso mehr die Methoden ihrer Umsetzung sind erst im Entstehen begriffen. Das sollte nicht erstaunen. Allerdings müssen wir uns darüber im Klaren sein, dass die Qualität dieser Strategien und ihre effiziente Umsetzung Einfluss nehmen sowohl auf die Entwicklung der Kultur in unseren Städten als auch auf die Entwicklung ihrer Einwohner, also uns. „Der wahre Zement einer Gesellschaft ist ihre kulturelle Aktivität auf lokaler und regionaler Ebene“, stellt Prof. Ilczuk in ihrem Studium über die Zusammenhänge zwischen Kulturpolitik und Zivilgesellschaft fest [Ilczuk 2002]. Dieses Bewusstsein ist in Europa deutlich spürbar. Die Brüsseler Erklärung nennt als Haupthindernis für die Entwicklung des Kultursektors das Fehlen einer ausformulierten Politik für diesen Sektor.
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Die Fristen der Ankündigung der Wettbewerbe und der Verkündung der Ergebnisse prägen den Rhythmus der Tätigkeit der Organisationen. In dieser Hinsicht befinden sich die NGOs in Breslau in der besten Situation. Die dortige Stadtverwaltung bewertet die Anträge sehr schnell (ca. 30 Tage) und hält den vorgegeben Termin der Verkündung der Ergebnisse ein. Verspätete Entscheidungen der Stadt – so wie es in Warschau und Krakau vorkommt – beeinflussen die Dynamik der Kulturereignisse in der Stadt negativ, da es zu einer tendenziellen Kumulierung in der zweiten Jahreshälfte kommt, was bedeutet, dass das Potenzial der NGOs in nicht völlig ausgeschöpft wird und in der ersten Jahreshälfte eine geringeres Kulturangebot entsteht. Wenn eine Organisation Mitarbeiter beschäftigt, bedeutet dies, dass sie in der ersten Jahreshälfte nicht in der Lage ist, diese zu bezahlen, was sich wiederum auf die Qualität und das Niveau der Beschäftigung im Kultursektor auswirkt. Auch die Qualität des Projektmanagements wird davon berührt und es entstehen Schwierigkeiten bei der Planung von Maßnahmen.
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47 European Commission, Program Strengthening Capacities In the Cultural Sector, www.ec.europa.eu/culture.
Organisationen können unter Vermittlung der zuständigen Verwaltungseinheit der Stadt Warschau Kontakte mit Vertretern von Kulturinstitutionen aus den Partnerstädten anknüpfen. Die Stadt kann im Rahmen einer lokalen Initiative mit einer Organisation einen Vertrag über die Umsetzung einer öffentlichen Aufgabe schließen und ihr auf der Grundlage des Vertrags die Verwendung von Gegenständen, die zur Umsetzung der lokalen Initiative unabdingbar sind, für den Zeitraum der Vertragsgültigkeit überlassen.
Auch die Europäische Kommission unterstreicht nachdrücklich die Rolle der Kulturpolitiken und die Implementierung einer effizienten und integrierten Kulturpolitik gilt als entscheidend für die Stärkung des Zugangs zu Kunst und Kultur für alle, für die Förderung der kulturellen Vielfalt und die Begleitung der nachhaltigen Entwicklung des Sektors. Das Potenzial des Kulturbereichs für die
Entwicklung des Menschen und der Gesellschaft, die Senkung der Armut und Wirtschaftswachstum kann nur in einer strukturierten, rechtlich geregelten, rentablen und professionellen Umgebung ausgeschöpft werden. Die Kultur selbst spielt eine fundamentale Rolle bei der Entwicklung des Menschen und einer ganzheitlichen Identitätsstruktur von Individuen und Gesellschaften. 47
Tab. 4. Andere Arten der Förderung
Inkubator für NGO
Ja; eingesetzt in begrenztem Umfang. Fehlen von Plänen zur Einrichtung eines Inkubators für Kulturorganisationen.
Ja; eingesetzt in begrenztem Umfang. Geplant ist ein zusätzlicher Inkubator für Kulturorganisationen.
Ja, aktiv im Bereich der Durchführung von Fortbildungen für all NGO, nicht nur im Kulturbereich. Geplant ist ein zusätzlicher Inkubator für Kulturorganisationen.
bevollmächtigter für NGO
Nein
Ja
Ja
1) Hilfe bei der Vorbereitung der Bewerbungen für Programme, deren Umsetzung die Zusammenarbeit mehrerer Subjekte erfordert. 2) Ermöglichung des Zugangs zu einem Lokal mit der für die Treffen einer mit der Wahrnehmung öffentlicher Aufgaben für die Stadt Warschau und ihre Einwohner betrauten Organisation unverzichtbaren Ausstattung.
Aus dem Programm für die Zusammenarbeit mit NGO: Vorbereitung von Partnerprojektengemäß Art. 28a des Gesetzes vom 6. Dezember 2006 über die Grundsätze der Entwicklungspolitik.
Andere Instrumente zur Förderung der Entwicklung von NGO Initiierung oder Koorganisation von Fortbildungen zur Anhebung der Qualität der Arbeit von NGOs im Bereich der Wahrnehmung öffentlicher Aufgaben. Keine Informationen über bereits stattgefundene Veranstaltungen.
Bestimmung des Programms für die Zusammenarbeit mit NGOs: Bekanntmachung der Leistungen und der Tätigkeit von NGOs sowie Informationen über die umgesetzten Projekte“; keine Instrumente angegeben.
Unterstützung bei der Vermarktung
Breslau Ja. Prozedur und Prinzipien der Antragstellung sind vorgegeben. Keine Einschränkungen, bewertet wird die Begründung des Antrags
Krakau Ja. Keine Einzelheiten.
Umfang Möglichkeit der Mitte eines Lokals aus Gemeindemitteln ohne Ausschreibung
Warschau 1. Ja. Keine Einzelheiten. 2. Möglichkeit der Miete zu Vorzugsbedingungen in städtischen Liegenschaften bei Aufgaben, die den Einwohnern der Stadt Warschau zugute kommen
Bekanntmachung von NGOs auf der Website www.wroclaw.pl – Informationen über Veranstaltungen, Berichte, Anzeigen, Freiwilligenangebote. Kontakt angegeben.
Initiierung oder Koorganisation von Fortbildungen zur Anhebung der Qualität der Arbeit von NGOs im Bereich der Wahrnehmung öffentlicher Aufgaben. Keine Informationen über bereits stattgefundene Veranstaltungen. Inkubator für NGO
Umfang Möglichkeit der Mitte eines Lokals aus Gemeindemitteln ohne Ausschreibung
Krakau Ja. Keine Einzelheiten.
Breslau Ja. Prozedur und Prinzipien der Antragstellung sind vorgegeben. Keine Einschränkungen, bewertet wird die Begründung des Antrags
Unterstützung bei der Vermarktung
Bestimmung des Programms für die Zusammenarbeit mit NGOs: Bekanntmachung der Leistungen und der Tätigkeit von NGOs sowie Informationen über die umgesetzten Projekte“; keine Instrumente angegeben.
Bekanntmachung von NGOs auf der Website www.wroclaw.pl – Informationen über Veranstaltungen, Berichte, Anzeigen, Freiwilligenangebote. Kontakt angegeben. Warschau 1. Ja. Keine Einzelheiten. 2. Möglichkeit der Miete zu Vorzugsbedingungen in städtischen Liegenschaften bei Aufgaben, die den Einwohnern der Stadt Warschau zugute kommen
1) Hilfe bei der Vorbereitung der BeAus dem Programm für die Zusamwerbungen für Programme, deren menarbeit mit NGO: Vorbereitung von Umsetzung die Zusammenarbeit meh- Partnerprojektengemäß Art. 28a des rerer Subjekte erfordert. Gesetzes vom 6. Dezember 2006 über 2) Ermöglichung des Zugangs zu eidie Grundsätze der Entwicklungsponem Lokal mit der für die Treffen einer litik. mit der Wahrnehmung öffentlicher Aufgaben für die Stadt Warschau und Die Stadt kann im Rahmen einer loihre Einwohner betrauten Organisation kalen Initiative mit einer Organisation unverzichtbaren Ausstattung. einen Vertrag über die Umsetzung einer öffentlichen Aufgabe schließen und ihr auf der Grundlage des Vertrags die Verwendung von Gegenständen, die zur Umsetzung der lokalen Initiative unabdingbar sind, für den Zeitraum der Vertragsgültigkeit überlassen.
Andere Instrumente zur Förderung der Entwicklung von NGO
Ja
Nein
bevollmächtigter für NGO
Ja; eingesetzt in begrenztem Umfang. Geplant ist ein zusätzlicher Inkubator für Kulturorganisationen.
Ja; eingesetzt in begrenztem Umfang. Fehlen von Plänen zur Einrichtung eines Inkubators für Kulturorganisationen.
Tab. 4. Andere Arten der Förderung
Auch die Europäische Kommission unterstreicht nachdrücklich die Rolle der Kulturpolitiken und die Implementierung einer effizienten und integrierten Kulturpolitik gilt als entscheidend für die Stärkung des Zugangs zu Kunst und Kultur für alle, für die Förderung der kulturellen Vielfalt und die Begleitung der nachhaltigen Entwicklung des Sektors. Das Potenzial des Kulturbereichs für die
Entwicklung des Menschen und der Gesellschaft, die Senkung der Armut und Wirtschaftswachstum kann nur in einer strukturierten, rechtlich geregelten, rentablen und professionellen Umgebung ausgeschöpft werden. Die Kultur selbst spielt eine fundamentale Rolle bei der Entwicklung des Menschen und einer ganzheitlichen Identitätsstruktur von Individuen und Gesellschaften. 47
Ja, aktiv im Bereich der Durchführung von Fortbildungen für all NGO, nicht nur im Kulturbereich. Geplant ist ein zusätzlicher Inkubator für Kulturorganisationen. Ja
Organisationen können unter Vermittlung der zuständigen Verwaltungseinheit der Stadt Warschau Kontakte mit Vertretern von Kulturinstitutionen aus den Partnerstädten anknüpfen. 47 European Commission, Program Strengthening Capacities In the Cultural Sector, www.ec.europa.eu/culture.
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Października 2010 (Mehrjähriges Programm für die Zusammenarbeit mit Nichtregierungsorganisationen, Krakau – Anlage zum Beschluss Nr. CXI/1510/10 des Rates der Stadt Krakau vom 06. Oktober 2010) [Webdokument] http://www.dialogspoleczny. krakow.pl. Wrocław w perspektywie 2020 plus (Breslau in der Perspektive 2020 plus) [Webdokument] http:// www.wroclaw.pl.
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Der öffentliche Rundfunk im digitalen Zeitalter (Rezension)
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sich um ein Medium handeln würde, dass in hohem Maße das Denken der Europäer in der ersten Jahrhunderthälfte prägen würde. Und sicherlich konnte er sich nicht die Dilemmas vorstellen, vor denen der moderne öffentliche Rundfunk steht. Die Genese dieser Phänomene stellt Jędrzejewski in den ersten Abschnitten seiner Monografie dar. Im Weiteren konzentriert er sich auf die Entwicklung des Radios in der europäischen demokratischen Gesellschaft. Er weist auf die Abhängigkeit zwischen der demokratischen Kultur, politischen Prozessen und der Entwicklung des öffentlichen Rundfunks hin. Interessant sind auch seine Überlegungen zu den Fragen der Formatierung des Programmangebots und den Aussichten des öffentlichen Rundfunks, die er mit möglichen Szenarien für die künftige Weiterentwicklung des Radios abschließt. Jędrzejewski sieht voraus, dass das öffentliche Radio in Europa nach der gegenwärtigen Transformationsperiode seine starke Position aufrechterhalten wird und auch das Polnische Radio (Polskie Radio SA) weiterhin eine wichtige gesellschaftliche Rolle als wesentlicher Faktor der Gestaltung von Demokratie und kultureller Entwicklung spielen wird. Diese Überlegungen über das Radio sind das Werk eines Experten, der sich in diesen Fragen auskennt wie kaum ein zweiter: Prof. Dr. habil. Stanisław Jędrzejewski ist Inhaber des einzigen polnischen Lehrstuhl für Theorie und Praxis der Rundfunkkommunikation an der Katholischen Universität Lublin, Mitglied des Internationalen Radioforschungsnetzwerks IREN und stellvertretender Vorsitzender der Sektion für Forschungen über den Europäischen Rundfunk des Internationalen Verbands für Kommunikationswissenschaft und -erziehung ECREA. Zudem war er Mitglied im
Bogusław Nierenberg
erman Hesse schrieb im Steppenwolf: „Wo immer wir Radio hören, werden wir zu einem Teil der ewigen Auseinandersetzung zwischen unseren Vorstellungen und den Bildern, manchmal der Unendlichkeit, zwischen dem Menschlichen und dem Göttlichen.“ Stanisław Jędrzejewskis Der öffentliche Rundfunk in Europa im digitalen Zeitalter scheint eine Exemplifizierung dieses Gedankens zu sein, denn das Radio besitzt in sich eine magische Kraft. Es bricht nicht in unsere Häuser ein, wie es das Fernsehen tut. Das Radio ist eine Form des intimen Gesprächs mit dem Hörer, für das nach wie vor Bedarf besteht und wohl auch in Zukunft bestehen wird. Diejenigen, die verkündet haben, dass mit dem Siegeszug des Fernsehens das Ende des Radios kommen wird, haben sich sehr geirrt. Dennoch aber steht das Radio von heute an der Schwelle grundsätzlicher Veränderungen. Jędrzejewskis Buch Der öffentliche Rundfunk in Europa im digitalen Zeitalter nimmt verschiedene Fragen an den europäischen Rundfunk auf. Wie auch andere Medien erwartet das Radio der Übergang in die Digitalität. Vor einigen Jahren hat das World DAB Forum den Standard DAB+ bestätigt. Das bedeutet für das Radio eine deutlich höhere Zahl an gut formatierten Digitalkanälen, die vor allem vom öffentlichen Rundfunk geschaffen werden, aber auch völlig neue Möglichkeiten der Programmerweiterung. Die neuen multimedialen Empfangsgeräte bewirken, dass der Empfang von Inhalten parallelen Charakter haben kann. Schätzungsweise hören in Europa ca. 40% der Webnutzer Radio via Internet. Als in den zwanziger Jahren des 20. Jahrhunderts John Reith die Grundlagen des öffentlichen Rundfunks schuf, sah er wohl nicht voraus, dass es
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sich um ein Medium handeln würde, dass in hohem Maße das Denken der Europäer in der ersten Jahrhunderthälfte prägen würde. Und sicherlich konnte er sich nicht die Dilemmas vorstellen, vor denen der moderne öffentliche Rundfunk steht. Die Genese dieser Phänomene stellt Jędrzejewski in den ersten Abschnitten seiner Monografie dar. Im Weiteren konzentriert er sich auf die Entwicklung des Radios in der europäischen demokratischen Gesellschaft. Er weist auf die Abhängigkeit zwischen der demokratischen Kultur, politischen Prozessen und der Entwicklung des öffentlichen Rundfunks hin. Interessant sind auch seine Überlegungen zu den Fragen der Formatierung des Programmangebots und den Aussichten des öffentlichen Rundfunks, die er mit möglichen Szenarien für die künftige Weiterentwicklung des Radios abschließt. Jędrzejewski sieht voraus, dass das öffentliche Radio in Europa nach der gegenwärtigen Transformationsperiode seine starke Position aufrechterhalten wird und auch das Polnische Radio (Polskie Radio SA) weiterhin eine wichtige gesellschaftliche Rolle als wesentlicher Faktor der Gestaltung von Demokratie und kultureller Entwicklung spielen wird. Diese Überlegungen über das Radio sind das Werk eines Experten, der sich in diesen Fragen auskennt wie kaum ein zweiter: Prof. Dr. habil. Stanisław Jędrzejewski ist Inhaber des einzigen polnischen Lehrstuhl für Theorie und Praxis der Rundfunkkommunikation an der Katholischen Universität Lublin, Mitglied des Internationalen Radioforschungsnetzwerks IREN und stellvertretender Vorsitzender der Sektion für Forschungen über den Europäischen Rundfunk des Internationalen Verbands für Kommunikationswissenschaft und -erziehung ECREA. Zudem war er Mitglied im
Bogusław Nierenberg Professor der Universität in Opole. Ein wissenschaftlicher Angestellte, Journalist, Ökonom. Der Direktor des Kulturinstitutes am Fachbereich Management und Soziale Kommunikation der Jagiellonen Universität. Als Professor ist er am Studienzentrum für Journalismus und Soziale Kommunikation der Universität in Opole tätig. Er ist Leiter des einzigen in Polen Studienzentrums für Medienmanagement und -ökonomie am Fachbereich Management und Soziale Kommunikation der Jagiellonen Universität. Der Experte im Bereich Kultur- und Medienökonomie, Medienmanagement, Marktkommunikation und Werbung. Der Autor von 7 Monographien und Dutzenden wissenschaftlichen Artikeln über Medien, Werbung, Management und Marktkommunikation, wie auch Journalismus und journalistische Gattungen. Er ist Autor eines Gedichtbandes „Dychotomia uczuć” („Dichotomie der Gefühle“).
erman Hesse schrieb im Steppenwolf: „Wo immer wir Radio hören, werden wir zu einem Teil der ewigen Auseinandersetzung zwischen unseren Vorstellungen und den Bildern, manchmal der Unendlichkeit, zwischen dem Menschlichen und dem Göttlichen.“ Stanisław Jędrzejewskis Der öffentliche Rundfunk in Europa im digitalen Zeitalter scheint eine Exemplifizierung dieses Gedankens zu sein, denn das Radio besitzt in sich eine magische Kraft. Es bricht nicht in unsere Häuser ein, wie es das Fernsehen tut. Das Radio ist eine Form des intimen Gesprächs mit dem Hörer, für das nach wie vor Bedarf besteht und wohl auch in Zukunft bestehen wird. Diejenigen, die verkündet haben, dass mit dem Siegeszug des Fernsehens das Ende des Radios kommen wird, haben sich sehr geirrt. Dennoch aber steht das Radio von heute an der Schwelle grundsätzlicher Veränderungen. Jędrzejewskis Buch Der öffentliche Rundfunk in Europa im digitalen Zeitalter nimmt verschiedene Fragen an den europäischen Rundfunk auf. Wie auch andere Medien erwartet das Radio der Übergang in die Digitalität. Vor einigen Jahren hat das World DAB Forum den Standard DAB+ bestätigt. Das bedeutet für das Radio eine deutlich höhere Zahl an gut formatierten Digitalkanälen, die vor allem vom öffentlichen Rundfunk geschaffen werden, aber auch völlig neue Möglichkeiten der Programmerweiterung. Die neuen multimedialen Empfangsgeräte bewirken, dass der Empfang von Inhalten parallelen Charakter haben kann. Schätzungsweise hören in Europa ca. 40% der Webnutzer Radio via Internet. Als in den zwanziger Jahren des 20. Jahrhunderts John Reith die Grundlagen des öffentlichen Rundfunks schuf, sah er wohl nicht voraus, dass es
Bogusław Nierenberg
Bogusław Nierenberg Professor der Universität in Opole. Ein wissenschaftlicher Angestellte, Journalist, Ökonom. Der Direktor des Kulturinstitutes am Fachbereich Management und Soziale Kommunikation der Jagiellonen Universität. Als Professor ist er am Studienzentrum für Journalismus und Soziale Kommunikation der Universität in Opole tätig. Er ist Leiter des einzigen in Polen Studienzentrums für Medienmanagement und -ökonomie am Fachbereich Management und Soziale Kommunikation der Jagiellonen Universität. Der Experte im Bereich Kultur- und Medienökonomie, Medienmanagement, Marktkommunikation und Werbung. Der Autor von 7 Monographien und Dutzenden wissenschaftlichen Artikeln über Medien, Werbung, Management und Marktkommunikation, wie auch Journalismus und journalistische Gattungen. Er ist Autor eines Gedichtbandes „Dychotomia uczuć” („Dichotomie der Gefühle“).
Kulturmanagement 2011, Vol 4 (4)
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Kulturmanagement 2011, Vol 4 (4)
Bibliografische Angabe: Stanisław Jędrzejewski, Radiofonia publiczna w Europie w erze cyfrowej (Der öffentliche Rundfunk im digitalen Zeitalter), Universitas Verlag, Kraków 2010, S. 283.
Der öffentliche Rundfunk im digitalen Zeitalter (Rezension)
Vorstand des Polnischen Radios und zuvor sein Programmdirektor und Direktor des 1. Programms. 2005 wurde er zum Mitglied des polnischen Rundfunkrats berufen. Über 12 Jahre nahm er teil an den Arbeiten des Rundfunkausschusses der Europäischen Rundfunk- und Fernsehunion (EBU). Es ist also zu bemerken, dass die vorgestellte Monografie, deren Autor ein so bedeutender Experte ist, nicht nur eine Quelle des Wissens für andere Wissenschaftler darstellt, sondern auch einen wesentlichen Beitrag zum Verständnis der Prozesse, denen der polnische und europäische
Rundfunk unterworfen ist. Auch Praktiker im Medienbereich, Führungskräfte, Journalisten und Studenten an Studiengängen wie Journalismus, Sozialkommunikation und ähnlichen, sollten auf dieses Buch zurückgreifen. Abschließend ist zu sagen, dass sowohl das Gewicht des Themas als auch die Persönlichkeit des Autors Stanisław Jędrzejewskis Der öffentliche Rundfunk in Europa im digitalen Zeitalter zu einem der wichtigsten Werke der letzten Jahre in diesem Fachbereich machen, nicht nur in Polen, sondern europaweit.
Bogusław Nierenberg
Bogusław Nierenberg
Der öffentliche Rundfunk im digitalen Zeitalter (Rezension) Bibliografische Angabe: Stanisław Jędrzejewski, Radiofonia publiczna w Europie w erze cyfrowej (Der öffentliche Rundfunk im digitalen Zeitalter), Universitas Verlag, Kraków 2010, S. 283.
Kulturmanagement 2011, Vol 4 (4)
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Vorstand des Polnischen Radios und zuvor sein Programmdirektor und Direktor des 1. Programms. 2005 wurde er zum Mitglied des polnischen Rundfunkrats berufen. Über 12 Jahre nahm er teil an den Arbeiten des Rundfunkausschusses der Europäischen Rundfunk- und Fernsehunion (EBU). Es ist also zu bemerken, dass die vorgestellte Monografie, deren Autor ein so bedeutender Experte ist, nicht nur eine Quelle des Wissens für andere Wissenschaftler darstellt, sondern auch einen wesentlichen Beitrag zum Verständnis der Prozesse, denen der polnische und europäische
Rundfunk unterworfen ist. Auch Praktiker im Medienbereich, Führungskräfte, Journalisten und Studenten an Studiengängen wie Journalismus, Sozialkommunikation und ähnlichen, sollten auf dieses Buch zurückgreifen. Abschließend ist zu sagen, dass sowohl das Gewicht des Themas als auch die Persönlichkeit des Autors Stanisław Jędrzejewskis Der öffentliche Rundfunk in Europa im digitalen Zeitalter zu einem der wichtigsten Werke der letzten Jahre in diesem Fachbereich machen, nicht nur in Polen, sondern europaweit.
Zarządzanie kulturą Zarządzanie kulturą
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2011, Vol 4 (4)
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Wstęp Emil Orzechowski
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umer czwarty naszego czasopisma, nadal jedynego o takim profilu w naszej części Europy, jest skromniejszy objętościowo od pozostałych. Zadecydowały o tym względy finansowe. Ta sama przyczyna powoduje, że w numerze dominują teksty polskie i z elementami nawiązującymi do polskiej tematyki. Nie znaczy to wcale, by redakcja zamierzała zmieniać profil pisma – wręcz przeciwnie. Poprzez pokazanie, niekiedy dosyć szczegółowe problemów polskich, chcemy wskazać na identyczne zjawiska w innych krajach naszego regionu; zapewne w kolejnych numerach znajdzie to odzwierciedlenie. Wypada zwrócić szczególną uwagę na tekst D. Ilczuk o M. Nowak, które – z perspektywy doświadczeń europejskich – zadają pytanie: „W czym jest problem reformy resortu kultury w Polsce” i starają się szukać na nie odpowiedzi. Nowe wątki to rola mediów w kontekście sektora kultury, z uwzględnieniem zmian tech-
nicznych, jak np. cyfryzacja. Innym, nowym u nas zagadnieniem jest kwestia dziedzictwa kulturowego i zarządzania nim; ukonkretnione jest to na przykładzie dziedzictwa niematerialnego (legend i baśni). Osobnym tekstem, ozdobą numeru, jest analiza polityki kulturalnej Kazachstanu – to sygnał naszego stałego zainteresowania tą problematyką, co pokazywaliśmy już na przykładzie Białorusi, czy Ukrainy. Redakcja ma nadzieję, że numery kolejne będą jeszcze bardziej urozmaicone, ale zależy to tylko i wyłącznie od grona współpracujących autorów, a także – po części – od realiów finansowych. Aktualnie trwają intensywne starania o to, by czasopismo nasze znalazło się na listach prestiżowych pism akademickich; musi to potrwać, gdyż polskie realia blokują te starania. Nie trzeba dodawać, że Redakcja liczy na zainteresowanie treścią czasopisma i na współpracę autorską.
umer czwarty naszego czasopisma, nadal jedynego o takim profilu w naszej części Europy, jest skromniejszy objętościowo od pozostałych. Zadecydowały o tym względy finansowe. Ta sama przyczyna powoduje, że w numerze dominują teksty polskie i z elementami nawiązującymi do polskiej tematyki. Nie znaczy to wcale, by redakcja zamierzała zmieniać profil pisma – wręcz przeciwnie. Poprzez pokazanie, niekiedy dosyć szczegółowe problemów polskich, chcemy wskazać na identyczne zjawiska w innych krajach naszego regionu; zapewne w kolejnych numerach znajdzie to odzwierciedlenie. Wypada zwrócić szczególną uwagę na tekst D. Ilczuk o M. Nowak, które – z perspektywy doświadczeń europejskich – zadają pytanie: „W czym jest problem reformy resortu kultury w Polsce” i starają się szukać na nie odpowiedzi. Nowe wątki to rola mediów w kontekście sektora kultury, z uwzględnieniem zmian tech-
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Emil Orzechowski
Wstęp Zarządzanie Kulturą 2011, Vol 4 (4)
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nicznych, jak np. cyfryzacja. Innym, nowym u nas zagadnieniem jest kwestia dziedzictwa kulturowego i zarządzania nim; ukonkretnione jest to na przykładzie dziedzictwa niematerialnego (legend i baśni). Osobnym tekstem, ozdobą numeru, jest analiza polityki kulturalnej Kazachstanu – to sygnał naszego stałego zainteresowania tą problematyką, co pokazywaliśmy już na przykładzie Białorusi, czy Ukrainy. Redakcja ma nadzieję, że numery kolejne będą jeszcze bardziej urozmaicone, ale zależy to tylko i wyłącznie od grona współpracujących autorów, a także – po części – od realiów finansowych. Aktualnie trwają intensywne starania o to, by czasopismo nasze znalazło się na listach prestiżowych pism akademickich; musi to potrwać, gdyż polskie realia blokują te starania. Nie trzeba dodawać, że Redakcja liczy na zainteresowanie treścią czasopisma i na współpracę autorską.
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Zarządzanie Kulturą 2011, Vol 4 (4)
Reforma sektora kultury w Polsce. Gdzie leży problem? 1
Dorota Ilczuk, Małgorzata Nowak
1. Wstęp
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iniejszy referat stanowi zapis rozważań na temat podejmowanych w Polsce przez ostatnie 20 lat prób reformowania organizacji i finansowania działalności kulturalnej. Autorki stawiają w nim hipotezę, iż istnieją przynajmniej trzy, wzajemnie uzupełniające się, główne (co nie znaczy, że jedyne) przyczyny porażek w tym obszarze. Pierwszą jest brak teoretycznego osadzenia reform, niewykorzystywanie wiedzy eksperckiej i konstruowanie reform bez uwzględniania specyfiki sektora kultury. Bezpośrednio związane z tym zagadnieniem jest zaniedbanie regularnego i konsekwentnego monitorowania sektora kultury na poziomie kraju, które byłoby podstawą tworzenia rzetelnej wiedzy eksperckiej. Kolejne dwie przyczyny mają naturę przysłowiowego „oporu materii”. Są to: obawa środowiska kulturalnego przed implementacją nowych rozwiązań oraz brak determinacji politycznej do tworzenia systemowych zmian. Pobieżna próba przyjrzenia się wybranym działaniom podejmowanym na przestrzeni dwudziestolecia demokracji w Polsce nie pozwoli na definitywne zweryfikowanie lub sfalsyfikowanie tej hipotezy. Mamy jednak nadzieję, że – na początek – przynajmniej skłoni do refleksji, a może uchroni przed kolejną reformą, która nie wejdzie w życie.
2. Co się udało osiągnąć, a co szwankuje w kulturze po 1989 roku?
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o 1989 roku wiele zmieniło się w kulturze i jej zarządzaniu. W latach 90. transformacja go-
spodarki z planowej w rynkową, a także reformy administracyjne wymusiły szereg działań adaptacyjnych ze strony sektora kultury. Były to często działania bardzo radykalne, ale nie wynikające ze strategicznego myślenia o rozwoju kultury, tylko zmian natury ogólnej. Mimo to przyniosły one wiele pozytywnych efektów. Dokonała się przemiana świadomości Polaków, którzy obecnie swobodnie dyskutują na temat nowoczesnych metod zarządzania kulturą, partnerstwa sektorów gospodarki, ekonomicznego znaczenia kultury etc. Nie tylko dyskutują, ale też tworzą i działają w różnych obszarach sfery kultury i jej przemysłów, z pasją dają wyraz aktywności obywatelskiej, tworząc trzeci sektor, tak bardzo aktywny w kulturze, umiejętnie czerpią ze wzorów europejskich, wykorzystują środki finansowe pochodzące z różnych źródeł, w tym środki unijne, zręcznie odnajdują się w obszarze nowych technologii. Niemal wszystkie szczeble samorządów okazały się sprawnymi gospodarzami sfery kultury, co więcej, poza bieżącym administrowaniem środkami publicznymi przeznaczanymi na kulturę, odczuwają potrzebę planowania perspektywicznego w tej dziedzinie. Oznacza to, że Polacy dostosowali się do nowych warunków rynkowych, odnaleźli się jako obywatele UE, stawiają czoła wyzwaniom globalizacji, a nawet kryzysowi ekonomicznemu. Podsumowując, ci, którzy działają w obszarze kultury – artyści, animatorzy, administratorzy – zaadaptowali się do nowych warunków politycznych, gospodarczych i administracyjnych Polski, do nowych wyzwań kultury światowej. Czy można oczekiwać więcej? Pewnie można, ale z pewnością w kontekście tych zmian odczuwamy sporą satysfakcję.
1 Referat wygłoszony podczas międzynarodowej konferencji „Ekonomika kultury – od teorii do praktyki”, zorganizowanej przez Instytut Adama Mickiewicza i Narodowe Centrum Kultury, w partnerstwie ze Szkołą Wyższą Psychologii Społecznej i Fundacją Pro Kultura 29 listopada 2010 r. w Warszawie.
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Dorota Ilczuk Profesor ekonomii Szkoły Wyższej Psychologii Społecznej, doktor habilitowany zarządzania w zakresie nauk humanistycznych, założycielka i prezes Fundacji Pro Cultura. W latach 2001–2007 Prezydent CIRCLE – europejskiej sieci instytucji zajmujących się badaniami, dokumentacją i informacją w kulturze. Członkini Europejskiego Parlamentu Kulturalnego. Od 2003 roku należy do Rady Artystycznej Polskiej Unii Teatrów. Współpracuje z zagranicznymi organizacjami i towarzystwami naukowymi, takimi jak ERICArts, ACEI, ISTR. Brała aktywny udział w ponad stu krajowych i międzynarodowych konferencjach naukowych. Jest kierownikiem licznych programów badawczych. Autorka i współautorka publikacji książkowych i ponad stu ekspertyz i artykułów z dziedziny ekonomiki kultury i przemysłów kultury, polityki kulturalnej, społeczeństwa obywatelskiego, a także funkcjonowania sektora non-profit.
1 Referat wygłoszony podczas międzynarodowej konferencji „Ekonomika kultury – od teorii do praktyki”, zorganizowanej przez Instytut Adama Mickiewicza i Narodowe Centrum Kultury, w partnerstwie ze Szkołą Wyższą Psychologii Społecznej i Fundacją Pro Kultura 29 listopada 2010 r. w Warszawie.
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o 1989 roku wiele zmieniło się w kulturze i jej zarządzaniu. W latach 90. transformacja go-
2. Co się udało osiągnąć, a co szwankuje w kulturze po 1989 roku? iniejszy referat stanowi zapis rozważań na temat podejmowanych w Polsce przez ostatnie 20 lat prób reformowania organizacji i finansowania działalności kulturalnej. Autorki stawiają w nim hipotezę, iż istnieją przynajmniej trzy, wzajemnie uzupełniające się, główne (co nie znaczy, że jedyne) przyczyny porażek w tym obszarze. Pierwszą jest brak teoretycznego osadzenia reform, niewykorzystywanie wiedzy eksperckiej i konstruowanie reform bez uwzględniania specyfiki sektora kultury. Bezpośrednio związane z tym zagadnieniem jest zaniedbanie regularnego i konsekwentnego monitorowania sektora kultury na poziomie kraju, które byłoby podstawą tworzenia rzetelnej wiedzy eksperckiej. Kolejne dwie przyczyny mają naturę przysłowiowego „oporu materii”. Są to: obawa środowiska kulturalnego przed implementacją nowych rozwiązań oraz brak determinacji politycznej do tworzenia systemowych zmian. Pobieżna próba przyjrzenia się wybranym działaniom podejmowanym na przestrzeni dwudziestolecia demokracji w Polsce nie pozwoli na definitywne zweryfikowanie lub sfalsyfikowanie tej hipotezy. Mamy jednak nadzieję, że – na początek – przynajmniej skłoni do refleksji, a może uchroni przed kolejną reformą, która nie wejdzie w życie.
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1. Wstęp
spodarki z planowej w rynkową, a także reformy administracyjne wymusiły szereg działań adaptacyjnych ze strony sektora kultury. Były to często działania bardzo radykalne, ale nie wynikające ze strategicznego myślenia o rozwoju kultury, tylko zmian natury ogólnej. Mimo to przyniosły one wiele pozytywnych efektów. Dokonała się przemiana świadomości Polaków, którzy obecnie swobodnie dyskutują na temat nowoczesnych metod zarządzania kulturą, partnerstwa sektorów gospodarki, ekonomicznego znaczenia kultury etc. Nie tylko dyskutują, ale też tworzą i działają w różnych obszarach sfery kultury i jej przemysłów, z pasją dają wyraz aktywności obywatelskiej, tworząc trzeci sektor, tak bardzo aktywny w kulturze, umiejętnie czerpią ze wzorów europejskich, wykorzystują środki finansowe pochodzące z różnych źródeł, w tym środki unijne, zręcznie odnajdują się w obszarze nowych technologii. Niemal wszystkie szczeble samorządów okazały się sprawnymi gospodarzami sfery kultury, co więcej, poza bieżącym administrowaniem środkami publicznymi przeznaczanymi na kulturę, odczuwają potrzebę planowania perspektywicznego w tej dziedzinie. Oznacza to, że Polacy dostosowali się do nowych warunków rynkowych, odnaleźli się jako obywatele UE, stawiają czoła wyzwaniom globalizacji, a nawet kryzysowi ekonomicznemu. Podsumowując, ci, którzy działają w obszarze kultury – artyści, animatorzy, administratorzy – zaadaptowali się do nowych warunków politycznych, gospodarczych i administracyjnych Polski, do nowych wyzwań kultury światowej. Czy można oczekiwać więcej? Pewnie można, ale z pewnością w kontekście tych zmian odczuwamy sporą satysfakcję.
Dorota Ilczuk, Małgorzata Nowak
Reforma sektora kultury w Polsce. Gdzie leży problem? 1
Dorota Ilczuk Profesor ekonomii Szkoły Wyższej Psychologii Społecznej, doktor habilitowany zarządzania w zakresie nauk humanistycznych, założycielka i prezes Fundacji Pro Cultura. W latach 2001–2007 Prezydent CIRCLE – europejskiej sieci instytucji zajmujących się badaniami, dokumentacją i informacją w kulturze. Członkini Europejskiego Parlamentu Kulturalnego. Od 2003 roku należy do Rady Artystycznej Polskiej Unii Teatrów. Współpracuje z zagranicznymi organizacjami i towarzystwami naukowymi, takimi jak ERICArts, ACEI, ISTR. Brała aktywny udział w ponad stu krajowych i międzynarodowych konferencjach naukowych. Jest kierownikiem licznych programów badawczych. Autorka i współautorka publikacji książkowych i ponad stu ekspertyz i artykułów z dziedziny ekonomiki kultury i przemysłów kultury, polityki kulturalnej, społeczeństwa obywatelskiego, a także funkcjonowania sektora non-profit.
Małgorzata Nowak Kulturoznawca, absolwentka Szkoły Wyższej Psychologii Społecznej w Warszawie. Współpracuje z Fundacją Pro Cultura od lipca 2006 roku, pełniąc obecnie funkcję dyrektora. Brała udział w wielu projektach realizowanych przez Fundację, m.in. była koordynatorem „Europejskiego Kampusu Międzykulturowego”, współredagowała publikację Jak się pięknie różnić i porozumiewać? Dialog międzykulturowy we współczesnej metropolii. W 2010 roku koordynowała prace nad przygotowywanym przez Fundację, na zlecenie Urzędu Miasta, Wnioskiem Aplikacyjnym Warszawy do tytułu Europejskiej Stolicy Kultury 2016. Jest współautorką polskiego profilu na portalu Rady Europy i ERICarts, dotyczącym polityki kulturalnej w Europie (www.culturalpolicies.net). Od 2010 roku wykłada przedmiot Zarządzanie kulturą w mieście, w ramach jednej ze specjalizacji na kierunku kulturoznawstwo warszawskiej SWPS.
Tymczasem patrząc z perspektywy 2010 roku, brakuje systemowych zmian, które byłyby zgodne z oryginalną polityką kulturalną realizowaną konsekwentnie w oparciu o nowoczesny ustrój prawny kultury. Kultura to jedyny niezreformowany sektor gospodarki w Polsce. Ominęła nas przechodząca przez kolejne kraje europejskie fala zmian, zgodnie z którą choć państwo nie wyzbywa się odpowiedzialności za tę sferę, to modyfikuje swoje kompetencje w celu podniesienia efektywności subsydiowanej działalności kulturalnej i osiągnięcia jej wyższej jakości. W Europie Zachodniej dominujące stały się dwie nowe tendencje organizowania i finansowania kultury. Pierwsza z nich polega na włączaniu do zarządzania kulturą ciał pośredniczących (agencji/funduszy/rad) działających jako organizacje quasi-pozarządowe, które zajmują się dystrybucją środków publicznych na realizację działalności kulturalnej, a także pełniących rolę doradczą względem ministerstw kultury. Druga opiera się na zmianie samego sposobu zarządzania publicznymi (subsydiowanymi) instytucjami kultury. To nowe podejście można określić jako swoiste oddalanie się instytucji od państwa i w konsekwencji nadanie im większej autonomii. Często nadaje mu się nazwę de-etatyzacji instytucji kultury. Do największych słabości obowiązującego systemu organizacji i finansów kultury, obok relatywnie niskich – w porównaniu z innymi rozwiniętymi krajami Europy – nakładów publicznych (w 2008 roku wydatki publiczne na kulturę per capita wynosiły 180,88 zł, co odpowiadało 0,58% PKB; wydatki z budżetu państwa stanowiły 21,17% wydatków publicznych ogółem i 0,53% całkowitego budżetu2) zaliczyć trzeba: MM źle przeprowadzoną, nie uwzględniającą specyfiki sektora, decentralizację zadań publicznych w zakresie kultury; MM zasady organizowania i finansowania instytucji kultury, będące mieszanką rozwiązań obowiązujących w przedsiębiorstwach komercyjnych i w jednostkach gospodarki pozabudżetowej, które są wyraźnie niedostosowane do charakteru instytucji; MM finansowanie kultury na podstawie ustaleń rocznych budżetów; MM możliwość wykorzystywania instrumentów finansowych do merytorycznego oddziaływania na działalność instytucji kultury;
MM nierówne traktowanie różnych podmiotów gospodarki w procesie podziału środków publicznych na zadania celowe; preferowanie instytucji kosztem projektów; MM zaniedbania w dziedzinie edukacji kulturalnej; MM zły stan monitorowania finansów kultury i rozwoju przemysłów kultury. Odrębnego komentarza wymaga wymieniony jako ostatni brak systematycznego gromadzenia danych na temat stanu sektora kultury. Oczywisty dla ekspertów fakt, że takie informacje pozwalają na bardziej efektywne działanie, reagowanie na zagrożenia czy tworzenie realnych wizji rozwoju, pozostaje niedoceniany przez władze odpowiedzialne za kształtowanie polityki kulturalnej tak na poziomie narodowym, jak lokalnym. Jest to na pewno zaskakujące wobec rozlicznych przykładów działań zagranicznych obserwatoriów, laboratoriów czy instytutów zajmujących się monitorowaniem kultury, jak choćby niemiecki instytut ERICarts, katalońska fundacja Interarts, Centre for Cultural Policy Research w Glasgow, austriackie Kulturdokumentation czy francuskie Observatoire des Politiques Culturelles. Wymienione wyżej podmioty zajmują się różnymi sektorami kultury, różnią się też formami prawno-organizacyjnymi, jednak ich naczelnym zadaniem jest gromadzenie i analiza danych, dzięki czemu możliwe jest reagowanie na zmiany i proponowanie nowych rozwiązań. Możemy także obserwować próby konsolidacji podmiotów monitorujących, czego przykładem jest międzynarodowa sieć CultureLink, utworzona przez UNESCO czy przedsięwzięcie CultureWatchEurope Rady Europy, skupiające portale dostarczające aktualizowanych informacji porównawczych z około 40 krajów Europy w trzech dziedzinach: polityce kulturalnej, dziedzictwie kulturowym oraz sektorze audiowizualnym. Tymczasem w Polsce „jakoś nie wychodzi”, a przecież termin „obserwatorium kultury” nie jest – ani nam, ani organizatorom życia kulturalnego – obcy. Pierwsze próby utworzenia takiego ośrodka można datować na rok 1999, kiedy to Instytut Kultury proponował utworzenie Obserwatorium Życia Kulturalnego w Polsce3. Pewną nadzieję dają takie inicjatywy jak Obserwatorium Żywej Kultury, organizowane wspólnie przez Obserwatorium Kultury NCK, Zakład Metod Badania Kultury ISNS UW i stowarzyszenie Klon/Jawor.
2 Dane pochodzą z opracowania GUS Kultura 2008.
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2011, Vol 4 (4)
nierówne traktowanie różnych podmiotów gospodarki w procesie podziału środków publicznych na zadania celowe; preferowanie instytucji kosztem projektów; MM zaniedbania w dziedzinie edukacji kulturalnej; MM zły stan monitorowania finansów kultury i rozwoju przemysłów kultury. Odrębnego komentarza wymaga wymieniony jako ostatni brak systematycznego gromadzenia danych na temat stanu sektora kultury. Oczywisty dla ekspertów fakt, że takie informacje pozwalają na bardziej efektywne działanie, reagowanie na zagrożenia czy tworzenie realnych wizji rozwoju, pozostaje niedoceniany przez władze odpowiedzialne za kształtowanie polityki kulturalnej tak na poziomie narodowym, jak lokalnym. Jest to na pewno zaskakujące wobec rozlicznych przykładów działań zagranicznych obserwatoriów, laboratoriów czy instytutów zajmujących się monitorowaniem kultury, jak choćby niemiecki instytut ERICarts, katalońska fundacja Interarts, Centre for Cultural Policy Research w Glasgow, austriackie Kulturdokumentation czy francuskie Observatoire des Politiques Culturelles. Wymienione wyżej podmioty zajmują się różnymi sektorami kultury, różnią się też formami prawno-organizacyjnymi, jednak ich naczelnym zadaniem jest gromadzenie i analiza danych, dzięki czemu możliwe jest reagowanie na zmiany i proponowanie nowych rozwiązań. Możemy także obserwować próby konsolidacji podmiotów monitorujących, czego przykładem jest międzynarodowa sieć CultureLink, utworzona przez UNESCO czy przedsięwzięcie CultureWatchEurope Rady Europy, skupiające portale dostarczające aktualizowanych informacji porównawczych z około 40 krajów Europy w trzech dziedzinach: polityce kulturalnej, dziedzictwie kulturowym oraz sektorze audiowizualnym. Tymczasem w Polsce „jakoś nie wychodzi”, a przecież termin „obserwatorium kultury” nie jest – ani nam, ani organizatorom życia kulturalnego – obcy. Pierwsze próby utworzenia takiego ośrodka można datować na rok 1999, kiedy to Instytut Kultury proponował utworzenie Obserwatorium Życia Kulturalnego w Polsce3. Pewną nadzieję dają takie inicjatywy jak Obserwatorium Żywej Kultury, organizowane wspólnie przez Obserwatorium Kultury NCK, Zakład Metod Badania Kultury ISNS UW i stowarzyszenie Klon/Jawor. MM
3 Obserwatorium życia kulturalnego w Polsce to projekt opracowany przez zespół pod kierunkiem prof. Andrzeja Sicińskiego i dr Ziny Jarmoszuk w Instytucie Kultury, w 1999 roku. Nigdy nie wdrożony.
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3 Obserwatorium życia kulturalnego w Polsce to projekt opracowany przez zespół pod kierunkiem prof. Andrzeja Sicińskiego i dr Ziny Jarmoszuk w Instytucie Kultury, w 1999 roku. Nigdy nie wdrożony. 2 Dane pochodzą z opracowania GUS Kultura 2008.
Tymczasem patrząc z perspektywy 2010 roku, brakuje systemowych zmian, które byłyby zgodne z oryginalną polityką kulturalną realizowaną konsekwentnie w oparciu o nowoczesny ustrój prawny kultury. Kultura to jedyny niezreformowany sektor gospodarki w Polsce. Ominęła nas przechodząca przez kolejne kraje europejskie fala zmian, zgodnie z którą choć państwo nie wyzbywa się odpowiedzialności za tę sferę, to modyfikuje swoje kompetencje w celu podniesienia efektywności subsydiowanej działalności kulturalnej i osiągnięcia jej wyższej jakości. W Europie Zachodniej dominujące stały się dwie nowe tendencje organizowania i finansowania kultury. Pierwsza z nich polega na włączaniu do zarządzania kulturą ciał pośredniczących (agencji/funduszy/rad) działających jako organizacje quasi-pozarządowe, które zajmują się dystrybucją środków publicznych na realizację działalności kulturalnej, a także pełniących rolę doradczą względem ministerstw kultury. Druga opiera się na zmianie samego sposobu zarządzania publicznymi (subsydiowanymi) instytucjami kultury. To nowe podejście można określić jako swoiste oddalanie się instytucji od państwa i w konsekwencji nadanie im większej autonomii. Często nadaje mu się nazwę de-etatyzacji instytucji kultury. Do największych słabości obowiązującego systemu organizacji i finansów kultury, obok relatywnie niskich – w porównaniu z innymi rozwiniętymi krajami Europy – nakładów publicznych (w 2008 roku wydatki publiczne na kulturę per capita wynosiły 180,88 zł, co odpowiadało 0,58% PKB; wydatki z budżetu państwa stanowiły 21,17% wydatków publicznych ogółem i 0,53% całkowitego budżetu2) zaliczyć trzeba: MM źle przeprowadzoną, nie uwzględniającą specyfiki sektora, decentralizację zadań publicznych w zakresie kultury; MM zasady organizowania i finansowania instytucji kultury, będące mieszanką rozwiązań obowiązujących w przedsiębiorstwach komercyjnych i w jednostkach gospodarki pozabudżetowej, które są wyraźnie niedostosowane do charakteru instytucji; MM finansowanie kultury na podstawie ustaleń rocznych budżetów; MM możliwość wykorzystywania instrumentów finansowych do merytorycznego oddziaływania na działalność instytucji kultury;
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Małgorzata Nowak Kulturoznawca, absolwentka Szkoły Wyższej Psychologii Społecznej w Warszawie. Współpracuje z Fundacją Pro Cultura od lipca 2006 roku, pełniąc obecnie funkcję dyrektora. Brała udział w wielu projektach realizowanych przez Fundację, m.in. była koordynatorem „Europejskiego Kampusu Międzykulturowego”, współredagowała publikację Jak się pięknie różnić i porozumiewać? Dialog międzykulturowy we współczesnej metropolii. W 2010 roku koordynowała prace nad przygotowywanym przez Fundację, na zlecenie Urzędu Miasta, Wnioskiem Aplikacyjnym Warszawy do tytułu Europejskiej Stolicy Kultury 2016. Jest współautorką polskiego profilu na portalu Rady Europy i ERICarts, dotyczącym polityki kulturalnej w Europie (www.culturalpolicies.net). Od 2010 roku wykłada przedmiot Zarządzanie kulturą w mieście, w ramach jednej ze specjalizacji na kierunku kulturoznawstwo warszawskiej SWPS.
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2011, Vol 4 (4)
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2011, Vol 4 (4)
Jest to jednak tak młody projekt, że nie sposób ocenić jego efektywności. Podobnie rzecz się ma z powstającymi na naszych oczach regionalnymi obserwatoriami. Innym działaniom brak systemowości i systematyczności, jak przykładowo raportom o stanie kultury, które powstały na Kongres Kultury 2009. Ich zaletą, pomimo różnorodnego poziomu szczegółowości, jest fakt, iż zostały przygotowane przez ekspertów w swoich dziedzinach. Ubolewać jednak należy nad tym, że raporty te były jednorazowym przedsięwzięciem, powstały wyłącznie z okazji Kongresu Kultury, a ich cykliczna aktualizacja, która pozwalałaby na obserwowanie zachodzących zmian nie jest planowana. Aby nasz referat nie miał jedynie pesymistycznego wydźwięku, musimy podkreślić, że w ostatnim czasie, głównie wysiłkiem współorganizatorów wspomnianej wyżej konferencji, pojawiają się inicjatywy zmierzające do wprowadzenia rozważań nad ekonomicznym znaczeniem sektora kultury do dyskursu publicznego. Inicjatywy takie jak kampania Narodowego Centrum Kultury Kultura się liczy!, prowadzone w jej ramach debaty, opracowywane raporty i badania4, są istotne i dają nadzieję na zmianę postrzegania kultury. Obserwujemy je z zainteresowaniem, mając nadzieję, że Kultura się liczy! będzie realizowana konsekwentnie, systematycznie i z dbałością o jakość. Podkreślamy tu również znaczenie szerokiego rozumienia kultury (wraz z jej przemysłami), jako źródła kreatywności i istotnego sektora gospodarki. Niezwykle ważne jest, aby takie podejście wykraczało poza rozważania teoretyczne i znalazło swoje odzwierciedlenie w praktyce – zarówno w tworzeniu, jak i codziennej realizacji polityki kulturalnej państwa.
3. Diagnozy i próby reform
B
rak systemowych zmian uwzględniających specyfikę kultury, brak jej monitorowania i ewaluacji nie jest niestety konstatacją nową. Ostatnia dekada upłynęła na powtarzaniu, że nie można w nieskończoność zadowalać się przeróbkami, mniejszymi czy większymi modyfi-
kacjami porządku zastanego po latach gospodarki planowej, adaptacją do wymagań rynku, ustroju administracyjnego czy możliwości wykorzystania środków unijnych. Niestety, problem ten jest w dalszym ciągu aktualny. By nie być gołosłownym, przypomnijmy opracowania uznawane za kluczowe w kręgach badaczy kultury: Projekt reformy ustroju publicznych instytucji kultury w Polsce przygotowany przez profesorów Jacka Purchlę i Andrzeja Rottermunda w 1999 roku oraz Finansowanie i organizacja kultury w gospodarce rynkowej Doroty Ilczuk i Wojciecha Misiąga z 2003 roku, który to dokument zawiera nigdy niewdrożony projekt ustawy o działalności kulturalnej autorstwa Wojciecha Misiąga z 2000 roku. W pierwszej połowie 2004 roku Grupa Kultura i Biznes, działająca przy Polskiej Konfederacji Pracodawców Prywatnych Lewiatan, podjęła prace nad Społecznym Projektem Ustawy o Działalności Kulturalnej. Członkowie Grupy Kultura i Biznes wyłonili zespół roboczy, na czele którego stanął prof. Andrzej Rottermund. Do zespołu weszli ponadto: Maciej Englert, Dorota Ilczuk, Janusz Pietkiewicz i Jacek Weksler. Wypracowane przez wspomnianą grupę tezy projektu reformy działalności kulturalnej zawisły w próżni – podobnie jak miało to miejsce w przypadku poprzednich prób. Kongres Kultury, który odbył się w 2009 roku, tylko potwierdził wcześniejsze rozważania. Środowiska głośno postulowały konieczność przeprowadzenia daleko idących zmian, czego przykładem niech będzie opracowanie Instytutu Teatralnego im. Zbigniewa Raszewskiego pt. Trzy kroki ku zmianom na lepsze w polskiej kulturze5. Autorzy tego tekstu postulują uznanie twórczości za priorytet polityki kulturalnej państwa, uelastycznienie, dynamizację i właściwą ocenę pracy instytucji kultury oraz wprowadzenie nowych mechanizmów finansowych (np. mechanizm pozabudżetowy) pozwalających na dywersyfikację źródeł finansowania działalności instytucji kultury. Skoro już na początku obecnej dekady świadomość potrzeby zbudowania nowego nowoczesnego ustroju kultury została jasno określona i upubliczniona, to warto się zastanowić czy 10 lat to dużo, czy mało, aby takie reformy się powiodły.
4 Opracowany przez Instytut Badań Strukturalnych na zlecenie Obserwatorium Kultury NCK raport Znaczenie gospodarcze sektora kultury. Wstęp do analizy problemu jest pierwszą od wielu lat tak obszerną i rzetelną próbą policzenia wartości ekonomicznej polskiego sektora kultury, jej przemysłów i przemysłów kreatywnych. 5 Tekst opracowany przez zespół w składzie: Eliza Durka, Dorota Mieszek, Hanna Trzeciak, Maciej Nowak, Paweł Płoski, Michał Wojtuś we współpracy z Klaudią Madziar, Warszawa, 2009.
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5 Tekst opracowany przez zespół w składzie: Eliza Durka, Dorota Mieszek, Hanna Trzeciak, Maciej Nowak, Paweł Płoski, Michał Wojtuś we współpracy z Klaudią Madziar, Warszawa, 2009. 4 Opracowany przez Instytut Badań Strukturalnych na zlecenie Obserwatorium Kultury NCK raport Znaczenie gospodarcze sektora kultury. Wstęp do analizy problemu jest pierwszą od wielu lat tak obszerną i rzetelną próbą policzenia wartości ekonomicznej polskiego sektora kultury, jej przemysłów i przemysłów kreatywnych.
rak systemowych zmian uwzględniających specyfikę kultury, brak jej monitorowania i ewaluacji nie jest niestety konstatacją nową. Ostatnia dekada upłynęła na powtarzaniu, że nie można w nieskończoność zadowalać się przeróbkami, mniejszymi czy większymi modyfi-
B
3. Diagnozy i próby reform Jest to jednak tak młody projekt, że nie sposób ocenić jego efektywności. Podobnie rzecz się ma z powstającymi na naszych oczach regionalnymi obserwatoriami. Innym działaniom brak systemowości i systematyczności, jak przykładowo raportom o stanie kultury, które powstały na Kongres Kultury 2009. Ich zaletą, pomimo różnorodnego poziomu szczegółowości, jest fakt, iż zostały przygotowane przez ekspertów w swoich dziedzinach. Ubolewać jednak należy nad tym, że raporty te były jednorazowym przedsięwzięciem, powstały wyłącznie z okazji Kongresu Kultury, a ich cykliczna aktualizacja, która pozwalałaby na obserwowanie zachodzących zmian nie jest planowana. Aby nasz referat nie miał jedynie pesymistycznego wydźwięku, musimy podkreślić, że w ostatnim czasie, głównie wysiłkiem współorganizatorów wspomnianej wyżej konferencji, pojawiają się inicjatywy zmierzające do wprowadzenia rozważań nad ekonomicznym znaczeniem sektora kultury do dyskursu publicznego. Inicjatywy takie jak kampania Narodowego Centrum Kultury Kultura się liczy!, prowadzone w jej ramach debaty, opracowywane raporty i badania4, są istotne i dają nadzieję na zmianę postrzegania kultury. Obserwujemy je z zainteresowaniem, mając nadzieję, że Kultura się liczy! będzie realizowana konsekwentnie, systematycznie i z dbałością o jakość. Podkreślamy tu również znaczenie szerokiego rozumienia kultury (wraz z jej przemysłami), jako źródła kreatywności i istotnego sektora gospodarki. Niezwykle ważne jest, aby takie podejście wykraczało poza rozważania teoretyczne i znalazło swoje odzwierciedlenie w praktyce – zarówno w tworzeniu, jak i codziennej realizacji polityki kulturalnej państwa.
kacjami porządku zastanego po latach gospodarki planowej, adaptacją do wymagań rynku, ustroju administracyjnego czy możliwości wykorzystania środków unijnych. Niestety, problem ten jest w dalszym ciągu aktualny. By nie być gołosłownym, przypomnijmy opracowania uznawane za kluczowe w kręgach badaczy kultury: Projekt reformy ustroju publicznych instytucji kultury w Polsce przygotowany przez profesorów Jacka Purchlę i Andrzeja Rottermunda w 1999 roku oraz Finansowanie i organizacja kultury w gospodarce rynkowej Doroty Ilczuk i Wojciecha Misiąga z 2003 roku, który to dokument zawiera nigdy niewdrożony projekt ustawy o działalności kulturalnej autorstwa Wojciecha Misiąga z 2000 roku. W pierwszej połowie 2004 roku Grupa Kultura i Biznes, działająca przy Polskiej Konfederacji Pracodawców Prywatnych Lewiatan, podjęła prace nad Społecznym Projektem Ustawy o Działalności Kulturalnej. Członkowie Grupy Kultura i Biznes wyłonili zespół roboczy, na czele którego stanął prof. Andrzej Rottermund. Do zespołu weszli ponadto: Maciej Englert, Dorota Ilczuk, Janusz Pietkiewicz i Jacek Weksler. Wypracowane przez wspomnianą grupę tezy projektu reformy działalności kulturalnej zawisły w próżni – podobnie jak miało to miejsce w przypadku poprzednich prób. Kongres Kultury, który odbył się w 2009 roku, tylko potwierdził wcześniejsze rozważania. Środowiska głośno postulowały konieczność przeprowadzenia daleko idących zmian, czego przykładem niech będzie opracowanie Instytutu Teatralnego im. Zbigniewa Raszewskiego pt. Trzy kroki ku zmianom na lepsze w polskiej kulturze5. Autorzy tego tekstu postulują uznanie twórczości za priorytet polityki kulturalnej państwa, uelastycznienie, dynamizację i właściwą ocenę pracy instytucji kultury oraz wprowadzenie nowych mechanizmów finansowych (np. mechanizm pozabudżetowy) pozwalających na dywersyfikację źródeł finansowania działalności instytucji kultury. Skoro już na początku obecnej dekady świadomość potrzeby zbudowania nowego nowoczesnego ustroju kultury została jasno określona i upubliczniona, to warto się zastanowić czy 10 lat to dużo, czy mało, aby takie reformy się powiodły.
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2011, Vol 4 (4) Zarządzanie Kulturą 2011, Vol 4 (4)
Wątpliwości budził fakt, iż plan ten powstał w oderwaniu od pozytywnie zweryfikowanej praktyki europejskiej. Warto docenić pionierskie rozwiązania, jednak w tym wypadku ryzyko mogłoby być zbyt duże. Ponadto, wiele zapisów było niejasnych lub niedoprecyzowanych, co powodowało różnorodne interpretacje, przykładem niech będzie koncepcja instytucji kultury, niepozwalająca na jednoznaczne stwierdzenie czy jest to termin prawny dający określone uprawnienia, czy też luźna formuła potrzebna do rejestracji w urzędzie rejestrowym. Podobne kontrowersje wzbudzała pozbawiona realnej kalkulacji propozycja odpisu 1% podatku CIT – czy tylko na instytucje kultury? W efekcie burzy, jaka przeszła nad propozycjami zespołu kierowanego przez prof. Hausnera, początkowa chęć wprowadzenia istotnych zmian minęła. W zamian za to, w ministerstwie kultury we wrześniu 2009 roku, przygotowano tzw. małą reformę: Projekt założeń do projektu ustawy o zmianie ustawy o organizowaniu i prowadzeniu działalności kulturalnej oraz o zmianie niektórych innych ustaw, czyli n-tą już z kolei nowelizację ustawy określającej warunki działalności kulturalnej. Przygotowany projekt przeszedł już długą drogę konsultacji społecznych i uzgodnień międzyresortowych. Pod koniec maja br. został zarekomendowany Radzie Ministrów. Jego ostateczna wersja w wielu punktach różni się od pierwotnej i, niestety, nie zawsze uwzględnia postulaty środowiskowe (co byłoby niezwykle trudne z uwagi na fakt, iż wielokrotnie wzajemnie się wykluczały). Projekt zakłada podział instytucji kultury na artystyczne i inne, wśród których znajdą się instytucje o tak odmiennym charakterze jak domy kultury, biblioteki czy muzea, pomijając pierwotną propozycję kategorii instytucji upowszechnieniowych. Otwiera drogę do zatrudniania na podstawie kontraktów menedżerskich i ograniczonego czasu zatrudnienia (wybranego w konkursie) dyrektora. Wprowadza możliwość powierzania zarządu instytucją kultury osobie prawnej lub fizycznej, nie dookreśla jednak mechanizmów nadzoru i kontroli nad takimi instytucjami. Niestety nie ma w nim możliwości planowania budżetów w dłuższej, niż roczna, perspektywie. Pozostaje nam czekać na zatwierdzenie projektu założeń i zamiast systemowej reformy, tak długo wyczekiwanej, będziemy mieli kolejną nowelizację starych przepisów.
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Może jesteśmy zbyt niecierpliwi po szybko przeprowadzonej transformacji w latach 90.? Może przyszedł czas na refleksję, tworzenie zaplecza eksperckiego projektującego przyszłe kierunki rozwoju organizacji działalności kulturalnej w Polsce i określanie profilu oryginalnej polityki kulturalnej. Może. Takie wyjaśnienie na pewno byłoby rozsądne, gdyby jednak nie przykłady konkretnych działań w ciągu ostatnich dziesięciu lat, które – nawet pomimo sporej mobilizacji – nie weszły w życie. Przytoczymy tutaj dwa spośród nich. W 2002 roku ówczesny minister kultury, Andrzej Celiński, starał się przeprowadzić generalną reformę systemu finansowania i organizacji sektora kultury. Przygotowane wówczas opracowania eksperckie zakładały daleko idące zmiany w sposobie finansowania i zarządzania kulturą w Polsce, roli i zadaniach rządu w tym obszarze, a także w tworzeniu warunków zachęcających sektor prywatny do finansowania kultury. Jednak te propozycje, a także te dotyczące zmian legislacyjnych w zakresie organizacji działalności kulturalnej i publicznego wsparcia kinematografii, zostały zaniechane wraz z pospieszną dymisją ministra. Wymiernym efektem tamtej „rewolucji” jest włączenie Polski do klubu krajów przeznaczających zyski z loterii państwowych na cele kulturalne. Uzyskanie możliwości pozyskiwania 5% dopłat do cen kuponów Totalizatora Sportowego jest niewielkim, ale stałym zastrzykiem finansowym dla kultury. Drugi przykład odnosi się do propozycji zespołu Jerzego Hausnera, zaprezentowanej na Kongresie Kultury w 2009 roku, która w odniesieniu do głównych kierunków proponowanych zmian, jest w dużej mierze zgodna z poprzednimi i różni się od nich tylko szczegółowymi rozwiązaniami, co jest kwestią oczywistą. Jednak wiele z jej zapisów zawiera elementy budzące kontrowersje w środowisku, co wywołało burzliwe debaty nad tą próbą reformy. Dlaczego? Otóż, przede wszystkim reforma powinna doprowadzić do większej efektywności działania instytucji kultury, tymczasem nie ma w niej zapowiedzi pomocy w przekształceniach, propozycji samych przekształceń również zabrakło. Można za to odnaleźć zapis o odejściu od finansowania podmiotowego na rzecz przedmiotowego, które nieodpowiednio wprowadzone mogłoby prowadzić nawet do upadku słabych instytucji publicznych.
6 Nowa ustawa o organizowaniu i prowadzeniu działalności kulturalnej wejdzie w życie w dniu 1 stycznia 2012 roku.
6 Nowa ustawa o organizowaniu i prowadzeniu działalności kulturalnej wejdzie w życie w dniu 1 stycznia 2012 roku.
Wątpliwości budził fakt, iż plan ten powstał w oderwaniu od pozytywnie zweryfikowanej praktyki europejskiej. Warto docenić pionierskie rozwiązania, jednak w tym wypadku ryzyko mogłoby być zbyt duże. Ponadto, wiele zapisów było niejasnych lub niedoprecyzowanych, co powodowało różnorodne interpretacje, przykładem niech będzie koncepcja instytucji kultury, niepozwalająca na jednoznaczne stwierdzenie czy jest to termin prawny dający określone uprawnienia, czy też luźna formuła potrzebna do rejestracji w urzędzie rejestrowym. Podobne kontrowersje wzbudzała pozbawiona realnej kalkulacji propozycja odpisu 1% podatku CIT – czy tylko na instytucje kultury? W efekcie burzy, jaka przeszła nad propozycjami zespołu kierowanego przez prof. Hausnera, początkowa chęć wprowadzenia istotnych zmian minęła. W zamian za to, w ministerstwie kultury we wrześniu 2009 roku, przygotowano tzw. małą reformę: Projekt założeń do projektu ustawy o zmianie ustawy o organizowaniu i prowadzeniu działalności kulturalnej oraz o zmianie niektórych innych ustaw, czyli n-tą już z kolei nowelizację ustawy określającej warunki działalności kulturalnej. Przygotowany projekt przeszedł już długą drogę konsultacji społecznych i uzgodnień międzyresortowych. Pod koniec maja br. został zarekomendowany Radzie Ministrów. Jego ostateczna wersja w wielu punktach różni się od pierwotnej i, niestety, nie zawsze uwzględnia postulaty środowiskowe (co byłoby niezwykle trudne z uwagi na fakt, iż wielokrotnie wzajemnie się wykluczały). Projekt zakłada podział instytucji kultury na artystyczne i inne, wśród których znajdą się instytucje o tak odmiennym charakterze jak domy kultury, biblioteki czy muzea, pomijając pierwotną propozycję kategorii instytucji upowszechnieniowych. Otwiera drogę do zatrudniania na podstawie kontraktów menedżerskich i ograniczonego czasu zatrudnienia (wybranego w konkursie) dyrektora. Wprowadza możliwość powierzania zarządu instytucją kultury osobie prawnej lub fizycznej, nie dookreśla jednak mechanizmów nadzoru i kontroli nad takimi instytucjami. Niestety nie ma w nim możliwości planowania budżetów w dłuższej, niż roczna, perspektywie. Pozostaje nam czekać na zatwierdzenie projektu założeń i zamiast systemowej reformy, tak długo wyczekiwanej, będziemy mieli kolejną nowelizację starych przepisów.
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Może jesteśmy zbyt niecierpliwi po szybko przeprowadzonej transformacji w latach 90.? Może przyszedł czas na refleksję, tworzenie zaplecza eksperckiego projektującego przyszłe kierunki rozwoju organizacji działalności kulturalnej w Polsce i określanie profilu oryginalnej polityki kulturalnej. Może. Takie wyjaśnienie na pewno byłoby rozsądne, gdyby jednak nie przykłady konkretnych działań w ciągu ostatnich dziesięciu lat, które – nawet pomimo sporej mobilizacji – nie weszły w życie. Przytoczymy tutaj dwa spośród nich. W 2002 roku ówczesny minister kultury, Andrzej Celiński, starał się przeprowadzić generalną reformę systemu finansowania i organizacji sektora kultury. Przygotowane wówczas opracowania eksperckie zakładały daleko idące zmiany w sposobie finansowania i zarządzania kulturą w Polsce, roli i zadaniach rządu w tym obszarze, a także w tworzeniu warunków zachęcających sektor prywatny do finansowania kultury. Jednak te propozycje, a także te dotyczące zmian legislacyjnych w zakresie organizacji działalności kulturalnej i publicznego wsparcia kinematografii, zostały zaniechane wraz z pospieszną dymisją ministra. Wymiernym efektem tamtej „rewolucji” jest włączenie Polski do klubu krajów przeznaczających zyski z loterii państwowych na cele kulturalne. Uzyskanie możliwości pozyskiwania 5% dopłat do cen kuponów Totalizatora Sportowego jest niewielkim, ale stałym zastrzykiem finansowym dla kultury. Drugi przykład odnosi się do propozycji zespołu Jerzego Hausnera, zaprezentowanej na Kongresie Kultury w 2009 roku, która w odniesieniu do głównych kierunków proponowanych zmian, jest w dużej mierze zgodna z poprzednimi i różni się od nich tylko szczegółowymi rozwiązaniami, co jest kwestią oczywistą. Jednak wiele z jej zapisów zawiera elementy budzące kontrowersje w środowisku, co wywołało burzliwe debaty nad tą próbą reformy. Dlaczego? Otóż, przede wszystkim reforma powinna doprowadzić do większej efektywności działania instytucji kultury, tymczasem nie ma w niej zapowiedzi pomocy w przekształceniach, propozycji samych przekształceń również zabrakło. Można za to odnaleźć zapis o odejściu od finansowania podmiotowego na rzecz przedmiotowego, które nieodpowiednio wprowadzone mogłoby prowadzić nawet do upadku słabych instytucji publicznych.
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2011, Vol 4 (4)
4. Przyczyny niepowodzeń
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nteresująca, z naszego punktu widzenia, byłaby analiza nieudanych prób wprowadzenia nie tylko dużych reform, ale i pojedynczych nowych rozwiązań i regulacji dla sektora kultury w Polsce. Przykładowo, co stało się z propozycją wprowadzenia rad powierniczych do publicznych instytucji kultury, którą nota bene wbrew ostrożnym sugestiom ekspertów planowano przeprowadzić na bardzo dużą skalę. Jaki będzie los propozycji nowelizacji mającej na celu wprowadzenie zmian w organizacji instytucji artystycznych? Czy będzie istniała możliwość odpisu 1% podatku CIT na cele kulturalne i na jakich zasadach? Czy wejdzie w życie zasada 1% decorum, o której jeszcze niedawno żywo dyskutowano? Zastanowienie się nad przyczynami porażek pomaga w wysnuwaniu konstruktywnych wniosków i zapobiega powtarzaniu tych samych błędów. Powinno być to zadaniem na przyszłość. Teraz możemy jedynie pokusić się o ogólne stwierdzenie, że w każdym z przytoczonych przykładów zabrakło przynajmniej jednego z wymienionych niżej elementów warunkujących powodzenie we wprowadzeniu systemowych zmian w życie, do których możemy zaliczyć: a. Silne zaplecze eksperckie korzystające na bieżąco z systemu monitorowania i ewaluacji sektora kultury w Polsce Trzeba wreszcie jasno podkreślić, że sensowna reforma wymaga specjalistów znających specyfikę całego sektora kultury, dysponujących zarówno wiedzą na temat rozwiązań zagranicznych, jak i sytuacji polskiej. Przykładowo, próby zmian w systemie publicznego finansowania i organizacji sektora kultury, podejmowane bez konsultacji z ekonomistami kultury, muszą siłą rzeczy być skazane na niepowodzenie. Wszak to właśnie ekonomika kultury zajmuje się ustalaniem efektywnych w sferze kultury instrumentów polityki ekonomicznej w takich obszarach jak zatrudnienie, finanse, infrastruktura etc. Ekonomiści kultury analizują, uwzględniające specyfikę działalności kulturalnej, mechanizmy mające zastosowanie w różnych sektorach gospodarki (publicznym, prywatnym, non-profit). A właśnie takich mechanizmów w reformatorskich działaniach poszukujemy. Dyscypliny takie jak zarządzanie w kulturze i ekonomika kultury rozwijają się w Polsce dość systematycznie. Po trzydziestu latach od momentu, kiedy to Stanisława Golinowska, jako pierwsza, zwróciła uwagę na istnienie ekonomiki kultury,
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2011, Vol 4 (4)
jako dyscypliny badawczej, dysponujemy dużym dorobkiem i nowymi doświadczeniami dotyczącymi prowadzenia działalności kulturalnej w warunkach gospodarki rynkowej. Choć nie istnieje już Instytut Kultury w Warszawie, gdzie działał prowadzący systematyczne badania w tej dziedzinie Zakład Ekonomiki Kultury, to jego funkcje w części przejęli niezależni badacze i niezależne instytucje (np. Pro Cultura). Studenci Zarządzania Kulturą na Uniwersytecie Jagiellońskim i Kulturoznawstwa w Szkole Wyższej Psychologii Społecznej, mają wykłady z przedmiotu Ekonomika kultury. Wynika stąd, iż zarówno doświadczeni, jak i początkujący ekonomiści kultury mogą bądź sami, bądź wskazując zagranicznych kolegów, zasilić zaplecze eksperckie niezbędne do przeprowadzenia reformy w kulturze. Aby mogli być rzeczywiście skuteczni i efektywni, potrzebują skonsolidowanego systemu monitorowania działalności kulturalnej i ewaluacji nie tylko samych procedur, ale przede wszystkim efektów podejmowanych działań. b. Akceptacja środowiska kulturalnego dla proponowanych rozwiązań Środowisko kulturalne w Polsce jest świadome konieczności wprowadzenia zmian i taką możliwość akceptuje. Obawa środowiska, którą wymieniamy jako jedną z przyczyn porażek systemowych reform, nie dotyczy kwestionowania zasadności ich przeprowadzenia, ale tego jakie one będą i w jaki sposób zostaną przeprowadzane. Ludzie kultury na tyle długo radzili sobie z różnorodnymi ograniczeniami na własną rękę, że posiedli w tym zakresie spore doświadczenie. Mają też spore rozeznanie w rozwiązaniach zagranicznych oraz – zazwyczaj –dosyć jasno określone oczekiwania. Nie protestują przeciw rozwiązaniom, które przyniosłyby pozytywne efekty: możliwości długofalowego planowania działalności kulturalnej, stabilizacji finansowej, poprawie warunków działalności artystycznej, przejrzystości zasad publicznego finansowania, większej niezależności i odciążaniu od dotychczasowych ograniczeń instytucji kultury, prowadzące do ich większej wydajności i do większej dostępności kultury, a co za tym idzie także do poszerzenia jej wpływu na budowanie naszej tożsamości, a także społeczeństwa obywatelskiego. Chodzi więc o to, aby projektowane reformy, ze względu na jej głębokość, jak i szeroki zasięg, została poprzedzona przemyślanym procesem konsultacji i wdrażania. Osiągnięcie efektu docelowego wymaga zmian wdrażanych stopniowo, z kolei poszczególne etapy pozwalają na ewolucyjne
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a. Silne zaplecze eksperckie korzystające na bieżąco z systemu monitorowania i ewaluacji sektora kultury w Polsce Trzeba wreszcie jasno podkreślić, że sensowna reforma wymaga specjalistów znających specyfikę całego sektora kultury, dysponujących zarówno wiedzą na temat rozwiązań zagranicznych, jak i sytuacji polskiej. Przykładowo, próby zmian w systemie publicznego finansowania i organizacji sektora kultury, podejmowane bez konsultacji z ekonomistami kultury, muszą siłą rzeczy być skazane na niepowodzenie. Wszak to właśnie ekonomika kultury zajmuje się ustalaniem efektywnych w sferze kultury instrumentów polityki ekonomicznej w takich obszarach jak zatrudnienie, finanse, infrastruktura etc. Ekonomiści kultury analizują, uwzględniające specyfikę działalności kulturalnej, mechanizmy mające zastosowanie w różnych sektorach gospodarki (publicznym, prywatnym, non-profit). A właśnie takich mechanizmów w reformatorskich działaniach poszukujemy. Dyscypliny takie jak zarządzanie w kulturze i ekonomika kultury rozwijają się w Polsce dość systematycznie. Po trzydziestu latach od momentu, kiedy to Stanisława Golinowska, jako pierwsza, zwróciła uwagę na istnienie ekonomiki kultury, nteresująca, z naszego punktu widzenia, byłaby analiza nieudanych prób wprowadzenia nie tylko dużych reform, ale i pojedynczych nowych rozwiązań i regulacji dla sektora kultury w Polsce. Przykładowo, co stało się z propozycją wprowadzenia rad powierniczych do publicznych instytucji kultury, którą nota bene wbrew ostrożnym sugestiom ekspertów planowano przeprowadzić na bardzo dużą skalę. Jaki będzie los propozycji nowelizacji mającej na celu wprowadzenie zmian w organizacji instytucji artystycznych? Czy będzie istniała możliwość odpisu 1% podatku CIT na cele kulturalne i na jakich zasadach? Czy wejdzie w życie zasada 1% decorum, o której jeszcze niedawno żywo dyskutowano? Zastanowienie się nad przyczynami porażek pomaga w wysnuwaniu konstruktywnych wniosków i zapobiega powtarzaniu tych samych błędów. Powinno być to zadaniem na przyszłość. Teraz możemy jedynie pokusić się o ogólne stwierdzenie, że w każdym z przytoczonych przykładów zabrakło przynajmniej jednego z wymienionych niżej elementów warunkujących powodzenie we wprowadzeniu systemowych zmian w życie, do których możemy zaliczyć:
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b. Akceptacja środowiska kulturalnego dla proponowanych rozwiązań Środowisko kulturalne w Polsce jest świadome konieczności wprowadzenia zmian i taką możliwość akceptuje. Obawa środowiska, którą wymieniamy jako jedną z przyczyn porażek systemowych reform, nie dotyczy kwestionowania zasadności ich przeprowadzenia, ale tego jakie one będą i w jaki sposób zostaną przeprowadzane. Ludzie kultury na tyle długo radzili sobie z różnorodnymi ograniczeniami na własną rękę, że posiedli w tym zakresie spore doświadczenie. Mają też spore rozeznanie w rozwiązaniach zagranicznych oraz – zazwyczaj –dosyć jasno określone oczekiwania. Nie protestują przeciw rozwiązaniom, które przyniosłyby pozytywne efekty: możliwości długofalowego planowania działalności kulturalnej, stabilizacji finansowej, poprawie warunków działalności artystycznej, przejrzystości zasad publicznego finansowania, większej niezależności i odciążaniu od dotychczasowych ograniczeń instytucji kultury, prowadzące do ich większej wydajności i do większej dostępności kultury, a co za tym idzie także do poszerzenia jej wpływu na budowanie naszej tożsamości, a także społeczeństwa obywatelskiego. Chodzi więc o to, aby projektowane reformy, ze względu na jej głębokość, jak i szeroki zasięg, została poprzedzona przemyślanym procesem konsultacji i wdrażania. Osiągnięcie efektu docelowego wymaga zmian wdrażanych stopniowo, z kolei poszczególne etapy pozwalają na ewolucyjne jako dyscypliny badawczej, dysponujemy dużym dorobkiem i nowymi doświadczeniami dotyczącymi prowadzenia działalności kulturalnej w warunkach gospodarki rynkowej. Choć nie istnieje już Instytut Kultury w Warszawie, gdzie działał prowadzący systematyczne badania w tej dziedzinie Zakład Ekonomiki Kultury, to jego funkcje w części przejęli niezależni badacze i niezależne instytucje (np. Pro Cultura). Studenci Zarządzania Kulturą na Uniwersytecie Jagiellońskim i Kulturoznawstwa w Szkole Wyższej Psychologii Społecznej, mają wykłady z przedmiotu Ekonomika kultury. Wynika stąd, iż zarówno doświadczeni, jak i początkujący ekonomiści kultury mogą bądź sami, bądź wskazując zagranicznych kolegów, zasilić zaplecze eksperckie niezbędne do przeprowadzenia reformy w kulturze. Aby mogli być rzeczywiście skuteczni i efektywni, potrzebują skonsolidowanego systemu monitorowania działalności kulturalnej i ewaluacji nie tylko samych procedur, ale przede wszystkim efektów podejmowanych działań.
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5. Zakończenie
5. Zakończenie znalazł się zapis o konieczności zreformowania modelu finansowania i organizowania działalności kulturalnej. Do dziś reformy nie mamy. Historia lubi się podobno powtarzać, ale czy tym razem też musi tak być? 200
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wprowadzenie reformy, z uwzględnieniem potrzeby jej promocji, wyjaśniania odbiorcom jej sensu. Nieodzowne jest zagwarantowanie niezbędnych do jej przeprowadzenia środków budżetowych oraz wykonanie pilotaży na wybranych podmiotach.
tytule tego referatu stawiamy pytanie, gdzie tkwi problem z reformowaniem sektora kultury, co jest przyczyną niepowodzeń. Spełnienie wymienionych przez nas uwarunkowań może okazać się kluczem do sukcesu. Ale czy uda się je połączyć? Tego nie wiemy. Wiemy natomiast, że należy dołożyć wszelkich starań aby, krok po kroku, tworzyć sytuację sprzyjającą systematycznej i systemowej (podkreślamy to z całą mocą) zmianie. Inaczej skazani jesteśmy na stałe powtarzanie wytartych już bon motów, że wydatki publiczne na kulturę w Polsce mieszczą się w granicy błędu statystycznego i że sposób zarządzania kulturą w Polsce powoli staje się wyspą na tle zreformowanej Europy. To w efekcie obniża znaczenie kultury i obraża ludzi kultury. Nie musi przecież tak być, jeśli tego nie chcemy. W naszych rozważaniach pojawia się jeszcze jedno pytanie, a mianowicie, kto powinien być odpowiedzialny za wprowadzenie tej wyczekiwanej zmiany. Przykład Kongresu Kultury pokazał, jak silny jest głos środowiska w sprawie mediów. Możliwe więc, że aby reforma była skuteczna, powinna być inicjatywą oddolną, przyjętą przez ministerstwo jako vox populi. Tak, możliwe, że to dobra droga, chociaż widzimy większą rolę dla ministerstwa, jako inicjatora i lidera zmian. A może należałoby przysłuchać się głosom samorządów i wspólnie z nimi realizować pilotażowe projekty, pozwalające na zweryfikowanie założeń reformy. Zastanówmy się nad tym wspólnie. Jedno jest pewne. Dalsze zwlekanie z działaniami reformatorskimi może doprowadzić do konieczności wprowadzenia zmian nieewolucyjnych, wdrażanych systematycznie, według przemyślanego planu, lecz rewolucyjnych, a takie obciążone są ryzykiem poniesienia wysokich kosztów.
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W
tytule tego referatu stawiamy pytanie, gdzie tkwi problem z reformowaniem sektora kultury, co jest przyczyną niepowodzeń. Spełnienie wymienionych przez nas uwarunkowań może okazać się kluczem do sukcesu. Ale czy uda się je połączyć? Tego nie wiemy. Wiemy natomiast, że należy dołożyć wszelkich starań aby, krok po kroku, tworzyć sytuację sprzyjającą systematycznej i systemowej (podkreślamy to z całą mocą) zmianie. Inaczej skazani jesteśmy na stałe powtarzanie wytartych już bon motów, że wydatki publiczne na kulturę w Polsce mieszczą się w granicy błędu statystycznego i że sposób zarządzania kulturą w Polsce powoli staje się wyspą na tle zreformowanej Europy. To w efekcie obniża znaczenie kultury i obraża ludzi kultury. Nie musi przecież tak być, jeśli tego nie chcemy. W naszych rozważaniach pojawia się jeszcze jedno pytanie, a mianowicie, kto powinien być odpowiedzialny za wprowadzenie tej wyczekiwanej zmiany. Przykład Kongresu Kultury pokazał, jak silny jest głos środowiska w sprawie mediów. Możliwe więc, że aby reforma była skuteczna, powinna być inicjatywą oddolną, przyjętą przez ministerstwo jako vox populi. Tak, możliwe, że to dobra droga, chociaż widzimy większą rolę dla ministerstwa, jako inicjatora i lidera zmian. A może należałoby przysłuchać się głosom samorządów i wspólnie z nimi realizować pilotażowe projekty, pozwalające na zweryfikowanie założeń reformy. Zastanówmy się nad tym wspólnie. Jedno jest pewne. Dalsze zwlekanie z działaniami reformatorskimi może doprowadzić do konieczności wprowadzenia zmian nieewolucyjnych, wdrażanych systematycznie, według przemyślanego planu, lecz rewolucyjnych, a takie obciążone są ryzykiem poniesienia wysokich kosztów.
c. Polityczna wola przeprowadzenia systemowej reformy w kulturze Trudno sobie wyobrazić zbudowanie współczesnej polityki kulturalnej bez uprzedniej odpowiedzi na pytanie o zakres interwencjonizmu państwa w sferę kultury. Jeśli na Kongresie Kultury zorganizowanym w 2009 roku, jedna z debat panelowych nosiła tytuł: Ile państwa w kulturze: rząd, samorząd czy społeczeństwo obywatelskie, oznacza to, że w Polsce nadal nie podjęto na serio takiego dyskursu. Nie będziemy komentować wykluczającego charakteru tego pytania, albo jedno albo drugie, zakładamy, że to przejęzyczenie, bo istota problemu tkwi przecież w ustalonej na określonych warunkach współpracy. Ile państwa w sferze społecznej, do której zaliczamy kulturę, ile państwa w samej kulturze – to fundamentalne pytania o zakres interwencjonizmu państwa w dziedzinie kultury w gospodarce opartej na zasadach rynkowych. To pytania dyskursu, który prowadzi do rozważań nad przyjętymi przez współczesne państwa europejskie modelami/ koncepcjami całej polityki społecznej. Trudno wyobrazić sobie zbudowanie współczesnej polityki kulturalnej bez uprzedniej odpowiedzi na to pytanie. Skoro jednak ostatnie 10 lat nie dało takiej odpowiedzi, a polityki kulturalnej też jasno nie sprecyzowano, to czy znaczy to, że w tym czasie politycy odpowiedzialni za tworzenie polityki kulturalnej dreptali w miejscu i drukując różne, mniej lub bardziej profesjonalne dokumenty i strategie, tak naprawdę wyłącznie zaspokajali bieżące potrzeby w sferze kultury? Od 1989 roku żadna z partii nie zdecydowała się lub nie miała wystarczającej siły politycznej i wiedzy o sektorze, aby zaprzestać wprowadzania jedynie jednorazowych, adaptacyjnych zmian i aby dokonać przekształceń systemowych. W 2007 roku, w części dotyczącej kultury dokumentu programowego Platformy Obywatelskiej,
znalazł się zapis o konieczności zreformowania modelu finansowania i organizowania działalności kulturalnej. Do dziś reformy nie mamy. Historia lubi się podobno powtarzać, ale czy tym razem też musi tak być?
c. Polityczna wola przeprowadzenia systemowej reformy w kulturze Trudno sobie wyobrazić zbudowanie współczesnej polityki kulturalnej bez uprzedniej odpowiedzi na pytanie o zakres interwencjonizmu państwa w sferę kultury. Jeśli na Kongresie Kultury zorganizowanym w 2009 roku, jedna z debat panelowych nosiła tytuł: Ile państwa w kulturze: rząd, samorząd czy społeczeństwo obywatelskie, oznacza to, że w Polsce nadal nie podjęto na serio takiego dyskursu. Nie będziemy komentować wykluczającego charakteru tego pytania, albo jedno albo drugie, zakładamy, że to przejęzyczenie, bo istota problemu tkwi przecież w ustalonej na określonych warunkach współpracy. Ile państwa w sferze społecznej, do której zaliczamy kulturę, ile państwa w samej kulturze – to fundamentalne pytania o zakres interwencjonizmu państwa w dziedzinie kultury w gospodarce opartej na zasadach rynkowych. To pytania dyskursu, który prowadzi do rozważań nad przyjętymi przez współczesne państwa europejskie modelami/ koncepcjami całej polityki społecznej. Trudno wyobrazić sobie zbudowanie współczesnej polityki kulturalnej bez uprzedniej odpowiedzi na to pytanie. Skoro jednak ostatnie 10 lat nie dało takiej odpowiedzi, a polityki kulturalnej też jasno nie sprecyzowano, to czy znaczy to, że w tym czasie politycy odpowiedzialni za tworzenie polityki kulturalnej dreptali w miejscu i drukując różne, mniej lub bardziej profesjonalne dokumenty i strategie, tak naprawdę wyłącznie zaspokajali bieżące potrzeby w sferze kultury? Od 1989 roku żadna z partii nie zdecydowała się lub nie miała wystarczającej siły politycznej i wiedzy o sektorze, aby zaprzestać wprowadzania jedynie jednorazowych, adaptacyjnych zmian i aby dokonać przekształceń systemowych. W 2007 roku, w części dotyczącej kultury dokumentu programowego Platformy Obywatelskiej,
wprowadzenie reformy, z uwzględnieniem potrzeby jej promocji, wyjaśniania odbiorcom jej sensu. Nieodzowne jest zagwarantowanie niezbędnych do jej przeprowadzenia środków budżetowych oraz wykonanie pilotaży na wybranych podmiotach.
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Analiza polityki kulturalnej Kazachstanu Galina Koretskaya
1. Wstęp1
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omena kulturalno-artystyczna Kazachstanu jest kształtowana przez szereg czynników wyrosłych ze specyficznego doświadczenia historycznego kraju. Ani kultura, ani też sztuka, nie będą się w nim rozwijać, jeśli rząd nie określi kierunków polityki kulturalnej, nad którą sprawuje pieczę od roku 1991, czyli od momentu odzyskania niepodległości. Jak dotąd polityka kulturalna Kazachstanu nie została poddana analizie przy użyciu uznanych narzędzi badawczych. Celem niniejszej pracy jest opis sytuacji społecznej oraz artystyczno-kulturalnej w Kazachstanie, analiza kierunków polityki kulturalnej państwa od czasu odzyskania niepodległości, ich ocena i zaproponowanie hipotez odnośnie dalszego rozwoju. Praca ma nie udzielać odpowiedzi, co stawiać pytania, określając problemy, które wymagają rozwiązania w przyszłości. Ze względu na tematykę pracy wybrano opisowe i ewaluacyjne metody badawcze. Jednym z największych problemów badawczych, z jakimi musiała się zmierzyć autorka, była niedostępność materiałów i niezależnych analiz dotyczących bieżącej aktywności artystyczno-kulturalnej w Kazachstanie, a także mało przejrzyste, wyidealizowane i często zniekształcone dane pochodzące ze źródeł oficjalnych. Głównym źródłem informacji wykorzystanych przy pisaniu niniejszej pracy były artykuły z czasopism oraz rozmowy z osobami posiadającymi wiedzę na temat poruszanych kwestii.
2. Tło historyczno-kulturalne i bieżąca sytuacja
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połowie XVIII wieku terytorium dzisiejszego Kazachstanu zostało wcielone do Imperium Rosyjskiego. Na początku XX wieku Kazachstan stał się jedną z republik ZSRR i został przemianowany na Kazachską Socjalistyczną Republikę Radziecką ze stolicą w Ałma-Acie. Kilka fal deportacji i migracji, które przetoczyły się przez Kazachstan w późniejszym czasie (przesiedlenia stalinowskie w latach 30., ewakuacje w czasie Wielkiej Wojny Ojczyźnianej (II wojna światowa), migracje w latach 50. (podczas kampanii zagospodarowania nieużytków); doprowadziło to do zmian w strukturze etnicznej kraju, do tego stopnia, że Kazachowie stanowili zaledwie 30% populacji. Oprócz nich Kazachstan zamieszkiwali m. in. Rosjanie, Ukraińcy, Białorusini, Niemcy i Polacy. Z jednej strony czasy dominacji Związku Sowieckiego to okres dojrzewania nowego, dobrze wykształconego pokolenia i tworzenia licznych instytucji kultury, a język rosyjski stał się dla mieszkańców Kazachstanu przepustką do świata kultury i sztuki. Z drugiej jednak strony nastąpiło odrzucenie rdzennie kazachskiej kultury i tradycji, a kazachska inteligencja padła ofiarą represji. Wszyscy mieszkańcy Kazachstanu posługiwali się językiem rosyjskim i kazachski nieomal popadł w zapomnienie. Postępowało wykorzenianie i utrata etnicznej tożsamości ludności kazachskiej. W 1991 roku Kazachstan stał się niepodległym państwem. Był to początek odradzania się kazachskiego patriotyzmu, kultury i tradycji. Naro-
7 ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ Artykuł ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� zaprezentowany podczas 2. Międzynarodowej konferencji naukowej studentów i doktorantów studiujących takie dziedziny jak teoria sztuki, praktyka artystyczna, polityka kulturalna i zarządzanie kulturą, zorganizowanej przez Instytut Badań nad Sztuką Uniwersytetu Państwowego im. Ilii Czawczawadze w Gruzji we współpracy z Fundacją Kaukaską (Holandia). Tbilisi, 23–25 maja 2011 r.
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Galina Koretskaya Pochodzi z Kazachstanu, mieszka w Ałma-Acie. Jest absolwentką berneńskiej Akademii Muzycznej i Teatralnej im. Leoša Janáčka. Artykuł stanowi streszczenie pracy magisterskiej, którą Galina obroniła w czerwcu 2011 roku.
7 ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ Artykuł ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� zaprezentowany podczas 2. Międzynarodowej konferencji naukowej studentów i doktorantów studiujących takie dziedziny jak teoria sztuki, praktyka artystyczna, polityka kulturalna i zarządzanie kulturą, zorganizowanej przez Instytut Badań nad Sztuką Uniwersytetu Państwowego im. Ilii Czawczawadze w Gruzji we współpracy z Fundacją Kaukaską (Holandia). Tbilisi, 23–25 maja 2011 r.
omena kulturalno-artystyczna Kazachstanu jest kształtowana przez szereg czynników wyrosłych ze specyficznego doświadczenia historycznego kraju. Ani kultura, ani też sztuka, nie będą się w nim rozwijać, jeśli rząd nie określi kierunków polityki kulturalnej, nad którą sprawuje pieczę od roku 1991, czyli od momentu odzyskania niepodległości. Jak dotąd polityka kulturalna Kazachstanu nie została poddana analizie przy użyciu uznanych narzędzi badawczych. Celem niniejszej pracy jest opis sytuacji społecznej oraz artystyczno-kulturalnej w Kazachstanie, analiza kierunków polityki kulturalnej państwa od czasu odzyskania niepodległości, ich ocena i zaproponowanie hipotez odnośnie dalszego rozwoju. Praca ma nie udzielać odpowiedzi, co stawiać pytania, określając problemy, które wymagają rozwiązania w przyszłości. Ze względu na tematykę pracy wybrano opisowe i ewaluacyjne metody badawcze. Jednym z największych problemów badawczych, z jakimi musiała się zmierzyć autorka, była niedostępność materiałów i niezależnych analiz dotyczących bieżącej aktywności artystyczno-kulturalnej w Kazachstanie, a także mało przejrzyste, wyidealizowane i często zniekształcone dane pochodzące ze źródeł oficjalnych. Głównym źródłem informacji wykorzystanych przy pisaniu niniejszej pracy były artykuły z czasopism oraz rozmowy z osobami posiadającymi wiedzę na temat poruszanych kwestii.
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1. Wstęp1
połowie XVIII wieku terytorium dzisiejszego Kazachstanu zostało wcielone do Imperium Rosyjskiego. Na początku XX wieku Kazachstan stał się jedną z republik ZSRR i został przemianowany na Kazachską Socjalistyczną Republikę Radziecką ze stolicą w Ałma-Acie. Kilka fal deportacji i migracji, które przetoczyły się przez Kazachstan w późniejszym czasie (przesiedlenia stalinowskie w latach 30., ewakuacje w czasie Wielkiej Wojny Ojczyźnianej (II wojna światowa), migracje w latach 50. (podczas kampanii zagospodarowania nieużytków); doprowadziło to do zmian w strukturze etnicznej kraju, do tego stopnia, że Kazachowie stanowili zaledwie 30% populacji. Oprócz nich Kazachstan zamieszkiwali m. in. Rosjanie, Ukraińcy, Białorusini, Niemcy i Polacy. Z jednej strony czasy dominacji Związku Sowieckiego to okres dojrzewania nowego, dobrze wykształconego pokolenia i tworzenia licznych instytucji kultury, a język rosyjski stał się dla mieszkańców Kazachstanu przepustką do świata kultury i sztuki. Z drugiej jednak strony nastąpiło odrzucenie rdzennie kazachskiej kultury i tradycji, a kazachska inteligencja padła ofiarą represji. Wszyscy mieszkańcy Kazachstanu posługiwali się językiem rosyjskim i kazachski nieomal popadł w zapomnienie. Postępowało wykorzenianie i utrata etnicznej tożsamości ludności kazachskiej. W 1991 roku Kazachstan stał się niepodległym państwem. Był to początek odradzania się kazachskiego patriotyzmu, kultury i tradycji. Naro-
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2. Tło historyczno-kulturalne i bieżąca sytuacja
Galina Koretskaya
Analiza polityki kulturalnej Kazachstanu
Galina Koretskaya Pochodzi z Kazachstanu, mieszka w Ałma-Acie. Jest absolwentką berneńskiej Akademii Muzycznej i Teatralnej im. Leoša Janáčka. Artykuł stanowi streszczenie pracy magisterskiej, którą Galina obroniła w czerwcu 2011 roku.
pewność, tolerancję i patriotyzm. Współczesna sztuka niezależna Kazachstanu i pozostałych państw Azji Środkowej to dziedzina realizowana przez instytucje działające poza strukturami rządowymi. Raczkująca sztuka młodych państw nigdy nie doczekała się wsparcia ze strony władz. Julija Sorokina, kazachska artystka i kuratorka mówi: „Bycie artystą/kuratorem zajmującym się sztuką współczesną w tym kraju jest równoznaczne z byciem entuzjastą, który nie ma co liczyć na wsparcie instytucji, stałe wynagrodzenie i uznanie. Od czasu do czasu próbujemy organizować wystawy, warsztaty i seminaria w krajach Azji Środkowej, ale jak dotąd nie udało się nam zwrócić uwagi rządu ani sektora biznesu. Ich przedstawiciele z niechęcią odnoszą się do sztuki współczesnej” [Sorokina 2008, dok. elektr.]. Zasada „sztuki kontrolowanej” doprowadziła do głębokiej stagnacji życia artystycznego w Kazachstanie, zrodziła konformistyczne i tradycjonalistyczne podejście do sztuki, utorowała drogę tzw. sztuce okolicznościowej („suwenirowej”) i przyczyniła się do degradacji kulturalno-artystycznego dziedzictwa wypracowanego przez Kazachów w okresie sowieckim.
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3. Cele rządu w zakresie kultury
Trudno formułować kategoryczne wnioski, zwłaszcza jeśli chodzi o pracę Ministerstwa Kultury i wydatki rządu na kulturę. Ministerstwo przygotowuje wyłącznie krótkoterminowe plany strategiczne, a jego raporty są dowodem na trwałość sowieckiego podejścia do kultury, skoncentrowanego nie na jakości, ale na ilości. Nie analizuje się ani nie monitoruje przebiegu wczesnych faz projektów, brak też jednoznacznych danych statystycznych oraz opinii ekspertów. W efekcie wciąż nie określono długoterminowych celów rozwojowych dla kazachskiej kultury. Budżetowi Ministerstwa Kultury brak przejrzystości, co uniemożliwia podejmowanie dalszych decyzji; nie wiadomo, na przykład, które dziedziny sztuki czy kultury były dotąd wspieranie przez rząd w większym stopniu niż inne, gdyż wydatki Ministerstwa nie są jasno klasyfikowane. Dostępne informacje są zazwyczaj nieaktualne, a dane statystyczne pozyskane z różnych źródeł znacząco się od siebie różnią. Brak też informacji o polityce kulturalnej kraju sprzed 2006 roku. Po roku 2006 Ministerstwo Kultury opracowało dwa programy strategiczne: na lata 2006–2008 i 2010–2015. Celem pierwsze-
Trudno formułować kategoryczne wnioski, zwłaszcza jeśli chodzi o pracę Ministerstwa Kultury i wydatki rządu na kulturę. Ministerstwo przygotowuje wyłącznie krótkoterminowe plany strategiczne, a jego raporty są dowodem na trwałość sowieckiego podejścia do kultury, skoncentrowanego nie na jakości, ale na ilości. Nie analizuje się ani nie monitoruje przebiegu wczesnych faz projektów, brak też jednoznacznych danych statystycznych oraz opinii ekspertów. W efekcie wciąż nie określono długoterminowych celów rozwojowych dla kazachskiej kultury. Budżetowi Ministerstwa Kultury brak przejrzystości, co uniemożliwia podejmowanie dalszych decyzji; nie wiadomo, na przykład, które dziedziny sztuki czy kultury były dotąd wspieranie przez rząd w większym stopniu niż inne, gdyż wydatki Ministerstwa nie są jasno klasyfikowane. Dostępne informacje są zazwyczaj nieaktualne, a dane statystyczne pozyskane z różnych źródeł znacząco się od siebie różnią. Brak też informacji o polityce kulturalnej kraju sprzed 2006 roku. Po roku 2006 Ministerstwo Kultury opracowało dwa programy strategiczne: na lata 2006–2008 i 2010–2015. Celem pierwsze-
3. Cele rządu w zakresie kultury
dził się wówczas model państwa zamieszkanego przez jeden naród – Kazachów, posługujących się językiem kazachskim oraz rosyjskim jako językiem urzędowym. Rząd dążył do wykreowania nowej tożsamości narodowej, która byłaby wspólna dla Kazachów i innych grup etnicznych, a także postanowił uczyć kazachskiego nie tylko Kazachów, ale i członków pozostałych 130 grup etnicznych zamieszkujących terytorium Kazachstanu. W takiej sytuacji kluczowe znaczenie miało uniknięcie konfliktów i zachowanie równowagi społeczno-gospodarczej. Zdaniem analityków władze Kazachstanu zajęły się realizacją dwóch głównych zadań. Pierwszym z nich było zbudowanie nowego jednorodnego narodu, drugim – zbudowanie go w krótkim czasie i zgodnie z demokratycznymi zasadami. To wymagało wdrożenia idei tzw. kontrolowanej demokracji [Bekturganova, dok. elektr.]. Do końca lat 90. rząd zajmował się głównie rozwiązywaniem palących problemów gospodarczych, przez co kwestie kultury zostały zepchnięte na dalszy plan. W pierwszej dekadzie XXI wieku, po uporaniu się z kryzysem gospodarczym, władze zaczęły przeznaczać nowo pozyskane środki finansowe nie na rozwój i wspieranie inicjatyw kulturalno-artystycznych, ale na szereg projektów ideologicznych, które miały na celu wykreowanie obrazu Kazachstanu jako nowoczesnego państwa ze stabilną gospodarką, wolnego od konfliktów na tle etnicznym, a także na stworzenie odpowiedniego wizerunku nowej stolicy państwa, Astany, poprzez inwestowanie w budowę nowoczesnych i drogich pałaców kultury, hal koncertowych itp. Obecnie sztuka spełnia jedynie rolę cywilizującą i ewaluacyjną, stanowiąc istotny element edukacji patriotycznej Kazachów czerpiącej z dziedzictwa historycznego kraju. Na finansowe wsparcie rządu liczyć mogą wyłącznie państwowe instytucje akademickie zajmujące się kulturą. Co więcej, wiele przedsięwzięć kulturalnych finansowanych jest z budżetu państwa z polecenia rządu, przez co są one realizowane w pewnej zadanej stylistyce i służą upowszechnianiu określonych ideologii. Obserwując pewne paralelne zjawiska zachodzące w kazachskiej kulturze i mediach, analitycy wskazywali, że władze założyły poddańczą rolę mediów i dziennikarzy, domagając się publikowania materiałów służących wyłącznie propagandzie sukcesu [Mass-media v Kazakhstane… 2010, dok. elektr.]. Media – podobnie jak sztuka – miały spełniać rolę doradczą, pokazywać, jak walczyć z przeciwnościami, edukować poprzez budujące przykłady, wyrażać
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pewność, tolerancję i patriotyzm. Współczesna sztuka niezależna Kazachstanu i pozostałych państw Azji Środkowej to dziedzina realizowana przez instytucje działające poza strukturami rządowymi. Raczkująca sztuka młodych państw nigdy nie doczekała się wsparcia ze strony władz. Julija Sorokina, kazachska artystka i kuratorka mówi: „Bycie artystą/kuratorem zajmującym się sztuką współczesną w tym kraju jest równoznaczne z byciem entuzjastą, który nie ma co liczyć na wsparcie instytucji, stałe wynagrodzenie i uznanie. Od czasu do czasu próbujemy organizować wystawy, warsztaty i seminaria w krajach Azji Środkowej, ale jak dotąd nie udało się nam zwrócić uwagi rządu ani sektora biznesu. Ich przedstawiciele z niechęcią odnoszą się do sztuki współczesnej” [Sorokina 2008, dok. elektr.]. Zasada „sztuki kontrolowanej” doprowadziła do głębokiej stagnacji życia artystycznego w Kazachstanie, zrodziła konformistyczne i tradycjonalistyczne podejście do sztuki, utorowała drogę tzw. sztuce okolicznościowej („suwenirowej”) i przyczyniła się do degradacji kulturalno-artystycznego dziedzictwa wypracowanego przez Kazachów w okresie sowieckim.
202
dził się wówczas model państwa zamieszkanego przez jeden naród – Kazachów, posługujących się językiem kazachskim oraz rosyjskim jako językiem urzędowym. Rząd dążył do wykreowania nowej tożsamości narodowej, która byłaby wspólna dla Kazachów i innych grup etnicznych, a także postanowił uczyć kazachskiego nie tylko Kazachów, ale i członków pozostałych 130 grup etnicznych zamieszkujących terytorium Kazachstanu. W takiej sytuacji kluczowe znaczenie miało uniknięcie konfliktów i zachowanie równowagi społeczno-gospodarczej. Zdaniem analityków władze Kazachstanu zajęły się realizacją dwóch głównych zadań. Pierwszym z nich było zbudowanie nowego jednorodnego narodu, drugim – zbudowanie go w krótkim czasie i zgodnie z demokratycznymi zasadami. To wymagało wdrożenia idei tzw. kontrolowanej demokracji [Bekturganova, dok. elektr.]. Do końca lat 90. rząd zajmował się głównie rozwiązywaniem palących problemów gospodarczych, przez co kwestie kultury zostały zepchnięte na dalszy plan. W pierwszej dekadzie XXI wieku, po uporaniu się z kryzysem gospodarczym, władze zaczęły przeznaczać nowo pozyskane środki finansowe nie na rozwój i wspieranie inicjatyw kulturalno-artystycznych, ale na szereg projektów ideologicznych, które miały na celu wykreowanie obrazu Kazachstanu jako nowoczesnego państwa ze stabilną gospodarką, wolnego od konfliktów na tle etnicznym, a także na stworzenie odpowiedniego wizerunku nowej stolicy państwa, Astany, poprzez inwestowanie w budowę nowoczesnych i drogich pałaców kultury, hal koncertowych itp. Obecnie sztuka spełnia jedynie rolę cywilizującą i ewaluacyjną, stanowiąc istotny element edukacji patriotycznej Kazachów czerpiącej z dziedzictwa historycznego kraju. Na finansowe wsparcie rządu liczyć mogą wyłącznie państwowe instytucje akademickie zajmujące się kulturą. Co więcej, wiele przedsięwzięć kulturalnych finansowanych jest z budżetu państwa z polecenia rządu, przez co są one realizowane w pewnej zadanej stylistyce i służą upowszechnianiu określonych ideologii. Obserwując pewne paralelne zjawiska zachodzące w kazachskiej kulturze i mediach, analitycy wskazywali, że władze założyły poddańczą rolę mediów i dziennikarzy, domagając się publikowania materiałów służących wyłącznie propagandzie sukcesu [Mass-media v Kazakhstane… 2010, dok. elektr.]. Media – podobnie jak sztuka – miały spełniać rolę doradczą, pokazywać, jak walczyć z przeciwnościami, edukować poprzez budujące przykłady, wyrażać
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Chciałabym zwrócić uwagę na dwa modele polityki kulturalnej, najlepiej pasujące do działań podejmowanych obecnie w obszarze kultury i sztuki. Pierwszy z nich bazuje na zasadzie publicznego wsparcia zaproponowanej przez profesora Andreasa Wiesanda. Cechy charakterystyczne: MM zainteresowanie instytucji rządowych koncentruje się głównie wokół tradycyjnych instytucji kultury, takich jak muzea, biblioteki, centra kultury, które mogą liczyć na finansowanie z budżetu państwa. Artyści, niczym misjonarze, szerzą „prawdziwą wartość sztuki”. Sztukę eksperymentalną uważa się za mało ważną, MM główny cel to wspieranie równowagi instytucjonalnej za pomocą sztuki tradycyjnej, która zdobyła już pewne uznanie, MM ponieważ głównym źródłem finansowania kultury jest budżet państwa, za narzędzia regulacji służą przede wszystkim planowanie i opracowywanie programów strategicznych, MM politykę realizuje się głównie na szczeblu krajowym, natomiast międzynarodowa współpraca kulturalna jest domeną dyplomacji. Opisywany model polityki kulturalnej wiąże się z następującymi problemami:
go z nich było udoskonalenie bazy legislacyjnej, rozwój infrastruktury kulturalnej, zintensyfikowanie współpracy międzynarodowej oraz poszerzanie kwalifikacji pracowników instytucji kultury. Niestety, dokument nie precyzował mechanizmów realizacji ustalonych zadań, a po zakończeniu programu nie wykonano żadnych analiz. Z kolei obecnie realizowana strategia ma na celu zwiększenie konkurencyjności kazachskiej sztuki i produktów kultury na arenie międzynarodowej. Zadanie zwiększenia konkurencyjności kulturalnej kraju zostało ujęte w planach strategicznych Ministerstwa po tym, jak prezydent kraju założył, że Kazachstan znajdzie się wśród 50 państw wymienionych w Globalnym raporcie konkurencyjności. W Raporcie z 2010 roku Kazachstan spadł jednak z 62. na 72. pozycję. Wydaje się, że powyższy cel nie powinien być traktowany priorytetowo, zwłaszcza że podstawowe kwestie obejmujące legislację, infrastrukturę i kwalifikacje pracowników instytucji kultury pozostają nierozwiązane, nie wspominając już o stagnacji szeroko pojętego życia artystycznego czy niskim poziomie edukacji artystycznej.
4. Podobieństwo do istniejących modeli polityki kulturalnej. Wnioski
4. Podobieństwo do istniejących modeli polityki kulturalnej. Wnioski
go z nich było udoskonalenie bazy legislacyjnej, rozwój infrastruktury kulturalnej, zintensyfikowanie współpracy międzynarodowej oraz poszerzanie kwalifikacji pracowników instytucji kultury. Niestety, dokument nie precyzował mechanizmów realizacji ustalonych zadań, a po zakończeniu programu nie wykonano żadnych analiz. Z kolei obecnie realizowana strategia ma na celu zwiększenie konkurencyjności kazachskiej sztuki i produktów kultury na arenie międzynarodowej. Zadanie zwiększenia konkurencyjności kulturalnej kraju zostało ujęte w planach strategicznych Ministerstwa po tym, jak prezydent kraju założył, że Kazachstan znajdzie się wśród 50 państw wymienionych w Globalnym raporcie konkurencyjności. W Raporcie z 2010 roku Kazachstan spadł jednak z 62. na 72. pozycję. Wydaje się, że powyższy cel nie powinien być traktowany priorytetowo, zwłaszcza że podstawowe kwestie obejmujące legislację, infrastrukturę i kwalifikacje pracowników instytucji kultury pozostają nierozwiązane, nie wspominając już o stagnacji szeroko pojętego życia artystycznego czy niskim poziomie edukacji artystycznej.
Chciałabym zwrócić uwagę na dwa modele polityki kulturalnej, najlepiej pasujące do działań podejmowanych obecnie w obszarze kultury i sztuki. Pierwszy z nich bazuje na zasadzie publicznego wsparcia zaproponowanej przez profesora Andreasa Wiesanda. Cechy charakterystyczne: MM zainteresowanie instytucji rządowych koncentruje się głównie wokół tradycyjnych instytucji kultury, takich jak muzea, biblioteki, centra kultury, które mogą liczyć na finansowanie z budżetu państwa. Artyści, niczym misjonarze, szerzą „prawdziwą wartość sztuki”. Sztukę eksperymentalną uważa się za mało ważną, MM główny cel to wspieranie równowagi instytucjonalnej za pomocą sztuki tradycyjnej, która zdobyła już pewne uznanie, MM ponieważ głównym źródłem finansowania kultury jest budżet państwa, za narzędzia regulacji służą przede wszystkim planowanie i opracowywanie programów strategicznych, MM politykę realizuje się głównie na szczeblu krajowym, natomiast międzynarodowa współpraca kulturalna jest domeną dyplomacji. MM Opisywany model polityki kulturalnej wiąże się z następującymi problemami:
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2011, Vol 4 (4)
niedostateczne warunki dla rozwoju innowacji, nowe trendy w sztuce współczesnej są odrzucane, MM osoby odpowiedzialne za tworzenie i realizację polityki kulturalnej nie dysponują wystarczającą wiedzą na temat rozwoju kultury czy innowacji, MM narzędzia planistyczne i implementacyjne nie pozwalają na odejście od schematów, MM decyzje podejmowane są odgórnie, wpływ rządu uznaje się za ważniejszy od roli artysty [Vostrjakov, dok. elektr.]. Drugi model, zaproponowany przez profesor Milenę Dragićević-Šešić, dotyczy polityki kulturalnej okresu przejściowego. Jego cechą charakterystyczną jest to, że nawet projekty o wydźwięku demokratycznym są realizowane za pośrednictwem biurokratycznej struktury rządowej. Na przykładzie Serbii, profesor Dragićević-Šešić ukazuje, że kultura i polityka kulturalna byłych republik Związku Sowieckiego wciąż w bardzo dużym stopniu opiera się na dawnych modelach polityki kulturalnej i dawnej organizacji systemu instytucji, a jednocześnie służy realizacji postulatów zgłaszanych przez niektórych intelektualistów, skupionych głównie na kwestiach narodowych i kulturze narodowej. Niebezpiecznym jest przekonanie, że administracja rządowo-kulturalna nawykła do działania, myślenia i postępowania zgodnie ze sztywnymi normami totalitarnymi, da się bezboleśnie i gładko przerobić w ciągu jednej nocy, dzięki przejęciu retoryki „nowego” post-totalitarnego, ale jeszcze nie okrzepłego w demokracji społeczeństwa [In from the margins..., 1997]. MM
Podsumowując, zaproponowałam następujące wnioski (hipotezy), wymagające dalszych badań i analiz: MM palącym problemem jest rewitalizacja artystyczno-twórczego potencjału kraju. Niski poziom edukacji artystycznej. Brak wyróżniających się artystów poniżej 35 roku życia, MM niezależne projekty artystyczne finansowane są wyłącznie z funduszy międzynarodowych i przez międzynarodowe organizacje (Fundacja Sorosa w Kazachstanie), MM autocenzura artystów (podobna sytuacja panuje w mediach – autocenzura dziennikarska), MM lwią część wydatków Ministerstwa Kultury stanowią wydatki na promocję nowoczesnego wizerunku Astany. Model polityki kulturalnej wymaga przede wszystkim opracowania konceptualnego, a nie
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MM
203
Podsumowując, zaproponowałam następujące wnioski (hipotezy), wymagające dalszych badań i analiz: MM palącym problemem jest rewitalizacja artystyczno-twórczego potencjału kraju. Niski poziom edukacji artystycznej. Brak wyróżniających się artystów poniżej 35 roku życia, MM niezależne projekty artystyczne finansowane są wyłącznie z funduszy międzynarodowych i przez międzynarodowe organizacje (Fundacja Sorosa w Kazachstanie), MM autocenzura artystów (podobna sytuacja panuje w mediach – autocenzura dziennikarska), MM lwią część wydatków Ministerstwa Kultury stanowią wydatki na promocję nowoczesnego wizerunku Astany. Model polityki kulturalnej wymaga przede wszystkim opracowania konceptualnego, a nie MM niedostateczne warunki dla rozwoju innowacji, nowe trendy w sztuce współczesnej są odrzucane, MM osoby odpowiedzialne za tworzenie i realizację polityki kulturalnej nie dysponują wystarczającą wiedzą na temat rozwoju kultury czy innowacji, MM narzędzia planistyczne i implementacyjne nie pozwalają na odejście od schematów, MM decyzje podejmowane są odgórnie, wpływ rządu uznaje się za ważniejszy od roli artysty [Vostrjakov, dok. elektr.]. Drugi model, zaproponowany przez profesor Milenę Dragićević-Šešić, dotyczy polityki kulturalnej okresu przejściowego. Jego cechą charakterystyczną jest to, że nawet projekty o wydźwięku demokratycznym są realizowane za pośrednictwem biurokratycznej struktury rządowej. Na przykładzie Serbii, profesor Dragićević-Šešić ukazuje, że kultura i polityka kulturalna byłych republik Związku Sowieckiego wciąż w bardzo dużym stopniu opiera się na dawnych modelach polityki kulturalnej i dawnej organizacji systemu instytucji, a jednocześnie służy realizacji postulatów zgłaszanych przez niektórych intelektualistów, skupionych głównie na kwestiach narodowych i kulturze narodowej. Niebezpiecznym jest przekonanie, że administracja rządowo-kulturalna nawykła do działania, myślenia i postępowania zgodnie ze sztywnymi normami totalitarnymi, da się bezboleśnie i gładko przerobić w ciągu jednej nocy, dzięki przejęciu retoryki „nowego” post-totalitarnego, ale jeszcze nie okrzepłego w demokracji społeczeństwa [In from the margins..., 1997].
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wyłącznie sporządzenia krótkoterminowych planów działania. Zdaniem profesora Lwa Vostrjakowa, poszukiwanie modelu polityki kulturalnej nie powinno polegać na przyswajaniu sobie współczesnych teorii Zachodu, ale na poznawaniu rządzących nimi zasad. Nie należy
odrzucać osiągnięć społeczno-kulturalnych przeszłości. Koncepcja polityki kulturalnej powinna być budowana poprzez analizę i uogólnianie struktur i mechanizmów typowych dla istniejących modeli polityki kulturalnej [Vostrjakov, dok. elektr.].
Bibliografia Sorokina Y., Central Asian Art-Traffic. Collective online platform N.E.W.S., 2008 [dok. elektr.] http://northeastwestsouth.net/central-asian-art-traffic-0 [dostęp: 25.04.11 r.]. Vostrjakov L., Kulturnaja politika: koncepciji, ponjatija, modely. Rossijsky institut kulturnoj politiky: Analitika (Polityka kulturalna: koncepcje, znaczenia, modele. Rosyjski instytut polityki kulturalnej: Analityka) [dok. elektr.] http://www.cpolicy.ru/analytics/80.html, [dostęp: 24.04.2011 r.].
Bekturganova B., Kazakhstanskaja identicnost: trudnosti obretenija, Respublikanskij politiceskij zhurnal „Bajterek” (Kazahska tożsamość: trudności z jej odnalezieniem. Republikański magazyn społeczno-polityczny „Bajterek”), 2006–12, nr 6 (21) [dok. elektr.] http://www.baiterek.kz/index.php?journal=3&page=95 [dostęp: 24.04.2011 r.]. In from the margins. A contribution to the debate on Culture and Development in Europe. Rada Europy, 1997, s. 83. Mass-media v Kazakhstane. Zakony. Konflikty. Pravonarushenija. Itogy 2009 goda, Tom 1 (Massmedia w Kazachstanie: prawo, konflikty, naruszenia prawa: wyniki za 2009 rok, Część 1), Ałma-Ata, 2010, s. 7 [dok. elektr.] http://www.soros.kz/ru/publications/ books [dostęp: 24.04.2011 r.].
Bekturganova B., Kazakhstanskaja identicnost: trudnosti obretenija, Respublikanskij politiceskij zhurnal „Bajterek” (Kazahska tożsamość: trudności z jej odnalezieniem. Republikański magazyn społeczno-polityczny „Bajterek”), 2006–12, nr 6 (21) [dok. elektr.] http://www.baiterek.kz/index.php?journal=3&page=95 [dostęp: 24.04.2011 r.]. In from the margins. A contribution to the debate on Culture and Development in Europe. Rada Europy, 1997, s. 83. Mass-media v Kazakhstane. Zakony. Konflikty. Pravonarushenija. Itogy 2009 goda, Tom 1 (Massmedia w Kazachstanie: prawo, konflikty, naruszenia prawa: wyniki za 2009 rok, Część 1), Ałma-Ata, 2010, s. 7 [dok. elektr.] http://www.soros.kz/ru/publications/ books [dostęp: 24.04.2011 r.].
Sorokina Y., Central Asian Art-Traffic. Collective online platform N.E.W.S., 2008 [dok. elektr.] http://northeastwestsouth.net/central-asian-art-traffic-0 [dostęp: 25.04.11 r.]. Vostrjakov L., Kulturnaja politika: koncepciji, ponjatija, modely. Rossijsky institut kulturnoj politiky: Analitika (Polityka kulturalna: koncepcje, znaczenia, modele. Rosyjski instytut polityki kulturalnej: Analityka) [dok. elektr.] http://www.cpolicy.ru/analytics/80.html, [dostęp: 24.04.2011 r.].
Bibliografia odrzucać osiągnięć społeczno-kulturalnych przeszłości. Koncepcja polityki kulturalnej powinna być budowana poprzez analizę i uogólnianie struktur i mechanizmów typowych dla istniejących modeli polityki kulturalnej [Vostrjakov, dok. elektr.]. Zarządzanie Kulturą 2011, Vol 4 (4)
wyłącznie sporządzenia krótkoterminowych planów działania. Zdaniem profesora Lwa Vostrjakowa, poszukiwanie modelu polityki kulturalnej nie powinno polegać na przyswajaniu sobie współczesnych teorii Zachodu, ale na poznawaniu rządzących nimi zasad. Nie należy
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Współczesne trendy w zarządzaniu dziedzictwem kulturowym Monika Murzyn-Kupisz
1. Wstęp
instytucje wyrażać zainteresowanie dzie-kulturowym Rys. 1. mogą Trójkąt zarządzania dziedzictwem
S
zeroko rozumiane pojęcie zarządzania odnosi się do podejmowania przez dane podmioty pewnych działań dla jak najbardziej efektywnego i sprawnego osiągnięcia określonych celów, w oparciu o posiadane zasoby. Według P. Druckera na zarządzanie, które zakorzenione jest zarówno w społeczeństwie, jak i w kulturze, składają się zadania oraz ludzie, którzy je realizują [Drucker 1974, s. XII-XIII]. E. Kirejczyk definiuje natomiast zarządzanie jako „rodzaj celowej działalności ludzkiej, polegającej na dysponowaniu zasobami rzeczowymi, finansowymi i ludzkimi oraz ponoszeniu odpowiedzialności za wydane dyspozycje. Tak rozumiane zarządzanie może dotyczyć różnych obszarów aktywności ludzkiej” [Kirejczyk 2008, s. 18]. Rosnące zainteresowanie dziedzictwem kulturowym jako swoistym zasobem rozwojowym w skali lokalnej i regionalnej obserwowane w ostatnich dekadach na całym świecie [por. Carnea 2001] zachęca do spojrzenia na zmieniające się podejście do dziedzictwa kulturowego z perspektywy tego, jakie podmioty, w jakich współcześnie definiowanych celach i jakiego typu odziedziczonymi z przeszłości zasobami kulturowymi mogą i chcą obecnie dysponować rozpoznając je jako dziedzictwo kulturowe. Zarówno rozumienie dziedzictwa, jak i potencjału jego możliwego oddziaływania na teraźniejszość zmieniło się znacząco na przełomie XX i XXI wieku, przechodząc istotną transformację. Tytułowe pytanie o trendy w zarządzaniu dziedzictwem kulturowym odnosi się więc w istocie do triady najważniejszych zmiennych (rys. 1). Po pierwsze niezbędne jest wskazanie na to, co rozumie się obecnie pod pojęciem dziedzictwa kulturowego (kwestia definicji zasobu, który ma być zarządzany). Następnie celowe wydaje się omówienie kto, tj. jakie podmioty, jednostki czy
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2011, Vol 4 (4)
Aktorzy/interesariusze
Zasoby – materialne i niematerialne składniki dziedzictwa kulturowego
Formy wykorzystania, płaszczyzny oddziaływania
Źródło: opracowanie własne
dzictwem kulturowym oraz podejmować działania związane z jego współczesnym wykorzystaniem (interesariusze). Wreszcie, w jakim celu to czynią, tj. poprzez pryzmat jakich wartości oraz płaszczyzn oddziaływania mogą na nie patrzeć.
2. Współczesne rozumienie pojęcia dziedzictwo kulturowe
…d
ziedzictwo [kulturowe] jest wszędzie – w mediach, w kinie, na rynku – we wszystkim od galaktyk po geny. Ogniskuje uwagę patriotyzmu, jest podstawową atrakcją przyciągającą turystów. Stykamy się z nim na każdym kroku. Każdego typu spuścizna jest doceniona. Od etnicznych korzeni po historyczne parki tematyczne, od Hollywood po Holokaust, cały świat zajęty jest pochwałą – lub lamentowaniem nad – jakiegoś typu przeszłością, będącą czy to rzeczywistością czy fikcją [Lowenthal 1998, s. XIII]. Dziedzictwo kulturowe jest określeniem chętnie obecnie przywoływanym i stosowanym, zarówno w dyskursie naukowym, jak i potocznym. Stanowi parę słów wszechobecną w mediach, a także, zazwyczaj bezrefleksyjnie wymieniając przymiotnik kulturowy na narodowy, w nazewnic-
205
Monika Murzyn-Kupisz Doktor nauk ekonomicznych, magister nauk humanistycznych (M.A. in European Leisure Studies). Adiunkt w Zakładzie Dziedzictwa Kulturowego i Studiów Miejskich UNESCO (Katedra Historii Gospodarczej i Społecznej, Uniwersytet Ekonomiczny w Krakowie). Członek PKN ICOMOS. Jej zainteresowania badawcze koncentrują się wokół ekonomiki kultury, społecznych i ekonomicznych problemów ochrony, interpretacji i zarządzania dziedzictwem kulturowym, polityki kulturalnej, rewitalizacji zdegradowanych obszarów śródmiejskich oraz przestrzeni kulturowej Europy Środkowej.
zeroko rozumiane pojęcie zarządzania odnosi się do podejmowania przez dane podmioty pewnych działań dla jak najbardziej efektywnego i sprawnego osiągnięcia określonych celów, w oparciu o posiadane zasoby. Według P. Druckera na zarządzanie, które zakorzenione jest zarówno w społeczeństwie, jak i w kulturze, składają się zadania oraz ludzie, którzy je realizują [Drucker 1974, s. XII-XIII]. E. Kirejczyk definiuje natomiast zarządzanie jako „rodzaj celowej działalności ludzkiej, polegającej na dysponowaniu zasobami rzeczowymi, finansowymi i ludzkimi oraz ponoszeniu odpowiedzialności za wydane dyspozycje. Tak rozumiane zarządzanie może dotyczyć różnych obszarów aktywności ludzkiej” [Kirejczyk 2008, s. 18]. Rosnące zainteresowanie dziedzictwem kulturowym jako swoistym zasobem rozwojowym w skali lokalnej i regionalnej obserwowane w ostatnich dekadach na całym świecie [por. Carnea 2001] zachęca do spojrzenia na zmieniające się podejście do dziedzictwa kulturowego z perspektywy tego, jakie podmioty, w jakich współcześnie definiowanych celach i jakiego typu odziedziczonymi z przeszłości zasobami kulturowymi mogą i chcą obecnie dysponować rozpoznając je jako dziedzictwo kulturowe. Zarówno rozumienie dziedzictwa, jak i potencjału jego możliwego oddziaływania na teraźniejszość zmieniło się znacząco na przełomie XX i XXI wieku, przechodząc istotną transformację. Tytułowe pytanie o trendy w zarządzaniu dziedzictwem kulturowym odnosi się więc w istocie do triady najważniejszych zmiennych (rys. 1). Po pierwsze niezbędne jest wskazanie na to, co rozumie się obecnie pod pojęciem dziedzictwa kulturowego (kwestia definicji zasobu, który ma być zarządzany). Następnie celowe wydaje się omówienie kto, tj. jakie podmioty, jednostki czy
S
1. Wstęp
ziedzictwo [kulturowe] jest wszędzie – w mediach, w kinie, na rynku – we wszystkim od galaktyk po geny. Ogniskuje uwagę patriotyzmu, jest podstawową atrakcją przyciągającą turystów. Stykamy się z nim na każdym kroku. Każdego typu spuścizna jest doceniona. Od etnicznych korzeni po historyczne parki tematyczne, od Hollywood po Holokaust, cały świat zajęty jest pochwałą – lub lamentowaniem nad – jakiegoś typu przeszłością, będącą czy to rzeczywistością czy fikcją [Lowenthal 1998, s. XIII]. Dziedzictwo kulturowe jest określeniem chętnie obecnie przywoływanym i stosowanym, zarówno w dyskursie naukowym, jak i potocznym. Stanowi parę słów wszechobecną w mediach, a także, zazwyczaj bezrefleksyjnie wymieniając przymiotnik kulturowy na narodowy, w nazewnic-
…d
2. Współczesne rozumienie pojęcia dziedzictwo kulturowe dzictwem kulturowym oraz podejmować działania związane z jego współczesnym wykorzystaniem (interesariusze). Wreszcie, w jakim celu to czynią, tj. poprzez pryzmat jakich wartości oraz płaszczyzn oddziaływania mogą na nie patrzeć.
Monika Murzyn-Kupisz Doktor nauk ekonomicznych, magister nauk humanistycznych (M.A. in European Leisure Studies). Adiunkt w Zakładzie Dziedzictwa Kulturowego i Studiów Miejskich UNESCO (Katedra Historii Gospodarczej i Społecznej, Uniwersytet Ekonomiczny w Krakowie). Członek PKN ICOMOS. Jej zainteresowania badawcze koncentrują się wokół ekonomiki kultury, społecznych i ekonomicznych problemów ochrony, interpretacji i zarządzania dziedzictwem kulturowym, polityki kulturalnej, rewitalizacji zdegradowanych obszarów śródmiejskich oraz przestrzeni kulturowej Europy Środkowej.
Źródło: opracowanie własne
Zasoby – materialne i niematerialne składniki dziedzictwa kulturowego
Formy wykorzystania, płaszczyzny oddziaływania
Aktorzy/interesariusze
instytucje wyrażać zainteresowanie dzie-kulturowym Rys. 1. mogą Trójkąt zarządzania dziedzictwem
Monika Murzyn-Kupisz
Współczesne trendy w zarządzaniu dziedzictwem kulturowym
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Zarządzanie Kulturą 2011, Vol 4 (4)
definicje o ukierunkowaniu przedmiotowym wskazujące na to, jakie składniki spuścizny przeszłości mogą być uznane za dziedzictwo, odzwierciedlone także na gruncie prawnym, zarówno w prawie międzynarodowym (karty, konwencje), jak i w uregulowaniach prawnych w poszczególnych krajach. Nie można jednak pominąć drugiego istotnego podejścia do dziedzictwa kulturowego tj. rozumienia go jako procesu wyboru, nadawania znaczeń i interpretacji przeszłości, mniej może dookreślonego, ale za to unikającego pułapki „standaryzacji” dziedzictwa [Skuonti 2009, s. 74–92]. W pierwszym ujęciu trzeba zwrócić uwagę na to, iż pojęcie dziedzictwa kulturowego ewoluowało znacząco w ciągu ostatnich dwustu lat. Początkowo za istotne uważano jedynie zachowanie pojedynczych zabytkowych obiektów architektury i dzieł sztuki, przede wszystkim najstarszych i przynależących do kanonu danej kultury narodowej. Stopniowo spektrum składników uznanych za godne zainteresowania i ochrony poszerzało się o zespoły obiektów i większe układy przestrzenne, dzieła sztuki użytkowej, obiekty przemysłu i techniki, krajobraz kulturowy i środowisko historyczne (historic environment) oraz niematerialne wartości miejsc i społeczności: ich tradycje10, zwyczaje i rytuały, historyczne nazewnictwo oraz symbolikę. W obrębie danej kategorii obiektów np. nieruchomych, widoczne jest też duże zróżnicowanie np. obiekty architektury mogą obejmować tak różne budynki jak: budowle sakralne, rezydencjonalnomieszkalne, użyteczności publicznej, obronne, zabytki techniki, obiekty drewniane i murowane. Współcześnie za dziedzictwo zarówno na gruncie teorii konserwatorskiej, jak i geografii społecznoekonomicznej oraz ekonomiki kultury, uznaje się więc bardzo zróżnicowany zbiór materialnych i niematerialnych składników stale poszerzający się zarówno pod względem typologicznym, jak i chronologicznym, odnoszący się zarówno do zamierzchłych, jak i bliższych nam czasowo epok [Benhamou 1996, s. 115–132]. Ewolucja ta widoczna jest, jeśli spojrzymy na definicje przedmiotu ochrony w najważniejszych
10 W tym tradycyjną działalność produkcyjną, rolniczą czy artystyczną oraz tradycje kulinarne.
twie odpowiedzialnych za realizację szeroko rozumianej polityki kulturalnej instytucji i agend publicznych. Odwołania do dziedzictwa kulturowego umieszczane są często nie tylko w obligatoryjnych dokumentach bezpośrednio z nim związanych np. w Polsce w wojewódzkich programach ochrony zabytków i opieki nad zabytkami, programach tego typu na poziomie gmin, czy też w dokumentach związanych z planowaniem przestrzennym, ale również w ogólnych strategiach rozwoju gmin i regionów, a także programach rewitalizacji, jak też w programach operacyjnych związanych z wykorzystaniem środków unijnych. Jednocześnie pojęcie dziedzictwa pozostaje w dużej mierze niedookreślone i trudne do zdefiniowania, między innymi dlatego, iż zawiera bardzo heterogeniczne składniki8, a także przenika się ono z zakresem znaczeniowym innych słów takich jak „tradycja”, „pamięć” oraz „kultura” [Nieroba, Czerner, Szczepański 2010, s. 35]. W ujęciu maksymalistycznym, za dziedzictwo można uznać „wszystko, co uważamy za przekazane nam z przeszłości” [Lowenthal 2005, s. 81], „wszystko, co ludzie chcą zachować” [Howard 2003, s. 1], zarówno dla teraźniejszych, jak i przyszłych pokoleń lub też „współczesne wykorzystanie przeszłości” [Graham, Ashworth, Tunbridge 2002, s. 2]. Jest więc wszechobecne, dotyczy każdej jednostki ludzkiej i każdego terytorium oraz jest pokłosiem wszelkiego rodzaju działalności ludzkiej, nie tylko artystycznej, a nawet może się odnosić do obiektów i miejsc natury. Nie odnosi się jedynie do tego, co publicznie uznane i promowane9, ale funkcjonuje w bardzo różnych skalach i dyskursach, od prywatnej po globalną, od oficjalnego po kontrkulturowy. Jak to określił P. Howard, „nie wszystko jest dziedzictwem, lecz cokolwiek może się nim stać” [Howard 2003, s. 3]. Nie chcąc poprzestać na tak mało przydatnej, choć dużo mówiącej o naturze współcześnie rozumianego dziedzictwa definicji, warto odwołać się do dwóch podstawowych możliwych podejść je określających. Bardziej praktyczne, również z perspektywy niniejszych rozważań, wydają się
9 Niektórzy autorzy odnoszą się do tego jako tzw. oficjalnego dyskursu dziedzictwa – „Authorised Heritage Discourse”. Por. L. Smith, Uses of heritage, London and New York: Routledge, 2006.
8 Por. np. A. Peacock, A future to the past: the political economy of heritage, „Proceedings of the British Academy”, 1995, nr 87, s. 189–226. Brak „usystematyzowania” i heterogeniczność jest także wskazywana jako ogólna cecha „studiów nad dziedzictwem” (heritage studies). Por. D. C. Harvey, Heritage pasts and heritage presents: temporality, meaning and the scope of heritage studies, „International Journal of Heritage Studies”, 2001, nr 4, s. 319–338. Wskazuje się także na konieczność podejmowania dalszej refleksji teoretycznej. W. Logan, L. Smith, Foreword, [w:] L. Smith, N. Akagawa (red.), Intangible heritage, London: Routledge, 2009, s. XII.
8 Por. np. A. Peacock, A future to the past: the political economy of heritage, „Proceedings of the British Academy”, 1995, nr 87, s. 189–226. Brak „usystematyzowania” i heterogeniczność jest także wskazywana jako ogólna cecha „studiów nad dziedzictwem” (heritage studies). Por. D. C. Harvey, Heritage pasts and heritage presents: temporality, meaning and the scope of heritage studies, „International Journal of Heritage Studies”, 2001, nr 4, s. 319–338. Wskazuje się także na konieczność podejmowania dalszej refleksji teoretycznej. W. Logan, L. Smith, Foreword, [w:] L. Smith, N. Akagawa (red.), Intangible heritage, London: Routledge, 2009, s. XII.
9 Niektórzy autorzy odnoszą się do tego jako tzw. oficjalnego dyskursu dziedzictwa – „Authorised Heritage Discourse”. Por. L. Smith, Uses of heritage, London and New York: Routledge, 2006.
definicje o ukierunkowaniu przedmiotowym wskazujące na to, jakie składniki spuścizny przeszłości mogą być uznane za dziedzictwo, odzwierciedlone także na gruncie prawnym, zarówno w prawie międzynarodowym (karty, konwencje), jak i w uregulowaniach prawnych w poszczególnych krajach. Nie można jednak pominąć drugiego istotnego podejścia do dziedzictwa kulturowego tj. rozumienia go jako procesu wyboru, nadawania znaczeń i interpretacji przeszłości, mniej może dookreślonego, ale za to unikającego pułapki „standaryzacji” dziedzictwa [Skuonti 2009, s. 74–92]. W pierwszym ujęciu trzeba zwrócić uwagę na to, iż pojęcie dziedzictwa kulturowego ewoluowało znacząco w ciągu ostatnich dwustu lat. Początkowo za istotne uważano jedynie zachowanie pojedynczych zabytkowych obiektów architektury i dzieł sztuki, przede wszystkim najstarszych i przynależących do kanonu danej kultury narodowej. Stopniowo spektrum składników uznanych za godne zainteresowania i ochrony poszerzało się o zespoły obiektów i większe układy przestrzenne, dzieła sztuki użytkowej, obiekty przemysłu i techniki, krajobraz kulturowy i środowisko historyczne (historic environment) oraz niematerialne wartości miejsc i społeczności: ich tradycje10, zwyczaje i rytuały, historyczne nazewnictwo oraz symbolikę. W obrębie danej kategorii obiektów np. nieruchomych, widoczne jest też duże zróżnicowanie np. obiekty architektury mogą obejmować tak różne budynki jak: budowle sakralne, rezydencjonalnomieszkalne, użyteczności publicznej, obronne, zabytki techniki, obiekty drewniane i murowane. Współcześnie za dziedzictwo zarówno na gruncie teorii konserwatorskiej, jak i geografii społecznoekonomicznej oraz ekonomiki kultury, uznaje się więc bardzo zróżnicowany zbiór materialnych i niematerialnych składników stale poszerzający się zarówno pod względem typologicznym, jak i chronologicznym, odnoszący się zarówno do zamierzchłych, jak i bliższych nam czasowo epok [Benhamou 1996, s. 115–132]. Ewolucja ta widoczna jest, jeśli spojrzymy na definicje przedmiotu ochrony w najważniejszych
10 W tym tradycyjną działalność produkcyjną, rolniczą czy artystyczną oraz tradycje kulinarne.
twie odpowiedzialnych za realizację szeroko rozumianej polityki kulturalnej instytucji i agend publicznych. Odwołania do dziedzictwa kulturowego umieszczane są często nie tylko w obligatoryjnych dokumentach bezpośrednio z nim związanych np. w Polsce w wojewódzkich programach ochrony zabytków i opieki nad zabytkami, programach tego typu na poziomie gmin, czy też w dokumentach związanych z planowaniem przestrzennym, ale również w ogólnych strategiach rozwoju gmin i regionów, a także programach rewitalizacji, jak też w programach operacyjnych związanych z wykorzystaniem środków unijnych. Jednocześnie pojęcie dziedzictwa pozostaje w dużej mierze niedookreślone i trudne do zdefiniowania, między innymi dlatego, iż zawiera bardzo heterogeniczne składniki8, a także przenika się ono z zakresem znaczeniowym innych słów takich jak „tradycja”, „pamięć” oraz „kultura” [Nieroba, Czerner, Szczepański 2010, s. 35]. W ujęciu maksymalistycznym, za dziedzictwo można uznać „wszystko, co uważamy za przekazane nam z przeszłości” [Lowenthal 2005, s. 81], „wszystko, co ludzie chcą zachować” [Howard 2003, s. 1], zarówno dla teraźniejszych, jak i przyszłych pokoleń lub też „współczesne wykorzystanie przeszłości” [Graham, Ashworth, Tunbridge 2002, s. 2]. Jest więc wszechobecne, dotyczy każdej jednostki ludzkiej i każdego terytorium oraz jest pokłosiem wszelkiego rodzaju działalności ludzkiej, nie tylko artystycznej, a nawet może się odnosić do obiektów i miejsc natury. Nie odnosi się jedynie do tego, co publicznie uznane i promowane9, ale funkcjonuje w bardzo różnych skalach i dyskursach, od prywatnej po globalną, od oficjalnego po kontrkulturowy. Jak to określił P. Howard, „nie wszystko jest dziedzictwem, lecz cokolwiek może się nim stać” [Howard 2003, s. 3]. Nie chcąc poprzestać na tak mało przydatnej, choć dużo mówiącej o naturze współcześnie rozumianego dziedzictwa definicji, warto odwołać się do dwóch podstawowych możliwych podejść je określających. Bardziej praktyczne, również z perspektywy niniejszych rozważań, wydają się
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2011, Vol 4 (4)
międzynarodowych aktach prawnych dotyczących dziedzictwa kulturowego oraz – w węższym znaczeniu – zabytków materialnych. W uważanej do dziś za kanoniczny dokument międzynarodowy w dziedzinie konserwacji Karcie Weneckiej stwierdzono, że Art. 1 „Pojęcie zabytku obejmuje zarówno odosobnione dzieło architektoniczne, jak też zespoły miejskie i wiejskie oraz miejsca, będące świadectwem poszczególnych cywilizacji, ewolucji o doniosłym znaczeniu bądź wydarzenia historycznego. Rozciąga się ono nie tylko na wielkie dzieła, ale również na skromne obiekty, które z upływem czasu nabrały znaczenia kulturalnego. Art. 7. Zabytek jest nierozdzielny od historii, której jest świadectwem i od otoczenia, w którym jest położony (…). Art. 8. Elementy malarskie, rzeźbiarskie lub zdobnicze (…) stanowią nieodłączną część zabytku (…). Art. 11 Wartościowy wkład każdej epoki do dziejów budowy zabytku powinien zostać uszanowany” [Karta Wenecka 1996, s. 19–28]. Uchwalona w niespełna dekadę później konwencja UNESCO dotycząca światowego dziedzictwa kulturalnego i naturalnego (tzw. Konwencja Paryska) operuje już pojęciem „dziedzictwa kulturowego” oraz „dziedzictwa naturalnego”. Za dziedzictwo kulturowe uznane są: MM zabytki: dzieła architektury, dzieła monumentalnej rzeźby i malarstwa, elementy i budowle o charakterze archeologicznym, napisy, groty i zgrupowania tych elementów, mające wyjątkową powszechną wartość z punktu widzenia historii, sztuki lub nauki, MM zespoły: budowli oddzielnych lub łącznych, które ze względu na swą architekturę, jednolitość lub zespolenie z krajobrazem mają wyjątkową powszechną wartość z punktu widzenia historii, sztuki lub nauki, MM miejsca zabytkowe: dzieła człowieka lub wspólne dzieła człowieka i przyrody, jak również strefy, a także stanowiska archeologiczne, mające wyjątkową powszechną wartość z punktu widzenia historycznego, estetycznego, etnologicznego lub antropologicznego [Konwencja Paryska 1996, art. 1]. Trzeba także wspomnieć o często stosowanym synonimicznie zarówno z pojęciem zabytku, jak i dziedzictwa kulturowego określeniu „dobro kultury”, które zostało zastosowane w Konwencji o ochronie dóbr kulturalnych w razie konfliktu zbrojnego podpisanej w Hadze w 1954 roku i zdefiniowane jako:
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2011, Vol 4 (4)
a. „dobra ruchome lub nieruchome, które posiadają wielką wagę dla dziedzictwa kulturalnego narodu, na przykład zabytki architektury, sztuki lub historii, zarówno religijne, jak świeckie; stanowiska archeologiczne; zespoły budowlane posiadające jako takie znaczenie historyczne lub artystyczne; dzieła sztuki, rękopisy, książki i inne przedmioty o znaczeniu artystycznym, historycznym lub archeologicznym, jak również zbiory naukowe i poważne zbiory książek, archiwaliów lub reprodukcji wyżej określonych dóbr; b. gmachy, których zasadniczym i stosowanym w praktyce przeznaczeniem jest przechowywanie lub wystawianie dóbr kulturalnych ruchomych, określonych pod lit. a), na przykład muzea, wielkie biblioteki, składnice archiwalne (…); c. ośrodki obejmujące znaczną ilość dóbr kulturalnych określonych pod lit. a) i b), zwane w dalszym ciągu „ośrodkami zabytkowymi”. [Konwencja o ochronie… 1957] Rosnąca świadomość, iż godne rozpoznania i ochrony jest także niematerialne dziedzictwo kulturowe, doprowadziła natomiast do uchwalenia przez UNESCO w 2003 roku Konwencji w sprawie ochrony niematerialnego dziedzictwa kulturowego. W myśl Konwencji: 1. „Niematerialne dziedzictwo kulturowe” oznacza zwyczajowe działania, refleksje, ekspresje, wiedzę oraz umiejętności, które społeczności, grupy, a w pewnych przypadkach jednostki, rozpoznają jako część swego dziedzictwa kulturowego. To niematerialne dziedzictwo kulturowe, przekazywane z pokolenia na pokolenie, jest ciągle odtwarzane przez społeczności i grupy w odpowiedzi na ich otoczenie, interakcję z naturą i własną historią, daje im poczucie tożsamości i ciągłości historycznej, w ten sposób promując szacunek dla różnorodności i kreatywności ludzkiej (…); 2. „Niematerialne dziedzictwo kulturowe” (…) jest manifestowane między innymi w następujących dziedzinach: a. ustne tradycje i środki wyrazu, w tym język, przekaźnik niematerialnego dziedzictwa kulturowego; b. sztuki performatywne (sceniczne); c. praktyki społeczne, rytuały, wydarzenia związane ze świętowaniem; d. wiedza i zwyczajowe działania w odniesieniu do natury i świata; e. tradycyjne rzemiosło [Convention for the safeguarding… 2003, dok. elektr.]. W ujęciu przedmiotowym, współcześnie rozumiane dziedzictwo kulturowe jest więc czymś, co obiektywnie istnieje, mając swój materialny lub
207
międzynarodowych aktach prawnych dotyczących dziedzictwa kulturowego oraz – w węższym znaczeniu – zabytków materialnych. W uważanej do dziś za kanoniczny dokument międzynarodowy w dziedzinie konserwacji Karcie Weneckiej stwierdzono, że Art. 1 „Pojęcie zabytku obejmuje zarówno odosobnione dzieło architektoniczne, jak też zespoły miejskie i wiejskie oraz miejsca, będące świadectwem poszczególnych cywilizacji, ewolucji o doniosłym znaczeniu bądź wydarzenia historycznego. Rozciąga się ono nie tylko na wielkie dzieła, ale również na skromne obiekty, które z upływem czasu nabrały znaczenia kulturalnego. Art. 7. Zabytek jest nierozdzielny od historii, której jest świadectwem i od otoczenia, w którym jest położony (…). Art. 8. Elementy malarskie, rzeźbiarskie lub zdobnicze (…) stanowią nieodłączną część zabytku (…). Art. 11 Wartościowy wkład każdej epoki do dziejów budowy zabytku powinien zostać uszanowany” [Karta Wenecka 1996, s. 19–28]. Uchwalona w niespełna dekadę później konwencja UNESCO dotycząca światowego dziedzictwa kulturalnego i naturalnego (tzw. Konwencja Paryska) operuje już pojęciem „dziedzictwa kulturowego” oraz „dziedzictwa naturalnego”. Za dziedzictwo kulturowe uznane są: MM zabytki: dzieła architektury, dzieła monumentalnej rzeźby i malarstwa, elementy i budowle o charakterze archeologicznym, napisy, groty i zgrupowania tych elementów, mające wyjątkową powszechną wartość z punktu widzenia historii, sztuki lub nauki, MM zespoły: budowli oddzielnych lub łącznych, które ze względu na swą architekturę, jednolitość lub zespolenie z krajobrazem mają wyjątkową powszechną wartość z punktu widzenia historii, sztuki lub nauki, MM miejsca zabytkowe: dzieła człowieka lub wspólne dzieła człowieka i przyrody, jak również strefy, a także stanowiska archeologiczne, mające wyjątkową powszechną wartość z punktu widzenia historycznego, estetycznego, etnologicznego lub antropologicznego [Konwencja Paryska 1996, art. 1]. Trzeba także wspomnieć o często stosowanym synonimicznie zarówno z pojęciem zabytku, jak i dziedzictwa kulturowego określeniu „dobro kultury”, które zostało zastosowane w Konwencji o ochronie dóbr kulturalnych w razie konfliktu zbrojnego podpisanej w Hadze w 1954 roku i zdefiniowane jako:
207
a. „dobra ruchome lub nieruchome, które posiadają wielką wagę dla dziedzictwa kulturalnego narodu, na przykład zabytki architektury, sztuki lub historii, zarówno religijne, jak świeckie; stanowiska archeologiczne; zespoły budowlane posiadające jako takie znaczenie historyczne lub artystyczne; dzieła sztuki, rękopisy, książki i inne przedmioty o znaczeniu artystycznym, historycznym lub archeologicznym, jak również zbiory naukowe i poważne zbiory książek, archiwaliów lub reprodukcji wyżej określonych dóbr; b. gmachy, których zasadniczym i stosowanym w praktyce przeznaczeniem jest przechowywanie lub wystawianie dóbr kulturalnych ruchomych, określonych pod lit. a), na przykład muzea, wielkie biblioteki, składnice archiwalne (…); c. ośrodki obejmujące znaczną ilość dóbr kulturalnych określonych pod lit. a) i b), zwane w dalszym ciągu „ośrodkami zabytkowymi”. [Konwencja o ochronie… 1957] Rosnąca świadomość, iż godne rozpoznania i ochrony jest także niematerialne dziedzictwo kulturowe, doprowadziła natomiast do uchwalenia przez UNESCO w 2003 roku Konwencji w sprawie ochrony niematerialnego dziedzictwa kulturowego. W myśl Konwencji: 1. „Niematerialne dziedzictwo kulturowe” oznacza zwyczajowe działania, refleksje, ekspresje, wiedzę oraz umiejętności, które społeczności, grupy, a w pewnych przypadkach jednostki, rozpoznają jako część swego dziedzictwa kulturowego. To niematerialne dziedzictwo kulturowe, przekazywane z pokolenia na pokolenie, jest ciągle odtwarzane przez społeczności i grupy w odpowiedzi na ich otoczenie, interakcję z naturą i własną historią, daje im poczucie tożsamości i ciągłości historycznej, w ten sposób promując szacunek dla różnorodności i kreatywności ludzkiej (…); 2. „Niematerialne dziedzictwo kulturowe” (…) jest manifestowane między innymi w następujących dziedzinach: a. ustne tradycje i środki wyrazu, w tym język, przekaźnik niematerialnego dziedzictwa kulturowego; b. sztuki performatywne (sceniczne); c. praktyki społeczne, rytuały, wydarzenia związane ze świętowaniem; d. wiedza i zwyczajowe działania w odniesieniu do natury i świata; e. tradycyjne rzemiosło [Convention for the safeguarding… 2003, dok. elektr.]. W ujęciu przedmiotowym, współcześnie rozumiane dziedzictwo kulturowe jest więc czymś, co obiektywnie istnieje, mając swój materialny lub
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2011, Vol 4 (4) Zarządzanie Kulturą 2011, Vol 4 (4)
zwiększającą użyteczność odczuwaną przez konsumentów, w której historyczne budynki i artefakty są „nadkładem” (input)” [Peacock 2008, s. 195]. To konsument jest „producentem” swej własnej użyteczności z możliwością substytucji pomiędzy „nakładami” dziedzictwa. Istotą dziedzictwa w drugim ujęciu jest więc jego selektywność, niematerialność, dyskursywność oraz zmienność, a także powiązanie z tożsamością i spełnianiem współczesnych funkcji. Wykorzystanie przeszłości (tj. tego, co pozostawiły po sobie wcześniejsze pokolenia) dla współczesnych celów przesądza o tym, czy istotnie jest ona dziedzictwem, a więc czy jakieś podmioty chcą ją dziedziczyć tj. wykorzystywać dla współczesnych celów i realizacji współczesnych potrzeb. W przypadku dziedzictwa ma miejsce „stałe potwierdzanie na nowo wartości poprzez wykorzystanie” [Prott 2005, s. 225–248]. Proces tworzenia i przekształcania obiektów i skojarzeń z przeszłości w dziedzictwo (ich „stawania się” dziedzictwem) określa się mianem „heritagizacji” (heritagisation) [Berndix 2009; Harvey 2001; Smith, Akagawa 2009, s. 1–9]. Ze względu na wielość producentów i konsumentów dziedzictwa oraz spełnianie przez nie różnorodnych, nakładających się na siebie funkcji (politycznych, społecznych, ekonomicznych), wielu autorów wskazuje także na to, że każde miejsce nie posiada jednego dziedzictwa, lecz podobnie jak to bywa z tożsamościami, może posiadać wiele dziedzictw, pozostających ze sobą w symbiozie, rywalizacji lub konflikcie [Graham, Howard 2008]. Jednocześnie w tym ujęciu dziedzictwem nie są wszystkie „pozostałości” przeszłości na danym terenie, ale te, które posiadają znaczenie, spełniają pewne funkcje dla współcześnie żyjących tam ludzi. Nie wszystkie składniki spuścizny przeszłości są współcześnie akceptowane, a co za tym idzie przydatne w danym kontekście politycznym, ekonomicznym, społecznym czy kulturowym. Zastanawiając się nad współczesną rolą i funkcjami dziedzictwa trzeba zatem wprowadzić rozróżnienie pomiędzy dziedzictwem akceptowanym, a tzw. niechcianym, nieuznawanym, „powodującym dysonans” dziedzictwem (dissonant heritage), które nie ma lub któremu trudno jest znaleźć dziedziców12.
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niematerialny wyraz. Może być definiowane i rozpoznawane instytucjonalnie, np. poprzez oficjalne umieszczenie w wykazie czy rejestrze zabytków (na szczeblu lokalnym regionalnym lub wyższym) lub nieformalnie, przez specjalistów, lecz także zwykłych obywateli, którzy uważają, że powinno być zachowane i chronione [Benhamou 2003, s. 255–262]. Natomiast w drugim ujęciu, które możemy nazwać procesowym lub podmiotowym, dziedzictwo jest wytwarzane, „nie istnieje [lecz], jest tworzone” [Bendix 2009, s. 255]. Jest konstruktem społecznym i politycznym. Z przeszłości wybiera się, selekcjonuje fragmenty, którym przydaje się istotność oraz wartość (społeczną, ekonomiczną). L. Smith definiuje dziedzictwo jako „akt komunikacji i tworzenia znaczeń” oraz „proces kulturowy i społeczny” [Smith 2006, s. 2; por. Harvey 2001, s. 326]. Według niej „koncepcja dziedzictwa nie odnosi się do materialnych obiektów, lecz do kulturowego i społecznego procesu, który łączy się z aktami pamiętania, podejmowanymi w celu (…) zrozumienia i zaangażowania się w teraźniejszość.” Określenie to powinno więc być raczej używane jako czasownik niż rzeczownik. Ta sama autorka stwierdza także, iż dziedzictwo jest „dyskursem związanym z negocjacją i regulacją społecznych znaczeń i praktyk związanych z tworzeniem i odtwarzaniem tożsamości” [Smith 2006, s. 5]. D. Harvey także widzi dziedzictwo jako proces definiowania tożsamości tj. potwierdzania odmienności od innych grup lub jednostek czy też legitymizacji władzy [Harvey 2001]. Podobnie B. Graham i P. Howard stwierdzają, iż materialne miejsca dziedzictwa mogą być tylko „pustymi skorupami o wątpliwej autentyczności, lecz ich znaczenie jest pochodną idei i wartości, które są poprzez nie przekazywane” [Graham, Howard 2008, s. 4]. Jeszcze inaczej kwestię dziedzictwa ujmuje B. Kirshenblatt-Gimblett. Według niej „dziedzictwo jest nową formą produkcji kulturowej w teraźniejszości, która wspiera się na przeszłości” [Kirshenblatt-Gimblett 1995, s. 369]. Jest czymś więcej niż pokazywaniem przeszłości, bowiem przetwarza ją i tworzy w oparciu o nią nowe jakości. A. Peacock zaproponował natomiast spojrzenie na dziedzictwo z perspektywy G. Beckera11 tj. jako na „niematerialną usługę
12 Np. materialne dziedzictwo grup etnicznych, które nie zamieszkują już danego obszaru, dziedzictwo związane z tragicznymi wydarzeniami historycznymi, czystkami etnicznymi, ludobójstwem, etc. Por. J. E. Tunbridge, G. J. Ashworth, Dissonant heritage: the management of the past as a resource in conflict, Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, 1996; W. Logan, K. Reeves (red.), Places of pain and shame. Dealing with ‘difficult heritage’, London: Routledge, 2009.
11 Nb. Laureat Nagrody Nobla w dziedzinie ekonomii w 1992 r.
11 Nb. Laureat Nagrody Nobla w dziedzinie ekonomii w 1992 r.
12 Np. materialne dziedzictwo grup etnicznych, które nie zamieszkują już danego obszaru, dziedzictwo związane z tragicznymi wydarzeniami historycznymi, czystkami etnicznymi, ludobójstwem, etc. Por. J. E. Tunbridge, G. J. Ashworth, Dissonant heritage: the management of the past as a resource in conflict, Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, 1996; W. Logan, K. Reeves (red.), Places of pain and shame. Dealing with ‘difficult heritage’, London: Routledge, 2009.
zwiększającą użyteczność odczuwaną przez konsumentów, w której historyczne budynki i artefakty są „nadkładem” (input)” [Peacock 2008, s. 195]. To konsument jest „producentem” swej własnej użyteczności z możliwością substytucji pomiędzy „nakładami” dziedzictwa. Istotą dziedzictwa w drugim ujęciu jest więc jego selektywność, niematerialność, dyskursywność oraz zmienność, a także powiązanie z tożsamością i spełnianiem współczesnych funkcji. Wykorzystanie przeszłości (tj. tego, co pozostawiły po sobie wcześniejsze pokolenia) dla współczesnych celów przesądza o tym, czy istotnie jest ona dziedzictwem, a więc czy jakieś podmioty chcą ją dziedziczyć tj. wykorzystywać dla współczesnych celów i realizacji współczesnych potrzeb. W przypadku dziedzictwa ma miejsce „stałe potwierdzanie na nowo wartości poprzez wykorzystanie” [Prott 2005, s. 225–248]. Proces tworzenia i przekształcania obiektów i skojarzeń z przeszłości w dziedzictwo (ich „stawania się” dziedzictwem) określa się mianem „heritagizacji” (heritagisation) [Berndix 2009; Harvey 2001; Smith, Akagawa 2009, s. 1–9]. Ze względu na wielość producentów i konsumentów dziedzictwa oraz spełnianie przez nie różnorodnych, nakładających się na siebie funkcji (politycznych, społecznych, ekonomicznych), wielu autorów wskazuje także na to, że każde miejsce nie posiada jednego dziedzictwa, lecz podobnie jak to bywa z tożsamościami, może posiadać wiele dziedzictw, pozostających ze sobą w symbiozie, rywalizacji lub konflikcie [Graham, Howard 2008]. Jednocześnie w tym ujęciu dziedzictwem nie są wszystkie „pozostałości” przeszłości na danym terenie, ale te, które posiadają znaczenie, spełniają pewne funkcje dla współcześnie żyjących tam ludzi. Nie wszystkie składniki spuścizny przeszłości są współcześnie akceptowane, a co za tym idzie przydatne w danym kontekście politycznym, ekonomicznym, społecznym czy kulturowym. Zastanawiając się nad współczesną rolą i funkcjami dziedzictwa trzeba zatem wprowadzić rozróżnienie pomiędzy dziedzictwem akceptowanym, a tzw. niechcianym, nieuznawanym, „powodującym dysonans” dziedzictwem (dissonant heritage), które nie ma lub któremu trudno jest znaleźć dziedziców12.
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niematerialny wyraz. Może być definiowane i rozpoznawane instytucjonalnie, np. poprzez oficjalne umieszczenie w wykazie czy rejestrze zabytków (na szczeblu lokalnym regionalnym lub wyższym) lub nieformalnie, przez specjalistów, lecz także zwykłych obywateli, którzy uważają, że powinno być zachowane i chronione [Benhamou 2003, s. 255–262]. Natomiast w drugim ujęciu, które możemy nazwać procesowym lub podmiotowym, dziedzictwo jest wytwarzane, „nie istnieje [lecz], jest tworzone” [Bendix 2009, s. 255]. Jest konstruktem społecznym i politycznym. Z przeszłości wybiera się, selekcjonuje fragmenty, którym przydaje się istotność oraz wartość (społeczną, ekonomiczną). L. Smith definiuje dziedzictwo jako „akt komunikacji i tworzenia znaczeń” oraz „proces kulturowy i społeczny” [Smith 2006, s. 2; por. Harvey 2001, s. 326]. Według niej „koncepcja dziedzictwa nie odnosi się do materialnych obiektów, lecz do kulturowego i społecznego procesu, który łączy się z aktami pamiętania, podejmowanymi w celu (…) zrozumienia i zaangażowania się w teraźniejszość.” Określenie to powinno więc być raczej używane jako czasownik niż rzeczownik. Ta sama autorka stwierdza także, iż dziedzictwo jest „dyskursem związanym z negocjacją i regulacją społecznych znaczeń i praktyk związanych z tworzeniem i odtwarzaniem tożsamości” [Smith 2006, s. 5]. D. Harvey także widzi dziedzictwo jako proces definiowania tożsamości tj. potwierdzania odmienności od innych grup lub jednostek czy też legitymizacji władzy [Harvey 2001]. Podobnie B. Graham i P. Howard stwierdzają, iż materialne miejsca dziedzictwa mogą być tylko „pustymi skorupami o wątpliwej autentyczności, lecz ich znaczenie jest pochodną idei i wartości, które są poprzez nie przekazywane” [Graham, Howard 2008, s. 4]. Jeszcze inaczej kwestię dziedzictwa ujmuje B. Kirshenblatt-Gimblett. Według niej „dziedzictwo jest nową formą produkcji kulturowej w teraźniejszości, która wspiera się na przeszłości” [Kirshenblatt-Gimblett 1995, s. 369]. Jest czymś więcej niż pokazywaniem przeszłości, bowiem przetwarza ją i tworzy w oparciu o nią nowe jakości. A. Peacock zaproponował natomiast spojrzenie na dziedzictwo z perspektywy G. Beckera11 tj. jako na „niematerialną usługę
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Wielodyscyplinarne spojrzenie na wartości dziedzictwa kulturowego Współczesne wielodyscyplinarne i całościowe spojrzenie na dziedzictwo kulturowe prowadzi także do rozpoznania wielości wartości, jakimi może się charakteryzować, obejmujących zarówno wartości kulturowe, jak i ekonomiczne. Na wartość kulturową dziedzictwa składają się m. in.: różnorodne wartości artystyczne, estetyczne, historyczne, naukowe, duchowe oraz społeczne (patriotyzmu, swojskości, bycia u siebie, poczucie wspólnoty lokalnej, tożsamościowe, itp.) [Pawłowska 2002, s. 43–61]. Z perspektywy ekonomii, korzyści z zachowania i wykorzystania danego obiektu, zespołu, funkcji dziedzictwa czy też danego przedsięwzięcia związanego z dziedzictwem, mogą być podzielone pomiędzy wartości użytkowe i pozaużytkowe [Hutter, Rizzo 1997; Throsby 2001; Ready red., Navrud red. 2002; Peacock, Rizzo 2008; Avrami, Mason, Torre de la 2000; Cuccia, Signorello 2002, s. 119–146]. Wartości użytkowe dotyczą wszystkich dóbr i usług, jakie bezpośrednio generuje dane miejsce, obiekt czy przedsięwzięcie związane z dziedzictwem kulturowym, które najczęściej wyrazić można poprzez cenę (np. wstępu do obiektu zabytkowego czy noclegu w obiekcie zabytkowym, cena nieruchomości zabytkowej, cena dzieła sztuki nabytego w galerii sztuki lub koszty poniesione w celu uzyskania dostępu do dziedzictwa np. koszt dojazdu do danego obiektu czy miejsca). Oprócz wartości użytkowych, niemniej istotne, zarówno dla zbiorowości ludzkich, jak i pojedynczych osób, są jednak najczęściej wartości pozaużytkowe takie jak: docenienie samego faktu istnienia pewnych obiektów czy tradycji (wartość istnienia), wartość przydawana możliwości ich doświadczania lub odwiedzania w nieokreślonej przyszłości (wartość opcyjna) oraz satysfakcja z możliwości przekazania dziedzictwa przyszłym pokoleniom (wartość spuścizny). Podejmując przedsięwzięcia związane z dziedzictwem często wspomina się zatem nie tylko o ich użyteczności dla współczesnych pokoleń, ale i niezbędności ich zachowania dla potomnych. Wspomniane wartości wiążą się także z istotnymi dylematami etycznymi dotyczącymi współczesnego wykorzystywania dziedzictwa m. in. charakteru dóbr publicznych, jaki posiada wiele składników dziedzictwa [Murzyn-Kupisz 2011] oraz kwestią zrównoważonego nim gospodarowania z punktu widzenia przekazania go w dobrym stanie przyszłym pokoleniom i nie uszczuplenia zasobu przez nieodpowiedzialną, nadmierną
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współczesną konsumpcję tj. respektowanie tzw. zasady równości międzypokoleniowej. Drugą istotną kwestią jest zachowanie równości współczesnego dostępu do dóbr i usług dziedzictwa wszystkich członków danej zbiorowości – lokalnej, narodowej itp., tj. respektowanie zasady tzw. równości wewnątrzpokoleniowej [Ciccia, Signorello 2002, s. 120; Throsby 2001, s. 85–86]. Szerokie spektrum podmiotów oddziałujących na zarządzanie dziedzictwem kulturowym Inną bardzo istotną kwestią jest rozpoznanie wielości interesariuszy procesu wykorzystywania dziedzictwa – podmiotów, które wpływają na dziedzictwo kulturowe i różnorodności ich oczekiwań wobec tego czy, w jakim celu i w jaki sposób może ono być przekształcane, wykorzystywane i interpretowane dla rozmaitych współczesnych potrzeb komercyjnych, społecznych, politycznych czy kulturalnych [Graham, Ashworth, Tubridge 2002]. P. Howard wyróżnia sześć zasadniczych grup podmiotów wpływających na dziedzictwo zarówno jako producenci, jak i konsumenci. Są to: właściciele dziedzictwa, tzw. „tutejsi” lub „wtajemniczeni” (insiders) blisko związani emocjonalnie i geograficznie z miejscem (mieszkańcy obiektów i miejsc zabytkowych, szeroko rozumiana społeczność lokalna, lokalni entuzjaści i miłośnicy dziedzictwa), „obcy” (outsiders) czasowo doświadczający danego dziedzictwa (np. turyści, pielgrzymi), naukowcy, władze publiczne różnego szczebla oraz media [Howard 2003, s. 104]. K. Pawłowska i M. Swaryczewska patrząc z podobnej perspektywy, wymieniają dwie podstawowe grupy tj. społeczność lokalną oraz przybyszów. W pierwszej grupie znajdują się mieszkańcy, właściciele i gospodarze, lokalni patrioci oraz przedsiębiorcy, w drugiej natomiast miłośnicy, turyści oraz specjaliści. Łącznikiem pomiędzy nimi mogą być lokalni przywódcy i władze lokalne [Pawłowska, Swaryczewska 2002, s. 72]. Opisując popyt na dziedzictwo, G. Piccinato także wyróżnia dwie główne grupy konsumentów dziedzictwa tj. stałych mieszkańców oraz ludność napływową – użytkowników czerpiących korzyści z historycznego miejsca – usługodawców, turystów, miłośników i specjalistów [Piccinato 2002, s. 19]. G. J. Ashworth dzieli natomiast użytkowników dziedzictwa na celowych i przypadkowych. Przykładowo, korzystającym z dziedzictwa historycznego miasta może być przypadkowy odwiedzający spoza regionu, przybyły do miasta w celu poznania jego zabytków turysta, mieszkaniec doświadczający dziedzictwa „mimochodem” w codziennym życiu lub też lokalny przedsiębiorca traktujący dzie-
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Wielodyscyplinarne spojrzenie na wartości dziedzictwa kulturowego Współczesne wielodyscyplinarne i całościowe spojrzenie na dziedzictwo kulturowe prowadzi także do rozpoznania wielości wartości, jakimi może się charakteryzować, obejmujących zarówno wartości kulturowe, jak i ekonomiczne. Na wartość kulturową dziedzictwa składają się m. in.: różnorodne wartości artystyczne, estetyczne, historyczne, naukowe, duchowe oraz społeczne (patriotyzmu, swojskości, bycia u siebie, poczucie wspólnoty lokalnej, tożsamościowe, itp.) [Pawłowska 2002, s. 43–61]. Z perspektywy ekonomii, korzyści z zachowania i wykorzystania danego obiektu, zespołu, funkcji dziedzictwa czy też danego przedsięwzięcia związanego z dziedzictwem, mogą być podzielone pomiędzy wartości użytkowe i pozaużytkowe [Hutter, Rizzo 1997; Throsby 2001; Ready red., Navrud red. 2002; Peacock, Rizzo 2008; Avrami, Mason, Torre de la 2000; Cuccia, Signorello 2002, s. 119–146]. Wartości użytkowe dotyczą wszystkich dóbr i usług, jakie bezpośrednio generuje dane miejsce, obiekt czy przedsięwzięcie związane z dziedzictwem kulturowym, które najczęściej wyrazić można poprzez cenę (np. wstępu do obiektu zabytkowego czy noclegu w obiekcie zabytkowym, cena nieruchomości zabytkowej, cena dzieła sztuki nabytego w galerii sztuki lub koszty poniesione w celu uzyskania dostępu do dziedzictwa np. koszt dojazdu do danego obiektu czy miejsca). Oprócz wartości użytkowych, niemniej istotne, zarówno dla zbiorowości ludzkich, jak i pojedynczych osób, są jednak najczęściej wartości pozaużytkowe takie jak: docenienie samego faktu istnienia pewnych obiektów czy tradycji (wartość istnienia), wartość przydawana możliwości ich doświadczania lub odwiedzania w nieokreślonej przyszłości (wartość opcyjna) oraz satysfakcja z możliwości przekazania dziedzictwa przyszłym pokoleniom (wartość spuścizny). Podejmując przedsięwzięcia związane z dziedzictwem często wspomina się zatem nie tylko o ich użyteczności dla współczesnych pokoleń, ale i niezbędności ich zachowania dla potomnych. Wspomniane wartości wiążą się także z istotnymi dylematami etycznymi dotyczącymi współczesnego wykorzystywania dziedzictwa m. in. charakteru dóbr publicznych, jaki posiada wiele składników dziedzictwa [Murzyn-Kupisz 2011] oraz kwestią zrównoważonego nim gospodarowania z punktu widzenia przekazania go w dobrym stanie przyszłym pokoleniom i nie uszczuplenia zasobu przez nieodpowiedzialną, nadmierną
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współczesną konsumpcję tj. respektowanie tzw. zasady równości międzypokoleniowej. Drugą istotną kwestią jest zachowanie równości współczesnego dostępu do dóbr i usług dziedzictwa wszystkich członków danej zbiorowości – lokalnej, narodowej itp., tj. respektowanie zasady tzw. równości wewnątrzpokoleniowej [Ciccia, Signorello 2002, s. 120; Throsby 2001, s. 85–86]. Szerokie spektrum podmiotów oddziałujących na zarządzanie dziedzictwem kulturowym Inną bardzo istotną kwestią jest rozpoznanie wielości interesariuszy procesu wykorzystywania dziedzictwa – podmiotów, które wpływają na dziedzictwo kulturowe i różnorodności ich oczekiwań wobec tego czy, w jakim celu i w jaki sposób może ono być przekształcane, wykorzystywane i interpretowane dla rozmaitych współczesnych potrzeb komercyjnych, społecznych, politycznych czy kulturalnych [Graham, Ashworth, Tubridge 2002]. P. Howard wyróżnia sześć zasadniczych grup podmiotów wpływających na dziedzictwo zarówno jako producenci, jak i konsumenci. Są to: właściciele dziedzictwa, tzw. „tutejsi” lub „wtajemniczeni” (insiders) blisko związani emocjonalnie i geograficznie z miejscem (mieszkańcy obiektów i miejsc zabytkowych, szeroko rozumiana społeczność lokalna, lokalni entuzjaści i miłośnicy dziedzictwa), „obcy” (outsiders) czasowo doświadczający danego dziedzictwa (np. turyści, pielgrzymi), naukowcy, władze publiczne różnego szczebla oraz media [Howard 2003, s. 104]. K. Pawłowska i M. Swaryczewska patrząc z podobnej perspektywy, wymieniają dwie podstawowe grupy tj. społeczność lokalną oraz przybyszów. W pierwszej grupie znajdują się mieszkańcy, właściciele i gospodarze, lokalni patrioci oraz przedsiębiorcy, w drugiej natomiast miłośnicy, turyści oraz specjaliści. Łącznikiem pomiędzy nimi mogą być lokalni przywódcy i władze lokalne [Pawłowska, Swaryczewska 2002, s. 72]. Opisując popyt na dziedzictwo, G. Piccinato także wyróżnia dwie główne grupy konsumentów dziedzictwa tj. stałych mieszkańców oraz ludność napływową – użytkowników czerpiących korzyści z historycznego miejsca – usługodawców, turystów, miłośników i specjalistów [Piccinato 2002, s. 19]. G. J. Ashworth dzieli natomiast użytkowników dziedzictwa na celowych i przypadkowych. Przykładowo, korzystającym z dziedzictwa historycznego miasta może być przypadkowy odwiedzający spoza regionu, przybyły do miasta w celu poznania jego zabytków turysta, mieszkaniec doświadczający dziedzictwa „mimochodem” w codziennym życiu lub też lokalny przedsiębiorca traktujący dzie-
tożsamości, legitymizacji władzy, budowania postaw patriotycznych, osiągnięcia zysku poprzez sprzedaż komercyjnych dóbr i usług, stworzenia wygodnej przestrzeni prywatnej, podniesienia prestiżu, promocji obszaru, rozrywki czy naukowego poznania. Współczesne funkcje, jakie może spełniać dziedzictwo obejmują zatem m. in. rolę rdzenia lub składnika różnorodnych produktów i usług, zarówno o charakterze komercyjnym, jak i niekomercyjnym, wykorzystywanie dziedzictwa jako tła dla świadczenia różnych usług, przede wszystkim turystycznych oraz kulturalnych oraz ważnego składnika budowania tożsamości i wizerunku miejsc. Wielość możliwych płaszczyzn oddziaływania dziedzictwa na rzeczywistość społeczno-gospodarczą Podobnie jak w przypadku kwestii składników i wartości dziedzictwa, rozpatrując współczesne wykorzystanie dziedzictwa trzeba brać pod uwagę, iż jego oddziaływanie może mieć charakter zarówno ekonomiczny, jak i społeczny. Może być widziane z perspektywy krótko i średnio lub długoterminowej, zawsze jednak w odniesieniu do szerszego społeczno-ekonomicznego kontekstu funkcjonowania dziedzictwa [por. Bowitz, Ibenholt 2009, s. 1–8; McLoughlin red., Kamiński red., Sodagar red. 2006]. Generalnie wyróżnić można zdaniem autorki sześć podstawowych płaszczyzn współczesnego rozpatrywania potencjalnego oddziaływania dziedzictwa na procesy rozwojowe (rys. 2). Po pierwsze, istotne są efekty ekonomiczne, jakie daje dziedzictwo w krótkiej lub średniookresowej perspektywie, takie jak dochody powstające bezpośrednio dzięki działalności związanej z zachowaniem, udostępnianiem i interpretacją dziedzictwa kulturowego, efekty mnożnikowe, w tym utrzymanie i tworzenie miejsc pracy, przychody i wydatki sektora publicznego oraz wpływ na rynek nieruchomości. Po drugie, trzeba wziąć pod uwagę efekty powstające zarówno w krótkiej, jak i w dłuższej perspektywie czasowej związane z potencjałem dziedzictwa, by stanowić wsparcie dla budowania gospodarki opartej na wiedzy i kreatywności, być wykorzystanym jako zasób i przestrzeń edukacyjna, pomagać w budowaniu kapitału społecznego, indywidualnego i zbiorowego kapitału kulturowego oraz stymulować wyobraźnię i kreatywność. Dziedzictwo może być inspiracją dla powstawania oryginalnych, wysokiej jakości produktów w ramach sektorów kreatywnych ale także poza nimi. Za niezwykle istotną płaszczyznę społecznego oddziaływania dziedzictwa uznana jest obecnie
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dzictwo jako źródło zarobkowania [Ashworth 1991, s. 70]. Wreszcie, to samo dziedzictwo może być jednocześnie wykorzystywane do produkcji różnych dóbr i świadczenia różnorodnych usług oraz konsumowane jednocześnie przez różne segmenty rynku. Inny jeszcze sposób patrzenia na podstawowe grupy podmiotów na rynku dziedzictwa to ich podział na sektor publiczny, prywatny oraz pozarządowy. Każdy z nich kieruje się odmiennymi motywacjami oraz celami [por. Murzyn-Kupisz 2010, s. 61–80]. Trzeba również wziąć pod uwagę fakt, iż podmioty te funkcjonują w różnych skalach przestrzennych: lokalnej, regionalnej, krajowej i międzynarodowej w zależności od rodzaju dziedzictwa, jego renomy, statusu prawnego oraz spełnianych funkcji [Howard 2003; Aa van der 2005]. Mogą to być zarówno podmioty, które zobligowane są do angażowania się w zarządzanie dziedzictwem (publiczne instytucje kultury takie jak muzea, archiwa czy biblioteki, władze lokalne i regionalne na mocy ustaw, właściciele dziedzictwa zarządzający swoimi nieruchomościami, instytucje pozarządowe, których głównym celem jest ochrona lub popularyzacja dziedzictwa kulturowego), jak i takie, które w często spontaniczny sposób uczestniczą w zarządzaniu dziedzictwem kulturowym z własnej woli (grupy mieszkańców, nie zorientowane na dziedzictwo organizacje pozarządowe, instytucje i przedsiębiorstwa prywatne, w tym firmy działające w sektorze turystyki). Dziedzictwo może stać się tym samym w równym stopniu polem współpracy, jak i konfliktów [Pawłowska 2008]. Poszczególne podmioty na rynku dziedzictwa charakteryzują się bowiem odmiennym stosunkiem do ważnych aspektów debaty o dziedzictwie, tj. sposobów, możliwości i granic jego wykorzystania oraz interpretacji, m. in. kwestii autentyzmu tkanki, spełnianych funkcji, potrzeby interpretacji dziedzictwa lub też pozostawienia go do samodzielnego odczytywania, uznania za symbol i sacrum lub za profanum, wykorzystywane w codziennym życiu, dla celów komercyjnych czy edukacyjnych, uznania dziedzictwa za prywatne, lokalne lub publiczne. Co za tym idzie, różnią się także spojrzeniem na kwestie udostępniania dziedzictwa, wysokości kosztów owego dostępu i kto winien je ponosić, wreszcie podejściem do kluczowej kwestii, tj. uznania czy dany obiekt lub wartość niematerialna są dziedzictwem czy też nie oraz stopniem jego akceptacji. Wykorzystując dziedzictwo dążą one do realizacji różnych celów np. zachowania
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tożsamości, legitymizacji władzy, budowania postaw patriotycznych, osiągnięcia zysku poprzez sprzedaż komercyjnych dóbr i usług, stworzenia wygodnej przestrzeni prywatnej, podniesienia prestiżu, promocji obszaru, rozrywki czy naukowego poznania. Współczesne funkcje, jakie może spełniać dziedzictwo obejmują zatem m. in. rolę rdzenia lub składnika różnorodnych produktów i usług, zarówno o charakterze komercyjnym, jak i niekomercyjnym, wykorzystywanie dziedzictwa jako tła dla świadczenia różnych usług, przede wszystkim turystycznych oraz kulturalnych oraz ważnego składnika budowania tożsamości i wizerunku miejsc. Wielość możliwych płaszczyzn oddziaływania dziedzictwa na rzeczywistość społeczno-gospodarczą Podobnie jak w przypadku kwestii składników i wartości dziedzictwa, rozpatrując współczesne wykorzystanie dziedzictwa trzeba brać pod uwagę, iż jego oddziaływanie może mieć charakter zarówno ekonomiczny, jak i społeczny. Może być widziane z perspektywy krótko i średnio lub długoterminowej, zawsze jednak w odniesieniu do szerszego społeczno-ekonomicznego kontekstu funkcjonowania dziedzictwa [por. Bowitz, Ibenholt 2009, s. 1–8; McLoughlin red., Kamiński red., Sodagar red. 2006]. Generalnie wyróżnić można zdaniem autorki sześć podstawowych płaszczyzn współczesnego rozpatrywania potencjalnego oddziaływania dziedzictwa na procesy rozwojowe (rys. 2). Po pierwsze, istotne są efekty ekonomiczne, jakie daje dziedzictwo w krótkiej lub średniookresowej perspektywie, takie jak dochody powstające bezpośrednio dzięki działalności związanej z zachowaniem, udostępnianiem i interpretacją dziedzictwa kulturowego, efekty mnożnikowe, w tym utrzymanie i tworzenie miejsc pracy, przychody i wydatki sektora publicznego oraz wpływ na rynek nieruchomości. Po drugie, trzeba wziąć pod uwagę efekty powstające zarówno w krótkiej, jak i w dłuższej perspektywie czasowej związane z potencjałem dziedzictwa, by stanowić wsparcie dla budowania gospodarki opartej na wiedzy i kreatywności, być wykorzystanym jako zasób i przestrzeń edukacyjna, pomagać w budowaniu kapitału społecznego, indywidualnego i zbiorowego kapitału kulturowego oraz stymulować wyobraźnię i kreatywność. Dziedzictwo może być inspiracją dla powstawania oryginalnych, wysokiej jakości produktów w ramach sektorów kreatywnych ale także poza nimi. Za niezwykle istotną płaszczyznę społecznego oddziaływania dziedzictwa uznana jest obecnie
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dzictwo jako źródło zarobkowania [Ashworth 1991, s. 70]. Wreszcie, to samo dziedzictwo może być jednocześnie wykorzystywane do produkcji różnych dóbr i świadczenia różnorodnych usług oraz konsumowane jednocześnie przez różne segmenty rynku. Inny jeszcze sposób patrzenia na podstawowe grupy podmiotów na rynku dziedzictwa to ich podział na sektor publiczny, prywatny oraz pozarządowy. Każdy z nich kieruje się odmiennymi motywacjami oraz celami [por. Murzyn-Kupisz 2010, s. 61–80]. Trzeba również wziąć pod uwagę fakt, iż podmioty te funkcjonują w różnych skalach przestrzennych: lokalnej, regionalnej, krajowej i międzynarodowej w zależności od rodzaju dziedzictwa, jego renomy, statusu prawnego oraz spełnianych funkcji [Howard 2003; Aa van der 2005]. Mogą to być zarówno podmioty, które zobligowane są do angażowania się w zarządzanie dziedzictwem (publiczne instytucje kultury takie jak muzea, archiwa czy biblioteki, władze lokalne i regionalne na mocy ustaw, właściciele dziedzictwa zarządzający swoimi nieruchomościami, instytucje pozarządowe, których głównym celem jest ochrona lub popularyzacja dziedzictwa kulturowego), jak i takie, które w często spontaniczny sposób uczestniczą w zarządzaniu dziedzictwem kulturowym z własnej woli (grupy mieszkańców, nie zorientowane na dziedzictwo organizacje pozarządowe, instytucje i przedsiębiorstwa prywatne, w tym firmy działające w sektorze turystyki). Dziedzictwo może stać się tym samym w równym stopniu polem współpracy, jak i konfliktów [Pawłowska 2008]. Poszczególne podmioty na rynku dziedzictwa charakteryzują się bowiem odmiennym stosunkiem do ważnych aspektów debaty o dziedzictwie, tj. sposobów, możliwości i granic jego wykorzystania oraz interpretacji, m. in. kwestii autentyzmu tkanki, spełnianych funkcji, potrzeby interpretacji dziedzictwa lub też pozostawienia go do samodzielnego odczytywania, uznania za symbol i sacrum lub za profanum, wykorzystywane w codziennym życiu, dla celów komercyjnych czy edukacyjnych, uznania dziedzictwa za prywatne, lokalne lub publiczne. Co za tym idzie, różnią się także spojrzeniem na kwestie udostępniania dziedzictwa, wysokości kosztów owego dostępu i kto winien je ponosić, wreszcie podejściem do kluczowej kwestii, tj. uznania czy dany obiekt lub wartość niematerialna są dziedzictwem czy też nie oraz stopniem jego akceptacji. Wykorzystując dziedzictwo dążą one do realizacji różnych celów np. zachowania
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Rys. 2. Potencjalne płaszczyzny oddziaływania dziedzictwa kulturowego na rozwój społeczno-gospodarczy Efekty ekonomiczne – dochody powstające bezpośrednio dzięki działalności na rzecz zachowania, udostępniania i interpretacji dziedzictwa kulturowego; – efekty mnożnikowe, w tym utrzymanie i tworzenie miejsc pracy; – wspomaganie zmian strukturalnych w gospodarce; – przychody podatkowe sektora publicznego; – rynek nieruchomości.
Budowanie gospodarki opartej na wiedzy i kreatywności: – wykorzystanie dziedzictwa dla potrzeb edukacyjnych; – budowanie indywidulnego kapitału kulturowego, kapitału ludzkiego i potencjału kreatywności; – dziedzictwo jako inspiracja dla produktów i usług tworzonych przez sektory kreatywne; – przyczynia się do powstawania oryginalnych, wysokiej jakości produktów.
Poziom i jakość życia mieszkańców (gminy/regionu): – zaspokojenie potrzeb kulturalnych; – zaspokojenie potrzeb rekreacyjnych; – estetyka przestrzeni; – wpływ na spójność społeczną i tworzenie kapitału społecznego; – tożsamość i duma lokalna.
Płaszczyzny oDdziaływania dziedzictwa kulturowego na rozwój społeczno-gospodarczy
Wizerunek i marka (branding) miejsca: – wśród turystów; – wśród przedsiębiorców i inwestorów; – martketing wewnętrzny (wśród) mieszkańców.
Uwarunkowania ekologiczne obszaru – unikanie rozlewania sie terenów zabudowanych (sprawl), powtórne wykorzystanie obszarów już zagospodarowanych; – liczba użytkowników i ich presja (ruch uliczny; zużycie infrastruktury)
Integralny element procesu rewitalizacji: – tło dla procesów rewitalizacji; – flagowy projekt rewitalizacji, katalizator procesu; – „animacja” funkcjonalna zdegradowanej przestrzeni.
Źródło: opracowanie własne
kwestia poziomu i jakości życia w danym miejscu poprzez zaspokajanie potrzeb kulturalnych i rekreacyjnych, zapewnianie dobrej estetyki przestrzeni, w tym przestrzeni publicznych i życia codziennego, ale także wpływ dziedzictwa na samo-identyfikację i samoocenę, poczucie „bycia u siebie”, łączność międzypokoleniową, dialog społeczny oraz ogólnie budowanie spójności społecznej, tożsamości i dumy lokalnej. Dziedzictwo stanowi także z reguły integralny element strategii rewitalizacji, czy to jako inspiracja i tło dla procesów rewitalizacyjnych, czy też jako flagowy aspekt i katalizator procesu przywracania do życia danego obszaru. Dziedzictwo przesądza często również o wizerunku danego miejsca czy obszaru, zarówno jego atrakcyjności i postrzeganiu przez turystów, jak i inwestorów. Może być też istotnym elementem marketingu wewnętrznego skierowanego do mieszkańców. Wreszcie, wielorakie może być oddziaływanie dziedzictwa na ekologiczne uwarunkowania funkcjonowania danego obszaru. Może ono umożliwiać i inspirować bardziej zrównoważone gospodarowanie
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przestrzenią i zapobieganie rozlewaniu się obszarów zurbanizowanych, ale też powodować nadmierną antropopresję, przyciągając zbyt dużą ilość odwiedzających i zwiększając natężenie ruchu samochodowego.
3. Podsumowanie
P
rzemiany społeczno-ekonomiczne końca XX wieku doprowadziły do zmian w podejściu do pozostałości przeszłości oraz roli jaką pełnią w społeczeństwie (por. tab. 1). Stale poszerza się rozumienie pojęcia dziedzictwa kulturowego, które zaczyna zastępować dotąd używane, węższe i stosowane przede wszystkim w odniesieniu do obiektów architektury oraz ruchomych dzieł sztuki i obiektów archeologicznych, pojęcie zabytku. Zmienia się także skala patrzenia na spuściznę przeszłości, przechodząc od pojedynczych obiektów, budynków czy miejsc do szerszego spojrzenia, obejmującego całe zespoły urbanistyczne lub ruralistyczne, krajo-
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kwestia poziomu i jakości życia w danym miejscu poprzez zaspokajanie potrzeb kulturalnych i rekreacyjnych, zapewnianie dobrej estetyki przestrzeni, w tym przestrzeni publicznych i życia codziennego, ale także wpływ dziedzictwa na samo-identyfikację i samoocenę, poczucie „bycia u siebie”, łączność międzypokoleniową, dialog społeczny oraz ogólnie budowanie spójności społecznej, tożsamości i dumy lokalnej. Dziedzictwo stanowi także z reguły integralny element strategii rewitalizacji, czy to jako inspiracja i tło dla procesów rewitalizacyjnych, czy też jako flagowy aspekt i katalizator procesu przywracania do życia danego obszaru. Dziedzictwo przesądza często również o wizerunku danego miejsca czy obszaru, zarówno jego atrakcyjności i postrzeganiu przez turystów, jak i inwestorów. Może być też istotnym elementem marketingu wewnętrznego skierowanego do mieszkańców. Wreszcie, wielorakie może być oddziaływanie dziedzictwa na ekologiczne uwarunkowania funkcjonowania danego obszaru. Może ono umożliwiać i inspirować bardziej zrównoważone gospodarowanie
rzemiany społeczno-ekonomiczne końca XX wieku doprowadziły do zmian w podejściu do pozostałości przeszłości oraz roli jaką pełnią w społeczeństwie (por. tab. 1). Stale poszerza się rozumienie pojęcia dziedzictwa kulturowego, które zaczyna zastępować dotąd używane, węższe i stosowane przede wszystkim w odniesieniu do obiektów architektury oraz ruchomych dzieł sztuki i obiektów archeologicznych, pojęcie zabytku. Zmienia się także skala patrzenia na spuściznę przeszłości, przechodząc od pojedynczych obiektów, budynków czy miejsc do szerszego spojrzenia, obejmującego całe zespoły urbanistyczne lub ruralistyczne, krajo-
P
3. Podsumowanie przestrzenią i zapobieganie rozlewaniu się obszarów zurbanizowanych, ale też powodować nadmierną antropopresję, przyciągając zbyt dużą ilość odwiedzających i zwiększając natężenie ruchu samochodowego.
Źródło: opracowanie własne Wizerunek i marka (branding) miejsca: – wśród turystów; – wśród przedsiębiorców i inwestorów; – martketing wewnętrzny (wśród) mieszkańców. Budowanie gospodarki opartej na wiedzy i kreatywności: – wykorzystanie dziedzictwa dla potrzeb edukacyjnych; – budowanie indywidulnego kapitału kulturowego, kapitału ludzkiego i potencjału kreatywności; – dziedzictwo jako inspiracja dla produktów i usług tworzonych przez sektory kreatywne; – przyczynia się do powstawania oryginalnych, wysokiej jakości produktów.
Integralny element procesu rewitalizacji: – tło dla procesów rewitalizacji; – flagowy projekt rewitalizacji, katalizator procesu; – „animacja” funkcjonalna zdegradowanej przestrzeni.
Płaszczyzny oDdziaływania dziedzictwa kulturowego na rozwój społeczno-gospodarczy
Efekty ekonomiczne – dochody powstające bezpośrednio dzięki działalności na rzecz zachowania, udostępniania i interpretacji dziedzictwa kulturowego; – efekty mnożnikowe, w tym utrzymanie i tworzenie miejsc pracy; – wspomaganie zmian strukturalnych w gospodarce; – przychody podatkowe sektora publicznego; – rynek nieruchomości.
Uwarunkowania ekologiczne obszaru – unikanie rozlewania sie terenów zabudowanych (sprawl), powtórne wykorzystanie obszarów już zagospodarowanych; – liczba użytkowników i ich presja (ruch uliczny; zużycie infrastruktury)
Poziom i jakość życia mieszkańców (gminy/regionu): – zaspokojenie potrzeb kulturalnych; – zaspokojenie potrzeb rekreacyjnych; – estetyka przestrzeni; – wpływ na spójność społeczną i tworzenie kapitału społecznego; – tożsamość i duma lokalna.
Rys. 2. Potencjalne płaszczyzny oddziaływania dziedzictwa kulturowego na rozwój społeczno-gospodarczy
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płaszczyzny oddziaływania i rola dziedzictwa w społeczeństwie
znaczenie/wartość dziedzictwa definicja dziedzictwa kulturowego
zabytki
stałe poszerzanie zakresu pojęcia, np. o dziedzictwo wernakularne, krajobrazy kulturowe, nacisk na dziedzictwo niematerialne zespoły urbanistyczne/ruralistyczne historyczne środowisko/otoczenie/milieu nie zależy jedynie od wieku obiektu, może obejmować obiekty powstałe w nieodległej przeszłości, np. dziedzictwo industrialne, obiekty powstałe w drugiej połowie XX wieku szerokie spektrum wartości uwarunkowana lokalną (regionalną) specyfiką, wyznacznik lokalnej odrębności odzwierciedla wartości różnych kultur
pojęcie dziedzictwa i przydawane mu wartości wcześniej (nacisk kładziony na):
obecnie (pod uwagę bierze się):
Tab. 1. Trendy w zarządzaniu dziedzictwem kulturowym na przełomie XX i XXI wieku
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pojedyncze budynki miejsca podstawowym wyznacznikiem wiek obiektu (w przypadku dziedzictwa niematerialnego długotrwałość danej tradycji) wąskie spektrum wartości znaczenie dla kultury danego narodu (dziedzictwo narodowe) monokulturowe
212
różnorodności kulturowej oraz szersze korzyści ekonomiczne i społeczne, jakie przynosi dziedzictwo, wpływając np. na jakość życia czy wizerunek i markę miejsca. W klasycznym dziewiętnastowiecznym podejściu do dziedzictwa, podstawowym wyznacznikiem jego istotności było wąskie spektrum
płaszczyzny oddziaływania i rola dziedzictwa w społeczeństwie
brazy kulturowe czy powiązanie materialnych wytworów działalności człowieka z wartościami niematerialnymi. Jakkolwiek nadal niezwykle ważną rolą dziedzictwa jest tworzenie, wzmacnianie i podkreślanie tożsamości narodowej, obecnie w coraz większym stopniu pod uwagę bierze się również konieczność poszanowania
wzmacnianie tożsamości i jedności narodowej
Źródło: opracowano na podstawie S. Helseth, K. Clark, T. Copeland, P. Drury, M. Prytehregh, Forward planning: the functions of cultural heritage in a changing Europe, London: The London Group Discussion Paper for the Council of Europe, draft, 2000. www.arcchip.cz/w01/w01_appendix1.pdf [pobrano 10.12.2010].
szacunek dla różnorodności kulturowej, szacunek dla odrębności lokalnej szerokie korzyści ekonomiczne i społeczne
działania edukacyjne i promocyjne wśród społeczności lokalnej, właścicieli i użytkowników jednostkowe projekty konserwatorskie konserwacja zintegrowana działania oparte o dane miejsce szersze działania strategiczne badania naukowe dotyczące technicznych i techno- badania dotyczące filozofii ochrony, społecznych i ekonomicznych logicznych aspektów ochrony dziedzictwa aspektów dziedzictwa
generowanie przychodów przez odwiedzających
uznanie za zabytek (np. poprzez wpis do rejestru)
podmioty uczestniczące w procesie zarządzania
sposób zarządzania
decyzje
interpretacja odpowiedzialność
podejmowane na wielu poziomach od międzynarodowego po regionalny i lokalny, rozpoznanie wielość podmiotów wpływających na dziedzictwo kulturowe odgórne, autorytarne demokratyzacja procesu podejmowania decyzji, partycypacja, np. społeczności lokalnej/interesariuszy eksperci asystujący przy, ułatwiający i wspomagający proces zarządzania (facilitator) reprezentują pojedynczą dyscyplinę (np. architektu- spojrzenie wielodyscyplinarne ra, archeologia) wiedza historyczna umiejętności menedżerskie wiodąca rola ekspertów wiodąca rola społeczności lokalnej wiodąca rola państwa społeczności lokalne, sektor prywatny/wolnorynkowy sektor ochrony zabytków/kultury sektor ochrony środowiska, przemysłów kultury
rola specjalistów
rola specjalistów
podejmowane na poziomie państwa
podejmowane na poziomie państwa podejmowane na wielu poziomach od międzynarodowego po regionalny i lokalny, rozpoznanie wielość podmiotów wpływających na dziedzictwo kulturowe odgórne, autorytarne demokratyzacja procesu podejmowania decyzji, partycypacja, np. społeczności lokalnej/interesariuszy eksperci asystujący przy, ułatwiający i wspomagający proces zarządzania (facilitator) reprezentują pojedynczą dyscyplinę (np. architektu- spojrzenie wielodyscyplinarne ra, archeologia) wiedza historyczna wiodąca rola ekspertów wiodąca rola państwa
decyzje
interpretacja odpowiedzialność
podmioty uczestniczące w procesie zarządzania
umiejętności menedżerskie wiodąca rola społeczności lokalnej społeczności lokalne, sektor prywatny/wolnorynkowy sektor ochrony środowiska, przemysłów kultury
generowanie przychodów przez odwiedzających
szacunek dla różnorodności kulturowej, szacunek dla odrębności lokalnej szerokie korzyści ekonomiczne i społeczne
sposób zarządzania
wzmacnianie tożsamości i jedności narodowej
sektor ochrony zabytków/kultury
pojedyncze budynki miejsca podstawowym wyznacznikiem wiek obiektu (w przypadku dziedzictwa niematerialnego długotrwałość danej tradycji) wąskie spektrum wartości znaczenie dla kultury danego narodu (dziedzictwo narodowe) monokulturowe
stałe poszerzanie zakresu pojęcia, np. o dziedzictwo wernakularne, krajobrazy kulturowe, nacisk na dziedzictwo niematerialne zespoły urbanistyczne/ruralistyczne historyczne środowisko/otoczenie/milieu nie zależy jedynie od wieku obiektu, może obejmować obiekty powstałe w nieodległej przeszłości, np. dziedzictwo industrialne, obiekty powstałe w drugiej połowie XX wieku szerokie spektrum wartości uwarunkowana lokalną (regionalną) specyfiką, wyznacznik lokalnej odrębności odzwierciedla wartości różnych kultur
uznanie za zabytek (np. poprzez wpis do rejestru)
znaczenie/wartość dziedzictwa
zabytki
działania edukacyjne i promocyjne wśród społeczności lokalnej, właścicieli i użytkowników konserwacja zintegrowana szersze działania strategiczne badania dotyczące filozofii ochrony, społecznych i ekonomicznych aspektów dziedzictwa
definicja dziedzictwa kulturowego
jednostkowe projekty konserwatorskie działania oparte o dane miejsce badania naukowe dotyczące technicznych i technologicznych aspektów ochrony dziedzictwa
pojęcie dziedzictwa i przydawane mu wartości
Źródło: opracowano na podstawie S. Helseth, K. Clark, T. Copeland, P. Drury, M. Prytehregh, Forward planning: the functions of cultural heritage in a changing Europe, London: The London Group Discussion Paper for the Council of Europe, draft, 2000. www.arcchip.cz/w01/w01_appendix1.pdf [pobrano 10.12.2010].
obecnie (pod uwagę bierze się):
różnorodności kulturowej oraz szersze korzyści ekonomiczne i społeczne, jakie przynosi dziedzictwo, wpływając np. na jakość życia czy wizerunek i markę miejsca. W klasycznym dziewiętnastowiecznym podejściu do dziedzictwa, podstawowym wyznacznikiem jego istotności było wąskie spektrum
wcześniej (nacisk kładziony na):
brazy kulturowe czy powiązanie materialnych wytworów działalności człowieka z wartościami niematerialnymi. Jakkolwiek nadal niezwykle ważną rolą dziedzictwa jest tworzenie, wzmacnianie i podkreślanie tożsamości narodowej, obecnie w coraz większym stopniu pod uwagę bierze się również konieczność poszanowania
Tab. 1. Trendy w zarządzaniu dziedzictwem kulturowym na przełomie XX i XXI wieku
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wartości takich jak wiek, wartości estetyczne oraz powiązanie z dziejami danego narodu. Współczesne pojęcie dziedzictwa odwołuje się do szerokiej gamy wartości i rozciąga się na różnorodne obiekty, nie tylko te będące świadectwem działalności artystycznej należącej do tzw. kultury wysokiej czy posiadające wielowiekową metrykę, by wspomnieć tylko o wielkiej modzie na odkrywanie dziedzictwa przemysłowego, dostrzeżenie wyjątkowości architektury modernistycznej XX wieku czy łączenie kwestii ochrony dziedzictwa kulturowego z działaniami na rzecz dziedzictwa naturalnego. Znaczenie dziedzictwa i jego wartość powiązane są zatem obecnie nie tylko z jego znaczeniem dla konkretnej kultury narodowej, ale odnosić się mogą do szerokiego spektrum wartości różnych kultur i różnej skali, np. lokalnej, regionalnej. Szerokie rozumienie dziedzictwa i jego wartości zmienia także rolę, jaką w zarządzaniu dziedzictwem zajmują eksperci. Z podejmujących autorytarne decyzje specjalistów, przede wszystkim w dziedzinie konserwacji, architektury i archeologii, zmieniają się oni w reprezentujących różne dyscypliny mentorów, którzy mają asystować, ukierunkowywać i wspomagać proces zarządzania dziedzictwem (facilitators), przy założeniu, iż decyzje dotyczące dziedzictwa w większym niż dotychczas stopniu podejmowane są demokratycznie przy udziale wielu interesariuszy, przede wszystkim społeczności lokalnej. Trend ten wiąże się także z przeniesieniem środka ciężkości podejmowania wielu związanych z dziedzictwem decyzji z władz centralnych na regionalny lub lokalny szczebel administracji i samorządu [por. Murzyn-Kupisz 2008, s. 155–182]. Podobnie, rozpoznanie i określenie cech szczególnych oraz interpretacja dziedzictwa nie są już tylko domeną administracji państwowej szczebla centralnego. Co za tym idzie, odpowiedzialność za dziedzictwo spoczywa nie tylko na organach państwowych czy administracji publicznej, ale także na społecznościach lokalnych oraz podmiotach prywatnych działających na wolnym rynku. Szukając argumentów ekonomicznych przemawiających za zachowaniem dziedzictwa C. Koboldt zauważa, że „wiele, jeśli nie większość
korzyści [jakie przynosi dziedzictwo] może być osiągana jedynie w trakcie [jego] rzeczywistego wykorzystania” [Koboldt 1997, s. 56]. Podobnie, D. Netzer podkreśla, iż „największym sukcesem (...) w ochronie dziedzictwa jest to, gdy składnik spuścizny kulturowej jest rzeczywiście wykorzystywany” [Netzer 1997, s. 4]. Takie podejście sprawia także, iż zmienia się sposób zarządzania dziedzictwem. Trendem jest odchodzenie od jednostkowych projektów konserwatorskich realizowanych w obiektach odgórnie desygnowanych jako zabytki, na rzecz włączania dziedzictwa, które zostało symbolicznie lub realnie przejęte na własność przez współczesnych dziedziców (właścicieli, społeczności lokalne) w szersze koncepcje rozwoju danego obszaru w ramach tzw. konserwacji zintegrowanej, biorącej pod uwagę nie tylko aspekty artystyczne czy technologiczne, ale także uwarunkowania społeczne oraz ekonomiczne13. Dziedzictwo kulturowe traktowane jest więc coraz częściej jako współczesny zasób, który może spełniać wielość współczesnych funkcji i zastosowań, a udane projekty i przedsięwzięcia związane z dziedzictwem oddziałują zazwyczaj jednocześnie na wiele wymiarów funkcjonowania danej jednostki terytorialnej, wpisując się zarówno w lokalne potrzeby, szanse rozwojowe oraz przynosząc zarówno korzyści ekonomiczne, jak i społeczne, odnoszące się zarówno do dnia dzisiejszego, jak i do przyszłych pokoleń. Wspomniane trendy widoczne i obecne są jednak w różnym stopniu w różnych krajach oraz kontekstach regionalnych i lokalnych. Dziedzictwo może być bowiem potencjalnie dużą, lecz w praktyce niewykorzystaną szansą rozwojową, jeśli jego potencjał (wielość składników i wartości) nie zostanie rozpoznany przez sektor publiczny, prywatny czy pozarządowy lub też, gdy nie potrafią one przełożyć świadomości potencjału dziedzictwa na skuteczne działania. Rozpoznanie i wielość współczesnych zastosowań dziedzictwa często prowadzi natomiast do konfliktów pomiędzy różnymi funkcjami, jakie jednocześnie spełnia, a także, jeśli jest w sposób niezrównoważony wykorzystywane, może prowadzić do zniszczenia lub uszczuplenia, zarówno materialnych, jak i niematerialnych jego składników.
13 Pojęcie konserwacji zintegrowanej w Deklaracji Amsterdamskiej zawierającej postanowienia z Kongresu w sprawie Europejskiego Dziedzictwa Architektonicznego z 1975 r. [w:] K. Pawłowski (red.), Vademecum konserwatora zabytków.Międzynarodowe normy ochrony dziedzictwa kultury, Biuletyn Polskiego Komitetu Narodowego ICOMOS, Warszawa: ICOMOS, 1996, s. 41–48.
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213
13 Pojęcie konserwacji zintegrowanej w Deklaracji Amsterdamskiej zawierającej postanowienia z Kongresu w sprawie Europejskiego Dziedzictwa Architektonicznego z 1975 r. [w:] K. Pawłowski (red.), Vademecum konserwatora zabytków.Międzynarodowe normy ochrony dziedzictwa kultury, Biuletyn Polskiego Komitetu Narodowego ICOMOS, Warszawa: ICOMOS, 1996, s. 41–48.
Szukając argumentów ekonomicznych przemawiających za zachowaniem dziedzictwa C. Koboldt zauważa, że „wiele, jeśli nie większość wartości takich jak wiek, wartości estetyczne oraz powiązanie z dziejami danego narodu. Współczesne pojęcie dziedzictwa odwołuje się do szerokiej gamy wartości i rozciąga się na różnorodne obiekty, nie tylko te będące świadectwem działalności artystycznej należącej do tzw. kultury wysokiej czy posiadające wielowiekową metrykę, by wspomnieć tylko o wielkiej modzie na odkrywanie dziedzictwa przemysłowego, dostrzeżenie wyjątkowości architektury modernistycznej XX wieku czy łączenie kwestii ochrony dziedzictwa kulturowego z działaniami na rzecz dziedzictwa naturalnego. Znaczenie dziedzictwa i jego wartość powiązane są zatem obecnie nie tylko z jego znaczeniem dla konkretnej kultury narodowej, ale odnosić się mogą do szerokiego spektrum wartości różnych kultur i różnej skali, np. lokalnej, regionalnej. Szerokie rozumienie dziedzictwa i jego wartości zmienia także rolę, jaką w zarządzaniu dziedzictwem zajmują eksperci. Z podejmujących autorytarne decyzje specjalistów, przede wszystkim w dziedzinie konserwacji, architektury i archeologii, zmieniają się oni w reprezentujących różne dyscypliny mentorów, którzy mają asystować, ukierunkowywać i wspomagać proces zarządzania dziedzictwem (facilitators), przy założeniu, iż decyzje dotyczące dziedzictwa w większym niż dotychczas stopniu podejmowane są demokratycznie przy udziale wielu interesariuszy, przede wszystkim społeczności lokalnej. Trend ten wiąże się także z przeniesieniem środka ciężkości podejmowania wielu związanych z dziedzictwem decyzji z władz centralnych na regionalny lub lokalny szczebel administracji i samorządu [por. Murzyn-Kupisz 2008, s. 155–182]. Podobnie, rozpoznanie i określenie cech szczególnych oraz interpretacja dziedzictwa nie są już tylko domeną administracji państwowej szczebla centralnego. Co za tym idzie, odpowiedzialność za dziedzictwo spoczywa nie tylko na organach państwowych czy administracji publicznej, ale także na społecznościach lokalnych oraz podmiotach prywatnych działających na wolnym rynku.
korzyści [jakie przynosi dziedzictwo] może być osiągana jedynie w trakcie [jego] rzeczywistego wykorzystania” [Koboldt 1997, s. 56]. Podobnie, D. Netzer podkreśla, iż „największym sukcesem (...) w ochronie dziedzictwa jest to, gdy składnik spuścizny kulturowej jest rzeczywiście wykorzystywany” [Netzer 1997, s. 4]. Takie podejście sprawia także, iż zmienia się sposób zarządzania dziedzictwem. Trendem jest odchodzenie od jednostkowych projektów konserwatorskich realizowanych w obiektach odgórnie desygnowanych jako zabytki, na rzecz włączania dziedzictwa, które zostało symbolicznie lub realnie przejęte na własność przez współczesnych dziedziców (właścicieli, społeczności lokalne) w szersze koncepcje rozwoju danego obszaru w ramach tzw. konserwacji zintegrowanej, biorącej pod uwagę nie tylko aspekty artystyczne czy technologiczne, ale także uwarunkowania społeczne oraz ekonomiczne13. Dziedzictwo kulturowe traktowane jest więc coraz częściej jako współczesny zasób, który może spełniać wielość współczesnych funkcji i zastosowań, a udane projekty i przedsięwzięcia związane z dziedzictwem oddziałują zazwyczaj jednocześnie na wiele wymiarów funkcjonowania danej jednostki terytorialnej, wpisując się zarówno w lokalne potrzeby, szanse rozwojowe oraz przynosząc zarówno korzyści ekonomiczne, jak i społeczne, odnoszące się zarówno do dnia dzisiejszego, jak i do przyszłych pokoleń. Wspomniane trendy widoczne i obecne są jednak w różnym stopniu w różnych krajach oraz kontekstach regionalnych i lokalnych. Dziedzictwo może być bowiem potencjalnie dużą, lecz w praktyce niewykorzystaną szansą rozwojową, jeśli jego potencjał (wielość składników i wartości) nie zostanie rozpoznany przez sektor publiczny, prywatny czy pozarządowy lub też, gdy nie potrafią one przełożyć świadomości potencjału dziedzictwa na skuteczne działania. Rozpoznanie i wielość współczesnych zastosowań dziedzictwa często prowadzi natomiast do konfliktów pomiędzy różnymi funkcjami, jakie jednocześnie spełnia, a także, jeśli jest w sposób niezrównoważony wykorzystywane, może prowadzić do zniszczenia lub uszczuplenia, zarówno materialnych, jak i niematerialnych jego składników.
Bibliografia
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2011, Vol 4 (4)
Karta Wenecka [w:] Vademecum konserwatora zabytków. Międzynarodowe normy ochrony dziedzictwa kultury. Biuletyn Polskiego Komitetu Narodowego ICOMOS, red. K. Pawłowski, Warszawa 1996. Kirejczyk E., Zrozumieć zarządzanie, Warszawa 2008. Kirshenblatt-Gimblett B., Theorizing Heritage, „Ethnomusicology” 1995, nr 3. Koboldt C., Optimising the use of cultural heritage [w:] Economic perspectives on cultural heritage, red. M. Hutter, I. Rizzo, London 1997. Konwencja o ochronie dóbr kulturalnych w razie konfliktu zbrojnego wraz z regulaminem wykonawczym do tej konwencji oraz protokół o ochronie dóbr kulturalnych w razie konfliktu zbrojnego, podpisane w Hadze dnia 14 maja 1954 r., Dz.U. z 1957 r. nr 46, poz. 212, załącznik, 1957. Konwencja w sprawie ochrony światowego dziedzictwa kulturalnego i naturalnego UNESCO, Paryż 1972 [w:] Vademecum konserwatora zabytków. Międzynarodowe normy ochrony dziedzictwa kultury. Biuletyn Polskiego Komitetu Narodowego ICOMOS, red. K. Pawłowski Warszawa 1996. Logan W., Smith L. Foreword [w:] Intangible heritage, red. L. Smith, N. Akagawa, London 2009. Lowenthal D., Natural and cultural heritage, „International Journal of Heritage Studies” 2005, nr 1. Lowenthal D., The heritage crusade and the spoils of history, Cambridge 1998. McLoughlin J., Kamiński J., Sodagar B. red., Heritage Impact 2005. Proceedings of the first international symposium on the socio-economic impact of cultural heritage, Budapest 2006. Murzyn-Kupisz M., Barbarzyńca w ogrodzie? Dziedzictwo kulturowe widziane z perspektywy ekonomii, „Zarządzanie Publiczne”, w druku. Murzyn-Kupisz M., Podmioty na rynku dziedzictwa kulturowego, „Studia Regionalne i Lokalne” 2010, nr 3. Murzyn-Kupisz M., Zarządzanie dziedzictwem kulturowym na początku XXI wieku. Wyzwania stojące przed władzami lokalnymi Krakowa [w:] Barcelona i Kraków. Zmieniające się wizje – wizje zmian, red. J. Purchla, Kraków, 2008. Netzer D., The economic implications of heritage preservation, „The Urban Age” 1997, nr 4. Nieroba E., Czerner A., Szczepański M. S., Flirty tradycji z popkulturą. Dziedzictwo kulturowe w późnej nowoczesności, Warszawa 2010. Pawłowska K., Swaryczewska M., Ochrona dziedzictwa kulturowego. Zarządzanie i partycypacja społeczna, Kraków 2002.
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Karta Wenecka [w:] Vademecum konserwatora zabytków. Międzynarodowe normy ochrony dziedzictwa kultury. Biuletyn Polskiego Komitetu Narodowego ICOMOS, red. K. Pawłowski, Warszawa 1996. Kirejczyk E., Zrozumieć zarządzanie, Warszawa 2008. Kirshenblatt-Gimblett B., Theorizing Heritage, „Ethnomusicology” 1995, nr 3. Koboldt C., Optimising the use of cultural heritage [w:] Economic perspectives on cultural heritage, red. M. Hutter, I. Rizzo, London 1997. Konwencja o ochronie dóbr kulturalnych w razie konfliktu zbrojnego wraz z regulaminem wykonawczym do tej konwencji oraz protokół o ochronie dóbr kulturalnych w razie konfliktu zbrojnego, podpisane w Hadze dnia 14 maja 1954 r., Dz.U. z 1957 r. nr 46, poz. 212, załącznik, 1957. Konwencja w sprawie ochrony światowego dziedzictwa kulturalnego i naturalnego UNESCO, Paryż 1972 [w:] Vademecum konserwatora zabytków. Międzynarodowe normy ochrony dziedzictwa kultury. Biuletyn Polskiego Komitetu Narodowego ICOMOS, red. K. Pawłowski Warszawa 1996. Logan W., Smith L. Foreword [w:] Intangible heritage, red. L. Smith, N. Akagawa, London 2009. Lowenthal D., Natural and cultural heritage, „International Journal of Heritage Studies” 2005, nr 1. Lowenthal D., The heritage crusade and the spoils of history, Cambridge 1998. McLoughlin J., Kamiński J., Sodagar B. red., Heritage Impact 2005. Proceedings of the first international symposium on the socio-economic impact of cultural heritage, Budapest 2006. Murzyn-Kupisz M., Barbarzyńca w ogrodzie? Dziedzictwo kulturowe widziane z perspektywy ekonomii, „Zarządzanie Publiczne”, w druku. Murzyn-Kupisz M., Podmioty na rynku dziedzictwa kulturowego, „Studia Regionalne i Lokalne” 2010, nr 3. Murzyn-Kupisz M., Zarządzanie dziedzictwem kulturowym na początku XXI wieku. Wyzwania stojące przed władzami lokalnymi Krakowa [w:] Barcelona i Kraków. Zmieniające się wizje – wizje zmian, red. J. Purchla, Kraków, 2008. Netzer D., The economic implications of heritage preservation, „The Urban Age” 1997, nr 4. Nieroba E., Czerner A., Szczepański M. S., Flirty tradycji z popkulturą. Dziedzictwo kulturowe w późnej nowoczesności, Warszawa 2010. Pawłowska K., Swaryczewska M., Ochrona dziedzictwa kulturowego. Zarządzanie i partycypacja społeczna, Kraków 2002.
Aa van der B. J. M., Preserving the heritage of humanity? Obtaining World Heritage status and the impacts of listing, Enschede 2005. Ashworth G. J., Heritage planning, Conservation as the management of urban change, Groningen 1991. Avrami E., Mason R., de la Torre M., Values and heritage conservation. Research Report, Los Angeles 2000. Bendix R, Heritage between economy and politics [w:] Intangible heritage, red. L. Smith, N. Akagawa, Lodon 2009. Benhamou F., Heritage, [w:] A handbook of cultural economics, red. R. Towse, Cheltenham 2003. Benhamou F., Is increased public spending for the preservation of historic monuments inevitable? The French case, „Journal of Cultural Economics” 1996, nr 20. Bowitz E., Ibenholt K., Economic impacts of cultural heritage. Research and perspectives, „Journal of Cultural Heritage” 2009, nr 10. Cernea M., Cultural heritage and development. A framework for action in the Middle East and North Africa, Washington 2001. Convention for the safeguarding of the intangible cultural heritage, Paris 2003, http://www.unesco.org/culture/ ich/doc/src/01852-EN.pdf [odczyt: 14.04.2011]. Cuccia T., Signorello G., Methods for measuring the demand for the arts and heritage: theoretical issues [w:] The economics of heritage. A study in the political economy of culture in Sicily, red. I. Rizzo, R. Towse, Cheltenham 2002. Drucker P., Management: tasks, responsibilities, practices, New York 1974. Graham B., Ashworth G. J., Tunbridge J. E., A geography of heritage, London 2002. Graham B., Howard P., Heritage and identity [w:] The Ashgate research companion to heritage and identity, red. B. Graham, P. Howard, Aldershot 2008. Harvey D. C., Heritage pasts and heritage presents: temporality, meaning and the scope of heritage studies, „International Journal of Heritage Studies” 2001, nr 4. Helseth S., Clark K., Copeland T., Drury P., Prytehregh M., Forward planning: the functions of cultural heritage in a changing Europe, London 2002, www.arcchip.cz/ w01/w01_appendix1.pdf [odczyt: 10.12.2010]. Heritage for the future – realizing the economic and social potential of a key asset, Council of Europe Publishing, Strasbourg 2005. Howard P., Heritage, management, interpretation, identity, London-New York 2003. Hutter M., Rizzo I. red., Economic perspectives on cultural heritage, London 1997.
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2011, Vol 4 (4)
Aa van der B. J. M., Preserving the heritage of humanity? Obtaining World Heritage status and the impacts of listing, Enschede 2005. Ashworth G. J., Heritage planning, Conservation as the management of urban change, Groningen 1991. Avrami E., Mason R., de la Torre M., Values and heritage conservation. Research Report, Los Angeles 2000. Bendix R, Heritage between economy and politics [w:] Intangible heritage, red. L. Smith, N. Akagawa, Lodon 2009. Benhamou F., Heritage, [w:] A handbook of cultural economics, red. R. Towse, Cheltenham 2003. Benhamou F., Is increased public spending for the preservation of historic monuments inevitable? The French case, „Journal of Cultural Economics” 1996, nr 20. Bowitz E., Ibenholt K., Economic impacts of cultural heritage. Research and perspectives, „Journal of Cultural Heritage” 2009, nr 10. Cernea M., Cultural heritage and development. A framework for action in the Middle East and North Africa, Washington 2001. Convention for the safeguarding of the intangible cultural heritage, Paris 2003, http://www.unesco.org/culture/ ich/doc/src/01852-EN.pdf [odczyt: 14.04.2011]. Cuccia T., Signorello G., Methods for measuring the demand for the arts and heritage: theoretical issues [w:] The economics of heritage. A study in the political economy of culture in Sicily, red. I. Rizzo, R. Towse, Cheltenham 2002. Drucker P., Management: tasks, responsibilities, practices, New York 1974. Graham B., Ashworth G. J., Tunbridge J. E., A geography of heritage, London 2002. Graham B., Howard P., Heritage and identity [w:] The Ashgate research companion to heritage and identity, red. B. Graham, P. Howard, Aldershot 2008. Harvey D. C., Heritage pasts and heritage presents: temporality, meaning and the scope of heritage studies, „International Journal of Heritage Studies” 2001, nr 4. Helseth S., Clark K., Copeland T., Drury P., Prytehregh M., Forward planning: the functions of cultural heritage in a changing Europe, London 2002, www.arcchip.cz/ w01/w01_appendix1.pdf [odczyt: 10.12.2010]. Heritage for the future – realizing the economic and social potential of a key asset, Council of Europe Publishing, Strasbourg 2005. Howard P., Heritage, management, interpretation, identity, London-New York 2003. Hutter M., Rizzo I. red., Economic perspectives on cultural heritage, London 1997.
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Pawłowska K., Przeciwdziałanie konfliktom wokół ochrony i kształtowania krajobrazu, Kraków 2008. Peacock A., A future to the past: the political economy of heritage, „Proceedings of the British Academy” 1995, nr 87. Peacock A., Rizzo I., The heritage game. Economics, policy and practice, Oxford 2008. Piccinato G., Specjaliści, mieszkańcy, użytkownicy. Ćwiczenia w zgodnym budowaniu [w:] Dziedzictwo a turystyka, red. J. Purchla, Kraków 1999. Prott L., The international movement of cultural objects, „International Journal of Cultural Property” 2005, nr 12.
Ready R. C., Navrud S. red., Valuing cultural heritage. Applying environmental valuation techniques to historic buildings, monuments and artefacts, Cheltenham 2002. Skounti A., The authentic illusion. Humanity’s intangible cultural heritage, the Moroccan experience [w:] Intangible heritage, red. L. Smith, N. Akagawa, London 2009. Smith L., Uses of heritage, London and New York 2006. Throsby D., Economics and culture, Cambridge 2001. Tunbridge J. E., Ashworth G. J., Dissonant heritage: the management of the past as a resource in conflict, Chichester 1996. Ustawa z dn. 23 lipca 2003 r. o ochronie zabytków i opiece nad zabytkami, Dz. U. z 2003 r., nr 162, poz. 1568.
Pawłowska K., Przeciwdziałanie konfliktom wokół ochrony i kształtowania krajobrazu, Kraków 2008. Peacock A., A future to the past: the political economy of heritage, „Proceedings of the British Academy” 1995, nr 87. Peacock A., Rizzo I., The heritage game. Economics, policy and practice, Oxford 2008. Piccinato G., Specjaliści, mieszkańcy, użytkownicy. Ćwiczenia w zgodnym budowaniu [w:] Dziedzictwo a turystyka, red. J. Purchla, Kraków 1999. Prott L., The international movement of cultural objects, „International Journal of Cultural Property” 2005, nr 12. Zarządzanie Kulturą 2011, Vol 4 (4)
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Ready R. C., Navrud S. red., Valuing cultural heritage. Applying environmental valuation techniques to historic buildings, monuments and artefacts, Cheltenham 2002. Skounti A., The authentic illusion. Humanity’s intangible cultural heritage, the Moroccan experience [w:] Intangible heritage, red. L. Smith, N. Akagawa, London 2009. Smith L., Uses of heritage, London and New York 2006. Throsby D., Economics and culture, Cambridge 2001. Tunbridge J. E., Ashworth G. J., Dissonant heritage: the management of the past as a resource in conflict, Chichester 1996. Ustawa z dn. 23 lipca 2003 r. o ochronie zabytków i opiece nad zabytkami, Dz. U. z 2003 r., nr 162, poz. 1568.
Specyfika i znaczenie legend i baśni w rozwoju turystyki kulturowej Małopolski
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2011, Vol 4 (4)
Anna Góral
216
1. Wprowadzenie
egendy są opowieściami przesyconymi przeważnie licznymi elementami fantazji i często obudowane wątkami ludowymi. Jednakże mogą powiedzieć nam o danym wydarzeniu lub miejscu o wiele więcej niż niejeden fakt historyczny. Na terenie Małopolski było i wciąż istnieje wiele legend i baśni. Mimo że większość z nich z biegiem czasu zaginęła lub zatarła się w pamięci ludzkiej te, które zachowały się stanowiąc podstawowy element folkloru lokalnego, wiernie oddają specyfikę regionu. Bajarstwo jest ważnym, ale mało zbadanym elementem folkloru lokalnego, zwłaszcza w kontekście rozwoju turystyki. Często stawianym pytaniem jest czy i w jaki sposób bajarstwo pośredniczy w budowaniu pełnego doświadczenia kulturowego turysty. Badania etnograficzne wskazują, że baśnie i legendy pełnią nie tylko rolę instrumentu, jako socjokulturowego „pośrednika” w procesie odtwarzania oficjalnie usankcjonowanych wyobrażeń i historii miejsc, ale również w sposób plastyczny wpływają na kształtowanie wyobrażeń turysty o celach jego podroży [Krawczyk-Wasilewska 1979]. Jako nośniki kulturowe, baśnie i legendy mogą zarówno stymulować proces kontaktu i poznania między turystą a kulturą lokalną, jak i wpływać na proces zrozumienia lokalnych zwyczajów, obrzędów, sposobu bycia przez zwiedzających. Świadome i efektywne wykorzystanie potencjału kulturowego drzemiącego w baśniach i legendach wymaga jednak zrozumienia ich roli i znaczenia zarówno przez instytucje odpowiedzialne za ochronę i zachowanie ciągłości przekazu lokalnego folkloru jak i te, które opracowują
L
L
i zarządzają strategiami rozwoju regionalnego (przede wszystkim samorząd regionalny i lokalny). Problem wykorzystania baśni i legend do rozwoju kulturowego i turystycznego regionu jest przedmiotem zainteresowania wielu badaczy, obecny zwłaszcza w literaturze zagranicznej [por. Giaccardi 2006, s. 281–294; Kneafsey 2000; Lowenthal 1998]. Publikacje te koncentrują się na roli baśni i legend w lokalnym folklorze oraz narzędziach wykorzystywanych do efektywnego włączenia ich do strategii rozwoju turystyki regionu. Na gruncie polskim problematyka baśni i legend w kontekście stymulowania turystyki regionalnej nie jest obecna. Istnieją liczne publikacje dotyczące wykorzystania folkloru do promocji turystycznej regionu, jednak koncentrują się one głównie na takich zagadnieniach jak: rękodzieło ludowe, kuchnia regionalna, budownictwo ludowe, obrzędy i zwyczaje [por. Ramczyk, Gutkowska 2008; Jessa 2010]. Artykuł zwraca uwagę na jeden z regionów etnograficznych – Małopolskę, region cechujący się dużym bogactwem i różnorodnością folkloru na tle Polski, prezentuje jego specyfikę i wskazuje możliwości lepszego wypromowania dla celów turystyki regionalnej. Szczególna uwaga autorki została zwrócona na jedną z kategorii folkloru ludowego; a mianowicie lokalne baśnie i legendy. Wskazane zostały możliwe formy i narzędzia promocji regionu za pośrednictwem baśni i legend oraz wybrane dobre praktyki w zakresie projektów wykorzystania baśni i legend do rozwoju turystyki regionu. Przedstawione zostały również wyniki badań sondażowych weryfikujące stan wiedzy jednostek samorządu terytorialnego i instytucji kultury mu podległych w zakresie świadomości i znajomości potencjału kulturowego lokalnych
Anna Góral Doktorantka na Wydziale Zarządzania i Komunikacji Społecznej UJ. Zawodowo zajmuje się zarządzaniem projektami oraz współpracą międzynarodową samorządów. Jej zainteresowania naukowe skupiają się wokół problematyki dziedzictwa kulturowego niematerialnego oraz ekonomiki dziedzictwa kulturowego.
1. Wprowadzenie
i zarządzają strategiami rozwoju regionalnego (przede wszystkim samorząd regionalny i lokalny). Problem wykorzystania baśni i legend do rozwoju kulturowego i turystycznego regionu jest przedmiotem zainteresowania wielu badaczy, obecny zwłaszcza w literaturze zagranicznej [por. Giaccardi 2006, s. 281–294; Kneafsey 2000; Lowenthal 1998]. Publikacje te koncentrują się na roli baśni i legend w lokalnym folklorze oraz narzędziach wykorzystywanych do efektywnego włączenia ich do strategii rozwoju turystyki regionu. Na gruncie polskim problematyka baśni i legend w kontekście stymulowania turystyki regionalnej nie jest obecna. Istnieją liczne publikacje dotyczące wykorzystania folkloru do promocji turystycznej regionu, jednak koncentrują się one głównie na takich zagadnieniach jak: rękodzieło ludowe, kuchnia regionalna, budownictwo ludowe, obrzędy i zwyczaje [por. Ramczyk, Gutkowska 2008; Jessa 2010]. Artykuł zwraca uwagę na jeden z regionów etnograficznych – Małopolskę, region cechujący się dużym bogactwem i różnorodnością folkloru na tle Polski, prezentuje jego specyfikę i wskazuje możliwości lepszego wypromowania dla celów turystyki regionalnej. Szczególna uwaga autorki została zwrócona na jedną z kategorii folkloru ludowego; a mianowicie lokalne baśnie i legendy. Wskazane zostały możliwe formy i narzędzia promocji regionu za pośrednictwem baśni i legend oraz wybrane dobre praktyki w zakresie projektów wykorzystania baśni i legend do rozwoju turystyki regionu. Przedstawione zostały również wyniki badań sondażowych weryfikujące stan wiedzy jednostek samorządu terytorialnego i instytucji kultury mu podległych w zakresie świadomości i znajomości potencjału kulturowego lokalnych
Anna Góral Doktorantka na Wydziale Zarządzania i Komunikacji Społecznej UJ. Zawodowo zajmuje się zarządzaniem projektami oraz współpracą międzynarodową samorządów. Jej zainteresowania naukowe skupiają się wokół problematyki dziedzictwa kulturowego niematerialnego oraz ekonomiki dziedzictwa kulturowego.
egendy są opowieściami przesyconymi przeważnie licznymi elementami fantazji i często obudowane wątkami ludowymi. Jednakże mogą powiedzieć nam o danym wydarzeniu lub miejscu o wiele więcej niż niejeden fakt historyczny. Na terenie Małopolski było i wciąż istnieje wiele legend i baśni. Mimo że większość z nich z biegiem czasu zaginęła lub zatarła się w pamięci ludzkiej te, które zachowały się stanowiąc podstawowy element folkloru lokalnego, wiernie oddają specyfikę regionu. Bajarstwo jest ważnym, ale mało zbadanym elementem folkloru lokalnego, zwłaszcza w kontekście rozwoju turystyki. Często stawianym pytaniem jest czy i w jaki sposób bajarstwo pośredniczy w budowaniu pełnego doświadczenia kulturowego turysty. Badania etnograficzne wskazują, że baśnie i legendy pełnią nie tylko rolę instrumentu, jako socjokulturowego „pośrednika” w procesie odtwarzania oficjalnie usankcjonowanych wyobrażeń i historii miejsc, ale również w sposób plastyczny wpływają na kształtowanie wyobrażeń turysty o celach jego podroży [Krawczyk-Wasilewska 1979]. Jako nośniki kulturowe, baśnie i legendy mogą zarówno stymulować proces kontaktu i poznania między turystą a kulturą lokalną, jak i wpływać na proces zrozumienia lokalnych zwyczajów, obrzędów, sposobu bycia przez zwiedzających. Świadome i efektywne wykorzystanie potencjału kulturowego drzemiącego w baśniach i legendach wymaga jednak zrozumienia ich roli i znaczenia zarówno przez instytucje odpowiedzialne za ochronę i zachowanie ciągłości przekazu lokalnego folkloru jak i te, które opracowują
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ianem legend w literaturze określane są opowieści posługujące się elementami niezwykłości oraz cudowności związanymi z życiem danej społeczności lub regionu. Informują o powstaniu danego miasta lub państwa, zawierają zdarzenia historyczne, najczęściej występują w nich ważne postaci regionu, np. bohaterowie lub rycerze. Często legendy osnute są na wątkach ludowych i apokryficznych. Pierwotnie przekazywane były ustnie, następnie również zapisywane. Pierwsze z legend powstały w średniowieczu w celu propagowania wiary chrześcijańskiej. Jako że były one przekazywane z ust do ust, z czasem ulegały ewolucji dostosowując się do aktualnych potrzeb lokalnych społeczności [Sławiński 1999]. Legendy, baśnie i opowieści ludowe posiadają ogromną rolę informacyjną, kulturową i historyczną. Spełniają liczne funkcje w lokalnej społeczności: przede wszystkim jednoczą ją wokół wspólnych wyobrażeń i symboli, kształtują i utrwalają świadomość historyczną, ale także stanowią zapis istotnych wydarzeń, jakie rozegrały się w regionie [Sławiński 1999]. Niegdyś były podstawowym składnikiem świadomości historycznej oraz tożsamości narodowej i choć obecnie ich rola została znacznie zmniejszona, nadal można je traktować jako jeden z najważniejszych elementów kultury regionu, kształtujący wyobraźnię i wiedzę o dziejach jego mieszkańców [Odoj, Pec 2000]. Legendy w kulturze ludowej były najczęściej opowiadane w długie jesienno-zimowe wieczory podczas prac takich jak przędzenie lnu, łuskanie grochu czy tkanie, a także przekazywane latem podczas prac polowych i w czasie wieczornego odpoczynku, kiedy spotykały się całe rodziny oraz sąsiedzi. Dzięki przejrzystości i interesującej fabule, były zrozumiałe zarówno dla starszych, jak i dla najmłodszych, co ułatwiało ich zapamiętywanie i dalsze przekazywanie. Oprócz funkcji rozrywkowej, legendy niosły w sobie pewien ładunek emocjonalny i edukacyjny. Przedstawiały różne fakty w kategoriach dobra i zła, dzięki czemu nauczały zasad moralnych, sposobów zachowania się i działania panujących w danej wspólnocie oraz stosunków panujących w lokalnej społeczności względem siebie i otaczającego świata. Ich celem było również utrwalanie w świadomości mieszkańców wydarzeń
3. Małopolskie baśnie i legendy
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egendy można podzielić na dwie grupy: 1. legendy fantastyczne – opowiadające o zjawiskach nadprzyrodzonych, duchach, zjawach, diabłach i miejscach gdzie straszyło, 2. legendy realistyczne – relacjonujące i wyjaśniające wydarzenia historyczne lub kulturowe, które najczęściej związane są z elementami przyrody i krajobrazu charakterystycznymi dla danego regionu, postaciami historycznymi oraz zabytkami architektonicznymi. Najpopularniejsze i najlepiej zachowane legendy związane są z pochodzeniem nazw miejscowości. Każda miejscowość posiada na poły baśniową historię związaną z rodowodem swojej nazwy. Dobrze znaną małopolską opowieścią jest ta o powstaniu miasta Krakowa, które zawdzięcza swoją nazwę legendarnemu władcy – królowi Krakowi [Rożek 2004, s. 59]. Jedną z najbardziej znanych postaci legendarnych w Małopolsce jest św. Kinga. Z postacią tą
Specyfika i znaczenie legend i baśni w rozwoju turystyki kulturowej Małopolski
egendy można podzielić na dwie grupy: 1. legendy fantastyczne – opowiadające o zjawiskach nadprzyrodzonych, duchach, zjawach, diabłach i miejscach gdzie straszyło, 2. legendy realistyczne – relacjonujące i wyjaśniające wydarzenia historyczne lub kulturowe, które najczęściej związane są z elementami przyrody i krajobrazu charakterystycznymi dla danego regionu, postaciami historycznymi oraz zabytkami architektonicznymi. Najpopularniejsze i najlepiej zachowane legendy związane są z pochodzeniem nazw miejscowości. Każda miejscowość posiada na poły baśniową historię związaną z rodowodem swojej nazwy. Dobrze znaną małopolską opowieścią jest ta o powstaniu miasta Krakowa, które zawdzięcza swoją nazwę legendarnemu władcy – królowi Krakowi [Rożek 2004, s. 59]. Jedną z najbardziej znanych postaci legendarnych w Małopolsce jest św. Kinga. Z postacią tą
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2. Legendy, jako podstawowy przejaw folkloru baśni i legend oraz możliwości jego wykorzystania.
Anna Góral
2. Legendy, jako podstawowy przejaw folkloru
historycznych, przełomowych momentów, niezrozumiałych i niezwykłych zjawisk oraz, co najważniejsze, tworzyły podstawy świadomości historycznej. Przekaz z pokolenia na pokolenie, kiedy dziadkowie opowiadając legendy powoływali się na swoich dziadków, wzmacniał tę świadomość i tworzył tradycję [Pawlikowska-Wójcicka 2005]. Wydaje się, że im bogatsza historia regionu, bardziej rozwinięta tożsamość regionalna i świadomość historyczna mieszkańców, tym większe było bogactwo legend, podań ludowych, baśni i anegdot [Kneafsey 2000, s. 35–50]. Pozostaje to w zgodności z faktem, iż legendy ludowe, tworzone były na bazie autentycznych wydarzeń, które oprawiano w ciekawą fabułę, dodając różne dygresje i własne wyjaśnienia mniej zrozumiałych wątków. Z powodu braku jednoznacznego zapisu, ale dzięki możliwości dokonywania zmian dostosowanych do aktualnych potrzeb, prowadziły często do nawarstwiania się opowieści z różnych okresów i ich ciągłych przekształceń. Z powodu tego, iż jednym razem w historiach tych rozwijano te fragmenty, które były bardziej interesujące dla słuchaczy, a kiedy indziej wyjaśniano to, co było niezrozumiałe, konsekwencją była ciągła zmiana w całej konstrukcji przekazu. W wyniku tych procesów powstawały legendy, które mimo iż oparte na autentycznych wydarzeniach, stanowią wyjątkowy i niepowtarzalny obraz kultury społeczności regionu.
Anna Góral
ianem legend w literaturze określane są opowieści posługujące się elementami niezwykłości oraz cudowności związanymi z życiem danej społeczności lub regionu. Informują o powstaniu danego miasta lub państwa, zawierają zdarzenia historyczne, najczęściej występują w nich ważne postaci regionu, np. bohaterowie lub rycerze. Często legendy osnute są na wątkach ludowych i apokryficznych. Pierwotnie przekazywane były ustnie, następnie również zapisywane. Pierwsze z legend powstały w średniowieczu w celu propagowania wiary chrześcijańskiej. Jako że były one przekazywane z ust do ust, z czasem ulegały ewolucji dostosowując się do aktualnych potrzeb lokalnych społeczności [Sławiński 1999]. Legendy, baśnie i opowieści ludowe posiadają ogromną rolę informacyjną, kulturową i historyczną. Spełniają liczne funkcje w lokalnej społeczności: przede wszystkim jednoczą ją wokół wspólnych wyobrażeń i symboli, kształtują i utrwalają świadomość historyczną, ale także stanowią zapis istotnych wydarzeń, jakie rozegrały się w regionie [Sławiński 1999]. Niegdyś były podstawowym składnikiem świadomości historycznej oraz tożsamości narodowej i choć obecnie ich rola została znacznie zmniejszona, nadal można je traktować jako jeden z najważniejszych elementów kultury regionu, kształtujący wyobraźnię i wiedzę o dziejach jego mieszkańców [Odoj, Pec 2000]. Legendy w kulturze ludowej były najczęściej opowiadane w długie jesienno-zimowe wieczory podczas prac takich jak przędzenie lnu, łuskanie grochu czy tkanie, a także przekazywane latem podczas prac polowych i w czasie wieczornego odpoczynku, kiedy spotykały się całe rodziny oraz sąsiedzi. Dzięki przejrzystości i interesującej fabule, były zrozumiałe zarówno dla starszych, jak i dla najmłodszych, co ułatwiało ich zapamiętywanie i dalsze przekazywanie. Oprócz funkcji rozrywkowej, legendy niosły w sobie pewien ładunek emocjonalny i edukacyjny. Przedstawiały różne fakty w kategoriach dobra i zła, dzięki czemu nauczały zasad moralnych, sposobów zachowania się i działania panujących w danej wspólnocie oraz stosunków panujących w lokalnej społeczności względem siebie i otaczającego świata. Ich celem było również utrwalanie w świadomości mieszkańców wydarzeń
Specyfika i znaczenie legend i baśni w rozwoju turystyki kulturowej Małopolski
baśni i legend oraz możliwości jego wykorzystania.
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3. Małopolskie baśnie i legendy historycznych, przełomowych momentów, niezrozumiałych i niezwykłych zjawisk oraz, co najważniejsze, tworzyły podstawy świadomości historycznej. Przekaz z pokolenia na pokolenie, kiedy dziadkowie opowiadając legendy powoływali się na swoich dziadków, wzmacniał tę świadomość i tworzył tradycję [Pawlikowska-Wójcicka 2005]. Wydaje się, że im bogatsza historia regionu, bardziej rozwinięta tożsamość regionalna i świadomość historyczna mieszkańców, tym większe było bogactwo legend, podań ludowych, baśni i anegdot [Kneafsey 2000, s. 35–50]. Pozostaje to w zgodności z faktem, iż legendy ludowe, tworzone były na bazie autentycznych wydarzeń, które oprawiano w ciekawą fabułę, dodając różne dygresje i własne wyjaśnienia mniej zrozumiałych wątków. Z powodu braku jednoznacznego zapisu, ale dzięki możliwości dokonywania zmian dostosowanych do aktualnych potrzeb, prowadziły często do nawarstwiania się opowieści z różnych okresów i ich ciągłych przekształceń. Z powodu tego, iż jednym razem w historiach tych rozwijano te fragmenty, które były bardziej interesujące dla słuchaczy, a kiedy indziej wyjaśniano to, co było niezrozumiałe, konsekwencją była ciągła zmiana w całej konstrukcji przekazu. W wyniku tych procesów powstawały legendy, które mimo iż oparte na autentycznych wydarzeniach, stanowią wyjątkowy i niepowtarzalny obraz kultury społeczności regionu.
ska, który przez szczelinę w murze dzielił się z nią swymi smakołykami. Po śmierci okrutnego męża dziewczyna wyszła na wolność i nazwała zamek Pieskową Skałą ku czci swego najwierniejszego przyjaciela. Naukowe wytłumaczenie nazwy zamku jest inne. Skała, na której wzniesiono później warownię, miała należeć do pewnego Piotra, czyli Pieszki i miejsce to nazywano Skałą Pieszkową a z czasem Pieskową [SukertowaBiedrawina 1928]. Również miejsca niezwykłe, posiadające wyjątkowe wytwory, skarby przyrody posiadają legendy i opowieści wyjaśniające ich pochodzenie. Bardzo dobrze znaną małopolską legendą tego rodzaju jest ta związana z Maczugą Herkulesa – samotnym, wapiennym kamieniem znajdującym się w sercu Ojcowskiego Parku Narodowego, który pnie się ku górze na wysokość blisko 30 m, opiera się na ziemi cienkim końcem i rozszerza się ku górze na kształt maczugi. Najstarsza legenda towarzysząca temu miejscu odwołuje się jeszcze do czasów panowania króla Kraka. Według niej maczuga ta służyła królowi do walki ze smokiem, który pustoszył okoliczne ziemie, a następnie została postawiona u wejścia do doliny ku przestrodze innych smoków, które chciałyby osiąść w Ojcowskiej dolinie [Sukertowa-Biedrawina 1928]. Podobnie legendą owiana jest historia powstania Skamieniałego Miasta w małopolskich Ciężkowicach. Według dawnych opowieści, to nie siły przyrody spowodowały powstanie tego niezwykłego miejsca, lecz klątwa rzucona na dawnych mieszkańców, jako kara za występne życie. Według innej wersji była to kara za pogwałcenie praw gościnności, którego dopuścił się ówczesny pan Ciężkowic. Pewnego razu przybyła do niego dziewczyna, która zbiegła z niewoli od pana Rożnowa. Dziedzic rożnowski zażądał jej wydania, a w zamian zaoferował pobliską wieś Kąśną. Zdradzona dziewczyna z rozpaczy skonała, a za karę całe miasto zostało przemienione w kamień [Staszewski 1968, s. 100]. Jak widać na przykładzie wskazanych powyżej wybranych małopolskich legend, są one głęboko zakorzenione nie tylko w kulturze, ale również historii regionu. Są unikatowym źródłem wiedzy zarówno o historii regionu, jak i o lokalnych tradycjach, zwyczajach, stosunkach międzyludzkich. Dzięki temu stanowią wyjątkowy element tożsamości regionalnej, który – podobnie jak inne rodzaje folkloru oraz elementy materialne – świadczy o wyjątkowości regionu i mogą, odpowiednio wykorzystane, stać się podstawą do budowania atrakcyjnego wizerunku turystycznego.
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związane jest wiele miejsc w regionie. Według legendy, gdy polski książę krakowsko-sandomierski Bolesław poprosił o rękę węgierskiej królewny Kingi, ta zwróciła się do ojca z prośbą o to, aby w wianie zamiast złota i kosztowności otrzymała sól – największy ze skarbów Węgier, którą chciała dać swej przyszłej ojczyźnie. Król Węgier podarował jej więc najbogatszą kopalnię Siedmiogrodu w Marmarosz (Prajd). Kinga biorąc ją w posiadanie, wrzuciła do szybu swój zaręczynowy pierścień, zaś w drogę do kraju swego męża zabrała ze sobą doświadczonych górników węgierskich. W Polsce kazała im szukać soli. Gdy ją wreszcie znaleźli (w Bochni i Wieliczce), to – jak pisze ksiądz Piotr Skarga – „w pierwszym bałwanie (bryle) soli, który wykopano, pierścień się on jej znalazł, który ujrzawszy Kunegunda i poznawszy, dziękowała Panu Bogu, który dziwy czyni tym, którzy Go miłują” [Skarga 1995, s. 48]. Każdy zamek, dwór czy inna ważna dla społeczności lokalnej budowla, ma legendę związaną ze swoją historią. Przykładem może być małopolski zamek w Niepołomicach i związana z nim legenda kwiatu lotosu. Mówi ona, że król Kazimierz Wielki przywiózł do Niepołomic część skały z kaplicy św. Gereona, pod którą na Wawelu znajduje się czakram (w języku hinduskim oznacza on Kwiat Lotosu). Chciał, aby ten magiczny wawelski kamień stał się kamieniem węgielnym pod budowę tutejszego zamku. Kamień spoczywa w najstarszej części zamku – liczącej ponad 650 lat – w której podczas wojny Niemcy mieli magazyn amunicji. Obecność czakramu potwierdziły przyrządy naukowców i radiestetów [Moskal 2004, s. 93] . Podobnie legenda związana z Zamkiem w Pieskowej Skale, która jednocześnie wyjaśnia pochodzenie jego nazwy. Opowieść ta mówi, że w zamierzchłych średniowiecznych czasach, piękna i młoda Dorotka z rodu Toporczyków wyszła za mąż za starego Szafrańca. Dziewczyna miała rzecz jasna swego ukochanego, wysokiego i pełnego uroku młodego rycerza. Był on jednak biedny, więc rodzina wydała Dorotkę za starca z Pieskowej Skały. Młody rycerz przyjechał na zamek w przebraniu lutnisty. Stary Szafraniec wpuścił go do swej młodej żony, która lubiła słuchać muzyki, a sam wybrał się na polowanie. Wrócił jednak wcześniej niż młodzi się go spodziewali i koncert, który zastał przeszedł jego najśmielsze oczekiwania. Polecił więc rycerzalutnistę rozciągnąć końmi, a z niewierną żoną obszedł się jeszcze okrutniej, wtrącając ją do głodowego lochu. Dorotka przeżyła tam jednak swego męża dzięki pomocy swego wiernego pie-
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ska, który przez szczelinę w murze dzielił się z nią swymi smakołykami. Po śmierci okrutnego męża dziewczyna wyszła na wolność i nazwała zamek Pieskową Skałą ku czci swego najwierniejszego przyjaciela. Naukowe wytłumaczenie nazwy zamku jest inne. Skała, na której wzniesiono później warownię, miała należeć do pewnego Piotra, czyli Pieszki i miejsce to nazywano Skałą Pieszkową a z czasem Pieskową [SukertowaBiedrawina 1928]. Również miejsca niezwykłe, posiadające wyjątkowe wytwory, skarby przyrody posiadają legendy i opowieści wyjaśniające ich pochodzenie. Bardzo dobrze znaną małopolską legendą tego rodzaju jest ta związana z Maczugą Herkulesa – samotnym, wapiennym kamieniem znajdującym się w sercu Ojcowskiego Parku Narodowego, który pnie się ku górze na wysokość blisko 30 m, opiera się na ziemi cienkim końcem i rozszerza się ku górze na kształt maczugi. Najstarsza legenda towarzysząca temu miejscu odwołuje się jeszcze do czasów panowania króla Kraka. Według niej maczuga ta służyła królowi do walki ze smokiem, który pustoszył okoliczne ziemie, a następnie została postawiona u wejścia do doliny ku przestrodze innych smoków, które chciałyby osiąść w Ojcowskiej dolinie [Sukertowa-Biedrawina 1928]. Podobnie legendą owiana jest historia powstania Skamieniałego Miasta w małopolskich Ciężkowicach. Według dawnych opowieści, to nie siły przyrody spowodowały powstanie tego niezwykłego miejsca, lecz klątwa rzucona na dawnych mieszkańców, jako kara za występne życie. Według innej wersji była to kara za pogwałcenie praw gościnności, którego dopuścił się ówczesny pan Ciężkowic. Pewnego razu przybyła do niego dziewczyna, która zbiegła z niewoli od pana Rożnowa. Dziedzic rożnowski zażądał jej wydania, a w zamian zaoferował pobliską wieś Kąśną. Zdradzona dziewczyna z rozpaczy skonała, a za karę całe miasto zostało przemienione w kamień [Staszewski 1968, s. 100]. Jak widać na przykładzie wskazanych powyżej wybranych małopolskich legend, są one głęboko zakorzenione nie tylko w kulturze, ale również historii regionu. Są unikatowym źródłem wiedzy zarówno o historii regionu, jak i o lokalnych tradycjach, zwyczajach, stosunkach międzyludzkich. Dzięki temu stanowią wyjątkowy element tożsamości regionalnej, który – podobnie jak inne rodzaje folkloru oraz elementy materialne – świadczy o wyjątkowości regionu i mogą, odpowiednio wykorzystane, stać się podstawą do budowania atrakcyjnego wizerunku turystycznego.
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związane jest wiele miejsc w regionie. Według legendy, gdy polski książę krakowsko-sandomierski Bolesław poprosił o rękę węgierskiej królewny Kingi, ta zwróciła się do ojca z prośbą o to, aby w wianie zamiast złota i kosztowności otrzymała sól – największy ze skarbów Węgier, którą chciała dać swej przyszłej ojczyźnie. Król Węgier podarował jej więc najbogatszą kopalnię Siedmiogrodu w Marmarosz (Prajd). Kinga biorąc ją w posiadanie, wrzuciła do szybu swój zaręczynowy pierścień, zaś w drogę do kraju swego męża zabrała ze sobą doświadczonych górników węgierskich. W Polsce kazała im szukać soli. Gdy ją wreszcie znaleźli (w Bochni i Wieliczce), to – jak pisze ksiądz Piotr Skarga – „w pierwszym bałwanie (bryle) soli, który wykopano, pierścień się on jej znalazł, który ujrzawszy Kunegunda i poznawszy, dziękowała Panu Bogu, który dziwy czyni tym, którzy Go miłują” [Skarga 1995, s. 48]. Każdy zamek, dwór czy inna ważna dla społeczności lokalnej budowla, ma legendę związaną ze swoją historią. Przykładem może być małopolski zamek w Niepołomicach i związana z nim legenda kwiatu lotosu. Mówi ona, że król Kazimierz Wielki przywiózł do Niepołomic część skały z kaplicy św. Gereona, pod którą na Wawelu znajduje się czakram (w języku hinduskim oznacza on Kwiat Lotosu). Chciał, aby ten magiczny wawelski kamień stał się kamieniem węgielnym pod budowę tutejszego zamku. Kamień spoczywa w najstarszej części zamku – liczącej ponad 650 lat – w której podczas wojny Niemcy mieli magazyn amunicji. Obecność czakramu potwierdziły przyrządy naukowców i radiestetów [Moskal 2004, s. 93] . Podobnie legenda związana z Zamkiem w Pieskowej Skale, która jednocześnie wyjaśnia pochodzenie jego nazwy. Opowieść ta mówi, że w zamierzchłych średniowiecznych czasach, piękna i młoda Dorotka z rodu Toporczyków wyszła za mąż za starego Szafrańca. Dziewczyna miała rzecz jasna swego ukochanego, wysokiego i pełnego uroku młodego rycerza. Był on jednak biedny, więc rodzina wydała Dorotkę za starca z Pieskowej Skały. Młody rycerz przyjechał na zamek w przebraniu lutnisty. Stary Szafraniec wpuścił go do swej młodej żony, która lubiła słuchać muzyki, a sam wybrał się na polowanie. Wrócił jednak wcześniej niż młodzi się go spodziewali i koncert, który zastał przeszedł jego najśmielsze oczekiwania. Polecił więc rycerzalutnistę rozciągnąć końmi, a z niewierną żoną obszedł się jeszcze okrutniej, wtrącając ją do głodowego lochu. Dorotka przeżyła tam jednak swego męża dzięki pomocy swego wiernego pie-
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4. Turystyka kulturowa i turystyka regionalna
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. Gaworecki podkreślił, „że związki turystyki z kulturą są ścisłe i wzajemne. Turystyka chroni, wzbogaca i popularyzuje dobra kulturalne, kultura zaś inspiruje rozwój turystyki” [Gaworecki 2000]. Jak stwierdza A. Kowalczyk, wielu socjologów postrzega turystykę, przede wszystkim jako spotkanie różnych kultur [Kowalczyk 2001]. Turystyka może być, zatem zarówno przedmiotem, jak i podmiotem w takiej relacji. Z jednej strony można więc powiedzieć, że turystyka jest pewnym produktem kultury, z drugiej zaś ma również istotny wpływ na jej kształtowanie. Tę szczególną relację można dostrzec wyraźnie w przypadku turystyki kulturowej. Sposób jej postrzegania, zarówno w badaniach naukowych, jak i działaniach związanych z rozwojem, zaczął ulegać wyraźnie widocznym zmianom pod koniec XX wieku. Jednak jak zauważył D. Lowenthal, w dobie postmodernizmu, gdy zakres dziedzictwa rozciągnięto aż do współczesności i teraźniejszości, w kręgu zainteresowań turystów znalazły się wszelkie formy działalności człowieka, nie tylko jego wytwory materialne, ale również to, co trudne do uchwycenia, czyli tzw. dziedzictwo niematerialne, często określane również mianem folkloru [Lowenthal 1998]. Encyclopedia of Tourism podaje, że większość autorów definiujących turystykę kulturową wymienia, jako jej główny wyróżnik „zdobywanie wiedzy o innych i ich sposobie życia” [ Jafari 2000]. Takie podejście pozwala uwzględnić wszystkie elementy kultury rozumianej w sposób nowoczesny, czyli kojarzonej ze zwiedzaniem zabytków, ale będącej aktem czynnym, gdzie turysta chce poznać, poczuć i doświadczyć tzw. „lokalności”. Inni badacze, między innymi G. Adams i M. Kneafsey określają turystykę kulturową, jako „podróżowanie dla wzbogacenia wewnętrznego (ang. self-enrichment), czy też „poszukiwanie wiedzy” [por. Kneasfey 2000]. Najistotniejszymi elementami omawianego zjawiska są – ich zdaniem – rozwój, prezentacja i interpretacja zasobów kulturowych. Owocem tych rozważań jest następująca zbiorcza definicja turystyki kulturowej: „jest to skomercjalizowany przejaw ludzkiej potrzeby zobaczenia jak żyją inni, zaspokojenie ciekawości i chęci zobaczenia innych ludzi w ich »autentycznym« środowisku oraz fizycznych przejawów ich działalności w sztuce, rzemiośle, muzyce, literaturze, tańcu, jedzeniu i piciu, zabawie, języku, rytuałach” [ Jafari 2000].
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2011, Vol 4 (4)
Specyficznym rodzajem turystyki kulturowej jest tzw. turystyka regionalna, która obejmuje podróże odbywane z pobudek kulturowych lub poznawczych [ Jessa 2010, s. 43]. Jej celem jest poznanie konkretnego regionu historycznego lub kulturowego. Program wyjazdu w ramach turystyki regionalnej winien być w istotnym wymiarze skoncentrowany na bezpośrednim kontakcie uczestników i możliwości osobistego doświadczenia kultury regionalnej oraz na poszerzeniu wiedzy na temat odwiedzanego regionu [ Jessa 2010, s. 39–71]. Określenie wyprawy mianem regionalnej turystyki kulturowej, pozwala odróżnić ją od innych rodzajów podróży turystycznych, których celem może być konkretny region geograficzny, motywacją zaś do ich realizacji jednak głównie wypoczynek, rekreacja, sport, czy rozrywka. Pojęcie regionu (historycznego lub kulturowego) różni się od pojęcia regionu turystycznego. W turystyce kulturowej funkcjonuje, bowiem odmienne pojęcie regionu. „Jest to region historyczny wyodrębniony na podstawie wspólnych dziejów i wynikających z nich typów więzi społecznych, zwyczajów, tradycji, odrębności językowych, sposobów budowania itd. lub region (czy też mikroregion) kulturowy, z wyraźnie dominującymi wspólnymi dla całego obszaru zespołami cech kultury duchowej (np. wyznanie religijne, tradycje ludowe i in.) i materialnej (np. styl budownictwa ludowego, kuchnia regionalna itd.) lub innych cech wyodrębniających go kulturowo (pochodzenie etniczne mieszkańców, gwary regionalne itd.)” [Mikos von Rohrscheidt 2008]. Takie pojęcie regionu analizowane z perspektywy turystyki podkreśla przede wszystkim wielowymiarowość regionu, gdzie istotne znaczenie mają nie tylko obiekty materialne, ale związana z nimi kultura niematerialna, która decyduje o znaczeniu i roli obiektu w życiu kulturowym regionu.
5. Wyniki badań sondażowych W celu określenia, jakie są szanse rozpoczęcia działań w zakresie podjęcia inicjatyw związanych z wykorzystaniem legend i baśni do promocji regionu, na początek dokonano weryfikacji stanu wiedzy jednostek samorządu terytorialnego oraz instytucji kultury im podległych (domy kultury oraz biblioteki), by uzyskać odpowiedź na pytania: jaką wiedzą na temat lokalnych baśni i legend dysponują respondenci, jaka jest ich świadomość znaczenia baśni i legend dla dziedzictwa kulturowego regionu oraz możliwości i sposobów ich
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. Gaworecki podkreślił, „że związki turystyki z kulturą są ścisłe i wzajemne. Turystyka chroni, wzbogaca i popularyzuje dobra kulturalne, kultura zaś inspiruje rozwój turystyki” [Gaworecki 2000]. Jak stwierdza A. Kowalczyk, wielu socjologów postrzega turystykę, przede wszystkim jako spotkanie różnych kultur [Kowalczyk 2001]. Turystyka może być, zatem zarówno przedmiotem, jak i podmiotem w takiej relacji. Z jednej strony można więc powiedzieć, że turystyka jest pewnym produktem kultury, z drugiej zaś ma również istotny wpływ na jej kształtowanie. Tę szczególną relację można dostrzec wyraźnie w przypadku turystyki kulturowej. Sposób jej postrzegania, zarówno w badaniach naukowych, jak i działaniach związanych z rozwojem, zaczął ulegać wyraźnie widocznym zmianom pod koniec XX wieku. Jednak jak zauważył D. Lowenthal, w dobie postmodernizmu, gdy zakres dziedzictwa rozciągnięto aż do współczesności i teraźniejszości, w kręgu zainteresowań turystów znalazły się wszelkie formy działalności człowieka, nie tylko jego wytwory materialne, ale również to, co trudne do uchwycenia, czyli tzw. dziedzictwo niematerialne, często określane również mianem folkloru [Lowenthal 1998]. Encyclopedia of Tourism podaje, że większość autorów definiujących turystykę kulturową wymienia, jako jej główny wyróżnik „zdobywanie wiedzy o innych i ich sposobie życia” [ Jafari 2000]. Takie podejście pozwala uwzględnić wszystkie elementy kultury rozumianej w sposób nowoczesny, czyli kojarzonej ze zwiedzaniem zabytków, ale będącej aktem czynnym, gdzie turysta chce poznać, poczuć i doświadczyć tzw. „lokalności”. Inni badacze, między innymi G. Adams i M. Kneafsey określają turystykę kulturową, jako „podróżowanie dla wzbogacenia wewnętrznego (ang. self-enrichment), czy też „poszukiwanie wiedzy” [por. Kneasfey 2000]. Najistotniejszymi elementami omawianego zjawiska są – ich zdaniem – rozwój, prezentacja i interpretacja zasobów kulturowych. Owocem tych rozważań jest następująca zbiorcza definicja turystyki kulturowej: „jest to skomercjalizowany przejaw ludzkiej potrzeby zobaczenia jak żyją inni, zaspokojenie ciekawości i chęci zobaczenia innych ludzi w ich »autentycznym« środowisku oraz fizycznych przejawów ich działalności w sztuce, rzemiośle, muzyce, literaturze, tańcu, jedzeniu i piciu, zabawie, języku, rytuałach” [ Jafari 2000].
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4. Turystyka kulturowa i turystyka regionalna
W celu określenia, jakie są szanse rozpoczęcia działań w zakresie podjęcia inicjatyw związanych z wykorzystaniem legend i baśni do promocji regionu, na początek dokonano weryfikacji stanu wiedzy jednostek samorządu terytorialnego oraz instytucji kultury im podległych (domy kultury oraz biblioteki), by uzyskać odpowiedź na pytania: jaką wiedzą na temat lokalnych baśni i legend dysponują respondenci, jaka jest ich świadomość znaczenia baśni i legend dla dziedzictwa kulturowego regionu oraz możliwości i sposobów ich
5. Wyniki badań sondażowych Specyficznym rodzajem turystyki kulturowej jest tzw. turystyka regionalna, która obejmuje podróże odbywane z pobudek kulturowych lub poznawczych [ Jessa 2010, s. 43]. Jej celem jest poznanie konkretnego regionu historycznego lub kulturowego. Program wyjazdu w ramach turystyki regionalnej winien być w istotnym wymiarze skoncentrowany na bezpośrednim kontakcie uczestników i możliwości osobistego doświadczenia kultury regionalnej oraz na poszerzeniu wiedzy na temat odwiedzanego regionu [ Jessa 2010, s. 39–71]. Określenie wyprawy mianem regionalnej turystyki kulturowej, pozwala odróżnić ją od innych rodzajów podróży turystycznych, których celem może być konkretny region geograficzny, motywacją zaś do ich realizacji jednak głównie wypoczynek, rekreacja, sport, czy rozrywka. Pojęcie regionu (historycznego lub kulturowego) różni się od pojęcia regionu turystycznego. W turystyce kulturowej funkcjonuje, bowiem odmienne pojęcie regionu. „Jest to region historyczny wyodrębniony na podstawie wspólnych dziejów i wynikających z nich typów więzi społecznych, zwyczajów, tradycji, odrębności językowych, sposobów budowania itd. lub region (czy też mikroregion) kulturowy, z wyraźnie dominującymi wspólnymi dla całego obszaru zespołami cech kultury duchowej (np. wyznanie religijne, tradycje ludowe i in.) i materialnej (np. styl budownictwa ludowego, kuchnia regionalna itd.) lub innych cech wyodrębniających go kulturowo (pochodzenie etniczne mieszkańców, gwary regionalne itd.)” [Mikos von Rohrscheidt 2008]. Takie pojęcie regionu analizowane z perspektywy turystyki podkreśla przede wszystkim wielowymiarowość regionu, gdzie istotne znaczenie mają nie tylko obiekty materialne, ale związana z nimi kultura niematerialna, która decyduje o znaczeniu i roli obiektu w życiu kulturowym regionu.
popularyzacji dla rozwoju turystyki kulturowej w regionie. Badanie przeprowadzono w oparciu o ankiety oraz analizę dobrych praktyk w zakresie wykorzystania baśni i legend do promocji regionu. Badania ankietowe zostały przeprowadzone na przełomie marca i kwietnia 2011 roku w Małopolsce. Ankiety drogą elektroniczną zostały rozesłane do wszystkich urzędów gmin i bibliotek w regionie z miejscowości poniżej 40 tys. mieszkańców. Taka selekcja respondentów podyktowana była faktem, że gminy wiejskie i miejsko-wiejskie z Małopolski posiadają bardzo bogate zasoby dziedzictwa kulturowego niematerialnego, które obecnie są niedostatecznie wykorzystywane, a stanowią istotny zasób, który może wpłynąć na rozwój ekonomiczny regionu. W badaniu ostatecznie wzięło udział 75 instytucji z regionu (50 urzędów gmin, 15 domów kultury oraz 10 bibliotek publicznych). Ze względu na niewielką próbę badawczą (w Małopolsce ogółem są 182 gminy) wnioski z badań nie mogą zostać uogólnione na cały region, jednak ich celem jest zasygnalizowanie problemu oraz wykazanie konieczności podjęcia szerszych badań w tym zakresie.
ankietowanych wskazało baśnie i legendy wśród elementów najbardziej charakterystycznych kulturowo dla ich regionu. Wyżej wymienione elementy kultury regionu zostały również wskazane przez respondentów jako najbardziej atrakcyjne dla turystów odwiedzających region. Wszyscy ankietowani zapytani czy istnieją baśnie i legendy bezpośrednio związane z ich regionem wskazali, że takie istnieją. Do najczęściej wskazywanych legend i opowieści należały te związane z: powstaniem nazwy miejscowości lub gminy, charakterystycznymi dla regionu elementami przyrody (np. legenda o maczudze Herkulesa w gminie Sułoszowa, legenda o Skale Kmity w gminie Zabierzów), zabytkami architektonicznymi (np. legenda o Białej Damie wiśnickiego zamku w Nowym Wiśniczu, zjawie w dworku Diament w gminie Żabno) oraz legendy o postaciach ważnych dla regionu (np. legenda „Pierścień św. Kingi” związana z gminą Bochnia czy legenda o Janosiku charakterystyczna dla gminy Krościenko nad Dunajcem). Każda z instytucji uczestniczących w badaniu wskazała minimum dwie legendy związane bezpośrednio ze swoim regionem. Gminami, które wskazały największą liczbę legend bezpośrednio związanych z ich regionem były: Miasto i Gmina Uzdrowiskowa Muszyna, Krościenko nad Dunajcem, Żabno, Nowy Wiśnicz oraz Bochnia. Pokazuje to, że legendy są istotnym elementem kultury regionu, chociaż nie są postrzegane jako istotny element jego dziedzictwa. Dowodem na to jest fakt, że respondenci byli zaskoczeni…pytaniem o baśnie i legendy w kontekście dziedzictwa kulturowego regionu.
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2011, Vol 4 (4)
Przeprowadzone badania ankietowe pokazały, że baśnie i legendy nie są elementem regionalnego dziedzictwa kulturowego w dużym stopniu wykorzystywanym do jego promocji, mimo iż wszyscy respondenci zaznaczyli, że mogą one być skutecznym elementem marketingowym gminy. Jedynie dwudziestu jeden spośród wszystkich respondentów wskazało, że wykorzystuje elementy lokalnych baśni i legend to promocji turystycznej regionu. Najczęściej stanowią one elementy logo gminy, na ich kanwie tworzone są fragmenty scenariuszy lokalnych festiwali i festynów ludowych oraz organizowane są spotkania z lokalnymi bajarzami, konkursy dla dzieci i młodzieży dotyczące znajomości lokalnych baśni, legend i opowieści. Gminy Wieliczka, Bochnia, Nowy Wiśnicz oraz Żabno zaznaczyły również, że na swoich terenach tworzą rekonstrukcje baśniowych scenerii, co ma służyć podniesieniu atrakcyjności turystycznej re-
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Przeprowadzone badania ankietowe pokazały, że baśnie i legendy nie są elementem regionalnego dziedzictwa kulturowego w dużym stopniu wykorzystywanym do jego promocji, mimo iż wszyscy respondenci zaznaczyli, że mogą one być skutecznym elementem marketingowym gminy. Jedynie dwudziestu jeden spośród wszystkich respondentów wskazało, że wykorzystuje elementy lokalnych baśni i legend to promocji turystycznej regionu. Najczęściej stanowią one elementy logo gminy, na ich kanwie tworzone są fragmenty scenariuszy lokalnych festiwali i festynów ludowych oraz organizowane są spotkania z lokalnymi bajarzami, konkursy dla dzieci i młodzieży dotyczące znajomości lokalnych baśni, legend i opowieści. Gminy Wieliczka, Bochnia, Nowy Wiśnicz oraz Żabno zaznaczyły również, że na swoich terenach tworzą rekonstrukcje baśniowych scenerii, co ma służyć podniesieniu atrakcyjności turystycznej re-
Przeprowadzona ankieta zbudowana była z czterech części: (1) pytań ogólnych o atrakcyjność turystyczną i kulturową regionu, (2) pytań szczegółowych dotyczących lokalnych legend i baśni, (3) pytań na temat wykorzystania baśni i legend do kształtowania wizerunku turystycznego regionu oraz (4) pytań dotyczących instytucji odpowiedzialnych za promocję, archiwizację oraz zachowanie ciągłości przekazu lokalnych baśni i legend w regionie. Wśród badanych przeważa przekonanie o tym, że ich gmina jest regionem atrakcyjnym kulturowo i turystycznie – jedynie 4 spośród respondentów uznało, że ich gmina nie jest atrakcyjna kulturowo, podobnie w przypadku pytania o atrakcyjność turystyczną. Wszyscy respondenci wskazali również, że mianem turystyki kulturowej można określić wszelkie podróże, których głównym motywem jest odwiedzanie i poznawanie miejsc o wartości historycznej, artystycznej i kulturowej, co świadczy tym, że samo zagadnienie turystyki kulturowej nie jest ankietowanym obce. Ankietowani zapytani o elementy kulturowe najbardziej charakterystyczne dla ich gminy, najczęściej wskazywali na zabytki architektoniczne (62 respondentów), kuchnię regionalną (45 respondentów) oraz imprezy kulturowe i festyny (45 respondentów). Jedynie 12
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Przeprowadzona ankieta zbudowana była z czterech części: (1) pytań ogólnych o atrakcyjność turystyczną i kulturową regionu, (2) pytań szczegółowych dotyczących lokalnych legend i baśni, (3) pytań na temat wykorzystania baśni i legend do kształtowania wizerunku turystycznego regionu oraz (4) pytań dotyczących instytucji odpowiedzialnych za promocję, archiwizację oraz zachowanie ciągłości przekazu lokalnych baśni i legend w regionie. Wśród badanych przeważa przekonanie o tym, że ich gmina jest regionem atrakcyjnym kulturowo i turystycznie – jedynie 4 spośród respondentów uznało, że ich gmina nie jest atrakcyjna kulturowo, podobnie w przypadku pytania o atrakcyjność turystyczną. Wszyscy respondenci wskazali również, że mianem turystyki kulturowej można określić wszelkie podróże, których głównym motywem jest odwiedzanie i poznawanie miejsc o wartości historycznej, artystycznej i kulturowej, co świadczy tym, że samo zagadnienie turystyki kulturowej nie jest ankietowanym obce. Ankietowani zapytani o elementy kulturowe najbardziej charakterystyczne dla ich gminy, najczęściej wskazywali na zabytki architektoniczne (62 respondentów), kuchnię regionalną (45 respondentów) oraz imprezy kulturowe i festyny (45 respondentów). Jedynie 12
ankietowanych wskazało baśnie i legendy wśród elementów najbardziej charakterystycznych kulturowo dla ich regionu. Wyżej wymienione elementy kultury regionu zostały również wskazane przez respondentów jako najbardziej atrakcyjne dla turystów odwiedzających region. Wszyscy ankietowani zapytani czy istnieją baśnie i legendy bezpośrednio związane z ich regionem wskazali, że takie istnieją. Do najczęściej wskazywanych legend i opowieści należały te związane z: powstaniem nazwy miejscowości lub gminy, charakterystycznymi dla regionu elementami przyrody (np. legenda o maczudze Herkulesa w gminie Sułoszowa, legenda o Skale Kmity w gminie Zabierzów), zabytkami architektonicznymi (np. legenda o Białej Damie wiśnickiego zamku w Nowym Wiśniczu, zjawie w dworku Diament w gminie Żabno) oraz legendy o postaciach ważnych dla regionu (np. legenda „Pierścień św. Kingi” związana z gminą Bochnia czy legenda o Janosiku charakterystyczna dla gminy Krościenko nad Dunajcem). Każda z instytucji uczestniczących w badaniu wskazała minimum dwie legendy związane bezpośrednio ze swoim regionem. Gminami, które wskazały największą liczbę legend bezpośrednio związanych z ich regionem były: Miasto i Gmina Uzdrowiskowa Muszyna, Krościenko nad Dunajcem, Żabno, Nowy Wiśnicz oraz Bochnia. Pokazuje to, że legendy są istotnym elementem kultury regionu, chociaż nie są postrzegane jako istotny element jego dziedzictwa. Dowodem na to jest fakt, że respondenci byli zaskoczeni…pytaniem o baśnie i legendy w kontekście dziedzictwa kulturowego regionu.
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popularyzacji dla rozwoju turystyki kulturowej w regionie. Badanie przeprowadzono w oparciu o ankiety oraz analizę dobrych praktyk w zakresie wykorzystania baśni i legend do promocji regionu. Badania ankietowe zostały przeprowadzone na przełomie marca i kwietnia 2011 roku w Małopolsce. Ankiety drogą elektroniczną zostały rozesłane do wszystkich urzędów gmin i bibliotek w regionie z miejscowości poniżej 40 tys. mieszkańców. Taka selekcja respondentów podyktowana była faktem, że gminy wiejskie i miejsko-wiejskie z Małopolski posiadają bardzo bogate zasoby dziedzictwa kulturowego niematerialnego, które obecnie są niedostatecznie wykorzystywane, a stanowią istotny zasób, który może wpłynąć na rozwój ekonomiczny regionu. W badaniu ostatecznie wzięło udział 75 instytucji z regionu (50 urzędów gmin, 15 domów kultury oraz 10 bibliotek publicznych). Ze względu na niewielką próbę badawczą (w Małopolsce ogółem są 182 gminy) wnioski z badań nie mogą zostać uogólnione na cały region, jednak ich celem jest zasygnalizowanie problemu oraz wykazanie konieczności podjęcia szerszych badań w tym zakresie.
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gionu. Elementy legend oraz lokalnych opowieści są wykorzystywane w materiałach promocyjnych gmin, są również kanwą oferowanych gadżetów i pamiątek turystycznych związanych z gminą (12 respondentów). Przeważająca jednak większość ankietowanych (59 respondentów) zaznaczyła, że elementy lokalnych legend nie są w żaden sposób wykorzystywane do budowy wizerunku gminy, jako miejsca atrakcyjnego turystycznie. Jako powód tej sytuacji wskazywano najczęściej: brak pomysłu jak legendy wykorzystywać (19 odpowiedzi), brak odpowiednich funduszy (10 odpowiedzi), brak wiedzy na temat możliwości wykorzystania legend i opowieści do promocji regionu (20 respondentów). Ostatnia część ankiety dotyczyła instytucji odpowiedzialnych za zarządzanie procesem zachowania ciągłości przekazu oraz promocji lokalnych baśni i legend, jako elementu regionalnego dziedzictwa kulturowego. Celem pytań zamieszczonych w tej części ankiety było zbadanie stanu świadomości respondentów na temat zakresu ich zadań i obowiązków w zakresie ochrony dziedzictwa kulturowego wskazanych w odpowiednich rozporządzeniach prawnych (Ust. o samorządzie gminnym z 1990 z późn. zm., Ust. o ochronie zabytków i opiece nad zabytkami z 2003 z późn. zm. oraz Ust. o organizowaniu i prowadzeniu działalności kulturalnej z 1991 z późn. zm.). Przeważająca większość ankietowanych (54 respondentów – w tym aż 8 bibliotek) wskazała, że na terenie ich gminy nie funkcjonują żadne instytucje czy organizacje odpowiedzialne za prowadzenie badań, dokumentację czy promocję lokalnych baśni, legend i podań. Co jest warte podkreślenia, biblioteki i instytucje kultury uczestniczące w badaniu, nie wskazywały na same siebie (mimo zapisów ustawowych nakładających na nie ten obowiązek) wśród instytucji odpowiedzialnych za ochronę i popularyzację lokalnego regionalnego dziedzictwa kulturowego. Dziedzictwo kulturowe niematerialne (w tym lokalne baśnie i legendy) nie jest również ujmowane w gminnych strategiach rozwoju regionalnego regionu
czy też rozwoju turystyki. Jedynie cztery gminy wskazały, że w ich strategii rozwoju istnieje zapis o pielęgnowaniu i promocji lokalnego folkloru, dziedzictwa kulturowego i produktów regionalnych. Pokazuje to jednak, w jak dużym stopniu ta część dziedzictwa kulturowego regionu jest zaniedbana, mimo iż bardzo często dziedzictwo kulturowe niematerialne jest podstawowym elementem kultury regionu, z którym jest on kojarzony (np. kuchnia regionalna, lokalne festyny ludowe). Powodów takiej sytuacji można doszukiwać się nie tylko w braku wiedzy i pomysłu na zagospodarowanie dziedzictwa kulturowego niematerialnego, ale również w braku zapisów ustawowych na poziomie krajowym, które nie wspominają w żaden sposób o zabytkach niematerialnych14. Takie podejście do dziedzictwa kulturowego regionu oraz do kategorii zabytku i pamiątki przeszłości kładzie wyraźny nacisk na ochronę obiektów materialnych, pozostawiając te, które mają wymiar duchowy, niematerialny bez opieki i obowiązku ochrony. W ostatniej części ankiety znalazły się również pytania kierowane do lokalnych samorządów dotyczące form wsparcia działań związanych z dziedzictwem kulturowym regionu. Jako najczęstsze źródło wsparcia oferowane przez samorząd, gminy wskazywały tworzenie portali promocyjnych, na których zainteresowane instytucje i przedsiębiorcy mogą zamieszczać informacje o swojej działalności oraz możliwość uczestnictwa w organizowanych imprezach lokalnych, gdzie mogą oni prezentować swoją działalność. Wsparcie to jednak nie ma żadnego długofalowego i skonkretyzowanego programu, ma charakter bardziej doraźny, tworzony w odpowiedzi na aktualną potrzebę. Pozostali uczestnicy badania – biblioteki i domy kultury – ocenili swoją współpracę z organami gminy w tym zakresie na poziomie średnim. Należy jeszcze zaznaczyć, iż wszyscy respondenci wskazali na niewystarczające środki finansowe przeznaczane na działalność kulturalną oraz brak wyraźnego poparcia dla lokalnych inicjatyw dotyczących dziedzictwa kulturowego.
14 Podstawą prawną ochrony dziedzictwa kulturowego w Polsce jest ustawa z dnia 23 lipca 2003 r. o ochronie zabytków i opiece nad zabytkami (Dz.U. z 2003 r. Nr 162 poz. 1568), regulująca w sposób całościowy pojęcia zabytku, ochrony i opieki nad zabytkami, form ochrony, kompetencje organów ochrony zabytków, w tym administracji rządowej i samorządowej, formy finansowania opieki nad zabytkami, ich ewidencjonowania, etc. Zabytek zgodnie z ustawą ma jednak wyraźnie materialny wymiar, co podkreślone jest również na w artykułach publikowanych przez Narodowy Instytut Dziedzictwa (!): „zabytki są elementem dziedzictwa kulturowego, stanowią materialny ślad przeszłości, często są także ucieleśnieniem i świadectwem jakiejś ważnej idei, budują naszą tożsamość. Pełnią również ważną rolę w kształtowaniu przyjaznego otoczenia człowieka” (http://www.nid. pl/idm,316,co-to-jest-dziedzictwo-kulturowe-co-to-jest-zabytek.html).
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14 Podstawą prawną ochrony dziedzictwa kulturowego w Polsce jest ustawa z dnia 23 lipca 2003 r. o ochronie zabytków i opiece nad zabytkami (Dz.U. z 2003 r. Nr 162 poz. 1568), regulująca w sposób całościowy pojęcia zabytku, ochrony i opieki nad zabytkami, form ochrony, kompetencje organów ochrony zabytków, w tym administracji rządowej i samorządowej, formy finansowania opieki nad zabytkami, ich ewidencjonowania, etc. Zabytek zgodnie z ustawą ma jednak wyraźnie materialny wymiar, co podkreślone jest również na w artykułach publikowanych przez Narodowy Instytut Dziedzictwa (!): „zabytki są elementem dziedzictwa kulturowego, stanowią materialny ślad przeszłości, często są także ucieleśnieniem i świadectwem jakiejś ważnej idei, budują naszą tożsamość. Pełnią również ważną rolę w kształtowaniu przyjaznego otoczenia człowieka” (http://www.nid. pl/idm,316,co-to-jest-dziedzictwo-kulturowe-co-to-jest-zabytek.html).
Ostatnia część ankiety dotyczyła instytucji odpowiedzialnych za zarządzanie procesem zachowania ciągłości przekazu oraz promocji lokalnych baśni i legend, jako elementu regionalnego dziedzictwa kulturowego. Celem pytań zamieszczonych w tej części ankiety było zbadanie stanu świadomości respondentów na temat zakresu ich zadań i obowiązków w zakresie ochrony dziedzictwa kulturowego wskazanych w odpowiednich rozporządzeniach prawnych (Ust. o samorządzie gminnym z 1990 z późn. zm., Ust. o ochronie zabytków i opiece nad zabytkami z 2003 z późn. zm. oraz Ust. o organizowaniu i prowadzeniu działalności kulturalnej z 1991 z późn. zm.). Przeważająca większość ankietowanych (54 respondentów – w tym aż 8 bibliotek) wskazała, że na terenie ich gminy nie funkcjonują żadne instytucje czy organizacje odpowiedzialne za prowadzenie badań, dokumentację czy promocję lokalnych baśni, legend i podań. Co jest warte podkreślenia, biblioteki i instytucje kultury uczestniczące w badaniu, nie wskazywały na same siebie (mimo zapisów ustawowych nakładających na nie ten obowiązek) wśród instytucji odpowiedzialnych za ochronę i popularyzację lokalnego regionalnego dziedzictwa kulturowego. Dziedzictwo kulturowe niematerialne (w tym lokalne baśnie i legendy) nie jest również ujmowane w gminnych strategiach rozwoju regionalnego regionu gionu. Elementy legend oraz lokalnych opowieści są wykorzystywane w materiałach promocyjnych gmin, są również kanwą oferowanych gadżetów i pamiątek turystycznych związanych z gminą (12 respondentów). Przeważająca jednak większość ankietowanych (59 respondentów) zaznaczyła, że elementy lokalnych legend nie są w żaden sposób wykorzystywane do budowy wizerunku gminy, jako miejsca atrakcyjnego turystycznie. Jako powód tej sytuacji wskazywano najczęściej: brak pomysłu jak legendy wykorzystywać (19 odpowiedzi), brak odpowiednich funduszy (10 odpowiedzi), brak wiedzy na temat możliwości wykorzystania legend i opowieści do promocji regionu (20 respondentów).
W ostatniej części ankiety znalazły się również pytania kierowane do lokalnych samorządów dotyczące form wsparcia działań związanych z dziedzictwem kulturowym regionu. Jako najczęstsze źródło wsparcia oferowane przez samorząd, gminy wskazywały tworzenie portali promocyjnych, na których zainteresowane instytucje i przedsiębiorcy mogą zamieszczać informacje o swojej działalności oraz możliwość uczestnictwa w organizowanych imprezach lokalnych, gdzie mogą oni prezentować swoją działalność. Wsparcie to jednak nie ma żadnego długofalowego i skonkretyzowanego programu, ma charakter bardziej doraźny, tworzony w odpowiedzi na aktualną potrzebę. Pozostali uczestnicy badania – biblioteki i domy kultury – ocenili swoją współpracę z organami gminy w tym zakresie na poziomie średnim. Należy jeszcze zaznaczyć, iż wszyscy respondenci wskazali na niewystarczające środki finansowe przeznaczane na działalność kulturalną oraz brak wyraźnego poparcia dla lokalnych inicjatyw dotyczących dziedzictwa kulturowego. czy też rozwoju turystyki. Jedynie cztery gminy wskazały, że w ich strategii rozwoju istnieje zapis o pielęgnowaniu i promocji lokalnego folkloru, dziedzictwa kulturowego i produktów regionalnych. Pokazuje to jednak, w jak dużym stopniu ta część dziedzictwa kulturowego regionu jest zaniedbana, mimo iż bardzo często dziedzictwo kulturowe niematerialne jest podstawowym elementem kultury regionu, z którym jest on kojarzony (np. kuchnia regionalna, lokalne festyny ludowe). Powodów takiej sytuacji można doszukiwać się nie tylko w braku wiedzy i pomysłu na zagospodarowanie dziedzictwa kulturowego niematerialnego, ale również w braku zapisów ustawowych na poziomie krajowym, które nie wspominają w żaden sposób o zabytkach niematerialnych14. Takie podejście do dziedzictwa kulturowego regionu oraz do kategorii zabytku i pamiątki przeszłości kładzie wyraźny nacisk na ochronę obiektów materialnych, pozostawiając te, które mają wymiar duchowy, niematerialny bez opieki i obowiązku ochrony.
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6. Dobre praktyki promocji i popularyzacji baśni i legend
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iewystarczająca baza około-turystyczna, a szczególnie słabość bazy noclegowej i gastronomicznej, niedostatek informacji turystycznej to główne problemy, z jakimi borykają się gminy wiejskie województwa Małopolskiego [Zmyślony 2008, dok. elektr.]. Sprawia to, że nie w pełni wykorzystują one możliwości rozwoju turystyki na swoim terenie. Małopolska posiada bogatą ofertę kulturalną, nie tylko w Krakowie, ale również na terenach wiejskich, oddalonych od większych ośrodków miejskich. Jednakże, aby przyciągnąć setki turystów i szerzej zainteresować mieszkańców, konieczne jest znaczne rozbudowanie i zintensyfikowanie działań promocyjnych oraz wzbogacenie aktualnej oferty kulturalnej. Działania te niekoniecznie muszą wiązać się z dużymi inwestycjami w infrastrukturę kulturalną czy turystyczną. Istotne jest natomiast zrozumienie i umiejętne wykorzystanie posiadanych zasobów kulturowych, a zwłaszcza dziedzictwa kulturowego niematerialnego. W tej części artykułu zaprezentowane zostały wybrane projekty związane z popularyzacją baśni, legend oraz wykorzystaniem ich do rozwoju turystyki regionalnej. Projekty te stanowią dobre praktyki w zakresie wykorzystania potencjału dziedzictwa kulturowego baśni i legend w Polsce.
16 Zob. informacje na temat projektu można znaleźć na stronie WWW Muzeum Bajek, Baśni i Opowieści http://www.storytellermuseum.org/
oraz przez władze lokalne, których obowiązkiem jest wsparcie instytucjonalne procesu zachowania ciągłości przekazu dziedzictwa kulturowego regionu. Działania tego rodzaju są często podejmowane przez lokalne biblioteki publiczne. Przykładem może być inicjatywa Miejsko-Gminnej Biblioteki Publicznej w Żabnie – „Żabiańskie legendy”. Celem projektu, dofinansowanego przez Ministerstwo Kultury i Dziedzictwa Narodowego, było zebranie i opracowanie lokalnych legend. Projekt skierowany był do młodzieży z terenu gminy Żabno, a polegał na odnalezieniu i spisaniu legend regionu. Jego celem było przede wszystkim zachęcenie młodych ludzi do poznania historii i kultury swojej „małej ojczyzny”, rozbudzenie świadomości własnej tożsamości kulturowej. Poprzez udział w warsztatach młodzież mogła poznać nie tylko historię swojej miejscowości, ale również dotrzeć do źródeł lokalnych tradycji. Dodatkowo bogactwo zebranych legend miało na celu pokazanie młodym ludziom uczestniczącym w projekcie, że posiadają duże zasoby kulturowe, które odpowiednio wykorzystane mogą przyczynić się do rozwoju kulturowego ich gminy. Projekt służył również wskrzeszeniu zapomnianych legend Żabna i okolic, ich udokumentowaniu oraz popularyzacji tradycji kulturowej regionu, w tym rozwoju literatury15. Działalność Muzeum Bajek, Baśni i Opowieści z Konstancina-Jeziornej jest również jedną z ciekawszych inicjatyw mających na celu promowanie i zachowanie tradycji bajarskich. Gromadzi ono unikalne zbiory wielu, nie tylko polskich, ale również światowych tradycji ustnych. Muzeum działa również w zakresie przeciwdziałania zanikowi tradycji ustnych i nieuchwytnego dziedzictwa. Swoje cele realizuje, nie tylko poprzez działalność typowo muzealną, ale również organizując Festiwale Sztuki Opowiadania oraz prowadząc warsztaty „Tworzenie Słowem” mające na celu naukę tej prastarej formy ekspresji dzisiaj już prawie zapomnianej. Muzeum poprzez swoją działalność pragnie popularyzować sztukę bajarstwa, jako integralną część folkloru regionalnego obok kuchni regionalnej, tańca i muzyki ludowej czy rękodzieła. Legendy – zdaniem twórców muzeum – świadczą bowiem o wyjątkowości regionu oraz stanowią ważny element jego tożsamości kulturowej16.
15 Zob. informacje na temat projektu można znaleźć na stronie WWW Miejsko-Gminnej Biblioteki Publicznej w Żabnie http://www. bibliotekazabno.tarman.pl
Korzystając z dobrych praktyk wśród głównych działań informacyjno-edukacyjnych mających na celu popularyzację lokalnego folkloru, można wskazać edukację regionalną realizowaną zarówno szkołach, jak i lokalnych instytucjach kultury oraz projekty realizowane na szerszą skalę, w formie archiwów i bibliotek cyfrowych, w których udostępniane są w formie elektronicznej różnego rodzaju materiały prezentujące lokalną kulturę ludową. Celem tych działań jest nie tylko zainteresowanie szerszej publiczności folklorem ludowym i w ten sposób zainteresowanie jej regionem, ale również tzw. „praca u podstaw”, czyli działania edukacyjne na poziomie lokalnym. Aby potencjał kulturowy i turystyczny baśni i legend został efektywnie wykorzystany, jego wartość musi najpierw zostać dostrzeżona przez społeczność lokalną, która jest najważniejszym nośnikiem
Korzystając z dobrych praktyk wśród głównych działań informacyjno-edukacyjnych mających na celu popularyzację lokalnego folkloru, można wskazać edukację regionalną realizowaną zarówno szkołach, jak i lokalnych instytucjach kultury oraz projekty realizowane na szerszą skalę, w formie archiwów i bibliotek cyfrowych, w których udostępniane są w formie elektronicznej różnego rodzaju materiały prezentujące lokalną kulturę ludową. Celem tych działań jest nie tylko zainteresowanie szerszej publiczności folklorem ludowym i w ten sposób zainteresowanie jej regionem, ale również tzw. „praca u podstaw”, czyli działania edukacyjne na poziomie lokalnym. Aby potencjał kulturowy i turystyczny baśni i legend został efektywnie wykorzystany, jego wartość musi najpierw zostać dostrzeżona przez społeczność lokalną, która jest najważniejszym nośnikiem
15 Zob. informacje na temat projektu można znaleźć na stronie WWW Miejsko-Gminnej Biblioteki Publicznej w Żabnie http://www. bibliotekazabno.tarman.pl
iewystarczająca baza około-turystyczna, a szczególnie słabość bazy noclegowej i gastronomicznej, niedostatek informacji turystycznej to główne problemy, z jakimi borykają się gminy wiejskie województwa Małopolskiego [Zmyślony 2008, dok. elektr.]. Sprawia to, że nie w pełni wykorzystują one możliwości rozwoju turystyki na swoim terenie. Małopolska posiada bogatą ofertę kulturalną, nie tylko w Krakowie, ale również na terenach wiejskich, oddalonych od większych ośrodków miejskich. Jednakże, aby przyciągnąć setki turystów i szerzej zainteresować mieszkańców, konieczne jest znaczne rozbudowanie i zintensyfikowanie działań promocyjnych oraz wzbogacenie aktualnej oferty kulturalnej. Działania te niekoniecznie muszą wiązać się z dużymi inwestycjami w infrastrukturę kulturalną czy turystyczną. Istotne jest natomiast zrozumienie i umiejętne wykorzystanie posiadanych zasobów kulturowych, a zwłaszcza dziedzictwa kulturowego niematerialnego. W tej części artykułu zaprezentowane zostały wybrane projekty związane z popularyzacją baśni, legend oraz wykorzystaniem ich do rozwoju turystyki regionalnej. Projekty te stanowią dobre praktyki w zakresie wykorzystania potencjału dziedzictwa kulturowego baśni i legend w Polsce.
16 Zob. informacje na temat projektu można znaleźć na stronie WWW Muzeum Bajek, Baśni i Opowieści http://www.storytellermuseum.org/
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oraz przez władze lokalne, których obowiązkiem jest wsparcie instytucjonalne procesu zachowania ciągłości przekazu dziedzictwa kulturowego regionu. Działania tego rodzaju są często podejmowane przez lokalne biblioteki publiczne. Przykładem może być inicjatywa Miejsko-Gminnej Biblioteki Publicznej w Żabnie – „Żabiańskie legendy”. Celem projektu, dofinansowanego przez Ministerstwo Kultury i Dziedzictwa Narodowego, było zebranie i opracowanie lokalnych legend. Projekt skierowany był do młodzieży z terenu gminy Żabno, a polegał na odnalezieniu i spisaniu legend regionu. Jego celem było przede wszystkim zachęcenie młodych ludzi do poznania historii i kultury swojej „małej ojczyzny”, rozbudzenie świadomości własnej tożsamości kulturowej. Poprzez udział w warsztatach młodzież mogła poznać nie tylko historię swojej miejscowości, ale również dotrzeć do źródeł lokalnych tradycji. Dodatkowo bogactwo zebranych legend miało na celu pokazanie młodym ludziom uczestniczącym w projekcie, że posiadają duże zasoby kulturowe, które odpowiednio wykorzystane mogą przyczynić się do rozwoju kulturowego ich gminy. Projekt służył również wskrzeszeniu zapomnianych legend Żabna i okolic, ich udokumentowaniu oraz popularyzacji tradycji kulturowej regionu, w tym rozwoju literatury15. Działalność Muzeum Bajek, Baśni i Opowieści z Konstancina-Jeziornej jest również jedną z ciekawszych inicjatyw mających na celu promowanie i zachowanie tradycji bajarskich. Gromadzi ono unikalne zbiory wielu, nie tylko polskich, ale również światowych tradycji ustnych. Muzeum działa również w zakresie przeciwdziałania zanikowi tradycji ustnych i nieuchwytnego dziedzictwa. Swoje cele realizuje, nie tylko poprzez działalność typowo muzealną, ale również organizując Festiwale Sztuki Opowiadania oraz prowadząc warsztaty „Tworzenie Słowem” mające na celu naukę tej prastarej formy ekspresji dzisiaj już prawie zapomnianej. Muzeum poprzez swoją działalność pragnie popularyzować sztukę bajarstwa, jako integralną część folkloru regionalnego obok kuchni regionalnej, tańca i muzyki ludowej czy rękodzieła. Legendy – zdaniem twórców muzeum – świadczą bowiem o wyjątkowości regionu oraz stanowią ważny element jego tożsamości kulturowej16.
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Projekt „Pierścień św. Kingi” był realizowany przez Małopolski Instytut Kultury oraz partnerów lokalnych – instytucje kultury, samorządy lokalne oraz przedsiębiorstwa prywatne. Celem projektu było stworzenie atrakcyjnej oferty turystycznokulturalnej skierowanej zarówno do mieszkańców Małopolski, jak i turystów spoza regionu, której podstawę tworzyła legenda związana ze św. Kingą. Projekt ten, organizowany corocznie w formie zabaw i warsztatów w kilku miejscach Małopolski (m.in. w Bochni, Krościenku nad Dunajcem, Dębnie, Wieliczce), przybliża mieszkańcom Małopolski, w oparciu o średniowieczną legendę, życie codzienne dawnych mieszkańców regionu. Popularna legenda św. Kingi stała się w tym projekcie inspiracją do stworzenia większego projektu kulturalno-historycznego, który stał się jednym ze stałych elementów oferty turystycznokulturalnej regionu17. Ciekawą inicjatywą jest również projekt „Żywe zamki” realizowany przez Małopolską Organizację Turystyczną. Ma on na celu, z jednej strony popularyzację turystyki kulturowej w regionie, a z drugiej przybliżenie mieszkańcom regionu historii i legend związanych z wyjątkowymi dla nich miejscami – zamkami oraz dworami. W projekcie uczestniczy obecnie jedenaście małopolskich zamków (m.in. zamki w Lanckoronie, Dębnie, Niepołomicach, Wieliczce), które corocznie organizują w swoich siedzibach imprezy plenerowe, których kanwę stanowią lokalne baśnie i legendy. Projekt cieszy się dużą popularnością w regionie, a realizowane w jego ramach działania są stopniowo rozszerzane o tworzenie ofert edukacyjnych dla dzieci i młodzieży, warsztatów, spotkań organizowanych przez cały rok18. Przedstawione inicjatywy i projekty związane z lokalnymi baśniami i legendami są jedynie wybranymi, najpopularniejszymi z realizowanych na terenie Małopolski. Istnieje również wiele inicjatyw lokalnych tego rodzaju, realizowanych na mniejszą skalę, przez biblioteki, domy kultury czy też lokalne organizacje pozarządowe działające w obszarze dziedzictwa kulturowego. Wciąż jednak wiele instytucji, jednostek samorządowych – co zostało zasygnalizowane w przedstawionych powyżej badaniach ankietowych – nie dostrzega potencjału drzemiącego w baśniach i legendach lub brakuje im pomysłów na ich wykorzystanie.
Dlatego też niezbędne jest, aby dobre praktyki były szeroko promowane tak, aby stanowiły inspirację dla innych, zainteresowanych realizacją podobnych projektów.
7. Refleksje
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rzeprowadzone badania pokazały, że dostrzegany jest potencjał turystyczny, jaki drzemie w lokalnych baśniach i legendach, oraz że postrzegane są one jako skuteczne narzędzie marketingowe, którym można posłużyć się do budowy wizerunku regionu, jako miejsca atrakcyjnego turystycznie i kulturowo. Jednakże bolączką jest brak pomysłu, w jaki sposób można wykorzystać te zasoby. Niewiele gmin małopolskich podjęło się realizacji działań marketingowych opierających się na wykorzystaniu baśni i legend, gdyż w przeciwieństwie do innych typów folkloru lokalnego (rękodzieła, kuchni regionalnej, pieśni i tańców ludowych) są one najmniej namacalnym i widocznym elementem dziedzictwa kulturowego regionu. Badania pokazały również niepokojące zjawisko braku poczucia odpowiedzialności za dziedzictwo kulturowe baśni i legend ze strony instytucji „systemowo” za to odpowiedzialnych – aż 54 respondentów odpowiedziało, że na terenie ich gmin nie istnieją żadne instytucje, których obowiązkiem jest ochrona i popularyzacja dziedzictwa baśni i legend, mimo iż zgodnie z ustawami obowiązek ochrony lokalnego dziedzictwa kulturowego spoczywa na samorządzie gminnym oraz instytucjach kultury mu podległych. Problem ten może wynikać z faktu braku świadomości, że baśnie i legendy są integralną częścią niematerialnego dziedzictwa kulturowego regionu, w takim samym stopniu jak rękodzieło ludowe, kuchnia regionalna czy muzyka i taniec regionalny. Takie podejście do dziedzictwa baśni i legend może doprowadzić do ich zaniku z powodu braku stałego programu zachowania ciągłości ich przekazu poprzez działania edukacyjne, dokumentacyjne czy promocyjne. Każdy z respondentów przyznał, że na terenie jego gminy istnieją legendy i podania bezpośrednio związane z regionem, czy to poprzez elementy krajobrazu, przyrody czy też postacie dla niego ważne. Jednakże przez większość nie są one oceniane jako element na
17 Zob. informacje na temat projektu można znaleźć na stronie WWW Małopolskiego Instytut Kultury http://www.mik.krakow.pl/ pierscien-sw-kingi.html 18 Zob. informacje na temat projektu można znaleźć na stronie WWW „Żywe Zamki” http://www.zywezamki.pl/
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18 Zob. informacje na temat projektu można znaleźć na stronie WWW „Żywe Zamki” http://www.zywezamki.pl/ 17 Zob. informacje na temat projektu można znaleźć na stronie WWW Małopolskiego Instytut Kultury http://www.mik.krakow.pl/ pierscien-sw-kingi.html
Projekt „Pierścień św. Kingi” był realizowany przez Małopolski Instytut Kultury oraz partnerów lokalnych – instytucje kultury, samorządy lokalne oraz przedsiębiorstwa prywatne. Celem projektu było stworzenie atrakcyjnej oferty turystycznokulturalnej skierowanej zarówno do mieszkańców Małopolski, jak i turystów spoza regionu, której podstawę tworzyła legenda związana ze św. Kingą. Projekt ten, organizowany corocznie w formie zabaw i warsztatów w kilku miejscach Małopolski (m.in. w Bochni, Krościenku nad Dunajcem, Dębnie, Wieliczce), przybliża mieszkańcom Małopolski, w oparciu o średniowieczną legendę, życie codzienne dawnych mieszkańców regionu. Popularna legenda św. Kingi stała się w tym projekcie inspiracją do stworzenia większego projektu kulturalno-historycznego, który stał się jednym ze stałych elementów oferty turystycznokulturalnej regionu17. Ciekawą inicjatywą jest również projekt „Żywe zamki” realizowany przez Małopolską Organizację Turystyczną. Ma on na celu, z jednej strony popularyzację turystyki kulturowej w regionie, a z drugiej przybliżenie mieszkańcom regionu historii i legend związanych z wyjątkowymi dla nich miejscami – zamkami oraz dworami. W projekcie uczestniczy obecnie jedenaście małopolskich zamków (m.in. zamki w Lanckoronie, Dębnie, Niepołomicach, Wieliczce), które corocznie organizują w swoich siedzibach imprezy plenerowe, których kanwę stanowią lokalne baśnie i legendy. Projekt cieszy się dużą popularnością w regionie, a realizowane w jego ramach działania są stopniowo rozszerzane o tworzenie ofert edukacyjnych dla dzieci i młodzieży, warsztatów, spotkań organizowanych przez cały rok18. Przedstawione inicjatywy i projekty związane z lokalnymi baśniami i legendami są jedynie wybranymi, najpopularniejszymi z realizowanych na terenie Małopolski. Istnieje również wiele inicjatyw lokalnych tego rodzaju, realizowanych na mniejszą skalę, przez biblioteki, domy kultury czy też lokalne organizacje pozarządowe działające w obszarze dziedzictwa kulturowego. Wciąż jednak wiele instytucji, jednostek samorządowych – co zostało zasygnalizowane w przedstawionych powyżej badaniach ankietowych – nie dostrzega potencjału drzemiącego w baśniach i legendach lub brakuje im pomysłów na ich wykorzystanie.
rzeprowadzone badania pokazały, że dostrzegany jest potencjał turystyczny, jaki drzemie w lokalnych baśniach i legendach, oraz że postrzegane są one jako skuteczne narzędzie marketingowe, którym można posłużyć się do budowy wizerunku regionu, jako miejsca atrakcyjnego turystycznie i kulturowo. Jednakże bolączką jest brak pomysłu, w jaki sposób można wykorzystać te zasoby. Niewiele gmin małopolskich podjęło się realizacji działań marketingowych opierających się na wykorzystaniu baśni i legend, gdyż w przeciwieństwie do innych typów folkloru lokalnego (rękodzieła, kuchni regionalnej, pieśni i tańców ludowych) są one najmniej namacalnym i widocznym elementem dziedzictwa kulturowego regionu. Badania pokazały również niepokojące zjawisko braku poczucia odpowiedzialności za dziedzictwo kulturowe baśni i legend ze strony instytucji „systemowo” za to odpowiedzialnych – aż 54 respondentów odpowiedziało, że na terenie ich gmin nie istnieją żadne instytucje, których obowiązkiem jest ochrona i popularyzacja dziedzictwa baśni i legend, mimo iż zgodnie z ustawami obowiązek ochrony lokalnego dziedzictwa kulturowego spoczywa na samorządzie gminnym oraz instytucjach kultury mu podległych. Problem ten może wynikać z faktu braku świadomości, że baśnie i legendy są integralną częścią niematerialnego dziedzictwa kulturowego regionu, w takim samym stopniu jak rękodzieło ludowe, kuchnia regionalna czy muzyka i taniec regionalny. Takie podejście do dziedzictwa baśni i legend może doprowadzić do ich zaniku z powodu braku stałego programu zachowania ciągłości ich przekazu poprzez działania edukacyjne, dokumentacyjne czy promocyjne. Każdy z respondentów przyznał, że na terenie jego gminy istnieją legendy i podania bezpośrednio związane z regionem, czy to poprzez elementy krajobrazu, przyrody czy też postacie dla niego ważne. Jednakże przez większość nie są one oceniane jako element na
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7. Refleksje Dlatego też niezbędne jest, aby dobre praktyki były szeroko promowane tak, aby stanowiły inspirację dla innych, zainteresowanych realizacją podobnych projektów.
8. Zakończenie tyle wartościowy, aby na nim budować wizerunek gminy jako miejsca atrakcyjnego turystycznie i kulturowo. Legendy i baśnie są postrzegane, jako element życia codziennego mieszkańców, a nie coś unikalnego i wyjątkowego. Baśnie i legendy, poprzez swój wyjątkowy, niematerialny charakter, są też częścią folkloru lokalnego – trudną do uchwycenia, a następnie wykorzystania do promocji regionu. Respondenci zarówno w trakcie badań ankietowych, jak również podczas późniejszych wywiadów wskazywali na brak pomysłów, w jaki sposób ten potencjał wykorzystywać. Na podstawie przeprowadzonych badań można wywnioskować, że pierwszym krokiem do efektywnego i świadomego wykorzystania baśni i legend w strategii promocji regionu jest podniesienie wiedzy w instytucjach odpowiedzialnych za ich ochronę i popularyzację (biblioteki, instytucje kultury, samorządy terytorialne) na temat ich zadań oraz samej wartości baśni i legend, jako istotnego elementu tożsamości kulturowej regionu, a dopiero potem można zacząć projektować i wdrażać efektywne projekty z zakresu ich ochrony i popularyzacji.
elektr.]. Planując jej rozwój trzeba pamiętać o ewentualnych niebezpieczeństwach. Dziedzictwo kulturowe, zwłaszcza w swoich niematerialnych przejawach, jest bardzo wrażliwe, wymaga zrównoważonej ochrony, która przede wszystkim zapewni ciągłość jego przekazu. Decydując się na sprzedaż niematerialnego produktu turystyki kulturowej, należy wziąć pod uwagę, że w przeciwieństwie do zabytków materialnych, jest on zasobem nieodnawialnym, dlatego należy starać się, by poprzez umiejętne zarządzanie nie dopuścić do jego nadmiernej eksploatacji.
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Jarv R., Fairy Tales and Tourism Trips, Fabula 2010, Vol 51, Issue 3–4, p. 281–294. Jessa M., Specyfika i znaczenie folkloru łowickiego w turystyce regionalnej, „Turystyka kulturowa” 2010, Nr 10–12/2010, s. 39–71. Jędrysiak T., Turystyka kulturowa, Warszawa 2008. Kneafsey M., Tourism, place identities and social relations in the rural European periphery, „European Urban and Regional Studies” 2000, 7 (1), p. 35–50. Kopaliński W., Słownik mitów i tradycji kultury, Warszawa 2011. Kowalczyk A., Geografia turyzmu, Warszawa 2001. Krawczyk-Wasilewska V., Wprowadzenie do folklorystyki, Łódź 1979.
Niematerialne dziedzictwo kulturowe, którego jednym z przejawów są baśnie i legendy, posiada duży potencjał turystyczny, który – odpowiednio wykorzystany – może w istotny sposób stymulować gospodarczy rozwój regionu. Szczególna wartość tego typu dziedzictwa tkwi również w fakcie, iż wpływa ono na rozwój społeczny regionu poprzez budowanie tożsamości kulturowej jego mieszkańców. Jednakże, co zostało podkreślone w artykule, pierwszym krokiem do efektywnego wykorzystywania kulturowych zasobów niematerialnych jest uświadomienie sobie ich wartości. Często z bogactwa dziedzictwa kulturowego nie zdają sobie sprawy sami jego spadkobiercy. Słuszny wydaje się więc postulat, aby promocja była skierowana zarówno do turystów, jak i lokalnej społeczności [Knaesfey 2000, s. 35–50]. Należy przy tym pamiętać, że niewiedza może nie tylko uniemożliwić wykorzystanie zasobu, ale także doprowadzić do jego zniszczenia.
Buczkowska K., Turystyka kulturowa. Przewodnik metodyczny, Poznań 2008. Buczkowska K., Turysta kulturowy – klient nietuzinkowy [w:] Stasiak A. (red.), Kultura i Turystyka – wspólnie zyskać, Łódź 2009. Dobkiewiczowa K., Drogocenne wiano. Zbiór legend o błogosławionej Kindze księżnie polskiej, patronce górników, obrończyni wiary, matce ludu polskiego w 700 rocznicę śmierci. Katowice, 1988. Giaccardi E., Collective Storytelling and Social Creativity in the Virtual Museum: A Case Study, „Design Issues”, 22:3, summer 2006, p. 29–41. Jafari J., Encyclopedia of Tourism, London 2000.
urystyka kulturowa odgrywa w ostatnich czasach coraz większe znaczenie. Co podkreśla Małek, jest przy tym silniej niż przyrodnicza powiązana z rozwojem lokalnym [Małek, dok.
Bibliografia
Bibliografia
urystyka kulturowa odgrywa w ostatnich czasach coraz większe znaczenie. Co podkreśla Małek, jest przy tym silniej niż przyrodnicza powiązana z rozwojem lokalnym [Małek, dok.
Jarv R., Fairy Tales and Tourism Trips, Fabula 2010, Vol 51, Issue 3–4, p. 281–294. Jessa M., Specyfika i znaczenie folkloru łowickiego w turystyce regionalnej, „Turystyka kulturowa” 2010, Nr 10–12/2010, s. 39–71. Jędrysiak T., Turystyka kulturowa, Warszawa 2008. Kneafsey M., Tourism, place identities and social relations in the rural European periphery, „European Urban and Regional Studies” 2000, 7 (1), p. 35–50. Kopaliński W., Słownik mitów i tradycji kultury, Warszawa 2011. Kowalczyk A., Geografia turyzmu, Warszawa 2001. Krawczyk-Wasilewska V., Wprowadzenie do folklorystyki, Łódź 1979.
T
Niematerialne dziedzictwo kulturowe, którego jednym z przejawów są baśnie i legendy, posiada duży potencjał turystyczny, który – odpowiednio wykorzystany – może w istotny sposób stymulować gospodarczy rozwój regionu. Szczególna wartość tego typu dziedzictwa tkwi również w fakcie, iż wpływa ono na rozwój społeczny regionu poprzez budowanie tożsamości kulturowej jego mieszkańców. Jednakże, co zostało podkreślone w artykule, pierwszym krokiem do efektywnego wykorzystywania kulturowych zasobów niematerialnych jest uświadomienie sobie ich wartości. Często z bogactwa dziedzictwa kulturowego nie zdają sobie sprawy sami jego spadkobiercy. Słuszny wydaje się więc postulat, aby promocja była skierowana zarówno do turystów, jak i lokalnej społeczności [Knaesfey 2000, s. 35–50]. Należy przy tym pamiętać, że niewiedza może nie tylko uniemożliwić wykorzystanie zasobu, ale także doprowadzić do jego zniszczenia.
Buczkowska K., Turystyka kulturowa. Przewodnik metodyczny, Poznań 2008. Buczkowska K., Turysta kulturowy – klient nietuzinkowy [w:] Stasiak A. (red.), Kultura i Turystyka – wspólnie zyskać, Łódź 2009. Dobkiewiczowa K., Drogocenne wiano. Zbiór legend o błogosławionej Kindze księżnie polskiej, patronce górników, obrończyni wiary, matce ludu polskiego w 700 rocznicę śmierci. Katowice, 1988. Giaccardi E., Collective Storytelling and Social Creativity in the Virtual Museum: A Case Study, „Design Issues”, 22:3, summer 2006, p. 29–41. Jafari J., Encyclopedia of Tourism, London 2000.
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8. Zakończenie
elektr.]. Planując jej rozwój trzeba pamiętać o ewentualnych niebezpieczeństwach. Dziedzictwo kulturowe, zwłaszcza w swoich niematerialnych przejawach, jest bardzo wrażliwe, wymaga zrównoważonej ochrony, która przede wszystkim zapewni ciągłość jego przekazu. Decydując się na sprzedaż niematerialnego produktu turystyki kulturowej, należy wziąć pod uwagę, że w przeciwieństwie do zabytków materialnych, jest on zasobem nieodnawialnym, dlatego należy starać się, by poprzez umiejętne zarządzanie nie dopuścić do jego nadmiernej eksploatacji.
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tyle wartościowy, aby na nim budować wizerunek gminy jako miejsca atrakcyjnego turystycznie i kulturowo. Legendy i baśnie są postrzegane, jako element życia codziennego mieszkańców, a nie coś unikalnego i wyjątkowego. Baśnie i legendy, poprzez swój wyjątkowy, niematerialny charakter, są też częścią folkloru lokalnego – trudną do uchwycenia, a następnie wykorzystania do promocji regionu. Respondenci zarówno w trakcie badań ankietowych, jak również podczas późniejszych wywiadów wskazywali na brak pomysłów, w jaki sposób ten potencjał wykorzystywać. Na podstawie przeprowadzonych badań można wywnioskować, że pierwszym krokiem do efektywnego i świadomego wykorzystania baśni i legend w strategii promocji regionu jest podniesienie wiedzy w instytucjach odpowiedzialnych za ich ochronę i popularyzację (biblioteki, instytucje kultury, samorządy terytorialne) na temat ich zadań oraz samej wartości baśni i legend, jako istotnego elementu tożsamości kulturowej regionu, a dopiero potem można zacząć projektować i wdrażać efektywne projekty z zakresu ich ochrony i popularyzacji.
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Krawczyk-Wasilewska V., Współczesna wiedza o folklorze, Warszawa 1986. Krzysztofowicz-Kozakowska S., O sztuce ludowej w Polsce, Warszawa 1972. Lowenthal D., The Heritage Crusade and the Spoils of History, Cambridge 1998. Małek J., Turystyka kulturowa jako czynnik rozwoju lokalnego, 2003, [dok. elektr.] www.wgsr.uw.edu.pl/pub/uploads/pis03/malek.pdf [odczyt: 30.04.2011]. Mikos von Rohrscheidt A., Turystyka kulturowa: fenomen, potencjał, perspektywy, Gniezno 2008. Moskal K., Zamki w dziejach Polski i Słowacji między Wisłą a Tornadem, Nowy Sącz 2004. Noel S., Van den Branden E., Cultural tourism storytelling in Flanders: the story behind the stories, 2009, [dok. elektr.] http://www.steunpunttoerisme.be/ main/publicaties Odoj G., Pec A., Dziedzictwo kulturowe. Edukacja regionalna, Warszawa 2000. Ogrodowska B., Zwyczaje, obrzędy i tradycje w Polsce. Mały słownik, Warszawa 2000. Pawlikowska-Wójcicka A., Edukacja regionalna, Małopolska, Kraków 2005.
Pokropek M., Atlas Sztuki Ludowej i folkloru w Polsce, Warszawa 1978. Rożek M., Kraków Magiczny, Kraków 2005. Skarga P., Kazania sejmowe, Wrocław; Kraków 1995. Sławiński J. red., Podręczny słownik terminów literackich, Warszawa 1999. Staszewski J., Mały słownik: pochodzenie i znaczenie nazw geograficznych, Warszawa 1968. Sukertowa-Biedrawina E., Legendy nadprądnikowe, Warszawa 1998. Ustawa z dnia 23 lipca 2003 r. o ochronie zabytków i opiece nad zabytkami, Dz.U. 2003 nr 162 poz. 1568 z późn. zm. Ustawa z dnia 25 października 1991 r. o organizowaniu i prowadzeniu działalności kulturalnej, Dz.U. 1991 nr 114 poz. 493 z późn. zm. Ustawa z dnia 8 marca 1990 r. o samorządzie gminnym, Dz.U. 1990 nr 16 poz. 95 z późn. zm. Zmyślony M. et al., Kierunki Rozwoju Turystyki dla Województwa Małopolskiego na lata 2008–2013, 2008, [dok. elektr.] http://www.malopolskie.pl/Pliki/2008/ Kierunki.pdf [odczyt: 22.04.2011].
Krawczyk-Wasilewska V., Współczesna wiedza o folklorze, Warszawa 1986. Krzysztofowicz-Kozakowska S., O sztuce ludowej w Polsce, Warszawa 1972. Lowenthal D., The Heritage Crusade and the Spoils of History, Cambridge 1998. Małek J., Turystyka kulturowa jako czynnik rozwoju lokalnego, 2003, [dok. elektr.] www.wgsr.uw.edu.pl/pub/uploads/pis03/malek.pdf [odczyt: 30.04.2011]. Mikos von Rohrscheidt A., Turystyka kulturowa: fenomen, potencjał, perspektywy, Gniezno 2008. Moskal K., Zamki w dziejach Polski i Słowacji między Wisłą a Tornadem, Nowy Sącz 2004. Noel S., Van den Branden E., Cultural tourism storytelling in Flanders: the story behind the stories, 2009, [dok. elektr.] http://www.steunpunttoerisme.be/ main/publicaties Odoj G., Pec A., Dziedzictwo kulturowe. Edukacja regionalna, Warszawa 2000. Ogrodowska B., Zwyczaje, obrzędy i tradycje w Polsce. Mały słownik, Warszawa 2000. Pawlikowska-Wójcicka A., Edukacja regionalna, Małopolska, Kraków 2005. Zarządzanie Kulturą 2011, Vol 4 (4)
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Pokropek M., Atlas Sztuki Ludowej i folkloru w Polsce, Warszawa 1978. Rożek M., Kraków Magiczny, Kraków 2005. Skarga P., Kazania sejmowe, Wrocław; Kraków 1995. Sławiński J. red., Podręczny słownik terminów literackich, Warszawa 1999. Staszewski J., Mały słownik: pochodzenie i znaczenie nazw geograficznych, Warszawa 1968. Sukertowa-Biedrawina E., Legendy nadprądnikowe, Warszawa 1998. Ustawa z dnia 23 lipca 2003 r. o ochronie zabytków i opiece nad zabytkami, Dz.U. 2003 nr 162 poz. 1568 z późn. zm. Ustawa z dnia 25 października 1991 r. o organizowaniu i prowadzeniu działalności kulturalnej, Dz.U. 1991 nr 114 poz. 493 z późn. zm. Ustawa z dnia 8 marca 1990 r. o samorządzie gminnym, Dz.U. 1990 nr 16 poz. 95 z późn. zm. Zmyślony M. et al., Kierunki Rozwoju Turystyki dla Województwa Małopolskiego na lata 2008–2013, 2008, [dok. elektr.] http://www.malopolskie.pl/Pliki/2008/ Kierunki.pdf [odczyt: 22.04.2011].
Misyjność organizacji medialnej w otoczeniu społeczno-kulturalnym
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adawcy publiczni mają szczególne obowiązki, ale także uprawnienia. Do uprawnień nadawców publicznych należą wpływy abonamentowe oraz prawo do rozpowszechniania programów bez potrzeby uzyskiwania koncesji. Art. 26 ust. 1 – 3 stanowi o charakterze jednostki publicznej radiofonii czy telewizji, która zawsze winna działać w formie wyłącznie jednoosobowych spółek akcyjnych Skarbu Państwa [Ustawa o radiofonii i telewizji, 1992]. Ustawodawca zobowiązał media publiczne do wykonywania szczególnych zadań. Do ich szerokiego zakresu należy katalog prac, w tym tworzenie i rozpowszechnianie programów ogólnokrajowych, regionalnych, dla odbiorców za granicą w języku polskim i innych językach oraz innych programów realizujących demokratyczne, społeczne i kulturalne potrzeby społeczności lokalnych. Media publiczne powinny realizować także zadania w obrębie popierania twórczości artystycznej, literackiej, naukowej oraz działalności oświatowej, jak również upowszechniać
Justyna Przyborowicz Doktorantka na Wydziale Zarządzania i Komunikacji Społecznej UJ. Dziennikarka i publicystka radiowa. Do jej zainteresowań należą: systemy medialne, unijna polityka medialna, kultura współczesna.
N
edia publiczne odgrywają znaczącą rolę w tworzeniu świadomego kulturowo społeczeństwa obywatelskiego. Kreowanie wizji adekwatnej do wymogów otoczenia, potrzebne jest do realizacji przez publiczne organizacje medialne swych priorytetowych celów. Działania mediów publicznych przebiegają zgodnie ze zmianami w otoczeniu społeczno-kulturalnym, ale również same organizacje medialne mogą mieć wpływ na otoczenie. W pracy zależność ta została przedstawiona z uwzględnieniem rozwiązań legislacyjnych dotyczących realizacji misji polskich mediów. Celem pracy jest wskazanie cech misyjności mediów publicznych w otoczeniu kulturalno-społecznym.
1. Charakter mediów publicznych
wiedzę o języku polskim. Co ważne, zarówno media ogólnopolskie, jak i regionalne powinny reagować na potrzeby mniejszości narodowych i etnicznych oraz społeczności posługującej się językiem regionalnym. W tym celu są zobowiązane emitować również programy informacyjne w językach mniejszości narodowych i etnicznych oraz języku regionalnym. Za art. 21. ust. 1 [Ustawa o radiofonii i telewizji, 1992] nadawca publiczny powinien również tworzyć i udostępniać programy edukacyjne na użytek środowisk polonijnych oraz Polaków zamieszkałych za granicą. Koncepcja publicznych mediów związana jest również z imperatywem etycznym. Można przedstawić znaczenie nadawcy publicznego na trzech definicyjnych poziomach [Napoli, Albarran, Chan-Olmsted, Wirtin red. 2006, s. 276]: konceptualny, operacyjny i aplikacyjny. Na poziomie konceptualnym, który jest najszerszy, debata skupia się nad pojęciem determinizmu publicznego interesu. Na poziom operacyjny składa się praca konceptualna oraz identyfikacja dostarczania publicznego interesu. Ostatni poziom aplikacyjny to miejsce debaty dotyczące najważniejszych wartości i pryncypiów ustosunkowanych do poziomu operacyjnego, który jest przełożony na specyficzne formy zachowań oraz unormowania prawne. Oprócz działalności programowej, do zakresu zadań mediów publicznych należy również tworzenie i rozpowszechnianie programów wyspecjalizowanych, na których rozpowszechnianie uzyskano koncesje [Napoli, Albarran, Chan-Olmsted, Wirtin red. 2006, s. 276]. Ponadto: budowanie i eksploatowanie nadawczych i przekaźnikowych stacji radiowych i telewizyjnych, rozpowszechnianie przekazów tekstowych, prowadzenie prac nad nowymi technikami tworzenia i rozpowszechniania programów radiowych i telewizyjnych. To również prowadzenie działalności produkcyjnej, usługowej i handlowej
1. Charakter mediów publicznych
edia publiczne odgrywają znaczącą rolę w tworzeniu świadomego kulturowo społeczeństwa obywatelskiego. Kreowanie wizji adekwatnej do wymogów otoczenia, potrzebne jest do realizacji przez publiczne organizacje medialne swych priorytetowych celów. Działania mediów publicznych przebiegają zgodnie ze zmianami w otoczeniu społeczno-kulturalnym, ale również same organizacje medialne mogą mieć wpływ na otoczenie. W pracy zależność ta została przedstawiona z uwzględnieniem rozwiązań legislacyjnych dotyczących realizacji misji polskich mediów. Celem pracy jest wskazanie cech misyjności mediów publicznych w otoczeniu kulturalno-społecznym.
N
M
wiedzę o języku polskim. Co ważne, zarówno media ogólnopolskie, jak i regionalne powinny reagować na potrzeby mniejszości narodowych i etnicznych oraz społeczności posługującej się językiem regionalnym. W tym celu są zobowiązane emitować również programy informacyjne w językach mniejszości narodowych i etnicznych oraz języku regionalnym. Za art. 21. ust. 1 [Ustawa o radiofonii i telewizji, 1992] nadawca publiczny powinien również tworzyć i udostępniać programy edukacyjne na użytek środowisk polonijnych oraz Polaków zamieszkałych za granicą. Koncepcja publicznych mediów związana jest również z imperatywem etycznym. Można przedstawić znaczenie nadawcy publicznego na trzech definicyjnych poziomach [Napoli, Albarran, Chan-Olmsted, Wirtin red. 2006, s. 276]: konceptualny, operacyjny i aplikacyjny. Na poziomie konceptualnym, który jest najszerszy, debata skupia się nad pojęciem determinizmu publicznego interesu. Na poziom operacyjny składa się praca konceptualna oraz identyfikacja dostarczania publicznego interesu. Ostatni poziom aplikacyjny to miejsce debaty dotyczące najważniejszych wartości i pryncypiów ustosunkowanych do poziomu operacyjnego, który jest przełożony na specyficzne formy zachowań oraz unormowania prawne. Oprócz działalności programowej, do zakresu zadań mediów publicznych należy również tworzenie i rozpowszechnianie programów wyspecjalizowanych, na których rozpowszechnianie uzyskano koncesje [Napoli, Albarran, Chan-Olmsted, Wirtin red. 2006, s. 276]. Ponadto: budowanie i eksploatowanie nadawczych i przekaźnikowych stacji radiowych i telewizyjnych, rozpowszechnianie przekazów tekstowych, prowadzenie prac nad nowymi technikami tworzenia i rozpowszechniania programów radiowych i telewizyjnych. To również prowadzenie działalności produkcyjnej, usługowej i handlowej
Justyna Przyborowicz Doktorantka na Wydziale Zarządzania i Komunikacji Społecznej UJ. Dziennikarka i publicystka radiowa. Do jej zainteresowań należą: systemy medialne, unijna polityka medialna, kultura współczesna.
adawcy publiczni mają szczególne obowiązki, ale także uprawnienia. Do uprawnień nadawców publicznych należą wpływy abonamentowe oraz prawo do rozpowszechniania programów bez potrzeby uzyskiwania koncesji. Art. 26 ust. 1 – 3 stanowi o charakterze jednostki publicznej radiofonii czy telewizji, która zawsze winna działać w formie wyłącznie jednoosobowych spółek akcyjnych Skarbu Państwa [Ustawa o radiofonii i telewizji, 1992]. Ustawodawca zobowiązał media publiczne do wykonywania szczególnych zadań. Do ich szerokiego zakresu należy katalog prac, w tym tworzenie i rozpowszechnianie programów ogólnokrajowych, regionalnych, dla odbiorców za granicą w języku polskim i innych językach oraz innych programów realizujących demokratyczne, społeczne i kulturalne potrzeby społeczności lokalnych. Media publiczne powinny realizować także zadania w obrębie popierania twórczości artystycznej, literackiej, naukowej oraz działalności oświatowej, jak również upowszechniać
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Zarządzanie Kulturą 2011, Vol 4 (4)
związanej z twórczością audiowizualną, w tym eksport i import. Sam przekaz także musi charakteryzować się misyjnością. Ustawodawca wskazał ponadto ramy dla emitowanych programów. Do zobowiązań programów emitowanych w mediach publicznych należy: 1. „Kierować się odpowiedzialnością za słowo i dbać o dobre imię publicznej radiofonii i telewizji; 2. Rzetelnie ukazywać całą różnorodność wydarzeń i zjawisk w kraju i za granicą; 3. Sprzyjać swobodnemu kształtowaniu się poglądów obywateli oraz formowaniu się opinii publicznej; 4. Umożliwiać obywatelom i ich organizacjom uczestniczenie w życiu publicznym przez prezentowanie zróżnicowanych poglądów i stanowisk oraz wykonywanie prawa do kontroli i krytyki społecznej; 5. Służyć rozwojowi kultury, nauki i oświaty, ze szczególnym uwzględnieniem polskiego dorobku intelektualnego i artystycznego; 6. Respektować chrześcijański system wartości, za podstawę przyjmując uniwersalne zasady etyki; 7. Służyć umacnianiu rodziny; 8. Służyć kształtowaniu postaw prozdrowotnych; 9. Służyć zwalczaniu patologii społecznych”. [Ustawa o radiofonii i telewizji, 1992, art. 21 ust. 2].
Współczesne społeczeństwa mają coraz większą świadomość treści, które chcą odbierać oraz łatwiejszy dostęp do informacji. Czynniki te determinują klarowne wywiązywanie się ze zobowiązań mediów publicznych. W celu reakcji na potrzeby społeczno-kulturalne, media publiczne muszą dążyć do specjalizacji, tworzyć bloki tematyczne oraz wysoko-wyspecjalizowane kanały. Realizacja tych celów wymaga odświeżenia charakteru polskich mediów, ich wizerunku oraz obszernych zmian systemowych. W celu realizacji koncepcji misyjnych współczesne organizacje medialne winny uwzględnić relacje i wymogi rynkowe, respektować cechy otoczenia i wymagania rozwijającego się społeczeństwa. Sposób zarządzania misją zależy od charakteru nadawcy. Misyjna organizacja winna sprzyjać przede wszystkim oczekiwaniom społeczeństwa. Dziennikarstwo zmienia się w zależności od sposobu finansowania i oczekiwań inwestorów. Gdyby wziąć pod uwagę, że inwestorem jest w pierwszym względzie abonent, to priorytetem codziennej pracy dziennikarskiej powinna być odpowiedź na jego potrzeby. Niemniej jednak misja mediów, to służba dziennikarska. Obowiązkiem pracowników mediów publicznych
Justyna Przyborowicz
2. Otoczenie organizacji medialnej
O
toczenie organizacji w koncepcjach modernistycznych zwykło się definiować przez jego elementy. Wyróżnić tu można sieć międzyorganizacyjną oraz otoczenie międzynarodowe, ogólne lub globalne. Sieć międzyorganizacyjną tworzą wszystkie elementy, które mogą wchodzić w interakcje z organizacją. Organizacja medialna produkuje towary w formie treści medialnej i świadczy usługi (np. telegazeta, telezakupy), które podlegają konsumpcji przez otoczenie, oddziałuje ona także na klientów, czyli widzów lub słuchaczy. Sieć międzyorganizacyjna składa się z dostawców, klientów, konkurentów, związków zawodowych, instytucji kontrolnych oraz grupy interesów (lobby). Instytucje kontrolne z kolei monitorują działalność organizacji, np. w TVP jest to np. Rada Etyki Mediów [Rada Etyki Mediów, dok. elektr.], którą do życia powołała Konferencja Mediów Polskich w 1996 roku. Obecnie pracuje Rada V kadencji w jedenastoosobowym składzie. Według regulaminu Rady, do jej kompetencji należy wypowiadanie się w sprawach związanych z przestrzeganiem Karty Etycznej Mediów z 1995 roku. Karta stanowi, że dziennikarz powinien kierować się siedmioma zasadami: prawdy, obiektywizmu, oddzielenia informacji od komentarza, uczciwości, szacunku i tolerancji, pierwszeństwa dobra odbiorcy, wolności i odpowiedzialności. Zasady zawarte w Karcie rozszerza Dziennikarski Kodeks Obyczajowy z 2002 roku. Rada nie dysponuje żadnymi sankcjami, może tylko wskazywać wykroczenia, wyrażać opinie, zajmować stanowiska w konkretnych sprawach i apelować. Jednakże stanowiska Rady traktowane są jako opiniotwórcze w sprawach mediów, dlatego często o opinię Rady zwracają się różne instytucje, w tym także sądy [Rada Etyki Mediów, dok. elektr.]. Analiza sieci dla modernistów oznaczać może również określenie jej racjonalnych granic (wyłącznie niektóre sieci są systemami zamkniętymi). Menadżerowie mają skłonność do stawiania organizacji w centrum sieci, co może nieść za sobą konsekwencje w postaci zaburzenia obiektywnego spojrzenia [Hatch 2001, s. 55]. Organizacja medialna nie stawia wówczas na budowanie interakcji ze społeczeństwem, może ograniczać się do swoich produkcji powstających
Misyjność organizacji medialnej w otoczeniu społeczno-kulturalnym
toczenie organizacji w koncepcjach modernistycznych zwykło się definiować przez jego elementy. Wyróżnić tu można sieć międzyorganizacyjną oraz otoczenie międzynarodowe, ogólne lub globalne. Sieć międzyorganizacyjną tworzą wszystkie elementy, które mogą wchodzić w interakcje z organizacją. Organizacja medialna produkuje towary w formie treści medialnej i świadczy usługi (np. telegazeta, telezakupy), które podlegają konsumpcji przez otoczenie, oddziałuje ona także na klientów, czyli widzów lub słuchaczy. Sieć międzyorganizacyjna składa się z dostawców, klientów, konkurentów, związków zawodowych, instytucji kontrolnych oraz grupy interesów (lobby). Instytucje kontrolne z kolei monitorują działalność organizacji, np. w TVP jest to np. Rada Etyki Mediów [Rada Etyki Mediów, dok. elektr.], którą do życia powołała Konferencja Mediów Polskich w 1996 roku. Obecnie pracuje Rada V kadencji w jedenastoosobowym składzie. Według regulaminu Rady, do jej kompetencji należy wypowiadanie się w sprawach związanych z przestrzeganiem Karty Etycznej Mediów z 1995 roku. Karta stanowi, że dziennikarz powinien kierować się siedmioma zasadami: prawdy, obiektywizmu, oddzielenia informacji od komentarza, uczciwości, szacunku i tolerancji, pierwszeństwa dobra odbiorcy, wolności i odpowiedzialności. Zasady zawarte w Karcie rozszerza Dziennikarski Kodeks Obyczajowy z 2002 roku. Rada nie dysponuje żadnymi sankcjami, może tylko wskazywać wykroczenia, wyrażać opinie, zajmować stanowiska w konkretnych sprawach i apelować. Jednakże stanowiska Rady traktowane są jako opiniotwórcze w sprawach mediów, dlatego często o opinię Rady zwracają się różne instytucje, w tym także sądy [Rada Etyki Mediów, dok. elektr.]. Analiza sieci dla modernistów oznaczać może również określenie jej racjonalnych granic (wyłącznie niektóre sieci są systemami zamkniętymi). Menadżerowie mają skłonność do stawiania organizacji w centrum sieci, co może nieść za sobą konsekwencje w postaci zaburzenia obiektywnego spojrzenia [Hatch 2001, s. 55]. Organizacja medialna nie stawia wówczas na budowanie interakcji ze społeczeństwem, może ograniczać się do swoich produkcji powstających
Misyjność organizacji medialnej w otoczeniu społeczno-kulturalnym
przy każdej realizacji zadania jest pamiętanie o priorytetach swojej pracy, zawartych w służbie publicznej.
Justyna Przyborowicz
Współczesne społeczeństwa mają coraz większą świadomość treści, które chcą odbierać oraz łatwiejszy dostęp do informacji. Czynniki te determinują klarowne wywiązywanie się ze zobowiązań mediów publicznych. W celu reakcji na potrzeby społeczno-kulturalne, media publiczne muszą dążyć do specjalizacji, tworzyć bloki tematyczne oraz wysoko-wyspecjalizowane kanały. Realizacja tych celów wymaga odświeżenia charakteru polskich mediów, ich wizerunku oraz obszernych zmian systemowych. W celu realizacji koncepcji misyjnych współczesne organizacje medialne winny uwzględnić relacje i wymogi rynkowe, respektować cechy otoczenia i wymagania rozwijającego się społeczeństwa. Sposób zarządzania misją zależy od charakteru nadawcy. Misyjna organizacja winna sprzyjać przede wszystkim oczekiwaniom społeczeństwa. Dziennikarstwo zmienia się w zależności od sposobu finansowania i oczekiwań inwestorów. Gdyby wziąć pod uwagę, że inwestorem jest w pierwszym względzie abonent, to priorytetem codziennej pracy dziennikarskiej powinna być odpowiedź na jego potrzeby. Niemniej jednak misja mediów, to służba dziennikarska. Obowiązkiem pracowników mediów publicznych
związanej z twórczością audiowizualną, w tym eksport i import. Sam przekaz także musi charakteryzować się misyjnością. Ustawodawca wskazał ponadto ramy dla emitowanych programów. Do zobowiązań programów emitowanych w mediach publicznych należy: 1. „Kierować się odpowiedzialnością za słowo i dbać o dobre imię publicznej radiofonii i telewizji; 2. Rzetelnie ukazywać całą różnorodność wydarzeń i zjawisk w kraju i za granicą; 3. Sprzyjać swobodnemu kształtowaniu się poglądów obywateli oraz formowaniu się opinii publicznej; 4. Umożliwiać obywatelom i ich organizacjom uczestniczenie w życiu publicznym przez prezentowanie zróżnicowanych poglądów i stanowisk oraz wykonywanie prawa do kontroli i krytyki społecznej; 5. Służyć rozwojowi kultury, nauki i oświaty, ze szczególnym uwzględnieniem polskiego dorobku intelektualnego i artystycznego; 6. Respektować chrześcijański system wartości, za podstawę przyjmując uniwersalne zasady etyki; 7. Służyć umacnianiu rodziny; 8. Służyć kształtowaniu postaw prozdrowotnych; 9. Służyć zwalczaniu patologii społecznych”. [Ustawa o radiofonii i telewizji, 1992, art. 21 ust. 2].
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2011, Vol 4 (4)
227
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2. Otoczenie organizacji medialnej przy każdej realizacji zadania jest pamiętanie o priorytetach swojej pracy, zawartych w służbie publicznej.
Na organizację działa wiele czynników zewnętrznych, które można usytuować w różnych sektorach, składających się na otoczenie ogólne. Obok sektora prawnego, politycznego, ekonomicznego, technologicznego i środowiska naturalnego, wyróżnić można społeczny i kulturowy. Dla organizacji medialnej, która wypełnia daną misję, zasadnicze w działaniach mogą okazać się wpływy otoczenia właśnie społecznego i kulturowego. Społeczny sektor bezpośrednio łączy się z kulturą klasową, stylami życia, które przyjęło społeczeństwo, tradycyjnymi instytucjami społecznymi (systemy edukacji, praktyki religijne, handel, zawody) oraz względami demograficznymi. Dla organizacji medialnej jest to o tyle ważne w wytyczaniu zadań, że staje się materią codziennej pracy działów, redakcji, które w efekcie tworzą swój przekaz. Dzieje się tak zarówno w skali globalnej, jak i narodowej oraz lokalnej. Jeżeli porównalibyśmy media publiczne działające w różnych systemach medialnych, które były utworzone na mocy prawa tam stanowionego, zauważylibyśmy różnice w działaniach, sposobie funkcjonowania, treściach oraz sposobie wyrażania tych treści [Hatch 2001, s. 55]. Trudno również nie zgodzić się z tym, że organizacje medialne w otoczeniu społecznym działają na zasadzie norm i legislacji w tym otoczeniu ustanowionych. Jednak i one mogą ulegać zmianom, dlatego dla osób zarządzających organizacją medialną, otoczenie jest źródłem niepewności [Koźmiński 2000, s. 33]. Dobrze obrazują to przykłady historycznego ukształtowania systemów medialnych oraz ujęcie systemowe zarządzania mediami. niezależnie od potrzeb społeczeństwa. Wchodzi wtedy w sytuacje konkurencyjne, nie bacząc na realne zapotrzebowanie wśród potencjalnych odbiorców.
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2011, Vol 4 (4)
3. Relacje społeczne z otoczeniem medialnym
228
Przykłady lokalne ukazują swoiste relacje społeczeństwa z organizacją medialną. Treści poruszane w mediach lokalnych są bezpośrednio kształtowane ze względu na bodźce wypływające ze społeczeństwa. Są często reakcją na zaistnie-
S
posób kształtowania się relacji społecznych z sektorem medialnym dobrze obrazują przykłady tworzących się systemów medialnych w Europie. Polityczne oraz kulturowe bodźce miały znaczący wpływ w tworzących się rozwiązaniach prawnych dla mediów w zależności od systemów partyjnych panujących w poszczególnych krajach. W krajach demokratycznego korporacjonizmu w XIX wieku, zaczęły powstawać partie masowe, które z czasem przybierały coraz bardziej na sile.
Partie wykształcały swoje struktury, które zaczęły przenikać do warstw społecznych, sieci instytucji, będących swoistą platformą do komunikowania z członkami partii. Co ważne, miały one również powiązania z organizacjami społecznymi m. in.: związkami zawodowymi, stowarzyszeniami biznesowymi oraz społecznościami religijnymi. Powiązania kształtowały podziały między zwolennikami danych partii, a na co warto zwrócić uwagę, podziały te miały charakter społeczny, zgodny z interesami i tożsamością kulturową. Odpowiadały podziałom klasowym, religijnym i językowym. Grupy te tworzyły swoiste subkultury w społeczeństwie i uczyniły system zwany pluralizmem sfragmentaryzowanym. Grupy o znaczeniu społecznym odegrały również rolę w organizacji mediów publicznych, miały swoje odzwierciedlenie w sile związków zawodowych dziennikarzy i organizacji dziennikarskich [Mancini, Hallin 2007, s. 191]. Związki społeczno-medialne są zatem ukształtowane bardzo silnie ze względu na historyczne uwarunkowania. Niektóre systemy wyraźnie wskazują na społeczne wpływy względem kształtowania się legislacji medialnej, celów i podziału rynku mediów. System holenderski, na przykład, działał na gruncie specyficznej formy pluralizmu zewnętrznego, charakteryzującej się istnieniem odrębnych spółek nadawczych, które reprezentowały różne grupy społeczne. Pluralizm wewnętrzny z kolei dotyczy m. in. zawartości mediów, która winna odzwierciedlać różnorodność punktów widzenia w społeczeństwie – jak i struktury organizacji medialnych obejmujących często przedstawicieli różnych grup społecznych, politycznych lub kulturowych. Jest to czynnik wyróżniający model demokratycznego korporacjonizmu od systemów liberalnych. BBC uniezależniła media od rządu, partii politycznych i innych zaangażowanych grup społecznych. Pluralizm w krajach liberalnych wiąże się z przeniesieniem odpowiedzialności za reprezentowanie różnych głosów i odpowiadanie za potrzeby społeczeństw na neutralnych pracowników medialnych i dziennikarzy [Mancini, Hallin 2007, s. 191]. Niezależnie od sposobu ukształtowania się systemów medialnych, należy wskazać na dużą zależność nastrojów i interakcji społecznych, względem kształtującego się profilu sektora medialnego w Europie.
S
Przykłady lokalne ukazują swoiste relacje społeczeństwa z organizacją medialną. Treści poruszane w mediach lokalnych są bezpośrednio kształtowane ze względu na bodźce wypływające ze społeczeństwa. Są często reakcją na zaistnie-
3. Relacje społeczne z otoczeniem medialnym
posób kształtowania się relacji społecznych z sektorem medialnym dobrze obrazują przykłady tworzących się systemów medialnych w Europie. Polityczne oraz kulturowe bodźce miały znaczący wpływ w tworzących się rozwiązaniach prawnych dla mediów w zależności od systemów partyjnych panujących w poszczególnych krajach. W krajach demokratycznego korporacjonizmu w XIX wieku, zaczęły powstawać partie masowe, które z czasem przybierały coraz bardziej na sile.
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2011, Vol 4 (4)
Na organizację działa wiele czynników zewnętrznych, które można usytuować w różnych sektorach, składających się na otoczenie ogólne. Obok sektora prawnego, politycznego, ekonomicznego, technologicznego i środowiska naturalnego, wyróżnić można społeczny i kulturowy. Dla organizacji medialnej, która wypełnia daną misję, zasadnicze w działaniach mogą okazać się wpływy otoczenia właśnie społecznego i kulturowego. Społeczny sektor bezpośrednio łączy się z kulturą klasową, stylami życia, które przyjęło społeczeństwo, tradycyjnymi instytucjami społecznymi (systemy edukacji, praktyki religijne, handel, zawody) oraz względami demograficznymi. Dla organizacji medialnej jest to o tyle ważne w wytyczaniu zadań, że staje się materią codziennej pracy działów, redakcji, które w efekcie tworzą swój przekaz. Dzieje się tak zarówno w skali globalnej, jak i narodowej oraz lokalnej. Jeżeli porównalibyśmy media publiczne działające w różnych systemach medialnych, które były utworzone na mocy prawa tam stanowionego, zauważylibyśmy różnice w działaniach, sposobie funkcjonowania, treściach oraz sposobie wyrażania tych treści [Hatch 2001, s. 55]. Trudno również nie zgodzić się z tym, że organizacje medialne w otoczeniu społecznym działają na zasadzie norm i legislacji w tym otoczeniu ustanowionych. Jednak i one mogą ulegać zmianom, dlatego dla osób zarządzających organizacją medialną, otoczenie jest źródłem niepewności [Koźmiński 2000, s. 33]. Dobrze obrazują to przykłady historycznego ukształtowania systemów medialnych oraz ujęcie systemowe zarządzania mediami.
Partie wykształcały swoje struktury, które zaczęły przenikać do warstw społecznych, sieci instytucji, będących swoistą platformą do komunikowania z członkami partii. Co ważne, miały one również powiązania z organizacjami społecznymi m. in.: związkami zawodowymi, stowarzyszeniami biznesowymi oraz społecznościami religijnymi. Powiązania kształtowały podziały między zwolennikami danych partii, a na co warto zwrócić uwagę, podziały te miały charakter społeczny, zgodny z interesami i tożsamością kulturową. Odpowiadały podziałom klasowym, religijnym i językowym. Grupy te tworzyły swoiste subkultury w społeczeństwie i uczyniły system zwany pluralizmem sfragmentaryzowanym. Grupy o znaczeniu społecznym odegrały również rolę w organizacji mediów publicznych, miały swoje odzwierciedlenie w sile związków zawodowych dziennikarzy i organizacji dziennikarskich [Mancini, Hallin 2007, s. 191]. Związki społeczno-medialne są zatem ukształtowane bardzo silnie ze względu na historyczne uwarunkowania. Niektóre systemy wyraźnie wskazują na społeczne wpływy względem kształtowania się legislacji medialnej, celów i podziału rynku mediów. System holenderski, na przykład, działał na gruncie specyficznej formy pluralizmu zewnętrznego, charakteryzującej się istnieniem odrębnych spółek nadawczych, które reprezentowały różne grupy społeczne. Pluralizm wewnętrzny z kolei dotyczy m. in. zawartości mediów, która winna odzwierciedlać różnorodność punktów widzenia w społeczeństwie – jak i struktury organizacji medialnych obejmujących często przedstawicieli różnych grup społecznych, politycznych lub kulturowych. Jest to czynnik wyróżniający model demokratycznego korporacjonizmu od systemów liberalnych. BBC uniezależniła media od rządu, partii politycznych i innych zaangażowanych grup społecznych. Pluralizm w krajach liberalnych wiąże się z przeniesieniem odpowiedzialności za reprezentowanie różnych głosów i odpowiadanie za potrzeby społeczeństw na neutralnych pracowników medialnych i dziennikarzy [Mancini, Hallin 2007, s. 191]. Niezależnie od sposobu ukształtowania się systemów medialnych, należy wskazać na dużą zależność nastrojów i interakcji społecznych, względem kształtującego się profilu sektora medialnego w Europie.
228
niezależnie od potrzeb społeczeństwa. Wchodzi wtedy w sytuacje konkurencyjne, nie bacząc na realne zapotrzebowanie wśród potencjalnych odbiorców.
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2011, Vol 4 (4)
nie zdarzeń ważnych dla danego regionu, bądź jego społeczeństwa, problematycznych sytuacji. Prezentowane treści mogą również służyć wypełnianiu misji na rzecz poszczególnych grup społecznych. Ramówki regionalnych stacji radiowych i telewizyjnych kształtowane są właśnie w kontekście lokalnych potrzeb, co w gruncie rzeczy powinno stanowić punkt wyjścia do podejmowanej pracy wewnątrz tych jednostek. Lokalne działania nastawione są zatem na bezpośrednią komunikację ze społecznością lokalną oraz powinny stale śledzić przemiany społeczne i reagować na zaistniałe w tych społeczeństwach zdarzenia bądź zmiany. W środowisku lokalnym nadawca może być aktywnym animatorem życia na swoim terenie kojarząc lokalne środowisko z instytucjami wsparcia i organizacjami pozarządowymi [Chrisidu-Budnik 2005, s. 202]. Niezależnie jednak od poziomu funkcjonowania organizacji medialnej, zakres zarządzania powinien być postrzegany operacyjnie, występuje on bowiem w obrębie całego łańcucha zależności gospodarczych [Drucker 2009, s. 43]. Zależności oraz relacje panujące w otoczeniu nadawcy publicznego przekładają się z kolei na sposób jego funkcjonowania, a także treści, które podejmuje, przyswaja i prezentuje. Odbija się to bowiem w treści pracy dziennikarskiej, która z założenia – w przypadku nadawcy publicznego – charakteryzuje się misyjnością. Zarządzanie publiczne w tym względzie opiera się m. in. na definiowaniu problemu, który wymaga interwencji, także na legitymizacji określonych działań, co oznacza przekonanie do nich otoczenia [Hausner 2008, s. 47]. Adresatami i beneficjentami społecznie czytelnej odpowiedzialności mediów są odbiorcy, zatem to ich dobro powinno być traktowane priorytetowo.
4. Rola mediów w otoczeniu kulturalnym
M
edia publiczne powinny być gwarantem niezależności i idei demokracji. Dziś już niemożliwa jest demokracja bez mediów, co oznacza, że należy im się miejsce wśród składników owej demokracji [Strategia regulacyjna…, dok. elektr.]. Oczekiwane zmiany w postaci odpolitycznienia, a zwrócenia się w stronę promowania kulturowego rozwoju społeczeństw, może pociągnąć za sobą wzrost ich społecznego znaczenia. Z punktu widzenia odbiorców z kolei należy zaznaczyć różnicę grup i kategorii społecznych. Wielowarstwowość poziomów kultury może świadczyć o złożono-
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2011, Vol 4 (4)
ści relacji organizacji medialnej z otoczeniem właśnie kulturalnym. Wyróżnić można bowiem kilka poziomów kultury [Hofstede 2000, s. 46]: narodowej; związanej z przynależnością do regionalnej, etnicznej, religijnej lub językowej grupy; kolejny poziom związany z przynależnością do danej płci; także kultury pokoleniowej; klasy społecznej, która z kolei wiąże się z możliwościami i ograniczeniami np. zawodowymi oraz następny poziom kultury organizacyjnej lub korporacyjnej stanowiącej niejako o roli i stanowisku pracy. Świadomość funkcjonowania różnych grup i kategorii społecznych na danym terenie dla organizacji medialnej staje się bezpośrednim podmiotem rozkładu chociażby treści antenowych. Elastyczność nadawcy w tym względzie, ma przełożenie chociażby ze względu na to, że rozwój społeczności przebiegał nierównomiernie. Ponadto wzrost liczby ludności wymógł konieczność poszukiwania rozwiązań,, które umożliwiają współistnienie ludzi i stworzenie pewnej, stabilnej struktury dla społeczeństwa [Hofstede 2000, s. 47]. Nadawca medialny ma dwojakie zadanie w tym względzie. Z jednej strony reakcji na sygnały dochodzące z tego społeczeństwa, z drugiej strony prezentacje różnorodnych stanowisk i punktów widzenia, wyczulenie na różnorodność kulturową, często jednak z założeniem krzewienia poczucia wartości narodowej. Sektor kulturowy łączy się z kwestiami dotyczącymi historii, tradycji, oczekiwań względem zachowań i wartości społeczeństwa czy społeczeństw, w których działa dana organizacja. To, w jakim kręgu kulturowym ona funkcjonuje, przekłada się bezpośrednio na rodzaj przywództwa, stopień racjonalność oraz zasoby tej organizacji. Obserwowane trendy w dziedzinie kultury mogą również przekładać się na egzystowanie organizacji. Może dochodzić do obniżenia wartości autorytetu hierarchicznego, kiedy pojawia się coraz więcej specjalistów. Coraz lepiej wykształceni dziennikarze, są gotowi również do pracy wielowymiarowej (sami wykonujący czynności montażowe, zakładający grupy producenckie). Z innej znowu strony, wzrost wartości praw człowieka, do którego przyczynia się większa odpowiedzialność dziennikarzy, czy szanowanie praw pracownika, stanie na straży wolności słowa. Do tych trendów można zaliczyć np. kwestie jakości i ochrony otoczenia fizycznego. Sektor kulturowy i zaistniałe trendy zmian mogą wskazywać również na poruszane kwestie genderowe, rosnącą rolę kobiet w redakcjach, na kierowniczych sta-
229
edia publiczne powinny być gwarantem niezależności i idei demokracji. Dziś już niemożliwa jest demokracja bez mediów, co oznacza, że należy im się miejsce wśród składników owej demokracji [Strategia regulacyjna…, dok. elektr.]. Oczekiwane zmiany w postaci odpolitycznienia, a zwrócenia się w stronę promowania kulturowego rozwoju społeczeństw, może pociągnąć za sobą wzrost ich społecznego znaczenia. Z punktu widzenia odbiorców z kolei należy zaznaczyć różnicę grup i kategorii społecznych. Wielowarstwowość poziomów kultury może świadczyć o złożono-
M
4. Rola mediów w otoczeniu kulturalnym nie zdarzeń ważnych dla danego regionu, bądź jego społeczeństwa, problematycznych sytuacji. Prezentowane treści mogą również służyć wypełnianiu misji na rzecz poszczególnych grup społecznych. Ramówki regionalnych stacji radiowych i telewizyjnych kształtowane są właśnie w kontekście lokalnych potrzeb, co w gruncie rzeczy powinno stanowić punkt wyjścia do podejmowanej pracy wewnątrz tych jednostek. Lokalne działania nastawione są zatem na bezpośrednią komunikację ze społecznością lokalną oraz powinny stale śledzić przemiany społeczne i reagować na zaistniałe w tych społeczeństwach zdarzenia bądź zmiany. W środowisku lokalnym nadawca może być aktywnym animatorem życia na swoim terenie kojarząc lokalne środowisko z instytucjami wsparcia i organizacjami pozarządowymi [Chrisidu-Budnik 2005, s. 202]. Niezależnie jednak od poziomu funkcjonowania organizacji medialnej, zakres zarządzania powinien być postrzegany operacyjnie, występuje on bowiem w obrębie całego łańcucha zależności gospodarczych [Drucker 2009, s. 43]. Zależności oraz relacje panujące w otoczeniu nadawcy publicznego przekładają się z kolei na sposób jego funkcjonowania, a także treści, które podejmuje, przyswaja i prezentuje. Odbija się to bowiem w treści pracy dziennikarskiej, która z założenia – w przypadku nadawcy publicznego – charakteryzuje się misyjnością. Zarządzanie publiczne w tym względzie opiera się m. in. na definiowaniu problemu, który wymaga interwencji, także na legitymizacji określonych działań, co oznacza przekonanie do nich otoczenia [Hausner 2008, s. 47]. Adresatami i beneficjentami społecznie czytelnej odpowiedzialności mediów są odbiorcy, zatem to ich dobro powinno być traktowane priorytetowo.
229
Sektor kulturowy łączy się z kwestiami dotyczącymi historii, tradycji, oczekiwań względem zachowań i wartości społeczeństwa czy społeczeństw, w których działa dana organizacja. To, w jakim kręgu kulturowym ona funkcjonuje, przekłada się bezpośrednio na rodzaj przywództwa, stopień racjonalność oraz zasoby tej organizacji. Obserwowane trendy w dziedzinie kultury mogą również przekładać się na egzystowanie organizacji. Może dochodzić do obniżenia wartości autorytetu hierarchicznego, kiedy pojawia się coraz więcej specjalistów. Coraz lepiej wykształceni dziennikarze, są gotowi również do pracy wielowymiarowej (sami wykonujący czynności montażowe, zakładający grupy producenckie). Z innej znowu strony, wzrost wartości praw człowieka, do którego przyczynia się większa odpowiedzialność dziennikarzy, czy szanowanie praw pracownika, stanie na straży wolności słowa. Do tych trendów można zaliczyć np. kwestie jakości i ochrony otoczenia fizycznego. Sektor kulturowy i zaistniałe trendy zmian mogą wskazywać również na poruszane kwestie genderowe, rosnącą rolę kobiet w redakcjach, na kierowniczych staści relacji organizacji medialnej z otoczeniem właśnie kulturalnym. Wyróżnić można bowiem kilka poziomów kultury [Hofstede 2000, s. 46]: narodowej; związanej z przynależnością do regionalnej, etnicznej, religijnej lub językowej grupy; kolejny poziom związany z przynależnością do danej płci; także kultury pokoleniowej; klasy społecznej, która z kolei wiąże się z możliwościami i ograniczeniami np. zawodowymi oraz następny poziom kultury organizacyjnej lub korporacyjnej stanowiącej niejako o roli i stanowisku pracy. Świadomość funkcjonowania różnych grup i kategorii społecznych na danym terenie dla organizacji medialnej staje się bezpośrednim podmiotem rozkładu chociażby treści antenowych. Elastyczność nadawcy w tym względzie, ma przełożenie chociażby ze względu na to, że rozwój społeczności przebiegał nierównomiernie. Ponadto wzrost liczby ludności wymógł konieczność poszukiwania rozwiązań,, które umożliwiają współistnienie ludzi i stworzenie pewnej, stabilnej struktury dla społeczeństwa [Hofstede 2000, s. 47]. Nadawca medialny ma dwojakie zadanie w tym względzie. Z jednej strony reakcji na sygnały dochodzące z tego społeczeństwa, z drugiej strony prezentacje różnorodnych stanowisk i punktów widzenia, wyczulenie na różnorodność kulturową, często jednak z założeniem krzewienia poczucia wartości narodowej.
nowiskach, w samej treści programów mediów publicznych, w których omawiane są zagadnienia dotyczące np. równouprawnienia. Szczególnie w środowiskach lokalnych organizacje medialne żywo reagują na rolę mniejszości w regionach. Przykładem może być emitowany od poniedziałku do piątku program „Kleka” w Polskim Radiu Gdańsk. Audycja poświęcona jest informacjom z Kaszub, o Kaszubach i w języku kaszubskim [Polskie Radio Gdańsk, dok. elektr.].
mediów z jej otoczeniem kulturlano-społecznym. Nie ma zatem żadnych przesłanek do tego, by twierdzić, że to charakterystyka spójnej dla Europy misji mogłaby stać się platformą do ujednolicenia rozwoju nadawcy publicznego w kontekście współczesnych przemian kulturowych. Kompetencje te należą wyłącznie do państw, które same ustalają cechy misji mediów publicznych, funkcjonujących w ich obszarze. Komentując jednak tendencje unijne względem promowanej w mediach interakcji z kulturą, wspomnieć należy o forowanym w debacie unijnej pojęciu wielokulturowości, którą media publiczne mogłyby w swych zadaniach misyjnych uwzględnić. Szczególnie pojęcie to może zaistnieć w kontekście systemowego ujęcia mediów, które różnie kształtowało się w Europie, często zależnie od polityki i nurtów społecznych. Do zrozumienia niniejszych zależności, pomocny może być cytat zaczerpnięty z pozycji socjologa, filozofa, eseisty Zygmunta Baumana [Bauman 2011, s. 65]: „»Wielokulturowość« to odpowiedź, jakiej w dzisiejszych czasach udzielają najczęściej klasy wykształcone, opiniotwórcze i politycznie na znaczące pytania o wartości zasługujące na pielęgnowanie i kultywację w naszych niepewnych czasach i o kierunek, w jakim należałoby stanowczo i niezachwianie podążać. Ta odpowiedź wyrasta dziś do rangi kanonu politycznej poprawności – a co więcej, przeradza się w aksjomat, który nie wymaga już uzasadniania czy dowodzenia; w swoiste prolegomena do wszelkich dalszych rozważań nad wyborem linii politycznej, w kamień węgielny doxa, czyli wiedzy przy pomocy, której myślimy, ale która sama rzadko, jeśli w ogóle, staje się przedmiotem naszych rozmyślań.” Zdaje się, że słowa autora mają potwierdzenie w działaniach względem mediów na szczeblu unijnym, gdzie pojęcie wielokulturowości często pojawia się w debatach, a którego brakuje w konkretnych zapisach. Propagowaniem owej wielokulturowości mogą zająć się jednak media lokalne i wpisać je do kanonu swej codziennej misji.
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2011, Vol 4 (4)
Na płaszczyźnie europejskiej z kolei można dostrzec pewne zachowania asekuracyjne względem kulturowej roli mediów. W kontekście podejmowanych działań wewnętrznych poszczególnych państw członkowskich, funkcja kulturowa jest zauważana, ale nie jako element dookreślonej strategii dla sektora medialnego w Europie. Można zastanowić się czy możliwe jest wypełnianie misji określonej w spójny sposób dla całej Unii Europejskiej? Czy forowana zasada pluralizmu niejako temu przeczy? Biorąc pod uwagę, że UE nie ma podstawy traktatowej, by kształtować dziedzinę mediów, można by znacząco potwierdzić ten osąd. Najważniejszym instrumentem realizacji unijnej polityki audiowizualnej jest dyrektywa 2010/13/ UE o audiowizualnych usługach medialnych, która reguluje głównie sprawy dotyczące działań rynkowych, czy ochrony prawnej, pozostawiając bez wzmianki sprawy kulturowe. Warto jednak zwrócić uwagę na komunikat Komisji z 2009 roku [Komunikat Komisji w sprawie stosowania zasad pomocy… 2009], który zastąpił komunikat z 2001 roku. Komunikat, uznając szczególną specyfikę radiofonii i telewizji publicznej, traktuje ją jako usługi świadczone w ogólnym interesie gospodarczym (użyteczności publicznej). Dokument ten formułuje najważniejsze wymagania wobec państw członkowskich, skupiając się na takich kwestiach jak: MM „oficjalne zdefiniowane i powierzenie misji mediów publicznych to wyłączna kompetencja danego państwa, rola KE ogranicza się do wykrywania rażących błędów; MM nadzór nad realizacją misji należy do niezależnej instytucji; MM zapewnienie przejrzystości finansowej mediów publicznych poprzez oddzielenie działalności misyjnej i pozostałej przez wyodrębnienie rachunkowe.” [Komunikat Komisji w sprawie stosowania zasad pomocy… 2009].
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Kolejnym istotnym zagadnieniem w kontekście kulturowych przesłanek dla misyjności mediów publicznych jest samodzielność nadawców. Jest to bowiem kluczowy element wolności mediów elektronicznych. Gwarantem realizacji owej samodzielności powinien być pluralizm mediów, objawiający się w dwóch grupach celów [Strategia regulacyjna…, dok. elektr.]: 1. „Promowanie strukturalnego pluralizmu mediów poprzez:
Działania unijne skierowane są zatem w stronę finansowego wsparcia, a nie wskazywania potencjalnych czynników rozwijających interakcję
Kolejnym istotnym zagadnieniem w kontekście kulturowych przesłanek dla misyjności mediów publicznych jest samodzielność nadawców. Jest to bowiem kluczowy element wolności mediów elektronicznych. Gwarantem realizacji owej samodzielności powinien być pluralizm mediów, objawiający się w dwóch grupach celów [Strategia regulacyjna…, dok. elektr.]: 1. „Promowanie strukturalnego pluralizmu mediów poprzez:
Działania unijne skierowane są zatem w stronę finansowego wsparcia, a nie wskazywania potencjalnych czynników rozwijających interakcję
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2011, Vol 4 (4)
Na płaszczyźnie europejskiej z kolei można dostrzec pewne zachowania asekuracyjne względem kulturowej roli mediów. W kontekście podejmowanych działań wewnętrznych poszczególnych państw członkowskich, funkcja kulturowa jest zauważana, ale nie jako element dookreślonej strategii dla sektora medialnego w Europie. Można zastanowić się czy możliwe jest wypełnianie misji określonej w spójny sposób dla całej Unii Europejskiej? Czy forowana zasada pluralizmu niejako temu przeczy? Biorąc pod uwagę, że UE nie ma podstawy traktatowej, by kształtować dziedzinę mediów, można by znacząco potwierdzić ten osąd. Najważniejszym instrumentem realizacji unijnej polityki audiowizualnej jest dyrektywa 2010/13/ UE o audiowizualnych usługach medialnych, która reguluje głównie sprawy dotyczące działań rynkowych, czy ochrony prawnej, pozostawiając bez wzmianki sprawy kulturowe. Warto jednak zwrócić uwagę na komunikat Komisji z 2009 roku [Komunikat Komisji w sprawie stosowania zasad pomocy… 2009], który zastąpił komunikat z 2001 roku. Komunikat, uznając szczególną specyfikę radiofonii i telewizji publicznej, traktuje ją jako usługi świadczone w ogólnym interesie gospodarczym (użyteczności publicznej). Dokument ten formułuje najważniejsze wymagania wobec państw członkowskich, skupiając się na takich kwestiach jak: MM „oficjalne zdefiniowane i powierzenie misji mediów publicznych to wyłączna kompetencja danego państwa, rola KE ogranicza się do wykrywania rażących błędów; MM nadzór nad realizacją misji należy do niezależnej instytucji; MM zapewnienie przejrzystości finansowej mediów publicznych poprzez oddzielenie działalności misyjnej i pozostałej przez wyodrębnienie rachunkowe.” [Komunikat Komisji w sprawie stosowania zasad pomocy… 2009].
mediów z jej otoczeniem kulturlano-społecznym. Nie ma zatem żadnych przesłanek do tego, by twierdzić, że to charakterystyka spójnej dla Europy misji mogłaby stać się platformą do ujednolicenia rozwoju nadawcy publicznego w kontekście współczesnych przemian kulturowych. Kompetencje te należą wyłącznie do państw, które same ustalają cechy misji mediów publicznych, funkcjonujących w ich obszarze. Komentując jednak tendencje unijne względem promowanej w mediach interakcji z kulturą, wspomnieć należy o forowanym w debacie unijnej pojęciu wielokulturowości, którą media publiczne mogłyby w swych zadaniach misyjnych uwzględnić. Szczególnie pojęcie to może zaistnieć w kontekście systemowego ujęcia mediów, które różnie kształtowało się w Europie, często zależnie od polityki i nurtów społecznych. Do zrozumienia niniejszych zależności, pomocny może być cytat zaczerpnięty z pozycji socjologa, filozofa, eseisty Zygmunta Baumana [Bauman 2011, s. 65]: „»Wielokulturowość« to odpowiedź, jakiej w dzisiejszych czasach udzielają najczęściej klasy wykształcone, opiniotwórcze i politycznie na znaczące pytania o wartości zasługujące na pielęgnowanie i kultywację w naszych niepewnych czasach i o kierunek, w jakim należałoby stanowczo i niezachwianie podążać. Ta odpowiedź wyrasta dziś do rangi kanonu politycznej poprawności – a co więcej, przeradza się w aksjomat, który nie wymaga już uzasadniania czy dowodzenia; w swoiste prolegomena do wszelkich dalszych rozważań nad wyborem linii politycznej, w kamień węgielny doxa, czyli wiedzy przy pomocy, której myślimy, ale która sama rzadko, jeśli w ogóle, staje się przedmiotem naszych rozmyślań.” Zdaje się, że słowa autora mają potwierdzenie w działaniach względem mediów na szczeblu unijnym, gdzie pojęcie wielokulturowości często pojawia się w debatach, a którego brakuje w konkretnych zapisach. Propagowaniem owej wielokulturowości mogą zająć się jednak media lokalne i wpisać je do kanonu swej codziennej misji.
230
nowiskach, w samej treści programów mediów publicznych, w których omawiane są zagadnienia dotyczące np. równouprawnienia. Szczególnie w środowiskach lokalnych organizacje medialne żywo reagują na rolę mniejszości w regionach. Przykładem może być emitowany od poniedziałku do piątku program „Kleka” w Polskim Radiu Gdańsk. Audycja poświęcona jest informacjom z Kaszub, o Kaszubach i w języku kaszubskim [Polskie Radio Gdańsk, dok. elektr.].
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2011, Vol 4 (4) MM
MM
W kontekście relacji z otoczeniem kulturowym i społecznym znaczące są oba obszary samodzielności nadawców, które niejako gwarantują niezależność takim instytucjom. Wziąwszy pod uwagę otoczenie kulturalne, ważne są założenia promowania różnorodności zawartości treści mediów. Zasady te służą rozwojowi demokratycznych idei, ekspresji kulturalnej, która dociera do mediów właśnie z otoczenia kulturalnego. Z kolei wsparcie finansowe jest realnym założeniem pozwalającym godnie realizować owe zasady. Oprócz wsparcia mniejszości narodowych występujących w obszarze mediów, kultywowaniu tradycji i popieraniu różnorodności, media publiczne winny być wyczulone również na kolejne zależności występujące w ich otoczeniu kulturalnym. Rola mediów jest także znacząca w budowaniu narodowej tożsamości kulturowej, która może się wypełniać w myśl art. 6 Konstytucji RP („Rzeczypospolita Polska stwarza warunki upowszechniania i równego dostępu do dóbr kultury, będącej źródłem tożsamości narodu polskiego, jego trwania i rozwoju”). Dokument nakłada szczególne obowiązki na media publiczne [Strategia regulacyjna…, dok. elektr.]: MM „zobowiązanie do tworzenia i rozpowszechniania programów realizujących m. in. kulturalne potrzeby odbiorców; MM popieranie twórczości artystycznej, literackiej, naukowej oraz działalności oświatowej;
5. Zakończenie
dążenie do pluralizmu właścicielskiego, geograficznego (media lokalne, regionalne), wspieranie rozwoju mediów mniejszości oraz społecznych; MM regulacja dostępu do interoperacyjności sieci i usług komunikacji elektronicznej; MM pomoc publiczna i inne formy wsparcia, zapewnienie przejrzystości struktur własnościowych; 2. Promowanie różnorodności zawartości treści: MM promocja uczestnictwa demokratycznego i wewnętrznego pluralizmu treści, łącznie z poglądami i stanowiskami politycznymi, a także ekspresji kulturalnej; MM proces koncesjonowania i odpowiednio zaprojektowane zasady must carry/must offer; MM finansowe wsparcie produkcji i dystrybucji zawartości służące różnorodności źródeł informacji, w tym dla mediów w językach mniejszości.”
231
iędzy wyznaczonymi celami misji mediów publicznych a ich realizacją, może narodzić się wiele sprzeczności i niewłaściwych interpretacji. Podupadające jednostki regionalne świadczą również o złym zarządzaniu, problemach finansowych oraz nieprecyzyjnej legislacji względem sektora medialnego. Kiedy analizujemy misyjność mediów przez pryzmat otoczenia społeczno-kulturalnego, okazuje się, że to media regionalne są najbliżej potrzeb społeczeństw i mogą tę misję wypełniać. Unia Europejska nie ma dostatecznych kompetencji legislacyjnych w tym względzie, ale gdyby takie rozwiązania prawne byłyby możliwe, w Europie doszłoby do unifikacji systemów medialnych wyczulonych na środowisko kulturowe i opartych na potrzebach społecznych. Powstałe wówczas organizacje publiczne tworzone byłyby na wór BBC z odpolitycznionymi zarządami i pluralistycznymi ideami. To jednak kultura stanowi problem w kontekście ewentualnej unifikacji systemów medialnych ze względu na zagrożenie utraty tożsamości poszczególnych państw. Niezależnie od działań na szczeblu międzynarodowym, zachowanie nadawców na szczeblu regionalnym w założeniach gwarantuje bezpośrednią reakcję jednostek medialnych na potrzeby społecznokulturowe społeczeństw.
M
uwzględnienie potrzeb mniejszości narodowych i etnicznych; MM aktywne uczestnictwo w kreowaniu i produkcji zawartości audiowizualnej; MM propagowanie narodowego i europejskiego dziedzictwa kulturowego.” Katalog takich założeń może być wypełniany tylko w sytuacji, kiedy dochodzi do realnych interakcji organizacji medialnej z jej otoczeniem społeczno-kulturalnym. Wówczas organizacja ta może świadomie podejmować swoje działania i wypełniać misję względem swojego otoczenia. Spójny przekaz mediów budowany jest w oparciu o konteksty środowiskowe, język, którym operuje dana społeczność, podczas gdy powinien podnosić jakość swojego przekazu w celu rozwoju potencjalnych odbiorców.
5. Zakończenie
W kontekście relacji z otoczeniem kulturowym i społecznym znaczące są oba obszary samodzielności nadawców, które niejako gwarantują niezależność takim instytucjom. Wziąwszy pod uwagę otoczenie kulturalne, ważne są założenia promowania różnorodności zawartości treści mediów. Zasady te służą rozwojowi demokratycznych idei, ekspresji kulturalnej, która dociera do mediów właśnie z otoczenia kulturalnego. Z kolei wsparcie finansowe jest realnym założeniem pozwalającym godnie realizować owe zasady. Oprócz wsparcia mniejszości narodowych występujących w obszarze mediów, kultywowaniu tradycji i popieraniu różnorodności, media publiczne winny być wyczulone również na kolejne zależności występujące w ich otoczeniu kulturalnym. Rola mediów jest także znacząca w budowaniu narodowej tożsamości kulturowej, która może się wypełniać w myśl art. 6 Konstytucji RP („Rzeczypospolita Polska stwarza warunki upowszechniania i równego dostępu do dóbr kultury, będącej źródłem tożsamości narodu polskiego, jego trwania i rozwoju”). Dokument nakłada szczególne obowiązki na media publiczne [Strategia regulacyjna…, dok. elektr.]: MM „zobowiązanie do tworzenia i rozpowszechniania programów realizujących m. in. kulturalne potrzeby odbiorców; popieranie twórczości artystycznej, literackiej, naukowej oraz działalności oświatowej;
MM uwzględnienie potrzeb mniejszości narodowych i etnicznych; MM aktywne uczestnictwo w kreowaniu i produkcji zawartości audiowizualnej; MM propagowanie narodowego i europejskiego dziedzictwa kulturowego.” Katalog takich założeń może być wypełniany tylko w sytuacji, kiedy dochodzi do realnych interakcji organizacji medialnej z jej otoczeniem społeczno-kulturalnym. Wówczas organizacja ta może świadomie podejmować swoje działania i wypełniać misję względem swojego otoczenia. Spójny przekaz mediów budowany jest w oparciu o konteksty środowiskowe, język, którym operuje dana społeczność, podczas gdy powinien podnosić jakość swojego przekazu w celu rozwoju potencjalnych odbiorców.
MM dążenie do pluralizmu właścicielskiego, geograficznego (media lokalne, regionalne), wspieranie rozwoju mediów mniejszości oraz społecznych; MM regulacja dostępu do interoperacyjności sieci i usług komunikacji elektronicznej; MM pomoc publiczna i inne formy wsparcia, zapewnienie przejrzystości struktur własnościowych; 2. Promowanie różnorodności zawartości treści: MM promocja uczestnictwa demokratycznego i wewnętrznego pluralizmu treści, łącznie z poglądami i stanowiskami politycznymi, a także ekspresji kulturalnej; MM proces koncesjonowania i odpowiednio zaprojektowane zasady must carry/must offer; MM finansowe wsparcie produkcji i dystrybucji zawartości służące różnorodności źródeł informacji, w tym dla mediów w językach mniejszości.”
MM
M
iędzy wyznaczonymi celami misji mediów publicznych a ich realizacją, może narodzić się wiele sprzeczności i niewłaściwych interpretacji. Podupadające jednostki regionalne świadczą również o złym zarządzaniu, problemach finansowych oraz nieprecyzyjnej legislacji względem sektora medialnego. Kiedy analizujemy misyjność mediów przez pryzmat otoczenia społeczno-kulturalnego, okazuje się, że to media regionalne są najbliżej potrzeb społeczeństw i mogą tę misję wypełniać. Unia Europejska nie ma dostatecznych kompetencji legislacyjnych w tym względzie, ale gdyby takie rozwiązania prawne byłyby możliwe, w Europie doszłoby do unifikacji systemów medialnych wyczulonych na środowisko kulturowe i opartych na potrzebach społecznych. Powstałe wówczas organizacje publiczne tworzone byłyby na wór BBC z odpolitycznionymi zarządami i pluralistycznymi ideami. To jednak kultura stanowi problem w kontekście ewentualnej unifikacji systemów medialnych ze względu na zagrożenie utraty tożsamości poszczególnych państw. Niezależnie od działań na szczeblu międzynarodowym, zachowanie nadawców na szczeblu regionalnym w założeniach gwarantuje bezpośrednią reakcję jednostek medialnych na potrzeby społecznokulturowe społeczeństw.
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Bibliografia Krajowa Rada Radiofonii i telewizji: http://www.krrit. gov.pl/bip/ Mancini P., Hallin D., Systemy medialne: trzy modele mediów i polityki w ujęciu porównawczym, Kraków 2007. Napoli P., Issues In Media Management and Public Interes [w:] Albarran A., Chan-Olmsted S., Wirtin M., Handbook of Media Managament and Economics, New York 2006. Polskie Radio Gdańsk: http://www.radiogdansk. pl/?a=audycje Rada Etyki Mediów: http://www.radaetykimediow.pl/ oradzie.html/ Strategia regulacyjna na lata 2011–2013 opublikowana przez KRRiTv http://www.krrit.gov.pl/bip/ Ustawa o radiofonii i telewizji z dnia 29 grudnia 1992 r. Dz.U.04.253.2531.
Barta J., Markiewicz R., Matlak A., Prawo mediów, Warszawa 2002. Bauman Z., Kultura w płynnej nowoczesności, Warszawa 2011. Chrisidu-Budnik A., Organizacja i jej otoczenie [w:] Chrisidu-Budnik A., Korczak J., Pakuła A., Supernat J., Nauka organizacji i zarządzania, Wrocław 2005. Drucker P., Zarządzanie XXI wieku – wyzwania, Warszawa 2009. Hatch M. J., Teoria organizacji, Warszawa 2001. Hausner J., Zarządzanie publiczne, Warszawa 2008. Hofstede G., Kultury i organizacje, Warszawa 2000. Komunikat Komisji w sprawie stosowania zasad pomocy państwa wobec radiofonii i telewizji publicznej (2009/C257/1), Dziennik Urzędowy Unii Europejskiej, C 257, 27.10.2009 Koźmiński A., Organizacja [w:] Zarządzanie: teoria i praktyka, Warszawa 2000.
Barta J., Markiewicz R., Matlak A., Prawo mediów, Warszawa 2002. Bauman Z., Kultura w płynnej nowoczesności, Warszawa 2011. Chrisidu-Budnik A., Organizacja i jej otoczenie [w:] Chrisidu-Budnik A., Korczak J., Pakuła A., Supernat J., Nauka organizacji i zarządzania, Wrocław 2005. Drucker P., Zarządzanie XXI wieku – wyzwania, Warszawa 2009. Hatch M. J., Teoria organizacji, Warszawa 2001. Hausner J., Zarządzanie publiczne, Warszawa 2008. Hofstede G., Kultury i organizacje, Warszawa 2000. Komunikat Komisji w sprawie stosowania zasad pomocy państwa wobec radiofonii i telewizji publicznej (2009/C257/1), Dziennik Urzędowy Unii Europejskiej, C 257, 27.10.2009 Koźmiński A., Organizacja [w:] Zarządzanie: teoria i praktyka, Warszawa 2000.
Krajowa Rada Radiofonii i telewizji: http://www.krrit. gov.pl/bip/ Mancini P., Hallin D., Systemy medialne: trzy modele mediów i polityki w ujęciu porównawczym, Kraków 2007. Napoli P., Issues In Media Management and Public Interes [w:] Albarran A., Chan-Olmsted S., Wirtin M., Handbook of Media Managament and Economics, New York 2006. Polskie Radio Gdańsk: http://www.radiogdansk. pl/?a=audycje Rada Etyki Mediów: http://www.radaetykimediow.pl/ oradzie.html/ Strategia regulacyjna na lata 2011–2013 opublikowana przez KRRiTv http://www.krrit.gov.pl/bip/ Ustawa o radiofonii i telewizji z dnia 29 grudnia 1992 r. Dz.U.04.253.2531.
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Zarządzanie Kulturą 2011, Vol 4 (4)
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2011, Vol 4 (4)
Zestaw narzędzi komunikacji marketingowej dla nowo powstałych organizacji kultury trzeciego sektora Marcin Laberschek 1. Wstęp
P
rowadzące systematyczne badania polskich organizacji non-profit Stowarzyszenie Klon/ Jawor zauważa, że od 2001 roku utrzymuje się niepokojąca tendencja „starzenia się” sektora pozarządowego. W raporcie z 2008 roku podkreślono kilka istotnych spraw: z jednej strony, zwiększył się odsetek organizacji najstarszych (powyżej 15 lat), z drugiej, nie tylko powstaje coraz mniej nowych organizacji, ale także upada wiele tych inicjatyw, które niedługo wcześniej rozpoczęły działalność. Jak zauważają autorzy raportu to, że znaczny odsetek nowopowstałych organizacji przestaje funkcjonować w przeciągu kilku lat nie jest niczym zaskakującym, jednakże rozmiar tego zjawiska jest zastanawiający [Szołajska red. 2008]. Po analizie sektora pozarządowego przeprowadzonej na początku XXI wieku stwierdzono, że około 70% organizacji non-profit zaprzestaje działalności w ciągu pierwszych trzech lat od jej rozpoczęcia [Bogacz-Wojtanowska 2006, s. 59]. 12,7% wszystkich polskich organizacji trzeciego sektora wskazuje kulturę i sztukę jako bezpośrednie pole swojej działalności, a 24,1%, jako jeden z obszarów działania [Szołajska red. 2008]. Biorąc to pod uwagę, z dużą dozą pewności można założyć, iż w podobnym stopniu problemy całego obszaru non-profit mogą dotyczyć sfery kultury i sztuki. Co więcej, samo zjawisko „starzenia się” sektora pozarządowego prawdopodobnie w większym stopniu dotyka podmiotów zajmujących się kulturą i sztuką niż pozostałych organizacji – zauważono, że wysoki odsetek inicjatyw kulturalnych odznacza się „długowiecznością” istnienia [Herbst 2005]. O wyjątkowości sfery kultury i sztuki świadczą też inne dane: 75% takich organizacji nie zatrudnia żadnego pracownika (przy 67%
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2011, Vol 4 (4)
w całym sektorze), budżet połowy organizacji nie przekroczył 8,5 tys. zł (przy 13 tys. zł), a 30% z nich nie przekroczyło 1 tys. zł rocznego przychodu (przy 21%) [Herbst 2005]. Z punktu widzenia niniejszej analizy, oprócz powyższych informacji, ważne będzie także zaznaczenie, że organizacje pozarządowe zajmujące się szeroko pojętą kulturą i sztuką mogą mieć problemy w pozyskiwaniu zewnętrznych środków finansowych. Procentowy udział środków pochodzących ze źródeł samorządowych w budżecie przeciętnej organizacji kulturalnej wyniósł 16% przy 22,6% w całym sektorze, natomiast udział środków ze źródeł rządowych oraz pochodzących od instytucji i firm jest tu i tu podobny. Z drugiej strony, nieznaczną różnicę na korzyść organizacji kultury odnotowuje się w przypadku środków od osób fizycznych (12,9% kultura i sztuka; 10,7% ogół organizacji) [Herbst 2005]. Najbardziej odczuwalnymi niedogodnościami, które wskazało 61,4% organizacji non-profit, okazały się być „trudności w zdobywaniu funduszy lub sprzętu niezbędnego do prowadzenia działań organizacji” [Szołajska red. 2008]. Być może przyczyną zawieszania społecznokulturalnej działalności nowych organizacji jest ich zła sytuacja materialna. 3 na 4 organizacje przyznają, że nie posiadają żadnych rezerw finansowych. W 2007 roku w połowie organizacji non-profit, które istniały maksymalnie 2 lata, roczne przychody nie przekroczyły 5919 zł; w połowie organizacji istniejących 3-5 lat – 7,5 tys. zł; a w połowie organizacji działających powyżej 15 lat przychody nie przekroczyły 54 tys. zł [Szołajska red. 2008]. Te dysproporcje wyraźnie wskazują, jak ciężko przetrwać nowopowstałym i młodym podmiotom oraz rywalizować z tymi bardziej doświadczonymi i traktowanymi preferencyjnie.
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Marcin Laberschek Doktorant na Wydziale Zarządzania i Komunikacji Społecznej UJ. Od 2001 roku prowadzi działalność gospodarczą – współwłaściciel impresariatu artystycznego. Menedżer.
rowadzące systematyczne badania polskich organizacji non-profit Stowarzyszenie Klon/ Jawor zauważa, że od 2001 roku utrzymuje się niepokojąca tendencja „starzenia się” sektora pozarządowego. W raporcie z 2008 roku podkreślono kilka istotnych spraw: z jednej strony, zwiększył się odsetek organizacji najstarszych (powyżej 15 lat), z drugiej, nie tylko powstaje coraz mniej nowych organizacji, ale także upada wiele tych inicjatyw, które niedługo wcześniej rozpoczęły działalność. Jak zauważają autorzy raportu to, że znaczny odsetek nowopowstałych organizacji przestaje funkcjonować w przeciągu kilku lat nie jest niczym zaskakującym, jednakże rozmiar tego zjawiska jest zastanawiający [Szołajska red. 2008]. Po analizie sektora pozarządowego przeprowadzonej na początku XXI wieku stwierdzono, że około 70% organizacji non-profit zaprzestaje działalności w ciągu pierwszych trzech lat od jej rozpoczęcia [Bogacz-Wojtanowska 2006, s. 59]. 12,7% wszystkich polskich organizacji trzeciego sektora wskazuje kulturę i sztukę jako bezpośrednie pole swojej działalności, a 24,1%, jako jeden z obszarów działania [Szołajska red. 2008]. Biorąc to pod uwagę, z dużą dozą pewności można założyć, iż w podobnym stopniu problemy całego obszaru non-profit mogą dotyczyć sfery kultury i sztuki. Co więcej, samo zjawisko „starzenia się” sektora pozarządowego prawdopodobnie w większym stopniu dotyka podmiotów zajmujących się kulturą i sztuką niż pozostałych organizacji – zauważono, że wysoki odsetek inicjatyw kulturalnych odznacza się „długowiecznością” istnienia [Herbst 2005]. O wyjątkowości sfery kultury i sztuki świadczą też inne dane: 75% takich organizacji nie zatrudnia żadnego pracownika (przy 67%
P
1. Wstęp
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w całym sektorze), budżet połowy organizacji nie przekroczył 8,5 tys. zł (przy 13 tys. zł), a 30% z nich nie przekroczyło 1 tys. zł rocznego przychodu (przy 21%) [Herbst 2005]. Z punktu widzenia niniejszej analizy, oprócz powyższych informacji, ważne będzie także zaznaczenie, że organizacje pozarządowe zajmujące się szeroko pojętą kulturą i sztuką mogą mieć problemy w pozyskiwaniu zewnętrznych środków finansowych. Procentowy udział środków pochodzących ze źródeł samorządowych w budżecie przeciętnej organizacji kulturalnej wyniósł 16% przy 22,6% w całym sektorze, natomiast udział środków ze źródeł rządowych oraz pochodzących od instytucji i firm jest tu i tu podobny. Z drugiej strony, nieznaczną różnicę na korzyść organizacji kultury odnotowuje się w przypadku środków od osób fizycznych (12,9% kultura i sztuka; 10,7% ogół organizacji) [Herbst 2005]. Najbardziej odczuwalnymi niedogodnościami, które wskazało 61,4% organizacji non-profit, okazały się być „trudności w zdobywaniu funduszy lub sprzętu niezbędnego do prowadzenia działań organizacji” [Szołajska red. 2008]. Być może przyczyną zawieszania społecznokulturalnej działalności nowych organizacji jest ich zła sytuacja materialna. 3 na 4 organizacje przyznają, że nie posiadają żadnych rezerw finansowych. W 2007 roku w połowie organizacji non-profit, które istniały maksymalnie 2 lata, roczne przychody nie przekroczyły 5919 zł; w połowie organizacji istniejących 3-5 lat – 7,5 tys. zł; a w połowie organizacji działających powyżej 15 lat przychody nie przekroczyły 54 tys. zł [Szołajska red. 2008]. Te dysproporcje wyraźnie wskazują, jak ciężko przetrwać nowopowstałym i młodym podmiotom oraz rywalizować z tymi bardziej doświadczonymi i traktowanymi preferencyjnie.
Marcin Laberschek
Zestaw narzędzi komunikacji marketingowej dla nowo powstałych organizacji kultury trzeciego sektora
Marcin Laberschek Doktorant na Wydziale Zarządzania i Komunikacji Społecznej UJ. Od 2001 roku prowadzi działalność gospodarczą – współwłaściciel impresariatu artystycznego. Menedżer.
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2. Istota komunikacji marketingowej
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2011, Vol 4 (4)
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eby wskazać, które z zaprezentowanych narzędzi warto polecić nowopowstałym organizacjom kultury trzeciego sektora, należy dokonać ich oceny. Ocena zostanie przeprowadzona przy wykorzystaniu odpowiednio dobranych do tego celu pięciu par (A, B, C, D, E) przeciwstawnych parametrów: A. promujące produkt/organizację – czy skutek stosowania narzędzia jest jednorazowy (konkretny produkt kulturalny, np. koncert) czy długofalowy (wizerunek organizacji)? Dla nowopowstałych organizacji cenniejsze będą te instrumenty, których działanie jest długofalowe, takie, które pozwolą, że organizacja będzie kojarzona, widoczna na lokalnym rynku kulturalnym; B. kierowane do odbiorcy pojedynczego/grupowego – zanim organizacja pozna, kim jest odbiorca docelowy produktu, jakie ma potrzeby, preferencje, początkowe działania marketingowe powinny docierać do większych grup odbiorców; C. kosztowne/niekosztowne – jak duży ciężar finansowy niesie ze sobą wykorzystanie narzędzia komunikacji marketingowej? W rozważanym modelu ciężar ten powinien być, jak najmniejszy; D. dla organizacji o silnej/słabej marce – interesujące będą przede wszystkim te narzędzia, które mogą wykorzystać organizacje mało znane, których marka dopiero się kształtuje; które w racjonalnie szybki sposób pozwolą wykreować stabilną i rozpoznawalną markę; E. dla dużych/małych organizacji – instrument powinien odpowiadać specyfice niewielkich organizacji: posiadających jedną siedzibę, w pracę której zaangażowanych jest bezpośrednio maksymalnie 5 osób i doraźnie (pośrednio) podobna ilościowo grupa wolontariuszy. Dodatkowym elementem oceny jest punktacja mieszcząca się w przedziale od -4 do 4. W odniesieniu do każdego zestawu parametrów z osobna, danemu narzędziu przyznawane będą
doświadczeń, marketing szeptany, wystawy i targi, event marketing; 4. instrumenty komunikacji marketingowej w środowisku wirtualnym: reklama internetowa, Web 2.0, advertainment, e-marketing (elektroniczny marketing bezpośredni), elektroniczny marketing szeptany.
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3. Zastosowana metodyka oceny
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3. Zastosowana metodyka oceny
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asadniczym założeniem niniejszej pracy jest wskazanie takich narzędzi komunikacji marketingowej, z których będą mogły skorzystać nowe, niewielkie organizacje kultury trzeciego sektora dysponujące ograniczonymi zasobami finansowymi. Dzięki zastosowaniu odpowiednio dobranych narzędzi komunikacji marketingowej, organizacja przestanie być anonimowa, może stać się rozpoznawalna w lokalnym (i nie tylko) środowisku kulturalnym i administracyjnym. Z kolei, osiągnięcie założonego poziomu „rozpoznawalności” może skutkować łatwiejszym dostępem do zewnętrznych źródeł finansowych: środki osób fizycznych, budżety firm i instytucji, czy też zasoby samorządowe. Zastosowanie właściwych narzędzi komunikacji marketingowej nie daje gwarancji sukcesu, zwiększa natomiast szansę na przetrwanie trudnych pierwszych lat od rozpoczęcia działalności. O komunikacji marketingowej często mówi się wprost, jako o marketingu. Jest to jednak zbyt duże uogólnienie. Jak wskazuje Jim Blythe, gdy mowa o komunikacji marketingowej, ma się na myśli tylko takie działania organizacji, które są zauważalne przez odbiorców. Operacje organizacji związane z dystrybucją, ustalaniem ceny i samym przygotowaniem produktu są niejako „ukryte”, niedostępne percepcji klienta [Blythe 2002, s.11]. Z drugiej strony, komunikacja marketingowa nie jest także promocją sensu stricto. Jak samo pojęcie wskazuje, komunikacja marketingowa zakłada istnienie pewnej komunikacji – wzajemnej, równoważnej relacji, dialogu pomiędzy organizacją a odbiorcą. Promocja przybiera najczęściej formę jednokierunkowego przekazu, bezzwrotnego komunikatu [Wiktor, 2001]. W związku z tym, komunikacja marketingowa dysponuje bardziej rozbudowaną paletą instrumentów oddziaływania na otoczenie, pojawią się takie, których nie da się zaliczyć do zestawu klasycznie rozumianej promocji. Mówiąc o zestawie narzędzi komunikacji marketingowej, należy brać pod uwagę: 1. elementy promocji tradycyjnej wskazanej przez Philipa Kotlera – reklama, promocja sprzedaży, sprzedaż osobista, public relations i marketing bezpośredni [Kotler 2005, s. 16]; 2. elementy produktu, będące nośnikami informacji: jakość, opakowanie; 3. nowoczesne instrumenty komunikacji marketingowej: reklama szokująca, merchandising, product placement, ambient media, marketing
eby wskazać, które z zaprezentowanych narzędzi warto polecić nowopowstałym organizacjom kultury trzeciego sektora, należy dokonać ich oceny. Ocena zostanie przeprowadzona przy wykorzystaniu odpowiednio dobranych do tego celu pięciu par (A, B, C, D, E) przeciwstawnych parametrów: A. promujące produkt/organizację – czy skutek stosowania narzędzia jest jednorazowy (konkretny produkt kulturalny, np. koncert) czy długofalowy (wizerunek organizacji)? Dla nowopowstałych organizacji cenniejsze będą te instrumenty, których działanie jest długofalowe, takie, które pozwolą, że organizacja będzie kojarzona, widoczna na lokalnym rynku kulturalnym; B. kierowane do odbiorcy pojedynczego/grupowego – zanim organizacja pozna, kim jest odbiorca docelowy produktu, jakie ma potrzeby, preferencje, początkowe działania marketingowe powinny docierać do większych grup odbiorców; C. kosztowne/niekosztowne – jak duży ciężar finansowy niesie ze sobą wykorzystanie narzędzia komunikacji marketingowej? W rozważanym modelu ciężar ten powinien być, jak najmniejszy; D. dla organizacji o silnej/słabej marce – interesujące będą przede wszystkim te narzędzia, które mogą wykorzystać organizacje mało znane, których marka dopiero się kształtuje; które w racjonalnie szybki sposób pozwolą wykreować stabilną i rozpoznawalną markę; E. dla dużych/małych organizacji – instrument powinien odpowiadać specyfice niewielkich organizacji: posiadających jedną siedzibę, w pracę której zaangażowanych jest bezpośrednio maksymalnie 5 osób i doraźnie (pośrednio) podobna ilościowo grupa wolontariuszy. Dodatkowym elementem oceny jest punktacja mieszcząca się w przedziale od -4 do 4. W odniesieniu do każdego zestawu parametrów z osobna, danemu narzędziu przyznawane będą
Z
doświadczeń, marketing szeptany, wystawy i targi, event marketing; 4. instrumenty komunikacji marketingowej w środowisku wirtualnym: reklama internetowa, Web 2.0, advertainment, e-marketing (elektroniczny marketing bezpośredni), elektroniczny marketing szeptany.
asadniczym założeniem niniejszej pracy jest wskazanie takich narzędzi komunikacji marketingowej, z których będą mogły skorzystać nowe, niewielkie organizacje kultury trzeciego sektora dysponujące ograniczonymi zasobami finansowymi. Dzięki zastosowaniu odpowiednio dobranych narzędzi komunikacji marketingowej, organizacja przestanie być anonimowa, może stać się rozpoznawalna w lokalnym (i nie tylko) środowisku kulturalnym i administracyjnym. Z kolei, osiągnięcie założonego poziomu „rozpoznawalności” może skutkować łatwiejszym dostępem do zewnętrznych źródeł finansowych: środki osób fizycznych, budżety firm i instytucji, czy też zasoby samorządowe. Zastosowanie właściwych narzędzi komunikacji marketingowej nie daje gwarancji sukcesu, zwiększa natomiast szansę na przetrwanie trudnych pierwszych lat od rozpoczęcia działalności. O komunikacji marketingowej często mówi się wprost, jako o marketingu. Jest to jednak zbyt duże uogólnienie. Jak wskazuje Jim Blythe, gdy mowa o komunikacji marketingowej, ma się na myśli tylko takie działania organizacji, które są zauważalne przez odbiorców. Operacje organizacji związane z dystrybucją, ustalaniem ceny i samym przygotowaniem produktu są niejako „ukryte”, niedostępne percepcji klienta [Blythe 2002, s.11]. Z drugiej strony, komunikacja marketingowa nie jest także promocją sensu stricto. Jak samo pojęcie wskazuje, komunikacja marketingowa zakłada istnienie pewnej komunikacji – wzajemnej, równoważnej relacji, dialogu pomiędzy organizacją a odbiorcą. Promocja przybiera najczęściej formę jednokierunkowego przekazu, bezzwrotnego komunikatu [Wiktor, 2001]. W związku z tym, komunikacja marketingowa dysponuje bardziej rozbudowaną paletą instrumentów oddziaływania na otoczenie, pojawią się takie, których nie da się zaliczyć do zestawu klasycznie rozumianej promocji. Mówiąc o zestawie narzędzi komunikacji marketingowej, należy brać pod uwagę: 1. elementy promocji tradycyjnej wskazanej przez Philipa Kotlera – reklama, promocja sprzedaży, sprzedaż osobista, public relations i marketing bezpośredni [Kotler 2005, s. 16]; 2. elementy produktu, będące nośnikami informacji: jakość, opakowanie; 3. nowoczesne instrumenty komunikacji marketingowej: reklama szokująca, merchandising, product placement, ambient media, marketing
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2011, Vol 4 (4)
2. Istota komunikacji marketingowej
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2011, Vol 4 (4)
punkty – minimalnie: -4, gdy stwierdzi się skrajną nieprzydatność instrumentu dla nowopowstałej organizacji kultury i maksymalnie: 4, gdy sytuacja będzie odmienna. Możliwe są, oczywiście, stany pośrednie, łącznie z opcją przyznania oceny: 0. Punkty, jakie uzyska narzędzie po zabiegu konfrontacji z każdą parą parametrów, sumuje się – wynik stanowi ostateczną ocenę przydatności instrumentu (np. ocena 20 będzie informować o jego maksymalnej przydatności).
4. Ocena przydatności narzędzi komunikacji marketingowej dla nowopowstałych organizacji kultury trzeciego sektora Reklama Jest jedną z najbardziej rozpowszechnionych form promocji. Jest to forma „komunikatu przekazywanego odpłatnie za pośrednictwem mediów” [Blythe 2002, s. 50]. Tak rozumiane media będą stanowiły nośniki tych komunikatów: prasa, radio, telewizja, Internet (którego zastosowanie zostanie osobno omówione), ale też reklama w i na środkach komunikacji (autobusy, pociągi, tramwaje itp.) oraz reklama zewnętrzna: billboardy, plakaty, ulotki i wszelkie niestandardowe (np. balony, paragony). Reklama jest narzędziem używanym najczęściej w celu promocji konkretnego produktu (np. plakat promujący spektakl teatralny), niejako przy okazji kreuje się pozytywny wizerunek organizacji. Można sobie wyobrazić reklamę promującą wyłącznie organizację jako taką, niemniej jednorazowa akcja reklamowa najprawdopodobniej nie przyniosłaby oczekiwanego skutku, a przeprowadzana długofalowo byłaby bardzo kosztowna. Punkty w kontekście parametrów grupy A: -4. Z punktu widzenia nowych organizacji, ważną informacją jest to, iż reklama skierowana jest do grupowego odbiorcy. Efekt ten uzyskuje się poprzez masowy charakter reklamy: duża ilość plakatów, ulotek, powszechny dostęp do reklamy na środkach komunikacji czy billboardach. Przyznane punkty: 4. Wdrożenie działań reklamowych (radio, prasa, plakaty) wiąże się często z wydatkami, na które nowopowstałe organizacje kultury nie mogą sobie pozwolić. Niewskazane jest inwestowanie środków finansowych na jednorazową kampanię reklamową – ażeby takie akcje były skuteczne, powinny być przeprowadzane systematycznie, co najczęściej jest kosztownym przedsięwzięciem. Mimo wszystko
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2011, Vol 4 (4)
istnieje kilka form reklamy, które mogą być wykorzystywane przez nowe organizacje, a które nie muszą wiązać się z poważnym nadszarpnięciem budżetu: małe wydawnictwa mogą zamieszczać reklamę swoich produktów (czasopism, książek) na ostatnich stronach innych własnych publikacji – wówczas koszt reklamy wkalkulowany jest w koszt wydruku; kina, teatry, kluby – reklamę mogą umieszczać na własnych biletach, a nawet paragonach fiskalnych; reklama na ulotkach także nie wiąże się ze zbyt wysokimi wydatkami – jednak jej skuteczność zależy od masowości podjętych działań (jeśli zbyt mało ulotek dotrze do potencjalnych odbiorców, nawet niewielka inwestycja może skutkować de facto stratą). Punktacja: -3. Jak wspomniano, reklama służy promocji przede wszystkim produktu, a niekoniecznie organizacji. Dlatego reklama powinna być wykorzystywana przez podmioty o silnej, ugruntowanej pozycji marki – dla jej utrwalenia. Działania reklamowe w zasadzie nie podnoszą wartości marki – chyba, że forma i treść reklamy jest odpowiednio wyszukana i nie jest to działanie jednorazowe. Punkty w odniesieniu do parametrów kategorii D: -3. W przypadku reklamy wielkość organizacji nie ma w zasadzie istotnego znaczenia. Reklama w znacznej mierze przygotowywana jest przez podmioty zewnętrzne (druk, projekt, zamieszczenie – słupy, tablice). Kontaktami z takim podmiotem może zająć się właściwie jedna osoba z organizacji. Wobec tego przyznaje się: 4 punkty. W związku z powyższym, przydatność reklamy dla nowopowstałych organizacji kultury trzeciego sektora wycenia się na: - 2 punkty (suma punktów parametrów A, B, C, D i E, tj. (-4) + 4 + (-3) + (-3) + 4 = (-2)). Promocja sprzedaży To zestaw różnorakich zabiegów, które mają się przyczynić do skorzystania odbiorcy z produktu. Najczęściej są to działania krótkookresowe [Blythe 2002, s. 240], chociaż cyklicznie powtarzane mogą wpłynąć na wzrost wartości wizerunku firmy. Najczęstsze formy promocji sprzedaży to: próbki, kupony, rabaty, podarunki, programy lojalnościowe, konkursy, nagrody, karty, dodatki, gwarancje, testowanie czy sprzedaż łączona. Jak wspomniano, promocja sprzedaży jest przede wszystkim nakierowana na przekonanie odbiorcy do skorzystania z produktu, poprzez zaoferowanie mu szeregu „zachęt”. Jednakże pewne stale prowadzone działania mogą wpływać na poprawę wizerunku firmy i zwiększenie poziomu lojalności klienta wobec organizacji. Mogą to być: karty stałe-
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Reklama Jest jedną z najbardziej rozpowszechnionych form promocji. Jest to forma „komunikatu przekazywanego odpłatnie za pośrednictwem mediów” [Blythe 2002, s. 50]. Tak rozumiane media będą stanowiły nośniki tych komunikatów: prasa, radio, telewizja, Internet (którego zastosowanie zostanie osobno omówione), ale też reklama w i na środkach komunikacji (autobusy, pociągi, tramwaje itp.) oraz reklama zewnętrzna: billboardy, plakaty, ulotki i wszelkie niestandardowe (np. balony, paragony). Reklama jest narzędziem używanym najczęściej w celu promocji konkretnego produktu (np. plakat promujący spektakl teatralny), niejako przy okazji kreuje się pozytywny wizerunek organizacji. Można sobie wyobrazić reklamę promującą wyłącznie organizację jako taką, niemniej jednorazowa akcja reklamowa najprawdopodobniej nie przyniosłaby oczekiwanego skutku, a przeprowadzana długofalowo byłaby bardzo kosztowna. Punkty w kontekście parametrów grupy A: -4. Z punktu widzenia nowych organizacji, ważną informacją jest to, iż reklama skierowana jest do grupowego odbiorcy. Efekt ten uzyskuje się poprzez masowy charakter reklamy: duża ilość plakatów, ulotek, powszechny dostęp do reklamy na środkach komunikacji czy billboardach. Przyznane punkty: 4. Wdrożenie działań reklamowych (radio, prasa, plakaty) wiąże się często z wydatkami, na które nowopowstałe organizacje kultury nie mogą sobie pozwolić. Niewskazane jest inwestowanie środków finansowych na jednorazową kampanię reklamową – ażeby takie akcje były skuteczne, powinny być przeprowadzane systematycznie, co najczęściej jest kosztownym przedsięwzięciem. Mimo wszystko
4. Ocena przydatności narzędzi komunikacji marketingowej dla nowopowstałych organizacji kultury trzeciego sektora punkty – minimalnie: -4, gdy stwierdzi się skrajną nieprzydatność instrumentu dla nowopowstałej organizacji kultury i maksymalnie: 4, gdy sytuacja będzie odmienna. Możliwe są, oczywiście, stany pośrednie, łącznie z opcją przyznania oceny: 0. Punkty, jakie uzyska narzędzie po zabiegu konfrontacji z każdą parą parametrów, sumuje się – wynik stanowi ostateczną ocenę przydatności instrumentu (np. ocena 20 będzie informować o jego maksymalnej przydatności).
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Promocja sprzedaży To zestaw różnorakich zabiegów, które mają się przyczynić do skorzystania odbiorcy z produktu. Najczęściej są to działania krótkookresowe [Blythe 2002, s. 240], chociaż cyklicznie powtarzane mogą wpłynąć na wzrost wartości wizerunku firmy. Najczęstsze formy promocji sprzedaży to: próbki, kupony, rabaty, podarunki, programy lojalnościowe, konkursy, nagrody, karty, dodatki, gwarancje, testowanie czy sprzedaż łączona. Jak wspomniano, promocja sprzedaży jest przede wszystkim nakierowana na przekonanie odbiorcy do skorzystania z produktu, poprzez zaoferowanie mu szeregu „zachęt”. Jednakże pewne stale prowadzone działania mogą wpływać na poprawę wizerunku firmy i zwiększenie poziomu lojalności klienta wobec organizacji. Mogą to być: karty stałeistnieje kilka form reklamy, które mogą być wykorzystywane przez nowe organizacje, a które nie muszą wiązać się z poważnym nadszarpnięciem budżetu: małe wydawnictwa mogą zamieszczać reklamę swoich produktów (czasopism, książek) na ostatnich stronach innych własnych publikacji – wówczas koszt reklamy wkalkulowany jest w koszt wydruku; kina, teatry, kluby – reklamę mogą umieszczać na własnych biletach, a nawet paragonach fiskalnych; reklama na ulotkach także nie wiąże się ze zbyt wysokimi wydatkami – jednak jej skuteczność zależy od masowości podjętych działań (jeśli zbyt mało ulotek dotrze do potencjalnych odbiorców, nawet niewielka inwestycja może skutkować de facto stratą). Punktacja: -3. Jak wspomniano, reklama służy promocji przede wszystkim produktu, a niekoniecznie organizacji. Dlatego reklama powinna być wykorzystywana przez podmioty o silnej, ugruntowanej pozycji marki – dla jej utrwalenia. Działania reklamowe w zasadzie nie podnoszą wartości marki – chyba, że forma i treść reklamy jest odpowiednio wyszukana i nie jest to działanie jednorazowe. Punkty w odniesieniu do parametrów kategorii D: -3. W przypadku reklamy wielkość organizacji nie ma w zasadzie istotnego znaczenia. Reklama w znacznej mierze przygotowywana jest przez podmioty zewnętrzne (druk, projekt, zamieszczenie – słupy, tablice). Kontaktami z takim podmiotem może zająć się właściwie jedna osoba z organizacji. Wobec tego przyznaje się: 4 punkty. W związku z powyższym, przydatność reklamy dla nowopowstałych organizacji kultury trzeciego sektora wycenia się na: - 2 punkty (suma punktów parametrów A, B, C, D i E, tj. (-4) + 4 + (-3) + (-3) + 4 = (-2)).
go klienta, dzięki którym odbiorca uzyskuje zniżkę na książki, imprezy etc., a jednocześnie czuje się w pewien sposób wyróżniony; nagrody za kupienie biletu i wzięcie udziału w konkursie, jak albumy czy darmowe wejście na organizowane wydarzenie, ale też przyznanie medalu, zaproszenie do klubu honorowego. Przyznane punkty: 1. Mechanizmy promocji sprzedaży kierowane są w szczególności do pojedynczych odbiorców. Nie każdy może otrzymać kartę stałego klienta czy wziąć udział w spotkaniu autorskim z reżyserem zorganizowanym, jako nagroda, albo dodatek do innego wydarzenia. Niektóre działania możemy jednak skierować do szerszych grup odbiorców: kieliszek wina dla każdego gościa wernisażu, darmowe bilety dla dzieci na przedstawienie, gdy przyjdą z dwoma dorosłymi opiekunami. Punkty: -3. Promocja sprzedaży nie jest tak kosztowna, jak reklama. Są takie działania, które wiążą się z poniesieniem bezpośrednich kosztów (nagrody, prezenty-gadżety) oraz związane z poniesieniem pośrednich kosztów – a właściwie mniejszymi przychodami (sprzedaż łączona, np. dwie płyty w cenie jednej; rabaty). Są też takie, gdzie o poniesieniu dodatkowych nakładów właściwe się nie mówi (niektóre dodatki, np. spotkanie z muzykami po koncercie). W kontekście parametrów C promocji sprzedaży przyznano: 1 punkt. Promocja sprzedaży może być tylko w niewielkim stopniu wykorzystywana do budowania marki, bowiem działania te mają najczęściej charakter doraźny. Budowanie wartości marki może się opierać na programach lojalnościowych: klubach klientów, systemach kart partnerskich i wielu innych, jednak należy zwrócić uwagę na długi czas realizacji tego typu strategii, a ich wpływ na wizerunek organizacji może nie być bezpośrednio zauważalny. Mimo to, podmioty o słabej marce mogą korzystać z tej metody. Punkty: 1. Techniki promocji sprzedaży mogą być z powodzeniem stosowane w małych organizacjach. Przygotowaniem tych nieskomplikowanych działań może się zająć jedna, a szczególnych przypadkach dwie osoby z organizacji. Oprócz przygotowania upominków, rodzaje promocji sprzedaży kreowane są wewnątrz organizacji. Przyznaje się: 3 punkty. Przydatność tego narzędzia komunikacji marketingowej wycenia się na: 3 punkty.
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259]. Przedstawiciel handlowy organizacji nawiązuje osobisty kontakt z potencjalnym klientem i podczas bezpośredniego spotkania informuje go o walorach produktu. Sprzedaż osobista nie polega na skutecznym przekonaniu odbiorcy, co do zakupu produktu, ale za sprawą dialogu, na znalezieniu zgodności na linii: jego potrzeby – wartość produktu. Wydawać się może, że sprzedaż osobista promuje przede wszystkim produkt organizacji, a nie ją samą. Rzeczywiście, jeśli przedstawiciel kontaktuje się wyłącznie z ostatecznymi odbiorcami produktów – poszczególnymi widzami, gośćmi imprez, księgarzami, właścicielami sklepów muzycznych – kojarzony jest jako przedstawiciel handlowy. Może jednak występować w charakterze przedstawiciela organizacji i kontaktować się bezpośrednio z dyrektorem placówki oświatowej, której uczniowie zainteresowani są obejrzeniem filmu lub spotkać się z przedstawicielem lokalnej jednostki samorządowej, odpowiedzialnym za dotowanie organizacji kultury trzeciego sektora. Takie działania wiążą się także z promocją organizacji jako takiej, a nie jej produktu. Pośrednio również i zachowanie oraz wygląd zewnętrzny przedstawiciela może wpływać na zwrócenie uwagi na konkretną organizację. Podsumowując, przyznaje się: 1 punkt. Wadą sprzedaży osobistej jest brak możliwości dotarcia w krótkim czasie do dużej ilości potencjalnych odbiorców, a nowym organizacjom nonprofit na czasie najbardziej jednak zależy. W tym przypadku należy spotkać się z każdym klientem z osobna. Na zatrudnienie dodatkowych przedstawicieli nowych organizacji najczęściej nie stać. Mając to na uwadze, przyznano: -4 punkty. Jak zaznaczono, każdy dodatkowy przedstawiciel organizacji może stanowić dla niej duże obciążenie finansowe. Taką działalność organizacja może wszakże prowadzić we własnym gronie i nie ponosić z tego tytułu znaczących kosztów. Należy jednak pamiętać, iż koncentrując się na pracy przedstawiciela handlowego, można zaniedbać inne obszary funkcjonowania organizacji i narazić się tym samym na inne nieprzewidziane koszty. W związku z tym klientów, z którymi należy nawiązać osobisty kontakt należy odpowiednio dobierać. Punktacja: 3. Sprzedaż osobista nie jest narzędziem, które szczególnie może być polecane dla organizacji chcących budować swą markę. Pewne działania, jak wspomniano, mogą wpływać na wizerunek organizacji, jednakże budowa silnej marki to długofalowe przedsięwzięcia. Z drugiej strony,
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Sprzedaż osobista Niektórzy teoretycy marketingu uważają sprzedaż osobistą za najskuteczniejszą formę komunikacji marketingowej [Blythe 2002, s.
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Sprzedaż osobista Niektórzy teoretycy marketingu uważają sprzedaż osobistą za najskuteczniejszą formę komunikacji marketingowej [Blythe 2002, s.
259]. Przedstawiciel handlowy organizacji nawiązuje osobisty kontakt z potencjalnym klientem i podczas bezpośredniego spotkania informuje go o walorach produktu. Sprzedaż osobista nie polega na skutecznym przekonaniu odbiorcy, co do zakupu produktu, ale za sprawą dialogu, na znalezieniu zgodności na linii: jego potrzeby – wartość produktu. Wydawać się może, że sprzedaż osobista promuje przede wszystkim produkt organizacji, a nie ją samą. Rzeczywiście, jeśli przedstawiciel kontaktuje się wyłącznie z ostatecznymi odbiorcami produktów – poszczególnymi widzami, gośćmi imprez, księgarzami, właścicielami sklepów muzycznych – kojarzony jest jako przedstawiciel handlowy. Może jednak występować w charakterze przedstawiciela organizacji i kontaktować się bezpośrednio z dyrektorem placówki oświatowej, której uczniowie zainteresowani są obejrzeniem filmu lub spotkać się z przedstawicielem lokalnej jednostki samorządowej, odpowiedzialnym za dotowanie organizacji kultury trzeciego sektora. Takie działania wiążą się także z promocją organizacji jako takiej, a nie jej produktu. Pośrednio również i zachowanie oraz wygląd zewnętrzny przedstawiciela może wpływać na zwrócenie uwagi na konkretną organizację. Podsumowując, przyznaje się: 1 punkt. Wadą sprzedaży osobistej jest brak możliwości dotarcia w krótkim czasie do dużej ilości potencjalnych odbiorców, a nowym organizacjom nonprofit na czasie najbardziej jednak zależy. W tym przypadku należy spotkać się z każdym klientem z osobna. Na zatrudnienie dodatkowych przedstawicieli nowych organizacji najczęściej nie stać. Mając to na uwadze, przyznano: -4 punkty. Jak zaznaczono, każdy dodatkowy przedstawiciel organizacji może stanowić dla niej duże obciążenie finansowe. Taką działalność organizacja może wszakże prowadzić we własnym gronie i nie ponosić z tego tytułu znaczących kosztów. Należy jednak pamiętać, iż koncentrując się na pracy przedstawiciela handlowego, można zaniedbać inne obszary funkcjonowania organizacji i narazić się tym samym na inne nieprzewidziane koszty. W związku z tym klientów, z którymi należy nawiązać osobisty kontakt należy odpowiednio dobierać. Punktacja: 3. Sprzedaż osobista nie jest narzędziem, które szczególnie może być polecane dla organizacji chcących budować swą markę. Pewne działania, jak wspomniano, mogą wpływać na wizerunek organizacji, jednakże budowa silnej marki to długofalowe przedsięwzięcia. Z drugiej strony,
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go klienta, dzięki którym odbiorca uzyskuje zniżkę na książki, imprezy etc., a jednocześnie czuje się w pewien sposób wyróżniony; nagrody za kupienie biletu i wzięcie udziału w konkursie, jak albumy czy darmowe wejście na organizowane wydarzenie, ale też przyznanie medalu, zaproszenie do klubu honorowego. Przyznane punkty: 1. Mechanizmy promocji sprzedaży kierowane są w szczególności do pojedynczych odbiorców. Nie każdy może otrzymać kartę stałego klienta czy wziąć udział w spotkaniu autorskim z reżyserem zorganizowanym, jako nagroda, albo dodatek do innego wydarzenia. Niektóre działania możemy jednak skierować do szerszych grup odbiorców: kieliszek wina dla każdego gościa wernisażu, darmowe bilety dla dzieci na przedstawienie, gdy przyjdą z dwoma dorosłymi opiekunami. Punkty: -3. Promocja sprzedaży nie jest tak kosztowna, jak reklama. Są takie działania, które wiążą się z poniesieniem bezpośrednich kosztów (nagrody, prezenty-gadżety) oraz związane z poniesieniem pośrednich kosztów – a właściwie mniejszymi przychodami (sprzedaż łączona, np. dwie płyty w cenie jednej; rabaty). Są też takie, gdzie o poniesieniu dodatkowych nakładów właściwe się nie mówi (niektóre dodatki, np. spotkanie z muzykami po koncercie). W kontekście parametrów C promocji sprzedaży przyznano: 1 punkt. Promocja sprzedaży może być tylko w niewielkim stopniu wykorzystywana do budowania marki, bowiem działania te mają najczęściej charakter doraźny. Budowanie wartości marki może się opierać na programach lojalnościowych: klubach klientów, systemach kart partnerskich i wielu innych, jednak należy zwrócić uwagę na długi czas realizacji tego typu strategii, a ich wpływ na wizerunek organizacji może nie być bezpośrednio zauważalny. Mimo to, podmioty o słabej marce mogą korzystać z tej metody. Punkty: 1. Techniki promocji sprzedaży mogą być z powodzeniem stosowane w małych organizacjach. Przygotowaniem tych nieskomplikowanych działań może się zająć jedna, a szczególnych przypadkach dwie osoby z organizacji. Oprócz przygotowania upominków, rodzaje promocji sprzedaży kreowane są wewnątrz organizacji. Przyznaje się: 3 punkty. Przydatność tego narzędzia komunikacji marketingowej wycenia się na: 3 punkty.
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pojedyncze błędy przedstawicieli handlowych, nie muszą wpływać na nadszarpnięcie skromnej wartości marki nowej organizacji. Sprzedaż osobista ma najczęściej charakter spotkania „w cztery oczy” z klientem, wobec czego o wspomnianych błędach może ostatecznie wiedzieć tylko jedna osoba. Przyznano: -2 punkty. Sprzedaż bezpośrednia może być bardzo dobrym narzędziem komunikacji marketingowej dla małych organizacji. Działania te można prowadzić we własnym, niewielkim gronie osób. Problemem może być zaangażowanie poszczególnych członków organizacji. Przedstawiciel handlowy powinien charakteryzować się wytrwałością fizyczną i psychiczną (z powodu cyklicznego odbywania wielu spotkań o podobnym schemacie oraz możliwości narażenia się na spontaniczne reakcje odbiorców). W odniesieniu do parametrów z grupy E przyznaje się: 3 punkty. Przydatność narzędzia „sprzedaż osobista” oceniono łącznie na: 1 punkt. Public relations „To zespół celowo zorganizowanych działań o charakterze ciągłym, zapewniających organizacji systematyczne komunikowanie się z otoczeniem” [Limański, Drabik 2007, s. 217–218]. Działania te mają ostatecznie na celu wzmacniać pozytywny wizerunek organizacji. Do środków public relations należą m. in.: organizacja spotkań, konferencji poświęconych tematyce organizacji, ale też imprez rozrywkowych, charytatywnych, kolacji z udziałem istotnych osób z zewnątrz (darczyńców, wolontariuszy, klientów, przedstawicieli samorządu, przedstawicieli mediów itd.); udzielanie wywiadów, przygotowywanie artykułów do prasy poświęconych organizacji; zapraszanie wpływowych osób do nieodpłatnego korzystania z produktów organizacji (wystaw, koncertów czy spektakli); organizowanie akcji czy happeningów promocyjnych; działania lobbingowe; organizacja dni „drzwi otwartych”; sponsorowanie wydarzeń. Działania z obszaru public relations służą w szczególności budowie oczekiwanego, pozytywnego wizerunku organizacji. Ich oddziaływanie na otoczenie ma długofalową specyfikę – chociaż mogą to być działania zarówno o charakterze ciągłym, jak i jednorazowym. Docelowo wszystkie służą wzmacnianiu prestiżu organizacji w świadomości odbiorców. W odniesieniu do parametru A działaniom public relations przyznano maksymalną wartość: 4 punktów. Środki public relations stosowane są często jako narzędzie komunikacji z konkretnymi osoba-
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mi, których decyzje mogą mieć zasadniczy wpływ na funkcjonowanie organizacji. Są jednak i takie działania (imprezy przeprowadzane w otoczeniu organizacji czy artykuły), dzięki którym pozytywny wizerunek organizacji budowany jest w świadomości lokalnej czy regionalnej grupy społecznej. Punktacja przedstawia się następująco: 1. Działania public relations najczęściej przeprowadza się bez wydatkowania środków finansowych (lobbing, artykuły w prasie, wywiady, zapraszanie specjalnych gości na wewnętrzne imprezy organizacji, organizacja dni „drzwi otwartych”). Natomiast jeśli przeprowadzone działanie jest specjalnie przygotowaną akcją (bal charytatywny, happening), wówczas wiąże się ono z odpowiednimi kosztami. Punkty: 2. Mechanizmy public relations mogą być szczególnie polecane dla nowopowstałych organizacji kultury trzeciego sektora, którym zależy na skutecznej budowie marki. Chociaż są to działania o charakterze długofalowym, to ciekawie przeprowadzona akcja artystyczna może także w krótkim okresie czasu pozytywnie wpłynąć na wizerunek organizacji, a co za tym idzie, wzmocnić jej markę. Do działań wzmacniających markę można zaliczyć: happeningi, konferencje, seminaria, bale charytatywne, artykuły w prasie (szczególnie lokalnej i branżowej). Przyznano: 4 punkty. Nie wszystkie środki public relations mogą być swobodnie wykorzystywane przez małe organizacje. Organizacja konferencji czy bali charytatywnych może wymagać zaangażowania większej ilości osób z zewnątrz (wolontariuszy). Większość działań można jednak przeprowadzić nie dysponując szczególnie liczną kadrą, np.: lobbing, zaproszenie gości na spektakl lub koncert, czy też kontakt z mediami. Akcje artystyczne można przeprowadzić we własnym zakresie jeśli organizacja jest utworzona przez artystów: aktorów, muzyków, malarzy. Przyznaje się: 1 punkt. Podsumowując, stwierdza się, iż przydatność działań public relations łącznie wycenić można na: 12 punktów. Marketing bezpośredni Marketing bezpośredni to zestaw instrumentów, przy pomocy których tworzy się kanały bezpośredniej komunikacji organizacji z odbiorcą, bez udziału pośredników rynkowych. Do tych instrumentów zalicza się: marketing pocztowy, katalogowy, telewizyjny, telemarketing, punkty firmowe (kioski) [Kotler 2005, s. 632]. Istnieją też środki marketingu bezpośredniego wykorzystujące najnowsze technologie, jak: Internet czy
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Public relations „To zespół celowo zorganizowanych działań o charakterze ciągłym, zapewniających organizacji systematyczne komunikowanie się z otoczeniem” [Limański, Drabik 2007, s. 217–218]. Działania te mają ostatecznie na celu wzmacniać pozytywny wizerunek organizacji. Do środków public relations należą m. in.: organizacja spotkań, konferencji poświęconych tematyce organizacji, ale też imprez rozrywkowych, charytatywnych, kolacji z udziałem istotnych osób z zewnątrz (darczyńców, wolontariuszy, klientów, przedstawicieli samorządu, przedstawicieli mediów itd.); udzielanie wywiadów, przygotowywanie artykułów do prasy poświęconych organizacji; zapraszanie wpływowych osób do nieodpłatnego korzystania z produktów organizacji (wystaw, koncertów czy spektakli); organizowanie akcji czy happeningów promocyjnych; działania lobbingowe; organizacja dni „drzwi otwartych”; sponsorowanie wydarzeń. Działania z obszaru public relations służą w szczególności budowie oczekiwanego, pozytywnego wizerunku organizacji. Ich oddziaływanie na otoczenie ma długofalową specyfikę – chociaż mogą to być działania zarówno o charakterze ciągłym, jak i jednorazowym. Docelowo wszystkie służą wzmacnianiu prestiżu organizacji w świadomości odbiorców. W odniesieniu do parametru A działaniom public relations przyznano maksymalną wartość: 4 punktów. Środki public relations stosowane są często jako narzędzie komunikacji z konkretnymi osobapojedyncze błędy przedstawicieli handlowych, nie muszą wpływać na nadszarpnięcie skromnej wartości marki nowej organizacji. Sprzedaż osobista ma najczęściej charakter spotkania „w cztery oczy” z klientem, wobec czego o wspomnianych błędach może ostatecznie wiedzieć tylko jedna osoba. Przyznano: -2 punkty. Sprzedaż bezpośrednia może być bardzo dobrym narzędziem komunikacji marketingowej dla małych organizacji. Działania te można prowadzić we własnym, niewielkim gronie osób. Problemem może być zaangażowanie poszczególnych członków organizacji. Przedstawiciel handlowy powinien charakteryzować się wytrwałością fizyczną i psychiczną (z powodu cyklicznego odbywania wielu spotkań o podobnym schemacie oraz możliwości narażenia się na spontaniczne reakcje odbiorców). W odniesieniu do parametrów z grupy E przyznaje się: 3 punkty. Przydatność narzędzia „sprzedaż osobista” oceniono łącznie na: 1 punkt.
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Marketing bezpośredni Marketing bezpośredni to zestaw instrumentów, przy pomocy których tworzy się kanały bezpośredniej komunikacji organizacji z odbiorcą, bez udziału pośredników rynkowych. Do tych instrumentów zalicza się: marketing pocztowy, katalogowy, telewizyjny, telemarketing, punkty firmowe (kioski) [Kotler 2005, s. 632]. Istnieją też środki marketingu bezpośredniego wykorzystujące najnowsze technologie, jak: Internet czy mi, których decyzje mogą mieć zasadniczy wpływ na funkcjonowanie organizacji. Są jednak i takie działania (imprezy przeprowadzane w otoczeniu organizacji czy artykuły), dzięki którym pozytywny wizerunek organizacji budowany jest w świadomości lokalnej czy regionalnej grupy społecznej. Punktacja przedstawia się następująco: 1. Działania public relations najczęściej przeprowadza się bez wydatkowania środków finansowych (lobbing, artykuły w prasie, wywiady, zapraszanie specjalnych gości na wewnętrzne imprezy organizacji, organizacja dni „drzwi otwartych”). Natomiast jeśli przeprowadzone działanie jest specjalnie przygotowaną akcją (bal charytatywny, happening), wówczas wiąże się ono z odpowiednimi kosztami. Punkty: 2. Mechanizmy public relations mogą być szczególnie polecane dla nowopowstałych organizacji kultury trzeciego sektora, którym zależy na skutecznej budowie marki. Chociaż są to działania o charakterze długofalowym, to ciekawie przeprowadzona akcja artystyczna może także w krótkim okresie czasu pozytywnie wpłynąć na wizerunek organizacji, a co za tym idzie, wzmocnić jej markę. Do działań wzmacniających markę można zaliczyć: happeningi, konferencje, seminaria, bale charytatywne, artykuły w prasie (szczególnie lokalnej i branżowej). Przyznano: 4 punkty. Nie wszystkie środki public relations mogą być swobodnie wykorzystywane przez małe organizacje. Organizacja konferencji czy bali charytatywnych może wymagać zaangażowania większej ilości osób z zewnątrz (wolontariuszy). Większość działań można jednak przeprowadzić nie dysponując szczególnie liczną kadrą, np.: lobbing, zaproszenie gości na spektakl lub koncert, czy też kontakt z mediami. Akcje artystyczne można przeprowadzić we własnym zakresie jeśli organizacja jest utworzona przez artystów: aktorów, muzyków, malarzy. Przyznaje się: 1 punkt. Podsumowując, stwierdza się, iż przydatność działań public relations łącznie wycenić można na: 12 punktów.
pakiet nieograniczonej ilości połączeń lokalnych i międzymiastowych (np. na miesiąc) i wówczas po telefonicznym rozpoznaniu, wyłącznie do zainteresowanych osób wysyłać listy: z biletami, zaproszeniami itp. Najbardziej przydatną formą wydaje się jednak zorganizowanie tzw. punktu firmowego. Organizacja może podjąć współpracę, np. ze szkołą, z uczelnią i zaproponować umieszczenie jej logo na plakatach reklamujących wydarzenie kulturalne, a w zamian uzyskać możliwość ustawienia bezpłatnego punktu firmowego (stoiska), który oprócz działań promocyjnych może też pełnić funkcję sprzedażową (bilety, książki, płyty i inne). Ostatecznie jednak przyznaje się: -2 punkty. Mechanizmów marketingu bezpośredniego nie stosuje się, aby budować markę organizacji. Tylko długofalowe i cykliczne przygotowywanie katalogów i uruchamianie punktów firmowych w odpowiednich miejscach może wzmocnić markę – nie są to jednak środki przynoszące natychmiastowy rezultat. Nie istnieje też specjalne zagrożenie dla marki nowych organizacji przez stosowanie tego typu praktyk – jednakże należy zwrócić uwagę na telemarketing, który źle przeprowadzony, może wywoływać u odbiorców negatywne skojarzenia. Punkty: -1. Większość instrumentów marketingu bezpośredniego może wykorzystać mała organizacja. W przeprowadzenie marketingu pocztowego czy punktu firmowego mogą być zaangażowane nie więcej niż trzy osoby. Jednakże często praktyki te (szczególnie telemarketing) mogą się wiązać z przygotowaniem dokładnej bazy danych, a szybkie (i dokładne) jej wykonanie może się wiązać z zaangażowaniem większej ilości osób, często specjalistów. W kontekście parametrów zestawu E przyznano: 2 punkty. Ostatecznie przydatność mechanizmów marketingu bezpośredniego oceniono na: 3 punkty.
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Jakość Jakość jest nie tylko własnością produktu, wyróżnikiem jego wyjątkowości. Jest także, a nawet przede wszystkim pewną informacją dla odbiorcy, komunikatem, że tę wyjątkowość posiada wyłącznie ten produkt. Potwierdzeniem tego komunikatu (sprzężeniem zwrotnym) i zarazem zamknięciem procesu komunikacji (obiegu komunikatu) jest dokonanie zakupu przez klienta. Jeśli odbiorca nie posiada informacji o wyjątkowości produktu, wówczas nie można powiedzieć, że produkt taki jest odpowiedniej jakości. Wobec tego „cechy produktu lub usługi decydujące o ich
Jakość Jakość jest nie tylko własnością produktu, wyróżnikiem jego wyjątkowości. Jest także, a nawet przede wszystkim pewną informacją dla odbiorcy, komunikatem, że tę wyjątkowość posiada wyłącznie ten produkt. Potwierdzeniem tego komunikatu (sprzężeniem zwrotnym) i zarazem zamknięciem procesu komunikacji (obiegu komunikatu) jest dokonanie zakupu przez klienta. Jeśli odbiorca nie posiada informacji o wyjątkowości produktu, wówczas nie można powiedzieć, że produkt taki jest odpowiedniej jakości. Wobec tego „cechy produktu lub usługi decydujące o ich
telefony komórkowe, które zostaną omówione osobno, w dalszej części opracowania. Niektórzy specjaliści do narzędzi tej techniki zaliczają także sprzedaż osobistą [Kotler 2005, s. 634], którą tutaj potraktowano oddzielnie. Działania marketingu bezpośredniego są kierowane do odbiorców potencjalnych (ale nie masowo; chodzi o odbiorców, którzy mogą być zainteresowani ofertą [Blythe 2002, s. 208]) i obecnych [Kotler 2005, s. 632]. Dla nowych organizacji non-profit telemarketing i marketing pocztowy to działania promujące przede wszystkim konkretny produkt (wernisaż, projekcja filmowa). Pośrednio tylko wpływają na wizerunek organizacji. Dla dojrzałych organizacji metoda pocztowa jest skuteczniejsza w kreacji wizerunku (np. listy z życzeniami dla stałych klientów). Nowopowstałe organizacje raczej powinny korzystać z instrumentów w postaci katalogów czy punktów firmowych (stoisk promocyjnych). Punktacja: 0. Forma marketingu bezpośredniego jest bardzo atrakcyjna dla nowopowstałych organizacji trzeciego sektora, ponieważ właściwie wszystkie działania można kierować do odbiorców potencjalnych, czyli do większej grupy odbiorców. Jednakże w tym przypadku nie dochodzi do masowości z jaką ma się do czynienia w przypadku tradycyjnej reklamy. Zarówno telemarketing, marketing pocztowy, katalogowy czy punkty firmowe to narzędzia, które pomagają nawiązać relacje z grupami odbiorców, ale najczęściej konkretnymi grupami: zainteresowanymi teatrem, sztukami plastycznymi czy dziedzictwem kulturowym. Dopiero w następnej kolejności dochodzi do wyszukania w tych grupach osób zainteresowanych stałym korzystaniem z oferty, wówczas bezpośrednio do nich można kierować zindywidualizowane działania marketingowe. W kontekście parametrów kategorii B działaniom marketingu bezpośredniego, przyznaje się: 4 punkty. W odniesieniu do nowopowstałych organizacji trzeciego sektora, wadą instrumentów marketingu bezpośredniego są ich koszty wdrożenia. Pomijając bardzo kosztowną i nieprzydatną z punktu widzenia organizacji kultury formę telewizyjną (telezakupy), przeprowadzenie akcji rozsyłania informacji o spektaklu, koncercie czy festiwalu drogą pocztową czy też przygotowanie drukowanego katalogu reklamowego, może przekroczyć możliwości finansowe wielu podmiotów. Można ograniczyć koszty i zastosować model telemarketingu z wyznaczonym budżetem, to znaczy: wykupić u operatora za określoną stawkę
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pakiet nieograniczonej ilości połączeń lokalnych i międzymiastowych (np. na miesiąc) i wówczas po telefonicznym rozpoznaniu, wyłącznie do zainteresowanych osób wysyłać listy: z biletami, zaproszeniami itp. Najbardziej przydatną formą wydaje się jednak zorganizowanie tzw. punktu firmowego. Organizacja może podjąć współpracę, np. ze szkołą, z uczelnią i zaproponować umieszczenie jej logo na plakatach reklamujących wydarzenie kulturalne, a w zamian uzyskać możliwość ustawienia bezpłatnego punktu firmowego (stoiska), który oprócz działań promocyjnych może też pełnić funkcję sprzedażową (bilety, książki, płyty i inne). Ostatecznie jednak przyznaje się: -2 punkty. Mechanizmów marketingu bezpośredniego nie stosuje się, aby budować markę organizacji. Tylko długofalowe i cykliczne przygotowywanie katalogów i uruchamianie punktów firmowych w odpowiednich miejscach może wzmocnić markę – nie są to jednak środki przynoszące natychmiastowy rezultat. Nie istnieje też specjalne zagrożenie dla marki nowych organizacji przez stosowanie tego typu praktyk – jednakże należy zwrócić uwagę na telemarketing, który źle przeprowadzony, może wywoływać u odbiorców negatywne skojarzenia. Punkty: -1. Większość instrumentów marketingu bezpośredniego może wykorzystać mała organizacja. W przeprowadzenie marketingu pocztowego czy punktu firmowego mogą być zaangażowane nie więcej niż trzy osoby. Jednakże często praktyki te (szczególnie telemarketing) mogą się wiązać z przygotowaniem dokładnej bazy danych, a szybkie (i dokładne) jej wykonanie może się wiązać z zaangażowaniem większej ilości osób, często specjalistów. W kontekście parametrów zestawu E przyznano: 2 punkty. Ostatecznie przydatność mechanizmów marketingu bezpośredniego oceniono na: 3 punkty.
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telefony komórkowe, które zostaną omówione osobno, w dalszej części opracowania. Niektórzy specjaliści do narzędzi tej techniki zaliczają także sprzedaż osobistą [Kotler 2005, s. 634], którą tutaj potraktowano oddzielnie. Działania marketingu bezpośredniego są kierowane do odbiorców potencjalnych (ale nie masowo; chodzi o odbiorców, którzy mogą być zainteresowani ofertą [Blythe 2002, s. 208]) i obecnych [Kotler 2005, s. 632]. Dla nowych organizacji non-profit telemarketing i marketing pocztowy to działania promujące przede wszystkim konkretny produkt (wernisaż, projekcja filmowa). Pośrednio tylko wpływają na wizerunek organizacji. Dla dojrzałych organizacji metoda pocztowa jest skuteczniejsza w kreacji wizerunku (np. listy z życzeniami dla stałych klientów). Nowopowstałe organizacje raczej powinny korzystać z instrumentów w postaci katalogów czy punktów firmowych (stoisk promocyjnych). Punktacja: 0. Forma marketingu bezpośredniego jest bardzo atrakcyjna dla nowopowstałych organizacji trzeciego sektora, ponieważ właściwie wszystkie działania można kierować do odbiorców potencjalnych, czyli do większej grupy odbiorców. Jednakże w tym przypadku nie dochodzi do masowości z jaką ma się do czynienia w przypadku tradycyjnej reklamy. Zarówno telemarketing, marketing pocztowy, katalogowy czy punkty firmowe to narzędzia, które pomagają nawiązać relacje z grupami odbiorców, ale najczęściej konkretnymi grupami: zainteresowanymi teatrem, sztukami plastycznymi czy dziedzictwem kulturowym. Dopiero w następnej kolejności dochodzi do wyszukania w tych grupach osób zainteresowanych stałym korzystaniem z oferty, wówczas bezpośrednio do nich można kierować zindywidualizowane działania marketingowe. W kontekście parametrów kategorii B działaniom marketingu bezpośredniego, przyznaje się: 4 punkty. W odniesieniu do nowopowstałych organizacji trzeciego sektora, wadą instrumentów marketingu bezpośredniego są ich koszty wdrożenia. Pomijając bardzo kosztowną i nieprzydatną z punktu widzenia organizacji kultury formę telewizyjną (telezakupy), przeprowadzenie akcji rozsyłania informacji o spektaklu, koncercie czy festiwalu drogą pocztową czy też przygotowanie drukowanego katalogu reklamowego, może przekroczyć możliwości finansowe wielu podmiotów. Można ograniczyć koszty i zastosować model telemarketingu z wyznaczonym budżetem, to znaczy: wykupić u operatora za określoną stawkę
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zdolności do zaspokajania stwierdzonych lub potencjalnych potrzeb” [Griffin 2004, s. 689] powinny być właściwe wszystkim produktom, które starają się konkurować na rynku z innymi, a nie tylko tym, jak twierdzi Ricky Griffin, które wyróżniają się jakością. Jakością natomiast (wyjątkowością, innością), powinny się charakteryzować docelowo wszystkie produkty nowopowstałych organizacji kultury trzeciego sektora. Mimo to, że jakość powstaje na linii produkt-odbiorca, może mieć bezpośredni wpływ na wizerunek organizacji jako takiej. Zaangażowanie do spektaklu znanych aktorów, wykorzystanie w przedstawieniu muzyki znanego autora, przeprowadzenie spotkania autorskiego z uznanym rzeźbiarzem, ale też zaadaptowanie starej fabryki na potrzeby koncertu czy też przeprowadzenie akcji street artu w wyjątkowej scenerii powoduje, że oprócz znaczenia samego wydarzenia, wzmacnia się także wizerunek organizacji odpowiedzialnej za jego przeprowadzenie. Punkty: 2. Jakość powinna być dostrzeżona przez konkretnego odbiorcę. Jednakże, w przypadku dóbr kultury, z jakości produktu korzystają większe zbiorowości: projekcje filmowe, koncerty, przedstawienia, wydawnictwa książkowe i muzyczne. Dotyczy to także galerii, gdzie jakość rozciąga się nie tylko na odbiorcę, który chce wejść w posiadanie dzieła sztuki, ale także, w jakimś sensie, na grupy pośrednich odbiorców, którzy skuszeni jakością tego dzieła odwiedzają samą galerię. Punkty: 2. Utrzymanie wysokiego poziomu artystycznego może się wiązać z ponoszeniem przez organizacje kultury istotnych kosztów, np.: z zaangażowaniem odpowiednich artystów, doborem odpowiedniego sprzętu technicznego (komputery, oświetlenie, nagłośnienie), wynajmem odpowiednich pomieszczeń (studio nagrań, sala teatralna, fabryka) i przestrzeni (plac, ulica). By ograniczyć koszty, organizacja powinna wykorzystać swoje znajomości, szczególnie w sferze artystycznej i wynajęcia pomieszczeń (kontakt z administracją). Mając na względzie założenia parametrów kategorii C, przyznaje się: -2 punkty. Zarządzanie jakością jest wskazane dla organizacji non-profit o słabej, kształtującej się marce. Zadbanie o najwyższą jakość produktów może bezpośrednio wpłynąć na szybkie zbudowanie silnej marki organizacji. Kolejne działania będą polegały na wzmacnianiu jej trwałości. Przyznano: 4 punkty. Zadbanie o jakość produktów nie musi się wiązać z zaangażowaniem większej grupy organizatorów. Wyszukania odpowiednich twórców
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czy miejsc wydarzeń kulturalnych może dokonać grupa maksymalnie 4 – 5 osób. Wówczas jednak organizacja jest zmuszona do przeprowadzania niewielkich imprez. Działania na większą skalę wymagają zatrudnienia dodatkowego personelu. W aspekcie kategorii E przyznano: 2 punkty. Działania zarządzania jakością wyceniono na: 8 punktów. Opakowanie Wydaje się, że opakowanie odnosi się wyłącznie do produktów materialnych. Ale również w przypadku usługi, opakowaniem będzie to, co bezpośrednio nie stanowi usługi, ale co wiąże się z jej spożytkowaniem. Opakowaniem będą zatem wszystkie elementy, które tuż przed lub podczas całego procesu korzystania z usługi można zidentyfikować za pomocą zmysłów. Dzięki komunikatowi zawartemu w treści opakowania, odbiorca podejmuje decyzję czy skorzystać z produktu czy nie. W salonie fryzjerskim może to być np.: ubiór fryzjerki, wystrój lokalu, temperatura i muzyka wewnątrz czy też muzyka w tle. W przypadku usługi świadczonej bezpośrednio w lokalu odbiorcy oceniamy te elementy, które związane są z samą osobą świadczącą usługę (np. wygląd, sposób zachowana osoby, wykorzystywane narzędzia). Rozważania te można przenieść na płaszczyznę organizacji kultury. Procesy zarządzania opakowaniem w obszarze kultury można podzielić na dwa rodzaje: dotyczące produktu materialnego (np. książki, płyty, czasopisma) i niematerialnego (np. koncerty, wystawy, spektakle). Opakowania tych pierwszych będą służyły promocji samych produktów, natomiast drugich – produktu i organizacji (wystrój klubu, ubiór osób z obsługi, czystość, zapach). Wydaje się, że wykorzystanie opakowania daje nieco większe możliwości promocji produktu niż organizacji. Wobec tego przyznaje się: -1 punkt. Podział na materialne i niematerialne produkty kultury jest ważny także i z innego punktu widzenia. Opakowanie produktu materialnego ma przede wszystkim oddziaływać na pojedynczego odbiorcę. Opakowanie produktu niematerialnego powinno w większym stopniu oddziaływać na większą grupę niż na odbiorców indywidualnych. Wiąże się to z grupowym korzystaniem z niematerialnych dóbr kultury (akcja artystyczna, projekcja filmowa, ekspozycja w muzeum jako całość, a nie pojedyncze eksponaty). W związku z powyższym przyznaje się: 0 punktów. Zarządzanie opakowaniem jest techniką, która może się wiązać z poniesieniem przez organizację
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zdolności do zaspokajania stwierdzonych lub potencjalnych potrzeb” [Griffin 2004, s. 689] powinny być właściwe wszystkim produktom, które starają się konkurować na rynku z innymi, a nie tylko tym, jak twierdzi Ricky Griffin, które wyróżniają się jakością. Jakością natomiast (wyjątkowością, innością), powinny się charakteryzować docelowo wszystkie produkty nowopowstałych organizacji kultury trzeciego sektora. Mimo to, że jakość powstaje na linii produkt-odbiorca, może mieć bezpośredni wpływ na wizerunek organizacji jako takiej. Zaangażowanie do spektaklu znanych aktorów, wykorzystanie w przedstawieniu muzyki znanego autora, przeprowadzenie spotkania autorskiego z uznanym rzeźbiarzem, ale też zaadaptowanie starej fabryki na potrzeby koncertu czy też przeprowadzenie akcji street artu w wyjątkowej scenerii powoduje, że oprócz znaczenia samego wydarzenia, wzmacnia się także wizerunek organizacji odpowiedzialnej za jego przeprowadzenie. Punkty: 2. Jakość powinna być dostrzeżona przez konkretnego odbiorcę. Jednakże, w przypadku dóbr kultury, z jakości produktu korzystają większe zbiorowości: projekcje filmowe, koncerty, przedstawienia, wydawnictwa książkowe i muzyczne. Dotyczy to także galerii, gdzie jakość rozciąga się nie tylko na odbiorcę, który chce wejść w posiadanie dzieła sztuki, ale także, w jakimś sensie, na grupy pośrednich odbiorców, którzy skuszeni jakością tego dzieła odwiedzają samą galerię. Punkty: 2. Utrzymanie wysokiego poziomu artystycznego może się wiązać z ponoszeniem przez organizacje kultury istotnych kosztów, np.: z zaangażowaniem odpowiednich artystów, doborem odpowiedniego sprzętu technicznego (komputery, oświetlenie, nagłośnienie), wynajmem odpowiednich pomieszczeń (studio nagrań, sala teatralna, fabryka) i przestrzeni (plac, ulica). By ograniczyć koszty, organizacja powinna wykorzystać swoje znajomości, szczególnie w sferze artystycznej i wynajęcia pomieszczeń (kontakt z administracją). Mając na względzie założenia parametrów kategorii C, przyznaje się: -2 punkty. Zarządzanie jakością jest wskazane dla organizacji non-profit o słabej, kształtującej się marce. Zadbanie o najwyższą jakość produktów może bezpośrednio wpłynąć na szybkie zbudowanie silnej marki organizacji. Kolejne działania będą polegały na wzmacnianiu jej trwałości. Przyznano: 4 punkty. Zadbanie o jakość produktów nie musi się wiązać z zaangażowaniem większej grupy organizatorów. Wyszukania odpowiednich twórców
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Opakowanie Wydaje się, że opakowanie odnosi się wyłącznie do produktów materialnych. Ale również w przypadku usługi, opakowaniem będzie to, co bezpośrednio nie stanowi usługi, ale co wiąże się z jej spożytkowaniem. Opakowaniem będą zatem wszystkie elementy, które tuż przed lub podczas całego procesu korzystania z usługi można zidentyfikować za pomocą zmysłów. Dzięki komunikatowi zawartemu w treści opakowania, odbiorca podejmuje decyzję czy skorzystać z produktu czy nie. W salonie fryzjerskim może to być np.: ubiór fryzjerki, wystrój lokalu, temperatura i muzyka wewnątrz czy też muzyka w tle. W przypadku usługi świadczonej bezpośrednio w lokalu odbiorcy oceniamy te elementy, które związane są z samą osobą świadczącą usługę (np. wygląd, sposób zachowana osoby, wykorzystywane narzędzia). Rozważania te można przenieść na płaszczyznę organizacji kultury. Procesy zarządzania opakowaniem w obszarze kultury można podzielić na dwa rodzaje: dotyczące produktu materialnego (np. książki, płyty, czasopisma) i niematerialnego (np. koncerty, wystawy, spektakle). Opakowania tych pierwszych będą służyły promocji samych produktów, natomiast drugich – produktu i organizacji (wystrój klubu, ubiór osób z obsługi, czystość, zapach). Wydaje się, że wykorzystanie opakowania daje nieco większe możliwości promocji produktu niż organizacji. Wobec tego przyznaje się: -1 punkt. Podział na materialne i niematerialne produkty kultury jest ważny także i z innego punktu widzenia. Opakowanie produktu materialnego ma przede wszystkim oddziaływać na pojedynczego odbiorcę. Opakowanie produktu niematerialnego powinno w większym stopniu oddziaływać na większą grupę niż na odbiorców indywidualnych. Wiąże się to z grupowym korzystaniem z niematerialnych dóbr kultury (akcja artystyczna, projekcja filmowa, ekspozycja w muzeum jako całość, a nie pojedyncze eksponaty). W związku z powyższym przyznaje się: 0 punktów. Zarządzanie opakowaniem jest techniką, która może się wiązać z poniesieniem przez organizację czy miejsc wydarzeń kulturalnych może dokonać grupa maksymalnie 4 – 5 osób. Wówczas jednak organizacja jest zmuszona do przeprowadzania niewielkich imprez. Działania na większą skalę wymagają zatrudnienia dodatkowego personelu. W aspekcie kategorii E przyznano: 2 punkty. Działania zarządzania jakością wyceniono na: 8 punktów.
kultury znaczących kosztów, na przykład, gdy zaprojektowanie opakowania (okładki) książki lub czasopisma zleca się odpowiedniemu artyście-grafikowi. Działania te mogą być jednak przeprowadzone przez organizację we własnym zakresie, przez osobę znającą odpowiednie oprogramowanie i mającą predyspozycje plastyczne. Z zasadniczo wysokimi wydatkami należy się liczyć przygotowując opakowanie produktu niematerialnego (np. wystrój sali teatralnej). Chociaż jest to działanie jednorazowe, projekt taki wymaga jednak stałej konserwacji. W odniesieniu do parametrów grupy C przyznano: -4 punkty. Opakowanie może być wykorzystane do budowania marki nowopowstałej organizacji kultury trzeciego sektora. W przypadku produktów materialnych, pośrednio taki efekt jest do uzyskania poprzez wprowadzenie ścisłych strategii zarządzania opakowaniem, np.: serii książek z widocznym logo wydawnictwa. Opakowania niematerialne, np. pomysłowość architektury wnętrza i inne elementy budujące nastrój, w sposób bardziej bezpośredni wpływają na kreowanie odpowiedniej marki. Punktacja: 2. Koncepcje związane z opakowaniem i jego funkcją mogą być wdrażane przez niewielką grupę osób. Nowatorskie rozwiązania mogą się wiązać z podjęciem współpracy z dodatkową osobą z zewnątrz. Nie są to jednak działania, których małe organizacje nie mogłyby przeprowadzić we własnym gronie. Przyznano: 3 punkty. Łączna wartość narzędzia: 0 punktów.
przeprowadzona, reklama szokująca może być instrumentem wzmacniającym wizerunek organizacji. Przyznano: 1 punkt. Jak w przypadku reklamy tradycyjnej, reklama szokująca dociera do większych grup społecznych. W aspekcie parametrów z grupy B, przyznaje się: 4 punkty. Nakłady finansowe na reklamę szokującą można porównać z wydatkami na tradycyjną kampanię. Punkty: -3. W odniesieniu do reklamy klasycznej stwierdzono, iż reklama nie ma bezpośredniego wpływu na markę organizacji. Z tego punktu widzenia jej przydatność dla organizacji non-profit jest niska. Natomiast w przypadku źle przeprowadzonej kampanii reklamy szokującej, słabą markę nowopowstałej organizacji można całkowicie utracić. Przyznaje się: -4 punkty. Reklama tradycyjna i szokująca może być zaadaptowana przez małą organizację z takim samym powodzeniem. Analogicznie, ilość punktów wynosi: 4. Przydatność reklamy szokującej wynosi: 2 punkty.
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2011, Vol 4 (4)
Merchandising Jest zestawem instrumentów umiejscowionych w miejscu sprzedaży lub w najbliższym otoczeniu organizacji, które zachęcają odbiorców do skorzystania z jej oferty. Mogą to być: witryny, plakaty i banery, standy, regały, systemy interaktywne, oświetleniowe oraz audio-wideo, degustacje, urządzenia interaktywne, ubiór i zachowanie personelu, „pułapki”. W przypadku organizacji kultury trzeciego sektora, część instrumentów merchandisingu wykorzystuje się do promocji produktu. Będą to regały, plakaty, standy czy banery przygotowane pod kątem zareklamowania, zaprezentowania konkretnego produktu. Witryny (np. galerii, małych muzeów, księgarni, sklepów muzycznych) mogą pełnić rolę pośrednią: zachęcać odbiorców do konkretnego zakupu (książka). Natomiast niestandardowo, pomysłowo zaaranżowana przestrzeń witryny może tworzyć analogiczny, pozytywny wizerunek całej organizacji. Podobnie może działać mechanizm „pułapek” (np. osoba w przebraniu, która zachęca odbiorców do wejścia do lokalu organizacji). Jednakże środków merchandisingowych tworzących w świadomości odbiorców pozytywną wizję organizacji jest przeważająca ilość. Są to systemy interaktywne (np. komputer z dostępem online do WWW czy forum organizacji), systemy audio (muzyka, która może być słyszalna także
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Merchandising Jest zestawem instrumentów umiejscowionych w miejscu sprzedaży lub w najbliższym otoczeniu organizacji, które zachęcają odbiorców do skorzystania z jej oferty. Mogą to być: witryny, plakaty i banery, standy, regały, systemy interaktywne, oświetleniowe oraz audio-wideo, degustacje, urządzenia interaktywne, ubiór i zachowanie personelu, „pułapki”. W przypadku organizacji kultury trzeciego sektora, część instrumentów merchandisingu wykorzystuje się do promocji produktu. Będą to regały, plakaty, standy czy banery przygotowane pod kątem zareklamowania, zaprezentowania konkretnego produktu. Witryny (np. galerii, małych muzeów, księgarni, sklepów muzycznych) mogą pełnić rolę pośrednią: zachęcać odbiorców do konkretnego zakupu (książka). Natomiast niestandardowo, pomysłowo zaaranżowana przestrzeń witryny może tworzyć analogiczny, pozytywny wizerunek całej organizacji. Podobnie może działać mechanizm „pułapek” (np. osoba w przebraniu, która zachęca odbiorców do wejścia do lokalu organizacji). Jednakże środków merchandisingowych tworzących w świadomości odbiorców pozytywną wizję organizacji jest przeważająca ilość. Są to systemy interaktywne (np. komputer z dostępem online do WWW czy forum organizacji), systemy audio (muzyka, która może być słyszalna także
Reklama szokująca Reklama szokująca (shockvertising) dociera do odbiorców tymi samymi kanałami co reklama tradycyjna. Cechą wyjątkową reklamy szokującej jest zawarty w niej komunikat, a właściwie sposób zaprezentowania tego komunikatu, czy to wizualny, czy dźwiękowy, czy to za pomocą treści. Reklama szokująca ma wywołać u odbiorcy skrajne emocje (strach, oburzenie, obrzydzenie) lub złamać społeczne tabu. W tym celu wykorzystuje się najczęściej sfery „seksualności, przemocy, śmierci, cierpienia, ale także poczucia dobrego smaku, uczuć religijnych czy moralności” [Śliwińska, Pacut red. 2011, s. 18]. Chociaż, jak zauważono wcześniej, reklama tradycyjna służy promocji produktu, z reklamą szokującą jest nieco inaczej. Treścią reklamy jest również produkt (wystawa, akcja społeczno-kulturalna), ale wspomniany sposób jego prezentacji może wpływać jednocześnie na ocenę organizacji przez odbiorców. Jeśli kampania jest odpowiednio
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2011, Vol 4 (4)
Reklama szokująca Reklama szokująca (shockvertising) dociera do odbiorców tymi samymi kanałami co reklama tradycyjna. Cechą wyjątkową reklamy szokującej jest zawarty w niej komunikat, a właściwie sposób zaprezentowania tego komunikatu, czy to wizualny, czy dźwiękowy, czy to za pomocą treści. Reklama szokująca ma wywołać u odbiorcy skrajne emocje (strach, oburzenie, obrzydzenie) lub złamać społeczne tabu. W tym celu wykorzystuje się najczęściej sfery „seksualności, przemocy, śmierci, cierpienia, ale także poczucia dobrego smaku, uczuć religijnych czy moralności” [Śliwińska, Pacut red. 2011, s. 18]. Chociaż, jak zauważono wcześniej, reklama tradycyjna służy promocji produktu, z reklamą szokującą jest nieco inaczej. Treścią reklamy jest również produkt (wystawa, akcja społeczno-kulturalna), ale wspomniany sposób jego prezentacji może wpływać jednocześnie na ocenę organizacji przez odbiorców. Jeśli kampania jest odpowiednio
przeprowadzona, reklama szokująca może być instrumentem wzmacniającym wizerunek organizacji. Przyznano: 1 punkt. Jak w przypadku reklamy tradycyjnej, reklama szokująca dociera do większych grup społecznych. W aspekcie parametrów z grupy B, przyznaje się: 4 punkty. Nakłady finansowe na reklamę szokującą można porównać z wydatkami na tradycyjną kampanię. Punkty: -3. W odniesieniu do reklamy klasycznej stwierdzono, iż reklama nie ma bezpośredniego wpływu na markę organizacji. Z tego punktu widzenia jej przydatność dla organizacji non-profit jest niska. Natomiast w przypadku źle przeprowadzonej kampanii reklamy szokującej, słabą markę nowopowstałej organizacji można całkowicie utracić. Przyznaje się: -4 punkty. Reklama tradycyjna i szokująca może być zaadaptowana przez małą organizację z takim samym powodzeniem. Analogicznie, ilość punktów wynosi: 4. Przydatność reklamy szokującej wynosi: 2 punkty.
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kultury znaczących kosztów, na przykład, gdy zaprojektowanie opakowania (okładki) książki lub czasopisma zleca się odpowiedniemu artyście-grafikowi. Działania te mogą być jednak przeprowadzone przez organizację we własnym zakresie, przez osobę znającą odpowiednie oprogramowanie i mającą predyspozycje plastyczne. Z zasadniczo wysokimi wydatkami należy się liczyć przygotowując opakowanie produktu niematerialnego (np. wystrój sali teatralnej). Chociaż jest to działanie jednorazowe, projekt taki wymaga jednak stałej konserwacji. W odniesieniu do parametrów grupy C przyznano: -4 punkty. Opakowanie może być wykorzystane do budowania marki nowopowstałej organizacji kultury trzeciego sektora. W przypadku produktów materialnych, pośrednio taki efekt jest do uzyskania poprzez wprowadzenie ścisłych strategii zarządzania opakowaniem, np.: serii książek z widocznym logo wydawnictwa. Opakowania niematerialne, np. pomysłowość architektury wnętrza i inne elementy budujące nastrój, w sposób bardziej bezpośredni wpływają na kreowanie odpowiedniej marki. Punktacja: 2. Koncepcje związane z opakowaniem i jego funkcją mogą być wdrażane przez niewielką grupę osób. Nowatorskie rozwiązania mogą się wiązać z podjęciem współpracy z dodatkową osobą z zewnątrz. Nie są to jednak działania, których małe organizacje nie mogłyby przeprowadzić we własnym gronie. Przyznano: 3 punkty. Łączna wartość narzędzia: 0 punktów.
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2011, Vol 4 (4)
poza lokalem, wywołująca pozytywne skojarzenia), systemy oświetleniowe, które (szczególnie w godzinach wieczornych) mogą tworzyć wyjątkową atmosferę, degustacje (dające możliwość swobodnego przeczytania książki w księgarni, posłuchania muzyki z płyty interesującej odbiorcę). Także stylizowane stroje i zaaranżowane zachowanie personelu mogą bezpośrednio oddziaływać na sposób, w jaki organizacja jest postrzegana przez odbiorców. Punktacja: 4. Ponieważ instrumenty merchandaisingu usytuowane są wewnątrz lub w najbliższym otoczeniu organizacji, wobec tego skierowane są w szczególności do indywidualnych lub niewielkich grup odbiorców w bezpośrednim jej sąsiedztwie. Dlatego też, w przypadku parametrów z kategorii B, przyznano: -2 punkty. Środki merchandaisingu można podzielić na dwie grupy: kosztotwórcze – standy, banery, plakaty, systemy zaawansowanych technologii; kreatywne (zależące od pomysłowości autorów, które niekoniecznie muszą się wiązać z wydatkowaniem środków finansowych) – degustacje, witryny, „pułapki” czy działania personelu. Przyznano: 0 punktów. Merchandaising może być zaadoptowany do potrzeb organizacji nieposiadającej marki. Im większa kreatywność członków organizacji, w np. inicjowaniu zaaranżowanych działań, tym większe prawdopodobieństwo szybszego zbudowania silnej marki. Z drugiej strony zbyt duży przepych tego rodzaju działalności, albo niewłaściwe wykorzystanie rozwiązań technologicznych, może przynieść odwrotny skutek. Ostatecznie w odniesieniu do parametrów grupy D przyznaje się: 2 punkty. Większość działań z tej kategorii można przeprowadzić wewnątrz organizacji. Prawdopodobnie instalacja i przystosowanie zaawansowanych technologii do potrzeb organizacji może wymagać specjalistycznej pomocy z zewnątrz. Punktacja: 2. Ostateczna ocena przydatności merchandaisingu dla nowopowstałych organizacji kultury trzeciego sektora wynosi: 6 punktów. Product placement Środek komunikacji marketingowej łączący obszary reklamy i public relations [Śliwińska, Pacut red. 2011, s. 19]. Wykorzystuje podobne kanały komunikacji co reklama (media masowe), ale cała operacja marketingowa jest ukryta, jak ma to miejsce w działaniach public relations. Informacja o produkcie lub organizacji zakamuflowana jest pod różną postacią: w fabule filmu, audycji radiowej, spektaklu teatralnego, w scenariuszu programu
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2011, Vol 4 (4)
telewizyjnego czy w treści artykułu (który z założenia powstał na inny temat). Przykładem może być udział osoby z organizacji w serialu, wątki w serialu poświęcone organizacji lub jej produktowi, czy też logo organizacji lub inne informacje o niej widoczne w trakcie emisji samego serialu, albo w jego czołówce lub napisach końcowych. W sferze kultury product placement może być wykorzystywany np. przez organizacje przeprowadzające tzw. akcje kulturalne, czyli działania prospołeczne mające na celu propagowanie zachowań kulturalnych i kulturowych (np. nauka pisania i czytania) [DragicevicSesic, Stojkovic 2010, s. 129]. Mechanizmy te wykorzystywane są przez organizacje kultury trzeciego sektora do wskazywania odbiorcom pewnych negatywnych zjawisk kulturowych. Poprzez to organizacja promuje swój własny produkt, mogący przeciwdziałać tego typu problemom. Jednocześnie promuje samą siebie. Punktacja: 0. Na skutek wykorzystania mediów masowych organizacje non-profit mają możliwość dotarcia do wielu odbiorców jednocześnie. Przyznaje się: 4 punkty. O instrumentach product placement można właściwie powiedzieć, że są nieodpłatną formą komunikacji marketingowej. Przyznano maksymalną ilość punktów: 4. Z jednej strony, można stwierdzić, iż product placement może być bardzo korzystnym rozwiązaniem, jeśli organizacji zależy na budowie solidnej marki w niedługim czasie. Z drugiej strony, organizacjom nowym, o słabej marce trudno zaistnieć w środowisku medialnym – co najwyżej o zasięgu regionalnym. Zwracając uwagę na korzyści tego rozwiązania w kontekście parametrów grupy D, ostatecznie przyznano: 1 punkt. Jak zauważono, z powodu utrudnionego dostępu do największych mediów, niewielkie organizacje kulturalne (artystyczne) korzystają rzadziej z tego typu działań. Można jednak zabiegać o udział przedstawicieli organizacji nonprofit w programach telewizji i radia lokalnego. Punktacja: -3. 4 punkty, to wartość przydatności narzędzi product placement dla nowopowstałych organizacji kultury trzeciego sektora. Marketing ambientowy Zestaw działań komunikacji marketingowej polegających na nawiązaniu relacji z odbiorcą w sposób niekonwencjonalny [Śliwińska, Pacut red. 2011, s. 21]. Nadawca komunikatu powinien zaskoczyć odbiorcę, zadziwić, wprawić go
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Product placement Środek komunikacji marketingowej łączący obszary reklamy i public relations [Śliwińska, Pacut red. 2011, s. 19]. Wykorzystuje podobne kanały komunikacji co reklama (media masowe), ale cała operacja marketingowa jest ukryta, jak ma to miejsce w działaniach public relations. Informacja o produkcie lub organizacji zakamuflowana jest pod różną postacią: w fabule filmu, audycji radiowej, spektaklu teatralnego, w scenariuszu programu poza lokalem, wywołująca pozytywne skojarzenia), systemy oświetleniowe, które (szczególnie w godzinach wieczornych) mogą tworzyć wyjątkową atmosferę, degustacje (dające możliwość swobodnego przeczytania książki w księgarni, posłuchania muzyki z płyty interesującej odbiorcę). Także stylizowane stroje i zaaranżowane zachowanie personelu mogą bezpośrednio oddziaływać na sposób, w jaki organizacja jest postrzegana przez odbiorców. Punktacja: 4. Ponieważ instrumenty merchandaisingu usytuowane są wewnątrz lub w najbliższym otoczeniu organizacji, wobec tego skierowane są w szczególności do indywidualnych lub niewielkich grup odbiorców w bezpośrednim jej sąsiedztwie. Dlatego też, w przypadku parametrów z kategorii B, przyznano: -2 punkty. Środki merchandaisingu można podzielić na dwie grupy: kosztotwórcze – standy, banery, plakaty, systemy zaawansowanych technologii; kreatywne (zależące od pomysłowości autorów, które niekoniecznie muszą się wiązać z wydatkowaniem środków finansowych) – degustacje, witryny, „pułapki” czy działania personelu. Przyznano: 0 punktów. Merchandaising może być zaadoptowany do potrzeb organizacji nieposiadającej marki. Im większa kreatywność członków organizacji, w np. inicjowaniu zaaranżowanych działań, tym większe prawdopodobieństwo szybszego zbudowania silnej marki. Z drugiej strony zbyt duży przepych tego rodzaju działalności, albo niewłaściwe wykorzystanie rozwiązań technologicznych, może przynieść odwrotny skutek. Ostatecznie w odniesieniu do parametrów grupy D przyznaje się: 2 punkty. Większość działań z tej kategorii można przeprowadzić wewnątrz organizacji. Prawdopodobnie instalacja i przystosowanie zaawansowanych technologii do potrzeb organizacji może wymagać specjalistycznej pomocy z zewnątrz. Punktacja: 2. Ostateczna ocena przydatności merchandaisingu dla nowopowstałych organizacji kultury trzeciego sektora wynosi: 6 punktów.
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Marketing ambientowy Zestaw działań komunikacji marketingowej polegających na nawiązaniu relacji z odbiorcą w sposób niekonwencjonalny [Śliwińska, Pacut red. 2011, s. 21]. Nadawca komunikatu powinien zaskoczyć odbiorcę, zadziwić, wprawić go telewizyjnego czy w treści artykułu (który z założenia powstał na inny temat). Przykładem może być udział osoby z organizacji w serialu, wątki w serialu poświęcone organizacji lub jej produktowi, czy też logo organizacji lub inne informacje o niej widoczne w trakcie emisji samego serialu, albo w jego czołówce lub napisach końcowych. W sferze kultury product placement może być wykorzystywany np. przez organizacje przeprowadzające tzw. akcje kulturalne, czyli działania prospołeczne mające na celu propagowanie zachowań kulturalnych i kulturowych (np. nauka pisania i czytania) [DragicevicSesic, Stojkovic 2010, s. 129]. Mechanizmy te wykorzystywane są przez organizacje kultury trzeciego sektora do wskazywania odbiorcom pewnych negatywnych zjawisk kulturowych. Poprzez to organizacja promuje swój własny produkt, mogący przeciwdziałać tego typu problemom. Jednocześnie promuje samą siebie. Punktacja: 0. Na skutek wykorzystania mediów masowych organizacje non-profit mają możliwość dotarcia do wielu odbiorców jednocześnie. Przyznaje się: 4 punkty. O instrumentach product placement można właściwie powiedzieć, że są nieodpłatną formą komunikacji marketingowej. Przyznano maksymalną ilość punktów: 4. Z jednej strony, można stwierdzić, iż product placement może być bardzo korzystnym rozwiązaniem, jeśli organizacji zależy na budowie solidnej marki w niedługim czasie. Z drugiej strony, organizacjom nowym, o słabej marce trudno zaistnieć w środowisku medialnym – co najwyżej o zasięgu regionalnym. Zwracając uwagę na korzyści tego rozwiązania w kontekście parametrów grupy D, ostatecznie przyznano: 1 punkt. Jak zauważono, z powodu utrudnionego dostępu do największych mediów, niewielkie organizacje kulturalne (artystyczne) korzystają rzadziej z tego typu działań. Można jednak zabiegać o udział przedstawicieli organizacji nonprofit w programach telewizji i radia lokalnego. Punktacja: -3. 4 punkty, to wartość przydatności narzędzi product placement dla nowopowstałych organizacji kultury trzeciego sektora.
w zdumnienie. Najczęściej wykorzystuje się powierzchnie nietypowych przedmiotów (np. papier toaletowy, stare monety, butelki), elementów architektury (np. wiaty, chodniki), całych przestrzeni, albo powierzchnię tradycyjnych nośników reklamy w nietypowy sposób (np. słupy reklamowe, tablice). Pomysłowość akcji zależy wyłącznie od kreatywności zespołu organizacji. Tego typu narzędzi używać można przede wszystkim do promocji konkretnych produktów: koncertów, festiwali, książek, spotkań autorskich itp. Nie ulega jednak wątpliwości, że kampania o wysokich walorach kreatywności może pozytywnie wpłynąć na wizerunek organizacji. Przyznaje się: -1 punkt. Marketing ambientowy (ambient media) ma być w swym założeniu akcją widoczną, rozpoznawalną. Skierowany jest do odpowiednio licznej grupy odbiorców. W związku z powyższym przyznano: 4 punkty. Akcje ambientowe mogą mieć dwojaki charakter: takie, których koszt może być znacznym obciążeniem dla nowych organizacji oraz bezkosztowe lub o niewielkim nakładzie finansowym. Przyznano: -1 punkt. Wydaje się, że marketing ambientowy może być ważnym instrumentem dla organizacji kultury o słabej marce. Im większy potencjał kreatywności kampanii ambientowej, tym większe prawdopodobieństwo, że odbiorca dostrzeże ten potencjał także i w samej organizacji. Ponieważ marketing ambientowy nie polega na wyzwalaniu negatywnych emocji u odbiorcy (jak może to mieć miejsce w przypadku reklamy szokującej), dlatego ryzyko niekorzystnego wpływu nieudanej akcji na stan marki nie jest wielkie. W kontekście parametrów kategorii D ilość punktów wynosi: 3. Wiele pomysłów z zakresu marketingu ambientowego nie będzie mogło być zrealizowanych przez niewielką organizację pozarządową, nawet przy pomocy dodatkowych wolontariuszy. Największe działania tego typu mogą być przeprowadzane wyłącznie przez doświadczone, duże organizacje. Dzięki pomysłowości, grupa kilku osób jest jednak w stanie wdrożyć wiele ciekawych działań, chociaż często być może o mniejszym zasięgu (np. marketing partyzancki: vlepki czy graffiti). Przyznaje się: 0 punktów. Łączna suma punktów: 5.
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2011, Vol 4 (4)
gów). Nie jest jednak reklamą szokującą, gdyż nie wykorzystuje wyłącznie technik reklamowych, ale jego celem jest także wywołanie silnych emocji u odbiorcy – chociaż nie negatywnych i niekoniecznie poprzez wywołanie szoku, a poprzez efekt skojarzenia treści komunikatu z własnymi doświadczeniami odbiorcy (np. plakat przedstawiający kilkunastoletnie dziecko, które w zeszycie zapisuje prosty wyraz z błędem ortograficznym). W sferze kultury narzędzia tego typu wykorzystywane są przez organizacje przeprowadzające akcje kulturalne (promocja czytelnictwa, śpiewania), ale też wydawnictwa działające w niszach społecznych czy kluby kultury niezależnej oraz organizacje, których celem może być przypominanie o niedostrzeganych problemach dziedzictwa kulturowego. Działania tego typu mają na celu (jak w przypadku mechanizmu product placement) uświadomienie odbiorcom, że istnieje pewien marginalizowany problem społeczno-kulturowy lub kulturalny (niszowe lub zapomniane aspekty kultury), redukcją którego zajmuje się taka a taka organizacja w taki a taki sposób. Chodzi tutaj o jednoczesne naświetlenie problemu i wskazanie podmiotu naprawczego (budowa wizerunku organizacji działającej w tym obszarze) oraz sposobów przeciwdziałania problemom (promocja produktu): akcje kulturalne, koncerty itp. Punktacja: 0. Działania marketingu doświadczeń zawsze powinny być kierowane do szerszego audytorium. Założeniem jest zbudowanie przekonania społecznego o marginalizacji danego problemu. Przyznano: 4 punkty. Część narzędzi marketingu doświadczeń (przede wszystkim te oparte o mechanizmy reklamowe) może wiązać się z zaangażowaniem odpowiednich środków finansowych. Większość z instrumentów (nawiązujących do rozwiązań public relations) może być jednak zaaplikowana nieodpłatnie lub z użyciem niewielkich nakładów. Przyznano: 1 punkt. Dla organizacji charakteryzujących się słabą marką marketing doświadczeń może być korzystnym rozwiązaniem. Efektowne działania mogą przynieść dość szybki efekt w postaci uzyskania statusu organizacji o silnej marce. Zbyt intensywne wspieranie skrajnych nurtów kultury niszowej może jednak przynieść odwrotny skutek. W odniesieniu do parametrów kategorii D przyznaje się: 2 punkty. Prowadzenie akcji kulturalnych, szczególnie tych o ponadregionalnym znaczeniu, może stanowić dla małych organizacji duże wyzwanie. Mniejsze akcje lub happeningi mogą się tylko
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Marketing doświadczeń Marketing doświadczeń (experimental marketing) może przywodzić na myśl reklamę szokującą i działania public relations (szczególnie happenin-
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2011, Vol 4 (4)
Marketing doświadczeń Marketing doświadczeń (experimental marketing) może przywodzić na myśl reklamę szokującą i działania public relations (szczególnie happenin-
gów). Nie jest jednak reklamą szokującą, gdyż nie wykorzystuje wyłącznie technik reklamowych, ale jego celem jest także wywołanie silnych emocji u odbiorcy – chociaż nie negatywnych i niekoniecznie poprzez wywołanie szoku, a poprzez efekt skojarzenia treści komunikatu z własnymi doświadczeniami odbiorcy (np. plakat przedstawiający kilkunastoletnie dziecko, które w zeszycie zapisuje prosty wyraz z błędem ortograficznym). W sferze kultury narzędzia tego typu wykorzystywane są przez organizacje przeprowadzające akcje kulturalne (promocja czytelnictwa, śpiewania), ale też wydawnictwa działające w niszach społecznych czy kluby kultury niezależnej oraz organizacje, których celem może być przypominanie o niedostrzeganych problemach dziedzictwa kulturowego. Działania tego typu mają na celu (jak w przypadku mechanizmu product placement) uświadomienie odbiorcom, że istnieje pewien marginalizowany problem społeczno-kulturowy lub kulturalny (niszowe lub zapomniane aspekty kultury), redukcją którego zajmuje się taka a taka organizacja w taki a taki sposób. Chodzi tutaj o jednoczesne naświetlenie problemu i wskazanie podmiotu naprawczego (budowa wizerunku organizacji działającej w tym obszarze) oraz sposobów przeciwdziałania problemom (promocja produktu): akcje kulturalne, koncerty itp. Punktacja: 0. Działania marketingu doświadczeń zawsze powinny być kierowane do szerszego audytorium. Założeniem jest zbudowanie przekonania społecznego o marginalizacji danego problemu. Przyznano: 4 punkty. Część narzędzi marketingu doświadczeń (przede wszystkim te oparte o mechanizmy reklamowe) może wiązać się z zaangażowaniem odpowiednich środków finansowych. Większość z instrumentów (nawiązujących do rozwiązań public relations) może być jednak zaaplikowana nieodpłatnie lub z użyciem niewielkich nakładów. Przyznano: 1 punkt. Dla organizacji charakteryzujących się słabą marką marketing doświadczeń może być korzystnym rozwiązaniem. Efektowne działania mogą przynieść dość szybki efekt w postaci uzyskania statusu organizacji o silnej marce. Zbyt intensywne wspieranie skrajnych nurtów kultury niszowej może jednak przynieść odwrotny skutek. W odniesieniu do parametrów kategorii D przyznaje się: 2 punkty. Prowadzenie akcji kulturalnych, szczególnie tych o ponadregionalnym znaczeniu, może stanowić dla małych organizacji duże wyzwanie. Mniejsze akcje lub happeningi mogą się tylko
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w zdumnienie. Najczęściej wykorzystuje się powierzchnie nietypowych przedmiotów (np. papier toaletowy, stare monety, butelki), elementów architektury (np. wiaty, chodniki), całych przestrzeni, albo powierzchnię tradycyjnych nośników reklamy w nietypowy sposób (np. słupy reklamowe, tablice). Pomysłowość akcji zależy wyłącznie od kreatywności zespołu organizacji. Tego typu narzędzi używać można przede wszystkim do promocji konkretnych produktów: koncertów, festiwali, książek, spotkań autorskich itp. Nie ulega jednak wątpliwości, że kampania o wysokich walorach kreatywności może pozytywnie wpłynąć na wizerunek organizacji. Przyznaje się: -1 punkt. Marketing ambientowy (ambient media) ma być w swym założeniu akcją widoczną, rozpoznawalną. Skierowany jest do odpowiednio licznej grupy odbiorców. W związku z powyższym przyznano: 4 punkty. Akcje ambientowe mogą mieć dwojaki charakter: takie, których koszt może być znacznym obciążeniem dla nowych organizacji oraz bezkosztowe lub o niewielkim nakładzie finansowym. Przyznano: -1 punkt. Wydaje się, że marketing ambientowy może być ważnym instrumentem dla organizacji kultury o słabej marce. Im większy potencjał kreatywności kampanii ambientowej, tym większe prawdopodobieństwo, że odbiorca dostrzeże ten potencjał także i w samej organizacji. Ponieważ marketing ambientowy nie polega na wyzwalaniu negatywnych emocji u odbiorcy (jak może to mieć miejsce w przypadku reklamy szokującej), dlatego ryzyko niekorzystnego wpływu nieudanej akcji na stan marki nie jest wielkie. W kontekście parametrów kategorii D ilość punktów wynosi: 3. Wiele pomysłów z zakresu marketingu ambientowego nie będzie mogło być zrealizowanych przez niewielką organizację pozarządową, nawet przy pomocy dodatkowych wolontariuszy. Największe działania tego typu mogą być przeprowadzane wyłącznie przez doświadczone, duże organizacje. Dzięki pomysłowości, grupa kilku osób jest jednak w stanie wdrożyć wiele ciekawych działań, chociaż często być może o mniejszym zasięgu (np. marketing partyzancki: vlepki czy graffiti). Przyznaje się: 0 punktów. Łączna suma punktów: 5.
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doraźnie wymagać zaangażowania większej ilości wolontariuszy. Marketing doświadczeń wykorzystujący rozwiązania standardowej reklamy można koordynować w małym gronie osób. Punkty: -1. Łączną wartość marketingu doświadczeń wyceniono na: 6 punktów. Marketing szeptany Jest to zestaw takich narzędzi komunikacji marketingowej, dzięki którym jednorazowy komunikat organizacji jest, bez jej dalszego udziału, powielany spontanicznie wśród odbiorców (proces przypomina rozprzestrzenianie się plotki). Warunkiem zaistnienia takiego zjawiska jest komunikat o odpowiednio mocnym potencjale informacyjnym [Hughes 2008, s. 13–14] (np. ostatni spektakl przed likwidacją teatru, koncert znanego muzyka po dwudziestu latach przerwy etc.). Komunikat w równym stopniu może dotyczyć produktu organizacji lub jej samej. Dlatego, jeśli jest taka potrzeba, mechanizm ten może być spożytkowany przez organizację w celu wyłącznie jej promocji i kreowania jej wizerunku – zarówno w postaci jednorazowego, jak i długofalowych działań. Przyznaje się: 4 punkty. Chociaż komunikat może być kierowany do konkretnego odbiorcy, założeniem mechanizmu marketingu szeptanego jest uzyskanie docelowego efektu publicznej dyskusji wywołanej treścią komunikatu (o książce, koncercie czy też działalności samej organizacji). Również przyznano: 4 punkty. Organizacje korzystające z możliwości marketingu szeptanego nie są narażone na ponoszenie nakładów finansowych. To, czy komunikat będzie się rozpowszechniał zależy, jak wspomniano, wyłącznie od jego wartości informacyjnej – nie ma to związku z zainwestowanymi środkami finansowymi. Ponownie przyznaje się: 4 punkty. Marketing szeptany stwarza możliwość wykreowania oczekiwanego wizerunku organizacji. Jednak budowa marki nie może się opierać wyłącznie na wartości samego komunikatu, ale musi wynikać także z pozamarketingowej działalności organizacji. Niekontrolowane informacje mogą ostatecznie przeszkodzić w zbudowaniu silnej marki organizacji. W aspekcie parametrów grupy D przyznaje się: -2 punkty. Za odpowiednie przygotowanie informacji i jej aplikację w otoczeniu organizacji może być odpowiedzialna właściwie jedna osoba. W tym przypadku należy przyznać: 4 punkty. W sumie przyznaje się: 14 punktów.
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Wystawy i targi To narzędzie komunikacji marketingowej, mające na celu promocję (i sprzedaż) produktów kultury poza siedzibą organizacji, w miejscu publicznego gromadzenia się osób zainteresowanych daną dziedziną kultury. Wyróżnia się następujące targi i wystawy: książek, muzyki (instrumentów i sprzętu muzycznego oraz przemysłu fonograficznego), artystyczne (duże galerie), teatralno-baletowe, producentów telewizyjnych i radiowych, filmowe [Dragicevic-Sesic, Stojkovic 2010, s. 129], mody oraz folklorystyczne. Targi i wystawy są miejscem promocji produktu (dają także możliwość jego zakupu), jednakże jak zauważa Jim Blythe, w większym stopniu są instrumentem budowania wizerunku [Blythe 2002, s. 195]. Udział w targach to dodatkowy prestiż dla organizacji. Przyznano: 1 punkt. Targi są odwiedzane przez wielu potencjalnych odbiorców. Właściwie przygotowane stoisko jest skutecznym sposobem dotarcia do licznych grup odbiorców z własną ofertą. W tym przypadku przyznaje się: 4 punkty. Targi są kosztownym przedsięwzięciem, jednakże nie są tak kosztochłonne, jak kampanie reklamowe, nie są planowane także nadmiernie często. W odniesieniu do parametrów kategorii C przyznano: -3 punkty. Dla organizacji o słabej marce targi mogą stanowić naturalny instrument jej wzmacniania. Można to osiągnąć, na przykład poprzez ustawienie własnego stoiska pomiędzy stoiskami uznanych organizacji z branży. Ilość punktów: 3. Chęć udziału w targach może zgłosić każda organizacja. Całe przedsięwzięcie może być przeprowadzone przez grupę trzech, czterech osób. Należy jednak ściśle określić plan działań, gdyż targi bardzo często odbywają się poza miejscem zlokalizowania organizacji i trwają kilka, kilkanaście dni. Punktacja: 3. Ostateczny wynik to: 8 punktów. Event marketing To narzędzie komunikacji marketingowej, które do niedawna należało do grupy narzędzi public realtions. Jednakże ze względu na specyfikę wydarzeń artystycznych, pod koniec lat 90. XX wieku zaczęto je badać w oderwaniu od pozostałych elementów public relations [Grzegorczyk red. 2009, s. 7]. Imprezy artystyczne to nie tylko wydarzenia kulturalne sensu stricto. Przedsięwzięcia takie są coraz częściej w całości przygotowywane jako instrument promocyjny organizacji, jako mechanizm budujący komunikacyjny kanał marketingowy na
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Marketing szeptany Jest to zestaw takich narzędzi komunikacji marketingowej, dzięki którym jednorazowy komunikat organizacji jest, bez jej dalszego udziału, powielany spontanicznie wśród odbiorców (proces przypomina rozprzestrzenianie się plotki). Warunkiem zaistnienia takiego zjawiska jest komunikat o odpowiednio mocnym potencjale informacyjnym [Hughes 2008, s. 13–14] (np. ostatni spektakl przed likwidacją teatru, koncert znanego muzyka po dwudziestu latach przerwy etc.). Komunikat w równym stopniu może dotyczyć produktu organizacji lub jej samej. Dlatego, jeśli jest taka potrzeba, mechanizm ten może być spożytkowany przez organizację w celu wyłącznie jej promocji i kreowania jej wizerunku – zarówno w postaci jednorazowego, jak i długofalowych działań. Przyznaje się: 4 punkty. Chociaż komunikat może być kierowany do konkretnego odbiorcy, założeniem mechanizmu marketingu szeptanego jest uzyskanie docelowego efektu publicznej dyskusji wywołanej treścią komunikatu (o książce, koncercie czy też działalności samej organizacji). Również przyznano: 4 punkty. Organizacje korzystające z możliwości marketingu szeptanego nie są narażone na ponoszenie nakładów finansowych. To, czy komunikat będzie się rozpowszechniał zależy, jak wspomniano, wyłącznie od jego wartości informacyjnej – nie ma to związku z zainwestowanymi środkami finansowymi. Ponownie przyznaje się: 4 punkty. Marketing szeptany stwarza możliwość wykreowania oczekiwanego wizerunku organizacji. Jednak budowa marki nie może się opierać wyłącznie na wartości samego komunikatu, ale musi wynikać także z pozamarketingowej działalności organizacji. Niekontrolowane informacje mogą ostatecznie przeszkodzić w zbudowaniu silnej marki organizacji. W aspekcie parametrów grupy D przyznaje się: -2 punkty. Za odpowiednie przygotowanie informacji i jej aplikację w otoczeniu organizacji może być odpowiedzialna właściwie jedna osoba. W tym przypadku należy przyznać: 4 punkty. W sumie przyznaje się: 14 punktów. doraźnie wymagać zaangażowania większej ilości wolontariuszy. Marketing doświadczeń wykorzystujący rozwiązania standardowej reklamy można koordynować w małym gronie osób. Punkty: -1. Łączną wartość marketingu doświadczeń wyceniono na: 6 punktów.
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Event marketing To narzędzie komunikacji marketingowej, które do niedawna należało do grupy narzędzi public realtions. Jednakże ze względu na specyfikę wydarzeń artystycznych, pod koniec lat 90. XX wieku zaczęto je badać w oderwaniu od pozostałych elementów public relations [Grzegorczyk red. 2009, s. 7]. Imprezy artystyczne to nie tylko wydarzenia kulturalne sensu stricto. Przedsięwzięcia takie są coraz częściej w całości przygotowywane jako instrument promocyjny organizacji, jako mechanizm budujący komunikacyjny kanał marketingowy na Wystawy i targi To narzędzie komunikacji marketingowej, mające na celu promocję (i sprzedaż) produktów kultury poza siedzibą organizacji, w miejscu publicznego gromadzenia się osób zainteresowanych daną dziedziną kultury. Wyróżnia się następujące targi i wystawy: książek, muzyki (instrumentów i sprzętu muzycznego oraz przemysłu fonograficznego), artystyczne (duże galerie), teatralno-baletowe, producentów telewizyjnych i radiowych, filmowe [Dragicevic-Sesic, Stojkovic 2010, s. 129], mody oraz folklorystyczne. Targi i wystawy są miejscem promocji produktu (dają także możliwość jego zakupu), jednakże jak zauważa Jim Blythe, w większym stopniu są instrumentem budowania wizerunku [Blythe 2002, s. 195]. Udział w targach to dodatkowy prestiż dla organizacji. Przyznano: 1 punkt. Targi są odwiedzane przez wielu potencjalnych odbiorców. Właściwie przygotowane stoisko jest skutecznym sposobem dotarcia do licznych grup odbiorców z własną ofertą. W tym przypadku przyznaje się: 4 punkty. Targi są kosztownym przedsięwzięciem, jednakże nie są tak kosztochłonne, jak kampanie reklamowe, nie są planowane także nadmiernie często. W odniesieniu do parametrów kategorii C przyznano: -3 punkty. Dla organizacji o słabej marce targi mogą stanowić naturalny instrument jej wzmacniania. Można to osiągnąć, na przykład poprzez ustawienie własnego stoiska pomiędzy stoiskami uznanych organizacji z branży. Ilość punktów: 3. Chęć udziału w targach może zgłosić każda organizacja. Całe przedsięwzięcie może być przeprowadzone przez grupę trzech, czterech osób. Należy jednak ściśle określić plan działań, gdyż targi bardzo często odbywają się poza miejscem zlokalizowania organizacji i trwają kilka, kilkanaście dni. Punktacja: 3. Ostateczny wynik to: 8 punktów.
linii organizacja-odbiorca. Tak rozumiane wydarzenia artystyczne mogą być wykorzystywane także i przez organizacje kultury trzeciego sektora. Może dojść do sytuacji, że na przykład spektakl będzie narzędziem komunikacji marketingowej teatru, a nie jego produktem. Działania event marketingu, tak jak zresztą wszystkie z kręgu public relations, służą wzmacnianiu wizerunku organizacji. Ocena punktowa: 4. Wszystkie niematerialne produktu kultury (np. spektakle, koncerty, akcje artystyczne i kulturalne) są skierowane do grup odbiorców, często lokalnych, ale nigdy do indywidualnych. Punktacja: 4. Jeśli wydarzenie artystyczne pokrywa się z działalnością organizacji (np. teatralny event marketing teatru), wówczas koszty przedsięwzięcia nie muszą stanowić znaczącej przeszkody dla organizacji (można wykorzystać własny zespół aktorski czy też posiadane kostiumy). Mimo wszystko każde przedsięwzięcie artystyczne (czy paraartystyczne) generuje odpowiednie koszty. Punkty: 1. Event marketing jest narzędziem, dzięki któremu nowa organizacja może realnie myśleć o budowaniu wartości swojej marki. Są to działania, które organizacja powinna wziąć pod uwagę przygotowując strategię zarządzania marką. Punktacja: 4. Jeśli działania event marketingu pokrywają się z gałęzią działalności organizacji kultury (np. przedstawienie i teatr lub street art i galeria sztuki), nie ma wówczas potrzeby angażowania dodatkowych osób. Jeśli małe kino chciałoby zorganizować koncert promocyjny, wówczas należy podjąć współpracę z osobami spoza organizacji. Przyznaje się: 1 punkt.
Skuteczność tego rodzaju reklamy uzyskuje się, kiedy odnośnik do strony organizacji umiejscowiony jest na jak najwyższej pozycji w popularnej bazie internetowej. W Internecie spotkać się można także z reklamą wideo umieszczoną przed filmem odtwarzanym online, a także ze stronami WWW będącymi w całości reklamą [Śliwińska, Pacut red. 2011, s. 36–37]. Jak w przypadku wersji tradycyjnej, reklama internetowa jest świadczona odpłatnie przez podmioty zewnętrzne, poza obszarem strony WWW organizacji. Reklama jest narzędziem promocji produktu. Zasadniczo nie wpływa na wzmacnianie wizerunku organizacji. Chociaż wysoka pozycja w wyszukiwarce może pozytywnie wpływać na wizerunek, niska może przynieść odwrotny skutek. Punktacja: -3. Wspomniano wcześniej, że reklamę kieruje się do jak największej grupy odbiorców jednocześnie. To samo dotyczy reklamy w Internecie. Jeśli po wpisaniu w wyszukiwarce hasła „koncert”, odsyłacz do strony WWW organizacji pojawi się na np. na drugiej pozycji na liście, można przypuszczać, że wielu użytkowników odwiedzi tę witrynę. Przyznano: 4 punkty. Reklama jest jedną z najbardziej kosztownych form komunikacji marketingowej. Co prawda, reklama w Internecie, póki co, jest mniej kosztowna od klasycznej, a zadowalające miejsce w wyszukiwarce można osiągnąć wykorzystując technikę nieodpłatnego pozycjonowania, niemniej podjęcie przez organizację skutecznych działań reklamowych w Internecie wiąże się z poniesieniem przez nią odpowiednich kosztów. W kontekście założeń przyjętych dla grupy parametrów C, przyznano: -2 punkty. Tak jak w przypadku reklamy tradycyjnej stwierdzić należy, iż reklama internetowa może tylko w niewielkim stopniu wpływać na siłę marki. Punkty: -3. Działania reklamowe podejmowane są najczęściej przez jednostki zewnętrzne, a strategię pozycjonowania może przeprowadzać jedna wyznaczona osoba z organizacji. Punktacja: 4. Przydatność reklamy internetowej została wyceniona na: 0 punktów.
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Web 2.0 Web 2.0 to koncepcja tworzenia witryn (lub całych serwisów) internetowych przez samych użytkowników tych stron. Są to działania nieodpłatne, oferowane użytkownikom w zamian za umieszczanie reklam (czy też różnych dodatkowych, płatnych opcji) na tak powstałych stronach.
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Web 2.0 Web 2.0 to koncepcja tworzenia witryn (lub całych serwisów) internetowych przez samych użytkowników tych stron. Są to działania nieodpłatne, oferowane użytkownikom w zamian za umieszczanie reklam (czy też różnych dodatkowych, płatnych opcji) na tak powstałych stronach.
Reklama internetowa Reklama w Internecie występuje w wielu formach. Najbardziej popularna jest reklama typu display oraz w wyszukiwarkach internetowych. Reklama displayowa to graficzne, statyczne lub dynamiczne (ruchome) „okienka”, albo wkomponowane w różnych miejscach strony WWW, albo nie stanowiące jej zawartości, ale niespodziewanie pojawiające się w trakcie jej użytkowania. Reklama typu display może wykorzystywać różne formy animacji komputerowej (animowane scenki flashowe czy też efekty zwijania, znikania czy „wpływania” reklamy), może zawierać także pliki audio i/lub wideo. Rodzaje reklamy display: banner, billboard, button, pop-up, pop-under, sky-scraper, top-layer, intermercials [Śliwińska, Pacut red. 2011, s. 36]. Reklama w wyszukiwarkach internetowych polega na umieszczeniu w bazie (katalogu) odsyłaczy do stron WWW, odsyłacza do swojej własnej strony.
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Reklama internetowa Reklama w Internecie występuje w wielu formach. Najbardziej popularna jest reklama typu display oraz w wyszukiwarkach internetowych. Reklama displayowa to graficzne, statyczne lub dynamiczne (ruchome) „okienka”, albo wkomponowane w różnych miejscach strony WWW, albo nie stanowiące jej zawartości, ale niespodziewanie pojawiające się w trakcie jej użytkowania. Reklama typu display może wykorzystywać różne formy animacji komputerowej (animowane scenki flashowe czy też efekty zwijania, znikania czy „wpływania” reklamy), może zawierać także pliki audio i/lub wideo. Rodzaje reklamy display: banner, billboard, button, pop-up, pop-under, sky-scraper, top-layer, intermercials [Śliwińska, Pacut red. 2011, s. 36]. Reklama w wyszukiwarkach internetowych polega na umieszczeniu w bazie (katalogu) odsyłaczy do stron WWW, odsyłacza do swojej własnej strony.
Skuteczność tego rodzaju reklamy uzyskuje się, kiedy odnośnik do strony organizacji umiejscowiony jest na jak najwyższej pozycji w popularnej bazie internetowej. W Internecie spotkać się można także z reklamą wideo umieszczoną przed filmem odtwarzanym online, a także ze stronami WWW będącymi w całości reklamą [Śliwińska, Pacut red. 2011, s. 36–37]. Jak w przypadku wersji tradycyjnej, reklama internetowa jest świadczona odpłatnie przez podmioty zewnętrzne, poza obszarem strony WWW organizacji. Reklama jest narzędziem promocji produktu. Zasadniczo nie wpływa na wzmacnianie wizerunku organizacji. Chociaż wysoka pozycja w wyszukiwarce może pozytywnie wpływać na wizerunek, niska może przynieść odwrotny skutek. Punktacja: -3. Wspomniano wcześniej, że reklamę kieruje się do jak największej grupy odbiorców jednocześnie. To samo dotyczy reklamy w Internecie. Jeśli po wpisaniu w wyszukiwarce hasła „koncert”, odsyłacz do strony WWW organizacji pojawi się na np. na drugiej pozycji na liście, można przypuszczać, że wielu użytkowników odwiedzi tę witrynę. Przyznano: 4 punkty. Reklama jest jedną z najbardziej kosztownych form komunikacji marketingowej. Co prawda, reklama w Internecie, póki co, jest mniej kosztowna od klasycznej, a zadowalające miejsce w wyszukiwarce można osiągnąć wykorzystując technikę nieodpłatnego pozycjonowania, niemniej podjęcie przez organizację skutecznych działań reklamowych w Internecie wiąże się z poniesieniem przez nią odpowiednich kosztów. W kontekście założeń przyjętych dla grupy parametrów C, przyznano: -2 punkty. Tak jak w przypadku reklamy tradycyjnej stwierdzić należy, iż reklama internetowa może tylko w niewielkim stopniu wpływać na siłę marki. Punkty: -3. Działania reklamowe podejmowane są najczęściej przez jednostki zewnętrzne, a strategię pozycjonowania może przeprowadzać jedna wyznaczona osoba z organizacji. Punktacja: 4. Przydatność reklamy internetowej została wyceniona na: 0 punktów.
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linii organizacja-odbiorca. Tak rozumiane wydarzenia artystyczne mogą być wykorzystywane także i przez organizacje kultury trzeciego sektora. Może dojść do sytuacji, że na przykład spektakl będzie narzędziem komunikacji marketingowej teatru, a nie jego produktem. Działania event marketingu, tak jak zresztą wszystkie z kręgu public relations, służą wzmacnianiu wizerunku organizacji. Ocena punktowa: 4. Wszystkie niematerialne produktu kultury (np. spektakle, koncerty, akcje artystyczne i kulturalne) są skierowane do grup odbiorców, często lokalnych, ale nigdy do indywidualnych. Punktacja: 4. Jeśli wydarzenie artystyczne pokrywa się z działalnością organizacji (np. teatralny event marketing teatru), wówczas koszty przedsięwzięcia nie muszą stanowić znaczącej przeszkody dla organizacji (można wykorzystać własny zespół aktorski czy też posiadane kostiumy). Mimo wszystko każde przedsięwzięcie artystyczne (czy paraartystyczne) generuje odpowiednie koszty. Punkty: 1. Event marketing jest narzędziem, dzięki któremu nowa organizacja może realnie myśleć o budowaniu wartości swojej marki. Są to działania, które organizacja powinna wziąć pod uwagę przygotowując strategię zarządzania marką. Punktacja: 4. Jeśli działania event marketingu pokrywają się z gałęzią działalności organizacji kultury (np. przedstawienie i teatr lub street art i galeria sztuki), nie ma wówczas potrzeby angażowania dodatkowych osób. Jeśli małe kino chciałoby zorganizować koncert promocyjny, wówczas należy podjąć współpracę z osobami spoza organizacji. Przyznaje się: 1 punkt.
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Do rozwiązań Web 2.0 zaliczyć można m. in.: blogi, portale społecznościowe (np.: Facebook, MySpace) fora internetowe i czaty, media społeczne (serwisy informacyjno-dziennikarskie tworzone przez amatorów) czy serwisy udostępniania społecznego (np.: You Tube). Organizacje kultury trzeciego sektora mogą korzystać z wszystkich powyżej wymienionych rozwiązań. Niektóre z rozwiązań mogą służyć promocji konkretnego produktu kultury, np.: informacja o koncercie na Facebooku albo o festiwalu literackim na stronie mediów społecznych. Większość technik daje jednak możliwość kształtowania pozytywnego wizerunku organizacji, jak: stale aktywowane konto organizacji na Facebooku czy uaktualniany na bieżąco jej blog. Umieszczanie w serwisie You Tube filmów z przedsięwzięć kulturalnych, w których przeprowadzenie zaangażowana była organizacja, również stwarza możliwości kreacji wizerunku. Podsumowując, przyznaje się: 2 punkty. Tego typu działania nie mają charakteru zindywidualizowanego. Umieszczając informację w środowisku internetowym organizacja liczy się z tym, że informacja ta będzie miała charakter ogólnodostępny. Nie umieszcza się jej jednak w miejscach przypadkowych, ale tam, gdzie może być zauważona przez grupy potencjalnych odbiorców. 4 punkty. Tworzenie informacji przy wykorzystaniu możliwości technik Web 2.0 jest całkowicie bezpłatne (koszt utrzymania serwisu ponosi wyłącznie jego operator). Wobec tego przyznaje się: 4 punkty. Rozwiązania Web 2.0 stwarzają realną możliwość wzmacniania marki nowopowstałej organizacji. W zależności od rodzaju prowadzonej działalności przez organizację kultury lub charakteru tej kultury (niszowego lub elitarnego) informacja może być umieszczana w odmiennych portalach albo w różny sposób (np. poważny lub z pewnym dystansem), zgodny z polityką kulturalną organizacji. Działania takie pozytywnie wpływają na wzmacnianie siły marki. Punktacja: 4. Kolejną zaletą systemów Web 2.0 jest ich nieskomplikowana obsługa. Strategię zarządzania komunikacją marketingową z wykorzystaniem rozwiązań Web 2.0 może w zasadzie realizować jedna osoba z organizacji. W odniesieniu do ostatniej pary parametrów przyznano: 4 punkty. Łączna nota: 18 punktów. Advertainment To technika wykorzystująca technologię Internetu i innych mediów elektronicznych (np. telefonów komórkowych). Polega na skorzystaniu
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przez użytkownika strony WWW z elektronicznych dodatków, często bezpośrednio związanych z samą organizacją: prostych gier typu flash (np. „złóż logo z rozsypanych elementów”), wygaszaczy, tapet, zdjęć, plików wideo czy audio; niektóre z tych „gadżetów” mogą być przystosowane do użycia w telefonie komórkowym. Tego typu narzędzia nie mają na celu promocji produktu. Odpowiednio dobrane służą wzmacnianiu wizerunku organizacji. Punktacja: 4. Instrumenty te umieszcza się wyłącznie w obszarze strony WWW organizacji. Nie oddziałują więc na liczne grupy odbiorców, z drugiej strony, nie będą to konkretni, zidentyfikowani użytkownicy. W kontekście parametrów z grupy B przyznano: -3 punkty. Przygotowanie dodatków, które nie byłyby przypadkowe, a wiązały się tematycznie z kulturalną działalnością organizacji pozarządowej jest równoznaczne z poniesieniem odpowiednich kosztów. Jeżeli strategia ma mieć pozytywny i atrakcyjny wydźwięk, koszty mogą przekroczyć możliwości organizacji. Przyznaje się: -3 punkty. Do tego typu rozwiązań powinno się podchodzić z zachowaniem odpowiedniego dystansu. Nie są to narzędzia, które bezpośrednio służą budowie i umacnianiu marki (chyba, że organizacja prowadzi działalność kulturalną skierowaną do grup młodzieżowych), a ich niewłaściwe zastosowanie wiązać się może z nieosiągnięciem oczekiwanego prestiżu, a nawet z niepoważnym traktowaniem organizacji przez otoczenie. Punkty: -1. Za przygotowanie dodatków najczęściej odpowiedzialna jest, na zasadzie zlecenia, osoba spoza organizacji, natomiast ich aplikacją w Internecie może się zająć wyznaczona, jedna osoba z organizacji. W odniesieniu do parametrów kategorii E, przyznaje się: 4 punkty. Przydatność wyceniono na: 1 punkt. E-marketing E-marketing (elektroniczny marketing bezpośredni) jest odmianą tradycyjnego marketingu bezpośredniego, mechanizmy którego stosuje się w środowisku internetowym. Również i tutaj, jest to zastaw instrumentów, dzięki którym organizacja może bezpośrednio (bez udziału dodatkowych podmiotów rynkowych) docierać do potencjalnych i obecnych odbiorców, w tym przypadku użytkowników Internetu. Będą to strony WWW organizacji, e-mailing oraz e-katalogi. Chociaż e-mailing i e-katalogi służą promocji produktu organizacji, to strony WWW (poza zakładkami „oferta”) są ważnym narzędziem
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Advertainment To technika wykorzystująca technologię Internetu i innych mediów elektronicznych (np. telefonów komórkowych). Polega na skorzystaniu Do rozwiązań Web 2.0 zaliczyć można m. in.: blogi, portale społecznościowe (np.: Facebook, MySpace) fora internetowe i czaty, media społeczne (serwisy informacyjno-dziennikarskie tworzone przez amatorów) czy serwisy udostępniania społecznego (np.: You Tube). Organizacje kultury trzeciego sektora mogą korzystać z wszystkich powyżej wymienionych rozwiązań. Niektóre z rozwiązań mogą służyć promocji konkretnego produktu kultury, np.: informacja o koncercie na Facebooku albo o festiwalu literackim na stronie mediów społecznych. Większość technik daje jednak możliwość kształtowania pozytywnego wizerunku organizacji, jak: stale aktywowane konto organizacji na Facebooku czy uaktualniany na bieżąco jej blog. Umieszczanie w serwisie You Tube filmów z przedsięwzięć kulturalnych, w których przeprowadzenie zaangażowana była organizacja, również stwarza możliwości kreacji wizerunku. Podsumowując, przyznaje się: 2 punkty. Tego typu działania nie mają charakteru zindywidualizowanego. Umieszczając informację w środowisku internetowym organizacja liczy się z tym, że informacja ta będzie miała charakter ogólnodostępny. Nie umieszcza się jej jednak w miejscach przypadkowych, ale tam, gdzie może być zauważona przez grupy potencjalnych odbiorców. 4 punkty. Tworzenie informacji przy wykorzystaniu możliwości technik Web 2.0 jest całkowicie bezpłatne (koszt utrzymania serwisu ponosi wyłącznie jego operator). Wobec tego przyznaje się: 4 punkty. Rozwiązania Web 2.0 stwarzają realną możliwość wzmacniania marki nowopowstałej organizacji. W zależności od rodzaju prowadzonej działalności przez organizację kultury lub charakteru tej kultury (niszowego lub elitarnego) informacja może być umieszczana w odmiennych portalach albo w różny sposób (np. poważny lub z pewnym dystansem), zgodny z polityką kulturalną organizacji. Działania takie pozytywnie wpływają na wzmacnianie siły marki. Punktacja: 4. Kolejną zaletą systemów Web 2.0 jest ich nieskomplikowana obsługa. Strategię zarządzania komunikacją marketingową z wykorzystaniem rozwiązań Web 2.0 może w zasadzie realizować jedna osoba z organizacji. W odniesieniu do ostatniej pary parametrów przyznano: 4 punkty. Łączna nota: 18 punktów.
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E-marketing E-marketing (elektroniczny marketing bezpośredni) jest odmianą tradycyjnego marketingu bezpośredniego, mechanizmy którego stosuje się w środowisku internetowym. Również i tutaj, jest to zastaw instrumentów, dzięki którym organizacja może bezpośrednio (bez udziału dodatkowych podmiotów rynkowych) docierać do potencjalnych i obecnych odbiorców, w tym przypadku użytkowników Internetu. Będą to strony WWW organizacji, e-mailing oraz e-katalogi. Chociaż e-mailing i e-katalogi służą promocji produktu organizacji, to strony WWW (poza zakładkami „oferta”) są ważnym narzędziem przez użytkownika strony WWW z elektronicznych dodatków, często bezpośrednio związanych z samą organizacją: prostych gier typu flash (np. „złóż logo z rozsypanych elementów”), wygaszaczy, tapet, zdjęć, plików wideo czy audio; niektóre z tych „gadżetów” mogą być przystosowane do użycia w telefonie komórkowym. Tego typu narzędzia nie mają na celu promocji produktu. Odpowiednio dobrane służą wzmacnianiu wizerunku organizacji. Punktacja: 4. Instrumenty te umieszcza się wyłącznie w obszarze strony WWW organizacji. Nie oddziałują więc na liczne grupy odbiorców, z drugiej strony, nie będą to konkretni, zidentyfikowani użytkownicy. W kontekście parametrów z grupy B przyznano: -3 punkty. Przygotowanie dodatków, które nie byłyby przypadkowe, a wiązały się tematycznie z kulturalną działalnością organizacji pozarządowej jest równoznaczne z poniesieniem odpowiednich kosztów. Jeżeli strategia ma mieć pozytywny i atrakcyjny wydźwięk, koszty mogą przekroczyć możliwości organizacji. Przyznaje się: -3 punkty. Do tego typu rozwiązań powinno się podchodzić z zachowaniem odpowiedniego dystansu. Nie są to narzędzia, które bezpośrednio służą budowie i umacnianiu marki (chyba, że organizacja prowadzi działalność kulturalną skierowaną do grup młodzieżowych), a ich niewłaściwe zastosowanie wiązać się może z nieosiągnięciem oczekiwanego prestiżu, a nawet z niepoważnym traktowaniem organizacji przez otoczenie. Punkty: -1. Za przygotowanie dodatków najczęściej odpowiedzialna jest, na zasadzie zlecenia, osoba spoza organizacji, natomiast ich aplikacją w Internecie może się zająć wyznaczona, jedna osoba z organizacji. W odniesieniu do parametrów kategorii E, przyznaje się: 4 punkty. Przydatność wyceniono na: 1 punkt.
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standardem MMS lub w inny sposób nietypowy film, plik audio, obrazek itp. W odniesieniu do wszystkich pięciu par parametrów, dla elektronicznego marketingu szeptanego zastosowano jednakową punktację, jak w przypadku jego standardowej wersji. Raz jeszcze należy zaznaczyć, że po zaaplikowaniu informacji w otoczeniu, nadawca nie posiada żadnej kontroli, nie jest w stanie sterować komunikatem czy zapobiec jego spontanicznemu rozpowszechnianiu się. Chcąc budować silną, stabilną markę organizacji należy się zastanowić czy jest to odpowiednie narzędzie. Na pewno jednak jest przydatne nowopowstałym, niewielkim organizacjom non-profit. Przydatność elektronicznego marketingu szeptanego wycenia się na: 14 punktów.
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5. Model przydatności narzędzi komunikacji marketingowej dla nowopowstałych organizacji kultury trzeciego sektora
owyżej dokonano oceny przydatności 20 narzędzi komunikacji marketingowej pod kątem ich potencjalnego wykorzystania przez nowopowstałe organizacje kultury trzeciego sektora. Żadne z narzędzi nie otrzymało skrajnie niskiej oceny -20 punków, nie przyznano też maksymalnej ilości 20 punktów. Wszystkie oceny mieszczą się w przedziale od: -2 punktów (reklama) do 18 punktów (Web 2.0.). Najniżej oceniono reklamę, której przyznano: -2 punkty. Jest to jedyne narzędzie, którego ostateczna ocena przyjęła ujemną wartość. Będzie to narzędzie, którego nowopowstałe organizacje kultury trzeciego sektora nie muszą wykorzystywać w swojej działalności. Dwa narzędzia wyceniono na 0 punktów: zarządzanie opakowaniem i reklama internetowa. Są to narzędzia balansujące na granicy wartości dodatnich i ujemnych. Również dwóm narzędziom przyznano po 1 punkcie, to: advertainment oraz sprzedaż osobista. 2 punkty otrzymała reklama szokująca. Po 3 punkty przyznano marketingowi bezpośredniemu i promocji sprzedaży. Marketing ambientowy wyceniono na 5 punktów. Natomiast product placement na 6 punktów. Również 6 punktów otrzymał merchandising, a także marketing doświadczeń.
P
P
wzmacniania wizerunku organizacji. Pozytywny wizerunek organizacji można osiągnąć poprzez profesjonalnie przygotowanie serwisu; strona taka powinna się wyróżniać odpowiednim poziomem użyteczności oraz być zaopatrzona w dodatkowe funkcje: możliwość zapisania się do newslettera, wypełnienia ankiety (komentarz i ocena), opcja forum, dostępność e-katalogu online i wiele innych. Przyznaje się: 3 punkty. Podobnie jak miało to miejsce w tradycyjnej formule marketingu bezpośredniego, dzięki emarketingowi (szczególnie e-mailingowi) informację można kierować do licznych grup potencjalnych odbiorców. Dodatkowym walorem e-marketingu jest możliwość przesyłania oferty do odbiorców wyrażających chęć jej otrzymania, którzy dopisali się do listy newsletterowej. 4 punkty. Wdrożenie działań e-marketingu zmusza organizację do poniesienia kosztów: przygotowanie strony WWW, e-katalogu. Będą to jednak mniejsze koszty niż w przypadku nieinternetowego marketingu bezpośredniego. Koszt katalogu drukowanego przekracza koszt przygotowania e-katalogu. To samo dotyczy przesyłek pocztą tradycyjną i e-mailową. Punktacja: -1. E-marketing nie wpływa bezpośrednio na budowanie marki organizacji, chociaż możliwość ustawicznego uaktualniania i modyfikacji serwisu organizacji może przynieść lepsze rezultaty niż w przypadku pozainternetowych technik marketingu bezpośredniego. Punkty: 0. Właściwie tylko przygotowanie dokładnej emailowej bazy danych może być problemem dla niewielkiej organizacji. Nowoczesne rozwiązania technologiczne dają możliwość obsługi strony WWW organizacji (po jej uruchomieniu online) przez każdą osobę z organizacji, która nie musi dysponować zaawansowaną wiedzą informatyczną. Przyznano: 2 punkty. Łączna nota: 8 punktów.
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5. Model przydatności narzędzi komunikacji marketingowej dla nowopowstałych organizacji kultury trzeciego sektora
owyżej dokonano oceny przydatności 20 narzędzi komunikacji marketingowej pod kątem ich potencjalnego wykorzystania przez nowopowstałe organizacje kultury trzeciego sektora. Żadne z narzędzi nie otrzymało skrajnie niskiej oceny -20 punków, nie przyznano też maksymalnej ilości 20 punktów. Wszystkie oceny mieszczą się w przedziale od: -2 punktów (reklama) do 18 punktów (Web 2.0.). Najniżej oceniono reklamę, której przyznano: -2 punkty. Jest to jedyne narzędzie, którego ostateczna ocena przyjęła ujemną wartość. Będzie to narzędzie, którego nowopowstałe organizacje kultury trzeciego sektora nie muszą wykorzystywać w swojej działalności. Dwa narzędzia wyceniono na 0 punktów: zarządzanie opakowaniem i reklama internetowa. Są to narzędzia balansujące na granicy wartości dodatnich i ujemnych. Również dwóm narzędziom przyznano po 1 punkcie, to: advertainment oraz sprzedaż osobista. 2 punkty otrzymała reklama szokująca. Po 3 punkty przyznano marketingowi bezpośredniemu i promocji sprzedaży. Marketing ambientowy wyceniono na 5 punktów. Natomiast product placement na 6 punktów. Również 6 punktów otrzymał merchandising, a także marketing doświadczeń.
Elektroniczny marketing szeptany To odmiana marketingu szeptanego, charakterystycznego dla Internetu i innych technologii elektronicznych (np. telefonów komórkowych). Zasada działania elektronicznego marketingu szeptanego jest podobna do tradycyjnego. Jednak tutaj informacja ma postać pisaną i jest rozpowszechniania na forach internetowych czy portalach społecznościowych. Specyficzną formą elektronicznego marketingu szeptanego jest marketing wirusowy, gdzie wykorzystywany jest ten sam mechanizm, ale zamiast informacji, osoby przesyłają sobie nawzajem e-mailem,
standardem MMS lub w inny sposób nietypowy film, plik audio, obrazek itp. W odniesieniu do wszystkich pięciu par parametrów, dla elektronicznego marketingu szeptanego zastosowano jednakową punktację, jak w przypadku jego standardowej wersji. Raz jeszcze należy zaznaczyć, że po zaaplikowaniu informacji w otoczeniu, nadawca nie posiada żadnej kontroli, nie jest w stanie sterować komunikatem czy zapobiec jego spontanicznemu rozpowszechnianiu się. Chcąc budować silną, stabilną markę organizacji należy się zastanowić czy jest to odpowiednie narzędzie. Na pewno jednak jest przydatne nowopowstałym, niewielkim organizacjom non-profit. Przydatność elektronicznego marketingu szeptanego wycenia się na: 14 punktów.
Elektroniczny marketing szeptany To odmiana marketingu szeptanego, charakterystycznego dla Internetu i innych technologii elektronicznych (np. telefonów komórkowych). Zasada działania elektronicznego marketingu szeptanego jest podobna do tradycyjnego. Jednak tutaj informacja ma postać pisaną i jest rozpowszechniania na forach internetowych czy portalach społecznościowych. Specyficzną formą elektronicznego marketingu szeptanego jest marketing wirusowy, gdzie wykorzystywany jest ten sam mechanizm, ale zamiast informacji, osoby przesyłają sobie nawzajem e-mailem,
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wzmacniania wizerunku organizacji. Pozytywny wizerunek organizacji można osiągnąć poprzez profesjonalnie przygotowanie serwisu; strona taka powinna się wyróżniać odpowiednim poziomem użyteczności oraz być zaopatrzona w dodatkowe funkcje: możliwość zapisania się do newslettera, wypełnienia ankiety (komentarz i ocena), opcja forum, dostępność e-katalogu online i wiele innych. Przyznaje się: 3 punkty. Podobnie jak miało to miejsce w tradycyjnej formule marketingu bezpośredniego, dzięki emarketingowi (szczególnie e-mailingowi) informację można kierować do licznych grup potencjalnych odbiorców. Dodatkowym walorem e-marketingu jest możliwość przesyłania oferty do odbiorców wyrażających chęć jej otrzymania, którzy dopisali się do listy newsletterowej. 4 punkty. Wdrożenie działań e-marketingu zmusza organizację do poniesienia kosztów: przygotowanie strony WWW, e-katalogu. Będą to jednak mniejsze koszty niż w przypadku nieinternetowego marketingu bezpośredniego. Koszt katalogu drukowanego przekracza koszt przygotowania e-katalogu. To samo dotyczy przesyłek pocztą tradycyjną i e-mailową. Punktacja: -1. E-marketing nie wpływa bezpośrednio na budowanie marki organizacji, chociaż możliwość ustawicznego uaktualniania i modyfikacji serwisu organizacji może przynieść lepsze rezultaty niż w przypadku pozainternetowych technik marketingu bezpośredniego. Punkty: 0. Właściwie tylko przygotowanie dokładnej emailowej bazy danych może być problemem dla niewielkiej organizacji. Nowoczesne rozwiązania technologiczne dają możliwość obsługi strony WWW organizacji (po jej uruchomieniu online) przez każdą osobę z organizacji, która nie musi dysponować zaawansowaną wiedzą informatyczną. Przyznano: 2 punkty. Łączna nota: 8 punktów.
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Tab. 1. Model przydatności narzędzi komunikacji marketingowej dla nowopowstałych organizacji kultury trzeciego sektora Grupa przydatności narzędzi
Przedział punktowy
Nazwa narzędzia (ilość punktów)
Nieprzydatne
-2 – 4
- reklama (-2) - opakowanie (0) - reklama internetowa (0) - advertainment (1) - sprzedaż osobista (1) - reklama szokująca (2) - promocja sprzedaży (3) - marketing bezpośredni (3)
Przydatne
5 – 11
- marketing ambientowy (5) - product placement (6) - marketing doświadczeń (6) - merchandising (6) - e-marketing (8) - wystawy i targi (8) - jakość (8)
Niezbędne
12 – 18
- public relations (12) - event marketing (14) - marketing szeptany (14) - elektroniczny marketing szeptany (14) - Web 2.0 (18)
Źródło: opracowanie własne.
Przydatność e-marketingu, wystaw i targów oraz jakości wyceniono na 8 punktów. O 4 punkty więcej (12) otrzymały działania z obszaru public relations. W strefie pomiędzy 10 a 13 punktami nie znajduje się żadne narzędzie, a 14 punktów przyznano trzem instrumentom: event marketingowi, marketingowi szeptanemu oraz elektronicznemu marketingowi szeptanemu. Jak wspomniano, najwyżej, bo na 18 (tylko 2 mniej od maksimum) punktów wyceniono przydatność mechanizmu Web 2.0. Wydaje się, że możliwości, jakie stwarza technologia Web 2.0 nie powinny być zignorowane przez rozpoczynające działalność i rozwijające się organizacje. Zaprezentowane uszeregowanie narzędzi komunikacji marketingowej powinno być wskazówką dla organizacji, nie tylko co do ich poszczególnej wartości, ale też kolejności korzystania z nich. Warto jednak zwrócić uwagę na pewną istotną wątpliwość, która pojawia się, gdy analizuje się uszeregowane w ten sposób narzędzia komunikacji marketingowej. Jeśli z dużą dozą pewności stwierdzić można, iż instrumenty Web 2.0 (18 punktów), czy nawet działania event marketingowe (14 punktów) są bardziej przydatne dla nowopowstałych organizacji kultury trzeciego sektora niż na przykład marketing bezpośredni, to
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trudno jednoznacznie stwierdzić, że merchandaising (6 punktów) jest dla nich bardziej przydatny niż zastosowanie techniki marketingu ambientowego (5 punktów). Może to przecież zależeć od konkretnej organizacji kultury, której specyfika działalności w większym stopniu preferuje ambientowe formy marketingu. W związku z tym należy zbudować model przydatności grup narzędzi komunikacji marketingowej dla nowopowstałych organizacji kultury trzeciego sektora. Model ten będzie składał się z trzech grup przydatności narzędzi: nieprzydatnych, przydatnych i niezbędnych. Nieprzydatne narzędzia to będą te, które otrzymały oceny mieszczące się w przedziale: -2 – 4; przydatne zajmą przedział: 5 – 11 punktów; natomiast niezbędne sytuować się będą pomiędzy 12 a 18 punktami. Graficzne przedstawienie modelu znajduje się poniżej. Jak przedstawiono, w grupie „nieprzydatnych” znalazło się 8 narzędzi: reklama, opakowanie, reklama internetowa, advertainment, sprzedaż osobista, reklama szokująca, promocja sprzedaży, marketing bezpośredni; grupa „przydatne” składa się z 7 narządzi: marketing ambientowy, product placement, marketing doświadczeń, merchandising, e-marketing, wystawy i targi, jakość; a grupa „niezbędne” z 5: public relations, event marketing,
247
Przydatność e-marketingu, wystaw i targów oraz jakości wyceniono na 8 punktów. O 4 punkty więcej (12) otrzymały działania z obszaru public relations. W strefie pomiędzy 10 a 13 punktami nie znajduje się żadne narzędzie, a 14 punktów przyznano trzem instrumentom: event marketingowi, marketingowi szeptanemu oraz elektronicznemu marketingowi szeptanemu. Jak wspomniano, najwyżej, bo na 18 (tylko 2 mniej od maksimum) punktów wyceniono przydatność mechanizmu Web 2.0. Wydaje się, że możliwości, jakie stwarza technologia Web 2.0 nie powinny być zignorowane przez rozpoczynające działalność i rozwijające się organizacje. Zaprezentowane uszeregowanie narzędzi komunikacji marketingowej powinno być wskazówką dla organizacji, nie tylko co do ich poszczególnej wartości, ale też kolejności korzystania z nich. Warto jednak zwrócić uwagę na pewną istotną wątpliwość, która pojawia się, gdy analizuje się uszeregowane w ten sposób narzędzia komunikacji marketingowej. Jeśli z dużą dozą pewności stwierdzić można, iż instrumenty Web 2.0 (18 punktów), czy nawet działania event marketingowe (14 punktów) są bardziej przydatne dla nowopowstałych organizacji kultury trzeciego sektora niż na przykład marketing bezpośredni, to
trudno jednoznacznie stwierdzić, że merchandaising (6 punktów) jest dla nich bardziej przydatny niż zastosowanie techniki marketingu ambientowego (5 punktów). Może to przecież zależeć od konkretnej organizacji kultury, której specyfika działalności w większym stopniu preferuje ambientowe formy marketingu. W związku z tym należy zbudować model przydatności grup narzędzi komunikacji marketingowej dla nowopowstałych organizacji kultury trzeciego sektora. Model ten będzie składał się z trzech grup przydatności narzędzi: nieprzydatnych, przydatnych i niezbędnych. Nieprzydatne narzędzia to będą te, które otrzymały oceny mieszczące się w przedziale: -2 – 4; przydatne zajmą przedział: 5 – 11 punktów; natomiast niezbędne sytuować się będą pomiędzy 12 a 18 punktami. Graficzne przedstawienie modelu znajduje się poniżej. Jak przedstawiono, w grupie „nieprzydatnych” znalazło się 8 narzędzi: reklama, opakowanie, reklama internetowa, advertainment, sprzedaż osobista, reklama szokująca, promocja sprzedaży, marketing bezpośredni; grupa „przydatne” składa się z 7 narządzi: marketing ambientowy, product placement, marketing doświadczeń, merchandising, e-marketing, wystawy i targi, jakość; a grupa „niezbędne” z 5: public relations, event marketing,
Źródło: opracowanie własne. 12 – 18
Niezbędne
5 – 11
Przydatne
-2 – 4
Nieprzydatne
Przedział punktowy
Grupa przydatności narzędzi
- public relations (12) - event marketing (14) - marketing szeptany (14) - elektroniczny marketing szeptany (14) - Web 2.0 (18) - marketing ambientowy (5) - product placement (6) - marketing doświadczeń (6) - merchandising (6) - e-marketing (8) - wystawy i targi (8) - jakość (8) - reklama (-2) - opakowanie (0) - reklama internetowa (0) - advertainment (1) - sprzedaż osobista (1) - reklama szokująca (2) - promocja sprzedaży (3) - marketing bezpośredni (3) Nazwa narzędzia (ilość punktów)
Tab. 1. Model przydatności narzędzi komunikacji marketingowej dla nowopowstałych organizacji kultury trzeciego sektora
6. Zakończenie marketing szeptany, elektroniczny marketing szeptany, Web 2.0. Model wyraźnie wskazuje, z której grupy narzędzi nowe organizacji powinny skorzystać w pierwszej kolejności. Nie oznacza to jednak, że organizacje powinny się skoncentrować wyłącznie na grupie „niezbędnych” narzędzi, a inne zbagatelizować. W szczególnych sytuacjach, czy też w odniesieniu do pewnych wyjątkowych organizacji kultury, może się zdarzyć, iż na przykład zastosowanie instrumentów projakościowych (8 punktów) będzie bardziej pożyteczne niż wykorzystanie mechanizmu marketingu szeptanego (14 punktów).
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Hughes M., Marketing szeptany. Buzzmarketing, Warszawa 2008. Kotler P., Marketing, Poznań 2005. Limański A., Drabik I., Marketing w organizacjach nonprofit, Warszawa 2007. Szołajska J. red., Podstawowe fakty o organizacjach pozarządowych. Raport z badania 2008, 2008, http://civicpedia.ngo.pl/files/civicpedia.pl/public/ kondycja2008.pdf [odczyt: 28.04.2011]. Śliwińska K., Pacut M. red., Narzędzia i techniki komunikacji marketingowej XXI. Przykłady aplikacji w wybranych organizacjach non profit, Warszawa 2011. Wiktor J. W., Teoretyczne podstawy systemu komunikacji marketingowej, „Świat Marketingu. Czasopismo internetowe”, 2001, http://swiatmarketingu.pl/index.php?rodzaj=01&id_numer=719231 [odczyt: 28.04.2011].
z nich mogłyby się znaleźć w różnych grupach przydatności. Operacja taka wykracza jednak poza ramy tego opracowania. Sygnalizuje się tylko korzyści przeprowadzenia tego typu pogłębionej analizy. Po drugie, aby uzyskać bardziej zobiektywizowane wartości ocen poszczególnych narzędzi, należałoby wziąć pod uwagę analizę przeprowadzoną przez kilku niezależnych ekspertów – specjalistów z dziedziny komunikacji marketingowej, marketingu organizacji non-profit czy znawców rynku kultury i porównać wyniki przyznanych przez nich ocen. Wreszcie po trzecie, uzyskane w ten sposób wartości powinno się potwierdzić empirycznie, przeprowadzając ankiety, wywiady czy studia przypadków, oceniając zasady i zakres stosowania narzędzi komunikacji marketingowej w istniejących nowopowstałych organizacjach kultury trzeciego sektora. Mimo to, wydaje się, że przedstawiony model (z zachowaniem pewnej dozy ostrożności) może być brany pod uwagę przez organizacje kultury w momencie budowania przez nie strategii marketingowych. Z dużym prawdopodobieństwem można stwierdzić, iż narzędzia, których przydatność określono jako niezbędną, nie mogą być pomijane przez pozarządowe organizacje kultury w początkowej fazie ich działalności. Szczególnie, gdy zważy się raz jeszcze na trudności, z jakimi borykają się młode i nowopowstałe organizacje pozarządowe, o czym wspomniano na wstępie niniejszej analizy.
Blythe J., Komunikacja marketingowa, Warszawa 2002. Bogacz-Wojtanowska E., Zarządzanie organizacjami pozarządowymi na przykładzie stowarzyszeń krakowskich, Kraków 2006. Dragicevic-Sesic M., Stojkovic B., Kultura: zarządzanie, animacja, marketing, Warszawa 2010. Griffin R. W., Podstawy zarządzania organizacjami, Warszawa 2004. Grzegorczyk A. red., Event marketing jako nowa forma organizacji procesów komunikacyjnych, Warszawa 2009. Herbst J., Wewnętrzne zróżnicowanie sektora. Podstawowe fakty o branżach sektora organizacji pozarządowych w Polsce. Kultura i sztuka, 2005, http:// www.ngo.pl/files/badania.ngo.pl/public/branze/ kultura_i_sztuka.pdf [odczyt: 28.04.2011].
ończąc rozważania na temat przydatności poszczególnych narzędzi komunikacji marketingowej dla nowopowstałych organizacji kultury trzeciego sektora warto zwrócić uwagę na kilka istotnych spraw. Po pierwsze, istnieją narzędzia, jak public relations, marketing bezpośredni, promocja sprzedaży albo marchendising, które są właściwie zbiorem instrumentów spojonych pewną kategorią. Na przykład w skład public relations wchodzą m. in.: organizacja konferencji, bali charytatywnych, lobbing czy utrzymywanie kontaktów z przedstawicielami mediów. Gdyby przeprowadzić analizę odrębnie dla każdego z tych instrumentów (a nie dla całego narzędzia), wówczas poszczególne
Bibliografia
Bibliografia
ończąc rozważania na temat przydatności poszczególnych narzędzi komunikacji marketingowej dla nowopowstałych organizacji kultury trzeciego sektora warto zwrócić uwagę na kilka istotnych spraw. Po pierwsze, istnieją narzędzia, jak public relations, marketing bezpośredni, promocja sprzedaży albo marchendising, które są właściwie zbiorem instrumentów spojonych pewną kategorią. Na przykład w skład public relations wchodzą m. in.: organizacja konferencji, bali charytatywnych, lobbing czy utrzymywanie kontaktów z przedstawicielami mediów. Gdyby przeprowadzić analizę odrębnie dla każdego z tych instrumentów (a nie dla całego narzędzia), wówczas poszczególne
Hughes M., Marketing szeptany. Buzzmarketing, Warszawa 2008. Kotler P., Marketing, Poznań 2005. Limański A., Drabik I., Marketing w organizacjach nonprofit, Warszawa 2007. Szołajska J. red., Podstawowe fakty o organizacjach pozarządowych. Raport z badania 2008, 2008, http://civicpedia.ngo.pl/files/civicpedia.pl/public/ kondycja2008.pdf [odczyt: 28.04.2011]. Śliwińska K., Pacut M. red., Narzędzia i techniki komunikacji marketingowej XXI. Przykłady aplikacji w wybranych organizacjach non profit, Warszawa 2011. Wiktor J. W., Teoretyczne podstawy systemu komunikacji marketingowej, „Świat Marketingu. Czasopismo internetowe”, 2001, http://swiatmarketingu.pl/index.php?rodzaj=01&id_numer=719231 [odczyt: 28.04.2011].
K
Blythe J., Komunikacja marketingowa, Warszawa 2002. Bogacz-Wojtanowska E., Zarządzanie organizacjami pozarządowymi na przykładzie stowarzyszeń krakowskich, Kraków 2006. Dragicevic-Sesic M., Stojkovic B., Kultura: zarządzanie, animacja, marketing, Warszawa 2010. Griffin R. W., Podstawy zarządzania organizacjami, Warszawa 2004. Grzegorczyk A. red., Event marketing jako nowa forma organizacji procesów komunikacyjnych, Warszawa 2009. Herbst J., Wewnętrzne zróżnicowanie sektora. Podstawowe fakty o branżach sektora organizacji pozarządowych w Polsce. Kultura i sztuka, 2005, http:// www.ngo.pl/files/badania.ngo.pl/public/branze/ kultura_i_sztuka.pdf [odczyt: 28.04.2011].
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2011, Vol 4 (4)
6. Zakończenie
z nich mogłyby się znaleźć w różnych grupach przydatności. Operacja taka wykracza jednak poza ramy tego opracowania. Sygnalizuje się tylko korzyści przeprowadzenia tego typu pogłębionej analizy. Po drugie, aby uzyskać bardziej zobiektywizowane wartości ocen poszczególnych narzędzi, należałoby wziąć pod uwagę analizę przeprowadzoną przez kilku niezależnych ekspertów – specjalistów z dziedziny komunikacji marketingowej, marketingu organizacji non-profit czy znawców rynku kultury i porównać wyniki przyznanych przez nich ocen. Wreszcie po trzecie, uzyskane w ten sposób wartości powinno się potwierdzić empirycznie, przeprowadzając ankiety, wywiady czy studia przypadków, oceniając zasady i zakres stosowania narzędzi komunikacji marketingowej w istniejących nowopowstałych organizacjach kultury trzeciego sektora. Mimo to, wydaje się, że przedstawiony model (z zachowaniem pewnej dozy ostrożności) może być brany pod uwagę przez organizacje kultury w momencie budowania przez nie strategii marketingowych. Z dużym prawdopodobieństwem można stwierdzić, iż narzędzia, których przydatność określono jako niezbędną, nie mogą być pomijane przez pozarządowe organizacje kultury w początkowej fazie ich działalności. Szczególnie, gdy zważy się raz jeszcze na trudności, z jakimi borykają się młode i nowopowstałe organizacje pozarządowe, o czym wspomniano na wstępie niniejszej analizy.
248
marketing szeptany, elektroniczny marketing szeptany, Web 2.0. Model wyraźnie wskazuje, z której grupy narzędzi nowe organizacji powinny skorzystać w pierwszej kolejności. Nie oznacza to jednak, że organizacje powinny się skoncentrować wyłącznie na grupie „niezbędnych” narzędzi, a inne zbagatelizować. W szczególnych sytuacjach, czy też w odniesieniu do pewnych wyjątkowych organizacji kultury, może się zdarzyć, iż na przykład zastosowanie instrumentów projakościowych (8 punktów) będzie bardziej pożyteczne niż wykorzystanie mechanizmu marketingu szeptanego (14 punktów).
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2011, Vol 4 (4)
Badania sektora kultury jako element partycypacyjnego modelu zarządzania kulturą na przykładzie badań Regionalnego Obserwatorium Kultury Kieliszewski Przemysław, Mękarski Michał
W
niniejszym tekście próbujemy zaprezentować przeprowadzony projekt badawczy z perspektywy jego użyteczności w zarządzaniu kulturą (prowadzenia polityki kulturalnej), odwołując się do elementów, znanego z teorii zarządzania, modelu partycypacyjnego. Dlatego też w pierwszej części tekstu odniesiemy się do elementów tego modelu. Stanowi on bowiem wyjątkową alternatywę dla obecnych praktyk zarządzania publicznym sektorem kultury. Chodzi nam głównie o zarządzanie, które ma miejsce na poziomie samorządów, a mniej na poziomie instytucji. Następnie zaprezentujemy zarys, zrealizowanego przez Regionalne Obserwatorium Kultury w Poznaniu, projektu badawczego Kulturalne potencjały i deficyty miast powiatowych. Może on stanowić ciekawy i możliwy do powielania przykład zastosowania narzędzi badawczych w tworzeniu lokalnej strategii kultury, a zarazem jeden z instrumentów adekwatnego do potrzeb i specyfiki obszaru kultury modelu zarządzania w tym obszarze.
1. Zarys partycypacyjnego modelu zarządzania w sektorze publicznym
P
artycypacyjny model zarządzania dotyczy generalnie zarządzania przedsiębiorstwem. Nie chcemy przekładać go wprost na zarządzanie instytucją kultury, a raczej na zarządzanie kulturą przez samorządy. W praktyce to one są dysponentami środków finansowych oraz mogą być inicjatorami strategicznego myślenia i działań w sektorze kultury. U źródła powstania koncepcji
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2011, Vol 4 (4)
zarządzania partycypacyjnego stawia się pytanie o podmiot zarządzania, o to, kto jest uczestnikiem tego procesu, a kto jego adresatem. „Tradycyjne podejście do zagadnień dotyczących uczestników procesu zarządzania strategicznego ściśle wiąże się z nurtem planistycznym, dla którego charakterystyczne są centralizacja, formalizacja i wyraźny podział ról. Tradycyjnie więc menedżerów dzieli się na tych szczebla korporacyjnego, biznesowego i funkcjonalnego” [Witecka-Crabb, dok. elektr]. Analizę zarządzania strategicznego, bogato obudowaną tekstami źródłowymi oraz odniesieniem do instytucji kultury zawiera artykuł Martyny Śliwy [Śliwa 2011, s. 10–25]. W podejściu planistycznym pracownicy przedsiębiorstwa nie są zaangażowani w proces tworzenia strategii i zarządzania przedsiębiorstwem. A właśnie zaangażowanie jest jedną z kluczowych cech modelu partycypacyjnego. Tym bardziej w obszarach, w których zysk nie jest i nie może być strukturalnie głównym czynnikiem motywującym, zaangażowanie pracownika jest niezbędne. Tak jest w przypadku instytucji kultury. Zatem tworzona „na górze” lokalna strategia kultury zostaje pracownikom (ale również dyrektorom instytucji kultury) przekazana do wdrożenia. W tej sytuacji brakuje kolejnej istotnej cechy o charakterze partycypacyjnym – utożsamienia się, zidentyfikowania ze strategią. Może mieć też miejsce postawa oporu wobec niej, gdyż „stworzyli ją ludzie nie mający pojęcia o tym, co się tu u nas na dole dzieje”, mający słabe rozeznanie w realiach wdrażania strategii, a więc jej przystawalności do tych realiów. „Tym sposobem traci się także ogromny potencjał wiedzy, umiejętności i kreatywności rozproszony po
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Przemysław Kieliszewski Prawnik, dr nauk humanistycznych, adiunkt w Instytucie Kulturoznawstwa UAM, współpracownik Regionalnego Obserwatorium Kultury, manager projektów kulturalnych w Polsce i za granicą. Reprezentował organizacje pozarządowe w komisji konkursowej ds. kultury przy Prezydencie Miasta Poznania. Współrealizował badania m.in. dla Urzędu Marszałkowskiego Województwa Wielkopolskiego (2006–07), MKiDN i IAM (2008). Jest autorem dysertacji Polityka kulturalna wobec rozwoju społeczeństwa obywatelskiego w Polsce, publikacji i raportów w tym zakresie. Koordynator Konferencji „Instytucje kultury w czasach kryzysu” (Poznań 2009). Kierownik zespołu ds. kultury Rady Metropolii Poznańskiej (2010), współautor Programu Strategicznego Rozwoju Kultury dla Wojewewództwa Wielkopolskiego, badań
artycypacyjny model zarządzania dotyczy generalnie zarządzania przedsiębiorstwem. Nie chcemy przekładać go wprost na zarządzanie instytucją kultury, a raczej na zarządzanie kulturą przez samorządy. W praktyce to one są dysponentami środków finansowych oraz mogą być inicjatorami strategicznego myślenia i działań w sektorze kultury. U źródła powstania koncepcji
P
1. Zarys partycypacyjnego modelu zarządzania w sektorze publicznym niniejszym tekście próbujemy zaprezentować przeprowadzony projekt badawczy z perspektywy jego użyteczności w zarządzaniu kulturą (prowadzenia polityki kulturalnej), odwołując się do elementów, znanego z teorii zarządzania, modelu partycypacyjnego. Dlatego też w pierwszej części tekstu odniesiemy się do elementów tego modelu. Stanowi on bowiem wyjątkową alternatywę dla obecnych praktyk zarządzania publicznym sektorem kultury. Chodzi nam głównie o zarządzanie, które ma miejsce na poziomie samorządów, a mniej na poziomie instytucji. Następnie zaprezentujemy zarys, zrealizowanego przez Regionalne Obserwatorium Kultury w Poznaniu, projektu badawczego Kulturalne potencjały i deficyty miast powiatowych. Może on stanowić ciekawy i możliwy do powielania przykład zastosowania narzędzi badawczych w tworzeniu lokalnej strategii kultury, a zarazem jeden z instrumentów adekwatnego do potrzeb i specyfiki obszaru kultury modelu zarządzania w tym obszarze.
W
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zarządzania partycypacyjnego stawia się pytanie o podmiot zarządzania, o to, kto jest uczestnikiem tego procesu, a kto jego adresatem. „Tradycyjne podejście do zagadnień dotyczących uczestników procesu zarządzania strategicznego ściśle wiąże się z nurtem planistycznym, dla którego charakterystyczne są centralizacja, formalizacja i wyraźny podział ról. Tradycyjnie więc menedżerów dzieli się na tych szczebla korporacyjnego, biznesowego i funkcjonalnego” [Witecka-Crabb, dok. elektr]. Analizę zarządzania strategicznego, bogato obudowaną tekstami źródłowymi oraz odniesieniem do instytucji kultury zawiera artykuł Martyny Śliwy [Śliwa 2011, s. 10–25]. W podejściu planistycznym pracownicy przedsiębiorstwa nie są zaangażowani w proces tworzenia strategii i zarządzania przedsiębiorstwem. A właśnie zaangażowanie jest jedną z kluczowych cech modelu partycypacyjnego. Tym bardziej w obszarach, w których zysk nie jest i nie może być strukturalnie głównym czynnikiem motywującym, zaangażowanie pracownika jest niezbędne. Tak jest w przypadku instytucji kultury. Zatem tworzona „na górze” lokalna strategia kultury zostaje pracownikom (ale również dyrektorom instytucji kultury) przekazana do wdrożenia. W tej sytuacji brakuje kolejnej istotnej cechy o charakterze partycypacyjnym – utożsamienia się, zidentyfikowania ze strategią. Może mieć też miejsce postawa oporu wobec niej, gdyż „stworzyli ją ludzie nie mający pojęcia o tym, co się tu u nas na dole dzieje”, mający słabe rozeznanie w realiach wdrażania strategii, a więc jej przystawalności do tych realiów. „Tym sposobem traci się także ogromny potencjał wiedzy, umiejętności i kreatywności rozproszony po
Przemysław Kieliszewski Prawnik, dr nauk humanistycznych, adiunkt w Instytucie Kulturoznawstwa UAM, współpracownik Regionalnego Obserwatorium Kultury, manager projektów kulturalnych w Polsce i za granicą. Reprezentował organizacje pozarządowe w komisji konkursowej ds. kultury przy Prezydencie Miasta Poznania. Współrealizował badania m.in. dla Urzędu Marszałkowskiego Województwa Wielkopolskiego (2006–07), MKiDN i IAM (2008). Jest autorem dysertacji Polityka kulturalna wobec rozwoju społeczeństwa obywatelskiego w Polsce, publikacji i raportów w tym zakresie. Koordynator Konferencji „Instytucje kultury w czasach kryzysu” (Poznań 2009). Kierownik zespołu ds. kultury Rady Metropolii Poznańskiej (2010), współautor Programu Strategicznego Rozwoju Kultury dla Wojewewództwa Wielkopolskiego, badań
Kieliszewski Przemysław, Mękarski Michał
Badania sektora kultury jako element partycypacyjnego modelu zarządzania kulturą na przykładzie badań Regionalnego Obserwatorium Kultury
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Zarządzanie Kulturą 2011, Vol 4 (4)
i raportu „Kulturalne potencjały i deficyty miast powiatowych” (2010). Koordynator merytoryczny nowatorskiego projektu szkoleń „Instytucje kultury XXI w” realizowanego z EFS w woj. kujawskopomorskim, dyrektor Festiwalu Polish Guitar Academy.
całym przedsiębiorstwie i nienaturalnie rozdziela się etap planowania od etapu wdrożenia strategii” [Śliwa 2011, s. 2].
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2011, Vol 4 (4)
kultury, wspólnot osiedlowych, organizacji charytatywnych, przedsiębiorców, rodzin czy jednostek. Zasada pomocniczości (subsidiarity principle), zwana także zasadą subsydiarności, przynależy do ogólnego dziedzictwa filozofii społecznej. Najwyraźniej została sformułowana i rozwinięta w katolickiej nauce społecznej19. Głosi, by pozostawić mniejszym organizacjom pole do działania i go nie zawłaszczać, a jedynie wspierać ich działania na tych polach. Ta decentralizacyjna i angażująca wykładnia tej zasady wzmacnia dodatkowo argumenty na rzecz zarządzania partycypacyjnego. W tym kontekście bardzo interesujący jest też aspekt tego zagadnienia nazywany „pomocniczością poziomą” (horyzontalną). W raporcie z 2002 roku pt. Przemyśleć na nowo zasadę pomocniczości stwierdza się, że: „pomocniczość horyzontalna opiera się na komplementarności i współdziałaniu obywateli oraz instytucji publicznych; jej celem jest usprawnianie i ulepszanie dobra publicznego [...]. Organizacje obywateli i jednostki mają prawo do prowadzenia działalności ukierunkowanej na interes ogólny bez ubiegania się o upoważnienie lub zezwolenie władz publicznych” [Roffiaen 2003, s. 7]. Ta: „samodzielna działalność obywateli musi być popierana przez władze publiczne” [Roffiaen 2003, s. 2], z wykorzystaniem różnych form wsparcia, w tym finansowego.
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2. Aplikacja zarządzania partycypacyjnego w sektorze kultury
19 W encyklice papieża Piusa XI zatytułowanej Quadragesimo anno (1931) czytamy: ,,Co jednostka z własnej inicjatywy i własnymi siłami może zdziałać, tego nie wolno wydzierać na rzecz społeczeństwa; podobnie niesprawiedliwością, szkodą społeczną i zakłóceniem ustroju jest zabieranie mniejszym i niższym społecznościom tych zadań, które mogą spełnić, i przekazywanie ich społecznościom większym i wyższym. Każda akcja społeczna z uwagi na cel i ze swej natury ma charakter pomocniczy; winna pomagać członkom organizmu społecznego, a nie niszczyć ich lub wchłaniać’’. Zob. Pius XI, Quadragesimo anno (������������������������������������� http://ekai.pl/bib.php/dokumenty/quadrogesimo_anno/quadrogesimo_anno .html ) [dostęp: 19.04.2011 r.]. Zasada pomocniczości stała się także przedmiotem innej encykliki papieskiej – Mater et magistra napisanej przez Jana XXIII w 1961 roku. W nowej rzeczywistości po drugiej wojnie światowej zasada ta formułowana była w sposób następujący: „Obowiązuje jednak zawsze zasada, że interwencja gospodarcza, choćby była bardzo szeroko zakrojona i docierała do najmniejszych nawet komórek społecznych, winna być tak wykonywana, by nie tylko nie hamowała wolności działania osób prywatnych, lecz przeciwnie, by ją zwiększała, jeśli tylko są całkowicie zachowane podstawowe prawa każdej osoby ludzkiej”. W encyklice tej zasada subsydiarności ujmowana jest jako swego rodzaju wyznacznik interwencji państwa, która polegać ma na: „popieraniu, pobudzaniu, pomocy i uzupełnianiu podejmowanych przez jednostki inicjatyw”. Takie jej rozumienie zostało też potwierdzone przez papieża Jana Paweł II w encyklice Centesimus annus. Zob. Jan Paweł II, Centesimus annus (http://ekai.pl/bib.php/dokumenty/centesimus_annus/centesimus_annus1.html) [dostęp: 19.04.2011 r.].
Tymczasem model partycypacyjny polega na otwartości w poszerzaniu zakresu uczestników procesu, uwzględnianiu różnych punktów widzenia, doświadczeń i różnej – często bardzo praktycznej wiedzy. Z praktyki wynika, że często rewolucyjne rozwiązania dla funkcjonowania przedsiębiorstw rodziły się i rodzą na jego niższych szczeblach. Podmiotowe traktowanie współpracowników wyzwala z kolei w sposób naturalny ich twórcze podejście do pracy, kreatywność, a co za tym idzie, ich wydajność. Anna Witek-Crabb widzi jednak za Garym Hamelem konieczność zaistnienia w tym modelu wyrazistego przywództwa dla ukierunkowania wielogłosu pojawiającego się w sytuacji dużej otwartości, by zadbać jednocześnie o „wielość perspektyw i jedność celów” [Hamel 1996, s. 80–81]. Zaangażowanie współpracowników w tworzenie strategii, pozwala więc zapewnić ich aktywność we wdrażaniu jej celów i założeń. Joanna Orlik umieściła w tytule swego wstępu do wydanej niedawno książki zdanie: „rozmowa jest działaniem” [Orlik 2011, s. 7], które stanowić może kwintesencję partycypacji. Postuluje ona powołanie lokalnych i regionalnych rad kultury, w ramach których uzgadniana byłaby strategia działania instytucji kultury i szerzej polityka kulturalna.
próbujmy zaaplikować cechy tego modelu do zarządzania instytucjami kultury, ale w szerszym kontekście: zarządzania sektorem kultury przez samorząd lokalny. Trudno jest bowiem w dzisiejszym stanie prawnym oraz przy stosowanych praktykach mówić o samodzielności instytucji kultury – w sensie porównywalnym do
S
S
Michał Mękarski Socjolog, pracownik Centrum „Regionalne Obserwatorium Kultury” UAM, trener szkoleń w ramach projektu „Instytucje kultury w XXI wieku”. Współpracował przy Programie rozwoju kultury w Województwie Wielkopolskim na lata 2011–2020. Brał udział w projektach badawczych, m.in. „Kulturalne potencjały i deficyty miast powiatowych”, „Oglądalność mediów lokalnych”, „Eurequal. Nierówności społeczne, ich znaczenie dla gospodarczego i demokratycznego rozwoju Europy obywateli”. Specjalizuje się w opracowywaniu narzędzi badawczych do badań ilościowych i jakościowych.
Zarządzanie partycypacyjne w sektorze publicznym jest też w pewnym zakresie emanacją zasady pomocniczości, fundamentalnej dla funkcjonowania systemu demokratycznego. Jest ona i powinna być jedną z naczelnych zasad funkcjonowania administracji i gwarantem jej nierozrastania się i niezawłaszczania kolejnych obszarów, pozostających dotąd w gestii np. stowarzyszeń, instytucji
2. Aplikacja zarządzania partycypacyjnego w sektorze kultury
próbujmy zaaplikować cechy tego modelu do zarządzania instytucjami kultury, ale w szerszym kontekście: zarządzania sektorem kultury przez samorząd lokalny. Trudno jest bowiem w dzisiejszym stanie prawnym oraz przy stosowanych praktykach mówić o samodzielności instytucji kultury – w sensie porównywalnym do
Tymczasem model partycypacyjny polega na otwartości w poszerzaniu zakresu uczestników procesu, uwzględnianiu różnych punktów widzenia, doświadczeń i różnej – często bardzo praktycznej wiedzy. Z praktyki wynika, że często rewolucyjne rozwiązania dla funkcjonowania przedsiębiorstw rodziły się i rodzą na jego niższych szczeblach. Podmiotowe traktowanie współpracowników wyzwala z kolei w sposób naturalny ich twórcze podejście do pracy, kreatywność, a co za tym idzie, ich wydajność. Anna Witek-Crabb widzi jednak za Garym Hamelem konieczność zaistnienia w tym modelu wyrazistego przywództwa dla ukierunkowania wielogłosu pojawiającego się w sytuacji dużej otwartości, by zadbać jednocześnie o „wielość perspektyw i jedność celów” [Hamel 1996, s. 80–81]. Zaangażowanie współpracowników w tworzenie strategii, pozwala więc zapewnić ich aktywność we wdrażaniu jej celów i założeń. Joanna Orlik umieściła w tytule swego wstępu do wydanej niedawno książki zdanie: „rozmowa jest działaniem” [Orlik 2011, s. 7], które stanowić może kwintesencję partycypacji. Postuluje ona powołanie lokalnych i regionalnych rad kultury, w ramach których uzgadniana byłaby strategia działania instytucji kultury i szerzej polityka kulturalna.
kultury, wspólnot osiedlowych, organizacji charytatywnych, przedsiębiorców, rodzin czy jednostek. Zasada pomocniczości (subsidiarity principle), zwana także zasadą subsydiarności, przynależy do ogólnego dziedzictwa filozofii społecznej. Najwyraźniej została sformułowana i rozwinięta w katolickiej nauce społecznej19. Głosi, by pozostawić mniejszym organizacjom pole do działania i go nie zawłaszczać, a jedynie wspierać ich działania na tych polach. Ta decentralizacyjna i angażująca wykładnia tej zasady wzmacnia dodatkowo argumenty na rzecz zarządzania partycypacyjnego. W tym kontekście bardzo interesujący jest też aspekt tego zagadnienia nazywany „pomocniczością poziomą” (horyzontalną). W raporcie z 2002 roku pt. Przemyśleć na nowo zasadę pomocniczości stwierdza się, że: „pomocniczość horyzontalna opiera się na komplementarności i współdziałaniu obywateli oraz instytucji publicznych; jej celem jest usprawnianie i ulepszanie dobra publicznego [...]. Organizacje obywateli i jednostki mają prawo do prowadzenia działalności ukierunkowanej na interes ogólny bez ubiegania się o upoważnienie lub zezwolenie władz publicznych” [Roffiaen 2003, s. 7]. Ta: „samodzielna działalność obywateli musi być popierana przez władze publiczne” [Roffiaen 2003, s. 2], z wykorzystaniem różnych form wsparcia, w tym finansowego.
Zarządzanie partycypacyjne w sektorze publicznym jest też w pewnym zakresie emanacją zasady pomocniczości, fundamentalnej dla funkcjonowania systemu demokratycznego. Jest ona i powinna być jedną z naczelnych zasad funkcjonowania administracji i gwarantem jej nierozrastania się i niezawłaszczania kolejnych obszarów, pozostających dotąd w gestii np. stowarzyszeń, instytucji
Michał Mękarski Socjolog, pracownik Centrum „Regionalne Obserwatorium Kultury” UAM, trener szkoleń w ramach projektu „Instytucje kultury w XXI wieku”. Współpracował przy Programie rozwoju kultury w Województwie Wielkopolskim na lata 2011–2020. Brał udział w projektach badawczych, m.in. „Kulturalne potencjały i deficyty miast powiatowych”, „Oglądalność mediów lokalnych”, „Eurequal. Nierówności społeczne, ich znaczenie dla gospodarczego i demokratycznego rozwoju Europy obywateli”. Specjalizuje się w opracowywaniu narzędzi badawczych do badań ilościowych i jakościowych.
całym przedsiębiorstwie i nienaturalnie rozdziela się etap planowania od etapu wdrożenia strategii” [Śliwa 2011, s. 2].
19 W encyklice papieża Piusa XI zatytułowanej Quadragesimo anno (1931) czytamy: ,,Co jednostka z własnej inicjatywy i własnymi siłami może zdziałać, tego nie wolno wydzierać na rzecz społeczeństwa; podobnie niesprawiedliwością, szkodą społeczną i zakłóceniem ustroju jest zabieranie mniejszym i niższym społecznościom tych zadań, które mogą spełnić, i przekazywanie ich społecznościom większym i wyższym. Każda akcja społeczna z uwagi na cel i ze swej natury ma charakter pomocniczy; winna pomagać członkom organizmu społecznego, a nie niszczyć ich lub wchłaniać’’. Zob. Pius XI, Quadragesimo anno (������������������������������������� http://ekai.pl/bib.php/dokumenty/quadrogesimo_anno/quadrogesimo_anno .html ) [dostęp: 19.04.2011 r.]. Zasada pomocniczości stała się także przedmiotem innej encykliki papieskiej – Mater et magistra napisanej przez Jana XXIII w 1961 roku. W nowej rzeczywistości po drugiej wojnie światowej zasada ta formułowana była w sposób następujący: „Obowiązuje jednak zawsze zasada, że interwencja gospodarcza, choćby była bardzo szeroko zakrojona i docierała do najmniejszych nawet komórek społecznych, winna być tak wykonywana, by nie tylko nie hamowała wolności działania osób prywatnych, lecz przeciwnie, by ją zwiększała, jeśli tylko są całkowicie zachowane podstawowe prawa każdej osoby ludzkiej”. W encyklice tej zasada subsydiarności ujmowana jest jako swego rodzaju wyznacznik interwencji państwa, która polegać ma na: „popieraniu, pobudzaniu, pomocy i uzupełnianiu podejmowanych przez jednostki inicjatyw”. Takie jej rozumienie zostało też potwierdzone przez papieża Jana Paweł II w encyklice Centesimus annus. Zob. Jan Paweł II, Centesimus annus (http://ekai.pl/bib.php/dokumenty/centesimus_annus/centesimus_annus1.html) [dostęp: 19.04.2011 r.].
i raportu „Kulturalne potencjały i deficyty miast powiatowych” (2010). Koordynator merytoryczny nowatorskiego projektu szkoleń „Instytucje kultury XXI w” realizowanego z EFS w woj. kujawskopomorskim, dyrektor Festiwalu Polish Guitar Academy.
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2011, Vol 4 (4)
aplikowania rozwiązań na poziomie zarządu firmy (dyrekcji instytucji). Jednym z zarzutów kierowanych pod adresem publicznych instytucji kultury ze strony „rynku” jest ich pewna strukturalna nieprzystawalność do jego reguł. Celem przedsiębiorstwa jest osiąganie i maksymalizowanie zysku. Celem sektora publicznego, w tym instytucji kultury, jest osiąganie szerzej lub wprost sformułowanych celów społecznych. To realizacja tych celów pozwala na finansowanie ich działalności ze środków publicznych. Mimo iż sektor publiczny nie jest nakierowany wprost na osiąganie zysku, to zarządzanie nim coraz częściej sięga do reguł i osiągnięć przedsiębiorstw w tym zakresie. Między innymi „zarządzanie strategiczne” stało się swego rodzaju imperatywem w funkcjonowaniu sektora publicznego, który stara się wprowadzić do funkcjonowania instytucji oszczędności, ulepszyć ich funkcjonowanie oraz wydajność zarządzania. W tym sensie sektor publiczny stara się upodabniać się do sektora prywatnego20. Wydaje się, że w funkcjonowaniu samorządów i prowadzonych przez nie instytucji kultury model partycypacyjny nie miał dotąd szansy szerzej zaistnieć. W wielu przypadkach władze samorządowe i ich organy traktują dyrektorów instytucji kultury jako podległy sobie szczebel administracji, który – otrzymując dotację – nie powinien prowadzić zbyt samodzielnej działalności. Organy samorządu oczekują od instytucji, by ich działania wpisywały się w ogólną politykę miasta czy gminy. Określają budżet instytucji, często doraźnie wskazując realizację określonych działań. W dużych miastach instytucje kultury mogą posiadać pozornie większą niezależność (dotyczy to np. instytucji artystycznych, na czele których stoją silne osobowości – np. artyści). Jednak często w dużo większym zakresie realizują one doraźne cele samorządu. Dyrektorzy instytucji przyjmujący drugi rodzaj pragmatyki – nazwijmy go służebnym wobec samorządów – są promowani. O takich instytucjach i ich dyrektorach pisze Jerzy Hausner. „Instytucje kultury w istocie godzą się z biurokratyczną ingerencją w swoje funkcjonowanie, nawet jeśli to krytycznie oceniają, o ile zwrotnie zapewnia im to dostęp do
większej puli środków, dzięki którym mogą się materialnie rozwijać albo nawet tylko istnieć. Zasadniczo kształtuje się w ten sposób model rozwoju instytucji kultury przez subordynację i obłaskawianie. Model, w którym rozwój jest rozumiany przede wszystkim w kategoriach materialno-rzeczowych a nie programowo-artystycznych. (…). W tej sytuacji dyrektor instytucji kultury musi być przede wszystkim zręcznym i przewidującym graczem-administratorem, a w znacznie mniejszym stopniu menedżerem zdolnym do wypracowania i realizacji własnej długofalowej programowej wizji rozwoju kierowanej przez siebie instytucji” [Hausner 2009, s. 45–46]. Oczywiście powinien istnieć jakiś zamysł, który możemy określić jako politykę kulturalną danego samorządu. Bywa ona niezwykle rzadko strategią, czy polityką kulturalną z prawdziwego zdarzenia, nawet jeśli istnieje dokument, który miałby to potwierdzać. Często dyrektorzy i pracownicy instytucji kultury są jedynie jej wykonawcami, nie mając wpływu na jej kreowanie. Powinien też istnieć bufor w postaci rad kultury lub podobnych ciał pośredniczących pomiędzy samorządami oraz instytucjami kultury. Próby tworzenia takich rad nie mają w Polsce dużej tradycji, choć niemal każda instytucja kultury posiada radę programową, która najczęściej ma jedynie charakter fasadowy i zatwierdza bez zaangażowania roczne sprawozdanie instytucji. Zdarza się coraz częściej, że strategia jest tworzona w oparciu o badania. Dobrze, jeśli prowadzi je niezależny podmiot i gdy badania te mają znamiona rzetelnych. Przykładów badań, które służą poznaniu rzeczywistości i są jednocześnie próbą podjęcia dialogu z uczestnikami procesu zarządzania – osobami zainteresowanymi wprost zmianami w systemie lub z osobami, które należy do tego nakłonić, można znaleźć coraz więcej. Takim projektem były przeprowadzone z inicjatywy samorządu wojewódzkiego na niezmiernie dużą skalę badania w Województwie Wielkopolskim (2006–2007) [Kieliszewski, Schmidt 2006, s. 20–25]. Innym ciekawym przykładem korzystania z badań jako elementu konfrontowania decyzji podjętych przez organ samorządu z opiniami jego mieszkańców są np. badania zlecone niedawno przez samorząd w Jarocinie, mające ocenić połą-
20 Więcej na temat tego zagadnienia w: P. Kieliszewski, Publiczne i prywatne. O nowym modelu relacji międzysektorowych [w:] A. Gwóźdź (red.), Od przemysłów kultury do kreatywnej gospodarki, Warszawa: Narodowe Centrum Kultury, 2010, s. 34–46.
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20 Więcej na temat tego zagadnienia w: P. Kieliszewski, Publiczne i prywatne. O nowym modelu relacji międzysektorowych [w:] A. Gwóźdź (red.), Od przemysłów kultury do kreatywnej gospodarki, Warszawa: Narodowe Centrum Kultury, 2010, s. 34–46.
Wydaje się, że w funkcjonowaniu samorządów i prowadzonych przez nie instytucji kultury model partycypacyjny nie miał dotąd szansy szerzej zaistnieć. W wielu przypadkach władze samorządowe i ich organy traktują dyrektorów instytucji kultury jako podległy sobie szczebel administracji, który – otrzymując dotację – nie powinien prowadzić zbyt samodzielnej działalności. Organy samorządu oczekują od instytucji, by ich działania wpisywały się w ogólną politykę miasta czy gminy. Określają budżet instytucji, często doraźnie wskazując realizację określonych działań. W dużych miastach instytucje kultury mogą posiadać pozornie większą niezależność (dotyczy to np. instytucji artystycznych, na czele których stoją silne osobowości – np. artyści). Jednak często w dużo większym zakresie realizują one doraźne cele samorządu. Dyrektorzy instytucji przyjmujący drugi rodzaj pragmatyki – nazwijmy go służebnym wobec samorządów – są promowani. O takich instytucjach i ich dyrektorach pisze Jerzy Hausner. „Instytucje kultury w istocie godzą się z biurokratyczną ingerencją w swoje funkcjonowanie, nawet jeśli to krytycznie oceniają, o ile zwrotnie zapewnia im to dostęp do Jednym z zarzutów kierowanych pod adresem publicznych instytucji kultury ze strony „rynku” jest ich pewna strukturalna nieprzystawalność do jego reguł. Celem przedsiębiorstwa jest osiąganie i maksymalizowanie zysku. Celem sektora publicznego, w tym instytucji kultury, jest osiąganie szerzej lub wprost sformułowanych celów społecznych. To realizacja tych celów pozwala na finansowanie ich działalności ze środków publicznych. Mimo iż sektor publiczny nie jest nakierowany wprost na osiąganie zysku, to zarządzanie nim coraz częściej sięga do reguł i osiągnięć przedsiębiorstw w tym zakresie. Między innymi „zarządzanie strategiczne” stało się swego rodzaju imperatywem w funkcjonowaniu sektora publicznego, który stara się wprowadzić do funkcjonowania instytucji oszczędności, ulepszyć ich funkcjonowanie oraz wydajność zarządzania. W tym sensie sektor publiczny stara się upodabniać się do sektora prywatnego20. aplikowania rozwiązań na poziomie zarządu firmy (dyrekcji instytucji).
Zdarza się coraz częściej, że strategia jest tworzona w oparciu o badania. Dobrze, jeśli prowadzi je niezależny podmiot i gdy badania te mają znamiona rzetelnych. Przykładów badań, które służą poznaniu rzeczywistości i są jednocześnie próbą podjęcia dialogu z uczestnikami procesu zarządzania – osobami zainteresowanymi wprost zmianami w systemie lub z osobami, które należy do tego nakłonić, można znaleźć coraz więcej. Takim projektem były przeprowadzone z inicjatywy samorządu wojewódzkiego na niezmiernie dużą skalę badania w Województwie Wielkopolskim (2006–2007) [Kieliszewski, Schmidt 2006, s. 20–25]. Innym ciekawym przykładem korzystania z badań jako elementu konfrontowania decyzji podjętych przez organ samorządu z opiniami jego mieszkańców są np. badania zlecone niedawno przez samorząd w Jarocinie, mające ocenić połąOczywiście powinien istnieć jakiś zamysł, który możemy określić jako politykę kulturalną danego samorządu. Bywa ona niezwykle rzadko strategią, czy polityką kulturalną z prawdziwego zdarzenia, nawet jeśli istnieje dokument, który miałby to potwierdzać. Często dyrektorzy i pracownicy instytucji kultury są jedynie jej wykonawcami, nie mając wpływu na jej kreowanie. Powinien też istnieć bufor w postaci rad kultury lub podobnych ciał pośredniczących pomiędzy samorządami oraz instytucjami kultury. Próby tworzenia takich rad nie mają w Polsce dużej tradycji, choć niemal każda instytucja kultury posiada radę programową, która najczęściej ma jedynie charakter fasadowy i zatwierdza bez zaangażowania roczne sprawozdanie instytucji. większej puli środków, dzięki którym mogą się materialnie rozwijać albo nawet tylko istnieć. Zasadniczo kształtuje się w ten sposób model rozwoju instytucji kultury przez subordynację i obłaskawianie. Model, w którym rozwój jest rozumiany przede wszystkim w kategoriach materialno-rzeczowych a nie programowo-artystycznych. (…). W tej sytuacji dyrektor instytucji kultury musi być przede wszystkim zręcznym i przewidującym graczem-administratorem, a w znacznie mniejszym stopniu menedżerem zdolnym do wypracowania i realizacji własnej długofalowej programowej wizji rozwoju kierowanej przez siebie instytucji” [Hausner 2009, s. 45–46].
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Zarządzanie Kulturą 2011, Vol 4 (4)
czenie ponad rok temu w tym mieście bibliotek szkolnych z publicznymi21.
w zakresie tworzenia i prowadzenia polityki kulturalnej – strategii rozwoju kultury w mieście. Wysiłek kilkudziesięciu osób przejawia się w programowaniu i tworzeniu nowych modeli współpracy, mechanizmów motywujących, kontrolujących, wpływających na możliwie obiektywny dobór kadr (dyrektorów, pracowników) w instytucjach, jakościowej oceny działań instytucji i osób. Sztab, tak jak podobna grupa w Bydgoszczy, organizuje lokalny kongres kultury. I tu pojawiają się dylematy i trudności związane z funkcjonowaniem modelu partycypacyjnego. Jego efektywność jest zagrożona poprzez próbę debatowania nad zbyt wieloma zagadnieniami, które wymagają określonego zakresu kompetencji. Z drugiej strony nowy model działania instytucji kultury, wypracowywany w ramach Sztabu w Poznaniu, musi maksymalnie angażować na etapie jego powstawania osoby, które mają następnie go wdrażać. Tu jednak niekorzystnym czynnikiem tej pracy jest fakt, że dokonuje się ona w pewnej opozycji do władz samorządowych Poznania22. To z kolei powoduje dystans do tego projektu urzędników oraz – co zrozumiałe – dyrektorów instytucji scharakteryzowanych powyżej przez Jerzego Hausnera.
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2011, Vol 4 (4)
Wszędzie tam, gdzie samorządy nie boją się realistycznej diagnozy, czy oceny swoich działań, prowadzone mogą być badania wspierające proces zarządzania sektorem kultury. Organy samorządów, działając w dobrej wierze, mają przekonanie o słuszności swych intuicji albo już podjętych decyzji. Chcą je jednak skonfrontować z opiniami mieszkańców, bądź ich wybranych przedstawicieli. Tak więc i tutaj chodzi o takie przesunięcie akcentów, przeniesienie punktu ciężkości w zarządzaniu, by oddać inicjatywę, głos pracownikom instytucji kultury, czy tzw. odbiorcom oferty kulturalnej. Globalna tendencja zmienia tradycyjne dotąd pojęcia m. in. odbiorcy usług kulturalnych. Odbiorca ten przestaje być biernym pochłaniaczem oferty zaprogramowanej przez instruktora, kuratora. Wzorem współczesnych społecznościowych komunikatorów internetowych może (i nierzadko chce) współtworzyć społeczność, angażować się w tworzenie zjawisk i wydarzeń kulturalnych. Wzorem cyfrowych platform telewizyjnych dowolnie wybierać program, odtwarzać go w wybranym przez siebie czasie.
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Istnieje cały szereg innych miejsc w Polsce, w których podejmuje się podobne próby w zakresie wdrażania strategicznego planowania w kulturze oraz poszerzania pola partycypacji w tym zakresie. Ośrodkiem, który profesjonalnie wspiera tego typu działania na poziomie regionalnym jest np. Małopolski Instytut Kultury, w zakresie ogólnopolskim prym wiedzie Narodowe Centrum Kultury i funkcjonujące w jego strukturach Obserwatorium Kultury, które tworzy sieć obserwatoriów w całym kraju. Tworzy się zatem nowa jakość w myśleniu strategicznym o kulturze. Warto pamiętać, by miała ona możliwie szeroko zakreślony charakter partycypacyjny.
22 Poznański Sztab Antykryzysowy powstał w następstwie odpadnięcia Poznania ze starań o tytuł ESK 2016, a także w wyniku krytyki, która spotkała wiceprezydenta Poznania ds. kultury.
3. Regionalne Obserwatorium Kultury – jako instytucja (nie tylko) badawcza
21 Więcej o samym projekcie w: R. Kaźmierczak, Biblioteki marnowanych potencjałów [w:] Kieliszewski P., Landsberg P., Poprawski M., Sójka J. (red.), Instytucje kultury w czasach kryzysu, w serii Instytutu Kulturoznawstwa UAM: Studia kulturoznawcze. Polityka Kulturalna, Poznań: Bogucki Wydawnictwo Naukowe, 2009, s. 73–80.
Między innymi taka inicjatywa internautów – mieszkańców i wielbicieli miasta Kępna w południowej Wielkopolsce, polegająca na archiwizowaniu starych zdjęć z „małej ojczyzny”, a następnie na wspólnym uporządkowaniu zaniedbanego cmentarza ewangelickiego, skłoniła władze miasta do podjęcia działań, które miały angażować do aktywności mieszkańców. Mądrość władz polegała nie tylko na tym, że powołały po 17 latach od zamknięcia, miejski dom kultury. Miały odwagę nie tylko powiedzieć, że nie wiedzą do czego ma on służyć i jakie funkcje spełniać, ale także zaprosić do wypracowania nowego modelu zewnętrznych ekspertów. Panele dyskusyjne i badania fokusowe, dały początek opisywanemu w dalszej części projektowi.
isząc o potrzebie dialogu i współpracy, które są niezbędnymi elementami partycypacyjnego modelu zarządzania sferą kultury, warto
P
P
isząc o potrzebie dialogu i współpracy, które są niezbędnymi elementami partycypacyjnego modelu zarządzania sferą kultury, warto
Ciekawą próbą odzyskania pola partycypacji, zgodną z zasadą pomocniczości, jest Poznański Sztab Antykryzysowy. Wydaje się być próbą upodmiotowienia osób, stowarzyszeń i instytucji kultury
3. Regionalne Obserwatorium Kultury – jako instytucja (nie tylko) badawcza
Ciekawą próbą odzyskania pola partycypacji, zgodną z zasadą pomocniczości, jest Poznański Sztab Antykryzysowy. Wydaje się być próbą upodmiotowienia osób, stowarzyszeń i instytucji kultury
Między innymi taka inicjatywa internautów – mieszkańców i wielbicieli miasta Kępna w południowej Wielkopolsce, polegająca na archiwizowaniu starych zdjęć z „małej ojczyzny”, a następnie na wspólnym uporządkowaniu zaniedbanego cmentarza ewangelickiego, skłoniła władze miasta do podjęcia działań, które miały angażować do aktywności mieszkańców. Mądrość władz polegała nie tylko na tym, że powołały po 17 latach od zamknięcia, miejski dom kultury. Miały odwagę nie tylko powiedzieć, że nie wiedzą do czego ma on służyć i jakie funkcje spełniać, ale także zaprosić do wypracowania nowego modelu zewnętrznych ekspertów. Panele dyskusyjne i badania fokusowe, dały początek opisywanemu w dalszej części projektowi.
Istnieje cały szereg innych miejsc w Polsce, w których podejmuje się podobne próby w zakresie wdrażania strategicznego planowania w kulturze oraz poszerzania pola partycypacji w tym zakresie. Ośrodkiem, który profesjonalnie wspiera tego typu działania na poziomie regionalnym jest np. Małopolski Instytut Kultury, w zakresie ogólnopolskim prym wiedzie Narodowe Centrum Kultury i funkcjonujące w jego strukturach Obserwatorium Kultury, które tworzy sieć obserwatoriów w całym kraju. Tworzy się zatem nowa jakość w myśleniu strategicznym o kulturze. Warto pamiętać, by miała ona możliwie szeroko zakreślony charakter partycypacyjny.
21 Więcej o samym projekcie w: R. Kaźmierczak, Biblioteki marnowanych potencjałów [w:] Kieliszewski P., Landsberg P., Poprawski M., Sójka J. (red.), Instytucje kultury w czasach kryzysu, w serii Instytutu Kulturoznawstwa UAM: Studia kulturoznawcze. Polityka Kulturalna, Poznań: Bogucki Wydawnictwo Naukowe, 2009, s. 73–80.
Wszędzie tam, gdzie samorządy nie boją się realistycznej diagnozy, czy oceny swoich działań, prowadzone mogą być badania wspierające proces zarządzania sektorem kultury. Organy samorządów, działając w dobrej wierze, mają przekonanie o słuszności swych intuicji albo już podjętych decyzji. Chcą je jednak skonfrontować z opiniami mieszkańców, bądź ich wybranych przedstawicieli. Tak więc i tutaj chodzi o takie przesunięcie akcentów, przeniesienie punktu ciężkości w zarządzaniu, by oddać inicjatywę, głos pracownikom instytucji kultury, czy tzw. odbiorcom oferty kulturalnej. Globalna tendencja zmienia tradycyjne dotąd pojęcia m. in. odbiorcy usług kulturalnych. Odbiorca ten przestaje być biernym pochłaniaczem oferty zaprogramowanej przez instruktora, kuratora. Wzorem współczesnych społecznościowych komunikatorów internetowych może (i nierzadko chce) współtworzyć społeczność, angażować się w tworzenie zjawisk i wydarzeń kulturalnych. Wzorem cyfrowych platform telewizyjnych dowolnie wybierać program, odtwarzać go w wybranym przez siebie czasie.
w zakresie tworzenia i prowadzenia polityki kulturalnej – strategii rozwoju kultury w mieście. Wysiłek kilkudziesięciu osób przejawia się w programowaniu i tworzeniu nowych modeli współpracy, mechanizmów motywujących, kontrolujących, wpływających na możliwie obiektywny dobór kadr (dyrektorów, pracowników) w instytucjach, jakościowej oceny działań instytucji i osób. Sztab, tak jak podobna grupa w Bydgoszczy, organizuje lokalny kongres kultury. I tu pojawiają się dylematy i trudności związane z funkcjonowaniem modelu partycypacyjnego. Jego efektywność jest zagrożona poprzez próbę debatowania nad zbyt wieloma zagadnieniami, które wymagają określonego zakresu kompetencji. Z drugiej strony nowy model działania instytucji kultury, wypracowywany w ramach Sztabu w Poznaniu, musi maksymalnie angażować na etapie jego powstawania osoby, które mają następnie go wdrażać. Tu jednak niekorzystnym czynnikiem tej pracy jest fakt, że dokonuje się ona w pewnej opozycji do władz samorządowych Poznania22. To z kolei powoduje dystans do tego projektu urzędników oraz – co zrozumiałe – dyrektorów instytucji scharakteryzowanych powyżej przez Jerzego Hausnera.
22 Poznański Sztab Antykryzysowy powstał w następstwie odpadnięcia Poznania ze starań o tytuł ESK 2016, a także w wyniku krytyki, która spotkała wiceprezydenta Poznania ds. kultury.
czenie ponad rok temu w tym mieście bibliotek szkolnych z publicznymi21.
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2011, Vol 4 (4)
zwrócić uwagę na sam fakt i okoliczności powstania Regionalnego Obserwatorium Kultury. W 2010 roku Rektor Uniwersytetu im. Adama Mickiewicza podpisał wraz z Prezydentem Miasta Poznania list intencyjny powołujący uniwersyteckie centrum jako platformę współpracy Uniwersytetu z samorządem Miasta Poznania w zakresie monitoringu i badań sektora kultury. Ta obustronna chęć wspólnej pracy na rzecz kultury z zachowaniem partnerskich relacji była również wynikiem pragmatycznego myślenia i wyrazem odpowiedzi na zapotrzebowanie, które wpisuje się w ogólnoeuropejską tendencję do tworzenia tego typu ośrodków zajmujących się monitorowaniem i badaniem obszarów związanych z kulturą. Obserwatorium działa (lub planuje działania) w wielu obszarach, nie ograniczając się jedynie do monitoringu i badań sektora kultury w kontekście kształtowania lokalnych polityk kulturalnych. Działania doradcze na rzecz samorządów i instytucji kultury stają się coraz bardziej oczekiwane. Istnieje potrzeba stymulowania działań wspomagających współpracę i debatę nad stanem kultury, promowania dobrych praktyk czy rekomendowania tych modeli, które są nośnikiem usprawnień i innowacji w zarządzaniu w sektorze kultury. Podnoszenie poziomu narracji i świadomości wspólnego działania różnych podmiotów życia społeczno-kulturalnego przejawia się także w realizowanych przez ROK projektach badawczych.
4. Projekt badawczy – jako dialog
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2010 roku zespół skupiony wokół Regionalnego Obserwatorium Kultury i Fundacji Kultury Polskiej przeprowadził projekt badawczy Kulturalne potencjały i deficyty miast powiatowych, współfinansowany ze środków Narodowego Centrum Kultury. Badaniem objęto sześć, intencjonalnie wybranych, ośrodków miejskich Województwa Wielkopolskiego: Czarnków, Gniezno, Jarocin, Kępno, Turek oraz Wolsztyn23.
Wybrane ze względu na swoje położenie i ilość mieszkańców miasta pozwoliły w końcowym raporcie24 ukazać różnorodność (przejawiającą się zarówno w wielości szans i potencjałów lokalnej kultury, jak i w złożoności oraz wieloaspektowości jej deficytów i zagrożeń) kultury całego województwa. Wybór mniejszych ośrodków przyniósł jeszcze jeden rezultat – doprowadził do zauważenia i włączenia do dyskusji o kulturze głosu miast powiatowych, które często przez swoją wielkość i znaczną odległość od stolicy Wielkopolski były marginalizowane i pomijane. Rezultat jakże istotny biorąc pod uwagę model partycypacyjny, w którym uczestnikami (traktowanymi na równych prawach i w sposób partnerski) powinny być wszystkie (nawet najmniejsze) zainteresowane strony. Badania stworzyły również możliwość (nieczęstą ze względu na niewielką ilość tego typu badań) do obiektywnego porównania własnego miasta i poziomu lokalnej kultury z innymi, podobnej wielkości, ośrodkami miejskimi w regionie. Sam projekt badawczy stał się też narzędziem zmiany narracji, podnosząc świadomość konieczności zmian w prowadzeniu lokalnych polityk kulturalnych. Pobudził i skłonił do dyskusji oraz zaangażowania (za sprawą badania) różne grupy społeczne. Dodatkowo w niemal każdym etapie procesu badawczego dbano o to, by rozpowszechniać, zapoczątkowaną dzięki badaniom, debatę na temat stanu lokalnej kultury. Czyniono to zarówno poprzez kontakty z lokalnymi mediami (m. in. przekazując informacje i materiały związane z projektem), jak i zapraszając przedstawicieli mediów do drugiego etapu badania (eksperckich debat mających postać zogniskowanych wywiadów grupowych). Nie było to zadanie łatwe, gdyż okres badań i działań „promujących” debatę zbiegł się w czasie z trwającą samorządową kampanią wyborczą – przez co nie raz był traktowany jako temat „mniej ważny”. Narrację tę wzmocniono podsumowującym projekt i prezentującym wyniki badań otwartym
23 Zespół badawczy wybrał sześć średniej wielkości (z wyjątkiem Gniezna liczących do 30 tyś. mieszkańców) miast powiatowych położonych w różnych częściach województwa i będących w różnym oddaleniu od Poznania (od Gniezna, które leży 50 km od stolicy województwa do Kępna oddalonego od Poznania o 170 km). Zastosowany dobór miast umożliwił uchwycenie różnorodności kultury w Wielkopolsce oraz jej potencjałów i deficytów, a wyniki badania stanowiły element diagnozy Programu rozwoju kultury w Województwie Wielkopolskim na lata 2011–2020. 24 Raport jest dostępny na stronie: http://platformakultury.pl/files/2011-01-04/kulturalne_potencjay_i_deficyty _miast_powiatowych__raport.pdf [dostęp: 22.04.2011 r.].
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2011, Vol 4 (4)
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24 Raport jest dostępny na stronie: http://platformakultury.pl/files/2011-01-04/kulturalne_potencjay_i_deficyty _miast_powiatowych__raport.pdf [dostęp: 22.04.2011 r.]. 23 Zespół badawczy wybrał sześć średniej wielkości (z wyjątkiem Gniezna liczących do 30 tyś. mieszkańców) miast powiatowych położonych w różnych częściach województwa i będących w różnym oddaleniu od Poznania (od Gniezna, które leży 50 km od stolicy województwa do Kępna oddalonego od Poznania o 170 km). Zastosowany dobór miast umożliwił uchwycenie różnorodności kultury w Wielkopolsce oraz jej potencjałów i deficytów, a wyniki badania stanowiły element diagnozy Programu rozwoju kultury w Województwie Wielkopolskim na lata 2011–2020.
2010 roku zespół skupiony wokół Regionalnego Obserwatorium Kultury i Fundacji Kultury Polskiej przeprowadził projekt badawczy Kulturalne potencjały i deficyty miast powiatowych, współfinansowany ze środków Narodowego Centrum Kultury. Badaniem objęto sześć, intencjonalnie wybranych, ośrodków miejskich Województwa Wielkopolskiego: Czarnków, Gniezno, Jarocin, Kępno, Turek oraz Wolsztyn23.
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4. Projekt badawczy – jako dialog Obserwatorium działa (lub planuje działania) w wielu obszarach, nie ograniczając się jedynie do monitoringu i badań sektora kultury w kontekście kształtowania lokalnych polityk kulturalnych. Działania doradcze na rzecz samorządów i instytucji kultury stają się coraz bardziej oczekiwane. Istnieje potrzeba stymulowania działań wspomagających współpracę i debatę nad stanem kultury, promowania dobrych praktyk czy rekomendowania tych modeli, które są nośnikiem usprawnień i innowacji w zarządzaniu w sektorze kultury. Podnoszenie poziomu narracji i świadomości wspólnego działania różnych podmiotów życia społeczno-kulturalnego przejawia się także w realizowanych przez ROK projektach badawczych. zwrócić uwagę na sam fakt i okoliczności powstania Regionalnego Obserwatorium Kultury. W 2010 roku Rektor Uniwersytetu im. Adama Mickiewicza podpisał wraz z Prezydentem Miasta Poznania list intencyjny powołujący uniwersyteckie centrum jako platformę współpracy Uniwersytetu z samorządem Miasta Poznania w zakresie monitoringu i badań sektora kultury. Ta obustronna chęć wspólnej pracy na rzecz kultury z zachowaniem partnerskich relacji była również wynikiem pragmatycznego myślenia i wyrazem odpowiedzi na zapotrzebowanie, które wpisuje się w ogólnoeuropejską tendencję do tworzenia tego typu ośrodków zajmujących się monitorowaniem i badaniem obszarów związanych z kulturą.
Narrację tę wzmocniono podsumowującym projekt i prezentującym wyniki badań otwartym Sam projekt badawczy stał się też narzędziem zmiany narracji, podnosząc świadomość konieczności zmian w prowadzeniu lokalnych polityk kulturalnych. Pobudził i skłonił do dyskusji oraz zaangażowania (za sprawą badania) różne grupy społeczne. Dodatkowo w niemal każdym etapie procesu badawczego dbano o to, by rozpowszechniać, zapoczątkowaną dzięki badaniom, debatę na temat stanu lokalnej kultury. Czyniono to zarówno poprzez kontakty z lokalnymi mediami (m. in. przekazując informacje i materiały związane z projektem), jak i zapraszając przedstawicieli mediów do drugiego etapu badania (eksperckich debat mających postać zogniskowanych wywiadów grupowych). Nie było to zadanie łatwe, gdyż okres badań i działań „promujących” debatę zbiegł się w czasie z trwającą samorządową kampanią wyborczą – przez co nie raz był traktowany jako temat „mniej ważny”. Wybrane ze względu na swoje położenie i ilość mieszkańców miasta pozwoliły w końcowym raporcie24 ukazać różnorodność (przejawiającą się zarówno w wielości szans i potencjałów lokalnej kultury, jak i w złożoności oraz wieloaspektowości jej deficytów i zagrożeń) kultury całego województwa. Wybór mniejszych ośrodków przyniósł jeszcze jeden rezultat – doprowadził do zauważenia i włączenia do dyskusji o kulturze głosu miast powiatowych, które często przez swoją wielkość i znaczną odległość od stolicy Wielkopolski były marginalizowane i pomijane. Rezultat jakże istotny biorąc pod uwagę model partycypacyjny, w którym uczestnikami (traktowanymi na równych prawach i w sposób partnerski) powinny być wszystkie (nawet najmniejsze) zainteresowane strony. Badania stworzyły również możliwość (nieczęstą ze względu na niewielką ilość tego typu badań) do obiektywnego porównania własnego miasta i poziomu lokalnej kultury z innymi, podobnej wielkości, ośrodkami miejskimi w regionie.
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2011, Vol 4 (4)
teresowanym konkludować na nowo, z perspektywy zobiektywizowanych wyników badań, kulturalne potencjały własnej miejscowości. Dostrzeżenie oraz nazwanie trudności i deficytów w tym zakresie, powinno z kolei stanowić pierwszy krok w kierunku uruchomienia mechanizmów naprawczych.
seminarium naukowym25, na które zaproszenie przyjęli reprezentanci badanych miast – burmistrzowie i dyrektorzy instytucji kultury, przedstawiciele Narodowego Centrum Kultury, Ministerstwa Kultury i Dziedzictwa Narodowego, GUS, pracownicy naukowi, doktoranci, studenci oraz dziennikarze.
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2011, Vol 4 (4)
5. Opis badania
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28 Pytania zawarte w ankiecie dotyczyły m. in.: najważniejszych wydarzeń kulturalnych, odbywających się w miastach powiatowych i rozpoznawalności oferty kulturalnej; częstotliwości udziału w wydarzeniach kulturalnych; oceny poziomu kultury i oferty kulturalnej (m. in. w aspektach: ilości imprez, ich dostępności czy różnorodności); oceny działalności poszczególnych instytucji kultury/organizacji kulturalnych; wagi czynników, takich jak: promocja imprez, wysokość opłat za wstęp, urozmaicenie oferty; atutów i braków w ofercie; konkretnych imprez/wydarzeń/inicjatyw kulturalnych wartych większej promocji czy większego wsparcia finansowego; imprez będących wizytówką miasta; źródeł informacji o wydarzeniach kulturalnych; miast z najciekawszą ofertą kulturalną; czynników decydujących o wyborze miasta studiów; opinii badanych na temat najbardziej wykluczonej z życia kulturalnego grupy społecznej; oceny polityki kulturalnej lokalnych władz; opinii na temat wpływu kultury na inne sfery życia (np. promocji miasta), korzyści jakie przynosi i oczekiwań wobec niej.
rojekt Kulturalne potencjały i deficyty miast powiatowych składał się z dwóch zasadniczych faz procesu badawczego, w których zastosowano odrębne metody. W pierwszym etapie przeprowadzono, przy pomocy ankiety audytoryjnej, badanie sondażowe, w którym brało udział łącznie 726 respondentów ze wszystkich miast objętych badaniem26. W drugiej fazie badania zespół Regionalnego Obserwatorium Kultury posłużył się metodą jakościową – zogniskowanych wywiadów grupowych (FGI – focus group interview).
27 Dla każdego z sześciu miast, bazując na jednym formacie narzędzia badawczego, stworzono odrębną ankietę, która różniła się w zakresie przywołania odmiennych lokalnych wydarzeń kulturalnych, oceny instytucji kultury danego miasta oraz częstotliwości korzystania z ich oferty. W związku z tym poszczególne tytuły ankiet brzmiały: Jakiej kultury chcą młodzi Wielkopolanie z Czarnkowa/ Gniezna/Jarocina/Kępna/Turku/Wolsztyna? Potencjały i deficyty kultury Czarnkowa/Gniezna/Jarocina/Kępna/Turku/Wolsztyna w opinii maturzystów. Dzięki zastosowanemu niemal identycznego kwestionariusza ankiety możliwe były zarówno porównanie wyników poszczególnych miast ze sobą jak i wyciąganie ogólnych ocen i tendencji charakterystycznych dla całej grupy respondentów.
Ankietę Jakiej kultury chcą młodzi Wielkopolanie z (…)? Potencjały i deficyty kultury (…) w opinii maturzystów27 wypełnili maturzyści z sześciu miast. Zespół badawczy wybrał właśnie tę grupę społeczną z kilku powodów. Pierwszy wynikał z przekonania o tym, że opinie młodych ludzi powinny być bardziej wyeksponowane i znaczące – biorąc pod uwagę to, iż oferta kulturalna w dużej części jest kierowana właśnie do tej grupy osób. Maturzyści są na tyle samodzielni i mobilni, że podróżując do innych miast mogą dokonywać porównań poziomu kultury i oferty kulturalnej różnych miejsc ze swoim miejscem nauki. Ta grupa społeczna posiada z reguły sprecyzowane zainteresowania i krytyczne spojrzenie na otaczającą rzeczywistość. Ponadto, grupa ta staje przed wyborem dalszej drogi życiowej – duża część z nich wyrusza na studia do innych miast. O tym, czy wrócą do rodzinnych stron, decydować będzie wiele czynników – jednym z nich może być satysfakcja z poziomu lokalnej kultury. Chciano uzyskać jak najszerszą wiedzę o kulturze danego miasta powiatowego, dlatego też skonstruowano ośmiostronicową ankietę zawierającą zagadnienia związane z oceną różnych aspektów miejskiej kultury28. Intencją badaczy było stworzenie takiego narzędzia ilościowego, które dawałoby możliwość poznania pełnej opinii maturzystów. W tym celu zastosowano w ankiecie również
26 Zastosowano dobór celowy oraz próbę zespołową wielostopniową celowo-losową w której wybory celowe dotyczyły zbiorów najwyższego rzędu – terytorialnie: miasta (6 miast badania) i organizacyjnie: szkoły (największe liceum ogólnokształcące w mieście) i profile klas (humanistyczny, matematyczno-fizyczny, geograficzny, biologiczno-chemiczny). Natomiast najniższy poziom losowania dotyczył grup, a nie jednostek – badano poszczególne klasy maturalne. W każdym mieście włączonym do projektu przebadano minimum 100 maturzystów.
Dlaczego zespół badawczy opisał rzeczywistość społeczną posługując się dychotomicznym podziałem na kulturalne potencjały i deficyty? Określenie zalet i wad stanowi nieodzowny punkt wyjścia do wszelkiego myślenia strategicznego. Tak skonstruowany temat badania w sposób jasny i przejrzysty pozwolił określić, że projekt jest ukierunkowany na diagnozę stanu lokalnej kultury i umożliwienie nakreślenia dalszych kierunków rozwoju miasta w tym zakresie. Wiedza płynąca z raportu umożliwia zauważenie mocnych i słabych stron miejskiej kultury, co z kolei pomaga władzom samorządowym i wszystkim zain-
25 Seminarium odbyło się 13 grudnia 2010 roku w Instytucie Kulturoznawstwa na Wydziale Nauk Społecznych Uniwersytetu im. Adama Mickiewicza w Poznaniu.
25 Seminarium odbyło się 13 grudnia 2010 roku w Instytucie Kulturoznawstwa na Wydziale Nauk Społecznych Uniwersytetu im. Adama Mickiewicza w Poznaniu.
Dlaczego zespół badawczy opisał rzeczywistość społeczną posługując się dychotomicznym podziałem na kulturalne potencjały i deficyty? Określenie zalet i wad stanowi nieodzowny punkt wyjścia do wszelkiego myślenia strategicznego. Tak skonstruowany temat badania w sposób jasny i przejrzysty pozwolił określić, że projekt jest ukierunkowany na diagnozę stanu lokalnej kultury i umożliwienie nakreślenia dalszych kierunków rozwoju miasta w tym zakresie. Wiedza płynąca z raportu umożliwia zauważenie mocnych i słabych stron miejskiej kultury, co z kolei pomaga władzom samorządowym i wszystkim zain-
26 Zastosowano dobór celowy oraz próbę zespołową wielostopniową celowo-losową w której wybory celowe dotyczyły zbiorów najwyższego rzędu – terytorialnie: miasta (6 miast badania) i organizacyjnie: szkoły (największe liceum ogólnokształcące w mieście) i profile klas (humanistyczny, matematyczno-fizyczny, geograficzny, biologiczno-chemiczny). Natomiast najniższy poziom losowania dotyczył grup, a nie jednostek – badano poszczególne klasy maturalne. W każdym mieście włączonym do projektu przebadano minimum 100 maturzystów.
rojekt Kulturalne potencjały i deficyty miast powiatowych składał się z dwóch zasadniczych faz procesu badawczego, w których zastosowano odrębne metody. W pierwszym etapie przeprowadzono, przy pomocy ankiety audytoryjnej, badanie sondażowe, w którym brało udział łącznie 726 respondentów ze wszystkich miast objętych badaniem26. W drugiej fazie badania zespół Regionalnego Obserwatorium Kultury posłużył się metodą jakościową – zogniskowanych wywiadów grupowych (FGI – focus group interview).
27 Dla każdego z sześciu miast, bazując na jednym formacie narzędzia badawczego, stworzono odrębną ankietę, która różniła się w zakresie przywołania odmiennych lokalnych wydarzeń kulturalnych, oceny instytucji kultury danego miasta oraz częstotliwości korzystania z ich oferty. W związku z tym poszczególne tytuły ankiet brzmiały: Jakiej kultury chcą młodzi Wielkopolanie z Czarnkowa/ Gniezna/Jarocina/Kępna/Turku/Wolsztyna? Potencjały i deficyty kultury Czarnkowa/Gniezna/Jarocina/Kępna/Turku/Wolsztyna w opinii maturzystów. Dzięki zastosowanemu niemal identycznego kwestionariusza ankiety możliwe były zarówno porównanie wyników poszczególnych miast ze sobą jak i wyciąganie ogólnych ocen i tendencji charakterystycznych dla całej grupy respondentów.
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Ankietę Jakiej kultury chcą młodzi Wielkopolanie z (…)? Potencjały i deficyty kultury (…) w opinii maturzystów27 wypełnili maturzyści z sześciu miast. Zespół badawczy wybrał właśnie tę grupę społeczną z kilku powodów. Pierwszy wynikał z przekonania o tym, że opinie młodych ludzi powinny być bardziej wyeksponowane i znaczące – biorąc pod uwagę to, iż oferta kulturalna w dużej części jest kierowana właśnie do tej grupy osób. Maturzyści są na tyle samodzielni i mobilni, że podróżując do innych miast mogą dokonywać porównań poziomu kultury i oferty kulturalnej różnych miejsc ze swoim miejscem nauki. Ta grupa społeczna posiada z reguły sprecyzowane zainteresowania i krytyczne spojrzenie na otaczającą rzeczywistość. Ponadto, grupa ta staje przed wyborem dalszej drogi życiowej – duża część z nich wyrusza na studia do innych miast. O tym, czy wrócą do rodzinnych stron, decydować będzie wiele czynników – jednym z nich może być satysfakcja z poziomu lokalnej kultury. Chciano uzyskać jak najszerszą wiedzę o kulturze danego miasta powiatowego, dlatego też skonstruowano ośmiostronicową ankietę zawierającą zagadnienia związane z oceną różnych aspektów miejskiej kultury28. Intencją badaczy było stworzenie takiego narzędzia ilościowego, które dawałoby możliwość poznania pełnej opinii maturzystów. W tym celu zastosowano w ankiecie również
28 Pytania zawarte w ankiecie dotyczyły m. in.: najważniejszych wydarzeń kulturalnych, odbywających się w miastach powiatowych i rozpoznawalności oferty kulturalnej; częstotliwości udziału w wydarzeniach kulturalnych; oceny poziomu kultury i oferty kulturalnej (m. in. w aspektach: ilości imprez, ich dostępności czy różnorodności); oceny działalności poszczególnych instytucji kultury/organizacji kulturalnych; wagi czynników, takich jak: promocja imprez, wysokość opłat za wstęp, urozmaicenie oferty; atutów i braków w ofercie; konkretnych imprez/wydarzeń/inicjatyw kulturalnych wartych większej promocji czy większego wsparcia finansowego; imprez będących wizytówką miasta; źródeł informacji o wydarzeniach kulturalnych; miast z najciekawszą ofertą kulturalną; czynników decydujących o wyborze miasta studiów; opinii badanych na temat najbardziej wykluczonej z życia kulturalnego grupy społecznej; oceny polityki kulturalnej lokalnych władz; opinii na temat wpływu kultury na inne sfery życia (np. promocji miasta), korzyści jakie przynosi i oczekiwań wobec niej.
5. Opis badania
teresowanym konkludować na nowo, z perspektywy zobiektywizowanych wyników badań, kulturalne potencjały własnej miejscowości. Dostrzeżenie oraz nazwanie trudności i deficytów w tym zakresie, powinno z kolei stanowić pierwszy krok w kierunku uruchomienia mechanizmów naprawczych.
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seminarium naukowym25, na które zaproszenie przyjęli reprezentanci badanych miast – burmistrzowie i dyrektorzy instytucji kultury, przedstawiciele Narodowego Centrum Kultury, Ministerstwa Kultury i Dziedzictwa Narodowego, GUS, pracownicy naukowi, doktoranci, studenci oraz dziennikarze.
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pytania otwarte – dające możliwość swobodnego wyrażenia swojego zdania. Obraz rzeczywistości uzyskany z opinii samych maturzystów byłby niepełny, dlatego zwrócono się do ekspertów – ludzi, którzy na co dzień tworzą, kreują, opisują czy współdecydują o lokalnej kulturze. We wszystkich badanych miastach przeprowadzono panele eksperckie, które przyjęły kształt zogniskowanych wywiadów grupowych. Zaproszono do nich osoby reprezentujące środowiska opiniotwórcze miast (przedstawicieli instytucji kultury, urzędów, liderów organizacji pozarządowych i lokalnych inicjatyw, dziennikarzy, twórców i animatorów kultury). Wybierając badania fokusowe jako drugie narzędzie badawcze, zespołowi Regionalnego Obserwatorium Kultury towarzyszyło przekonanie, iż tylko przez otwartą rozmowę – bez względu na to, jaki przybierze ona kształt: dialogu czy sporu – i wymianę argumentów możliwe jest nazwanie problemów, kreowanie i wygenerowanie nowych idei, wskazanie obszarów niezbędnej interwencji lub korekty dotychczasowych działań. Badania fokusowe przyniosły dwojakie korzyści. Z jednej strony umożliwiły poznanie opinii, pomysłów i wizji poprawy stanu miejskiej kultury, wyrażanych przez grupę ludzi z nią bezpośrednio związanych. Z drugiej strony – oprócz celów badawczych – służyły integracji środowiska osób odpowiadających za kształtowanie sektora kultury, na rzecz określenia wspólnych celów zogniskowanych wokół kultury. W tym miejscu warto także zauważyć, iż danie szansy wypowiedzi tak zróżnicowanej grupie osób w każdym z badanych miast stanowiło w niektórych przypadkach pierwszy (ale jakże elementarny) krok w kierunku uspołecznienia procesu decyzyjnego i rozpoczęcia partnerskiego dialogu między decydentami a ludźmi pragnącymi działać w aspekcie poprawy funkcjonowania lokalnej kultury. Panele eksperckie były bowiem często pierwszą tego typu szeroką dyskusją. Wielu spośród uczestników zauważało potrzebę dalszych, cyklicznych spotkań, wymiany poglądów i doświadczeń w tak zarysowanym i różnorodnym gronie osób związanych z miejską kulturą.
6. Triangulacja – sposób na podniesienie jakości badania
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roblem wyboru odpowiedniej metody badawczej jest nie tylko dylematem wynikającym z pewnych przekonań i podejścia badacza
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do rzeczywistości społecznej – wynika także z samego przedmiotu badania. Przejawia się to w odpowiedzi na proste (z pozoru) pytanie: co i kogo chcemy badać? Nie ma (i nigdy nie będzie) jednej, właściwej i pełnej metody badania kultury, podobnie jak nie ma jednej definicji i zakresu pojęciowego słowa „kultura”. Z pewnością dużo racji jest w stwierdzeniu Aarona Cicourela, że „liczby przemawiają do biurokratyczno-technologicznego społeczeństwa” [Silveman 2007, s. 63]. Wykresy, korelacje, procenty, liczby mogą się wydawać bardziej przejrzyste, rzetelne, obiektywne niż dane nieujęte w sposób liczbowy. Należy jednak cały czas pamiętać, iż narzędzia jakościowe mogą badać te sfery rzeczywistości społecznej, których statystyki i tak zwane „twarde” dane nie są w stanie zmierzyć. Posiadając wiedzę dotyczącą zarówno zalet, jak i wad stosowania poszczególnych metod, warto opierać się szczególnie na dwóch zasadach, które sformułowała Marie Jahoda: 1. „Dla uchwycenia rzeczywistości społecznej wskazane jest jednoczesne korzystanie z metod jakościowych i ilościowych. 2. Powinno się gromadzić zarówno obiektywne fakty jak i subiektywne opinie” [Flick 2011, s. 77]. Wydaje się, iż skuteczną odpowiedzią na wady i ograniczenia poszczególnych metod jest zastosowanie w procesie badawczym triangulacji. Samo pojęcie wywodzi się z geodezji, w której nazwano tak technikę mierzenia i nanoszenia punktów na powierzchni ziemi. W naukach społecznych koncepcję triangulacji można ująć jako zastosowanie w danym temacie badawczym perspektyw z co najmniej dwóch różnych punktów widzenia [Flick 2011, s. 79]. Chodzi o „połączenie różnych metodologii przy badaniu tego samego zjawiska” – jak definiuje to pojęcie Norman Denzin [Flick 2011, s. 81–82]. Możemy wyróżnić cztery rodzaje triangulacji: danych (korzystanie z kilku, rożnych źródeł danych), badaczy (badanie prowadzone przez wielu badaczy), teorii (stosowanie wielu koncepcji teoretycznych tłumaczących badane zjawiska) oraz metod (łączenie kilku metod badawczych). Niemal wszystkie zostały zastosowane w omawianym projekcie badawczym. Triangulacja umożliwia podniesienie jakości badań dzięki poszerzeniu zakresu czynności badawczych. Nie należy jednak jej traktować jako złotego środka, którego zastosowanie w badaniu zapewnia i gwarantuje obiektywność i trafność badań. Zastosowanie jej z pewnością ma korzystny wpływ na poszerzenie
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roblem wyboru odpowiedniej metody badawczej jest nie tylko dylematem wynikającym z pewnych przekonań i podejścia badacza
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6. Triangulacja – sposób na podniesienie jakości badania Badania fokusowe przyniosły dwojakie korzyści. Z jednej strony umożliwiły poznanie opinii, pomysłów i wizji poprawy stanu miejskiej kultury, wyrażanych przez grupę ludzi z nią bezpośrednio związanych. Z drugiej strony – oprócz celów badawczych – służyły integracji środowiska osób odpowiadających za kształtowanie sektora kultury, na rzecz określenia wspólnych celów zogniskowanych wokół kultury. W tym miejscu warto także zauważyć, iż danie szansy wypowiedzi tak zróżnicowanej grupie osób w każdym z badanych miast stanowiło w niektórych przypadkach pierwszy (ale jakże elementarny) krok w kierunku uspołecznienia procesu decyzyjnego i rozpoczęcia partnerskiego dialogu między decydentami a ludźmi pragnącymi działać w aspekcie poprawy funkcjonowania lokalnej kultury. Panele eksperckie były bowiem często pierwszą tego typu szeroką dyskusją. Wielu spośród uczestników zauważało potrzebę dalszych, cyklicznych spotkań, wymiany poglądów i doświadczeń w tak zarysowanym i różnorodnym gronie osób związanych z miejską kulturą. Obraz rzeczywistości uzyskany z opinii samych maturzystów byłby niepełny, dlatego zwrócono się do ekspertów – ludzi, którzy na co dzień tworzą, kreują, opisują czy współdecydują o lokalnej kulturze. We wszystkich badanych miastach przeprowadzono panele eksperckie, które przyjęły kształt zogniskowanych wywiadów grupowych. Zaproszono do nich osoby reprezentujące środowiska opiniotwórcze miast (przedstawicieli instytucji kultury, urzędów, liderów organizacji pozarządowych i lokalnych inicjatyw, dziennikarzy, twórców i animatorów kultury). Wybierając badania fokusowe jako drugie narzędzie badawcze, zespołowi Regionalnego Obserwatorium Kultury towarzyszyło przekonanie, iż tylko przez otwartą rozmowę – bez względu na to, jaki przybierze ona kształt: dialogu czy sporu – i wymianę argumentów możliwe jest nazwanie problemów, kreowanie i wygenerowanie nowych idei, wskazanie obszarów niezbędnej interwencji lub korekty dotychczasowych działań. pytania otwarte – dające możliwość swobodnego wyrażenia swojego zdania.
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Możemy wyróżnić cztery rodzaje triangulacji: danych (korzystanie z kilku, rożnych źródeł danych), badaczy (badanie prowadzone przez wielu badaczy), teorii (stosowanie wielu koncepcji teoretycznych tłumaczących badane zjawiska) oraz metod (łączenie kilku metod badawczych). Niemal wszystkie zostały zastosowane w omawianym projekcie badawczym. Triangulacja umożliwia podniesienie jakości badań dzięki poszerzeniu zakresu czynności badawczych. Nie należy jednak jej traktować jako złotego środka, którego zastosowanie w badaniu zapewnia i gwarantuje obiektywność i trafność badań. Zastosowanie jej z pewnością ma korzystny wpływ na poszerzenie Wydaje się, iż skuteczną odpowiedzią na wady i ograniczenia poszczególnych metod jest zastosowanie w procesie badawczym triangulacji. Samo pojęcie wywodzi się z geodezji, w której nazwano tak technikę mierzenia i nanoszenia punktów na powierzchni ziemi. W naukach społecznych koncepcję triangulacji można ująć jako zastosowanie w danym temacie badawczym perspektyw z co najmniej dwóch różnych punktów widzenia [Flick 2011, s. 79]. Chodzi o „połączenie różnych metodologii przy badaniu tego samego zjawiska” – jak definiuje to pojęcie Norman Denzin [Flick 2011, s. 81–82]. Z pewnością dużo racji jest w stwierdzeniu Aarona Cicourela, że „liczby przemawiają do biurokratyczno-technologicznego społeczeństwa” [Silveman 2007, s. 63]. Wykresy, korelacje, procenty, liczby mogą się wydawać bardziej przejrzyste, rzetelne, obiektywne niż dane nieujęte w sposób liczbowy. Należy jednak cały czas pamiętać, iż narzędzia jakościowe mogą badać te sfery rzeczywistości społecznej, których statystyki i tak zwane „twarde” dane nie są w stanie zmierzyć. Posiadając wiedzę dotyczącą zarówno zalet, jak i wad stosowania poszczególnych metod, warto opierać się szczególnie na dwóch zasadach, które sformułowała Marie Jahoda: 1. „Dla uchwycenia rzeczywistości społecznej wskazane jest jednoczesne korzystanie z metod jakościowych i ilościowych. 2. Powinno się gromadzić zarówno obiektywne fakty jak i subiektywne opinie” [Flick 2011, s. 77]. do rzeczywistości społecznej – wynika także z samego przedmiotu badania. Przejawia się to w odpowiedzi na proste (z pozoru) pytanie: co i kogo chcemy badać? Nie ma (i nigdy nie będzie) jednej, właściwej i pełnej metody badania kultury, podobnie jak nie ma jednej definicji i zakresu pojęciowego słowa „kultura”.
7. Efekty badań i ich beneficjenci zakresu wiedzy o badanym zjawisku i jej głębszego zrozumienia. Norman Denzin i Yvonna Lincoln zgadzają się z Uwe Flickiem, który twierdzi, iż triangulacja nie jest narzędziem czy strategią trafności, lecz jej konkurencją. Dlatego traktować ją należy jako proces „sumowania się rygoru, rozmachu, złożoności, bogactwa i głębokości każdego badania” [zob. Denzin, Lincoln 2009, s. 26–27].
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Do czwartej grupy należą sami badacze, szerzej środowisko naukowe, ale też praktycy korzystający z wyników badań. Dzięki badaniom mają oni możliwość ciągłego rozwoju i doskonalenia. Badacze tworzą nowe narzędzia badawcze, ulepszają lub modyfikują dotychczasowe, multiplikują je – tym samym prowadząc badania poszerzają swoją wiedzę i doświadczenie, którymi następnie mogą podzielić się z innymi.
fektem badań jest uzyskana wiedza. Informacje, dane, rekomendacje, wnioski – bez względu na to jaki mają charakter – niosą za sobą jej zasób. O ile zostanie on wykorzystany, a rekomendacje zastosowane, wdrożone, mogą zmieniać rzeczywistość społeczną. Badania sektora kultury przynoszą korzyści. To niezwykle trywialne stwierdzenie należy jednak rozwinąć o listę ich beneficjentów, by ukazać wieloaspektowość skutków badań i szeroki zakres stron, które mogą zyskać dzięki badaniom.
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Trzecia grupa beneficjentów jest najliczniejsza i najtrudniejsza do uchwycenia. Należą do niej osoby, które nie biorą bezpośredniego udziału w badaniu. Mimo to jego rezultaty wpływają na ich życie pod warunkiem wdrożenia rekomendacji z nich płynących. W tym sensie beneficjentem projektów badawczych jest całe środowisko, otoczenie, wszyscy ludzie, korzystający z rozwiązań, które udało się wypracować dzięki badaniom.
konkretnych działań zgodnych z opiniami i oczekiwaniami osób badanych. Owa wiedza daje poczucie większej pewności i odwagi przy podejmowaniu decyzji oraz stanowi przewagę nad tymi, którzy w swoich działaniach i decyzjach kierują się intuicjami. Wiedza ta jest elementarnym czynnikiem, który pomaga wybrać najlepszy/najefektywniejszy model programowania i zarządzania instytucją lub szerzej – zagadnieniami kultury w obszarze władztwa samorządu. Kolejną zaletą badań, którą mogą uzyskać decydenci, jest faktyczne zbliżenie się do odbiorców oferty (mieszkańców), ponieważ badania stają się rzeczywistym dialogiem ze społecznością. Budować to powinno zaufanie do instytucji czy samorządu, wzmacniać postawę zaangażowania oraz poczucia bycia podmiotem działań, a nie tylko adresatem takiej czy innej polityki kulturalnej. Oczywiście, takie podejście może mieć również wymiar wizerunkowy, sugerując prorozwojowe, otwarte, rozumiejące nastawienie władzy, urzędu, instytucji do swych statutowych obowiązków. Trzeba jednak zaznaczyć, że tak jak w klasycznym modelu partycypacyjnym w zarządzaniu przedsiębiorstwem, tak i w tym przypadku istotna jest funkcja przywództwa, które nie tylko pyta i słucha, ale również podejmuje decyzje i wdraża zmiany – nawet jeśli okażą się one trudne i nie będą akceptowane powszechnie. Wyraziście pozytywnym przykładem w tym zakresie jest wspominany już Jarocin i jego władze. Otrzymały one ogólnopolski tytuł „Lidera zarządzania 2010. Współpraca samorządu z organizacjami pozarządowymi” za bardzo wysoki odsetek usług kulturalnych i edukacyjnych zlecony do realizacji organizacjom społecznym.
Pierwszą grupą osób są sami respondenci (osoby badane). Dzięki temu, iż zgadzają się wziąć udział w badaniu mogą mieć poczucie, iż ich opinia ma znaczenie i kogoś interesuje. Wyrażenie swojego zdania wiązać się może również z oczekiwaniem zmiany. Warto zauważyć, że kolejną (nie zawsze uświadamianą) korzyścią badań wydaje się być sam fakt badania, który skłania respondentów do przemyśleń, zastanowienia się i pobudza do przyjrzenia się otaczającej rzeczywistości społecznej. Na co dzień zazwyczaj bezrefleksyjnie podchodzimy do wielu aspektów życia i dopiero „wywołanie” jakiegoś tematu sprawia, że zaczynamy go dostrzegać. Badania społeczne często spełniają rolę impulsu – pobudzającego do dyskusji, czy dalej idąc, zmiany. Niestety zdarzają się też sytuacje manipulowania osobami badanymi, jak to miało miejsce w małej miejscowości w województwie kujawsko-pomorskim, gdzie wypaczono ideę badań. Nie skorzystano z udziału badaczy. Urzędnicy sformułowali ankietę, którą wypełniały przypadkowo napotykane osoby. Z trzech ostatnich pytań miała wynikać ocena działalności dotychczasowego dyrektora ośrodka kultury. Zmiana, która w ich wyniku miała się dokonać, miała na celu powyborczą roszadę na stanowisku dyrektora tego ośrodka. Drugą grupę beneficjentów stanowią zleceniodawcy badania, czyli właśnie jednostki samorządu terytorialnego/instytucje, które są bezpośrednio zainteresowane ich wynikami. Badanie dostarcza im wiedzę, która umożliwia i ułatwia podejmowanie
Trzecia grupa beneficjentów jest najliczniejsza i najtrudniejsza do uchwycenia. Należą do niej osoby, które nie biorą bezpośredniego udziału w badaniu. Mimo to jego rezultaty wpływają na ich życie pod warunkiem wdrożenia rekomendacji z nich płynących. W tym sensie beneficjentem projektów badawczych jest całe środowisko, otoczenie, wszyscy ludzie, korzystający z rozwiązań, które udało się wypracować dzięki badaniom.
fektem badań jest uzyskana wiedza. Informacje, dane, rekomendacje, wnioski – bez względu na to jaki mają charakter – niosą za sobą jej zasób. O ile zostanie on wykorzystany, a rekomendacje zastosowane, wdrożone, mogą zmieniać rzeczywistość społeczną. Badania sektora kultury przynoszą korzyści. To niezwykle trywialne stwierdzenie należy jednak rozwinąć o listę ich beneficjentów, by ukazać wieloaspektowość skutków badań i szeroki zakres stron, które mogą zyskać dzięki badaniom.
Do czwartej grupy należą sami badacze, szerzej środowisko naukowe, ale też praktycy korzystający z wyników badań. Dzięki badaniom mają oni możliwość ciągłego rozwoju i doskonalenia. Badacze tworzą nowe narzędzia badawcze, ulepszają lub modyfikują dotychczasowe, multiplikują je – tym samym prowadząc badania poszerzają swoją wiedzę i doświadczenie, którymi następnie mogą podzielić się z innymi.
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Pierwszą grupą osób są sami respondenci (osoby badane). Dzięki temu, iż zgadzają się wziąć udział w badaniu mogą mieć poczucie, iż ich opinia ma znaczenie i kogoś interesuje. Wyrażenie swojego zdania wiązać się może również z oczekiwaniem zmiany. Warto zauważyć, że kolejną (nie zawsze uświadamianą) korzyścią badań wydaje się być sam fakt badania, który skłania respondentów do przemyśleń, zastanowienia się i pobudza do przyjrzenia się otaczającej rzeczywistości społecznej. Na co dzień zazwyczaj bezrefleksyjnie podchodzimy do wielu aspektów życia i dopiero „wywołanie” jakiegoś tematu sprawia, że zaczynamy go dostrzegać. Badania społeczne często spełniają rolę impulsu – pobudzającego do dyskusji, czy dalej idąc, zmiany. Niestety zdarzają się też sytuacje manipulowania osobami badanymi, jak to miało miejsce w małej miejscowości w województwie kujawsko-pomorskim, gdzie wypaczono ideę badań. Nie skorzystano z udziału badaczy. Urzędnicy sformułowali ankietę, którą wypełniały przypadkowo napotykane osoby. Z trzech ostatnich pytań miała wynikać ocena działalności dotychczasowego dyrektora ośrodka kultury. Zmiana, która w ich wyniku miała się dokonać, miała na celu powyborczą roszadę na stanowisku dyrektora tego ośrodka. Drugą grupę beneficjentów stanowią zleceniodawcy badania, czyli właśnie jednostki samorządu terytorialnego/instytucje, które są bezpośrednio zainteresowane ich wynikami. Badanie dostarcza im wiedzę, która umożliwia i ułatwia podejmowanie
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7. Efekty badań i ich beneficjenci
konkretnych działań zgodnych z opiniami i oczekiwaniami osób badanych. Owa wiedza daje poczucie większej pewności i odwagi przy podejmowaniu decyzji oraz stanowi przewagę nad tymi, którzy w swoich działaniach i decyzjach kierują się intuicjami. Wiedza ta jest elementarnym czynnikiem, który pomaga wybrać najlepszy/najefektywniejszy model programowania i zarządzania instytucją lub szerzej – zagadnieniami kultury w obszarze władztwa samorządu. Kolejną zaletą badań, którą mogą uzyskać decydenci, jest faktyczne zbliżenie się do odbiorców oferty (mieszkańców), ponieważ badania stają się rzeczywistym dialogiem ze społecznością. Budować to powinno zaufanie do instytucji czy samorządu, wzmacniać postawę zaangażowania oraz poczucia bycia podmiotem działań, a nie tylko adresatem takiej czy innej polityki kulturalnej. Oczywiście, takie podejście może mieć również wymiar wizerunkowy, sugerując prorozwojowe, otwarte, rozumiejące nastawienie władzy, urzędu, instytucji do swych statutowych obowiązków. Trzeba jednak zaznaczyć, że tak jak w klasycznym modelu partycypacyjnym w zarządzaniu przedsiębiorstwem, tak i w tym przypadku istotna jest funkcja przywództwa, które nie tylko pyta i słucha, ale również podejmuje decyzje i wdraża zmiany – nawet jeśli okażą się one trudne i nie będą akceptowane powszechnie. Wyraziście pozytywnym przykładem w tym zakresie jest wspominany już Jarocin i jego władze. Otrzymały one ogólnopolski tytuł „Lidera zarządzania 2010. Współpraca samorządu z organizacjami pozarządowymi” za bardzo wysoki odsetek usług kulturalnych i edukacyjnych zlecony do realizacji organizacjom społecznym.
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zakresu wiedzy o badanym zjawisku i jej głębszego zrozumienia. Norman Denzin i Yvonna Lincoln zgadzają się z Uwe Flickiem, który twierdzi, iż triangulacja nie jest narzędziem czy strategią trafności, lecz jej konkurencją. Dlatego traktować ją należy jako proces „sumowania się rygoru, rozmachu, złożoności, bogactwa i głębokości każdego badania” [zob. Denzin, Lincoln 2009, s. 26–27].
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Pisząc o efektach badań należy zauważyć, iż są nimi zarówno konkretne rekomendacje i rozwiązania, wnioski, opisy, diagnozy badanej rzeczywistości, przedstawione w raportach z badań, jak i efekty „miękkie”. Te drugie mają charakter niematerialny i przez to trudniejszy do uchwycenia. Są jednak nie mniej istotne. W przypadku projektu Potencjały i deficyty miast powiatowych tymi „niemierzalnymi” skutkami są np.: MM często pierwsze w tym charakterze spotkanie lokalnego środowiska kultury i zdefiniowanie się tej grupy jako środowiska, czy też lokalnej grupy wpływu, MM unaocznienie możliwości, jakie daje moderowana dyskusja podczas badań fokusowych, MM zaistnienie modelu dialogu i partnerskich stosunków między władzą i ludźmi związanymi ze sferą kultury, MM zaprezentowanie sposobu uspołecznienia procesu decyzyjnego przez zwrócenie uwagi na głos osób młodych i opinie ekspertów.
8. Podsumowanie
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arysowany model badań, zmodyfikowany do konkretnych warunków i specyfiki miejsca, powinien się również sprawdzać w innych samorządach. Czasem dom kultury, czy biblioteka, które nie dopracowały się nowego, angażującego modelu komunikacji z odbiorcami oraz nowego modelu edukacji kulturalnej, skazują się na egzystowanie poza głównym nurtem komunikowania się i rozwoju kultury. Są niejako omijane szerokim łukiem przez potencjalnych odbiorców, których instytucje te nie potrafią zachęcić do siebie, oddać im głos w dialogu. Organy samorządu z kolei nie zawsze zdają sobie sprawę z owego braku. Wydaje się, że próba zastosowania elementów zarządzania partycypacyjnego w formie zarysowanego projektu badań może być jedną z form zmiany tego stanu rzeczy.
Bibliografia Denzin N. K., Lincoln Y. S., Metody badań jakościowych, tom I, Warszawa: PWN, 2009. Flick U., Jakość w badaniach jakościowych, Warszawa: PWN, 2011. Hamel G., Strategy as Revolution, „Harvard Business Review”, July-August, 1996. Hausner J., Instytucje kultury w czasach kryzysu. Wyzwania i zagrożenia – w jakich warunkach możliwa jest transformacja i nowoczesny model funkcjonowania instytucji? [w:] Kieliszewski P., Landsberg P., Poprawski M., Sójka J. (red.), Instytucje kultury w czasach kryzysu, w serii Instytutu Kulturoznawstwa UAM: Studia kulturoznawcze. Polityka Kulturalna, Poznań: Bogucki Wydawnictwo Naukowe, 2009. Jan Paweł II, Centesimus annus [dok. elektr.] http://ekai. pl/bib.php/dokumenty/centesimus_annus/centesimus_annus1.html [dostęp: 19.04.2011 r.]. Kaźmierczak R., Biblioteki marnowanych potencjałów [w:] Kieliszewski P., Landsberg P., Poprawski M., Sójka J. (red.), Instytucje kultury w czasach kryzysu, w serii Instytutu Kulturoznawstwa UAM: Studia kulturoznawcze. Polityka Kulturalna, Poznań: Bogucki Wydawnictwo Naukowe, 2009. Kieliszewski P., Publiczne i prywatne. O nowym modelu relacji międzysektorowych [w:] Gwóźdź A. (red.), Od przemysłów kultury do kreatywnej gospodarki, Warszawa: Narodowe Centrum Kultury 2009.
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Kieliszewski P., Schmidt J., Badania marszałkowskich instytucji kultury w Wielkopolsce, „Przegląd Wielkopolski” nr 3(73), 2006. Orlik J., Rozmowa jest działaniem [w:] M. Śliwa (red.), Strategie dla kultury. Kultura dla rozwoju. Zarządzanie strategiczne instytucją kultury, Kraków: MIK, 2011. Pius XI Quadragesimo anno (1931) [dok. elektr.] http://ekai. pl/bib.php/dokumenty/quadrogesimo_anno/quadrogesimo_anno .html [dostęp: 19.04.2011 r.]. Roffiaen Ch., Rethinking the principle of subsidiarity. Brusseles report, March 2003 (Active Citizenship Network) [dok. elektr.]. Silverman D., Interpretacja danych jakościowych, Warszawa: PWN, 2007. Śliwa M., Zarządzanie strategiczne organizacją [w:] M. Śliwa (red.), Strategie dla kultury. Kultura dla rozwoju. Zarządzanie strategiczne instytucją kultury, Kraków: MIK, 2011. Witek-Crabb A. (2007), Uczestnicy procesu zarządzania strategicznego w przedsiębiorstwie społecznie odpowiedzialnym [dok. elektr.] http://www.pdfebooksdownloads.com/doc/download/Anna%20 Witek-Crabb_aHR0cDovL2F3Y3JhYmIuYWUud3JvYy5wbC9kb2NzL2FydHlrdWx5L1VjemVzdG5pY3klMjBwcm9jZXN1JTIwenMlMjB3JTIwcHJ6ZWRzJTIwc3BvbCUyMG9kcC5kb2M= [dostęp: 18.04.2011 r.].
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Denzin N. K., Lincoln Y. S., Metody badań jakościowych, tom I, Warszawa: PWN, 2009. Flick U., Jakość w badaniach jakościowych, Warszawa: PWN, 2011. Hamel G., Strategy as Revolution, „Harvard Business Review”, July-August, 1996. Hausner J., Instytucje kultury w czasach kryzysu. Wyzwania i zagrożenia – w jakich warunkach możliwa jest transformacja i nowoczesny model funkcjonowania instytucji? [w:] Kieliszewski P., Landsberg P., Poprawski M., Sójka J. (red.), Instytucje kultury w czasach kryzysu, w serii Instytutu Kulturoznawstwa UAM: Studia kulturoznawcze. Polityka Kulturalna, Poznań: Bogucki Wydawnictwo Naukowe, 2009. Jan Paweł II, Centesimus annus [dok. elektr.] http://ekai. pl/bib.php/dokumenty/centesimus_annus/centesimus_annus1.html [dostęp: 19.04.2011 r.]. Kaźmierczak R., Biblioteki marnowanych potencjałów [w:] Kieliszewski P., Landsberg P., Poprawski M., Sójka J. (red.), Instytucje kultury w czasach kryzysu, w serii Instytutu Kulturoznawstwa UAM: Studia kulturoznawcze. Polityka Kulturalna, Poznań: Bogucki Wydawnictwo Naukowe, 2009. Kieliszewski P., Publiczne i prywatne. O nowym modelu relacji międzysektorowych [w:] Gwóźdź A. (red.), Od przemysłów kultury do kreatywnej gospodarki, Warszawa: Narodowe Centrum Kultury 2009.
Kieliszewski P., Schmidt J., Badania marszałkowskich instytucji kultury w Wielkopolsce, „Przegląd Wielkopolski” nr 3(73), 2006. Orlik J., Rozmowa jest działaniem [w:] M. Śliwa (red.), Strategie dla kultury. Kultura dla rozwoju. Zarządzanie strategiczne instytucją kultury, Kraków: MIK, 2011. Pius XI Quadragesimo anno (1931) [dok. elektr.] http://ekai. pl/bib.php/dokumenty/quadrogesimo_anno/quadrogesimo_anno .html [dostęp: 19.04.2011 r.]. Roffiaen Ch., Rethinking the principle of subsidiarity. Brusseles report, March 2003 (Active Citizenship Network) [dok. elektr.]. Silverman D., Interpretacja danych jakościowych, Warszawa: PWN, 2007. Śliwa M., Zarządzanie strategiczne organizacją [w:] M. Śliwa (red.), Strategie dla kultury. Kultura dla rozwoju. Zarządzanie strategiczne instytucją kultury, Kraków: MIK, 2011. Witek-Crabb A. (2007), Uczestnicy procesu zarządzania strategicznego w przedsiębiorstwie społecznie odpowiedzialnym [dok. elektr.] http://www.pdfebooksdownloads.com/doc/download/Anna%20 Witek-Crabb_aHR0cDovL2F3Y3JhYmIuYWUud3JvYy5wbC9kb2NzL2FydHlrdWx5L1VjemVzdG5pY3klMjBwcm9jZXN1JTIwenMlMjB3JTIwcHJ6ZWRzJTIwc3BvbCUyMG9kcC5kb2M= [dostęp: 18.04.2011 r.].
Bibliografia Pisząc o efektach badań należy zauważyć, iż są nimi zarówno konkretne rekomendacje i rozwiązania, wnioski, opisy, diagnozy badanej rzeczywistości, przedstawione w raportach z badań, jak i efekty „miękkie”. Te drugie mają charakter niematerialny i przez to trudniejszy do uchwycenia. Są jednak nie mniej istotne. W przypadku projektu Potencjały i deficyty miast powiatowych tymi „niemierzalnymi” skutkami są np.: MM często pierwsze w tym charakterze spotkanie lokalnego środowiska kultury i zdefiniowanie się tej grupy jako środowiska, czy też lokalnej grupy wpływu, MM unaocznienie możliwości, jakie daje moderowana dyskusja podczas badań fokusowych, MM zaistnienie modelu dialogu i partnerskich stosunków między władzą i ludźmi związanymi ze sferą kultury, MM zaprezentowanie sposobu uspołecznienia procesu decyzyjnego przez zwrócenie uwagi na głos osób młodych i opinie ekspertów.
arysowany model badań, zmodyfikowany do konkretnych warunków i specyfiki miejsca, powinien się również sprawdzać w innych samorządach. Czasem dom kultury, czy biblioteka, które nie dopracowały się nowego, angażującego modelu komunikacji z odbiorcami oraz nowego modelu edukacji kulturalnej, skazują się na egzystowanie poza głównym nurtem komunikowania się i rozwoju kultury. Są niejako omijane szerokim łukiem przez potencjalnych odbiorców, których instytucje te nie potrafią zachęcić do siebie, oddać im głos w dialogu. Organy samorządu z kolei nie zawsze zdają sobie sprawę z owego braku. Wydaje się, że próba zastosowania elementów zarządzania partycypacyjnego w formie zarysowanego projektu badań może być jedną z form zmiany tego stanu rzeczy.
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30 Na potrzeby tej pracy posługuję się zamiennie terminami strategia rozwoju kultury i polityka kulturalna. 29 Za: informacje na stronie Ministerstwa Kultury i Dziedzictwa Narodowego[http://www.mkidn.gov.pl]. 29 Za: informacje na stronie Ministerstwa Kultury i Dziedzictwa Narodowego[http://www.mkidn.gov.pl]. 30 Na potrzeby tej pracy posługuję się zamiennie terminami strategia rozwoju kultury i polityka kulturalna.
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Rozwój i zarządzanie organizacją pozarządową w kontekście polityki kulturalnej miasta
przynosi Narodową Strategię Rozwoju Kultury na lata 2004–2013, ogłoszoną przez Ministerstwo Kultury i Dziedzictwa Narodowego, a 2005 rok także Uzupełnienie Narodowej Strategii Rozwoju Kultury na lata 2004–202029. Poszczególne miasta również tworzą lub próbują tworzyć podobne dokumenty. Do oceny warunków funkcjonowania organizacji kultury trzeciego sektora posłużę się analizą dokumentów, z których możemy wyczytać kierunek i realizację polityki kulturalnej miasta, w tym przede wszystkim określających strategię rozwoju kultury, oraz szerzej – strategię rozwoju miasta i rodzaj obecności w niej kultury, a także program współpracy z organizacjami pozarządowymi oraz dokumentację konkursową dla organizacji kultury. Na potrzeby tej pracy ograniczę się do przyjrzenia się przede wszystkim polityce kulturalnej trzech największych miast Polski, w których znaczenie kultury jest mocno podkreślane przez włodarzy, a w których działają także liczne organizacje pozarządowe. Będą to Warszawa, Kraków oraz Wrocław. Z powyższych dokumentów kluczowy powinien być dla nas ten, który przedstawia strategię rozwoju kultury i plan jej realizacji30. Jedna z pierwszych definicji strategii, sformułowana przez K. Andrewsa na początku lat 60., wciąż pozostaje aktualna i podkreśla jej najważniejsze aspekty: „Strategia jest modelem (wzorem) decyzji podejmowanych w firmie, determinujących i objaśniających sens jej istnienia i jej cele, prowadzącym do powstania podstawowych
Anna Lewanowicz
ziś jest dla nas sprawą oczywistą, że kultura jest współtworzona przez organizacje pozarządowe. Warto jednak zastanowić się nad tym, kto tworzy takie organizacje, jak również, co ma wpływ na ich rozwój i sposób funkcjonowania? Czy zarządzanie kulturą stanowi abstrakcję czy rzeczywistość? Jeżeli zadamy ostatnie pytanie w odniesieniu do organizacji pozarządowych działających w sektorze kultury, to odpowiedzi należałoby szukać nie tylko w wewnętrznym, ale również w zewnętrznym środowisku. Rozważając kwestię zarządzania w organizacjach trzeciego sektora, często zwraca się uwagę głównie na wewnętrzne czynniki, takie jak: niewystarczające umiejętności pozyskiwania funduszy, brak profesjonalizmu, brak strategii działań, planu rozwoju organizacji itd. Natomiast nie ulega wątpliwości, że funkcjonowanie takich organizacji jest mocno zdeterminowane również przez czynniki zewnętrzne, między innymi poprzez regulacje prawne, mechanizmy finansowania, postrzeganie przez rząd i samorządy roli i wagi organizacji pozarządowych, a także znaczenia kultury. Reforma samorządowa w 1990 roku przyniosła korzystną zmianę – w dużym stopniu odpowiedzialność i bezpośrednie zarządzanie kulturą zostały przeniesione z Ministerstwa Kultury i Sztuki na samorządy. Pomimo tego, przez bardzo długi czas kierunki rozwoju kultury, ani modele zarządzania nią nie były określane, ani na poziomie lokalnym, ani państwowym. Dopiero rok 2004
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Lewanowicz Anna Prezes Fundacji Inicjatyw Społecznych PLAN C, Zastępca Dyrektora Krakowskich Reminiscencji Teatralnych. Absolwentka filologii klasycznej oraz podyplomowych studiów zarządzania projektami w Szkole Głównej Handlowej.
Lewanowicz Anna Prezes Fundacji Inicjatyw Społecznych PLAN C, Zastępca Dyrektora Krakowskich Reminiscencji Teatralnych. Absolwentka filologii klasycznej oraz podyplomowych studiów zarządzania projektami w Szkole Głównej Handlowej.
przynosi Narodową Strategię Rozwoju Kultury na lata 2004–2013, ogłoszoną przez Ministerstwo Kultury i Dziedzictwa Narodowego, a 2005 rok także Uzupełnienie Narodowej Strategii Rozwoju Kultury na lata 2004–202029. Poszczególne miasta również tworzą lub próbują tworzyć podobne dokumenty. Do oceny warunków funkcjonowania organizacji kultury trzeciego sektora posłużę się analizą dokumentów, z których możemy wyczytać kierunek i realizację polityki kulturalnej miasta, w tym przede wszystkim określających strategię rozwoju kultury, oraz szerzej – strategię rozwoju miasta i rodzaj obecności w niej kultury, a także program współpracy z organizacjami pozarządowymi oraz dokumentację konkursową dla organizacji kultury. Na potrzeby tej pracy ograniczę się do przyjrzenia się przede wszystkim polityce kulturalnej trzech największych miast Polski, w których znaczenie kultury jest mocno podkreślane przez włodarzy, a w których działają także liczne organizacje pozarządowe. Będą to Warszawa, Kraków oraz Wrocław. Z powyższych dokumentów kluczowy powinien być dla nas ten, który przedstawia strategię rozwoju kultury i plan jej realizacji30. Jedna z pierwszych definicji strategii, sformułowana przez K. Andrewsa na początku lat 60., wciąż pozostaje aktualna i podkreśla jej najważniejsze aspekty: „Strategia jest modelem (wzorem) decyzji podejmowanych w firmie, determinujących i objaśniających sens jej istnienia i jej cele, prowadzącym do powstania podstawowych
Anna Lewanowicz
ziś jest dla nas sprawą oczywistą, że kultura jest współtworzona przez organizacje pozarządowe. Warto jednak zastanowić się nad tym, kto tworzy takie organizacje, jak również, co ma wpływ na ich rozwój i sposób funkcjonowania? Czy zarządzanie kulturą stanowi abstrakcję czy rzeczywistość? Jeżeli zadamy ostatnie pytanie w odniesieniu do organizacji pozarządowych działających w sektorze kultury, to odpowiedzi należałoby szukać nie tylko w wewnętrznym, ale również w zewnętrznym środowisku. Rozważając kwestię zarządzania w organizacjach trzeciego sektora, często zwraca się uwagę głównie na wewnętrzne czynniki, takie jak: niewystarczające umiejętności pozyskiwania funduszy, brak profesjonalizmu, brak strategii działań, planu rozwoju organizacji itd. Natomiast nie ulega wątpliwości, że funkcjonowanie takich organizacji jest mocno zdeterminowane również przez czynniki zewnętrzne, między innymi poprzez regulacje prawne, mechanizmy finansowania, postrzeganie przez rząd i samorządy roli i wagi organizacji pozarządowych, a także znaczenia kultury. Reforma samorządowa w 1990 roku przyniosła korzystną zmianę – w dużym stopniu odpowiedzialność i bezpośrednie zarządzanie kulturą zostały przeniesione z Ministerstwa Kultury i Sztuki na samorządy. Pomimo tego, przez bardzo długi czas kierunki rozwoju kultury, ani modele zarządzania nią nie były określane, ani na poziomie lokalnym, ani państwowym. Dopiero rok 2004
Rozwój i zarządzanie organizacją pozarządową w kontekście polityki kulturalnej miasta
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Poprzez analizę wyżej wymienionych dokumentów w poszczególnych miastach, zwrócimy uwagę na wybrane instrumenty polityki kulturalnej dotyczących organizacji pozarządowych. Przyjrzymy się tym aspektom, które pozwolą nam ocenić warunki funkcjonowania NGO.
Tab. 1. Instrumenty polityki kulturalnej Instrumenty polityki kulturalnej
Rozwój i zarządzanie organizacją pozarządową w kontekście polityki kulturalnej miasta
Pluralizm koncepcji i idei
Wartościowo-ideowy
Planowanie restrykcji, likwidacja instytucji
Planowanie rozwoju, zakładanie instytucji
Organizacyjny
Negatywne regulacje prawno-normatywne (prześladowanie), cenzura
Pozytywne regulacje prawno-normatywne (ochrona, stymulowanie)
Prawno-polityczny
Zakup, dotacje, stypendia, kredyty
Ekonomiczny
Pobudzający/stymulatywny
Charakter działalności Kierunek działania
Instrumenty polityki kulturalnej
Tab. 1. Instrumenty polityki kulturalnej
Przekładając powyższe wytyczne na obszar kultury, Emil Orzechowski podkreśla odpowiedzialność władz publicznych i udział organizacji: „Polityka kulturalna to całokształt celowej i zorganizowanej działalności państwa oraz organizacji politycznych i społecznych inspirujących rozwój twórczości artystycznej i zapewniającej opiekę nad rozwojem środowisk twórczych, wpływających na sposób i zakres uczestnictwa w kulturze społeczeństwa, tak przez upowszechnienie dóbr kultury, jak i przez rozwijanie aktywnych form udziału w życiu kulturalnym. (…) Polityka kulturalna zmierza do (…) rozwoju i pomnażania dorobku kultury narodowej i upowszechniania humanistycznych treści kultury ogólnoludzkiej, wzbogacenia i zaspokojenia potrzeb kulturalnych całego społeczeństwa (…) rozbudowy i unowocześniania bazy materialnotechnicznej produkcji i przekazu dóbr kultury, aktywizacji instytucji kultury i ich przekształcania zgodnie z rozwojem społeczeństwa [Orzechowski 2004, s. 9–10]. Kluczowe jest podkreślenie jeszcze innego aspektu – „polityka kulturalna to nie tylko kultura artystyczna, ale też wzmacnianie więzi społecznych i promowanie aktywnych postaw obywatelskich. (…) Polityka kulturalna władz publicznych wszelkich szczebli – przy zachowaniu pełnej swobody wyborów indywidualnych – winna wspierać te działania obywateli i stowarzyszeń, polityk i planów, dzięki którym osiągane są cele, określającym rodzaje działalności, do których dąży firma, jej aktualny i zamierzony charakter, jak również istotę ekonomicznych i pozaekonomicznych korzyści, jakie firma pragnie przysporzyć wszystkim zainteresowanym, pracownikom, klientom, współwłaścicielom” [Andrews 1994, s. 40].
Narzucanie jednej ideologii Opodatkowanie, oclenie Hamujący/Represywny
Anna Lewanowicz
Przekładając powyższe wytyczne na obszar kultury, Emil Orzechowski podkreśla odpowiedzialność władz publicznych i udział organizacji: „Polityka kulturalna to całokształt celowej i zorganizowanej działalności państwa oraz organizacji politycznych i społecznych inspirujących rozwój twórczości artystycznej i zapewniającej opiekę nad rozwojem środowisk twórczych, wpływających na sposób i zakres uczestnictwa w kulturze społeczeństwa, tak przez upowszechnienie dóbr kultury, jak i przez rozwijanie aktywnych form udziału w życiu kulturalnym. (…) Polityka kulturalna zmierza do (…) rozwoju i pomnażania dorobku kultury narodowej i upowszechniania humanistycznych treści kultury ogólnoludzkiej, wzbogacenia i zaspokojenia potrzeb kulturalnych całego społeczeństwa (…) rozbudowy i unowocześniania bazy materialnotechnicznej produkcji i przekazu dóbr kultury, aktywizacji instytucji kultury i ich przekształcania zgodnie z rozwojem społeczeństwa [Orzechowski 2004, s. 9–10]. Kluczowe jest podkreślenie jeszcze innego aspektu – „polityka kulturalna to nie tylko kultura artystyczna, ale też wzmacnianie więzi społecznych i promowanie aktywnych postaw obywatelskich. (…) Polityka kulturalna władz publicznych wszelkich szczebli – przy zachowaniu pełnej swobody wyborów indywidualnych – winna wspierać te działania obywateli i stowarzyszeń,
które odpowiadają tradycji, potrzebom oraz oczekiwaniom danych wspólnot lokalnych, i które uzyskały społeczną wiarygodność [SzulborskaŁukasiewicz 2009]. Europejskie dokumenty dość jednoznacznie definiują zadania polityki kulturalnej: MM ponoszenie odpowiedzialności za tworzenie warunków rozwoju działalności kulturalnej i ekspresji twórczej z korzyścią dla publiczności, uczestników kultury; MM wypracowanie środków ochrony i tworzenia miejsc pracy w sektorze kultury; MM wspieranie rozwoju działalności kulturalnej z zachowaniem prawa do swobody twórczej artysty; MM poprawa systemów finansowania kultury; MM poprawa współdziałania i finansowania przez różne podmioty (publiczne, prywatne, społeczne) [Rekomendacje 1987]; MM wyrównanie dysproporcji ekonomicznych wpływających na możliwość zaspokajania potrzeb kulturalnych i uczestnictwa w kulturze wewnątrz społeczności lokalnych; MM wsparcie innowacji i eksperymentów w sferze kultury; MM badanie, analizowanie, obserwacja zjawisk w kulturze oraz efektów podejmowanych działań; MM bezpośrednia współpraca i wymiana doświadczeń pomiędzy reprezentantami społeczności lokalnych i wewnątrz nich [Deklaracja 1983].
Anna Lewanowicz
Źródło: Dragićević-Šešić M., Stojković B., Kultura – zarządzanie, animacja, marketing, Warszawa 2010.
Rozwój i zarządzanie organizacją pozarządową w kontekście polityki kulturalnej miasta
polityk i planów, dzięki którym osiągane są cele, określającym rodzaje działalności, do których dąży firma, jej aktualny i zamierzony charakter, jak również istotę ekonomicznych i pozaekonomicznych korzyści, jakie firma pragnie przysporzyć wszystkim zainteresowanym, pracownikom, klientom, współwłaścicielom” [Andrews 1994, s. 40].
Charakter działalności Kierunek działania
Pobudzający/stymulatywny
Hamujący/Represywny
Ekonomiczny
Zakup, dotacje, stypendia, kredyty
Opodatkowanie, oclenie
Prawno-polityczny
Pozytywne regulacje prawno-normatywne (ochrona, stymulowanie)
Negatywne regulacje prawno-normatywne (prześladowanie), cenzura
Organizacyjny
Planowanie rozwoju, zakładanie instytucji
Planowanie restrykcji, likwidacja instytucji
Wartościowo-ideowy
Pluralizm koncepcji i idei
Narzucanie jednej ideologii
Źródło: Dragićević-Šešić M., Stojković B., Kultura – zarządzanie, animacja, marketing, Warszawa 2010.
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2011, Vol 4 (4)
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Poprzez analizę wyżej wymienionych dokumentów w poszczególnych miastach, zwrócimy uwagę na wybrane instrumenty polityki kulturalnej dotyczących organizacji pozarządowych. Przyjrzymy się tym aspektom, które pozwolą nam ocenić warunki funkcjonowania NGO. które odpowiadają tradycji, potrzebom oraz oczekiwaniom danych wspólnot lokalnych, i które uzyskały społeczną wiarygodność [SzulborskaŁukasiewicz 2009]. Europejskie dokumenty dość jednoznacznie definiują zadania polityki kulturalnej: MM ponoszenie odpowiedzialności za tworzenie warunków rozwoju działalności kulturalnej i ekspresji twórczej z korzyścią dla publiczności, uczestników kultury; MM wypracowanie środków ochrony i tworzenia miejsc pracy w sektorze kultury; MM wspieranie rozwoju działalności kulturalnej z zachowaniem prawa do swobody twórczej artysty; MM poprawa systemów finansowania kultury; MM poprawa współdziałania i finansowania przez różne podmioty (publiczne, prywatne, społeczne) [Rekomendacje 1987]; MM wyrównanie dysproporcji ekonomicznych wpływających na możliwość zaspokajania potrzeb kulturalnych i uczestnictwa w kulturze wewnątrz społeczności lokalnych; MM wsparcie innowacji i eksperymentów w sferze kultury; MM badanie, analizowanie, obserwacja zjawisk w kulturze oraz efektów podejmowanych działań; MM bezpośrednia współpraca i wymiana doświadczeń pomiędzy reprezentantami społeczności lokalnych i wewnątrz nich [Deklaracja 1983].
260
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2011, Vol 4 (4) MM rozwijanie i rozbudowywanie całej sfery edukacji kulturalnej; MM umożliwianie wszystkim ludziom, którzy mają jakąkolwiek pasję do kultury, jej tworzenie. Miasto chce budować swój rozwój w oparciu o dwa czynniki: kulturę i biznes [Pawłowski, dok. elektr.]. W Programie zostały opracowane obszary, które zostały uznane i określone, jako te, które gwarantują przyszłościowy rozwój kultury w mieście, a mianowicie: MM Infrastruktura kultury, MM Dziedzictwo kulturowe, MM Instytucje kultury, MM Festiwale, 31 MM Organizacje pozarządowe , MM Różnorodność kulturowa i dbałość o dialog międzykulturowy, MM Artyści i twórcy, MM Edukacja kulturalna, Nowe technologie i promocja, Monitorowanie. 32 MM
Spróbujmy zatem zanalizować obszary odpowiednie do pozarządowych organizacji kultury i polityk miejskich, takie jak: 1. Aspekt wartościowo-ideowy poprzez analizę priorytetów, określonych w dokumentach miasta pod kątem postrzegania roli kultury i roli organizacji pozarządowych. 2. Aspekt natury ekonomicznej: rodzaje wsparcia finansowego, terminy ogłaszania konkursów i oceniania aplikacji konkursowych, przejrzystość oceny, ewaluacja projektu dofinansowanego. 3. Aspekt prawny: regulacje prawno-normatywne 4. Aspekt organizacyjny: mechanizmy planowania rozwoju i systemowe wsparcie.
MM
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2011, Vol 4 (4)
Konieczne jest też wyraźne zaznaczenie, że analiza ta jest mocno zawężona ze względu na ograniczenia narzucone charakterem tej pracy. Nie przyjmuje ujęcia historycznego, a odnosi się do teraźniejszości, bazując na aktualnych i dostępnych dokumentach.
260
Aspekt wartościowo-ideowy:
32 Za: Program rozwoju kultury w Warszawie w latach 2009–2020 [http://www.um.warszawa.pl].
Prace nad Programem zostały poprzedzone badaniem potrzeb kulturalnych mieszkańców, konsultacjami środowiskowymi oraz analizą przykładów pozytywnie zweryfikowanych rozwiązań w innych metropoliach europejskich. Każdy z tych obszarów został poddany szczegółowej analizie – zdiagnozowano potrzeby w poszczególnych obszarach i przedstawiono dla nich rekomendacje dla działań i sposobów ich realizacji, a także propozycje określające ramy czasowe wdrożenia poszczególnych działań, źródła ich finansowania oraz podmioty odpowiedzialne za ich realizację.
31 Spośród ponad 5200 organizacji pozarządowych działających w Warszawie mniej więcej co piąta prowadzi aktywną działalność kulturalną (szacunkowe dane za: Herbst J., Warszawski Sektor Pozarządowy, Warszawa: Stowarzyszenie Klon/Jawor, 2007).
W odniesieniu do organizacji pozarządowych, Program rozwoju odnotowuje coraz większe docenianie przez władze samorządowe roli trzeciego sektora w realizacji zadań w obszarze kultury. Ale zwraca również uwagę na wciąż istniejące restrykcje dotyczące pokrywania kosztów bieżących czy trudności, na jakie napotykają organizacje, chcąc wynająć lokal. Rekomendacje zawarte w programie dotyczą minimalizowania efektów tych negatywnych regulacji. Polityka finansowa miasta powinna być dostosowana do potrzeb organizacji pozarządowych, tak by mogły się rozwijać, a ich działalność przynosić lepsze efekty.
W odniesieniu do organizacji pozarządowych, Program rozwoju odnotowuje coraz większe docenianie przez władze samorządowe roli trzeciego sektora w realizacji zadań w obszarze kultury. Ale zwraca również uwagę na wciąż istniejące restrykcje dotyczące pokrywania kosztów bieżących czy trudności, na jakie napotykają organizacje, chcąc wynająć lokal. Rekomendacje zawarte w programie dotyczą minimalizowania efektów tych negatywnych regulacji. Polityka finansowa miasta powinna być dostosowana do potrzeb organizacji pozarządowych, tak by mogły się rozwijać, a ich działalność przynosić lepsze efekty.
Warszawa: W Warszawie obecnie nie istnieje dokument przedstawiający długofalową politykę kulturalną. Powstały natomiast dwa dokumenty, które mogą być punktem odniesienia w tym zakresie: aplikacja na konkurs o tytuł Europejskiej Stolicy Kultury 2016 oraz Program rozwoju kultury w Warszawie w latach 2009–2020. Powstanie Programu rozwoju kultury w Warszawie w latach 2009–2020, czyli tzw. Białej Księgi, zainicjował Marek Kraszewski, Dyrektor Biura Kultury Urzędu m. st. Warszawy, a przeprowadziła je w drugiej połowie 2008 roku Fundacja Pro Cultura. Biała Księga stanowi rozbudowane i wieloczęściowe opracowanie eksperckie (blisko 600 stron) i ma stanowić podstawę do wypracowania przez władze miasta kierunków polityki kulturalnej na najbliższą dekadę, jakkolwiek nie jest to wiążący dokument. Program ten jest też spójny z aplikacją ESK, która podpisana przez prezydenta miasta, jest z kolei swego rodzaju deklaracją kierunku rozwoju kultury. Dyrektor Biura Kultury, Marek Kraszewski, jako najważniejsze cele Programu wymienia: zwiększenie udziału mieszkańców w kulturze;
Warszawa: W Warszawie obecnie nie istnieje dokument przedstawiający długofalową politykę kulturalną. Powstały natomiast dwa dokumenty, które mogą być punktem odniesienia w tym zakresie: aplikacja na konkurs o tytuł Europejskiej Stolicy Kultury 2016 oraz Program rozwoju kultury w Warszawie w latach 2009–2020. Powstanie Programu rozwoju kultury w Warszawie w latach 2009–2020, czyli tzw. Białej Księgi, zainicjował Marek Kraszewski, Dyrektor Biura Kultury Urzędu m. st. Warszawy, a przeprowadziła je w drugiej połowie 2008 roku Fundacja Pro Cultura. Biała Księga stanowi rozbudowane i wieloczęściowe opracowanie eksperckie (blisko 600 stron) i ma stanowić podstawę do wypracowania przez władze miasta kierunków polityki kulturalnej na najbliższą dekadę, jakkolwiek nie jest to wiążący dokument. Program ten jest też spójny z aplikacją ESK, która podpisana przez prezydenta miasta, jest z kolei swego rodzaju deklaracją kierunku rozwoju kultury. Dyrektor Biura Kultury, Marek Kraszewski, jako najważniejsze cele Programu wymienia: MM zwiększenie udziału mieszkańców w kulturze;
Prace nad Programem zostały poprzedzone badaniem potrzeb kulturalnych mieszkańców, konsultacjami środowiskowymi oraz analizą przykładów pozytywnie zweryfikowanych rozwiązań w innych metropoliach europejskich. Każdy z tych obszarów został poddany szczegółowej analizie – zdiagnozowano potrzeby w poszczególnych obszarach i przedstawiono dla nich rekomendacje dla działań i sposobów ich realizacji, a także propozycje określające ramy czasowe wdrożenia poszczególnych działań, źródła ich finansowania oraz podmioty odpowiedzialne za ich realizację.
MM
Aspekt wartościowo-ideowy:
31 Spośród ponad 5200 organizacji pozarządowych działających w Warszawie mniej więcej co piąta prowadzi aktywną działalność kulturalną (szacunkowe dane za: Herbst J., Warszawski Sektor Pozarządowy, Warszawa: Stowarzyszenie Klon/Jawor, 2007).
Konieczne jest też wyraźne zaznaczenie, że analiza ta jest mocno zawężona ze względu na ograniczenia narzucone charakterem tej pracy. Nie przyjmuje ujęcia historycznego, a odnosi się do teraźniejszości, bazując na aktualnych i dostępnych dokumentach.
rozwijanie i rozbudowywanie całej sfery edukacji kulturalnej; MM umożliwianie wszystkim ludziom, którzy mają jakąkolwiek pasję do kultury, jej tworzenie. Miasto chce budować swój rozwój w oparciu o dwa czynniki: kulturę i biznes [Pawłowski, dok. elektr.]. W Programie zostały opracowane obszary, które zostały uznane i określone, jako te, które gwarantują przyszłościowy rozwój kultury w mieście, a mianowicie: MM Infrastruktura kultury, MM Dziedzictwo kulturowe, MM Instytucje kultury, MM Festiwale, 31 MM Organizacje pozarządowe , MM Różnorodność kulturowa i dbałość o dialog międzykulturowy, MM Artyści i twórcy, MM Edukacja kulturalna, MM Nowe technologie i promocja, 32 MM Monitorowanie. MM
32 Za: Program rozwoju kultury w Warszawie w latach 2009–2020 [http://www.um.warszawa.pl].
Spróbujmy zatem zanalizować obszary odpowiednie do pozarządowych organizacji kultury i polityk miejskich, takie jak: 1. Aspekt wartościowo-ideowy poprzez analizę priorytetów, określonych w dokumentach miasta pod kątem postrzegania roli kultury i roli organizacji pozarządowych. 2. Aspekt natury ekonomicznej: rodzaje wsparcia finansowego, terminy ogłaszania konkursów i oceniania aplikacji konkursowych, przejrzystość oceny, ewaluacja projektu dofinansowanego. 3. Aspekt prawny: regulacje prawno-normatywne 4. Aspekt organizacyjny: mechanizmy planowania rozwoju i systemowe wsparcie.
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2011, Vol 4 (4)
Dla zobrazowania kierunku rekomendowanych działań w Programie rozwoju kultury w Warszawie, poniżej przedstawiam wybrane propozycje, dotyczące trzeciego sektora: MM w celu profesjonalizacji współpracy z organizacjami pozarządowymi, Urząd m.st. Warszawy organizuje regularne warsztaty, seminaria i wdraża inne mechanizmy budowania stabilnej i efektywnej płaszczyzny współpracy; MM Biuro Kultury stale zwiększa skalę finansowania organizacji pozarządowych, w tym wdrożenie programu Promesa, jako wsparcie projektów ubiegających się o fundusze europejskie; MM priorytety miasta dotyczące wymogów konkursowych (tematyka, rodzaj podmiotów, terminy itp.) są określane w różnych perspektywach czasowych: trzyletniej i rocznej oraz ogłaszane z wyprzedzeniem; MM wprowadzenie nowej kategoryzacji konkursów: —— na działania wieloletnie (trzyletnie): imprezy cykliczne (np. festiwale) albo projekty realizowane dłużej niż w okresie jednego roku budżetowego; —— na działania, które realizowane są w danym roku budżetowym (roczne); —— dla małych i młodych (nowo powstałych) organizacji – tzw. małe granty (do 10 tys. zł.) przyznawane raz do roku; —— na działalność międzynarodową w dziedzinie kultury związaną z Warszawą (wieloletnie i roczne); —— na wsparcie administracyjne i infrastrukturalne dla organizacji pozarządowych (wieloletnie i roczne); —— na działalność regrantingową (działanie pilotażowe) – zwycięska organizacja w ramach regrantowania sama ogłasza konkurs/konkursy w wybranym obszarze tematycznym, ocenia wnioski, przekazuje środki innym organizacjom oraz przyjmuje sprawozdania z realizacji projektów. MM utworzenie „Centrum Kultury – Miejsce”, jako siedziby wielu organizacji pozarządowych. Centrum udostępnia pomieszczenia dla rezydentów nieodpłatnie. Koszty utrzymania i administrowania ponosi Urząd m. st. Warszawy, a zarządzanie powierzone zostaje wyłonionej w ramach konkursu organizacji pozarządowej. Powierzchnia Centrum jest przystosowana do
specyfiki działalności, czyli poza przestrzenią biurową znajdą się w niej sale teatralne, koncertowe, taneczne, multimedialne itp. MM stałe przekazywanie kolejnych kompetencji w zakresie kultury (stawianie na innowacyjność). Biała Księga, jako rozbudowane i wieloczęściowe opracowanie, wpisuje się w ramy Strategii Rozwoju Miasta Stołecznego Warszawy do roku 2020 przyjętej uchwałą Rady Miasta w 2005 roku. Określone wówczas misja i wizja strategii miasta są nadal aktualne. W strategii bezpośrednio do kultury odnosi się wizja Warszawy, jako ważnego centrum kultury europejskiej z dobrze zorganizowaną przestrzenią publiczną. Warto od razu zauważyć, że wiele z tych założeń zostało już wprowadzonych w życie. Świadomość znaczenia współpracy stołecznego samorządu z organizacjami trzeciego sektora jest widoczna również w Programie współpracy z organizacjami pozarządowymi na rok 201133. Główne formy oraz zasady współpracy m. st. Warszawy z organizacjami pozarządowymi są regulowane w corocznie uchwalanym przez Radę m. st. Warszawy programie współpracy m. st. Warszawy z organizacjami pozarządowymi i podmiotami, o których mowa w art. 3 ust. 3 ustawy z dnia 24 kwietnia 2003 roku o działalności pożytku publicznego i o wolontariacie. W celu koordynacji współpracy powołano Pełnomocnika Prezydenta m. st. Warszawy ds. współpracy z organizacjami pozarządowymi. Obowiązek sporządzenia takiego rocznego programu nakłada na organy administracji publicznej przy realizacji zadań publicznych ustawa z dnia 24 kwietnia 2003 roku o działalności pożytku publicznego i o wolontariacie. Nowelizacja ustawy, która weszła w życie w marcu 2010 roku, wprowadziła konieczność konsultowania z organizacjami pozarządowymi projektu programu współpracy (art. 5a, ust. 1). Warszawa, opracowując program współpracy z organizacjami, dokonuje tego na rocznej bazie, nie posiadając wieloletniego programu, który wyznaczałby kierunek rozwoju tej współpracy. Jako priorytetowe zadania publiczne w zakresie współpracy miasta Warszawa z organizacjami kultury w 2011 roku Program wymienia: 1. Działania zmierzające do zdobycia przez Miasto tytułu Europejskiej Stolicy Kultury w 2016 roku,
33 Załącznik do Uchwały nr XCIII/2731/2010 Rady Miasta Stołecznego Warszawy z dnia 21 października 2010 roku w sprawie przyjęcia programu współpracy m. st. Warszawy w 2011 roku z organizacjami pozarządowymi i podmiotami, o których mowa w art. 3 ust. 3 ustawy z dnia 24 kwietnia 2003 roku o działalności pożytku publicznego i o wolontariacie.
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33 Załącznik do Uchwały nr XCIII/2731/2010 Rady Miasta Stołecznego Warszawy z dnia 21 października 2010 roku w sprawie przyjęcia programu współpracy m. st. Warszawy w 2011 roku z organizacjami pozarządowymi i podmiotami, o których mowa w art. 3 ust. 3 ustawy z dnia 24 kwietnia 2003 roku o działalności pożytku publicznego i o wolontariacie.
Dla zobrazowania kierunku rekomendowanych działań w Programie rozwoju kultury w Warszawie, poniżej przedstawiam wybrane propozycje, dotyczące trzeciego sektora: MM w celu profesjonalizacji współpracy z organizacjami pozarządowymi, Urząd m.st. Warszawy organizuje regularne warsztaty, seminaria i wdraża inne mechanizmy budowania stabilnej i efektywnej płaszczyzny współpracy; MM Biuro Kultury stale zwiększa skalę finansowania organizacji pozarządowych, w tym wdrożenie programu Promesa, jako wsparcie projektów ubiegających się o fundusze europejskie; MM priorytety miasta dotyczące wymogów konkursowych (tematyka, rodzaj podmiotów, terminy itp.) są określane w różnych perspektywach czasowych: trzyletniej i rocznej oraz ogłaszane z wyprzedzeniem; MM wprowadzenie nowej kategoryzacji konkursów: —— na działania wieloletnie (trzyletnie): imprezy cykliczne (np. festiwale) albo projekty realizowane dłużej niż w okresie jednego roku budżetowego; —— na działania, które realizowane są w danym roku budżetowym (roczne); —— dla małych i młodych (nowo powstałych) organizacji – tzw. małe granty (do 10 tys. zł.) przyznawane raz do roku; —— na działalność międzynarodową w dziedzinie kultury związaną z Warszawą (wieloletnie i roczne); —— na wsparcie administracyjne i infrastrukturalne dla organizacji pozarządowych (wieloletnie i roczne); —— na działalność regrantingową (działanie pilotażowe) – zwycięska organizacja w ramach regrantowania sama ogłasza konkurs/konkursy w wybranym obszarze tematycznym, ocenia wnioski, przekazuje środki innym organizacjom oraz przyjmuje sprawozdania z realizacji projektów. MM utworzenie „Centrum Kultury – Miejsce”, jako siedziby wielu organizacji pozarządowych. Centrum udostępnia pomieszczenia dla rezydentów nieodpłatnie. Koszty utrzymania i administrowania ponosi Urząd m. st. Warszawy, a zarządzanie powierzone zostaje wyłonionej w ramach konkursu organizacji pozarządowej. Powierzchnia Centrum jest przystosowana do
Warszawa, opracowując program współpracy z organizacjami, dokonuje tego na rocznej bazie, nie posiadając wieloletniego programu, który wyznaczałby kierunek rozwoju tej współpracy. Jako priorytetowe zadania publiczne w zakresie współpracy miasta Warszawa z organizacjami kultury w 2011 roku Program wymienia: 1. Działania zmierzające do zdobycia przez Miasto tytułu Europejskiej Stolicy Kultury w 2016 roku, Świadomość znaczenia współpracy stołecznego samorządu z organizacjami trzeciego sektora jest widoczna również w Programie współpracy z organizacjami pozarządowymi na rok 201133. Główne formy oraz zasady współpracy m. st. Warszawy z organizacjami pozarządowymi są regulowane w corocznie uchwalanym przez Radę m. st. Warszawy programie współpracy m. st. Warszawy z organizacjami pozarządowymi i podmiotami, o których mowa w art. 3 ust. 3 ustawy z dnia 24 kwietnia 2003 roku o działalności pożytku publicznego i o wolontariacie. W celu koordynacji współpracy powołano Pełnomocnika Prezydenta m. st. Warszawy ds. współpracy z organizacjami pozarządowymi. Obowiązek sporządzenia takiego rocznego programu nakłada na organy administracji publicznej przy realizacji zadań publicznych ustawa z dnia 24 kwietnia 2003 roku o działalności pożytku publicznego i o wolontariacie. Nowelizacja ustawy, która weszła w życie w marcu 2010 roku, wprowadziła konieczność konsultowania z organizacjami pozarządowymi projektu programu współpracy (art. 5a, ust. 1). specyfiki działalności, czyli poza przestrzenią biurową znajdą się w niej sale teatralne, koncertowe, taneczne, multimedialne itp. MM stałe przekazywanie kolejnych kompetencji w zakresie kultury (stawianie na innowacyjność). Biała Księga, jako rozbudowane i wieloczęściowe opracowanie, wpisuje się w ramy Strategii Rozwoju Miasta Stołecznego Warszawy do roku 2020 przyjętej uchwałą Rady Miasta w 2005 roku. Określone wówczas misja i wizja strategii miasta są nadal aktualne. W strategii bezpośrednio do kultury odnosi się wizja Warszawy, jako ważnego centrum kultury europejskiej z dobrze zorganizowaną przestrzenią publiczną. Warto od razu zauważyć, że wiele z tych założeń zostało już wprowadzonych w życie.
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dzinie kultury powinno być konsekwentnie wspieranie rozwoju gminnych instytucji kultury, zarówno w wymiarze instytucjonalnym, jak i programowym, przede wszystkim poprzez zapewnienie im środków finansowych, niezbędnych do prowadzenia przez nie działalności kulturalnej oraz utrzymania i rozwoju infrastruktury. 2. Gmina powinna stymulować rozwój oferty kulturalnej adresowanej do różnych grup odbiorców, w tym licznie odwiedzających Kraków turystów. 3. Kultura i dziedzictwo narodowe Krakowa promują miasto, wpływają na kształtowanie jego wizerunku w Polsce i w świecie, co przekłada się na rozwój innych dziedzin życia. Wizerunek budowany jest w wyniku długotrwałego, kompleksowego oddziaływania. Jest to zbiór wielu elementów, w tym dotyczących charakterystycznych dla miasta zabytków i wydarzeń kulturalnych, składających się na ogólny efekt postrzegany oczyma mieszkańców, turystów i ludzi, którzy w Krakowie nigdy nie byli. Wizerunek miasta ma wpływ na odczuwanie jakości życia przez mieszkańców, na decyzje dotyczące odwiedzin miasta przez turystów, czy też lokalizacji inwestycji. Kultura i dziedzictwo kulturowe Krakowa zajmują w wizerunku miasta jeden z ważniejszych, a dla wielu – nawet najważniejszy akcent. Z Krakowem kojarzone są poszczególne zabytki, miejsca, zwyczaje i wydarzenia kulturalne35.
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skoncentrowane wokół m. in. wspierania kultury niezależnej i jej ośrodków, jako szczególnego przejawu budowania społeczeństwa obywatelskiego. 2. Działania z zakresu kultury i sztuki, w szczególności: MM nowatorskie formy edukacji kulturalnej, aktywizacja środowisk lokalnych, włączanie nowych grup uczestników, wspieranie artystycznej twórczości amatorskiej; MM upowszechnianie kultury w różnych dziedzinach i formach artystycznych; MM wspieranie realizacji innowacyjnych projektów artystycznych; MM wspieranie projektów kulturalnych animujących przestrzeń publiczną; MM wspieranie projektów i przedsięwzięć tworzących stałą ofertę kulturalną Warszawy; MM wspieranie inicjatyw i przedsięwzięć popularyzujących tradycję, historię i dziedzictwo kulturowe Warszawy; MM dialog międzykulturowy ze szczególnym uwzględnieniem mniejszości narodowych, etnicznych oraz środowisk cudzoziemskich zamieszkujących Warszawę; MM współpraca międzynarodowa, w tym realizacja wspólnych projektów z miastami partnerskimi. Oceny stanu współpracy organizacji z Miastem w zakresie realizacji projektów oraz oceny uwag, wniosków i propozycji wypływających z tej współpracy dokonuje w rocznym sprawozdaniu z realizacji programu Pełnomocnik wraz z Warszawską Radą Pożytku. To sprawozdanie jest składane Prezydentowi m. st. Warszawy, który następnie składa sprawozdanie Radzie m. st. Warszawy.
35 Ibidem.
Strategia wymienia następujące cele strategiczne: 1. Gmina miejska Kraków mecenasem kultury i artystów; 2. Kraków siedzibą nowoczesnych instytucji kultury; 3. Kraków miasto kreatywne; 4. Rozwijanie partnerstwa gminy miejskiej Kraków z innymi podmiotami prowadzącymi działalność w sektorze kultury; 5. Ochrona dziedzictwa kulturowego.
34 Załącznik do uchwały Nr CXIV/1524/10 Rady Miasta Krakowa z dnia 20 października 2010 roku.
Przyjrzyjmy się celom określonym, jako operacyjne i planom działań, w których są wymienione NGO lub które mogą ich dotyczyć: Ad. 1: Kraków mecenasem 1.1 Wzmacnianie funkcji gminy miejskiej Kraków, jako mecenasa sztuki i artystów.
Przyjrzyjmy się celom określonym, jako operacyjne i planom działań, w których są wymienione NGO lub które mogą ich dotyczyć: Ad. 1: Kraków mecenasem 1.1 Wzmacnianie funkcji gminy miejskiej Kraków, jako mecenasa sztuki i artystów.
Kraków: Strategia rozwoju kultury w Krakowie na lata 2010–201434, przyjęta we wrześniu 2010 roku jest pierwszą w historii miasta. Swoje priorytety określa następująco: Przyjęta na najbliższe lata koncepcja zrównoważonego rozwoju ma zagwarantować równe możliwości rozwoju instytucjom kultury, jak i indywidualnym twórcom, organizacjom pozarządowym i przedsiębiorcom działającym w sektorze kultury (…). Jednocześnie należy mieć na uwadze, że: 1. Priorytetowym zadaniem Gminy Kraków w dzie-
Strategia wymienia następujące cele strategiczne: 1. Gmina miejska Kraków mecenasem kultury i artystów; 2. Kraków siedzibą nowoczesnych instytucji kultury; 3. Kraków miasto kreatywne; 4. Rozwijanie partnerstwa gminy miejskiej Kraków z innymi podmiotami prowadzącymi działalność w sektorze kultury; 5. Ochrona dziedzictwa kulturowego.
34 Załącznik do uchwały Nr CXIV/1524/10 Rady Miasta Krakowa z dnia 20 października 2010 roku.
Kraków: Strategia rozwoju kultury w Krakowie na lata 2010–201434, przyjęta we wrześniu 2010 roku jest pierwszą w historii miasta. Swoje priorytety określa następująco: Przyjęta na najbliższe lata koncepcja zrównoważonego rozwoju ma zagwarantować równe możliwości rozwoju instytucjom kultury, jak i indywidualnym twórcom, organizacjom pozarządowym i przedsiębiorcom działającym w sektorze kultury (…). Jednocześnie należy mieć na uwadze, że: 1. Priorytetowym zadaniem Gminy Kraków w dzie-
dzinie kultury powinno być konsekwentnie wspieranie rozwoju gminnych instytucji kultury, zarówno w wymiarze instytucjonalnym, jak i programowym, przede wszystkim poprzez zapewnienie im środków finansowych, niezbędnych do prowadzenia przez nie działalności kulturalnej oraz utrzymania i rozwoju infrastruktury. 2. Gmina powinna stymulować rozwój oferty kulturalnej adresowanej do różnych grup odbiorców, w tym licznie odwiedzających Kraków turystów. 3. Kultura i dziedzictwo narodowe Krakowa promują miasto, wpływają na kształtowanie jego wizerunku w Polsce i w świecie, co przekłada się na rozwój innych dziedzin życia. Wizerunek budowany jest w wyniku długotrwałego, kompleksowego oddziaływania. Jest to zbiór wielu elementów, w tym dotyczących charakterystycznych dla miasta zabytków i wydarzeń kulturalnych, składających się na ogólny efekt postrzegany oczyma mieszkańców, turystów i ludzi, którzy w Krakowie nigdy nie byli. Wizerunek miasta ma wpływ na odczuwanie jakości życia przez mieszkańców, na decyzje dotyczące odwiedzin miasta przez turystów, czy też lokalizacji inwestycji. Kultura i dziedzictwo kulturowe Krakowa zajmują w wizerunku miasta jeden z ważniejszych, a dla wielu – nawet najważniejszy akcent. Z Krakowem kojarzone są poszczególne zabytki, miejsca, zwyczaje i wydarzenia kulturalne35.
35 Ibidem.
skoncentrowane wokół m. in. wspierania kultury niezależnej i jej ośrodków, jako szczególnego przejawu budowania społeczeństwa obywatelskiego. 2. Działania z zakresu kultury i sztuki, w szczególności: MM nowatorskie formy edukacji kulturalnej, aktywizacja środowisk lokalnych, włączanie nowych grup uczestników, wspieranie artystycznej twórczości amatorskiej; MM upowszechnianie kultury w różnych dziedzinach i formach artystycznych; MM wspieranie realizacji innowacyjnych projektów artystycznych; MM wspieranie projektów kulturalnych animujących przestrzeń publiczną; MM wspieranie projektów i przedsięwzięć tworzących stałą ofertę kulturalną Warszawy; MM wspieranie inicjatyw i przedsięwzięć popularyzujących tradycję, historię i dziedzictwo kulturowe Warszawy; MM dialog międzykulturowy ze szczególnym uwzględnieniem mniejszości narodowych, etnicznych oraz środowisk cudzoziemskich zamieszkujących Warszawę; MM współpraca międzynarodowa, w tym realizacja wspólnych projektów z miastami partnerskimi. Oceny stanu współpracy organizacji z Miastem w zakresie realizacji projektów oraz oceny uwag, wniosków i propozycji wypływających z tej współpracy dokonuje w rocznym sprawozdaniu z realizacji programu Pełnomocnik wraz z Warszawską Radą Pożytku. To sprawozdanie jest składane Prezydentowi m. st. Warszawy, który następnie składa sprawozdanie Radzie m. st. Warszawy.
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Priorytet: Opracowanie obiektywnego i przejrzystego systemu podziału oraz rozliczania środków finansowych z podziałem na infrastrukturę i na wydarzenia artystyczne. 1.2 Rozwój zróżnicowanych form wsparcia sektora kultury i sztuki. Priorytety, m.in.: MM Wsparcie i realizacja festiwali; MM Wsparcie i realizacja przedsięwzięć lokalnych środowisk twórczych; MM Diagnoza możliwości Gminy w zakresie udzielania promes i ewentualne opracowanie zasad ich udzielania. 1.3 Rozwijanie kompetencji odbiorców w zakresie uczestnictwa w kulturze – edukacja kulturalna. Ad. 3: Miasto kreatywne 3.1 Kraków miastem sztuki i artystów. 3.2 Kraków – miasto wielkich wydarzeń i festiwali. MM Priorytety, m.in.: MM Tworzenie w Krakowie silnych marek festiwalowych; MM Sformułowanie i wdrożenie trzyletniego programu wspierania festiwali krakowskich. W tym: Wsparcie i promocja festiwali realizowanych przez miejskie instytucje kultury oraz inne podmioty realizujące festiwale na terenie miasta. 3.3 Współpraca kulturalna Krakowa z innymi miastami. Priorytet: Realizacja aktualnego Programu Współpracy Międzynarodowej Gminy Miejskiej Kraków – nawiązywanie i stymulowanie współpracy międzynarodowej oraz inicjowanie wymiany kulturalnej pomiędzy miejskimi instytucjami kultury, organizacjami pozarządowymi a instytucjami z innych regionów Europy. Ad. 4: Partnerstwo z innymi podmiotami 4.2 Współpraca gminy miejskiej Kraków z organizacjami pozarządowymi w działaniach w sektorze kultury. Priorytet: Wypracowanie przejrzystych kryteriów oceny dofinansowywanych przedsięwzięć oraz ich monitorowania i ewaluacji W tym: MM Udział organizacji pozarządowych w realizacji zadań publicznych przez Gminę Miejską Kraków w sektorze kultury, w tym promocji miasta w kraju i za granicą (współpraca międzynarodo-
MM
MM
wa) przy jednoczesnym corocznym zwiększaniu środków na ten cel. Rozwój systemu komunikacji z organizacjami pozarządowymi. Współpraca w zakresie tworzenia założeń długoterminowej strategii rozwoju kultury w Krakowie, a także realizacji monitorowania etapów ich wdrażania; Rozwój współpracy, dialogu i partnerstwa ze środowiskami twórczymi; Stwarzanie dogodnych warunków dla rozwoju przemysłów kultury w Krakowie oraz wspieranie rozwoju partnerstwa publiczno-prywatnego w sektorze kultury.
Strategia rozwoju Krakowa Dla urzeczywistniania zakreślonej wizji rozwoju Krakowa wskazuje się następujące, równorzędne cele strategiczne: 1. Kraków miastem przyjaznym rodzinie, atrakcyjnym miejscem zamieszkania i pobytu; 2. Kraków miastem konkurencyjnej i nowoczesnej gospodarki; 3. Kraków europejską metropolią o ważnych funkcjach w obaszarach nauki, kultury i sportu. Wśród celów operacyjnych trzeciego celu strategicznego jeden z nich dotyczy kultury i jest określony, jako „Tworzenie warunków materialnych i instytucjonalnych dla rozwoju kultury”. Brzmi on następująco: „Kraków jest Miastem o bogatym życiu kulturalnym, o czym świadczy choćby liczba teatrów, grup teatralnych, instytucji muzycznych, muzeów, bibliotek, centrów kultury, kin i różnorodnych wydarzeń kulturalnych oraz zespół zabytków Miasta należących do najcenniejszych w Europie. Wzmacnianie pozycji Krakowa, jako centrum kulturalnego wymaga zwiększenia zaangażowania władz Miasta w realizację projektów artystycznych, wspieranie działalności instytucji i placówek kultury, wspieranie działalności środowisk twórczych, wymaga też rekonstrukcji i modernizacji bazy materialnej. Zwiększy się ofertę bezpłatnych zajęć w domach i ośrodkach kultury dla dzieci, młodzieży i osób starszych, zwłaszcza blisko ich miejsca zamieszkania i wspierać się będzie integrację sąsiedzką. Konieczna jest również rozbudowa infrastruktury widowiskowo-koncertowej w celu organizowania większej liczby imprez kulturalnych o wysokiej randze. Ważne jest ponadto podtrzymywanie i rozwijanie kontaktów międzynarodowych, w tym współpracy z miastami partnerskimi”36.
36 Strategia Rozwoju Krakowa, s. 38.
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36 Strategia Rozwoju Krakowa, s. 38.
Ad. 4: Partnerstwo z innymi podmiotami 4.2 Współpraca gminy miejskiej Kraków z organizacjami pozarządowymi w działaniach w sektorze kultury. Priorytet: Wypracowanie przejrzystych kryteriów oceny dofinansowywanych przedsięwzięć oraz ich monitorowania i ewaluacji W tym: MM Udział organizacji pozarządowych w realizacji zadań publicznych przez Gminę Miejską Kraków w sektorze kultury, w tym promocji miasta w kraju i za granicą (współpraca międzynarodoAd. 3: Miasto kreatywne 3.1 Kraków miastem sztuki i artystów. 3.2 Kraków – miasto wielkich wydarzeń i festiwali. MM Priorytety, m.in.: MM Tworzenie w Krakowie silnych marek festiwalowych; MM Sformułowanie i wdrożenie trzyletniego programu wspierania festiwali krakowskich. W tym: Wsparcie i promocja festiwali realizowanych przez miejskie instytucje kultury oraz inne podmioty realizujące festiwale na terenie miasta. 3.3 Współpraca kulturalna Krakowa z innymi miastami. Priorytet: Realizacja aktualnego Programu Współpracy Międzynarodowej Gminy Miejskiej Kraków – nawiązywanie i stymulowanie współpracy międzynarodowej oraz inicjowanie wymiany kulturalnej pomiędzy miejskimi instytucjami kultury, organizacjami pozarządowymi a instytucjami z innych regionów Europy. Priorytet: Opracowanie obiektywnego i przejrzystego systemu podziału oraz rozliczania środków finansowych z podziałem na infrastrukturę i na wydarzenia artystyczne. 1.2 Rozwój zróżnicowanych form wsparcia sektora kultury i sztuki. Priorytety, m.in.: MM Wsparcie i realizacja festiwali; MM Wsparcie i realizacja przedsięwzięć lokalnych środowisk twórczych; MM Diagnoza możliwości Gminy w zakresie udzielania promes i ewentualne opracowanie zasad ich udzielania. 1.3 Rozwijanie kompetencji odbiorców w zakresie uczestnictwa w kulturze – edukacja kulturalna.
Wśród celów operacyjnych trzeciego celu strategicznego jeden z nich dotyczy kultury i jest określony, jako „Tworzenie warunków materialnych i instytucjonalnych dla rozwoju kultury”. Brzmi on następująco: „Kraków jest Miastem o bogatym życiu kulturalnym, o czym świadczy choćby liczba teatrów, grup teatralnych, instytucji muzycznych, muzeów, bibliotek, centrów kultury, kin i różnorodnych wydarzeń kulturalnych oraz zespół zabytków Miasta należących do najcenniejszych w Europie. Wzmacnianie pozycji Krakowa, jako centrum kulturalnego wymaga zwiększenia zaangażowania władz Miasta w realizację projektów artystycznych, wspieranie działalności instytucji i placówek kultury, wspieranie działalności środowisk twórczych, wymaga też rekonstrukcji i modernizacji bazy materialnej. Zwiększy się ofertę bezpłatnych zajęć w domach i ośrodkach kultury dla dzieci, młodzieży i osób starszych, zwłaszcza blisko ich miejsca zamieszkania i wspierać się będzie integrację sąsiedzką. Konieczna jest również rozbudowa infrastruktury widowiskowo-koncertowej w celu organizowania większej liczby imprez kulturalnych o wysokiej randze. Ważne jest ponadto podtrzymywanie i rozwijanie kontaktów międzynarodowych, w tym współpracy z miastami partnerskimi”36. Strategia rozwoju Krakowa Dla urzeczywistniania zakreślonej wizji rozwoju Krakowa wskazuje się następujące, równorzędne cele strategiczne: 1. Kraków miastem przyjaznym rodzinie, atrakcyjnym miejscem zamieszkania i pobytu; 2. Kraków miastem konkurencyjnej i nowoczesnej gospodarki; 3. Kraków europejską metropolią o ważnych funkcjach w obaszarach nauki, kultury i sportu. MM MM
wa) przy jednoczesnym corocznym zwiększaniu środków na ten cel. Rozwój systemu komunikacji z organizacjami pozarządowymi. Współpraca w zakresie tworzenia założeń długoterminowej strategii rozwoju kultury w Krakowie, a także realizacji monitorowania etapów ich wdrażania; Rozwój współpracy, dialogu i partnerstwa ze środowiskami twórczymi; Stwarzanie dogodnych warunków dla rozwoju przemysłów kultury w Krakowie oraz wspieranie rozwoju partnerstwa publiczno-prywatnego w sektorze kultury.
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sta – na podstawie aplikacji do konkursu o tytuł Europejskiej Stolicy Kultury 2016. Natomiast z samej aplikacji możemy wyczytać następujące priorytety: Wdrożenie trwałych rozwiązań służących zwiększeniu uczestnictwa w kulturze różnych grup społecznych, które obecnie są wykluczone. Aktywne uczestnictwo w kulturze Wrocław uważa za jeden z najskuteczniejszych sposobów rozwiązywania najtrudniejszych nawet problemów społecznych, na odkrywanie możliwości, na dołączanie licznych grup wykluczonych do wspólnego świata; Odwołując się do prawa każdego człowieka do dostępu do sztuki i jako niezbędny warunek budowania podmiotowości ludzkich jednostek, Wrocław chce budować powszechnie dostępne przestrzenie publiczne, które będą sprzyjać obcowaniu wszystkich ludzi z dziełami autentycznej sztuki (przeciwdziałanie zjawisku komodyfikacji i poczuciu alienacji); Przeciwdziałanie interpasywności z powodu powszechności najnowszych technologii poprzez aktywne i interaktywne uczestnictwo w kulturze39.
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2011, Vol 4 (4)
Dla realizacji celów operacyjnych przyjmuje się – jak stwierdza dokument – jako niezbędne, programy sektorowe. W związku z tym zdecydowano, że powinny powstać dwa programy sektorowe dotyczące kultury: MM Program współpracy z realizatorami krakowskich festiwali i tradycyjnych imprez miejskich; MM Program mecenatu artystycznego i usług publicznych w zakresie kultury. Obydwa są w przygotowaniu. Gmina Miejska Kraków prowadzi prace nad Wieloletnim Programem Współpracy z Organizacjami Pozarządowymi – dokumentem regulującym długofalowe kierunki współpracy z organizacjami pozarządowymi i innymi podmiotami na lata 2012–2014. Program na rok 2011 określa trzy cele strategiczne. Jeden z nich brzmi „Kraków europejską metropolią o ważnych funkcjach nauki, kultury i sportu” i wiąże z nim następujące cele operacyjne: MM Tworzenie materialnych i instytucjonalnych warunków do rozwoju kultury; MM Tworzenie warunków dla rozwoju sportu, kultury fizycznej i rekreacji37. Cele szczegółowe programu, które wynikają z realizowanych przez Gminę Miejską Kraków programów sektorowych, zostały sformułowane następująco w obszarze kultury, sztuki, ochrony dóbr kultury i tradycji: MM wzmacnianie pozycji Krakowa, jako centrum kulturalnego poprzez zwiększenie zaangażowania Miasta w realizację projektów artystycznych: koncertów, wystaw, spektakli teatralnych, muzycznych, tanecznych i baletowych oraz artystycznych wydarzeń interdyscyplinarnych; MM rozwój marki Krakowa, jako miasta festiwali; prezentacja dorobku artystycznego twórców krakowskich w kraju i za granicą38.
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MM
40 www.wroclaw.pl, na podstawie raportu dotyczącego preselekcji miast 12–13.10. 2010.
Wrocław wziął udział w konkursie o tytuł Europejskiej Stolicy Kultury. Jurorom spodobał się pomysł Wrocławia zawarty w aplikacji: „Odzyskiwanie piękna”. Tym samym Wrocław pokazał, że chce zmienić w mieście zaniedbane i zapomniane miejsca i środowiska, że chce zrobić wiele dobrego dla swoich mieszkańców i że nie będą to tylko olbrzymie inwestycje w infrastrukturę, jak budowa Narodowego Forum Muzyki, czy Muzeum Sztuki Współczesnej. Przede wszystkim miasto chce zwiększyć udział swoich mieszkańców w kulturze. Jurorzy zarzucili jednak Wrocławiowi brak poparcia społecznego, dlatego w drugiej aplikacji Wrocław zawarł 150 pomysłów, z 600, które nadesłali mieszkańcy, organizacje pozarządowe40. Strategia Wrocław w perspektywie 2020 plus przyjęta w 2006 roku, zawiera również część dotyczącą kultury, która rozpoczyna się zwróceniem uwagi na twórców kultury: „W kulturze liczą sie nie tyle dobre projekty, co ludzie z dobrymi projektami. Istotą polityki kulturalnej jest identyfikacja
39 Przestrzenie dla piękna – aplikacja Wrocławia o tytuł Europejskiej Stolicy Kultury 2016, Wrocław 2010.
Wrocław: W 2006 roku został przyjęty dokument Strategia dla kultury Wrocławia. Niestety nie jest on obecnie dostępny. W 2010 roku miał być przeprowadzony audyt tej strategii. Jego wyniki również nie są dostępne. Obecnie opracowywany jest dokument dotyczący polityki kulturalnej mia-
38 Ibidem.
37 Załącznik do uchwały Nr CXI/1510/10 Rady Miasta Krakowa z dnia 6 października 2010 roku. Program współpracy Gminy Miejskiej Kraków z organizacjami pozarządowymi oraz podmiotami, o których mowa w art. 3 ust. 3 ustawy z dnia 24 kwietnia 2003 roku o działalności pożytku publicznego i o wolontariacie (Dz. U. Nr 96, poz. 873 z późn. zm.), na rok 2011.
37 Załącznik do uchwały Nr CXI/1510/10 Rady Miasta Krakowa z dnia 6 października 2010 roku. Program współpracy Gminy Miejskiej Kraków z organizacjami pozarządowymi oraz podmiotami, o których mowa w art. 3 ust. 3 ustawy z dnia 24 kwietnia 2003 roku o działalności pożytku publicznego i o wolontariacie (Dz. U. Nr 96, poz. 873 z późn. zm.), na rok 2011.
38 Ibidem.
Wrocław wziął udział w konkursie o tytuł Europejskiej Stolicy Kultury. Jurorom spodobał się pomysł Wrocławia zawarty w aplikacji: „Odzyskiwanie piękna”. Tym samym Wrocław pokazał, że chce zmienić w mieście zaniedbane i zapomniane miejsca i środowiska, że chce zrobić wiele dobrego dla swoich mieszkańców i że nie będą to tylko olbrzymie inwestycje w infrastrukturę, jak budowa Narodowego Forum Muzyki, czy Muzeum Sztuki Współczesnej. Przede wszystkim miasto chce zwiększyć udział swoich mieszkańców w kulturze. Jurorzy zarzucili jednak Wrocławiowi brak poparcia społecznego, dlatego w drugiej aplikacji Wrocław zawarł 150 pomysłów, z 600, które nadesłali mieszkańcy, organizacje pozarządowe40. Strategia Wrocław w perspektywie 2020 plus przyjęta w 2006 roku, zawiera również część dotyczącą kultury, która rozpoczyna się zwróceniem uwagi na twórców kultury: „W kulturze liczą sie nie tyle dobre projekty, co ludzie z dobrymi projektami. Istotą polityki kulturalnej jest identyfikacja
39 Przestrzenie dla piękna – aplikacja Wrocławia o tytuł Europejskiej Stolicy Kultury 2016, Wrocław 2010.
Wrocław: W 2006 roku został przyjęty dokument Strategia dla kultury Wrocławia. Niestety nie jest on obecnie dostępny. W 2010 roku miał być przeprowadzony audyt tej strategii. Jego wyniki również nie są dostępne. Obecnie opracowywany jest dokument dotyczący polityki kulturalnej mia-
sta – na podstawie aplikacji do konkursu o tytuł Europejskiej Stolicy Kultury 2016. Natomiast z samej aplikacji możemy wyczytać następujące priorytety: Wdrożenie trwałych rozwiązań służących zwiększeniu uczestnictwa w kulturze różnych grup społecznych, które obecnie są wykluczone. Aktywne uczestnictwo w kulturze Wrocław uważa za jeden z najskuteczniejszych sposobów rozwiązywania najtrudniejszych nawet problemów społecznych, na odkrywanie możliwości, na dołączanie licznych grup wykluczonych do wspólnego świata; Odwołując się do prawa każdego człowieka do dostępu do sztuki i jako niezbędny warunek budowania podmiotowości ludzkich jednostek, Wrocław chce budować powszechnie dostępne przestrzenie publiczne, które będą sprzyjać obcowaniu wszystkich ludzi z dziełami autentycznej sztuki (przeciwdziałanie zjawisku komodyfikacji i poczuciu alienacji); Przeciwdziałanie interpasywności z powodu powszechności najnowszych technologii poprzez aktywne i interaktywne uczestnictwo w kulturze39.
40 www.wroclaw.pl, na podstawie raportu dotyczącego preselekcji miast 12–13.10. 2010.
Dla realizacji celów operacyjnych przyjmuje się – jak stwierdza dokument – jako niezbędne, programy sektorowe. W związku z tym zdecydowano, że powinny powstać dwa programy sektorowe dotyczące kultury: MM Program współpracy z realizatorami krakowskich festiwali i tradycyjnych imprez miejskich; MM Program mecenatu artystycznego i usług publicznych w zakresie kultury. Obydwa są w przygotowaniu. Gmina Miejska Kraków prowadzi prace nad Wieloletnim Programem Współpracy z Organizacjami Pozarządowymi – dokumentem regulującym długofalowe kierunki współpracy z organizacjami pozarządowymi i innymi podmiotami na lata 2012–2014. Program na rok 2011 określa trzy cele strategiczne. Jeden z nich brzmi „Kraków europejską metropolią o ważnych funkcjach nauki, kultury i sportu” i wiąże z nim następujące cele operacyjne: MM Tworzenie materialnych i instytucjonalnych warunków do rozwoju kultury; MM Tworzenie warunków dla rozwoju sportu, kultury fizycznej i rekreacji37. Cele szczegółowe programu, które wynikają z realizowanych przez Gminę Miejską Kraków programów sektorowych, zostały sformułowane następująco w obszarze kultury, sztuki, ochrony dóbr kultury i tradycji: MM wzmacnianie pozycji Krakowa, jako centrum kulturalnego poprzez zwiększenie zaangażowania Miasta w realizację projektów artystycznych: koncertów, wystaw, spektakli teatralnych, muzycznych, tanecznych i baletowych oraz artystycznych wydarzeń interdyscyplinarnych; MM rozwój marki Krakowa, jako miasta festiwali; MM prezentacja dorobku artystycznego twórców krakowskich w kraju i za granicą38.
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osób, którym należy zapewnić (tj. sfinansować) swobodę twórczą.” Wrocławska strategia rozwoju miasta akcentuje m. in. takie działania i obszary jak: MM Nieodzowność kultury w procesach kształtowania wrocławskiej tożsamości i kreowania wizerunku miasta. MM Codzienna obecność sztuki. Kształtowanie gustów. Stała podaż spektakli i koncertów z kanonu kulturowego. Nasycenie sztuką wizualną przestrzeni publicznej miasta. MM Organizowanie wielkich imprez artystycznych potwierdzających klasę i splendor miasta. MM Udział w cyklicznych przedsięwzięciach międzynarodowych i inicjatywy własne. MM Sprawowanie miejskiego mecenatu. Szansa dla młodych i obiecujących, emerytura dla ojców sukcesu. MM Przeciwdziałanie kryzysowi uczestnictwa w kulturze, gdzie podglądanie zdecydowanie wyparło partycypację. MM Jasna świadomość zaspakajanych gustów. Obrona przed kiczem i intelektualną tandetą, również awangardową. Potrzeba odpowiedzialnej krytyki artystycznej. MM Praca przy objaśnianiu kanonu kulturowego. Szkoły otwarte dla artystów, a instytucje artystyczne dla uczniów. Dedykowane koncerty, spektakle, wystawy i warsztaty. MM Całościowa piecza nad kulturą we Wrocławiu. Obecna struktura własności instytucji kulturalnych nie może przesądzać myślenia o życiu kulturalnym miasta. MM Dbałość o inicjację kulturową wchodzących w życie pokoleń: osiedlowe ogniska i domy kultury, szkolnictwo artystyczne, Centrum Kultury Studenckiej. MM Badanie, dokumentowanie i popularyzowanie przeszłości Śląska i Wrocławia. MM Inwestycje dla kultury. Nowe i adoptowane obiekty. Przygotowanie przestrzeni miejskich do organizacji wielkich wydarzeń plenerowych. MM Projekt pilotażowy: Inkubator Kultury pokolenia JPII. MM Działania na rzecz uznania Wrocławia Europejską Stolicą Kulturalną w roku 201641.
Podstawowym dokumentem, który określa cele, zasady, formę oraz ocenę współpracy organów samorządowych Miasta Wrocławia z organizacjami pozarządowymi jest program corocznie aktualizowany i uchwalany przez Radę Miejską Wrocławia. Program na rok 2011 powstał na bazie Wieloletniego Programu Współpracy z Organizacjami Pozarządowymi 2011–2012. Priorytety, uwzględnione we współpracy z organizacjami na rok 2011 w zakresie kultury, sztuki, ochrony dóbr kultury i dziedzictwa narodowego są następujące: MM wspomaganie rozwoju kultury i sztuki, w tym twórczości artystycznej oraz organizowanie przedsięwzięć artystycznych wzbogacających ofertę Miasta; MM edukacja kulturalna dzieci i młodzieży; MM edukacja kulturowa, w tym społeczeństwa większościowego oraz wspieranie tożsamości mniejszości narodowych i etnicznych; MM wspieranie form działalności kulturalnej nonprofit, w szczególności sztuki współczesnej; MM upowszechnianie kultury i sztuki; MM działania na rzecz kultury, sztuki oraz wspieranie zadań z zakresu ochrony dóbr kultury i tradycji; MM wspieranie twórczości i edukacji artystycznej osób niepełnosprawnych. Ewaluacji współpracy dokonuje prezydent Wrocławia, a następnie przedkłada Radzie Miejskiej Wrocławia sprawozdanie z realizacji programu. Dokument określa też kryteria oceny realizacji programu, a mianowicie następujące mierniki ilościowe: MM ilość i struktura organizacji pozarządowych współpracujących z Miastem; MM ilość i struktura ogłoszonych w 2011 roku konkursów, złożonych ofert i podpisanych umów; MM wykonanie planu dotacji za rok 2011 w szczegółowości według klasyfikacji budżetowej na podstawie sprawozdania z wykonania budżetu Miasta; MM wykonanie planu dotacji w ujęciu dynamicznym w latach 2002–2011; MM ilość przeprowadzonych szkoleń dla organizacji pozarządowych42.
41 Wrocław w perspektywie 2020 plus [www.wroclaw.pl]. 42 Programu Współpracy z Organizacjami Pozarządowymi na rok 2011.
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42 Programu Współpracy z Organizacjami Pozarządowymi na rok 2011. 41 Wrocław w perspektywie 2020 plus [www.wroclaw.pl].
osób, którym należy zapewnić (tj. sfinansować) swobodę twórczą.” Wrocławska strategia rozwoju miasta akcentuje m. in. takie działania i obszary jak: MM Nieodzowność kultury w procesach kształtowania wrocławskiej tożsamości i kreowania wizerunku miasta. MM Codzienna obecność sztuki. Kształtowanie gustów. Stała podaż spektakli i koncertów z kanonu kulturowego. Nasycenie sztuką wizualną przestrzeni publicznej miasta. MM Organizowanie wielkich imprez artystycznych potwierdzających klasę i splendor miasta. MM Udział w cyklicznych przedsięwzięciach międzynarodowych i inicjatywy własne. MM Sprawowanie miejskiego mecenatu. Szansa dla młodych i obiecujących, emerytura dla ojców sukcesu. MM Przeciwdziałanie kryzysowi uczestnictwa w kulturze, gdzie podglądanie zdecydowanie wyparło partycypację. MM Jasna świadomość zaspakajanych gustów. Obrona przed kiczem i intelektualną tandetą, również awangardową. Potrzeba odpowiedzialnej krytyki artystycznej. MM Praca przy objaśnianiu kanonu kulturowego. Szkoły otwarte dla artystów, a instytucje artystyczne dla uczniów. Dedykowane koncerty, spektakle, wystawy i warsztaty. MM Całościowa piecza nad kulturą we Wrocławiu. Obecna struktura własności instytucji kulturalnych nie może przesądzać myślenia o życiu kulturalnym miasta. MM Dbałość o inicjację kulturową wchodzących w życie pokoleń: osiedlowe ogniska i domy kultury, szkolnictwo artystyczne, Centrum Kultury Studenckiej. MM Badanie, dokumentowanie i popularyzowanie przeszłości Śląska i Wrocławia. MM Inwestycje dla kultury. Nowe i adoptowane obiekty. Przygotowanie przestrzeni miejskich do organizacji wielkich wydarzeń plenerowych. MM Projekt pilotażowy: Inkubator Kultury pokolenia JPII. Działania na rzecz uznania Wrocławia Europejską Stolicą Kulturalną w roku 201641. MM
Ewaluacji współpracy dokonuje prezydent Wrocławia, a następnie przedkłada Radzie Miejskiej Wrocławia sprawozdanie z realizacji programu. Dokument określa też kryteria oceny realizacji programu, a mianowicie następujące mierniki ilościowe: MM ilość i struktura organizacji pozarządowych współpracujących z Miastem; MM ilość i struktura ogłoszonych w 2011 roku konkursów, złożonych ofert i podpisanych umów; MM wykonanie planu dotacji za rok 2011 w szczegółowości według klasyfikacji budżetowej na podstawie sprawozdania z wykonania budżetu Miasta; MM wykonanie planu dotacji w ujęciu dynamicznym w latach 2002–2011; ilość przeprowadzonych szkoleń dla organizacji pozarządowych42. MM
Podstawowym dokumentem, który określa cele, zasady, formę oraz ocenę współpracy organów samorządowych Miasta Wrocławia z organizacjami pozarządowymi jest program corocznie aktualizowany i uchwalany przez Radę Miejską Wrocławia. Program na rok 2011 powstał na bazie Wieloletniego Programu Współpracy z Organizacjami Pozarządowymi 2011–2012. Priorytety, uwzględnione we współpracy z organizacjami na rok 2011 w zakresie kultury, sztuki, ochrony dóbr kultury i dziedzictwa narodowego są następujące: MM wspomaganie rozwoju kultury i sztuki, w tym twórczości artystycznej oraz organizowanie przedsięwzięć artystycznych wzbogacających ofertę Miasta; MM edukacja kulturalna dzieci i młodzieży; MM edukacja kulturowa, w tym społeczeństwa większościowego oraz wspieranie tożsamości mniejszości narodowych i etnicznych; MM wspieranie form działalności kulturalnej nonprofit, w szczególności sztuki współczesnej; MM upowszechnianie kultury i sztuki; MM działania na rzecz kultury, sztuki oraz wspieranie zadań z zakresu ochrony dóbr kultury i tradycji; wspieranie twórczości i edukacji artystycznej osób niepełnosprawnych. MM
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rzytoczone fragmenty dokumentów wyznaczających kierunki kultury w tych miastach pokazują, jak każde z nich różnie postrzega rolę kultury i w jakie rejony chce prowadzić swoich mieszkańców. Warszawa podchodzi kompleksowo do rozwoju kultury, proponując bardzo konkretne rozwiązania w poszczególnych obszarach, akcentuje udział wszystkich mieszkańców w kulturze, edukację kulturalną i stymulowanie twórczości. Podkreśla znaczenie dobrze zorganizowanej przestrzeni publicznej. Chce być nowoczesną metropolią, opartą na potencjale mieszkańców. Przez warszawskie dokumenty przebija świadomość znaczenia i roli organizacji pozarządowych. Organizacje pozarządowe zostały uznane w Programie rozwoju kultury za jeden z elementów zapewniających rozwój kulturalny miasta. A obszary wspierania działań NGO zostały szczegółowo określone. Warszawa przygotowanie strategicznych dokumentów poprzedziła badaniem potrzeb kulturalnych mieszkańców. Program rozwoju kultury nie tylko rekomenduje określone działania, ale także ich ramy czasowe, źródła finansowania, a nawet podmioty je realizujące. Warto podkreślić, że część kluczowych instrumentów wspierających organizacje pozarządowe zostało już wdrożonych, choć nie minęło wiele czasu od utworzenia dokumentu. Wśród nich można wymienić funkcjonowanie Promesy w trybie comiesięcznego aplikowania, czy różne rodzaje konkursów, w tym wieloletnie. Bardzo ciekawą propozycją miasta jest działalność regrantingowa, co podkreśla innowacyjne podejście samorządu i chęć dawania większych kompetencji w ręce organizacji obywatelskich. Kierunek polityki kulturalnej Warszawy można dostrzec w przyjętej przez nią strategii uzyskania tytułu Europejskiej Stolicy Kultury, a mianowicie wspieranie kultury niezależnej i jej ośrodków, jako przejawu budowania społeczeństwa obywatelskiego. Takie podejście zostało docenione również przez komisję ESK.
Kraków podkreśla konieczność stworzenia równych szans wszystkim podmiotom działającym w sektorze kultury, jednocześnie zaznaczając pierwszeństwo gminnych instytucji rozwoju. Oferta kulturalna powinna uwzględniać różne grupy odbiorców, w tym także turystów. Kultura w optyce krakowskiej jest bardzo ważnym elementem
budowy wizerunku miasta – Miasta, które chce pełnić rolę mecenasa i rozwijać współpracę na różnych poziomach i o różnym zasięgu. Bez wątpienia władze Krakowa doceniają znaczenie kultury i są zainteresowane jej wspieraniem. Jako priorytetowe uznawane są wydarzenia prestiżowe i o dużej skali. Warto podkreślić, że przygotowanie strategii rozwoju kultury w Krakowie zostało poprzedzone m. in. wykonaniem analizy SWOT. Część wniosków dotyczących organizacji pozarządowych została uwzględniona w strategicznym dokumencie. Z najważniejszych pominiętych to: brak systemu niskobudżetowych dotacji udzielanych NGO w trybie konkursowym oraz – według opinii krakowskich środowisk twórczych i NGO – brak czytelnych kryteriów dotyczących zakupu usług w obszarze kultury. Wśród celów strategicznych Strategii Rozwoju Kultury nie znajdziemy organizacji pozarządowych. Natomiast na poziomie celów operacyjnych już się pojawiają – przede wszystkim w kontekście współpracy z innymi podmiotami, a także w kontekście wsparcia podmiotów realizujących festiwale na terenie miasta oraz stymulowania i rozwijania współpracy międzynarodowej i wymiany kulturalnej między organizacjami kultury. Na poziomie tego dokumentu cele nie są sformułowane w sposób mierzalny, lecz pojawia się adnotacja, że mierniki są określone w rocznych programach współpracy. Wydaje się, że stolica Małopolski, jakkolwiek doceniając znaczenie kultury, nie dostrzega w wystarczającym stopniu potencjału tkwiącego w organizacjach pozarządowych. Jakkolwiek takie wrażenie może wynikać z ogólności planów operacyjnych przyjętej strategii kultury. Ocena sytuacji w Krakowie może się wydawać nieco krytyczna, jednak jest to jedyne miasto spośród trzech analizowanych, które stworzyło dokument dotyczący polityki kulturalnej. Zatem jedyne, które można poddać weryfikacji na podstawie zapisanych planów i działań. Warto natomiast docenić próbę uporządkowania sytuacji kulturalnej miasta poprzez podjęcie próby jej analizy i utworzenie jednej z pierwszych w kraju strategii rozwoju kultury. Pozostałe dwa miasta – Warszawa i Wrocław – znajdują się w odmiennej sytuacji – obydwa obecnie uczestniczą w konkursie, ESK, co wymagało od nich przygotowania aktualnych planów działań, które jednocześnie sprostałyby określonym kryteriom i wysoko postawionym oczekiwaniom konkursowym.
rzytoczone fragmenty dokumentów wyznaczających kierunki kultury w tych miastach pokazują, jak każde z nich różnie postrzega rolę kultury i w jakie rejony chce prowadzić swoich mieszkańców. Warszawa podchodzi kompleksowo do rozwoju kultury, proponując bardzo konkretne rozwiązania w poszczególnych obszarach, akcentuje udział wszystkich mieszkańców w kulturze, edukację kulturalną i stymulowanie twórczości. Podkreśla znaczenie dobrze zorganizowanej przestrzeni publicznej. Chce być nowoczesną metropolią, opartą na potencjale mieszkańców. Przez warszawskie dokumenty przebija świadomość znaczenia i roli organizacji pozarządowych. Organizacje pozarządowe zostały uznane w Programie rozwoju kultury za jeden z elementów zapewniających rozwój kulturalny miasta. A obszary wspierania działań NGO zostały szczegółowo określone. Warszawa przygotowanie strategicznych dokumentów poprzedziła badaniem potrzeb kulturalnych mieszkańców. Program rozwoju kultury nie tylko rekomenduje określone działania, ale także ich ramy czasowe, źródła finansowania, a nawet podmioty je realizujące. Warto podkreślić, że część kluczowych instrumentów wspierających organizacje pozarządowe zostało już wdrożonych, choć nie minęło wiele czasu od utworzenia dokumentu. Wśród nich można wymienić funkcjonowanie Promesy w trybie comiesięcznego aplikowania, czy różne rodzaje konkursów, w tym wieloletnie. Bardzo ciekawą propozycją miasta jest działalność regrantingowa, co podkreśla innowacyjne podejście samorządu i chęć dawania większych kompetencji w ręce organizacji obywatelskich. Kierunek polityki kulturalnej Warszawy można dostrzec w przyjętej przez nią strategii uzyskania tytułu Europejskiej Stolicy Kultury, a mianowicie wspieranie kultury niezależnej i jej ośrodków, jako przejawu budowania społeczeństwa obywatelskiego. Takie podejście zostało docenione również przez komisję ESK.
Kraków podkreśla konieczność stworzenia równych szans wszystkim podmiotom działającym w sektorze kultury, jednocześnie zaznaczając pierwszeństwo gminnych instytucji rozwoju. Oferta kulturalna powinna uwzględniać różne grupy odbiorców, w tym także turystów. Kultura w optyce krakowskiej jest bardzo ważnym elementem
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budowy wizerunku miasta – Miasta, które chce pełnić rolę mecenasa i rozwijać współpracę na różnych poziomach i o różnym zasięgu. Bez wątpienia władze Krakowa doceniają znaczenie kultury i są zainteresowane jej wspieraniem. Jako priorytetowe uznawane są wydarzenia prestiżowe i o dużej skali. Warto podkreślić, że przygotowanie strategii rozwoju kultury w Krakowie zostało poprzedzone m. in. wykonaniem analizy SWOT. Część wniosków dotyczących organizacji pozarządowych została uwzględniona w strategicznym dokumencie. Z najważniejszych pominiętych to: brak systemu niskobudżetowych dotacji udzielanych NGO w trybie konkursowym oraz – według opinii krakowskich środowisk twórczych i NGO – brak czytelnych kryteriów dotyczących zakupu usług w obszarze kultury. Wśród celów strategicznych Strategii Rozwoju Kultury nie znajdziemy organizacji pozarządowych. Natomiast na poziomie celów operacyjnych już się pojawiają – przede wszystkim w kontekście współpracy z innymi podmiotami, a także w kontekście wsparcia podmiotów realizujących festiwale na terenie miasta oraz stymulowania i rozwijania współpracy międzynarodowej i wymiany kulturalnej między organizacjami kultury. Na poziomie tego dokumentu cele nie są sformułowane w sposób mierzalny, lecz pojawia się adnotacja, że mierniki są określone w rocznych programach współpracy. Wydaje się, że stolica Małopolski, jakkolwiek doceniając znaczenie kultury, nie dostrzega w wystarczającym stopniu potencjału tkwiącego w organizacjach pozarządowych. Jakkolwiek takie wrażenie może wynikać z ogólności planów operacyjnych przyjętej strategii kultury. Ocena sytuacji w Krakowie może się wydawać nieco krytyczna, jednak jest to jedyne miasto spośród trzech analizowanych, które stworzyło dokument dotyczący polityki kulturalnej. Zatem jedyne, które można poddać weryfikacji na podstawie zapisanych planów i działań. Warto natomiast docenić próbę uporządkowania sytuacji kulturalnej miasta poprzez podjęcie próby jej analizy i utworzenie jednej z pierwszych w kraju strategii rozwoju kultury. Pozostałe dwa miasta – Warszawa i Wrocław – znajdują się w odmiennej sytuacji – obydwa obecnie uczestniczą w konkursie, ESK, co wymagało od nich przygotowania aktualnych planów działań, które jednocześnie sprostałyby określonym kryteriom i wysoko postawionym oczekiwaniom konkursowym.
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Wrocław akcentuje społeczne aspekty kultury: zwiększenie uczestnictwa w kulturze różnych grup społecznych, które obecnie są wykluczone, traktując to również, jako narzędzie rozwiązywania problemów w społeczeństwie. Kluczową kwestią jest tworzenie powszechnie dostępnych przestrzeni publicznych, które będą sprzyjać obcowaniu wszystkich ludzi z dziełami autentycznej sztuki, co również będzie zapobiegać wykluczeniu z kultury. Aktywność i interaktywność uczestnictwa w kulturze to odpowiedź Wrocławia na pasywne postawy kształtowane przez współczesne technologie. Miasto chce podejmować też wyzwanie kształtowania gustów, dbania o jakość, sprawowania mecenatu, dbania o rozproszoną pamięć miasta przez jego zabytki i przeszłość. Trudno określić na podstawie powyższych dokumentów ze względu na ich specyfikę, jak postrzegana jest rola NGO. Wydaje się zatem konieczne poczekanie na finalne opracowanie dokumentu prezentującego politykę kulturalną Wrocławia. Wydaje się, że Wrocław pamięta, dla kogo jest kultura, ale jeszcze nie przyswoił mechanizmów demokratycznych w tworzeniu kultury. Przywołane dokumenty wskazują kierunek działań, ale nie określają sposobów realizacji. Żaden z nich nie przypisuje NGO znaczącej roli, co zostało dostrzeżone przez komisję ESK. Dobrym sygnałem natomiast jest fakt, że ewaluacja współpracy samorządu z organizacjami pozarządowymi jest dokonywana przez prezydenta miasta oraz że są określone kryteria oceny realizacji programu. Za konkluzję tej części niech posłuży nam przekonanie zawarte w jednej z aplikacji: „Miasto powinno dbać o swoje organizacje pozarządowe, gdyż współtworzą one ofertę kulturalną, a zarazem umacniają poczucie odpowiedzialności mieszkańców za to, co dzieje się w ich mieście”43. Wiemy już, jaki kierunek działań obrały te trzy miasta. Zobaczmy zatem, w jaki sposób realizują swoje strategie w poszczególnych aspektach.
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ojęcia: Konkurs ofert – rozumie się przez to otwarty konkurs ofert na realizację zadań publicznych, o którym mowa w art. 11 ust. 2 ustawy z dnia
24 kwietnia 2003 roku o działalności pożytku publicznego i o wolontariacie. Środki pozabudżetowe – rozumie się przez to środki finansowe pochodzące z funduszy: Unii Europejskiej, strukturalnych, innych państw i organizacji międzynarodowych, polskich i zagranicznych organizacji pozarządowych, podmiotów komercyjnych, administracji centralnej. W zakresie przyznawania środków finansowych rozwiązania w Warszawie są najbardziej sprzyjające organizacjom pozarządowym, począwszy od kilku możliwych form przyznania grantów, okresu finansowania projektu oraz sposobu kalkulowania wkładu własnego. Organizacje, z którymi samorząd gminny podpisał kilkuletnie umowy na realizację projektów, mogą podejmować długoterminowe działania o długofalowych efektach. Umożliwia to również prawidłowe zarządzanie projektami, uwzględniając jego wszystkie fazy. Byłoby bardzo wskazane, aby wszystkie miasta stworzyły konkursy na realizację kilkuletnich projektów. Wiele z nich, np. w zakresie edukacji kulturalnej, miałoby szansę odnieść dużo lepsze efekty w porównaniu do planowania w trybie rocznym, a de facto półrocznym, jeśli weźmiemy pod uwagę terminy ogłaszania wyników konkursów. Bardzo cennym rozwiązaniem jest możliwość kalkulowania pracy wolontariuszy, jako wkładu własnego. Dzięki temu NGO mogą prowadzić projekty niekoniecznie pozyskując wyłącznie zasoby finansowe, ale także społeczne. To kolejne rozwiązanie rekomendowane do zastosowania. Dość trudna sytuacja pojawiła się w Krakowie – dotychczas został ogłoszony otwarty konkurs ofert jedynie na projekty o wartości powyżej 50 000 zł. Oznacza to niestety wykluczenie mniejszych organizacji pozarządowych, które często nie mają rocznego obrotu środków w takiej wysokości. Ponadto w konkursie na duże projekty zostały przyznane środki jedynie 5 organizacjom. Pozostałym 23 organizacjom, których projekty zostały ocenione pozytywnie, granty będą przekazane w trybie późniejszym. Pewną bolączką NGO, obecną chyba we wszystkich polskich miastach, jest brak dotacji na bieżącą działalność organizacji przy dużym ograniczeniu kosztów administracyjnych w pozostałych rodzajach dotacji. To jeden z poważniejszych braków w systemie wspierania działalności NGO i jej rozwoju.
43 Program rozwoju…, op. cit.
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43 Program rozwoju…, op. cit.
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P
Aspekt ekonomiczny i organizacyjny Za konkluzję tej części niech posłuży nam przekonanie zawarte w jednej z aplikacji: „Miasto powinno dbać o swoje organizacje pozarządowe, gdyż współtworzą one ofertę kulturalną, a zarazem umacniają poczucie odpowiedzialności mieszkańców za to, co dzieje się w ich mieście”43. Wiemy już, jaki kierunek działań obrały te trzy miasta. Zobaczmy zatem, w jaki sposób realizują swoje strategie w poszczególnych aspektach. Wrocław akcentuje społeczne aspekty kultury: zwiększenie uczestnictwa w kulturze różnych grup społecznych, które obecnie są wykluczone, traktując to również, jako narzędzie rozwiązywania problemów w społeczeństwie. Kluczową kwestią jest tworzenie powszechnie dostępnych przestrzeni publicznych, które będą sprzyjać obcowaniu wszystkich ludzi z dziełami autentycznej sztuki, co również będzie zapobiegać wykluczeniu z kultury. Aktywność i interaktywność uczestnictwa w kulturze to odpowiedź Wrocławia na pasywne postawy kształtowane przez współczesne technologie. Miasto chce podejmować też wyzwanie kształtowania gustów, dbania o jakość, sprawowania mecenatu, dbania o rozproszoną pamięć miasta przez jego zabytki i przeszłość. Trudno określić na podstawie powyższych dokumentów ze względu na ich specyfikę, jak postrzegana jest rola NGO. Wydaje się zatem konieczne poczekanie na finalne opracowanie dokumentu prezentującego politykę kulturalną Wrocławia. Wydaje się, że Wrocław pamięta, dla kogo jest kultura, ale jeszcze nie przyswoił mechanizmów demokratycznych w tworzeniu kultury. Przywołane dokumenty wskazują kierunek działań, ale nie określają sposobów realizacji. Żaden z nich nie przypisuje NGO znaczącej roli, co zostało dostrzeżone przez komisję ESK. Dobrym sygnałem natomiast jest fakt, że ewaluacja współpracy samorządu z organizacjami pozarządowymi jest dokonywana przez prezydenta miasta oraz że są określone kryteria oceny realizacji programu.
W zakresie przyznawania środków finansowych rozwiązania w Warszawie są najbardziej sprzyjające organizacjom pozarządowym, począwszy od kilku możliwych form przyznania grantów, okresu finansowania projektu oraz sposobu kalkulowania wkładu własnego. Organizacje, z którymi samorząd gminny podpisał kilkuletnie umowy na realizację projektów, mogą podejmować długoterminowe działania o długofalowych efektach. Umożliwia to również prawidłowe zarządzanie projektami, uwzględniając jego wszystkie fazy. Byłoby bardzo wskazane, aby wszystkie miasta stworzyły konkursy na realizację kilkuletnich projektów. Wiele z nich, np. w zakresie edukacji kulturalnej, miałoby szansę odnieść dużo lepsze efekty w porównaniu do planowania w trybie rocznym, a de facto półrocznym, jeśli weźmiemy pod uwagę terminy ogłaszania wyników konkursów. Bardzo cennym rozwiązaniem jest możliwość kalkulowania pracy wolontariuszy, jako wkładu własnego. Dzięki temu NGO mogą prowadzić projekty niekoniecznie pozyskując wyłącznie zasoby finansowe, ale także społeczne. To kolejne rozwiązanie rekomendowane do zastosowania. Dość trudna sytuacja pojawiła się w Krakowie – dotychczas został ogłoszony otwarty konkurs ofert jedynie na projekty o wartości powyżej 50 000 zł. Oznacza to niestety wykluczenie mniejszych organizacji pozarządowych, które często nie mają rocznego obrotu środków w takiej wysokości. Ponadto w konkursie na duże projekty zostały przyznane środki jedynie 5 organizacjom. Pozostałym 23 organizacjom, których projekty zostały ocenione pozytywnie, granty będą przekazane w trybie późniejszym. Pewną bolączką NGO, obecną chyba we wszystkich polskich miastach, jest brak dotacji na bieżącą działalność organizacji przy dużym ograniczeniu kosztów administracyjnych w pozostałych rodzajach dotacji. To jeden z poważniejszych braków w systemie wspierania działalności NGO i jej rozwoju. 24 kwietnia 2003 roku o działalności pożytku publicznego i o wolontariacie. Środki pozabudżetowe – rozumie się przez to środki finansowe pochodzące z funduszy: Unii Europejskiej, strukturalnych, innych państw i organizacji międzynarodowych, polskich i zagranicznych organizacji pozarządowych, podmiotów komercyjnych, administracji centralnej.
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Zarządzanie Kulturą 2011, Vol 4 (4)
47 Uchwała Nr LIV/1554/10 Rady Miejskiej Wrocławia z dnia 9 września 2010 roku.
Kraków
Wrocław
Warszawa
1. Otwarty konkurs ofert w formie powierzenia wykonywania zadania (udzielenie dotacji na finansowanie jego realizacji) lub wspierania wykonania zadania (dofinansowanie)
Tak, podstawowe narzędzie finansowania
Tak, podstawowe narzędzie finansowania
Tak, podstawowe narzędzie finansowania
Wkład własny
Niewymagana określona kwota wkładu własnego, jednak struktura finansowa znajduje się wśród kryteriów oceny wniosku
Niewymagana określona kwota wkładu własnego; wkład pozafinansowy (osobowy, rzeczowy) poddawany ocenie, ale nie może być uwzględniony w kalkulacji kosztów
Niewymagana określona kwota wkładu własnego jakkolwiek ocenie podlega udział finansowych środków własnych. Praca wolontariuszy stanowi wkład osobowy organizacji, wycena pracy wolontariuszy może stanowić finansowy wkład własny organizacji, w wysokości nie większej niż 30 % całości wkładu własnego.
Wysokość środków przeznaczonych na konkurs
2011: 2.500.00 zł 45 2010: 4.323.500 zł
2011: 1.000.000 zł 2010: 1.408.850 zł
2011: 6.700.000 zł 2010: 5 839 390 zł
2. Zlecenie organizacji na jej wniosek realizacji zadania publicznego z pominięciem konkursu ofert, tzw. „małe granty”46
Tak, przy spełnieniu warunków: kwota dofinansowania lub finansowania takiego zadania nie może przekroczyć 10 000 zł, a termin realizacji zadania nie może być dłuższy niż 90 dni.
Nie
Tak. Przy spełnieniu warunków: Kwota dofinansowania lub finansowania takiego zadania nie może przekroczyć 10 000 zł, a termin realizacji zadania nie może być dłuższy niż 90 dni.
3. Otwarty konkurs ofert na wsparcie zadań publicznych realizowanych przez organizacje w ramach programów finansowanych ze środków pozabudżetowych, tzw. „Promesa”
Nie
Program współpracy z ngo dopuszcza „możliwości udzielania przez Miasto dodatkowego wsparcia finansowego na realizację zadań wykonywanych przez organizacje pozarządowe w związku z ubieganiem się przez te organizacje o dofinansowanie zadań z innych źródeł”, niemniej jednak brak ogłoszonych takich możliwości i procedur na portalu miejskim.
Tak, w latach 2011–2012, tryb przyjmowania wniosków comiesięczny.
4. Dotacje na bieżącą działalność
Nie
Nie
Nie
Inne narzędzia
Powierzanie przez Miasto realizacji zadań publicznych organizacjom i innym podmiotom może mieć charakter wieloletniej współpracy na czas określony nie dłuższy niż 5 lat. Umowy są anektowane każdego roku, zgodnie z obowiązującymi przepisami upoważniającymi Prezydenta Miasta Krakowa do zawierania wieloletnich umów w ramach wydatków bieżących.
Umowy partnerstwa określone w ustawie z dnia 6 grudnia 2006 roku o zasadach prowadzenia polityki rozwoju (Dz.U. z 2009 r. Nr 84, poz. 712 i Nr 157, poz. 1241).
Miasto może zawierać z organizacjami umowy o wsparcie lub o powierzenie zadań publicznych na czas realizacji zadania lub na czas określony nie dłuższy niż 5 lat.
45 Kwota przeznaczona na projekty powyżej 50 000 zł ma zostać ogłoszona wraz z konkursem w drodze odrębnego zarządzenia Prezydenta Miasta Krakowa.
ROK 2011
46 Zgodnie z art.19 a ustawy z dnia 22 stycznia 2010 roku o zmianie ustawy o działalności pożytku publicznego i o wolontariacie oraz niektórych innych ustaw (Dz. U. z dnia 25 lutego 2010 roku): „Na wniosek organizacji pozarządowej lub podmiotu wymienionego w art. 3 ust. 3, organ wykonawczy jednostki samorządu terytorialnego może zlecić organizacji pozarządowej lub podmiotom wymienionym w art. 3 ust. 3, z pominięciem otwartego konkursu ofert, realizację zadania publicznego o charakterze lokalnym lub regionalnym”.
Tab.2. Formy współpracy finansowej miasta z organizacjami:44
44 Na podstawie dokumentacji konkursowej na rok 2011, biuletynach informacji publicznej w poszczególnych miastach oraz informacji dostępnych na oficjalnych portalach miast.
Wnioski o realizację zadania publicznego w ramach inicjatywy lokalnej47. Powierzanie przez Miasto realizacji zadań publicznych organizacjom i innym podmiotom może mieć charakter wieloletniej współpracy na czas określony nie dłuższy niż 5 lat. Umowy są anektowane każdego roku, zgodnie z obowiązującymi przepisami upoważniającymi Prezydenta Miasta Krakowa do zawierania wieloletnich umów w ramach wydatków bieżących.
Inne narzędzia
Nie
4. Dotacje na bieżącą działalność
Umowy partnerstwa określone w ustawie z dnia 6 grudnia 2006 roku o zasadach prowadzenia polityki rozwoju (Dz.U. z 2009 r. Nr 84, poz. 712 i Nr 157, poz. 1241).
Miasto może zawierać z organizacjami umowy o wsparcie lub o powierzenie zadań publicznych na czas realizacji zadania lub na czas określony nie dłuższy niż 5 lat. Nie
Nie
Tak, w latach 2011–2012, tryb przyjmowania wniosków comiesięczny.
Program współpracy z ngo dopuszcza „możliwości udzielania przez Miasto dodatkowego wsparcia finansowego na realizację zadań wykonywanych przez organizacje pozarządowe w związku z ubieganiem się przez te organizacje o dofinansowanie zadań z innych źródeł”, niemniej jednak brak ogłoszonych takich możliwości i procedur na portalu miejskim.
Nie
3. Otwarty konkurs ofert na wsparcie zadań publicznych realizowanych przez organizacje w ramach programów finansowanych ze środków pozabudżetowych, tzw. „Promesa”
Nie
Tak, przy spełnieniu warunków: kwota dofinansowania lub finansowania takiego zadania nie może przekroczyć 10 000 zł, a termin realizacji zadania nie może być dłuższy niż 90 dni.
2. Zlecenie organizacji na jej wniosek realizacji zadania publicznego z pominięciem konkursu ofert, tzw. „małe granty”46
2011: 6.700.000 zł 2010: 5 839 390 zł
2011: 1.000.000 zł 2010: 1.408.850 zł
2011: 2.500.00 zł 45 2010: 4.323.500 zł
Wysokość środków przeznaczonych na konkurs
Niewymagana określona kwota wkładu własnego jakkolwiek ocenie podlega udział finansowych środków własnych. Praca wolontariuszy stanowi wkład osobowy organizacji, wycena pracy wolontariuszy może stanowić finansowy wkład własny organizacji, w wysokości nie większej niż 30 % całości wkładu własnego.
Niewymagana określona kwota wkładu własnego; wkład pozafinansowy (osobowy, rzeczowy) poddawany ocenie, ale nie może być uwzględniony w kalkulacji kosztów
Niewymagana określona kwota wkładu własnego, jednak struktura finansowa znajduje się wśród kryteriów oceny wniosku
Wkład własny
Tak, podstawowe narzędzie finansowania
1. Otwarty konkurs ofert w formie powierzenia wykonywania zadania (udzielenie dotacji na finansowanie jego realizacji) lub wspierania wykonania zadania (dofinansowanie)
Kraków
ROK 2011
Tak. Przy spełnieniu warunków: Kwota dofinansowania lub finansowania takiego zadania nie może przekroczyć 10 000 zł, a termin realizacji zadania nie może być dłuższy niż 90 dni.
Wnioski o realizację zadania publicznego w ramach inicjatywy lokalnej47. 44 Na podstawie dokumentacji konkursowej na rok 2011, biuletynach informacji publicznej w poszczególnych miastach oraz informacji dostępnych na oficjalnych portalach miast.
Tab.2. Formy współpracy finansowej miasta z organizacjami:44
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2011, Vol 4 (4)
Warszawa
268
Wrocław
47 Uchwała Nr LIV/1554/10 Rady Miejskiej Wrocławia z dnia 9 września 2010 roku.
Tak, podstawowe narzędzie finansowania
46 Zgodnie z art.19 a ustawy z dnia 22 stycznia 2010 roku o zmianie ustawy o działalności pożytku publicznego i o wolontariacie oraz niektórych innych ustaw (Dz. U. z dnia 25 lutego 2010 roku): „Na wniosek organizacji pozarządowej lub podmiotu wymienionego w art. 3 ust. 3, organ wykonawczy jednostki samorządu terytorialnego może zlecić organizacji pozarządowej lub podmiotom wymienionym w art. 3 ust. 3, z pominięciem otwartego konkursu ofert, realizację zadania publicznego o charakterze lokalnym lub regionalnym”.
Tak, podstawowe narzędzie finansowania
45 Kwota przeznaczona na projekty powyżej 50 000 zł ma zostać ogłoszona wraz z konkursem w drodze odrębnego zarządzenia Prezydenta Miasta Krakowa.
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Zarządzanie Kulturą 2011, Vol 4 (4)
Tab. 3. Procedury otwartego konkursu ofert ROK 2011
Kraków
Wrocław
Warszawa
Cel realizacji zadania, określony w konkursie
1. Przedmiotem konkursu są zadania realizowane na rzecz społeczności Krakowa w celu wzbogacenia oferty kulturalnej miasta oraz upowszechniania kultury i sztuki. 2. Zadanie może być realizowane w różnej formie, w tym poprzez organizację: koncertu, spektaklu, widowiska plenerowego, wystawy, festiwalu, przeglądu, imprezy filmowej lub interdyscyplinarnej w okresie od marca do grudnia 2011 r., których całkowity koszt realizacji przekracza 50 000 zł.
1.Organizacja i przeprowadzenie koncertów, spektakli teatralnych, wystaw, przeglądów, konkursów, festiwali, wydarzeń muzycznych, teatralnych, plastycznych, filmowych, fotograficznych, video art oraz innych zdarzeń kulturalnych w tym m. in. imprez plenerowych łączących w sobie różne obszary kultury, warsztatów, spotkań rocznicowych, prezentacji, przeglądów, realizowanych na terenie Gminy Wrocław. 2. Wspomaganie lokalnych inicjatyw kulturalnych. 3. Kreowanie Wrocławia jako ważnego ośrodka życia muzycznego, teatralnego, artystycznego.
1. Popularyzacja tradycji, historii, dziedzictwa kulturowego i wielokulturowości Warszawy 2. Realizacja projektów z zakresu edukacji kulturalnej, zwłaszcza w jej innowacyjnych formach. Poszczególne priorytety: - Realizacja projektów i przedsięwzięć artystycznych tworzących stałą ofertę kulturalną Warszawy; - Sztuka w przestrzeni publicznej; - Współpraca międzynarodowa warszawskich środowisk twórczych; - Projekty wspierające dialog międzykulturowy; - Popularyzacja tradycji, historii, dziedzictwa kulturowego i wielokulturowości Warszawy; - Realizacja projektów z zakresu edukacji kulturalnej, zwłaszcza w jej innowacyjnych formach.
Termin składania ofert w konkursie
2 marca 2011 roku (na projekty pow. 50 000 zł) Ogłoszenie otwartego konkursu ofert na realizację w roku 2011 zadań Gminy Miejskiej Kraków w obszarze kultury, sztuki, ochrony dóbr kultury i dziedzictwa narodowego, których koszty całkowite nie przekraczają 50 000 zł nastąpi w drodze odrębnego zarządzenia Prezydenta Miasta Krakowa.
7 grudnia 2010 roku (I nabór) 14 stycznia 2011 roku (II nabór)
1 stycznia, 21 stycznia, 4 lutego, 18 lutego 2011 roku (w zależności od priorytetu)
Termin ogłaszania wyników
Brak – „Informacja o rozstrzygnięciu konkursu będzie podana w Biuletynie Informacji Publicznej niezwłocznie po podjęciu zarządzenia przez Prezydenta Miasta Krakowa”.
7 stycznia 2011 roku (I nabór) 26 stycznia 2011 roku (II nabór).
Nie później niż w ciągu 50 dni od terminu zakończenia składania ofert.
Rzeczywisty termin ogłoszenia wyników
29 kwietnia 2011 roku częściowy: podana punktacja dla wszystkich aplikacji i tylko dla 6 organizacji podana wysokość przyznanych dotacji
7 stycznia 2011 roku (I nabór) 31 stycznia 2011 roku (II nabór).
28 lutego 2011 roku 23 marca 2011 roku 12 kwietnia 2011 roku 1 priorytet wciąż nie oceniony
Procent przyznania wnioskowana kwota
Częściowy
Częściowy
Częściowy
Przejrzystość oceny
Podane kryteria oceny; w ocenionych wnioskach podana wyłącznie punktacja; brak informacji o wnioskach odrzuconych.
Podane kryteria oceny; w ocenionych wnioskach podana wyłącznie punktacja; brak informacji o wnioskach odrzuconych.
Podane kryteria oceny; w ocenionych wnioskach podana wyłącznie punktacja; brak informacji o wnioskach odrzuconych.
Obecność przedstawicieli NGO w komisji oceniającej wnioski
Max. 2 osoby na max. 5 członków komisji.
Co najmniej 3 osoby, reprezentujące Gminę Wrocław oraz co najmniej 2 przedstawicieli organizacji pozarządowych.
Co najmniej 2 przedstawicieli Prezydenta oraz co najmniej dwóch przedstawicieli organizacji wskazanych przez właściwe KDS-y.
Ewaluacja dofinansowanego projektu
Nieprzeprowadzana przez UMK, niewymagana.
Nieprzeprowadzana przez UMK, niewymagana .
Nieprzeprowadzana przez UMK, niewymagana.
Przed ogłoszeniem konkursu ofert, biura przedstawiają do konsultacji rodzaje zadań konkursowych i szczegółowe warunki ich realizacji KDS-om lub Warszawskiej Radzie Pożytku, jeśli przy danym biurze nie działa KDS.
Uwagi
Nieprzeprowadzana przez UMK, niewymagana.
Nieprzeprowadzana przez UMK, niewymagana .
Nieprzeprowadzana przez UMK, niewymagana.
Ewaluacja dofinansowanego projektu
Co najmniej 2 przedstawicieli Prezydenta oraz co najmniej dwóch przedstawicieli organizacji wskazanych przez właściwe KDS-y.
Co najmniej 3 osoby, reprezentujące Gminę Wrocław oraz co najmniej 2 przedstawicieli organizacji pozarządowych.
Max. 2 osoby na max. 5 członków komisji.
Obecność przedstawicieli NGO w komisji oceniającej wnioski
Podane kryteria oceny; w ocenionych wnioskach podana wyłącznie punktacja; brak informacji o wnioskach odrzuconych.
Podane kryteria oceny; w ocenionych wnioskach podana wyłącznie punktacja; brak informacji o wnioskach odrzuconych.
Przejrzystość oceny
Częściowy
Częściowy
Procent przyznania wnioskowana kwota
7 stycznia 2011 roku (I nabór) 31 stycznia 2011 roku (II nabór).
29 kwietnia 2011 roku częściowy: podana punktacja dla wszystkich aplikacji i tylko dla 6 organizacji podana wysokość przyznanych dotacji
Rzeczywisty termin ogłoszenia wyników
7 stycznia 2011 roku (I nabór) 26 stycznia 2011 roku (II nabór).
Brak – „Informacja o rozstrzygnięciu konkursu będzie podana w Biuletynie Informacji Publicznej niezwłocznie po podjęciu zarządzenia przez Prezydenta Miasta Krakowa”.
Termin ogłaszania wyników
7 grudnia 2010 roku (I nabór) 14 stycznia 2011 roku (II nabór)
2 marca 2011 roku (na projekty pow. 50 000 zł) Ogłoszenie otwartego konkursu ofert na realizację w roku 2011 zadań Gminy Miejskiej Kraków w obszarze kultury, sztuki, ochrony dóbr kultury i dziedzictwa narodowego, których koszty całkowite nie przekraczają 50 000 zł nastąpi w drodze odrębnego zarządzenia Prezydenta Miasta Krakowa.
Termin składania ofert w konkursie
1. Przedmiotem konkursu są zadania realizowane na rzecz społeczności Krakowa w celu wzbogacenia oferty kulturalnej miasta oraz upowszechniania kultury i sztuki. 2. Zadanie może być realizowane w różnej formie, w tym poprzez organizację: koncertu, spektaklu, widowiska plenerowego, wystawy, festiwalu, przeglądu, imprezy filmowej lub interdyscyplinarnej w okresie od marca do grudnia 2011 r., których całkowity koszt realizacji przekracza 50 000 zł.
Cel realizacji zadania, określony w konkursie
Kraków
ROK 2011
Uwagi
Tab. 3. Procedury otwartego konkursu ofert Zarządzanie Kulturą 2011, Vol 4 (4)
Przed ogłoszeniem konkursu ofert, biura przedstawiają do konsultacji rodzaje zadań konkursowych i szczegółowe warunki ich realizacji KDS-om lub Warszawskiej Radzie Pożytku, jeśli przy danym biurze nie działa KDS.
269
1.Organizacja i przeprowadzenie koncertów, spektakli teatralnych, wystaw, przeglądów, konkursów, festiwali, wydarzeń muzycznych, teatralnych, plastycznych, filmowych, fotograficznych, video art oraz innych zdarzeń kulturalnych w tym m. in. imprez plenerowych łączących w sobie różne obszary kultury, warsztatów, spotkań rocznicowych, prezentacji, przeglądów, realizowanych na terenie Gminy Wrocław. 2. Wspomaganie lokalnych inicjatyw kulturalnych. 3. Kreowanie Wrocławia jako ważnego ośrodka życia muzycznego, teatralnego, artystycznego. Wrocław
Podane kryteria oceny; w ocenionych wnioskach podana wyłącznie punktacja; brak informacji o wnioskach odrzuconych. Częściowy 28 lutego 2011 roku 23 marca 2011 roku 12 kwietnia 2011 roku 1 priorytet wciąż nie oceniony Nie później niż w ciągu 50 dni od terminu zakończenia składania ofert. 1 stycznia, 21 stycznia, 4 lutego, 18 lutego 2011 roku (w zależności od priorytetu) 1. Popularyzacja tradycji, historii, dziedzictwa kulturowego i wielokulturowości Warszawy 2. Realizacja projektów z zakresu edukacji kulturalnej, zwłaszcza w jej innowacyjnych formach. Poszczególne priorytety: - Realizacja projektów i przedsięwzięć artystycznych tworzących stałą ofertę kulturalną Warszawy; - Sztuka w przestrzeni publicznej; - Współpraca międzynarodowa warszawskich środowisk twórczych; - Projekty wspierające dialog międzykulturowy; - Popularyzacja tradycji, historii, dziedzictwa kulturowego i wielokulturowości Warszawy; - Realizacja projektów z zakresu edukacji kulturalnej, zwłaszcza w jej innowacyjnych formach. Warszawa
Podane w zestawieniu kwoty, przeznaczone na otwarty konkurs ofert w poszczególnych miastach, mają służyć jedynie ogólnej orientacji. Struktura wydatków miasta na działalność kulturalną w jej poszczególnych obszarach to kolejny temat warty zbadania, jednak wykraczający poza temat tej pracy.
jakości i zakresu projektu we wnioskowanej formie. Sytuacja ta prowadzi do zwyczajowego już zawyżania budżetu przez organizacje na etapie składania wniosków. Wydaje się, że procedury unijnych aplikacji pod tym względem są bardziej uzasadnione – gdy projekt zostaje zaakceptowany, organizacja uzyskuje wnioskowaną kwotę. Należy również zwrócić uwagę na brak konieczności przeprowadzania monitoringu i ewaluacji projektów. To jedno z narzędzi zarządzania, którego wymóg stosowania mógłby przyczynić się do poprawy jakości zarówno samych projektów, a także funkcjonowania organizacji. Dodatkowo mógłby być dobrym kryterium oceny działań NGO dla samorządu – zarówno na etapie końcowym projektu, a także wartościowym miernikiem przy ocenie wniosków konkursowych w kolejnych latach.
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2011, Vol 4 (4)
Wymienione powyżej instrumenty wspierające rozwój NGO są dla nich kluczowe na różnych etapach ich cyklu życia. Byłoby zatem wskazane, aby koniecznie uwzględnić je w polityce kulturalnej każdego miasta. Powyższe zestawienie pokazuje częściowo, w jaki sposób polityki kulturalne są realizowane w wymiarze praktycznym. Organizacje napotykają na różnego rodzaju trudności w zależności od etapu swojego rozwoju. Proponowane rozwiązania udzielania małych grantów, pomoc w promocji organizacji, użyczanie zasobów rzeczowych, możliwość wyceny aportu osobowego, jako wkładu własnego to pozytywne mechanizmy wspierania NGO w ich pierwszych krokach. Udostępnianie lokalu na preferencyjnych warunkach, pomoc w nawiązywaniu partnerstw międzynarodowych to rodzaj wsparcia dla organizacji już na kolejnym etapie rozwoju. Bez wątpienia to mechanizmy polityki kulturowej współkształtują rozwój kultury i to one mogą stymulować określone zachowania, tak jak grantodawca może stymulować zachowania organizacji poprzez odpowiednio skonstruowany regulamin. Planowanie strategiczne, korzystanie z narzędzi zarządzania, konieczność przeprowadzania ewaluacji są w zasięgu organizacji pozarządowych. Dlaczego samorząd, przyznając dotacje, nie mógłby od nich tego wymagać w celu uzyskania wyższej jakości, uzasadnienia dystrybucji środków i lepszego zarządzania nimi? Podsumowując przedstawione powyżej zestawienia, można zauważyć, że poziom przygotowania dokumentów określających politykę kulturalną jest różny i wciąż jeszcze niewystarczający. Zasady
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Wymienione powyżej instrumenty wspierające rozwój NGO są dla nich kluczowe na różnych etapach ich cyklu życia. Byłoby zatem wskazane, aby koniecznie uwzględnić je w polityce kulturalnej każdego miasta. Powyższe zestawienie pokazuje częściowo, w jaki sposób polityki kulturalne są realizowane w wymiarze praktycznym. Organizacje napotykają na różnego rodzaju trudności w zależności od etapu swojego rozwoju. Proponowane rozwiązania udzielania małych grantów, pomoc w promocji organizacji, użyczanie zasobów rzeczowych, możliwość wyceny aportu osobowego, jako wkładu własnego to pozytywne mechanizmy wspierania NGO w ich pierwszych krokach. Udostępnianie lokalu na preferencyjnych warunkach, pomoc w nawiązywaniu partnerstw międzynarodowych to rodzaj wsparcia dla organizacji już na kolejnym etapie rozwoju. Bez wątpienia to mechanizmy polityki kulturowej współkształtują rozwój kultury i to one mogą stymulować określone zachowania, tak jak grantodawca może stymulować zachowania organizacji poprzez odpowiednio skonstruowany regulamin. Planowanie strategiczne, korzystanie z narzędzi zarządzania, konieczność przeprowadzania ewaluacji są w zasięgu organizacji pozarządowych. Dlaczego samorząd, przyznając dotacje, nie mógłby od nich tego wymagać w celu uzyskania wyższej jakości, uzasadnienia dystrybucji środków i lepszego zarządzania nimi? Podsumowując przedstawione powyżej zestawienia, można zauważyć, że poziom przygotowania dokumentów określających politykę kulturalną jest różny i wciąż jeszcze niewystarczający. Zasady
Zakres działań, jakie mogą zostać podjęte przez NGO i sfinansowane przez samorząd, Kraków i Wrocław formułują dość obszernie. Może należy zapytać w tej sytuacji, czy oznacza to otwartość włodarzy i zapewnienie swobody organizacjom, czy preferencje działań są widoczne przy wyborze ofert i w ten sposób profilowany rodzaj działań, które odbywają się w mieście. Natomiast Warszawa, oczekując działań w określonych obszarach, wydaje się, że w ten sposób stymuluje organizacje do tworzenia i realizowania projektów w wytyczonych kierunkach. Terminy ogłaszania konkursów na zadania realizowane przez organizacje pozarządowe w sferze kultury i ich wyniki wyznaczają rytm działalności organizacji. Pod względem terminów konkursowych w najlepszej sytuacji znajdują się NGO z Wrocławia, jeśli weźmiemy pod uwagę kalendarz ogłaszania konkursów oraz sprawność oceniania wniosków. Tamtejszy urząd miasta w krótkim terminie ocenia wnioski (ok. 30 dni) i przestrzega podanego terminu ogłoszenia wyników. Późne decyzje urzędów – tak jak ma to miejsce w przypadku Warszawy i Krakowa – wpływają na dynamikę wydarzeń kulturalnych w mieście, które w takich warunkach mają naturalną tendencję do kumulowania się w drugiej połowie roku, co skutkuje niewykorzystanym w pełni potencjałem NGO w zakresie budowania kultury w tych miastach, a także mniejszą ofertą kulturalną w pierwszej połowie roku. W sytuacji, gdy organizacja zatrudnia pracowników, oznacza to, że przez pierwszą połowę roku nie jest w stanie ich opłacić, co ma z kolei wpływ, na jakość i poziom zatrudnienia w sektorze kultury. Rzutuje to również, na jakość zarządzania projektami oraz powoduje trudność planowania działań, gdy data ogłoszenia wyników konkursu jest nieznana lub ulega znaczącemu opóźnieniu. Kolejną przeszkodą w działaniu NGO jest sposób przyznawania środków na złożone w konkursie projekty. Najczęściej urząd miasta przyznaje część wnioskowanej kwoty – wówczas organizacja staje przed dylematem, jaką część projektu zrealizować. Jakkolwiek zazwyczaj przyznanie grantu jest warunkowane utrzymaniem
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2011, Vol 4 (4)
Zakres działań, jakie mogą zostać podjęte przez NGO i sfinansowane przez samorząd, Kraków i Wrocław formułują dość obszernie. Może należy zapytać w tej sytuacji, czy oznacza to otwartość włodarzy i zapewnienie swobody organizacjom, czy preferencje działań są widoczne przy wyborze ofert i w ten sposób profilowany rodzaj działań, które odbywają się w mieście. Natomiast Warszawa, oczekując działań w określonych obszarach, wydaje się, że w ten sposób stymuluje organizacje do tworzenia i realizowania projektów w wytyczonych kierunkach. Terminy ogłaszania konkursów na zadania realizowane przez organizacje pozarządowe w sferze kultury i ich wyniki wyznaczają rytm działalności organizacji. Pod względem terminów konkursowych w najlepszej sytuacji znajdują się NGO z Wrocławia, jeśli weźmiemy pod uwagę kalendarz ogłaszania konkursów oraz sprawność oceniania wniosków. Tamtejszy urząd miasta w krótkim terminie ocenia wnioski (ok. 30 dni) i przestrzega podanego terminu ogłoszenia wyników. Późne decyzje urzędów – tak jak ma to miejsce w przypadku Warszawy i Krakowa – wpływają na dynamikę wydarzeń kulturalnych w mieście, które w takich warunkach mają naturalną tendencję do kumulowania się w drugiej połowie roku, co skutkuje niewykorzystanym w pełni potencjałem NGO w zakresie budowania kultury w tych miastach, a także mniejszą ofertą kulturalną w pierwszej połowie roku. W sytuacji, gdy organizacja zatrudnia pracowników, oznacza to, że przez pierwszą połowę roku nie jest w stanie ich opłacić, co ma z kolei wpływ, na jakość i poziom zatrudnienia w sektorze kultury. Rzutuje to również, na jakość zarządzania projektami oraz powoduje trudność planowania działań, gdy data ogłoszenia wyników konkursu jest nieznana lub ulega znaczącemu opóźnieniu. Kolejną przeszkodą w działaniu NGO jest sposób przyznawania środków na złożone w konkursie projekty. Najczęściej urząd miasta przyznaje część wnioskowanej kwoty – wówczas organizacja staje przed dylematem, jaką część projektu zrealizować. Jakkolwiek zazwyczaj przyznanie grantu jest warunkowane utrzymaniem
jakości i zakresu projektu we wnioskowanej formie. Sytuacja ta prowadzi do zwyczajowego już zawyżania budżetu przez organizacje na etapie składania wniosków. Wydaje się, że procedury unijnych aplikacji pod tym względem są bardziej uzasadnione – gdy projekt zostaje zaakceptowany, organizacja uzyskuje wnioskowaną kwotę. Należy również zwrócić uwagę na brak konieczności przeprowadzania monitoringu i ewaluacji projektów. To jedno z narzędzi zarządzania, którego wymóg stosowania mógłby przyczynić się do poprawy jakości zarówno samych projektów, a także funkcjonowania organizacji. Dodatkowo mógłby być dobrym kryterium oceny działań NGO dla samorządu – zarówno na etapie końcowym projektu, a także wartościowym miernikiem przy ocenie wniosków konkursowych w kolejnych latach.
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Podane w zestawieniu kwoty, przeznaczone na otwarty konkurs ofert w poszczególnych miastach, mają służyć jedynie ogólnej orientacji. Struktura wydatków miasta na działalność kulturalną w jej poszczególnych obszarach to kolejny temat warty zbadania, jednak wykraczający poza temat tej pracy.
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Zarządzanie Kulturą 2011, Vol 4 (4)
Tab. 4. Inne rodzaje wsparcia Zakres
Kraków
Wrocław
Warszawa
Możliwość pozyskania w najem lokalu użytkowego z zasobów Gminy w trybie bezprzetargowym
Tak Brak szczegółów
Tak Podana procedura ubiegania się i zasady. Brak ograniczeń, oceniana zasadność wniosku.
1.Tak. Brak szczegółów. 2. Możliwość wynajęcia na preferencyjnych warunkach należących do Miasta nieruchomości na potrzeby realizacji zadań na rzecz mieszkańców Warszawy.
Wsparcie w zakresie promocji
Zapis z Programu współpracy z NGO: „promowanie osiągnięć i działalności organizacji pozarządowych prowadzonej na rzecz mieszkańców oraz informowanie o realizowanych przez nie projektach.” Nie wskazane narzędzia. Inicjowanie lub współorganizowanie szkoleń podnoszących jakość pracy organizacji pozarządowych w sferze zadań publicznych. Brak szczegółów. Brak informacji o odbytych.
Promocja NGO na www.wroclaw.pl – informacje o wydarzeniach, relacje, ogłoszenia, oferty wolontariatu. Podany kontakt.
Inkubator dla NGO
Tak; wykorzystywany w ograniczonym stopniu. Brak planów utworzenia inkubatora z przeznaczeniem dla organizacji kultury.
Tak; wykorzystywany w ograniczonym stopniu. Dodatkowo planowany Inkubator Kultury.
Tak, aktywny w zakresie prowadzenia szkoleń dla wszystkich NGO, nie tylko kulturalnych; planowane utworzenie inkubatora dla kulturalnych NGO.
Pełnomocnik ds. NGO
Nie
Tak
Tak
Udzielanie pomocy w przygotowywaniu aplikacji programów, których realizacja wymaga współpracy kilku podmiotów.
Z Programu współpracy z NGO: przygotowanie projektów partnerskich zgodnie z art. 28a ustawy z dnia 6 grudnia 2006 roku o zasadach prowadzenia polityki rozwoju
Umożliwianie dostępu do lokalu oraz wyposażenia niezbędnego do przeprowadzania spotkań organizacji, realizujących zadania publiczne na rzecz Miasta i jego mieszkańców.
Miasto może, w ramach inicjatywy lokalnej, zawrzeć z organizacją umowę na realizację zadania publicznego i przekazać jej na podstawie umowy użyczenia na czas trwania tej umowy rzeczy konieczne do wykonania inicjatywy lokalnej.
polityki kulturalnej miast, a tym bardziej sposoby ich realizacji dopiero się kształtują. Nie powinno to budzić zdziwienia, natomiast powinniśmy mieć świadomość, że jakość tych strategii i ich efektywna realizacja ma wpływ zarówno na rozwój kultury w naszych miastach, a także na rozwój ich mieszkańców, czyli nas. „Prawdziwym cementem społeczeństwa jest jego aktywność kulturalna realizowana na szczeblu lokalnym i regionalnym” – jak zauważa prof. Dorota Ilczuk w swoim studium dotyczącym związków polityki kulturalnej i społeczeństwa obywatelskiego [Ilczuk 2002].
Ta świadomość jest wyraźnie widoczna na europejskim poziomie. Deklaracja Brukselska, jako główną przeszkodę hamującą rozwój sektora kultury, podaje brak ustanowionej polityki dla tego sektora. Komisja Europejska również bardzo mocno podkreśla rolę polityk kulturalnych, a wdrożenie efektywnej i zintegrowanej polityki kulturalnej uznawane jest za kluczowe dla wzmocnienia dostępu do kultury i twórczości dla wszystkich, dla promowania różnorodności kulturowej i dla wspierania zrównoważonego rozwoju sektorów kultury. Potencjał sektora Organizacje mogą za pośrednictwem właściwej merytorycznie komórki organizacyjnej Urzędu m. st. Warszawy nawiązywać kontakty z przedstawicielami organizacji i instytucji z miast, z którymi Miasto ma zawarte porozumienia o współpracy. Miasto może, w ramach inicjatywy lokalnej, zawrzeć z organizacją umowę na realizację zadania publicznego i przekazać jej na podstawie umowy użyczenia na czas trwania tej umowy rzeczy konieczne do wykonania inicjatywy lokalnej.
Umożliwianie dostępu do lokalu oraz wyposażenia niezbędnego do przeprowadzania spotkań organizacji, realizujących zadania publiczne na rzecz Miasta i jego mieszkańców.
Z Programu współpracy z NGO: przygotowanie projektów partnerskich zgodnie z art. 28a ustawy z dnia 6 grudnia 2006 roku o zasadach prowadzenia polityki rozwoju
Udzielanie pomocy w przygotowywaniu aplikacji programów, których realizacja wymaga współpracy kilku podmiotów.
Inne narzędzia wspierające rozwój NGO
Tak
Nie
Pełnomocnik ds. NGO
Tak; wykorzystywany w ograniczonym stopniu. Dodatkowo planowany Inkubator Kultury.
Tak; wykorzystywany w ograniczonym stopniu. Brak planów utworzenia inkubatora z przeznaczeniem dla organizacji kultury.
Inkubator dla NGO
Promocja NGO na www.wroclaw.pl – informacje o wydarzeniach, relacje, ogłoszenia, oferty wolontariatu. Podany kontakt.
Zapis z Programu współpracy z NGO: „promowanie osiągnięć i działalności organizacji pozarządowych prowadzonej na rzecz mieszkańców oraz informowanie o realizowanych przez nie projektach.” Nie wskazane narzędzia. Inicjowanie lub współorganizowanie szkoleń podnoszących jakość pracy organizacji pozarządowych w sferze zadań publicznych. Brak szczegółów. Brak informacji o odbytych.
Wsparcie w zakresie promocji
Tak Brak szczegółów
Możliwość pozyskania w najem lokalu użytkowego z zasobów Gminy w trybie bezprzetargowym
Kraków
Zakres
Inne narzędzia wspierające rozwój NGO
Organizacje mogą za pośrednictwem właściwej merytorycznie komórki organizacyjnej Urzędu m. st. Warszawy nawiązywać kontakty z przedstawicielami organizacji i instytucji z miast, z którymi Miasto ma zawarte porozumienia o współpracy.
polityki kulturalnej miast, a tym bardziej sposoby ich realizacji dopiero się kształtują. Nie powinno to budzić zdziwienia, natomiast powinniśmy mieć świadomość, że jakość tych strategii i ich efektywna realizacja ma wpływ zarówno na rozwój kultury w naszych miastach, a także na rozwój ich mieszkańców, czyli nas. „Prawdziwym cementem społeczeństwa jest jego aktywność kulturalna realizowana na szczeblu lokalnym i regionalnym” – jak zauważa prof. Dorota Ilczuk w swoim studium dotyczącym związków polityki kulturalnej i społeczeństwa obywatelskiego [Ilczuk 2002].
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2011, Vol 4 (4)
Ta świadomość jest wyraźnie widoczna na europejskim poziomie. Deklaracja Brukselska, jako główną przeszkodę hamującą rozwój sektora kultury, podaje brak ustanowionej polityki dla tego sektora. Komisja Europejska również bardzo mocno podkreśla rolę polityk kulturalnych, a wdrożenie efektywnej i zintegrowanej polityki kulturalnej uznawane jest za kluczowe dla wzmocnienia dostępu do kultury i twórczości dla wszystkich, dla promowania różnorodności kulturowej i dla wspierania zrównoważonego rozwoju sektorów kultury. Potencjał sektora
271
Tab. 4. Inne rodzaje wsparcia
Tak Podana procedura ubiegania się i zasady. Brak ograniczeń, oceniana zasadność wniosku. Wrocław
Tak Tak, aktywny w zakresie prowadzenia szkoleń dla wszystkich NGO, nie tylko kulturalnych; planowane utworzenie inkubatora dla kulturalnych NGO. 1.Tak. Brak szczegółów. 2. Możliwość wynajęcia na preferencyjnych warunkach należących do Miasta nieruchomości na potrzeby realizacji zadań na rzecz mieszkańców Warszawy. Warszawa
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2011, Vol 4 (4) Zarządzanie Kulturą 2011, Vol 4 (4)
i profesjonalnym. A sama kultura jest określana, jako pełniąca fundamentalną rolę w rozwoju człowieka i w kompleksowej strukturze tożsamości i zwyczajów jednostek i społeczności48.
272
kultury dla rozwoju człowieka i społeczeństwa, redukcja biedy i ekonomiczny wzrost może być osiągnięty wyłącznie w środowisku ustrukturyzowanym, uregulowanym prawnie, rentownym
48 European Commission, Program Strengthening Capacities In the Cultural Sector [www.ec.europa.eu/culture].
Bibliografia
Program współpracy z organizacjami pozarządowymi na rok 2011 – Załącznik do Uchwały nr XCIII/2731/2010 Rady Miasta Stołecznego Warszawy z dnia 21 października 2010 roku w sprawie przyjęcia programu współpracy m. st. Warszawy w 2011 roku z organizacjami pozarządowymi i podmiotami, o których mowa w art. 3 ust. 3 ustawy z dnia 24 kwietnia 2003 roku o działalności pożytku publicznego i o wolontariacie Program współpracy z NGO [dok. elektr.]. Dostępny online: http://www.um.warszawa.pl Program Współpracy z Organizacjami Pozarządowymi na rok 2011 [dok. elektr.]. Dostępny online: http:// www.wroclaw.pl Przestrzenie dla piękna – Aplikacja Wrocławia o tytuł Europejskiej Stolicy Kultury 2016, Wrocław 2010. Rekomendacja nr 1509 Zgromadzenia Parlamentarnego Rady Europy, 1.07.1987 r. Strategia rozwoju Krakowa [dok. elektr.]. Dostępny online: http://www.bip.krakow.pl Strategia rozwoju kultury w Krakowie na lata 2010–2014, Załącznik do uchwały Nr CXIV/1524/10 Rady Miasta Krakowa z dnia 20 października 2010 roku [dok. elektr.]. Dostępny online: http://www.bip.krakow.pl Strategia Rozwoju Miasta Stołecznego Warszawy do roku 2020 [dok. elektr.]. Dostępny online: http:// www.um.warszawa.pl, [1.06.2011]. Uzupełnienie Narodowej Strategii Rozwoju Kultury na lata 2004–2020 [dok. elektr.]. Dostępny online: http://www.mk.gov.pl [15.06.2011]. Wieloletni Program Współpracy z Organizacjami Pozarządowymi, Kraków – Załącznik do uchwały Nr CXI /1510/10 Rady Miasta Krakowa z dnia 6 października 2010 roku [dok. elektr.]. Dostępny online: http:// www.dialogspoleczny.krakow.pl Wrocław w perspektywie 2020 plus [dok. elektr.]. Dostępny online: http://www.wroclaw.pl
Program współpracy z organizacjami pozarządowymi na rok 2011 – Załącznik do Uchwały nr XCIII/2731/2010 Rady Miasta Stołecznego Warszawy z dnia 21 października 2010 roku w sprawie przyjęcia programu współpracy m. st. Warszawy w 2011 roku z organizacjami pozarządowymi i podmiotami, o których mowa w art. 3 ust. 3 ustawy z dnia 24 kwietnia 2003 roku o działalności pożytku publicznego i o wolontariacie Program współpracy z NGO [dok. elektr.]. Dostępny online: http://www.um.warszawa.pl Program Współpracy z Organizacjami Pozarządowymi na rok 2011 [dok. elektr.]. Dostępny online: http:// www.wroclaw.pl Przestrzenie dla piękna – Aplikacja Wrocławia o tytuł Europejskiej Stolicy Kultury 2016, Wrocław 2010. Rekomendacja nr 1509 Zgromadzenia Parlamentarnego Rady Europy, 1.07.1987 r. Strategia rozwoju Krakowa [dok. elektr.]. Dostępny online: http://www.bip.krakow.pl Strategia rozwoju kultury w Krakowie na lata 2010–2014, Załącznik do uchwały Nr CXIV/1524/10 Rady Miasta Krakowa z dnia 20 października 2010 roku [dok. elektr.]. Dostępny online: http://www.bip.krakow.pl Strategia Rozwoju Miasta Stołecznego Warszawy do roku 2020 [dok. elektr.]. Dostępny online: http:// www.um.warszawa.pl, [1.06.2011]. Uzupełnienie Narodowej Strategii Rozwoju Kultury na lata 2004–2020 [dok. elektr.]. Dostępny online: http://www.mk.gov.pl [15.06.2011]. Wieloletni Program Współpracy z Organizacjami Pozarządowymi, Kraków – Załącznik do uchwały Nr CXI /1510/10 Rady Miasta Krakowa z dnia 6 października 2010 roku [dok. elektr.]. Dostępny online: http:// www.dialogspoleczny.krakow.pl Wrocław w perspektywie 2020 plus [dok. elektr.]. Dostępny online: http://www.wroclaw.pl
Andrews K., What Strategy Is? [w:] B. De Wit, R. Mryer, M. Huygens, Strategy Process, Content, Context, an International Perspective, New York 1994. Deklaracja Bremeńska przyjęta przez Stałą Konferencję Władz Lokalnych i Regionalnych Europy w dniu 27.05.1983 r. Program Strengthening Capacities In the Cultural Sector [dok. elektr.]. Dostępny online: www.ec.europa. eu/culture Herbst J., Warszawski Sektor Pozarządowy, Warszawa 2007. Ilczuk D., Polityka kulturalna w społeczeństwie obywatelskim, Kraków 2002. Narodowa Strategia Rozwoju Kultury na lata 2004–2013 [dok. elektr.]. Dostępny online: www.mkidn.gov.pl [15.06.2011]. Orzechowski E., Dlaczego w Polsce nie jest możliwa sensowna polityka kulturalna? [w:] Zarządzanie w kulturze, tom 5, red. Ł. Gaweł, K. Plebańczyk, E. Orzechowski, K. Barańska, Kraków 2004. Pawłowski R., Jesteśmy w finale i co dalej? [dok. elektr.]. Dostępny online: http://www.gazeta.pl, Warszawa nr 250, [25.10.2010]. Polityka kulturalna państwa. Założenia MKiS, Warszawa, 10 sierpnia 1993, cyt. za: Szulborska- Łukaszewicz J., Polityka kulturalna w Krakowie, Kraków 2009. Program rozwoju kultury w Warszawie w latach 2009– 2020 [dok. elektr.]. Dostępny online: http://www. um.warszawa.pl, [1.06.2011]. Program współpracy Gminy Miejskiej Kraków z organizacjami pozarządowymi oraz podmiotami, o których mowa w art. 3 ust. 3 ustawy z dnia 24 kwietnia 2003 roku o działalności pożytku publicznego i wolontariacie (Dz. U. Nr 96, poz. 873 z późn. zm.), na rok 2011 [dok. elektr.]. Dostępny online: www. dialogspoleczny.krakow.pl
Andrews K., What Strategy Is? [w:] B. De Wit, R. Mryer, M. Huygens, Strategy Process, Content, Context, an International Perspective, New York 1994. Deklaracja Bremeńska przyjęta przez Stałą Konferencję Władz Lokalnych i Regionalnych Europy w dniu 27.05.1983 r. Program Strengthening Capacities In the Cultural Sector [dok. elektr.]. Dostępny online: www.ec.europa. eu/culture Herbst J., Warszawski Sektor Pozarządowy, Warszawa 2007. Ilczuk D., Polityka kulturalna w społeczeństwie obywatelskim, Kraków 2002. Narodowa Strategia Rozwoju Kultury na lata 2004–2013 [dok. elektr.]. Dostępny online: www.mkidn.gov.pl [15.06.2011]. Orzechowski E., Dlaczego w Polsce nie jest możliwa sensowna polityka kulturalna? [w:] Zarządzanie w kulturze, tom 5, red. Ł. Gaweł, K. Plebańczyk, E. Orzechowski, K. Barańska, Kraków 2004. Pawłowski R., Jesteśmy w finale i co dalej? [dok. elektr.]. Dostępny online: http://www.gazeta.pl, Warszawa nr 250, [25.10.2010]. Polityka kulturalna państwa. Założenia MKiS, Warszawa, 10 sierpnia 1993, cyt. za: Szulborska- Łukaszewicz J., Polityka kulturalna w Krakowie, Kraków 2009. Program rozwoju kultury w Warszawie w latach 2009– 2020 [dok. elektr.]. Dostępny online: http://www. um.warszawa.pl, [1.06.2011]. Program współpracy Gminy Miejskiej Kraków z organizacjami pozarządowymi oraz podmiotami, o których mowa w art. 3 ust. 3 ustawy z dnia 24 kwietnia 2003 roku o działalności pożytku publicznego i wolontariacie (Dz. U. Nr 96, poz. 873 z późn. zm.), na rok 2011 [dok. elektr.]. Dostępny online: www. dialogspoleczny.krakow.pl
Bibliografia
48 European Commission, Program Strengthening Capacities In the Cultural Sector [www.ec.europa.eu/culture].
i profesjonalnym. A sama kultura jest określana, jako pełniąca fundamentalną rolę w rozwoju człowieka i w kompleksowej strukturze tożsamości i zwyczajów jednostek i społeczności48.
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kultury dla rozwoju człowieka i społeczeństwa, redukcja biedy i ekonomiczny wzrost może być osiągnięty wyłącznie w środowisku ustrukturyzowanym, uregulowanym prawnie, rentownym
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Zarządzanie Kulturą 2011, Vol 4 (4)
Radiofonia publiczna w Europie w erze cyfrowej (recenzja) Bogusław Nierenberg
H
erman Hesse napisał w Wilku stepowym: „Gdziekolwiek słuchamy radia, stajemy się częścią wiecznych zmagań między naszymi wyobrażeniami a obrazami, czasem nieskończonością, między tym, co ludzkie, a tym co boskie”. Monografia Stanisława Jędrzejewskiego Radiofonia publiczna w Europie w erze cyfrowej wydaje się być egzemplifikacją tej myśli H. Hessego, bowiem radio ma w sobie moc magiczną. Nie włazi z buciorami do naszych domów, jak to czyni telewizja. Radio jest rodzajem intymnej rozmowy ze słuchaczem, na które wciąż jest zapotrzebowanie i zapewne będzie też w przyszłości. Ci, którzy wieszczyli, że wraz z nadejściem telewizji nastąpi koniec radia – srodze się pomylili. Jednakże współczesne radio stoi u progu zasadniczych zmian. Książka S. Jędrzejewskiego Radiofonia publiczna w Europie w erze cyfrowej podejmuje rozmaite wątki, odnoszące się do europejskiej radiofonii. Radio, podobnie jak inne środki przekazu, czeka przejście na nadawanie cyfrowe. Kilka lat temu Światowe Forum DAB zatwierdziło jako obowiązujący standard DAB+. Oznacza to dla radia znaczące zwiększenie liczby dobrze sformatowanych kanałów cyfrowych, tworzonych głównie przez radiofonie publiczne. Oznacza to także zupełnie nowe możliwości poszerzenia oferty programowej. Nowe, multimedialne urządzenia odbiorcze sprawią, że odbiór treści będzie miał charakter równoległy. Ocenia się, że w Europie ok. 40% internautów słucha radia przez Internet. Kiedy w latach 20. XX w. John Reith tworzył zręby współczesnej radiofonii publicznej, zapewne nie przewidywał, iż będzie to medium, które w dużym stopniu będzie kształtowało sposób myślenia Europejczyków w pierwszej połowie dwudziestego stulecia. I zapewne nie wyobrażał sobie dylematów przed jakimi stanie współczesna europejska radiofonia publiczna. Genezę tych
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2011, Vol 4 (4)
zjawisk przedstawia S. Jędrzejewski w początkowych fragmentach monografii. W dalszej części koncentruje się na rozwoju radiofonii publicznej w europejskim społeczeństwie demokratycznym. Wskazuje na zależności pomiędzy kulturą demokratyczną, procesami politycznymi a rozwojem radiofonii publicznej. Interesujące są także jego rozważania związane z zagadnieniami formatowania oferty programowej radia publicznego, a także wątki dotyczące perspektyw radiofonii publicznej, kończące się przewidywanymi przez Autora możliwymi scenariuszami rozwoju radia w przyszłości. S. Jędrzejewski przewiduje, że publiczna radiofonia w Europie, po okresie obecnej transformacji, utrzyma swoją silną pozycję. Przewiduje także, że Polskie Radio SA nadal będzie odgrywać ważną rolę społeczną jako istotny czynnik kształtowania demokracji i rozwoju kulturowego. Rozważania dotyczące radia są dziełem badacza, który na tych zagadnieniach zna się jak mało kto. Warto zauważyć, że prof. dr hab. Stanisław Jędrzejewski kieruje jedyną w Polsce Katedrą Teorii i Praktyki Komunikacji Radiowej Katolickiego Uniwersytetu Lubelskiego, jest członkiem Międzynarodowej Sieci Badaczy Radia IREN oraz wiceprzewodniczącym Sekcji Badań nad Radiem Europejskiego Stowarzyszenia Badań Edukacji i Komunikacji ECREA. Był też członkiem zarządu Polskiego Radia, wcześniej jego dyrektorem programowym i dyrektorem I Programu PR. W 2005 r. został członkiem Krajowej Rady Radiofonii i Telewizji. Przez 12 lat brał udział w pracach Komisji Radiowej Europejskiej Unii Radiowo-Telewizyjnej (EBU). Należy zatem zauważyć, że omawiana monografia, napisana przez tak wybitnego badacza radia, jest nie tylko źródłem wiedzy dla innych badaczy, ale stanowi też istotny wkład w rozumienie procesów, jakim podlega polska i europejska
273
Bogusław Nierenberg profesor Uniwersytetu Opolskiego. Pracownik naukowy, dziennikarz, ekonomista. Dyrektor Instytutu Kultury Wydziału Zarządzania i Komunikacji Społecznej Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego oraz profesor w Zakładzie Dziennikarstwa i Komunikacji Społecznej Uniwersytetu Opolskiego. Kieruje pracami jedynego w Polsce Zakładu Zrządzania i Ekonomiki Mediów na Wydziale Zarządzania i Komunikacji Społecznej Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego. Specjalizuje się w ekonomice mediów i kultury, zarządzaniu mediami, komunikacji rynkowej oraz reklamie. Autor 7 monografii oraz kilkudziesięciu artykułów naukowych dotyczących mediów, reklamy, zarządzania i komunikacji rynkowej, ale także dziennikarstwa oraz gatunków dziennikarskich. Jest autorem tomiku wierszy „Dychotomia uczuć”.
erman Hesse napisał w Wilku stepowym: „Gdziekolwiek słuchamy radia, stajemy się częścią wiecznych zmagań między naszymi wyobrażeniami a obrazami, czasem nieskończonością, między tym, co ludzkie, a tym co boskie”. Monografia Stanisława Jędrzejewskiego Radiofonia publiczna w Europie w erze cyfrowej wydaje się być egzemplifikacją tej myśli H. Hessego, bowiem radio ma w sobie moc magiczną. Nie włazi z buciorami do naszych domów, jak to czyni telewizja. Radio jest rodzajem intymnej rozmowy ze słuchaczem, na które wciąż jest zapotrzebowanie i zapewne będzie też w przyszłości. Ci, którzy wieszczyli, że wraz z nadejściem telewizji nastąpi koniec radia – srodze się pomylili. Jednakże współczesne radio stoi u progu zasadniczych zmian. Książka S. Jędrzejewskiego Radiofonia publiczna w Europie w erze cyfrowej podejmuje rozmaite wątki, odnoszące się do europejskiej radiofonii. Radio, podobnie jak inne środki przekazu, czeka przejście na nadawanie cyfrowe. Kilka lat temu Światowe Forum DAB zatwierdziło jako obowiązujący standard DAB+. Oznacza to dla radia znaczące zwiększenie liczby dobrze sformatowanych kanałów cyfrowych, tworzonych głównie przez radiofonie publiczne. Oznacza to także zupełnie nowe możliwości poszerzenia oferty programowej. Nowe, multimedialne urządzenia odbiorcze sprawią, że odbiór treści będzie miał charakter równoległy. Ocenia się, że w Europie ok. 40% internautów słucha radia przez Internet. Kiedy w latach 20. XX w. John Reith tworzył zręby współczesnej radiofonii publicznej, zapewne nie przewidywał, iż będzie to medium, które w dużym stopniu będzie kształtowało sposób myślenia Europejczyków w pierwszej połowie dwudziestego stulecia. I zapewne nie wyobrażał sobie dylematów przed jakimi stanie współczesna europejska radiofonia publiczna. Genezę tych
H
zjawisk przedstawia S. Jędrzejewski w początkowych fragmentach monografii. W dalszej części koncentruje się na rozwoju radiofonii publicznej w europejskim społeczeństwie demokratycznym. Wskazuje na zależności pomiędzy kulturą demokratyczną, procesami politycznymi a rozwojem radiofonii publicznej. Interesujące są także jego rozważania związane z zagadnieniami formatowania oferty programowej radia publicznego, a także wątki dotyczące perspektyw radiofonii publicznej, kończące się przewidywanymi przez Autora możliwymi scenariuszami rozwoju radia w przyszłości. S. Jędrzejewski przewiduje, że publiczna radiofonia w Europie, po okresie obecnej transformacji, utrzyma swoją silną pozycję. Przewiduje także, że Polskie Radio SA nadal będzie odgrywać ważną rolę społeczną jako istotny czynnik kształtowania demokracji i rozwoju kulturowego. Rozważania dotyczące radia są dziełem badacza, który na tych zagadnieniach zna się jak mało kto. Warto zauważyć, że prof. dr hab. Stanisław Jędrzejewski kieruje jedyną w Polsce Katedrą Teorii i Praktyki Komunikacji Radiowej Katolickiego Uniwersytetu Lubelskiego, jest członkiem Międzynarodowej Sieci Badaczy Radia IREN oraz wiceprzewodniczącym Sekcji Badań nad Radiem Europejskiego Stowarzyszenia Badań Edukacji i Komunikacji ECREA. Był też członkiem zarządu Polskiego Radia, wcześniej jego dyrektorem programowym i dyrektorem I Programu PR. W 2005 r. został członkiem Krajowej Rady Radiofonii i Telewizji. Przez 12 lat brał udział w pracach Komisji Radiowej Europejskiej Unii Radiowo-Telewizyjnej (EBU). Należy zatem zauważyć, że omawiana monografia, napisana przez tak wybitnego badacza radia, jest nie tylko źródłem wiedzy dla innych badaczy, ale stanowi też istotny wkład w rozumienie procesów, jakim podlega polska i europejska
Bogusław Nierenberg
Radiofonia publiczna w Europie w erze cyfrowej (recenzja)
Bogusław Nierenberg profesor Uniwersytetu Opolskiego. Pracownik naukowy, dziennikarz, ekonomista. Dyrektor Instytutu Kultury Wydziału Zarządzania i Komunikacji Społecznej Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego oraz profesor w Zakładzie Dziennikarstwa i Komunikacji Społecznej Uniwersytetu Opolskiego. Kieruje pracami jedynego w Polsce Zakładu Zrządzania i Ekonomiki Mediów na Wydziale Zarządzania i Komunikacji Społecznej Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego. Specjalizuje się w ekonomice mediów i kultury, zarządzaniu mediami, komunikacji rynkowej oraz reklamie. Autor 7 monografii oraz kilkudziesięciu artykułów naukowych dotyczących mediów, reklamy, zarządzania i komunikacji rynkowej, ale także dziennikarstwa oraz gatunków dziennikarskich. Jest autorem tomiku wierszy „Dychotomia uczuć”.
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2011, Vol 4 (4) Zarządzanie Kulturą 2011, Vol 4 (4)
sprawiły, że książka Stanisława Jędrzejewskiego zatytułowana Radiofonia publiczna w Europie w erze cyfrowej stała się jedną z najbardziej znaczących pozycji naukowych w tym zakresie w ostatnich latach, nie tylko na gruncie polskim, ale i europejskim.
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radiofonia. Do tej monografii winni sięgać także praktycy medialni, sternicy mediów, dziennikarze oraz studenci dziennikarstwa i komunikacji społecznej czy kierunków pokrewnych. Sumując powyższe rozważania należy stwierdzić, że zarówno waga tematu, jak i osoba Autora
2010, s. 283.
Nota wydawnicza: Stanisław Jędrzejewski, Radiofonia publiczna w Europie w erze cyfrowej, Wydawnictwo Universitas, Kraków
Nota wydawnicza: Stanisław Jędrzejewski, Radiofonia publiczna w Europie w erze cyfrowej, Wydawnictwo Universitas, Kraków
2010, s. 283.
sprawiły, że książka Stanisława Jędrzejewskiego zatytułowana Radiofonia publiczna w Europie w erze cyfrowej stała się jedną z najbardziej znaczących pozycji naukowych w tym zakresie w ostatnich latach, nie tylko na gruncie polskim, ale i europejskim.
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radiofonia. Do tej monografii winni sięgać także praktycy medialni, sternicy mediów, dziennikarze oraz studenci dziennikarstwa i komunikacji społecznej czy kierunków pokrewnych. Sumując powyższe rozważania należy stwierdzić, że zarówno waga tematu, jak i osoba Autora