Flooring Vol. 1

∂ Practice

Flooring Volume 1 Standards Solution Principles Materials JosĂŠ Luis Moro

Author José Luis Moro, Prof. Dipl.-Ing. Architekt University of Stuttgart, Institute for Design and Construction – IEK Assistant: Julia López Hidalgo

Publisher Editorial services and editorial assistants: Steffi Lenzen (Project Manager) Jana Rackwitz Editorial staff: Carola Jacob-Ritz, Heike Messemer Drawings: Ralph Donhauser, Simon Kramer Translation into English: Übersetzungsbüro I Translation Agency Antoinette Aichele-Platen, Munich www.antoinetteaichele.com Übersetzungen Gründing I Gruending Translations Dr. Yasmin Gründing (Univ. Lond.) www.gruending-translations.de Copy Editor: Übersetzungsbüro I Translation Agency Antoinette Aichele-Platen, Munich Proofreading: Stefan Widdess, Berlin © 2016 Institut für internationale Architektur-Dokumentation GmbH & Co. KG, Munich An Edition DETAIL book ISBN 978-3-95553-301-4 (Print) ISBN 978-3-95553-302-1 (E-Book) ISBN 978-3-95553-303-8 (Bundle) Printed on acid-free paper made from cellulose bleached without the use of chlorine.

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Contents

5 Preface

Standards, building physics effects and constructive solution principles 8 Flooring in a constructive context 11 Usage functions 29 Protective functions 43 Constructive functions Execution 50 Flooring types and constructive connections 74 Floor coverings Appendix 116 Author, literature, standards 119 Image credits 120 Index

∂ Practice Flooring is published in two volumes.

Volume 1 is primarily concerned with function and technical construction. It serves as a planning aid for designing flooring constructions and coverings. In addition to sound theoretical principles, it provides background information and decision-making aids for various flooring types, materials as well as constructive connections and transitions.

Volume 2 is dedicated to historical development, architectural effect and life cycle – including renovation or modernisation – and the ecological balance of flooring. It contains a comprehensive project part with successful execution examples.

Volume 1 – Function and Technology Volume 2 – Architecture and Design

Preface

Flooring plays an important part in the overall architectural impression of a place – in particular of interior spaces – which is significantly influenced by its materiality and appearance. The aesthetic potential is however often underestimated, assuming a subordinate ranking in the design process. This is partly due to the fact that flooring generally has to fulfil particularly tight functional constraints that do not immediately seem to allow any major ­creative leeway. Users are in constant physical contact with the floor and reliant on free and safe accessibility within the construction as well as strict fulfilment of the associated functions. Flooring has to meet the demands on a building component subjected to extreme use. To allow unrestricted usability, flooring should be flat, even and – as far as possible – free of excessive inclines, steps or other interruptions. As far as shape is concerned, the scope of design is therefore relatively restricted.

Irrespective of this, flooring constitutes an essential element of architectural design and can have a strong visual impact. By making up a relatively high proportion of the visible surfaces, the influence on how interior spaces are perceived is significant. Flooring can contribute consider­ ably to the architectural appearance of a building through its material, colour and ornamental design. Graphical treatment of the flooring surface can set visual accents in a room and – by reflecting the rhythm of the building structure – powerfully support the effect of architectural composition. The substantial impact of flooring is also attributable to its physical proximity to the perceiver. As opposed to walls and ceilings, users are in direct contact with the surface, and therefore immediately exposed to a constant haptic

impression of the nature of the material making up the floor, its texture as well as its warmth or coldness.

The aim of this two-volume publication is to give an overview of flooring with regard to aesthetics, function and construction.

Due to the broadness and complexity of the topic, which is increasing on account of the constantly rising requirements in the building industry, this publication focusses exclusively on interior flooring.

Volume 1 is primarily concerned with function and technical construction. It serves as a planning aid for designing flooring constructions and coverings. In addition to sound theoretical principles, it provides background information and decision-making aids for various flooring types, materials as well as constructive connections and transitions. Volume 2 is dedicated to historical development, architectural effect and life cycle – including renovation or modernisation – and the ecological balance of flooring. It ­contains a comprehensive project part with successful execution examples offering inspiration for individual application in practice.

José Luis Moro

6

Standards, building physics effects and constructive solution principles

8 9

Flooring in a constructive context Allocation of functions to layers Principal structures of floors and ceilings

11 12 16 21 22 25 27 27

Usage functions Accessibility and general usability Safe access and general safety aspects Barrier-free Room acoustics Thermal room conditioning and ventilation Hygiene and value retention Special requirements of usage for sport Special requirements of industrial use

29 32 35 37 38 39 41

Protective functions Sound protection Fire protection Thermal protection Heat storage Heat conduction on contact Moisture protection Protection from electrostatic discharge

43 43 44

Constructive functions Load transfer, load distribution Media routing Durability

7

Standards, building physics effects and constructive solution principles

Flooring in a constructive context Flooring is constituted of layers or series of layers on top of load-carrying floor or ceiling constructions. It should always be considered in constructive connection with the entire building. The functions that flooring and the load-bearing construction are required to fulfil are fundamental factors defining their constructive constitution.

Changing material properties Primitive flooring able to satisfy very elementary functional requirements can be created by cleaning, levelling and compacting natural ground composed of soil.

The latter can be achieved through very simple methods such as watering, a process in which the adsorption effect of water serves to bind the particles of earth.

This renders a plane surface that is at least partly dust-free and abrasionresistant to a limited extent.

for walking on, this wood covering also possesses heat-insulating properties allowing it to keep any coldness of the ground away from the feet. In this case, the floor covering layer fulfils (at least) two different functions. In view of the fact that certain functions are assigned to specific layers of a construction, this floor can already be described as multifunctional.

Construction however often also involves conscious utilisation of purely monofunctional layers, e.g. waterproofing sheets.

Introduction of separate layers Despite the simplicity of the primitive flooring described, the process involves targeted constructive measures aiming at maximum compliance with the chief requirements of the flooring surface for a specific use. A waterbound floor is an example of a measure that modifies a surface material characteristic, i.e. its more or less sandy and loose composition, to this end. A covering composed of timber planks laid out flat on the other hand already involves introduction of a coat-like layer made of a specifically selected material able to fulfil essential functions due to its properties. On closer inspection, it becomes evident that apart from creating an even and firm surface

Monofunctionality – multifunctionality The allocation of specific functions to selected components, layers or coats, which fulfil these primarily on the basis of their material properties, is helpful for understanding the composition of constructions and for making well-founded decisions during the construction process. Already on a functional level, the following should be differentiated: the actual usage-related chief function of a component – in this case comfortable and safe accessibility of flooring as well as possible influence on the spatial situation – and the associated constructional ­subfunctions. These may include transfer of forces, heat insulation and storage, sound and fire protection as well as absorption or reflection of light etc. Precisely these subfunctions are normally allocated to individual layers.

From this perspective, the development of complex multilayer constructions from originally simple, sometimes homoge­ neous single-shell components can be understood as a process in which the allocation of functions to material layers or coats takes place in an increasingly differentiated manner. Simple components with a rather uncomplicated ­structure fulfil several functions at the same time, i.e. they are multifunctional, yet only with a moderate efficiency in regard to the individual subfunctions.

Allocation of functions to layers

The floor is defined as any ground surface within a specific room or area. The term is however not necessarily only building-specific: the floor of the mouth or the floor of the ocean are examples of this. The term flooring on the other hand already clearly implies accessibility of the ground surface. In this sense, flooring can be considered as floors that can at least be stepped on and in most all cases also walked on. Certain minimum requirements must be fulfilled for this purpose, particularly with respect to the stability of the surface and its characteristics regarding evenness and flatness. These requirements necessitate constructive measures, which are considered more closely below.

1

8

Standards, building physics effects and constructive solution principles

Targeted assignment of functions to ­individual layers, i.e. monofunctionality, on the other hand allows considerable specialisation of these for this particular subfunction and therefore also a distinct increase in their efficiency with1 regard (FS)of mono2 3 4 to these subfunctions. The use functional layers allows optimal fulfilment of specific subfunctions. Multifunctional layers on the other hand are associated 1 with a drawback in this context, (FS) because 2 3 4 major conflicts between the targets of the combined subfunctions often exist, such as between transfer of forces and heat 1 (FS) 2 3 4 insulation. While the former needs strong and dense materials, insulation normally requires just the opposite, namely porous and light materials. Fulfilment of both subfunctions by a single layer composed of a homogeneous material may clearly be very difficult to achieve. 6 7 8 (FS)

(FS)

(FS)

Specialisation and differentiation of layers The fact that flooring is described as a constructively differentiated element 6 7 8 (FS) (FS) of (FS) is attributable to the classification ­layers fulfilling specialised functions described above. Over time, the upper 7 8 limiting regions of floors or6floor-ceiling (FS) (FS) (FS) constructions developed from initially undifferentiated floor constructions to independent layer packages. This was because the surfaces of the main loadcarrying construction no longer met the rising demands made on them. As far as floors against soil are concerned, there came a time when loam or other screeds 1 2

2

2

2

6 3 7 2 (FS) (FS) (FS) 8 ak floorboards in the Maritime Museum of O ­Denmark, Helsingør (DK) 2013, BIG – Bjarke ­Ingels Group Principal layer structure of a floor plate against soil according to DIN 18 195-4 6 with3 the 7most important necessary and optional 8 2 (FS) functional (FS) (FS) layers.

The flooring-relevant layers are identified as components of the flooring structure (FS). a Simplest structure: Sealing is achieved with an anti-capillary layer (4). Flooring 6 3structure 7 (FS) is limited to an optional surface treatment 8 2 (FS) (FS) (FS) or coating here (1). According to DIN 18 195-4,

used were no longer considered ad­­ equately abrasion-resistant or clean, so that they were covered with an additional firmer layer. Similarly, the surface formed by floorboards on top of wooden beam ceilings was found to be insufficient, 5 resulting in coverage with an additional layer that could easily be renewed as required. The influence of industrial building technology led to considerable intensification of this process, so that today‘s 5 floorings are generally composed of a series of layers of materials, partly significantly technically modified and optimised to5fulfil ­relatively narrowly defined subfunctions. The latter applies particularly to the uppermost layer, i.e. the floor covering.

1 Smoothing, coating or levelling with filler 2 Floor plate (necessary) 3 Separating layer 4 Anti-capillary gravel layer (optional if sealing layer (8) exists) 5 Filtering layer (optional) 1 6 Flooring structure (FS) 2 3 4 (at least necessary if sealing layer (8) exists) 7 Thermal and /or impact sound insulation

(both optional) 8 Sealing layer according to DIN 18 195-4 (necessary, except when floor plate (2) is made of waterproof concrete) 9 Levelling layer (can 5also be executed as thermal insulation layer instead of thermal insulation layer (7))

1 (FS)

2

3

4

5

1 (FS)

2

3

4

5

Principal structures of floors and ceilings

The sequence of layers above the top edge of the load-bearing construction 3 4 5 (FB) 3 is described as flooring structure. The sequence of layers making up the flooring primarily depends on the constructive subfunctions 3assumed by the flooring in 4 5 (FB) the 3 complete structure association with of the enveloping component, i.e. a floor against the soil or an intermediate floor 3 context. These may vary structure in this 4 5 (FB) 3 considerably from case to case: flooring may under certain circumstances contain a layer which is impervious to moisture, if the complete component – such as a floor against soil – is required to fulfil this function as a whole. In other cases, however, this sealing layer is either ­integrated in the layer sequence of the 5 9 this structure is only suitable for rooms with ­minimal requirements, but not for constantly used rooms. b Conventional structure with waterproofing against soil moisture on the floor plate. In the 4 this case, 5 9 flooring structure (FS) consists of package (6) and (8) (and possibly (7) and (3)). c Structure with waterproofing against soil moisture under the floor plate. Here the flooring (FS) 4 structure 5 9 consists of flooring package (6) (and possibly (7) and (3)).

a

6 (FS)

7 (FS)

8 (FS)

2

4

5

3 (FS)

3

6 (FS)

7 (FS)

8 (FS)

2

4

5

3 (FS)

3

6 (FS)

7 (FS)

8 (FS)

2

4

5

3 (FS)

3

3 7 6 (FS) (FS) (FS)

8

2

4

5

9

6 3 7 (FS) (FS) (FS)

8

2

4

5

9

6 3 7 (FS) (FS) (FS)

8

2

4

5

9

b

4

2c

9

Standards, building physics effects and constructive solution principles

Areas (examples)

Cleaning / Disinfection

Areas without risk of infection (with regard to a general risk to the population) • Corridors, stairwells • Administration / Offices • Dining rooms • Lecture theatres/Teaching rooms • Technical areas

• Cleaning of all surfaces is adequate, disinfection is not necessary

Areas with a possible risk of infection • General ward • Outpatient treatment areas • Radiology • Physical therapy • Sanitary rooms • Dialysis • Childbirth • Intensive care/monitoring

• Surfaces with frequent hand/skin contact must be disinfected • Floors and other surfaces are cleaned • Staff responsible for cleaning and disinfection must be suitable, trained and instructed

Areas with a particularly high risk of infection • OR departments • Intervention rooms • Departments for special intensive care (e.g. long-term ventilation, severe-burn patients) • Transplantation department • Premature infants ward

• Surfaces with frequent hand/skin contact and floors must be disinfected • Other surfaces are cleaned • Staff responsible for cleaning and disinfection must be suitable, trained and instructed

Areas with patients carrying pathogens in or on them, which represents a risk of transmission in indi­ vidual cases • Isolation areas/care • Functional areas in which the above-mentioned ­patients are treated

• Surfaces with frequent hand /skin contact and floors must be disinfected • Other surfaces are cleaned • Staff responsible for cleaning and disinfection must be suitable, trained and instructed

Areas with a risk of infection particularly to staff

35

• Microbiological laboratories • Pathology • Disposal • Sluice rooms of laundries and functional units

• Surfaces representing an infection hazard must be disinfected

35 H ygiene-related sensitivity of various usage ­areas in healthcare facilities and associated ­disinfection requirement of surfaces according to recommendation by the Robert Koch Institute (RKI) 36 Treatment rooms in Federal Armed Forces ­hospital Ulm (D) 2007– 2015, Heinle, Wischer and Partner 37 Sports hall in Sports education centre Mülimatt, Brugg / Windisch (CH) 2010, Studio Vacchini ­Architetti

36

26

Healthcare requirements The risk of infection is high in healthcare facilities, i.e. hospitals, clinics, rehabili­ tation centres as well as homes for the elderly and nursing homes. So-called nosocomial infections (also known as infections through hospital germs) are attributable to staying in such institutions and represent an increasing health hazard. Although flooring is normally not in direct contact with the skin, the ­permanent closeness to the body and its extensive area make flooring a safety hazard that should not be underestimated, if not cleaned adequately. The specifications with regard to cleaning and care of surfaces, including flooring, in the healthcare sector are therefore ­particularly high. Dirt can be considered to cause infections in the sense that it offers subsistence for microorganisms.

Further unfavourable conditions in healthcare facilities include relatively high room temperatures, that patients often have weaker constitutions than normal, also from an immunological perspective, and the contaminations that have to be dealt with are frequently of a problematic nature. The aim of a health-promoting and low-risk design as well as safe operation of such premises is therefore to remove the basis for survival and nutrition of microorganisms through appropriate cleaning [40].

Particularly sensitive or exposed areas in healthcare facilities have to permit disinfection in addition to cleaning. These must therefore be designed to allow safe application of suitable disinfectants [41].

This requirement excludes textile floor coverings in general for such areas.

Rooms are divided into groups depending on use and disinfection requirements (Fig. 35).

According to the guideline of the Robert Koch Institute, flooring in critical areas of healthcare facilities should generally

Standards, building physics effects and constructive solution principles

37

be “waterproof, easy to clean and disinfect”. “[...] smooth, non-porous materials may be considered as advantageous, because microbial contaminations can be removed more easily” [42]. Seals and connections must also be hygienic, i.e. as smooth and tight as possible. Open joints offer hollow spaces for the accumulation of dirt. In damp areas, ingress of moisture in cracks through capillary action must generally be prevented.

Expansion joints should not be used at all in particularly sensitive rooms.

Special requirements of usage for sport

Sports hall floors have to fulfil special requirements, depending on the type of sport carried out, and in the case of multipurpose halls, the other intended uses. DIN V 18 032-2 distinguishes three major superordinate properties to be ­fulfilled by sports floors, with the extent depending on the particular purpose of the sports hall: • Sport-functional properties: These ­create the necessary conditions for vari­ ous types of sport, while at the same time reducing fatigue and preventing excessive risks related to straining the musculoskeletal system.

• Protective-functional properties: These are concerned with taking the strain off the musculoskeletal system of persons engaging in sport and lowering the risk of injury.

• Technical properties: These serve for long-term retention of the sport-functional and protective-functional properties of the floor, as well as its usability for various devices and equipment (chairs, platforms) as well as for nonsport use.

Focus may be more on one or another property depending on the purpose of the sports hall. All three aspects should however always be included in an overall

consideration. The requirements that have to be fulfilled by flooring vary significantly according to the type of sport. A major difference between the type of sport and the techniques associated lies in whether more or less the whole body surface hits the ground when falling, or only an elbow and / or knee. Different characteristics are in turn required for roller sports like cycle racing or ball sports. The elastic deformability of flooring is decisive in this context. DIN V 18 032-2 distinguishes the following sports floors: • Area-elastic sports floor: The surface of this floor is extensively elastic to deformation thanks to incorporation of a bending-resistant load distribution layer in its structure. The relatively bending-resistant surface is favour­ able for standing stability, sliding behaviour as well as for rolling loads.

The response of the hard surface to deformation is more sluggish.

• Point-elastic sports floor: The surface is flexible to bending under point loads and responds quickly even to small loads. A special protective function is provided for falling on elbows and knees. The reaction to large-surface impacts is however harder. It is not very suitable for rolling loads.

• Mixed-elastic sports floor: The structure is similar to that of point-elastic sports floors, however with an add­ itional surface-stiffening component.

This reduces the respective disadvantages of area- and point-elastic floors.

• Combined-elastic sports floor: This is essentially based on the structure of area-elastic sports floors, but with an additional elastic layer between load distribution and covering layer, combining the protective-functional property of point-elastic compliance with the sport-functional property of surface elasticity.

The deformation trough of each of these four sports floor types is characteristic for the respective elastic behaviour (Fig. 40).

In addition to the elastic deformation behaviour, DIN V 18 032-2 also specifies the reflective behaviour of sports floors.

These generally have to be matt to avoid glare effects. The light reflectance factor should however not be below a minimum value. The sliding behaviour of the floor may only vary within a narrow range, since a turning movement of the foot or a sliding break should be facilitated, while slipping should be prevented. In addition, unpleasant electrostatic discharges should be avoided. DIN V 18 032-2 also prescribes stringent requirements with regard to evenness of the floor. Both development and distribution of sound have to be restricted. The rolling resistance of the floor must not be too high for roller sports. As far as multipurpose halls are concerned, it should be ensured that flooring can be subjected to point loads exerted by items of furniture such as tables, chairs or platforms [43]. When a hall is intended for multiple uses, sports floors with mixed properties are normally opted for, i.e. combined-elastic and mixed-elastic structures.

Special requirements of industrial use

Industrial floors are subjected to particu­ larly high strain due to constant and mobile loads, mechanical wear, chemical attack, temperature-based expansion / contraction, concrete-typical shrinkage deformations as well as internal restraints originating from the concreting process.

Industrial constructions are often without complicated flooring structures, which are quite normal for other areas of use.

The reasons for this include the necessity to build quickly to allow prompt putting into service and significant cost pressure.

In most cases, the floor plate generally 27

Standards, building physics effects and constructive solution principles

1

3

2

11 2233

1

6

4

66

44 55

3

2

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a

1

2 4

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8

1 1 2 24 4 5 5 7 7 8 8

1

2 4

5

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68 b

1 4

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8 10

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12

1 1 4 4 5 5 8 8 1010 1111 1212

1 4

5

8 10

5

8

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a

1 4

10 11

1 1 4 4 5 5 8 8 1010 1111

1 4

69 b 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

40

Floor covering Protective layer Composite waterproofing (CWP) Screed Impact sound insulation Floor drain Drainage layer

5

8

10 11

8 W aterproofing a ­ ccording to DIN 18 195-5 9 S creed with floor covering 10 Floor plate 11 Thermal insulation 12 Seepage layer

than being located under the floor plate or being waterproof itself). Various sealing layers offering protection against soil moisture are considered in the section “Principal floor and ceiling structures” (p. 9ff.).

Apart from the other objectives referred to, keeping the flooring surface free of moisture is particularly important for safe access primarily for reasons of slip resistance (see “Safe access and general safety aspects”, p. 12ff.). This cannot always be safeguarded in some room types (e.g. wet rooms), where accumulated water is removed as quickly as possible in a controlled manner, for instance through floor inclin­ ations and suitable floor drains. Requirements regarding durability, health protection and safety therefore coincide in this regard.

Exposure to moisture from above Most regular-use flooring is exposed to moisture to a minor extent. Accidentally spilt liquids form local damp spots and are normally harmless since they can ­diffuse into the room and dry out after a short period of time. Most hard floors are regularly wiped with water containing a cleaning agent (see “Hygiene and value retention”, p. 25ff.). The thin film of moisture created in the process is however safe even for relatively porous stone or ceramic floors.

Exposure classes according to DIN 18 195-5 Floor surfaces with moderate and heavy exposure to moisture require ­special moisture protection measures.

DIN 18 195-5 distinguishes the following exposure classes (also see “Wet-room floors”, p. 57f.): • Moderately exposed surfaces: Bal­ conies in residential buildings, floor ­surfaces directly exposed to splash

water in wet rooms of residential ­buildings • Heavily exposed surfaces: Floor surfaces heavily exposed to water for ­normal use or cleaning in wet rooms (e.g. entrances to swimming pools, public showers, commercial kitchens and other commercial uses) Surfaces requiring waterproofing are classified as moderately exposed by DIN 18 195-5, when “water exposure is slight, not constant and there is sufficient slope to prevent water retention or puddle formation” [55].

Flooring surfaces subjected to moderate as well as heavy exposure must be fitted with additional waterproofing according to DIN 18 195-5. It must be ensured that accumulated water cannot collect. Even if sealing layers are considered to be permanently impermeable to water, there is a risk of damage to the sealing by water collected over a longer period of time or ingress of water in the construction through possibly existing defects, which are harmless when water is drained away quickly [56]. If water drainage of the floor surface cannot take place quickly enough, perhaps due to excessive roughness or pronounced profiling, suitable drainage layers for quick removal of water have to be included in the waterproofing system.

According to DIN 18 195-5, waterproofing of the flooring must be installed and secured to adjoining rising com­ ponents such as walls at least 15 cm above the protective layer or the surface of the ­covering. Otherwise, special measures ensuring that water can neither enter nor run behind the water­ proofing (e.g. channels covered with grating) have to be implemented. Waterproofing must generally be protected from mechanical damage from above.

This is normally achieved by protective

Standards, building physics effects and constructive solution principles

70

layers pursuant to DIN 18195-10 (­ customarily through screed) or a suit­ able cover fulfilling the same function (Fig. 68).

The various waterproofing materials used for moderately and heavily exposed flooring surfaces are considered more closely in the section “Wet room floors” (p. 57f.).

Exposure to moisture from below In the building industry, efforts to seal against rising soil moisture exerting no pressure must be made. As far as the flooring structure is concerned, this always involves moisture accumulated in the load-carrying floor plate. Waterproofing (according to DIN 18 195-5) is always positioned on the upper side of the floor plate, either fitted directly to it or on subconcrete and /or an equivalent substrate. This generally includes (cold self-adhesive) bitumen sheeting, plastic and elastomer sheeting, polymermodified bituminous thick coating and mastic asphalt. As mentioned in the ­previous section, waterproofing must be protected against mechanical damage from above. This is achieved by means of a suitable protective layer according to DIN 18 195-10. Floor waterproofing must be joined to wall waterproofing at connections to rising wall components. Pos­ sible solutions for exterior masonry walls are shown in Fig. 69. In concrete constructions, separate sealing is either completely omitted (when using concrete with

68 P rincipal design of floor waterproofing according to DIN 18 195, Supplementary Sheet 1 a in a room with moderate exposure to moisture (wet room in residential construction) b in a room with high exposure to moisture (wet room for commercial use). An additional drainage layer is provided under the protective ­layer (mortar bed of plate covering), because pronounced profiling of flooring for good slip resistance hinders drainage of the larger quantities of water that occur.

a high penetration resistance, waterproof concrete), or horizontal waterproofing is continued up to the wall and the construction joint between floor plate and wall is sealed with a joint tape (also see DIN 18 336).

Protection from electrostatic discharge

Under specific conditions, flooring can lead to electrostatic charging of the human body. Contact with conductive materials can result in sudden discharge (electrostatic discharge – ESD) due to the built-up electric potential, visible by attraction of dust and dirt to flooring. In addition, such electrostatic discharges may lead to permanent damage to circuits of sensitive electronic equipment.

In specific areas of industry or research, static sparking may cause explosions.

ESD must therefore be prevented, starting with a reduction in the degree of static charging. Depending on use as well as the risk and damage potential of a respective room, this can be achieved by suitable selection of flooring material – some flooring types are safe in this respect, while others are problematic (see “Electrostatic behaviour of flooring”, p. 42 and Fig. 73, p. 42) –, by special treatment of the flooring or by additional measures for dissipation of the electric charge induced by the floor.

Physical interrelations Each body possesses both positive and negative electric charges, which are nor-

69 P rincipal design of sealing against soil moisture at the outer wall connection in cellars according to DIN 18 195, Supplementary Sheet 1 a The outer wall is made of bricks, with the ­horizontal sealing installed in the bed joint ­between floor plate and the first row of stones. b Sealing can alternatively be installed in a mortar joint above the top edge of the floor plate.

70 Lab room with floor covering with discharge cap­ acity. Special labs at the University of Leipzig (D) 2009, Schulz and Schulz

mally balanced. Friction or contact ­between two bodies results in a transfer of negatively charged particles (electrons) between the atoms of the bound­ ary layers. This asymmetrical electron distribution leads to a so-called contact voltage between the two bodies; the ­surface layers develop electric direct ­voltage fields, which are at rest (static).

When the bodies separate from each other, the voltage at both bodies increases significantly (analogous to a parallelplate capacitor), while the capacitance decreases, so that the overall voltage remains the same. This results in the high voltages typical for electrostatic charging, which can reach up to 20,000 V [57]. These high potential differences associated with electrostatic charging are not perceivable, except on contact with a conductive object, leading to immediate and often unexpected discharge. According to the current state of knowledge, these voltages are how­ ever not dangerous, because the total transmitted electric charge is still small.

The threshold for feeling an ESD is around 3,000 V. Contact with friction and subsequent ­separation of two objects is what generates the so-called triboelectricity (from tribeia, Greek for “to rub”). On floors, this occurs during the walking process: when setting down and lifting off the foot from a surface. This is chiefly influenced by the following factors: • Ability of the materials involved to take up or release electrons: There are ­significant differences in this regard between isolating materials (in which electrons are firmly bound to the atoms) and conductive materials, such as metals (the outer electrons of which are only loosely bound to the nucleus).

Persistent surface charging caused by isolators generally leads to higher potential differences and hence to more 41

48

Execution

Flooring types and constructive connections 50 Screeds 57 Wet-room floors 59 Hollow cavity floors 62 Raised access floors 63 Sports floors 66 Industrial floors 70 Constructive connections

74 75 78 85 99 106 107

Floor coverings Cement-bonded coverings Natural stone coverings Ceramic coverings Wood coverings Elastic coverings Laminate coverings Textile coverings

49

Flooring types and constructive connections

1 Skirting board 2 Perimeter insulation strip 3 Floor covering

11 Wood-based material or gypsum fibreboard, loosely laid 12 Levelling fill 13 Trickle protection

8 Screed plates, two-layer 9 Planking of bearing floor structure 10 Butt joints, staggered

4 Screed 5 Separating layer 6 Impact sound insulation 7 Bearing floor structure

11 1 11 1

11 1 22 2 33 3 66 6 88 8 10 101011 1111 12 1212 13 1313 99 9 22 2

33 3

44 4

55 5 66 6 77 7

8

22 2

33 3

88 8

66 6

99 9

10 1010

9

Floating screed Floating screeds are always used when sound mitigation requirements are higher (especially impact or footfall sound) (see “Sound protection”, p. 29f.), and when secondary sound transmission through flanking components has to be prevented. These are therefore predominant in residential construction with the typical close proximity of different utilisation units. The installation of floating screeds moreover permits inclusion of thermal insulation layers (see “Thermal protection”, p. 35f.).

When this laying method is used, the screed plate fulfils an important load ­distribution function which has to ensure that local loads are transferred to the bearing floor structure without excessive deformation or compression of the resili­ ent insulating layer. Analogous to screed on a separating layer, the bending stiffness of the screed, i.e. its flexural tensile strength, is important here (Fig. 75 and 77, p. 44). This characteristic is generally provided a priori by dry screeds, while it has to be demonstrated for wet screeds.

Depending on the live load, DIN 18 560-2 defines the respective nominal thicknesses and flexural tensile strengths of the screed or hardness classes for mastic asphalt screeds.

Wet construction method Insulating materials standardised according to DIN EN 13 162 to 13 171 are used for wet-in-wet construction of floating screeds. A differentiation between insulations with and without sound insulation requirements (DES and DEO respect­ ively) is made (Fig. 61, p. 36). Insulating materials are compressed through the weight of the screed plate itself as well as the live loads acting on it. The compressibility c of an insulating material is derived from the difference between the original thickness thkO (as supplied) and 52

10

the thickness under load thkL. This is designed in line with the expected load on the screed. The dynamic stiffness sD of an insulating material has a significant effect on its suitability in terms of building acoustics.

Insulating plates should be laid very close to each other. Butt joints must be arranged in a staggered manner if several layers are installed. To avoid development of sound leakages by entry of screed material into open joints resulting in contact with the bearing floor structure, the insulating layer has to be covered with a thin foil (polyethylene foil – PE foil or a comparable material, minimum 0.15 mm). DIN 18 560-2 specifies a min­ imum edge-to-edge overlap of 80 mm.

Perimeter joints at the edges of components rising vertically upwards must be fitted with perimeter insulation strips to prevent contact of the screed with these (Fig. 8 and 11).

Dry construction method The essential structural functions of floating screeds laid using dry construction methods and of prefabricated screeds are comparable to wet screeds. Special characteristics can be achieved by the mater­ ials used and specific features relevant to planning and execution. Dry screeds are mainly made of prefabricated panels or boards that can easily be laid out on the insulating layer on site (see “Dry screed”, p. 54). They can be applied in single or multiple layers and installed with formlocking connections (tongue and groove, rabbet) or staggered butt joints (Fig. 9).

Dry screeds are advantageous whenever there is no trapped moisture in the structure (assembly of prefabricated elements, especially timber construction). The fact that they are light makes dry screeds particularly suitable for lightweight constructions and renovation of old buildings (Fig. 10 and see Volume 2).

Materials

Screeds are manufactured using the following materials.

Calcium sulfate screed (CA) According to DIN EN 13 454, calcium ­sulfate screeds are screeds made of gypsum, which is calcium sulfate dihydrate or CaSO4 2H2O [4]. The anhydrite (CaSO4), i.e. calcium sulfate, is used as binding agent. Screeds can be produced with mortar-like or flowing consistencies.

Before the introduction of this European standard, the latter were referred to as anhydrite or calcium sulfate flowing screeds (CAF) [5].

As is generally typical for gypsum products, calcium sulfate screeds do not tend to shrink. On the contrary: under ­certain circumstances, expansion effects may occur especially during later drying phases, which may require post-processing work. The lack of contraction of these screeds means that larger areas of these can be poured without joints. As flowing screeds, they possess high flexural tensile strength. They solidify through hydration of the anhydrite. This process is relatively sluggish, which is why screeds with greater thicknesses should generally be avoided in view of the associated long drying. Similar to all gypsum products, calcium sulfate screeds are sensitive to moisture. On contact with moisture, they become less firm and swell visibly. They can obviously not be used outdoors at all and only to some extent in wet rooms with slight exposure to moisture (e.g. in domestic bathrooms without floor-level showers [6].

Mastic asphalt screed (AS) According to DIN 18 354, mastic asphalt screeds are composed of a mixture of the binding agent bitumen and aggregates, usually fillers (lime stone, quartz powder) and crushed stone or gravel with smaller

Flooring types and constructive connections

11

grain sizes. They are poured hot at about 220 °C, either bonded, on a separating or insulating layer, and are heat-proof up to approximately 250 °C when finished.

They are ready for further layers imme­ diately after cooling (after about eight hours), which is a special advantage of this type of screed. Their high strength and their relatively small thickness make them suitable for use in renovations and industrial constructions. Other advantages include thermoplastic toughness, low cracking tendency, waterproofness and high vapour diffusion resistance. ­Disadvantages include that they are relatively expensive, hard to clean and not very even [7].

Magnesite screed (MA) Magnesite screeds are made using a mixture of magnesium oxide (MgO) and magnesium chloride (MgCl2), which is known as magnesia cement, Sorel cement or magnesium oxychloride cement. Aggregates such as quartz sand are added to this. In the past, wood flour was added instead to prod­ uce a type of magnesia / wood flour cement screed, which is now generally only used in the renovation of old buildings. The mixture is characterised by high strength, which is why this type of 8 F loating screed made using wet construction method. Suitable perimeter insulation strips (2) are used to ensure that there is no contact with flanking building components. A separating layer (5) safeguards that no mortar and hence potential sources of sound leakage are created between the bearing floor structure (7) and the wall during the casting process.

9 Floating screed made using dry construction method 10 Dry screed on loose fill to level uneven load-carrying underlays (here: wood floor structure in old building with unevenness, alternatively: uneven solid concrete floor slab) 11 Floating screed with projecting perimeter insulation strips 12 Types of insulating material suitable for floating screeds, with characteristic values and possible 12 usage areas

screed is favoured for industrial flooring subjected to high loads, or as a mixture of magnesia cement and wood flour for thin, light screeds when renovating old buildings. It is normally installed as a bonded flowing screed. Magnesite screeds only tend to shrink slightly and are very resistant to wear. They are also used as an additional and particularly hard upper layer on other screed types. Large areas of these can be poured without joints because of their relatively small tendency to shrink (volume stability). The corrosive action of the material on metal parts, which is mainly attributable to magnesium chloride, has to be taken into account.

Parts which are in direct contact with the screed have to be protected with suitable coatings or separating layers. Although

not directly sensitive to moisture, magnesite screeds must be protected from continuous exposure to moisture [8].

Synthetic resin screed (SR) Synthetic resin screeds are made of a mixture of reaction screeds as binding agents and fillers (quartz powder or sand). They can be applied in customary screed thickness or as thin coatings.

The following synthetic resins are used, depending on application and specific requirements: • Epoxy resins (EP resins) • Polyurethane resins (PUR resins) • Methyl methacrylates (MMA), poly­ methyl methacrylates (PMMA) • Unsaturated polyester resins (UP resins)

Bulk ­ ensity d ρ [kg/m3]

Thermal ­conductivity λ [W/mK]

Combust­ ibility

µ value

Use

Expanded polystyrene (EPS) rigid foam

20 – 30

0.040

B 1

30 – 70

Thermal insulation layer DEO 1) and impact sound i­ nsulation layer

Extruded polystyrene (XPS) rigid foam

> 30

0.035 to 0.040

B 1

80 – 200

Thermal insulation layer DEO 1) for higher loads

Mineral fibre (stone wool)

25 –150

0.035 to 0.040

A1

1

Thermal insulation layer DEO 1), impact sound insulation layer, also subjected to high loads

Mineral fibre (glass wool)

20 – 60

0.040

A1/A 2

1

Impact sound insulation layer

Soft wood fibre

< 160

0.045 to 0.060

B 2

5 –10

Thermal insulation layer DEO 1), impact sound insulation layer,

350 – 600

0.090

B 1

2 – 5

Thermal insulation layer DEO 1), coverage of impact sound insulation layers

300 –1,000

0.080 to 0.120

A 1

1 – 8

Levelling layer under screeds

40 – 90

0.045 to 0,070

A 1, B 2

3 – 4

Levelling layer under screeds

Cellular glass

100 –170

0.040 to 0.050

A 1

œ

Cork

80 – 500

0.045

B 2

5 –10

Type of insulating material

Wood-wool lightweight construction slab Expanded clay Perlite

1)

Thermal insulation layer DEO 1), subjected to high loads Impact sound insulation layer

DEO: Interior insulation of floor slab (upper side) under screed without sound protection requirements

53

Force [N]

Flooring types and constructive connections

6,500 6,000

6330 Concrete (A)

5,500 5,000 4,500 4,000 3,500

3150

2848

3,000

Point-elastic and mixed-elastic (C)

2,500 2,000 1,500

Areaelastic (B)

1,000 500 0 0 2

4

6

8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 Time [milliseconds]

50 1

Solvent-free transparent finish 2 ting, roller application 3 PUR top layer 2 mm, poured on, levelled ­(load-distributing; ­double-layer in case of high loads) 4 Pore closure with PUR for impact sound insu­ lation and elastic layer (5)

1

2

8 1

3 2

3

5

Impact sound ­insulation and elastic layer made of synthetic granulate, 4 mm Adhesive layer Load-carrying substrate Floor covering (EPDM granulate) Primer

6 7 8 9

4

5

6

7

5 4

6 5

9 6

7 7

a

4 3

51 b

1

2

3

8 3 9 layer 7 30 mm, loor covering, F 24 mm5 4 6 Elastic higher density PUR jointless, with ­composite foam for colour finish (analodamping falls and gous to Fig. 51) 1 2 3 ­increasing horizontal Elastic layer, 12 mm pressure distribution elastomer sheeting (area elasticity) made of PUR-bound 5 Elastic layer 45 mm, rubber granulate, lower density compostwo layers ite foam for damping Load-carrying falls (point elasticity) ­substrate 1

4

1

2

1

4

5

3

3

a

52 b

66

5

3

Maximum value of concrete surface ( A) = 6,330 N Maximum value of area-elastic sports floor (B) = 2,884 N Maximum value of point-elastic and mixed-elastic sports floors (C) = 3,150 N Greater shock absorption of point-elastic and mixedelastic floors (C) in the first milliseconds

Combined-elastic sports floors are obtained by placing a resilient elastic floor between upper covering and loaddistributing plate. Covering combin­ ations as for example shown in Fig. 51 are possible.

Point-elastic and mixed-elastic sports floors

Point-elastic sports floors consist of one or several layers of elastic foam material or granulate, which is directly placed on a floor covering that is also elastic (Fig. 51, 52). Density and elasticity ­values of the layers can be adapted to the respective individual requirements.

A double elastic layer can for example contain an upper denser and more bending-resistant layer for load distribution over a larger area, thereby giving the flooring mixed-elastic properties (Fig. 51).

Reliable absorption of higher impact forces (e.g. when falling from greater heights in climbing halls) can be achieved through increasing the thickness of the layers (Fig. 52 b).

Comparison of sports floors

The specific properties of area-elastic sports floors (see “Special requirements of usage for sport”, p. 27f.) make them suitable for a broad range of uses, which is why they are widespread [26]. Yet they also have certain disadvantages. Pointelastic floor manufacturers tend to mainly criticise the sluggish reaction of areaelastic floors, i.e. their dynamic behaviour during shock absorption rather than the absolute shock absorption values.

Their response time (time for cushioning action to set in) to thrust-like loads is long compared to that of point-elastic or mixed-elastic floors, as shown by the curve of the force vs time diagram (Fig. 50). According to this, a reference concrete floor reacts very quickly with a max­ imum reaction force developed after only 6 milliseconds, reflected by the steep

curve (A). In comparison, the behaviour of an area-elastic floor (B) is just as in­­ elastic as that of a concrete floor for about three milliseconds, after which the cushioning action sets in. Point-elastic floors (C) on the other hand absorb the force effectively, very quickly. This behaviour can be explained by the fact that deform­ ation of an area-elastic floor requires movement of relatively large masses, while a few grams suffice for deformation of a point-elastic floor. This inertia with regard to deformation may be unfavour­ able, especially for lightweight athletes such as children.

Industrial floors The construction of industrial floors is special with regard to the heavy traffic loads as well as the considerable mechanical and chemical exposures that have to be withstood (Fig. 53). In addition to other characteristic factors of industrial construction such as time and cost pressure, these increased requirements demand a specific structure in which the load-carrying concrete slab is required to assume numerous functions normally fulfilled by floor structure add-ons.

The most common version is a floor slab with the upper side exposed and no further layers added. In addition to the more stringent requirements resulting from external loads, other concrete-related demands have to be taken into account.

These concern the limitation of crack formation, particularly regarding the setting process of concrete and its typical tendency to shrink (see “Special requirements from usage for industry”, p. 27ff.).

Properties of concrete floor plates

Industrial floors are often subjected both to high point loads (e.g. mobile forklift trucks or heavy shelving systems) and area loads (e.g. heavy goods). This

Flooring types and constructive connections

53

means that the plate thickness as well as the wear resistance of the concrete surface – or the screed or hard material layer sometimes placed on top of this – have to be selected depending on the expected wheel, shelf or area loads.

Especially the type of wheels on the ­forklift trucks used has a significant influence on surface wear. In this regard, DIN 18 560-7 defines three use groups for heavy duty screeds (Fig. 54).

Particularly hard tyres cause high contact pressure, leading to extensive wear.

Corresponding concrete qualities therefore have to be selected (Fig. 56). Abrasion resistance is tested and classified using standard procedures (e.g. through the quantity of abraded material according to Böhme, see “Durability”, p. 44f.).

For superior requirements, hard mater­ ial layers made of materials pursuant to DIN 1100 can be added as specified in DIN 18 560-7, the nominal thicknesses of which are also regulated by the standard (Fig. 55).

Use group

Wheel type 1)

Use by industrial trucks Work processes and pedestrian traffic – examples

I (heavy)

Steel and polyamide

Processing, grinding and milling of metal parts, putting down goods with metal forks, pedestrian traffic comprising over 1,000 persons per day

II (medium)

Urethane elastomer (Vulkollan) and rubber

Grinding and milling of wood, paper rolls and plastic parts Pedestrian traffic of 100 to 1,000 persons/day

III (light)

Elastic and air tyres

Assembly on tables, pedestrian traffic of up to 100 persons /day

54 1) Only applies for clean tyres. Hard materials and dirt pressed into tyres increase wear.

Use group (according to Fig. 54)

55

Nominal thickness of hard material layer [mm] for strength class F 9A F 11M F 9KS

I (heavy)

≥ 15

≥8

≥6

II (medium)

≥ 10

≥6

≥5

III (light)

≥8

≥6

≥4

Application area

Compres­ w/c ratio sive strength class of concrete

1. Exhibition rooms, minor use, minor traffic with soft tyres (wheel load ≤ 10 kN, tyre pressure ≤ 3 bar)

C 25/30

2. Moderate use, multistorey car park, underground ­garages, forklift trucks with ­air-filled tyres (wheel load ≤ 40 kN, tyre pressure ≤ 6 bar)

C 30/37

3. Heavy use, metal process-

C 30/37

Grain composition and type of aggregate

Abrasive Abrasion wear, quantity resistance of abraded class material [cm2/50 cm2] ≤ 15

A 15

0.47

Grading curve A/B 32: Fine aggregate 0/2 Coarse aggregate 2/8 and 8/32

≤ 12

A 12

0.42

Grading curve A/B 22:

≤9

A 9

0.53

In order to ensure the necessary dura­ ing, automotive sector, steel Fine aggregate 0/2 bility, the floor plate has to be proconstruction, heavy forklift Coarse aggregate 2/8 trucks with air-filled tyres and and 8/32 duced in accordance with the expected full rubber tyres (wheel load Broken aggregate (hard conditions of use. Corresponding require- ≤ 80 kN, tyre pressure stone chips) 11/22 2 ≤ 10 bar, p ≤ 2 N/mm ) ments (e. g. weathered, not weathered, ≤6 A 6 C 35/45 0.38 Grading curve A/B 22: constant dampness, exposure to chemical 4. Very heavy use, heavy ­industry, very heavy forklift Crushed sand 0/2 substances) are defined in DIN 1045-1 trucks with full rubber tyres Broken aggregate (hard stone by various exposure classes. The most (wheel load > 80 kN, contact chips) 5/11 and 11/22 2 pressure, p ≤ 2 N/mm ), polyor aggregate as in application stringent demands on the composition of 2 area 1 and 2 with hard material urethane tyres (p ≤ 4 N/mm ) concrete are based on expected wear, layer according to DIN 18 560-7 56 which is divided into exposure classes XM 10 to XM 3 according to DIN 1045-1. secured areas with higher risk of falling, 50 Force vs time diagram illustrating shock absorpAccording to the standard, this only conmixed-elastic characteristic through denser tion in area-elastic (B) and point-elastic or mixedand stiffer upper elastic layer (4) elastic sports floors (C) compared to a reference cerns floors with load-carrying or bracing 53 Production facility for hydraulic components, concrete surface (A) function, but is also recommended as Kaufbeuren (D) 2014, Barkow Leibinger 51 Structure of a point-elastic sports floor made an alternative to the specifications in 54 Groups of heavy duty screeds subjected to of PUR ­mechanical use according to DIN 18 560-7 a with elastic, impact-sound-insulating covering Fig. 56 [27]. In addition to the require55 Cement-bonded hard material screeds: nominal b with EPDM granulate covering ments arising from exposure, slip resistthicknesses of hard material layer according to 52 Structure of point-elastic sports floors for climbDIN 18 560-7 ing halls with increased falling hazard ance requirements may also have to be 56 Examples of concrete floors subjected to wear. a suitable for underfloor heating (adequate taken into consideration (see “Safe access Composition of concrete with associated uses shock absorption and thermal conductivity) and general safety aspects”, p. 12ff.). and abrasion resistances according to Böhme b high elasticity and high shock absorption in 67

Floor coverings

3 Material structure

Natural stone is a crystalline material composed of ordered molecular grids.

The regularly structured crystallites ­(single crystals) are however ordered in a more complex macrostructure characteristic for the respective rock type.

This determines in particular the mechanical properties of the specific kind of rock. All natural stones however share a characteristic typical for mineral mater­ ials, which is brittleness, i.e. increased sensitivity to (flexural) tensile stress. Their abrasion resistance is however high – porous stones excepted – and hence also their durability, which largely compensates the high cost associated with natural stone.

Rock groups

Three major groups of natural rock are essentially distinguished on the basis of geological processes determining their structure as well as geological age [4].

Igneous rock Igneous rock was formed by solidification of magma (ignis is Latin for fire). Its extraordinarily hard and dense structure gives it the best mechanical properties among rocks.

Sedimentary rock Sedimentary rock is formed from erosion products of igneous rock (e.g. sandstone) and/or remnants of skeletons of creatures (e.g. limestone), i.e. from individual particles (sediment particles) that are already solid. These are lithified into rock by compression and sintering of crystal powder or other particles under pressure and high temperatures (diagenesis). Typical for sedimentary rock is the alignment of grains in sedimentation layers. These dictate a distinct anisotropy of the material, which is relevant for constructional applications.

76

­ edimentary rocks are significantly S younger than igneous rocks. The ­cohesion of their particles is generally less compared to igneous rocks and hence they are usually softer and not as strong.

Metamorphic rock Metamorphic rocks are the youngest in terms of geology. They are composed of sedimentary rocks subjected to further transformation processes associated with tectonic activities under the influence of high pressure and intense heat. These rocks often also display ­typical forms of grain alignment. They can exhibit foliation or a streaky or ­striated grain structure. This grain structure is superimposed by a superordinate giant rock fabric resulting from tectonic transformations such as folding, jointing and foliation.

Selection of relevant rock types

Since a large number of natural rock types can be used for flooring, it is not possible to consider each of these separately. There are moreover distinct deviations between commercial and ­scientific (petrographic) designations.

The subgroups of the three major groups named in DIN EN 12 670 as well as several representative rock types can be used for rough orientation (Fig. 4). A detailed list of traditional trade names of European natural stones is contained in DIN EN 12 440. The natural stone types considered below are particularly relevant for execution of flooring.

why it is excellently suited for flooring subject to heavy use (Fig. 5 d). In interior spaces, it is often finished with a polished surface because of its insensitivity to wear. Visual appearance is extensively homogeneous and neutral due to the grainy structure. Granite is one of the most common rocks found practically all over the world.

Sandstone Sandstone is a sedimentary rock that was formed by densification (cementation) of loose sand. The properties displayed by sandstone vary considerably, depending on how the particles were bound during diagenesis. The key mineral is quartz (quartz sandstone). If the feldspar content is higher, the material is called arkose, while sandstone with a grain composition characterised by high clay content and low quartz content is referred to as greywacke. Quartzite-bound sandstones offer higher abrasion resistance. Discolour­ ation may occur due to the generally rough surface of sandstone. Reddish tones dominate the available colour spectrum.

Just like other sedimentary rocks, sandstone is anisotropic. Sandstone can therefore be differentiated as cut with the grain (parallel to the bedding plane) or against the grain (perpendicular to the bedding plane).

3

4 5

Granite Granite is of magmatic (or igneous) ­origin and possesses a medium to coarse grain structure, which is non-directional (isotropic). It is characterised by considerable hardness and high resistance to abrasion and chemical attack, which is

atural stone floor made of Dorfergrün, a chlorite N gneiss from East Tyrol, administration building, Vandans (A) 2013, Architekten Hermann Kaufmann Rock groups according to DIN EN 12 670 with some representative rock types (in brackets) Various natural stone coverings a marble plate covering b slate plate covering c decorative floor with black and white stone ­intarsia design; representation of the zodiac, San Miniato al Monte, Florence (I) 1207 d granite plate covering e sandstone plate covering f Solnhofen limestone plate covering g limestone plate covering h travertine plate covering

Floor coverings

a

b

Limestone Similar to sandstone, limestone is also sedimentary (Fig. 5 g). Limestone min­ erals are crystallisation forms of calcium carbonate, CaCO3. If the content of dolomite, CaMg(CO3)2, is high, the material may be called dolomite rock, while the term marl signifies a high proportion of clay mineral. Limestone is often of biogenic origin, i.e. it is composed of skel­ etons or scraps of creatures, although it may also be formed by chemical precipitation. Limestone generally offers low mechanical and chemical resistance.

It is sensitive to scratching (Mohs hardness of 3), traces of which can however be removed by repeated grinding [5].

Colours range from white to grey, beige and various earth tones. Solnhofen limestone is common in Germany (Fig. 5 f).

A special form of limestone is travertine (Fig. 5 h). This sedimentary rock has a very porous striated macrostructure characterised by many cavities. Travertine practically consists exclusively of calcium carbonate (CaCO3). On account of its limited strength and mechanical resistance, travertine is considered to be a soft rock. It also lacks resistance to chemical attack. When used as floor covering, pores and cavities of the stone are normally filled, often using cement-

based mortar. If the surface is polished, epoxy resin is used instead. Well-known travertine types include Roman travertine from Tivoli, Tuscan travertine or Cannstatt travertine from Germany.

Marble Marble is a metamorphic rock with a medium to large crystalline structure, originating from limestone (carbonate rocks). Although resembling the latter with regard to its technical characteristics, marble contains no fossils (Fig. 5 a).

Marble is a relatively soft stone (Mohs hardness 3) which is sensitive both to scratching and chemical attack (especially acids). Signs of wear may appear quickly on much-frequented flooring due to erosion effects, but the stone can simply be ground and repolished in such cases. Many types of marble are very translucent. This makes it necessary to match the colour of the mortar selected for laying. The high absorbency of the material may lead to transfer of colour pigments from the mortar to the covering and associated (generally undesirable) discolouration. This may be remedied by using white mortar for laying and limiting moisture transport to the covering.

Depending on the natural content of various minerals, marble comes in a broad

c

d

e

f

Igneous rock: • plutonic rock (granite, syenite, diorite) • ultrabasic rock (hornblende) • volcanic or pyroclastic rock (basalt, tuff) Sedimentary rock: • quartz (sandstone) • phyllosilicates (clay rock) • carbonates (limestone, dolomite) • feldspars and feldspar/quartz fragments (greywacke) • rock fragments (lithic greywacke, lithic arkose)

4

Metamorphic rock: • quartz (quartzite, slate, clay slate) • feldspars (feldsparite, gneiss, green slate) • amphiboles (amphibolite) • epidotes (green slate) • mica, chlorite (mica rock, slate, clay slate, green slate) • carbonates (marble, platy limestone)

g

5 h

77

thk

thk

Floor coverings

w w

w w

l l 46

w w

thk

1 thk

47 w

w

a

α

2

l

Thickness thk Length l Width w [mm] [mm] [mm]

Thickness thk [mm]

Width w [mm]

Length l [mm]

Lamparquet ­element

9 –11

Measurements

8 – 35

6 –10

115 – 320

Large lamparquet elements incl. ­parquet board

6 – 10

Limit ­deviations

± 0.5

± 0.5

± 0.5 49 b

thk

1 Longish mosaic parquet lamella 2 Mosaic parquet panel made of mosaic squares (2), which are composed of (1)

w

thk

thk

1

1 b 1

α

3

2

3

2

α α 1 0 < α <α3° 1 α 0l < α < 3°

≥ 400

60 –180

350 – 600 60 – 80 1 1 1

1 1

w

α

c w

thk t

1 w

13 –14 w 2 b

t

w

a

Maxi lamparquet element

120 – 400 30 –75

w

Product

10

α

0 < α < 3° Nominal dimensions

w w

3

b

l

48 c

l α

b

b

Thickness thk [mm]

l Width w l [mm]

Length l 1) [mm]

8

≤ 35

115 –165

l

For special parquet patterns, length may be < 115 mm

1)

50 b 46 Vertical finger parquet in a sports studio 47 Mosaic parquet made of oak wood in basketweave pattern 48 ertical finger for solid wood parquet according to DIN EN 14 761 a cross section b top view c measurements and limit deviations 49 Solid wood lamparquet elements according to DIN EN 13 227 (pre-standard) a cross section of two butting elements b nominal dimensions 2 1 50 Mosaic parquet lamella according to DIN EN 2 1 13 488 a cross section b top view c nominal dimensions of mosaic parquet lamella without surface treatment according to DIN EN 13 488. With surface treatment, the lamella thickness must be 7.5 mm ± 0.3 mm. d mosaic parquet panel consisting of mosaic

92

and the stabilising layer underneath.

This reduces costs significantly. DIN EN 13 489 specifies a minimum wear layer thickness of 2.5 mm.1 Contrary to solid wood parquets, which are always ground and surface-treated after laying, multil layer parquets are already finished at the factory, making the otherwise necessary initial surface grinding process unnecessary. Although engineered ­parquets can in principle also be renovated by grinding and surface treatment, the number of times this can be carried out is normally less than for solid wood parquets because of the ­relatively thin top layer. The elements are given a tongue-and-groove finish all around and glued to each other in the groove. Some glueless click systems 2 1 also exist, which save a lot of installation time. Installation is either floating on a ­full-face, cushioning intermediate layer or by full-face adhesion to the substrate.

An adequately large perimeter joint has to be included to allow free expansion of the glued flooring at the edges when this is laid floating. This is covered by a skirting board.

w

α

w 0 < α < 3°

b

α

2

thk

3

t

α

a

1 Upper side 2 Lower side 3 Glueing rabbet α = Inclination

1

1

thk

thk

w

w

1

1

50 d

51

52 53 54 55

squares (2), which are in turn composed of rectangular mosaic parquet lamellas (1), ­so-called basketweave pattern Mosaic parquet laying units according to DIN EN 13 488 a single mosaic lamella pattern b double mosaic lamella pattern c Haddon Hall pattern d single herringbone 2 1 e double herringbone Cross section through a 2 multilayer parquet 1 elem­ ent according to DIN EN 13 756. The three layers are glued together in an alternating grain direction.

Various types or patterns of multilayer parquet ­elements according to DIN EN 13 489. The smaller elements are suited for laying patterns.

Wood paving block according to DIN 68 702 Nominal dimensions of wood paving blocks ­according to DIN 68 702 a wood paving blocks RE and WE b wood paving blocks GE

Wood paving Wood paving is composed of small cuboid wooden blocks with edge dimensions similar to stone paving (Fig. 54 and 56, p. 94). The basic elements with their precisely worked sides are pressed together during the laying process, creating an altogether (planned at least) jointless flooring surface. As opposed to other wood floors, the grain of the elements is not parallel but perpendicular to the floor surface, i.e. vertical. The fact that wood is a pronounced anisotropic (direction-dependent) material (see “Deform­ ation”, p. 94f.) has far-reaching consequences both for the mechanical and deformation behaviour of this type of flooring. From a mechanical point of view,

Floor coverings

a

b

d

w w 1 4 5 6 1 4 5 6

51 c

w2 w2

e

w

t

tt

t

tt

2 w the resistance of flooring against abraα α 1 4 5 6 sion, compression and thrust effects 1 Upper side wood rods, with 2 Lower side grain perpendicular is considerably higher in a direction w1 3 w 2 3 w1 3 to (4) 3 Glueing rabbet w3 α 2 3 w 3 w ­parallel to the grain, which is why wood w 22 2 w 6 Stabilising layer 4 Wear layer made w w paving is favoured for flooring subjected of solid wood made of solid wood, 1 44 554 665 6 w1 31 1 w3 5 Middle layer made plywood or veneer 2 3 to heavy use. From a hygroscopic point 52 of plywood or solid α = Inclination of view, i.e. with regard to moistureα α α related distortion, it must be noted that the wear surface of the paving consists w w11 33w1 3 22 2 33 3w w33 w3 of end-grain timber. The open fibres of grain-cut timber absorb (as well as emit) moisture about four times faster than radially or tangentially cut timber, i.e. rift /quarter grain or plain grain [26] exposed to room air in wood floor laid parallel to the fibre [27]. The response time of wood paving to fluctuations in the h h relative humidity of the air is therefore faster than that of other wood floors. In h the case of flooring laid parallel to the grain, no remarkable deformation due to shrinkage and expansion is expected l w l at least in one direction, i.e. in the fibre hh h w 54 direction of individual elements. In wood 53 l paving, on the other hand, comparable w Width Length Height deformation effects must be expected in w 1) l 1) h 1) ±1 [mm] ±1 [mm] [mm] both horizontal directions. Although this 2) increases the tendency to deformation as 22 ll l w w w a whole, a balanced situation is created 25 2) for the area.

30 DIN 68 702 defines three wood block 40 –120 40 – 80 1) 40 types, which are suitable for different (for WE 40 –140 as required) applications: 50 • Wood block RE for representative floor60 ing in administration buildings and pub80 lic places (e.g. theatre halls, municipal 1) for WE with vehicle and forklift truck traffic, height min. 40 mm, width max. 80 mm, length max. 100 mm and leisure centres) as well as in hobby 2) a only for RE and residential spaces • Wood block WE for resistant, shockLength Width Height absorbent and elastic flooring in work l w h [mm] ±1.5 [mm] ±1 [mm] rooms and premises with equivalent use without major climatic fluctuations 50 and without vehicle and forklift truck 60 60 –140 60 – 80 1) traffic (except for light transport) (as required) 80 • Wood block GE for flooring in the indus100 trial and commercial sector, having to fulfil special requirements with regard 55 b 1) Deviating widths of 50 mm or more are permissible, but require special agreement.

93

Floor coverings

67 a

b

the appearance of the covering [35].

Evenness specifications as prescribed in DIN 18 202 are not adequate for elastic floor coverings in this regard [36].

Screeds must be ground, primed and often smoothed with filler (normally about 2 mm in thickness) before laying elastic materials [37]. High degrees of elasticity are also responsible for retention of re­­ sidual impressions caused by point loads (e.g. legs of chairs or tables). An excessively thick or soft adhesive layer under the covering can also give rise to such deformations [38]. In addition, most elastic coverings are also sensitive to scraping marks.

The elasticity of this covering type on the other hand however also means that constraints arising in the covering, such as when the deformation of a hard covering and subfloor differ, do not necessarily lead to damage. Expansions in the covering can normally be dissipated with zero stress provided bonding to the screed is adequately shear-resistant. If deformations are too large, crack joints can occur as a result of shrinkage, or corresponding joint bulges in case of expansion (peaked seams) [39]. Since deformations are primarily temperature-

and moisture-related, before installation of elastic coverings, these must be stored under climatic conditions equivalent to those prevailing during later use for a sufficiently long period of time (approx.

2– 3 days).

Many coverings in this category are waterproof as well as largely vapourtight. If the butt joints are also executed watertight, e.g. through heat-sealing, an overall water-impermeable covering able to withstand moderate use (e.g. in bathrooms in residential constructions) can be created. Elastic coverings however do not offer long-term resistance to ex­­ posure to water exerting pressure from above (e.g. in shower rooms), which is why they cannot be considered to serve as waterproofing [40]. The relatively high diffusion resistance of these floors on the other hand means that it is very difficult for moisture to diffuse back out of the subfloor or load-carrying raw floor structure. This may result in blistering or saponification of the dispersion adhesive [41]. A sufficient drying period of the screed is therefore imperative, while it should not be too long as this may in turn lead to excessive drying of the upper ­layers and fracture. A moisture barrier

Test method

Requirement

ENV 717-1

Release ≤ 0.124 mg/m3

ENV 717-1

Release ≤ 0.124 mg/m3

EN 717-2

Release ≤ 3.5 mg/mg/m2 h

ENV 717-1

Release > 0.124 mg/m3

EN 717-2

Release > 3.5 mg/m2 h to ≤ 8 mg/m2 h

ENV 717-1

Release > 0.124 mg/m3

EN 717-2

Release > 3.5 mg/m2 h to ≤ 8 mg/m2 h

Formaldehyde class E 1 Initial test 1) Factory production control Formaldehyde class E 2 Initial test

Factory production control 1)

68

I n case of already known products, the initial test can also be carried out on the basis of existing data from ­factory production control or an external inspection with tests according to EN 717-2.

100

may have to be fitted on the raw floor structure in order to prevent moisture from reaching the flooring structure.

Elastic coverings are laid by full-face adhesion to the subfloor, almost without exception.

Contrary to textile coverings, elastic ­coverings are characterised by smooth surfaces without any joints or pores, which are generally dirt-resistant and easy to clean. They usually offer a long service life as well as being economical.

Their relatively low thermal conductivity means that they feel warm to the feet, while still being suitable for use in com­ bination with underfloor heating systems because of their thinness and the subsequent low thermal resistance. With a cushioning foam backing, these coverings can improve impact sound protection significantly.

Materials used for elastic floor coverings can be natural (cork, linoleum, natural rubber), but are mostly synthetic (PVC, elastomer coverings).

Reaction to fire

Standards classify elastic floor coverings as normally flammable without requiring any further testing, subject to specific conditions (class Efl according to DIN EN 13 501-1, B 2 according to DIN 4102; Fig. 69). Depending on how they are laid, individual elastic coverings may be considered as normally flammable Dfl or even as not easily flammable (Bfl or Cfl according to DIN EN 13 501-1, B2 according to DIN 4102).

Aggressive gases may be formed in the event of fire.

Emissions

Various additives used in the manufacture of elastic coverings made of synthetic materials are considered to be ­dangerous to health and harmful to the environment. These substances are partly

Floor coverings

liberated by emission during the usage period (Fig. 68) and also give rise to ­disposal problems. Long and intensive public debate has in the meantime finally led to the industry substituting some of these substances with safe alternatives, as well as severe restriction of the use of health-hazardous substances by relevant standards. Elastic floor coverings – as well as textile coverings and laminates – may not contain pentachlorophenol (PCP) or derivatives thereof pursuant to DIN EN 14 041. With regard to formaldehyde emission, only floor coverings corresponding to class E1 are permitted (Fig. 68).

Elastic materials

Elastic coverings were initially made of natural materials (linseed oil, natural r­ubber, cork), with synthetic materials (PVC, synthetic rubber) dominating later.

As far as the technical development of floor coverings is concerned, linoleum is one of the oldest.

EN product standard

Minimum mass [kg/m2]

Maximum mass [kg/m2]

Minimum total thickness [mm]

Reaction-to-fire class 2) of floor covering

Linoleum with and without ­pattern

EN 548

2.3

4.9

2

Efl

Homogeneous and hetero­geneous polyvinyl chloride floor covering

EN 549

2.3

3.9

1.5

Efl

Polyvinyl chloride floor covering with foam material layer

EN 651

1.7

5.4

2

Efl

Polyvinyl chloride floor covering with cork-based backing

EN 652

3.4

3.7

3.2

Efl

Foamed polyvinyl chloride floor ­covering

EN 653

1.0

2.8

1.1

Efl

Type of floor covering 1)

Flexible polyvinyl chloride plates

EN 654

4.2

5.0

2

Efl

Linoleum with corkment backing

EN 687

2.9

5.3

2.5

Efl

Homogeneous and heterogeneous smooth elastomer floor covering with foam material coating

EN 1816

3.4

4.3

4

Efl

Homogeneous and heterogeneous smooth elastomer floor covering

EN 1817

3.0

6.0

1.8

Efl

Homogeneous and heterogeneous profiled elastomer floor covering

EN 12 199

4.6

6.7

2.5

Efl

1)

69

Linoleum coverings Linoleum coverings were developed at the end of the 19th century and were very widespread until largely displaced from the market by cheaper synthetic products (especially PVC). Linoleum coverings have however had a comeback in the past years on account of the association

67 Examples of elastic floor coverings in use a linoleum floor, seminar room in university building, Brixen (I) 2004, Kohlmayer Oberst b rubber floor, extension of Martin Luther School, Marburg (D) 2010, Hess / Talhof / Kusmierz ­Architekten und Stadtplaner 68 Allocation of elastic coverings to formaldehyde classes E1 and E2 according to DIN EN 14 041 69 Requirements of elastic floor coverings for classification in reaction-to-fire class E without further testing according to DIN EN 14 041 70 Classification of elastic floor coverings by intensity of use according to DIN EN ISO 10 874 70

2)

loor covering loosely laid on any wood-based material plate (min. class D -s2, d0) or any carrier plate F (min. class A2-s1, d0) Class corresponding to Tab. 2 of Annex to Decision 2000/147/EC

Class

Usage area

Description

Domestic

Areas intended for private use

21

moderate/slight

Areas with slight or occasional use

22

general /medium

Areas with medium use

22+

general

Areas with slight to intensive use

23

heavy

Areas with intensive use

Commercial

Areas only intended for public and commercial use

31

moderate

Areas with slight or occasional use

32

general

Areas with medium use

33

heavy

Areas with heavy use

34

very heavy

Areas with intensive use

Light industrial

Areas intended for light industry use

41

moderate

Areas in which work is mainly carried out sitting and in which light vehicles are occasionally used

42

general

Areas in which work is mainly carried out standing and/or with vehicle traffic

43

heavy

Other light industry areas

101

Floor coverings

1 Top layer (overlay) ­made of resin-pressed paper 2 Carrier material made of wood-based material

3 Stabilising layer ­made of veneer or resin-pressed paper 4 Underlay material (optional) 2

1

77

78

Laminate coverings Despite the similarities of laminates with prefabricated parquet coverings as well as with bending-resistant panels with a wear layer consisting of various materials, they are classified as a separate category in DIN EN 13 329 (draft). In this, a lamin­

80

106

4

ate covering is defined as a “floor covering, normally in the shape of boards or plates with a multilayer structure [...].

Products with an elastic or textile top layer as well as top layers or stone, wood, leather or metal are not considered to be laminate floors.” [53] The customary three-layer structure is derived from the construction principle of prefabricated parquets combined at right angles to the grain, while a very thin laminate wear layer with high hardness and abrasion resistance is characteristic for laminates (Fig. 78): • Top or wear layer (overlay): One or several layers of fibre-containing material, generally paper, impregnated with amino-plastic, thermosetting resins (usually melamine resin), are press-­ fitted with simultaneous application of heat and pressure, either together with a carrier plate made of wood-based 2 1 material or glued to this carrier plate 2 retrospectively. 1 • Carrier plate: This is composed of wood-based material, 3 4 e.g. particle boards (DIN EN 309), medium density 3 4 (MDF, DIN EN 316) or high density fibreboards (HDF) • Stabilising layer: In the sense of a counter laminate, this stabilising layer serves to neutralise the deforming

Bamboo coverings Being both environmentally friendly and economical, bamboo has developed to a popular alternative over the past years. The trunk of the bamboo plant, a fast-growing giant grass, is cut into ­narrow strips, which are then glued together to form parquet-like elements or attached to a carrier fabric to create off-the-roll sheeting (Fig. 74). The surface can be oiled, varnished, waxed or brushed. When treated with natural oil, the material retains its moisture-regulating sorption capacity. This property is lost when the material is sealed, but it becomes much easier to clean. Flooring can be renovated after some time by grinding and renewed surface treatment. Bamboo coverings are very hard and resistant. Since the deformation on expansion is only limited when exposed to water, bamboo coverings are also suitable for wet areas.

79

3

action of the top layer on the carrier plate on the other side. It can be composed of a veneer, or analogous to the top layer, of impregnated paper.

For a floating installation, underlay mater­ ial can additionally be fitted under the stabilising layer (DIN CEN/TS 16 354).

Alternatively, this can also be rolled out as continuous sheeting on the subfloor, separate from the laminate.

Laminates were developed as an economical alternative to expensive parquet floors, and are almost exclusively offered with a parquet-like look (Fig. 77). Pattern, surface texture and gloss level of the top layer can be designed as required. Lamin­ ate floors are very hard and dense, which makes them very resistant to soiling. The sides of the joints made of wood-based materials are however sensitive, which is why they should be sealed as tightly as possible. In addition, liquids should always be removed quickly from laminate floors to prevent the joint edges from buckling as a consequence of swelling.

Disadvantages include the high proportion of synthetic resin contained in lamin­ ates, as well as the associated high ­content of formaldehyde, energy-intensive manufacturing and somewhat problematic disposal of this covering type.

77 Common type of laminate floor, parquet imitation 78 Structure of laminate floor element according to DIN EN 13 329 79 Laminate floor element with glueless click system connection 80 Various click systems for laminate floors 81 Differently coloured carpet tiles made of tufted recycling yarn, refurbishment of office building, Stuttgart (D) 2013, Ippolito Fleitz Group

Floor coverings

81 Laying

Laminates are usually laid floating, occasionally glued full face to the subfloor (DIN CEN/TS 14 472-3). In the former case, the flooring is laid on a cushioning underlay, with form-locked elements.

This is either achieved by means of ­glueing together a tongue-and-groove system or using click systems without adhesive (Fig. 79, 80). Similar to prefabricated parquets, a thin connected covering plate is created, which can move and deform independently of the subfloor. The perimeter joints to neighbouring components must be dimensioned ad­­ equately. A vapour barrier consisting of a PE foil (at least 2 mm thick) on the subfloor is generally recommended to prevent transfer of moisture from the screed to the covering.

In case of full-face adhesion to the subfloor [54], the joints between the elements should also be glued in a waterproof manner or the edges should alternatively be suitably protected against moisture.

Adhesion is particularly recommendable for high surface loads or when using heated screeds, since thermal transfer can be improved by full-face contact.

As for elastic flooring, the material should be stored under suitable climatic conditions for at least two days in advance.

Adequate residual moisture content of the screed must be ensured. Only (oneor two-component) polyurethane adhesives without solvents and water that cure fast and offer high strength and elasticity may be used as adhesives.

Only white or cold glue must be used to glue the tongue-and-groove connections (stress group D 2 or D 3 according to DIN EN 204) [55].

With regard to deformation of laminate, in particular in association with the substrate, conditions are similar to those for prefabricated parquet floors (see “Multilayer parquet”, p. 91f.).

Textile coverings The textile structure and in particular the open fibre structure towards the top of many varieties (cut pile/velour) differentiate textile coverings significantly from the smooth coverings discussed so far. Their surface structure and the highly elastic structure of most textile coverings are responsible for their characteristic properties, such as the deformation, thermal insulation and impact sound behaviour, the visual appearance, the hygroscopic and electrostatic behaviour, hygienic suitability as well as resistance to various exterior influences.

Structure

Woven textile floor coverings are made using threads or yarns as basic elem­ ents, with two sets of parallel threads ­running orthogonal to each other, to form a connected laminar grid structure, the fabric. Since the threads cannot penetrate each other at the crossing points, they run past each other at respectively different heights. The friction between the threads touching each other gives rise to cohesion of the fabric in the fabric’s plane, while the interlacing of the threads creates this at right angles to it. The two chief thread sets of the fabric have a different order of precedence. The set processed first always runs in a linear direction, mounted freely in the weaving loom. It is called the warp and specifies the direction of the fabric that can be subjected to the biggest strain with the least deformation under tension. The set of yarns running perpendicular to this is woven between the warp threads and hence called weft (that which is woven, also referred to as woof, weft shot, pick or filling), with the threads going over and under the warp in alternation (Fig. 87 a, p. 109). Two-dimensional textile coverings, also known as flat carpets, are cre-

ated in this way. Textile fibres can alternatively be connected to form a laminar structure without spinning them into yarns, by simply intertwining them in a felt-like manner. A layer with a disorderly random orientation composed of fibres, or a nonwoven material, is created in this case. The laminar textile structure, either woven or non-woven (felted), simultaneously represents the wear layer in both cases.

Floor coverings with pile

In three-dimensional textiles, the wear layer is formed by an additionally introduced thread system, called pile or nap or tuft. This is woven or embedded into the laminar carrier layer and aligned vertically, i.e. at right angles to the floor plane. The pile layer gives the floor covering elasticity, softness and volume. Textile constructions are ­differentiated on the basis of how the pile threads are arranged and connected to the carrier layer underneath (Fig. 90, p. 110).

Woven coverings Most modern, mechanically produced textile floor coverings are composed of at least two (linear) sets of weft strands, the upper and the lower weft shot. In order to interconnect the fabric, which is initially not given due to the lacking interlacing of the weft with the warp, two further warp threads are introduced (a ­so-called binding warp) that reconnect the two weft threads again. The upper weft serves to hold the actual wear layer of the textile floor covering, the pile or nap, while the lower weft forms the sta­ bilising layer to lock the binding warps.

The upper exposed pile layer is composed of individual piles densely packed to form a continuous surface. These are loop-like wound threads that enclose the upper weft at their base (and are thus 107

Appendix

Image credits Sincere thanks to all those involved in the production of the book by letting us have their original images, by granting permission for reproduction and by providing information. All drawings in this publication have been created specially. Photographs without credits either originate from the archives of the architects or from the archive of the magazine Detail. Des­ pite intensive efforts it was not possible to determine the originators of some photographs and images; copyrights of the holders are however retained. Information in this regard is welcome.

Title left, right: Jana Rackwitz, Munich Title centre: tretford Teppich Page 4: DESIGN IN ARCHITEKTUR, Darmstadt Page 6: Eva Schönbrunner, Munich Page 48: Cosima Frohnmaier, Munich Chapter 1 Fig. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 14, 15, 19, 20, 21, 38, 43, 44, 45, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 55, 56, 57, 58, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86 José Luis Moro, Stuttgart 11 according to DIN 18 202:2013-04 12, 13 according to DIN 51 130:2014-02 16 according to DGUV (Deutsche Gesetzliche ­Unfallversicherung, German Statutory Accident Insurance) Information 207-006 17 according to DIN 51 097:1992-11 18 according to DGUV (Deutsche Gesetzliche ­Unfallversicherung, German Statutory Accident Insurance) Information 208-041 22 Christian Schittich, Munich 23, 24 according to DIN 32 984:2011-10 25 according to DIN 18 040-1:2010-10 and DIN 18 040-2:2011-09 26 according to VDI 6008-2:2012-12 27 Limited Edition, Mouscron 28 a according to: Gösele, Klaus; Schüle, Walter: Schall, Wärme, Feuchte. (Sound, heat, moisture.)

Wiesbaden / Berlin 1985, p. 140 29 Lohmeyer, G.; Post, M.: Praktische Bauphysik.

Eine Einführung mit Berechnungsbeispielen.

(Practical building physics. An introduction with calculation examples.) Wiesbaden 2013, p. 581 30 according to: DIN 18 041 (draft) 31 from: Hausladen, Gerhard; Tichelmann, Karsten: Ausbau Atlas. (Interiors Construction Manual.)

Munich 2009, p. 160 32 according to: Hausladen, Gerhard et al.: Clima Design. (Climate Design.) Munich 2005, p. 160 33 according to DIN EN 1264-4: 2001–12 34 according to: Bundesverband Flächenheizungen e. V. – BFV (Federal Association of Surface Heating and Surface Cooling) Planungsleitfaden Fußboden-Temperierung (Planning guideline for temperature control of flooring) 35 from: Guideline of the Robert Koch Institute (RKI) for Hospital Hygiene and Infectious ­Disease Prevention 36 Jogi Hild, Holzgerlingen 37 René Rötheli, Baden 39 according to: http://www.leonhard-sportboden.de/ sportboeden/performance/sportbodenauswahl/ 40 a according to DIN V 18 032-2:2001-04 40 b according to DIN V 18 032-2:2001-05 40 c according to DIN V 18 032-2:2001-06 40 d according to DIN V 18 032-2:2001-07 41 according to DIN V 18 032-2:2001-04 42 Markus Bühler-Rasom / Ricola AG 46, 52, 53 according to DIN 4109 Supplement 1 54 a according to DIN 4102-4:1994-04, p. 80, Tab. 56 54 b according to DIN 4102-4:1994-04, p. 86, Tab. 63 59 according to DIN 4102-4:1994-04, p. 87, Tab. 64 60 according to DIN 4108-2:2013-02 Tab. 3, p. 15 61 according to DIN 4108-10, p. 8 62 Abriso nv, Anzegem 63 Granorte GmbH Germany 64 as 28 a, p. 173 65 according to: Grandjean, Etienne: Wohnphysio­ logie: Grundlagen gesunden Wohnens. (Ergonomics of the Home) Zurich 1973, p. 303 66 as 28 a, p. 174 67 as 28 a, p. 204f.

68, 69 according to DIN 18 195 Supplement 1

70 71

72 73

Werner Huthmacher, Berlin ccording to: MAPEI Planungshandbuch, p. 4/3 a & 4/5; available online: http://www.mapei.com/ public/DE/pdf/Mapei_Phb2010web_k04_0.pdf.

Last revision 01.10.2015 according to DGUV (Deutsche Gesetzliche ­Unfallversicherung, German Statutory Accident Insurance) Information 213-060 according to Technische Regeln für Betriebs­ sicherheit (Technical Rules for Operating Safety) TRBS 2153, p. 77f

Chapter 2 Fig. 1, 2, 3, 8, 9, 10, 13, 14, 15, 17, 18, 20, 21, 24 a, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 32, 33, 34, 35, 39, 40, 44, 45, 46, 47 a, 47 b, 48, 49 a, 51, 52, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 63, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77 José Luis Moro, Stuttgart 4 MAPEI GmbH 5 according to DIN 18 560-3, 4.1, Tab. 2 6 according to DIN 18 560-4, 3.2, Tab. 1 7 according to DIN EN 13 813, 5.2.2, Tab. 3 11 Müller-BBM, Planegg 12 according to: Timm, Harry: Estriche und Bodenbeläge. Arbeitshilfen für die Planung, Ausführung und Beurteilung. (Screeds and floor coverings. Work aids for planning, execution and assessment.) Wiesbaden 2013 16 Christian Hacker, Munich 19 Guideline of the Deutsche Institut für Bautechnik (Centre of Competence for Construction), from Sopro information sheet “Verbundabdichtung mit Fliesen und Platten” (“Composite waterproofing with tiles and plates”) 22 according to: Sopro information sheet “Verbundabdichtung mit Fliesen und Platten” (“Composite waterproofing with tiles and plates”), p. 59 23 Viega GmbH & Co. KG 24 b according to: Sopro information sheet “Verbundabdichtung mit Fliesen und Platten” (“Composite waterproofing with tiles and plates”), p. 103 30 OBJECT CARPET 31 according to DIN EN 13 213, 4.1.1 36 from: Hausladen, Gerhard; Tichelmann, Karsten: Ausbau Atlas. (Interiors Construction Manual.)

Munich 2009, p. 161 37, 38 José Luis Moro according to VDI 3762 41 according to DIN EN 12 825, 4.1, Tab. 1 42 as 36, p. 156 43 José Luis Moro according to VDI 3762 47 c, 49 b Hoppe Sportbodenbau GmbH 50 according to: Information brochure “Sport- und Elastikböden” (“Sport and elastic floors”) by BSW GmbH, p. 196 53 David Franck, Ostfildern 54 according to DIN 18 560-7, Tab. 1, p. 5 55 according to DIN 18 560-7, Tab. 6, p. 8 56 according to: Zement-Merkblatt Tiefbau (Cement Datasheet – Civil and underground engineering) T 1.2006 Industrieböden aus Beton (Industrial floors made of concrete), p. 2 62 according to DIN 18 560-7, Tab. 2, p. 6 64 according to: Company brochure DISBON ­Expertise am Bau. Industrieböden – Professio­ nell Beschichten (Expertise at the Building Site.

Industrial floors – Professional Coating) 65 Werner Huthmacher, Berlin Chapter 3 Fig. 1 Zooey Braun, Stuttgart 2 a VIA GmbH 2 b – f, 4, 5 a, 5 c, 5 d, 10, 13a – f, 15, 16, 17, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 28, 29, 31, 32, 33, 34 a, 34 b, 35, 36 a, 36 b, 38, 39, 41, 42, 43 a, 43 b, 44 a, 44 b, 45 a, 45 b, 46, 47, 48 a, 48 b, 49 a, 50 a, 50 b, 50 c, 51, 52, 53, 54, 59 a, 60, 61, 62, 63, 73 b, 73 e, 73 f, 74, 78, 80 José Luis Moro, Stuttgart 3 Norman A. Müller/nam architekturfotografie 5 b Margherita Spiluttini, Vienna 5 e http://vanelibg.com 5 f Sonat Strobl GmbH & Co. KG 5 g, h stonenaturelle 6 from: Walter B. Denny: Osmanische Keramik aus Iznik (Ottoman ceramics from Iznik), Munich 2005 7 Baunetz, Berlin 8 Agrob Buchtal 9 Kerlite, extra thin fine stoneware by Cotto d’Este 11 according to DIN EN 14 411, Annex M, p. 66

12 according to DIN 18 158:1986-09, Tab. 1, p. 1 13 g Attenberger Bodenziegel GmbH, 84427 St. Wolfgang 13 h Iris Ceramica SpA 14 DeAn Wand-und Bodenbeläge GmbH/photo: D. Antonovic 18 Raimondi S.p.A., Modena 19 www.h-tech.at 20 a according to DIN 18 157-1; Tab. 2, p. 4 20 b according to DIN 18 157-3, Tab. 2, p. 3 21 according to DIN 13 888:2009-08, Tab. 7, p. 13 27 from: Warth, Otto: Die Konstruktionen in Holz. (The constructions in wood.) Leipzig 1900, p. 286 30 Rasmus Norlander, Stockholm 34 c according to DIN EN 13 629:2012-06, Tab. 5, p. 11 36 c according to DIN EN 13 226:2009-09, Tab. 10, p. 20 37 a according to DIN 13 990:2004-04, Tab. 1, p. 8 37 b according to DIN 13 990:2004-04, Tab. 2, p. 9 40 from: André Jacques Roubo (1769 –75) L’Art du Menuisier) In: Nickl, Peter (ed.): Parkett. Histori­ sche Holzfußböden und zeitgenössische Parkettkultur. (Parquet. Historical wood flooring and contemporary parquet culture.) Munich 1995, p. 42 43 c according to DIN EN 13 228:2011-08, Tab. 7, p. 16 44 c according to DIN EN 14 761:2008-09, Tab. 4, p. 8 45 c according to DIN EN 14 761:2008-09, Tab. 5, p. 9 48 c according to DIN EN 14 761:2008-09, Tab. 3, p. 8 49 b according to DIN 13 227:2014-11, Tab. 7, p. 14 50 d according to DIN 13 488:2003-05, Tab. 4, p. 8 55 a according to DIN 68 702:2009-10, Tab. 1, p. 6 55 b according to DIN 68 702:2009-10, Tab. 2, p. 6 56 Ulrich Schwarz, Berlin 57 according to: Industrieverband Klebstoffe e. V. (German Adhesives Association) (ed.) TKB-Merk­ blatt 1 – Kleben von Parkett. (Technical Commission on Construction Adhesives – Technical Briefing Note 1 – Installation of Parquet.) 2012 p. 3 58 ibid., p. 4 59 b CASCO Sweden 64 Hélène Binet, London 65, 66 according to DIN EN 14 342:2013-09, Tab. 1, p. 7f. and Tab. 2, p. 10 67 a Günter Richard Wett, Innsbruck 67 b Florian Holzherr, Munich 68 according to DIN EN 14 041, Tab. 4, 5, p. 10 69 according to DIN 14 041:2008-05, Tab. 1 & 3, p. 8f.

70 according to DIN EN ISO 10 874, Tab. 1, p. 2 71 according to DIN EN ISO 24 011, Tab. 2, p. 7 72 according to DIN EN 688, Tab. 2, p. 7 73 a Mario Jahn for Armstrong 73 c Upofloor 73 d nora systems GmbH 75, 76 HARO – Hamberger Flooring GmbH & Co. KG 77 www.meisterwerke.com 79 HARO – Hamberger Flooring GmbH & Co. KG 81 Zooey Braun, Stuttgart 82 according to DIN ISO 2424, image 23, p. 8 83 according to DIN ISO 2424, image 26, p. 9 84 according to DIN ISO 2424, image 24, p. 9 85 according to DIN ISO 2424, image 25, p. 9 86 REUBER HENNING GbR 87 a Global-Carpet.de 87 b, 87 c Vorwerk Teppichwerke GmbH & Co. KG, Hameln 87 d Tarkett AG, Frankenthal 88 a according to: Fischer, M.; Gürke-Lang, ­B.; Diel, F.: Textile Bodenbeläge. ­Eigenschaften, Emissionen, Langzeitbeurteilung. (Textile floor coverings. Properties, emissions, long-term assessment.) A reference book from the Institute of Envir­ onment and Health (Institut für Umwelt und Gesundheit – IUG) in Fulda. Heidelberg 2000, p. 2 88 b according to DIN ISO 2424, image 11, p. 5 88 c according to DIN ISO 2424, image 14, p. 6 88 d according to DIN ISO 2424, image 19, p. 7 88 e according to DIN ISO 2424, image 17, p. 7 88 f according to DIN ISO 2424, image 22, p. 8 88 g according to DIN ISO 2424, image 28, p. 11 88 h according to DIN ISO 2424, image 3, p. 3 89 Bolon 90 according to DIN ISO 2424 91 according to DIN EN 1307:2014-07, Tab. 1, p. 7 92 Limited Edition, Mouscron 93 according to DIN CEN/TS 14 472-2:2003, Tab. 1, p. 16f.

94 according to DIN EN 14 041, Tab. 2, p. 8 95 Roland Halbe, Stuttgart

119

Index Accessibility 11 96f. adhesion, glueing 30f., 63 airborne sound (protection) anisotropy 94ff.

15 areal surface roughness Bamboo coverings barefoot areas barrier-free battens bearing floor-ceiling construction bonded screed bouclé material brick plates building acoustics Calcium sulfate screed cast stone cement-bonded coverings cementitious screed ceramic coverings /products cleaning (methods) click system clinker plates coating composite waterproofing constructive connections constructive design constructive functions constructive solution principles cork coverings cracks /crack formation DEO/ DES dimensional stability dimensional tolerances discharge resistance displacement ventilation displacement volume door mats double-shell systems dry construction method dry screeds durability Earthenware elastic coverings /materials elastic subconstructions / layers elasticity, degree of elastomer coverings electrostatic discharge emissions evenness expansion and shrinkage exposure classes exposure classes, use group

106f.

17 16ff.

64 43f.

50, 69 108 80 29f.

50, 52, 69 74 74 50, 54f., 69 78ff.

17, 25f.

92, 104 80 53, 60, 70 58 70f.

11 43ff.

8ff.

105 27f., 50, 54 37, 52 50 12 29, 43 24f.

14f.

15 30 52ff.

46, 52f.

44f.

79 99ff.

64f.

99ff.

100, 104 41ff., 111f.

100f.

11ff., 50 86, 90, 94 58, 67 40f., 67

Falling hazard 14 fire protection / behaviour 32f., 50, 85, 98f., 100, 114 fire resistance class 34ff. flanking (sound) transmission 62ff. flat carpets 107 flexural (tensile) strength 28, 45, 51ff., 63 floating laying method 96f. floating screed 52f. flocked coverings 109 floor geometry 13 floor moisture 39ff., 44 floor plate 10, 45, 60f., 66 floor-ceiling construction 9ff., 23, 30ff. floor systems (hollow cavity, raised access) 44, 59ff. floor utility boxes 44, 60 floorboarding 86ff.

19f., 23, 33, 43, 74ff. floor coverings flooring structure 9ff., 36f., 44, 50 flooring types 25, 50ff. free-spanning floors 44 frieze floors 86 functions, assignment of 9 Granite grid groove

76 13f.

25

ground surface indicators, profiling

18f.

Hard material layers healthcare requirements heat storage, capacity heated screed heating and cooling surfaces height offset hollow (cavity) floors hygiene (sensitivity)

67, 70 26f.

37 23, 55f.

22ff.

13 44, 59f.

25f.

Impact sound improvement index impact sound protection impregnation inclinations industrial floors installation lines insulation material type Joints, types of

30f.

30ff., 60 69, 97 11ff.

27ff., 66ff.

59 53

27ff., 34f., 54, 68f., 71, 84

Lamella parquet, lamparquet 90f. laminate coverings / laminate floors 46, 106f.

8f. layers/ layer sequence / layer package laying 50ff., 84f., 96, 102ff., 114 8, 82 laying pattern levelling systems 84 limestone 77f. line routing /ducts 44, 60 linoleum 101f.

43 load transfer /distribution Magnesite screed marble mass-spring system mastic asphalt screed media routing medium-bed (laying) method minimum thermal resistances mixed-elastic floors modular laying module bricks moisture, exposure to, protection monofunctionality mortar mosaic parquet mosaic tiles multifunctionality multilayer parquet

53, 69 77 62f.

50, 52f., 69 43, 59f.

83 36 66f.

84 90f.

39ff.

8 74, 82ff.

91f.

81f.

8 91f.

Nailing /screwing natural stone (coverings /flooring) needle-punched non-woven coverings needled pile coverings normalised impact sound pressure level Operative temperature overlay parquet Parquet perceived temperature perimeter insulation strips perimeter joint plates point-elastic floors polyolefin coverings polyvinyl chloride floor coverings porcelain ceramics potential differences poured or welded waterproofing prefabricated floor elements profiling protective functions PVC coverings Quartz vinyl coverings Raised access floors ramps relative (atmospheric) humidity resilience resistance to chair castors resonance frequency range

96 75ff., 78 108 108f.

21f., 29f.

22 90f.

90ff.

22 52, 71 72 74ff., 78ff., 102f.

65f.

104 103f.

81 41 58 102, 105 15, 18 29ff.

103 104 60, 62ff.

12, 19f.

93ff.

64f.

102, 112 31

resonance principle reverberation times rock types /groups room acoustics

22 21 76ff.

21f.

Safe access 11ff., 40 76 sandstone sanitary rooms 19, 57ff. screed on separating layer 50 screed plate 52, 56 45, 50ff. screeds, types of 58, 70, 97f. sealing sealing layers 40, 58 single-layer parquet, solid wood parquet 91ff. single-shell components 30 78 slate 71f. slide seal sliding friction coefficient 15 slip resistance 14ff., 25, 40, 67ff. solid flooring structures 43 21f. sound absorber /absorption 30ff., 61f., 71 sound insulation (sealing) sound pressure level 21 29, 63 sound protection sound reduction index 30ff.

21f. sound reflection 62f. sound transmission paths sports floors, types of 27, 63ff. sprung floors 64 steps 11ff., 19 stoneware, fine stoneware 81 storage mass, thermal 38 strip floors 89f. strip parquets 89f. structure-borne sound 30, 61ff. stumbling hazard 13f. subfloor /subceiling 43f., 50 supply points 43f., 60 69f., 78 surface finishing surface hardness 46 surface heating systems 23 surface quality 111 surface resistance 42 surface treatment 97 synthetic resin screed 51, 53, 69 Temperature gradient terrazzo, tiles /plates textile coverings /carpets thermal conductivity thermal insulation layer thermal insulation /protection thermal room conditioning thermally activated components thick-bed (laying) method thin-bed (laying) method tiles toe boards tufted coverings/tufting method Underfloor heating underfloor installation usage functions Velour ventilation Versailles panel parquet vertical finger lamella parquets vibration method vinyl floor covering

22, 38 74f.

107ff., 110f. 113 23f., 36ff.

10f., 23, 36 35ff., 52f.

22, 24 23f.

82 83 80ff., 104f.

14 108 23f., 38f.

44 11ff.

107ff.

22ff.

90f.

90 82 110

Walk-off zone 16f. wall connections 71 warmness to feet, flooring temperature 38f. waterproofing 39ff., 44, 57ff. waterproofing materials 41, 57 wear resistance(classes) 46, 67 wearing screeds 45, 55, 74 52 wet construction method wet-room floors 57f. wide finger 90 wood flooring / wood coverings 85ff. wood paving 92f.