BioScience Today 17 by Distinctive Media Group Ltd

SCIENCETODAY

BIO

SUMMER2019

stem cells research

nobel prize winner talks to us stem cell research • big interview • women in science • motor neuron disease • BRAIN DEVELOPMENT • CIRCULAR PLASTIC

europium phospho

cerium sputtering target

dielectrics catalog:americanelements.com scandium powder

yttrium granules lanthanum rods

holmium disc 1

2 1

Nd:YAG

6.941

2 8 1

yttrium

Beryllium 12

22.98976928

erbium fluoride sputtering targets

Magnesium

medicine

2 8 8 1

39.0983

2 8 18 8 1

2 8 8 2

44.955912

Calcium 38

2 8 9 2

40.078

Potassium

2 8 2

24.305

Sodium

85.4678

2 8 18 9 2

87.62

nadium

2 8 18 18 8 1

132.9054

2 8 18 32 18 8 1

Francium

(226)

2 8 18 18 9 2

thin film

Ac (227)

Radium

2 8 18 32 18 9 2

104

Rf (267)

105

Db (268)

Rutherfordium

2 8 18 13 1

2 8 18 32 12 2

Sg (271)

Dubnium

2 8 18 13 2

2 8 18 21 8 2

140.116

140.90765

Cerium

Praseodymium

2 8 18 32 18 10 2

2 8 18 32 20 9 2

Bh (272)

144.242

Thorium

ten carbide

231.03588

(145)

238.02891

Protactinium

Np (237)

Uranium

Neptunium

2 8 18 32 22 9 2

108

Hs (270)

2 8 18 24 8 2

150.36

(244)

2 8 18 32 14 2

Plutonium

nano ribbons

109

Mt (276)

106.42

2 8 18 32 15 2

195.084

Meitnerium

110

Ds (281)

2 8 18 18 1

Darmstadtium

Rg (280)

2 8 18 2

112.411

2 8 18 32 18 1

200.59

2 8 18 32 32 18 1

Roentgenium

112

Cn (285)

2 8 18 3

Ge Sn

113

Uut (284)

Copernicium

157.25

2 8 18 32 25 8 2

Americium

(247)

Curium

2 8 18 27 8 2

158.92535

Gadolinium

Am Cm (243)

2 8 18 25 9 2

Bk (247)

Berkelium

2 8 18 28 8 2

162.5

Terbium

2 8 18 32 25 9 2

2 8 18 32 18 3

Cf (251)

2 8 18 32 28 8 2

Californium

Es (252)

Er 167.259

Holmium

Erbium 2 8 18 32 29 8 2

Einsteinium

100

Fm (257)

Fermium

2 8 18 18 4

114

Fl (289)

2 8 18 18 5

2 8 18 32 32 18 5

116

208.9804

115

Uup

2 8 18 31 8 2

(288)

alternative energy

2 8 18 18 7

2 8 18 32 32 18 6

117

crystal

83.798

2 8 18 18 8

131.293

Iodine

2 8 18 32 18 6

2 8 18 8

Krypton

126.90447

Xenon

2 8 18 32 18 7

cone sit

2 8 18 32 18 8

Po At Rn electrochemistry (210)

Lv (293)

(222)

Astatine

Uus (294)

Livermorium

2 8 18 7

niobium

europiu

39.948

Argon

79.904

2 8 18 18 6

2 8 8

Bromine

(209)

2 8 18 32 8 2

Neon

Radon

titanium

2 8 18 32 32 18 7

Ununseptium

118

Uuo (294)

2 8 18 32 32 18 8

Ununoctium

terbium ingot Lu

2 8 18 32 9 2

cerium polishing powder 168.93421

173.054

Thulium

2 8 18 32 30 8 2

101

Md (258)

174.9668

Ytterbium

2 8 18 32 31 8 2

Mendelevium

102

No (259)

Lutetium

2 8 18 32 32 8 2

Nobelium

103

Lr (262)

2 8 18 32 32 8 3

macromolecu

Lawrencium

nano gels

gadolinium wires

atomic layer deposition

anti-ballistic ceramics

Now Invent. dielectrics

2 8 18 6

Polonium

Ununpentium

35.453

127.6

2 8 18 32 18 5

2 8 7

20.1797

Tellurium

Bismuth 2 8 18 32 32 18 4

rod

2 8

Chlorine

78.96

121.76

Flerovium

2 8 18 30 8 2

Fluorine

Selenium

207.2

2 8 18 32 32 18 3

2 8 18 5

2 7

18.9984032

Antimony 2 8 18 32 18 4

32.065

74.9216

Lead

Ununtrium

164.93032

Dysprosium 2 8 18 32 27 8 2

2 8 18 29 8 2

2 8 6

Sulfur

Arsenic

Tin

aluminum nanoparticles

2 8 18 25 8 2

118.71

Thallium 2 8 18 32 32 18 2

2 8 18 4

15.9994

30.973762

72.64

Phosphorus

Germanium 2 8 18 18 3

2 8 5

2 6

Oxygen

He Helium

14.0067

28.0855

204.3833

Mercury

Silicon

114.818

2 8 4

4.002602

2 5

Nitrogen

Indium 2 8 18 32 18 2

12.0107

69.723

2 8 18 18 2

2 4

Carbon

Gallium

Cadmium

Gold

111

Zinc

196.966569

2 8 18 32 32 17 1

10.811

Boron 13

65.38

Silver

Platinum 2 8 18 32 32 15 2

2 8 18 1

107.8682

2 8 18 32 17 1

2 8 3

26.9815386

63.546

2 8 18 18

Aluminum

Copper

Palladium

192.217

2 8 18 32 32 14 2

2 3

nanodispersions

advanced polymers

tering targets

2 8 18 16 1

Iridium

single crystal silicon

rbium doped fiber optics

Nickel

102.9055

Europium 2 8 18 32 24 8 2

2 8 16 2

58.6934

Rhodium

151.964

Samarium 94

Hassium

Promethium 2 8 18 32 21 9 2

2 8 18 32 32 13 2

Bohrium

2 8 18 23 8 2

2 8 18 15 1

190.23

Nd Pm Sm

Neodymium

refractory metals 232.03806

Cobalt

Osmium

107

Seaborgium

2 8 18 22 8 2

2 8 15 2

58.933195

101.07

186.207

quantum dots 2 8 18 19 9 2

Rhenium 2 8 18 32 32 11 2

Ruthenium 2 8 18 32 13 2

Iron

(98.0)

183.84

106

2 8 14 2

55.845

Technetium

Tungsten 2 8 18 32 32 12 2

54.938045

95.96

2 8 18 32 11 2

2 8 13 2

Manganese

Molybdenum

180.9488

diamond micropowder 90

2 8 18 12 1

Tantalum 2 8 18 32 32 10 2

51.9961

92.90638

2 8 18 32 10 2

2 8 13 1

Chromium

Niobium

Hafnium

Actinium

2 8 18 10 2

178.48

Lanthanum 2 8 18 32 18 8 2

50.9415

Zirconium

138.90547

Barium

Fr Ra tantalum (223)

2 8 18 18 8 2

2 8 11 2

Vanadium

91.224

Yttrium

137.327

Cesium 87

88.90585

Strontium

Titanium

Rb Sr Y Zr rhodium sponges Rubidium

2 8 10 2

47.867

Scandium 2 8 18 8 2

surface functionalized nanoparticles

9.012182

Lithium

2 2

dysprosium metal

99.999% ruthenium spheres

1.00794

Hydrogen

praseodymium

gadolinium acetate

ultra high purity ma

europium phosphors

platinum ink solar energy

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www.biosciencetoday.co.uk

| BIOSCIENCE TODAY |

| welcome |

Welcome The loss to science Ellen Rossiter Editor in chief

Editor Ellen Rossiter ellen.rossiter@distinctivepublishing.co.uk

Design Distinctive Publishing, 3rd Floor, Tru Knit House, 9-11 Carliol Square, Newcastle, NE1 6UF Tel: 0191 580 5990 www.distinctivepublishing.co.uk

Advertising Distinctive Publishing, 3rd Floor, Tru Knit House, 9-11 Carliol Square, Newcastle, NE1 6UF Tel: 0191 5805990 e: ewan.waterhouse@distinctivegroup.co.uk www.distinctivepublishing.co.uk

Welcome to our latest issue of Bioscience Today. “Be inspired by others, but follow your own path”, is the advice of Dr Frances Arnold, chemist and engineer, winner of the 2018 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. Learn more about Dr Arnold’s work and her dream that inefficient, toxic waste-producing chemistry is replaced with cleaner, efficient alternatives. Dr Arnold was also the recipient of the 2016 Millennium Technology Prize; you have until 31st July to nominate the next person or team deserving of this accolade. Overturning the myths of the female brain is at the heart of Professor Gina Rippon’s new book The Gendered Brain. In this issue, Prof Rippon talks about the historical debate which saw numerous attempts made to explain the social inferiority of women and examines the assumption that held sway for so long, that your biology is your destiny. Discover how our growing understanding of neural plasticity exploded the myth that our developmental endpoint was dictated by a biological blueprint set out at the beginning of our life. Hear more about the entangled biological and social influences which impact on brain development. The loss to science of women and girls who do not do science is immense. Both Dr Arnold and Prof Rippon address the underrepresentation of women in science in their interviews, exploring the barriers that exist, and explaining their differing take on ‘role models’. Who knows what scientific breakthroughs we are missing out on for the lack of a more diverse research community?

Distinctive Publishing or BioScience Today cannot be held responsible for any inaccuracies that may occur, individual products or services advertised or late entries. No part of this publication may be reproduced or scanned without prior written permission of the publishers and BioScience Today.

It is just such a concern that has led Prof Dame Jocelyn Bell Burnell to donate her Breakthrough Prize to fund women, under-represented ethnic minority and refugee students to become physics researchers. Around the UK, organisations like ‘Speakers for Schools’ are also working to address educational inequalities and improve opportunities for young people.

We don’t want to see any more wasted potential and science can’t do without the contribution we’re losing. At the moment, we have an estimated shortfall of over 173,000 skilled workers in STEM businesses. Cells also take centre stage in this issue. We step into the Stem Cell Hotel, where Dr Davide Danovi explains the work of the dedicated team of experts in stem cell biology, image analysis and artificial microenvironments, who are striving to unravel the mysteries of cells. Whilst new research led by scientists at Newcastle University, reveals a potentially revolutionary way to treat eye injuries and prevent blindness. Learn about the role of a tissue softening enzyme in preventing the loss of corneal stem cells following injury and how this could prevent patients from losing their sight. As I am writing this, World Oceans Day is almost upon us. As the extinction rebellion has reminded us – there isn’t a planet B. An estimated eight million tonnes of plastic are dumped into oceans every year and we need to act now. Whilst we were preparing this issue, news broke of the successful completion of the deepest-ever sub dive. American Explorer Victor Vescovo travelled almost seven miles down into the Pacific Ocean’s Mariana Trench - the deepest place in the ocean and what did he find? A plastic bag and sweet wrappers. All of which makes Dr Timothy Whitehead’s research looking at ways in which waste plastic bottles can be turned into essential products for low-income countries very timely indeed. Find out about his work to have waste plastic recognised as a valuable resource. Researchers at Aston and De Montfort University are investigating ways in which plastic bottles can be used for 3D printer filament, increasing the value of this recycled plastic and making it possible for local communities to manufacture the specific products they need. Turn the page to discover more research news in this issue.

| contents |

| BIOSCIENCE TODAY |

Decades of research has shown that there is no one area of the human brain that consistently distinguishes female brains from male brains

features

26 A soft spot for stem cells helps cornea healing Dr Frances Arnold, the American chemist and engineer, who won the 2018 Nobel Prize in Chemistry and the 2016 Millennium Technology Prize for her work in pioneering directed evolution reveals more about her work

| BIOSCIENCE TODAY |

| contents |

contents www.biosciencetoday.co.uk / issue 17 /summer 2019

Introduction/Foreword

4-5

Contents

6-7

Biodigestables

Industry Contributors

9-19

News

20-25

stem cell research A stay at the Stem Cell Hotel – studying stem cells at the Centre for Stem Cells and Regenerative Medicine at King’s College London

A soft spot for stem cells helps cornea healing

26-29

big interview We talk to Dr Frances Arnold, the American chemist and engineer, who won the 2018 Nobel Prize in Chemistry and the 2016 Millennium Technology Prize for her work in pioneering directed evolution

30-32

women in science We speak to Dr Jerika Lam of the School of Pharmacy at Chapman University, about her work applying pharmacogenomics to antiviral treatments

34-37

innovate in harrogate Think you know Harrogate? Now is the time to think again!

38-39

motor neuron disease Relentlessly searching for the cure

40-42

BRAIN DEVELOPMENT Entangled – exploring the influences on brain development

43-45

INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY Biosimilars and Patents

Plant patentability and the European Patent Office – what is the latest update?

48-51

Training and Education Bridging the gap between academic learning and on the job skills

The Open University – The higher education partner of choice for business

52-54

CIRCULAR PLASTIC How we can add value to waste plastic bottles and how these

can be turned into essential products for the developing world

How we can add value to waste plastic bottles and how these can be turned into essential products for the developing world

| biodigestables |

| BIOSCIENCE TODAY |

BIODIGESTABLES

Bedbugs’ evolution Bedbugs – some of the most unwanted human bed-mates have been parasitic companions with other species aside from humans for more than 100 million years, walking the earth at the same time as dinosaurs. Work by an international team of scientists, including the University of Sheffield, compared the DNA of dozens of bedbug species in order to understand the evolutionary relationships within the group as well as their relationship with humans.

Ebola vaccination strategy WHO’s Strategic Advisory Group of Experts (SAGE) has issued new recommendations to address vaccination challenges in the ongoing Ebola outbreak in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). The recommendations include endorsing operational adjustments that make the vaccination process faster and adjusting the dosage based on available efficacy data. The SAGE also suggested expanding the population eligible for vaccination with rVSV-ZEBOV-GP (developed by Merck & Co., Inc), introducing an additional experimental vaccine (developed by Johnson & Johnson), and redoubling ongoing efforts to train nurses, doctors and medical students from Ebolaaffected communities to work on vaccination teams.

Opioid epidemic Revolutionary treatment? A discovery by researchers at Queen’s University Belfast and King’s College London (KCL) could revolutionise treatment for vascular and diabetes related cardiovascular diseases. The researchers have developed technology that can produce large quantities of stem cells in a short time, using only a small blood sample. They have also found that the stem cells produced can generate and replace damaged cells within blood vessels. This treatment could prevent a range of vascular-related complications including heart attacks, kidney disease, blindness and amputations in people with diabetes.

The team discovered that bedbugs are older than bats – a mammal that people had previously believed to be their first host 50-60 million years ago. Bedbugs in fact evolved around 50 million years earlier.

Living with diabetes New research from Diabetes UK has found that seven out of ten people feel overwhelmed by the demands of living with diabetes, which significantly affects their mental and physical health.

Governments should treat the opioid epidemic as a public health crisis and improve treatment, care and support for people misusing opioids. Overdose deaths continue to rise, fuelled by an increase in prescription and over-prescription of opioids for pain management and the illicit drugs trade, according to the recent Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) report.

The survey of more than 2,000 adults with Type 1, Type 2 and other types of diabetes from across the UK shows that the majority (three quarters) of those who feel overwhelmed say that this affects how well they can manage the condition.

In England and Wales, opioid related deaths have risen by more than a third between 2011 and 2016, placing us 6th out of the 25 developed countries analysed by the OECD for the highest opioid death rate.

A new study published in the journal Alzheimer’s & Dementia: The Journal of the Alzheimer’s Association, has found that a particular class of molecules may help with diagnosing Alzheimer’s Disease.

dementia treatment

The group of researchers from King’s College London found that the level of the fatty molecules which induce sleep in blood were higher in those participants in the study with amyloid in the brain, the peptide used to diagnose Alzheimer’s Disease.

| BIOSCIENCE TODAY |

| biodigestables |

BIODIGESTABLES

Sewage analysis A comprehensive analysis of sewage collected in 74 cities in 60 countries worldwide has yielded the first, comparable global data, which show the levels and types of antimicrobial resistant bacteria that are present in mainly healthy people in these countries.

In a series of recently published studies using animals and people, Johns Hopkins Medicine researchers say they have further characterised a set of chemical imbalances in the brains of people with schizophrenia related to the chemical glutamate. And they figured out how to tweak the level using a compound derived from broccoli sprouts. They say the results advance the hope that supplementing with broccoli sprout extract, which contains high levels of the chemical sulforaphane, may someday provide a way to lower the doses of traditional antipsychotic medicines needed to manage schizophrenia symptoms, thus reducing unwanted side effects of the medicines.

New SIPHER consortium Link explained Obesity and depression have long been linked, with previous clinical studies finding an association between these two conditions. However, until now, the mechanisms of how obesity affects depression and vice versa have not been fully understood. Now, in a new study led by the University of Glasgow in collaboration with the Gladstone Institutes, and published in Translational Psychiatry, scientists have been able to demonstrate the links between the consumption of diets high in saturated fats that lead to obesity and the development of depression phenotypes.

A new national public health research consortium led by the University of Sheffield is set to drive policy reform in order to tackle inequalities and improve the population’s health. The innovative SIPHER consortium – a new centre for Systems science In Public Health Economic Research – will provide evidence to support cost-effective action across different policy sectors, including economic growth, education and housing at different scales of government. The consortium was launched as part of a £25 million funding programme from the UK Prevention Research Partnership (UKPRP) into understanding and influencing the social economic and environmental factors that affect our health.

vet research centre Work is underway on a new £4.2m state of the art veterinary hub to drive forward research to protect both animal and human health. Led by Aberystwyth University and backed with a £3m grant from the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF) through the Welsh Government, VetHub1 will provide fullyequipped, high-specification laboratories and office spaces.

Short story or article to share? Send them to our Editor, Ellen Rossiter, at ellen.rossiter@distinctivepublishing.co.uk

BIO

SCIENCETODAY

Broccoli sprout potential

The key finding from the study showed that there were marked differences in the levels of antimicrobial resistance observed by region and regions with poorer sanitation had higher levels. This suggests that improving the overall sanitation and health in these regions could limit the overall global burden of antimicrobial resistance. The study was published in the highly regarded scientific journal Nature Communications.

| industry contributors |

Dr Davide Danovi leads the Cell Phenotyping group at King’s College London. Within the framework of the Wellcome Trust and MRC funded HipSci project (www.hipsci.org) he has spearheaded the Stem Cell Hotel, supported by the NIHR Guy’s and St Thomas’ BRC. Davide holds an MD from the University of Milan and a PhD in Molecular Oncology from the European Institute of Oncology and has several years experience in both academic and industrial setting developing high content screening platforms using stem cells.

Martina Slapkova Research Information Co-ordinator at the Motor Neurone Disease Association Martina is a member of the Research Development Team at the MND Association. Martina is responsible for disseminating the latest research information in motor neuron disease, and communications from the International Symposium on ALS/MND.

Prof Che J Connon, PhD Professor of Tissue Engineering, Institute of Genetic Medicine, Newcastle University Professor Connon’s research team seeks to engineer functional replacement using a modular approach while also developing model systems to study physiological and pathophysiological corneal tissue formation. He is currently working with smart (cell responsive) biomaterials, characterizing the mechanical and geometric environment of the corneal stem cell niche and 3D printing the corneal stroma.

Dr Frances Arnold Linus Pauling Professor of Chemical Engineering, Bioengineering and Biochemistry at the California Institute of Technology (Caltech).

Prof Georgina Rippon

B.Sc., Ph.D., CPsychol., HonFBSA

Professor Emeritus of Cognitive Neuroimaging, Aston Brain Centre, Aston University

Frances is an American chemist and engineer. She won the 2016 Millennium Technology Prize for her work in pioneering directed evolution, the only woman to have won the award. Dr Arnold also won the 2018 Nobel Prize in Chemistry and the only ever American woman to win in the subject.

Gina’s research employs brain imaging techniques to study developmental disorders including Autism Spectrum Disorders. Her recently published book, The Gendered Brain: the new neuroscience that shatters the myth of the female brain (Bodley Head) explores and explains the routes by which brains, especially those of females and those of males, get to be different.

Dr Jerika Lam Associate Professor, Department of Pharmacy Practice School of Pharmacy, Chapman University

Dr Timothy Whitehead Lecturer in Product Design, Aston University

Dr Lam’s work focuses on translational research in viral infections, and public health issues relating to the reduction of HIV and hepatitis transmission, and the improvement of patient health outcomes and medication adherence.

Leonita Paulraj, Patent Attorney, AA Thornton Leonita is a UK Chartered and European Patent Attorney with over 18 years of experience in the field of Chemistry, Biotechnology and Pharmaceuticals. Leonita has considerable experience in patent opposition and appeal work before the EPO, particularly for pharmaceuticals. Her expertise also includes providing patent development and strategic advice; drafting and prosecuting patent applications; and managing global portfolios.

Prior to being a lecturer, Tim was employed as an Industrial Designer working on novel glasses (spectacles) and water filtration products for the developing world, before becoming a programme leader of Digital Product Design at De Montfort University.

BIO

SCIENCETODAY

Dr Davide Danovi Director, HipSci Cell Phenotyping Programme

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| BIOSCIENCE TODAY |

| news |

Sir David Attenborough opens worldclass facilities at Keele University New state-of-the-art science facilities at Keele University have been officially opened by renowned broadcaster Sir David Attenborough today. As part of the University’s 70th anniversary celebrations, Sir David toured Keele’s new life science laboratories which have been named in his honour, meeting with staff and students to discuss their pioneering research and studies in fields such as food security, biodiversity, and global health. The new School of Life Sciences teaching and research laboratories are part of a £45 million investment to create cutting-edge science facilities on campus to support Keele’s world-leading research and teaching, and to tackle the key challenges of the 21st Century. As he officially opened the laboratories, Sir David said: “I am extremely lucky and I feel undeserving of this great honour. But if it means that you have the excitements, and the thrill, and the enlightenments that I have had looking at the natural world, and the sheer joy - and that you go on to care for the natural world - then I am very pleased indeed, and I am delighted to have this huge honour of having this wonderful building carry my name.” After opening the new laboratories, Sir David gave a talk on the subject of sustainability to a packed audience, followed by a short Q&A session. In his awe-inspiring talk to over 400 guests, staff and students, Sir David said: “Universities have a responsibility when they have an understanding of what is happening in the natural world to tell people about it, and take action about it.

“This university is showing that it understands the importance of sustainability and human beings cannot go on taking from the natural world without any care. “I actually had been feeling that I was talking into the wind 30 years ago. Today, I believe that we are on the turning point. I believe that universities like this one, which pays particular attention to sustainability, is right at the cutting edge. “Young people, people in universities, people with understanding about conservation and the natural world, are going to influence politicians. Things that have happened in the past few weeks show that politicians have suddenly realised they cannot ignore what is happening. That is because of the outcry of young people - because the world belongs to young people. “The world does not belong to man alone. We are its custodians. We have the power, and the knowledge, to care for that world, and we have a moral obligation to do that.” Sir David’s visit came on the same day that Keele became one of the first universities in the UK to declare a ‘climate emergency’, furthering the University’s commitment to promoting sustainability and investment in researching green technology.

| news |

| BIOSCIENCE TODAY |

£25 million for disease prevention In its first ever funding round, the UK Prevention Research Partnership (UKPRP) is investing £25 million into understanding and influencing the social, economic and environmental factors that affect our health. The funding has been earmarked for eight projects tackling the bigger picture factors behind the prevention of noncommunicable diseases (NCDs) - illnesses that can’t be passed from person to person - such as heart disease, obesity, poor mental health, cancer and diabetes. NCDs make up the vast majority of illnesses in the UK, accounting for an estimated 89 per cent of all deaths. These projects aim to deliver real changes that reduce the burden of these diseases on our health and social care systems and enable people to live longer, healthier lives. Many aspects of the world around us influence our health, from the communities in which we live, to the design of our cities and transport systems, the quality of our housing and education. There is strong evidence to show that wider factors such as these, often called ‘upstream determinants’, can have a great influence on how healthy our lives will be. No single research funder has the resources or expertise to address these complex issues on their own, which is why a partnership of twelve funders including charities, UK Research and Innovation (UKRI) councils and the UK health and social care departments established the multimillionpound UK Prevention Research Partnership (UKPRP) in 2017. UKPRP research grants aim to develop, test and refine new, practical and cost-effective approaches to preventing non-communicable diseases at this bigger picture level, which will in turn help to reduce health inequalities across the UK. This first tranche of awards has focussed on two types of awards: Consortia awards are big interdisciplinary research programmes funded for five years to tackle a specific challenge to prevent people becoming ill (primary prevention). They aim to generate and implement new ideas that can deliver change at a population-level.

Networks which are granted up to four years funding to develop new communities of researchers from diverse disciplines (including experts not previously involved in prevention research), to tackle NCD prevention. The eight awards (four Consortia and four Networks) will bring together leading researchers, as well as local and national policy makers, charities, non-government organisations (NGOs) and the public. The research awards cover a wide variety of issues, including; investigating the commercial determinants of health (i.e. the approaches used by commercial producers of tobacco, alcohol and food to promote products, influence policy and people’s choices, which in turn impacts on our health as a population); school food systems and their effects on the quality of children’s diets; improving the life chances of children in deprived areas in the UK; embedding health considerations in urban planning and decisionmaking processes; and developing new economic methods for judging the effectiveness and costs and benefits in policy areas such as economic growth and housing. Professor Dame Sally Macintyre, Chair of the UKPRP Scientific Advisory Board and Expert Review Group Panel said: “These newly funded, well designed projects will help to lift the lid on the social, economic and environmental factors affecting our health. “By investing in these interdisciplinary teams and drawing on a wide range of knowledge and expertise, UKPRP is supporting work that will have real life benefits for both policy makers and the wider public alike. “Non-communicable diseases place a huge burden on us all and we hope that this investment will help to provide practical and tangible solutions that will positively impact people’s lives and health.” A second UKPRP funding call for proposals for consortia and networks will be launched in autumn 2019. For more information about the UKPRP, please visit mrc.ukri.org/ research/initiatives/prevention-research/ukprp/

| BIOSCIENCE TODAY |

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Parkinson’s unique scent Scientists at The University of Manchester have found small molecules contained in a substance secreted by the skin, known as sebum, that are responsible for a unique scent in people with Parkinson’s. The results could lead to the development of an early diagnosis test for the neurodegenerative disorder. At present there are no definitive diagnostic tests currently available. The research, which was led by scientists at The University of Manchester and funded by Parkinson’s UK and the Michael J. Fox Foundation, was recently published in the journal ACS Central Science. Scientists already know that Parkinson’s can cause excessive production of sebum, a natural waxy, lipidbased bio fluid that moisturises and protects the skin. Joy Milne an Honorary Lecturer at The University of Manchester noticed that people with Parkinson’s had a distinct and different smell, which changed intensity as the condition progressed. She first noticed this smell in her husband Les, many years before he was clinically diagnosed with Parkinson’s. Researchers at the University’s Manchester Institute of Biotechnology (MIB) used mass spectrometry to identify the molecular compounds that give the condition this unique odour. To figure out what makes this smell, at a molecular level, the team analyzed the volatile components from the sebum found on people who have been diagnosed with Parkinson’s. The odour of these components was double checked by Joy Milne. The researchers collected sebum samples using gauze to swab the upper backs of more than 60 subjects, both with and without Parkinson’s. They then analysed the sample data and found the presence of hippuric acid, eicosane and octadecanal, which indicates the altered levels of neurotransmitters found in Parkinson’s patients, along with several other biomarkers for the condition.

By considering the levels of these molecules found in the test samples, the team has generated a model that can now identify and diagnose Parkinson’s at all stages of the condition. Professor Perdita Barran, Professor of Mass Spectrometry in MIB, said: “Now we have proved the molecular basis for the unique odour associated with Parkinson’s we want to develop this into a test. “This could have a huge impact not only for earlier and conclusive diagnosis but also help patients monitor the effect of therapy. We hope to apply this to at risk patient groups to see if we can diagnose pre-motor symptoms, and assist with potential early treatment.” Professor David Dexter, Deputy Director of Research at Parkinson’s UK, said: “Finding changes in the oils of the skin in Parkinson’s is an exciting discovery that was sparked by a simple conversation between a member of the public and a researcher. “More research is needed to find out at what stage a skin test could detect Parkinson’s, or whether it is also occurs in other Parkinson’s related disorders, but the results so far hold real potential. Both to change the way we diagnose the condition and it may even help in the development of new and better treatments for the 145,00 people living with Parkinson’s in the UK.” Parkinson’s is a neurodegenerative disorder that leads to progressive brain cell death and extensive loss of motor function and, despite much research being conducted, there is still no diagnostic tests available on the market. Dr Monty Silverdale, Consultant Neurologist and Honorary Senior Lecturer in Neuroscience at The University Manchester added: “We acknowledge this is a small study but it does open the door to the development of a non-invasive screening test for Parkinson’s, potentially leading to earlier detection for thousands of patients.”

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€8m European research project A new European research project which aims to heal epilepsy by regenerating brain tissue and ‘training’ neurons is getting underway. The five-year, €8m Hybrid Enhanced Regenerative Medicine Systems project - HERMES, brings together 12 partners from 7 EU countries to heal brain disorders using transplants which combine biological and artificial components. Epilepsy is a brain disorder characterized by the progressive damage of some brain areas, which results in an abnormal functioning of the brain. To date, epilepsy affects 50 million people worldwide, 8 million of whom live in Europe. HERMES researchers will study temporal lobe epilepsy, the most common form of epilepsy, which can be resistant to current pharmacological therapies. Temporal lobe epilepsy affects areas of the brain that are involved in learning, memory and emotions, such as the hippocampus. HERMES will aim to rebuild the part of the hippocampus damaged by this form of epilepsy. Researchers will generate hippocampal tissue in the laboratory and develop a neuromorphic neuroprosthesis - an electronic device that mimics the normal function of the brain’s neurons. The two components - one biological and the other artificial - will be implanted in the damaged brain area in an animal model with the aim of rebuilding the damaged hippocampus. The neuromorphic neuroprosthesis will be equipped with artificial intelligence to guide the implanted tissue towards the correct integration within the brain. The device will then serve as a “trainer” for the tissue recreated in the laboratory and will be discontinued upon complete regeneration and functional recovery of the brain area. The new paradigm introduced by HERMES is called enhanced regenerative medicine. The HERMES project is supported by the European Commission’s FET-Future and Emerging Technologies funds, among the most ambitious and competitive in Europe, and is coordinated by Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia (IIT) in Italy and involves partners from Italy, Spain, Denmark, United Kingdom, Finland, Belgium and The Netherlands.

In the UK, researchers from the University of Glasgow will work to make the microelectronic chip implantable into the brain. Dr Hadi Heidari, of the University’s School of Engineering, will lead the study and development of biocompatible materials to accommodate the miniaturized microelectronics as well as the fabrication of the final implantable chip. Dr Heidari said: “We’re thrilled to be part of this innovative project, which has the potential to truly change the lives of people living with disabling brain disorders like epilepsy. “The aim of HERMES is to enable biomedical interventions to move from treating patients to healing patients, and we’re looking forward to playing our part in that over the next five years.” Dr Gabriella Panuccio, IIT researcher and HERMES coordinator, said: “Our project is very ambitious, but if we succeed, we will be able to open new research perspectives for brain disorders and step beyond the limits of current treatments. Our goal is to demonstrate that it is possible to establish a dialogue between biological and artificial systems and obtain biohybrid technologies to cure the diseased brain. We intend to go beyond the canonical concept of regenerative medicine as a purely biological approach: it is necessary to leverage innovative technologies in order to help the new tissue integrate itself properly in the brain”. The perspective of interfacing biological and artificial systems leads to ethical and philosophical reflections, which will be addressed during the project, thanks to the involvement of experienced partners in the field, as well as during dedicated public events throughout Europe. In the future, HERMES technologies will have a long-term impact on people’s lives, on their health and well-being. The HERMES consortium consists of: IIT - Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia (Italy), Università degli Studi di Modena e Reggio Emilia (Italy), Università degli Studi di Verona (Italy), Agencia Estatal Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientificas (Spain), Politecnico di Milano (Italy), Aarhus Universitet (Denmark), University of Glasgow (United Kingdom), Tampere University (Finland), Fundacion Instituto de Estudios de Ciencias de la Salud de Castilla y Leon e Universidad de Salamanca (Spain), Eurokleis S.r.l. (Italy), Radbound Universiteit (The Netherlands), Den Institute (Belgium).

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£167 million research hub Imperial College London has opened its biggest new academic building in a generation. The £167 million Molecular Sciences Research Hub on the College’s White City Campus is the UK’s most significant scientific development since the Francis Crick Institute and the largest investment in a university building in 21st century London. The Molecular Sciences Research Hub was opened by the Mayor of London Sadiq Khan with Imperial’s President Alice Gast and Science Museum Group Chair Dame Mary Archer. Designed to break down traditional barriers between scientific disciplines, the Molecular Sciences Research Hub will convene the collective expertise of more than 800 scientists, clinicians, engineers and business partners under one roof to address global challenges across areas such as energy, healthcare and sustainability. Imperial’s worldrenowned Department of Chemistry has relocated to the Hub after more than a century in its historic home in South Kensington. The new Hub will support innovative molecular-based science and engineering - from chemistry through to its interfaces with materials and biology - with a focus on six core research themes: chemical biology and healthcare; energy; environmental and green chemistry; imaging, sensing and analytical chemistry; materials and molecular design; and synthesis and catalysis. The Mayor of London Sadiq Khan said: “This fantastic facility is already attracting the brightest minds from across the UK, Europe and beyond. This is great news for London and for our economy. London is the leading city in the world for scientific research and development – and the pioneering MSRH is yet more evidence that our capital is open to innovation and talent.” Professor Alice Gast, President of Imperial College London, said: “The Molecular Sciences Research Hub puts London at the forefront of a scientific revolution. This extraordinary facility will allow Imperial’s leading academics, brilliant students and collaborators to make scientific breakthroughs and innovations to benefit society. From understanding disease at a molecular level to developing clean energy technologies, White City will be home to some of the 21st century’s most exciting scientific advances.”

Professor Tom Welton, Dean of the Faculty of Natural Sciences at Imperial College London, said: “Molecular science is a whole new way to approach chemistry. In my group, for example, the cooking of chemicals is becoming mathematical: we no longer think about coloured liquids, but use new tools as a mathematical launchpad for everything from designing new energy sources to finding more efficient ways to synthesize chemicals. The Molecular Sciences Research Hub is the world’s first major academic building designed for the future of chemistry.” The Hub will push forward the molecular sciences as the disciplines increasingly tackle key societal challenges, including those of the UK’s Industrial Strategy Grand Challenges. State-of-the-art laboratories will be strengthened by new prototyping facilities and business incubator spaces to encourage entrepreneurial thinking and help to turn scientific discoveries into commercial products and services. Among the Hub’s technical and laboratory areas, which are clustered around a full height atrium and 250 person lecture theatre, is the Centre for Rapid Online Analysis of Reactions (ROAR): the UK’s first national centre for the study of reactions, focusing on data-centric chemistry. The Agilent Measurement Suite brings together private sector and academic researchers as they use and develop advanced analytical instruments to tackle scientific challenges including in health, the environment, energy and fundamental biology. The Molecular Sciences Research Hub has received financial support from Imperial College, the UK government’s Research Partnerships Innovation Fund, several private sector partners and philanthropists. It is the first academic building to open in Imperial’s new 25 acre £2 billion White City Campus. The launch event forms part of ChemFest 2019, a festival of chemistry being held by the Science Museum, V&A, Imperial College London, Royal College of Art, Royal Commission for the Exhibition of 1851, the Royal Albert Hall and Royal Society of Chemistry to celebrate 150 years of the periodic table of the elements.

POSTGRADUATE STUDY FOR LIFE SCIENCES GRADUATES WHERE WHERE NEXT NEXT WITH WITH YOUR YOUR DEGREE? DEGREE? If you have studied a life science subject such as biomedical science, microbiology, genetics, If you have studied a life science subject such as biomedical science, microbiology, genetics, anatomy or biology then the University of Birmingham may offer the perfect postgraduate anatomy or biology then the University of Birmingham may offer the perfect postgraduate programme to help you take your next step. programme to help you take your next step. We offer a variety of programmes to suit your individual needs and interests, backed up by the We offer a variety of programmes to suit your individual needs and interests, backed up by the academic expertise, facilities and influence of a global university. To find out more get in touch academic expertise, facilities and influence of a global university. To find out more get in touch at one of our Open Days (either on campus or virtually). at one of our Open Days (either on campus or virtually). At the University of Birmingham we offer At the University of Birmingham we offer a wide range of over 30 postgraduate aprogrammes wide range suitable of over 30 postgraduate for recent life programmes suitable for recent life science graduates including: science graduates including:

MASTERS PROGRAMMES MASTERS PROGRAMMES n Bioinformatics n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n

Bioinformatics Clinical Neuropsychiatry Clinical Neuropsychiatry Dental Materials Science Dental Materials Science Genomic Medicine Genomic Medicineand Health Policy Health Economics Health and Health Policy Health Economics Research Methods Health Research Methods Immunology and Immunotherapy Immunology Microbiologyand andImmunotherapy Infection Microbiology and Infection Molecular Biotechnology Molecular Biotechnology Physician Associate Physician Associate Public Health Public Health Toxicology Toxicology Trauma Science Trauma Science

MASTER OF RESEARCH MASTER OF RESEARCH PROGRAMMES PROGRAMMES n Cancer Sciences n n n n n n n n n n n

Cancer Clinical Sciences Health Research Clinical Health Research Biomedical Research: Integrative Biomedical Research: Integrative and Translational and Translational Biomedical Research: Biomedical Research: Cardiovascular Sciences Cardiovascular Sciences Molecular and Cellular Biology Molecular and Cellular Biology Molecular Mechanistic Toxicology Molecular Mechanistic Toxicology

We also offer a wide range of We offer a wide range of PhDalso programmes. PhD programmes.

STAY STAY IN IN TOUCH TOUCH We offer several opportunities for you to We several for you Weoffer offer several opportunities forOpen youtoto find out more withopportunities campus-based find out more with campus-based Open Days, Virtual Open and of course, find out more with Days campus-based Open Days, Virtual Open Days and of course, you can always email or call. Days, Virtual Open Days and of course, you can always email or call. you can always email or call.

ASK US AA QUESTION ASK APlatform QUESTION ASK USUS QUESTION Our online PG offers you the

Our PG Platform offers Ouronline online PGcurrent Platform offersyou you the chance to ask students andthe chance totoadvice, ask students and chance askcurrent current students and alumni for join in with online alumni for advice, in with online chats and out join more our vibrant alumni forfind advice, join inabout with online chats and find out more about our vibrant postgraduate community. chats and find out more about our postgraduate Find out postgraduate more community. at www.birmingham. vibrant community. Find out more at www.birmingham. ac.uk/postgraduate/ask-us.aspx Find out more at www.birmingham. ac.uk/postgraduate/ask-us.aspx ac.uk/postgraduate/ask-us.aspx

VIRTUAL VIRTUAL OPEN OPEN DAY DAY

If you can’t make it onto DAY campus we also VIRTUAL OPEN If you can’t make it onto campus we also have a set of subject-specific Virtual set of subject-specific Virtual Ifhave youacan’t make it onto campus wewill Open days running in March. This Open days running in March. This also run subject-specific Virtual Open give the opportunity to chat online will with give the opportunity chat online days throughout the to year. These willwith the programme lead and watch videos the programme lead to and watch give the opportunity chat online with about the programmes. You canvideos register about the programmes. You can register online to find outlead more. the programme and watch videos online to find out more. about the programmes. You can register To register forout open days and for online to find more. To register for open days and for information about individual programme information about individual programme visit: www.birmingham.ac.uk/ To register for open days and for visit: www.birmingham.ac.uk/ pg-life-sciences information about individual programme pg-life-sciences visit: www.birmingham.ac.uk/ pg-life-sciences

www.birmingham.ac.uk/pg-life-sciences

WHERE ARE THEY NOW? Our students are our best voice so we have included a few profiles below. To access more profiles of our postgraduate students please visit: www.birmingham.ac.uk/pg-life-sciences

MSC TRAUMA SCIENCE

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The opportunities given to me by far have been the best thing about the course. All the lecturers that have taught so far have come from different specialities and each have their own input into this course. They have offered me the opportunity to shadow them in the hospital and gain an exceptional experience.

Nirali is a MSc Trauma Science student who also holds a degree in Biomedical Science. She is keen on pursuing a degree in Medicine in the future. She currently works as a medical laboratory assistant in London and volunteers at many organisations.

To read Nirali’s full profile or ask her a question visit: pg.bham.ac.uk/mentor/n-patel/

MRES MOLECULAR AND CELLULAR BIOLOGY

‘

For me, I really wanted to gain more practical lab experience in biology after my undergraduate and see whether a career in research was for me. Doing an MRes has allowed me to work in two different labs throughout the academic year and gain a vast amount of experience in different areas of biology in terms of research topics and techniques.

Jagjeet is a full-time research student, who completed her MRes in Molecular and Cellular Biology at the University of Birmingham. She is currently studying towards a PhD in Immunology and Immunotherapy at Birmingham, having completed her undergraduate degree in Biological Sciences with Professional Placement at Aston University, which included an Erasmus placement in France.

To read Jagjeet’s full profile or ask her a question visit: pg.bham.ac.uk/mentor/j-kaurs/

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Brain signals translated into speech NIH BRAIN Initiative-funded project could improve quality of life for paralyzed patients. Scientists used brain signals recorded from epilepsy patients to program a computer to mimic natural speech — an advancement that could one day have a profound effect on the ability of certain patients to communicate. The study was supported by the National Institutes of Health’s Brain Research through Advancing Innovative Technologies (BRAIN) Initiative. “Speech is an amazing form of communication that has evolved over thousands of years to be very efficient,” said Edward F. Chang, M.D., professor of neurological surgery at the University of California, San Francisco (UCSF) and senior author of this study published in Nature. “Many of us take for granted how easy it is to speak, which is why losing that ability can be so devastating. It is our hope that this approach will be helpful to people whose muscles enabling audible speech are paralyzed.”

150 words/minute,” said Gopala K. Anumanchipalli, Ph.D., speech scientist, UCSF and co-first author of the study. “This discrepancy is what motivated us to test whether we could record speech directly from the human brain.” The researchers took a two-step approach to solving this problem. First, by recording signals from patients’ brains while they were asked to speak or mime sentences, they built maps of how the brain directs the vocal tract, including the lips, tongue, jaw, and vocal cords, to make different sounds. Second, the researchers applied those maps to a computer program that produces synthetic speech. Volunteers were then asked to listen to the synthesized sentences and to transcribe what they heard. More than half the time, the listeners were able to correctly determine the sentences being spoken by the computer.

In this study, speech scientists and neurologists from UCSF recreated many vocal sounds with varying accuracy using brain signals recorded from epilepsy patients with normal speaking abilities. The patients were asked to speak full sentences, and the data obtained from brain scans was then used to drive computer-generated speech. Furthermore, simply miming the act of speaking provided sufficient information to the computer for it to recreate several of the same sounds.

By breaking down the problem of speech synthesis into two parts, the researchers appear to have made it easier to apply their findings to multiple individuals. The second step specifically, which translates vocal tract maps into synthetic sounds, appears to be generalizable across patients.

The loss of the ability to speak can have devastating effects on patients whose facial, tongue, and larynx muscles have been paralyzed due to stroke or other neurological conditions. Technology has helped these patients to communicate through devices that translate head or eye movements into speech. Because these systems involve the selection of individual letters or whole words to build sentences, the speed at which they can operate is very limited. Instead of recreating sounds based on individual letters or words, the goal of this project was to synthesize the specific sounds used in natural speech.

The researchers plan to design a clinical trial involving paralyzed, speech-impaired patients to determine how to best gather brain signal data which can then be applied to the previously trained computer algorithm.

“Current technology limits users to, at best, 10 words per minute, while natural human speech occurs at roughly

“It is much more challenging to gather data from paralyzed patients, so being able to train part of our system using data from non-paralyzed individuals would be a significant advantage,” said Dr. Chang.

“This study combines state-of-the-art technologies and knowledge about how the brain produces speech to tackle an important challenge facing many patients,” said Jim Gnadt, Ph.D., program director at the NIH’s National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke. “This is precisely the type of problem that the NIH BRAIN Initiative is set up to address: to use investigative human neuroscience to impact care and treatment in the clinic.” braininitiative.nih.gov

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How superbugs hide New research led by the University of Sheffield has discovered how a hospital superbug evades the immune system to cause infection – paving the way for new treatments.

to a wide range of antibiotics including synthetic penicillin derivatives and is acquiring resistance to the last resort antibiotic vancomycin. Following an antibiotic treatment, E faecalis can out-compete other microorganisms to cause an infection.

The study, led by the University of Sheffield’s Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, investigated how Enterococcus faecalis (E. faecalis), bacteria commonly found in the digestive tracts of humans, cause life-threatening infections.

“Our study shows that this organism modifies its polysaccharide surface, which is essential for causing an infection. Bacteria whose polysaccharides are unmodified are quickly recognised and engulfed by the cells of our immune system, whereas by modifying the polysaccharide, E. faecalis can evade the host immune cells and spread infection.”

While E. faecalis is harmless in healthy carriers, it is also an opportunistic pathogen that frequently causes hospital-acquired infections such as heart valve infections, urinary tract infections and bacteraemia – the presence of bacteria in the blood. Scientists currently do not fully understand how this happens.

Dr Mesnage added: “Hospital-acquired infections caused by bacteria resistant to last resort antibiotics are on the rise. Our work suggests that targeting the mechanism that modifies the surface polysaccharides could be a novel strategy for developing new treatments to fight E. faecalis infections.”

Treatment of E. faecalis infection is difficult as it is highly resistant to several key components of the immune system and resistant to multiple antibiotics.

The research, Decoration of the enterococcal polysaccharide antigen EPA is essential for virulence, cell surface charge and interaction with effectors of the innate immune system, is published in the journal PLoS Pathogens.

Now, new research led by Dr Stéphane Mesnage from the University of Sheffield’s Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, has discovered a mechanism used by E. faecalis to hide from the immune system of the host. The study revealed that the bacteria changes a component of its cell surface in order to evade the immune system, enabling the spread of infection. The findings could pave the way for novel treatments for infections caused by E. faecalis. Dr Stéphane Mesnage, Senior Lecturer in Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, said: “E. faecalis is an opportunistic pathogen. It is naturally resistant

“Hospital-acquired infections caused by bacteria resistant to last resort antibiotics are on the rise. Our work suggests that targeting the mechanism that modifies the surface polysaccharides could be a novel strategy for developing new treatments to fight E. faecalis infections.”

The Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology at the University of Sheffield is focussed on studying DNA, RNA (Ribonucleic Acid) and proteins, and how they affect biological function such as host-pathogen interactions. Researchers work on topics from genomics and nucleic acids to plants and photosynthesis, with the aim of addressing the major global challenges of food security, antimicrobial resistance and an aging population. Many of its scientists are following in the footsteps of Sir Hans Krebs, the department’s first Professor of Biochemistry, who was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1953.

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How gut bacteria keep us healthy An international team of scientists, led by the University of Glasgow, have announced a new advance in our understanding of how bacteria in our gut can provide positive health benefits. The breakthrough findings, published in Nature Chemical Biology, provide evidence that it may be possible to design drugs that will mimic these positive health benefits in a way that might be used to treat diseases such as type II diabetes. It is known that bacteria in the gut can provide positive health benefits; however, the mechanism by which gut bacteria works has been unclear.

Professor Graeme Milligan, Gardiner Chair of Biochemistry, added: “By generating a genetically-altered mouse that contains a form of FFA2 that can be activated only by a drug, we found that FFA2 can control the speed of food moving through the gut, the release of hormones that can control glucose levels and the release of fat from fat tissue.”

Scientists think one possibility is that gut bacteria, by fermenting starches in food such as oats and pulses (like beans and chickpeas), produce compounds called short chain fatty acids (SCFAs). One of these SCFA’s is acetic acid - the main component of vinegar.

The scientists believe that, not only can FFA2, which is normally activated by acetic acid generated by gut bacteria, control these key processes important for our health and well-being but, importantly, that this receptor protein could be a target for new drugs in diseases where our response to food intake is dysfunctional, such as in type II diabetes.

Once produced, these SCFAs activate specific receptor proteins in our body and these receptors, once activated, can provide health benefits.

Prof Tobin said: “This is a major advance in our understanding our how our bodies respond to food and how the bacteria in our gut provide health benefits.

In a four-year study, the Glasgow team used a combination of genetics and pharmacology to ask if one of these receptor proteins – called short chain free fatty acid receptor 2 (FFA2) – when activated selectively by drugs, generated responses in the body that underpin the health benefits of gut bacteria.

“Our study not only advances our basic understanding of how the gut microbiome works in health and well-being but also provides the framework to design drugs that can mimic the health benefits of the gut microbiome.”

Andrew Tobin, Professor of Molecular Pharmacology at the University’s Institute of Molecular Cell & Systems Biology, said: “Through a clever genetic trick, we have been able to determine firstly, that the levels of glucose in our blood and fat in our bodies can be controlled by gut bacteria. This is done via a specific receptor protein in our body, and we believe that the positive health benefits of gut bacteria can be mimicked by drugs that activate this receptor protein.”

“Whereas many people are trying to capture the health benefits of the gut microbiome through probiotics, our study indicates that we can bypass the bacteria in our gut and directly target our bodies’ receptors with drugs that mimic the gut bacteria to provide health benefits in diseases such as type II diabetes.” The paper, ‘Chemogenetics defines receptor-mediated functions of short chain free fatty acids’ is published in Nature Chemical Biology. The work was funded by the Biotechnology and Biosciences Research Council (BBSRC) and the Medical Research Council (MRC).

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Blood cancer’s Achilles’ heel New findings about a fatal form of blood cancer could aid the development of new drugs with significantly less harmful side effects than existing chemotherapy. The discovery could lead to novel treatments that efficiently eliminate blood cancer cells in acute myeloid leukaemia (AML), without harming healthy blood cells. Researchers have discovered how a protein in the body plays a key role in AML – an aggressive cancer of white blood cells with very poor survival rates. The study showed that the protein, known as YTHDF2, is needed to trigger and sustain the disease, but is not needed for healthy cells to function. This identifies YTHDF2 as a promising drug target for leukaemia.

Importantly, they also showed that the protein is not needed to support the function of healthy blood stem cells, which are responsible for the production of all normal blood cells. In fact, blood stem cells were even more active in the absence of YTHDF2. The study, carried out in collaboration with the University of Manchester, Harvard Medical School and the Université de Tours, was published in Cell Stem Cell. It was supported by Cancer Research UK and Wellcome. Professor Kamil Kranc, of Barts Cancer Institute, Queen Mary University of London, who jointly led the study, said: “Our work sets the stage for therapeutic targeting of cancer stem cells in leukaemia while enhancing the regenerative capacity of normal blood stem cells. We hope this will establish a new paradigm in cancer treatment.”

A team of researchers jointly led by the University of Edinburgh and Queen Mary University of London carried out a series of experiments to understand the role of YTHDF2 in blood cancer. Tests in blood samples donated by leukaemia patients showed that the protein is abundant in cancer cells, while experiments in mice found that the protein is required to initiate and maintain the disease. Further tests enabled scientists to determine the biological pathway by which interfering with the function of YTHDF2 selectively kills blood cancer cells.

Professor Dónal O’Carroll, of the University of Edinburgh’s School of Biological Sciences, who co-led the research, said: “The study shows the promise of a novel class of drugs as the basis for cancer and regenerative medicine treatments.”

tackling HIV-related cancer Scientists are attempting to tackle a virus that causes Kaposi’s sarcoma, a skin cancer that is common amongst those with HIV. Kaposi’s sarcoma is caused by the virus Kaposi’s sarcomaassociated herpesvirus (KSHV), and it predominantly affects people between the ages of 20 and 49. A new international research consortia made up of the University of Leeds, alongside Rhodes University and KwaZulu-Natal University in South Africa, is trying to find a way to fight the virus, which currently has no antiviral drugs or vaccines to prevent it. According to the American Cancer Society, in some areas of Africa, up to 80% of the population shows signs of KSHV infection. In most cases, people infected with KSHV do not go on to develop the cancer, however, infection with HIV increases the chances that it will. With the present epidemic levels of HIV infection in Africa, Kaposi’s sarcoma is now the most common HIV-related cancer. The new project aims to improve the health and resilience of disadvantaged populations across sub-Saharan Africa. It has today been awarded nearly £500,000 funding by the UK Government’s Challenge-led Grants.

Project lead Professor Adrian Whitehouse, from the University of Leeds’ School of Molecular and Cellular Biology, said: “By understanding how this virus manipulates the human cells it infects, which allows it to replicate, we can start to design a drug that could help to stop this cancer from developing.” Professor Whitehouse’s team, who are part of the University’s Astbury Centre for Structural Molecular Biology, will use their expertise in viral oncology and drug discovery to try to identify an opportunity to disrupt the virus and prevent replication. Launched as a cross-academy initiative by the UK National Academies – The British Academy, the Royal Academy of Engineering, the Academy of Medical Sciences, and the Royal Society – the Challenge-led grants aim to foster collaboration not just between disciplines but between countries. The grants are part of the Global Challenges Research Fund (GCRF), a £1.5 billion fund by the UK Government to support cutting-edge research and innovation that addresses the global issues faced by developing countries. Leeds researchers have secured more than £45 million from the GCRF since its inception in 2015, helping to tackle problems such as anti-microbial resistance, water security and urban disasters.

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A stay at the Stem Cell Hotel

All cells in our body came from one original cell - a fertilised egg. A blood cell and a nerve may look very different, yet they actually share the same DNA information. Special characteristics are obtained by ‘highlighting’ parts of their genomes to be made more active, and others idle. Nonetheless, some of our cells can make exact copies of themselves (self-renewal) or become specialised, performing a specific function (differentiation). These are stem cells, the cells we study at the Centre for Stem Cells and Regenerative Medicine at King’s College London. Self-renewal and differentiation are thus the two defining features of stem cells. Stem cells can do both – we joke that it’s a bit like managing a family and a career.  page 22

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 From page 21

By Davide Danovi

Director, HipSci Cell Phenotyping Programme, Centre for Stem Cells and Regenerative Medicine, King’s College London

UNDERSTANDING OUR CELLS In order to understand cells’ behaviour, scientists have been taking pictures of them under microscopes for a long time. In recent times, computers have joined forces with microscopes, helping us to make sense of imaging data. This means we can now try to unravel the mysteries of the shapes of our cells. How a cell looks, moves and divides - how is this shaped by signals it received from its culture conditions? How much of it is down to the genetic background of the volunteer who donated it? Now imagine a dedicated team of experts in stem cell biology, image analysis and artificial microenvironments, working with other scientists to try and answer these questions.

Well, you’ve just pictured the ‘Stem Cell Hotel’, a project supported through our NIHR Guy’s and St Thomas’ Biomedical Research Centre. In our laboratories high up in Guy’s Tower, next to the Shard, we help visiting scientists find out more about their experiments, hosting both the users and the cells they carry. We make sure the cells are welcome, fed and imaged, as important guests. The scientists who brought them to us can access our devices, deploy tailored characterisation methods, develop assays and perform experiments. We can help them phenotype the cells - and predict their characteristics from their genetics. The assistance we provide ranges from a single room for one - simple acquisition of microscopy images, to the presidential suite - data analysis and integration to scientific collaborations such as co-development of software with technology providers. Like any hotel, our cost models vary accordingly. This innovative, collaborative phenotyping space combines elements of a research facility, and of a research and

“One of the most exciting things about this work is the collaboration and the impact it has on a diverse multidisciplinary community of scientists. We have genuinely become a meeting point for university and biotechnology companies. We host scientists from a range of different disciplines and backgrounds including clinical, translational and industrial who all have their own take on stem cells. It’s illuminating to hear different perspectives, and allows us, like the cells we study, to be flexible in what we do.” 22

The Stem Cell Hotel team (L-R): Erika Wiseman, Davide Danovi, visiting Scientist Ana Stojiljkovic, Zuming Tang.

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development incubator. While serving internal and external scientists, it is able to accommodate contract-research activities where intellectual property (IP) remains with the user, unless when significant input from our scientists is required. The Stem Cell Hotel has been an enabling feature of the Centre for Stem Cells and Regenerative Medicine that has grown together with it as their history intertwined. Professor Fiona Watt, Director of the Centre for Stem Cells and Regenerative Medicine commented: “Under Davide Danovi’s leadership, the Stem Cell Hotel has grown from concept to reality - it is exciting to see how many collaborations are already underway, or in the planning phase.” The Centre was inaugurated in December 2015 and the Stem Cell Hotel has moved on a long way since, and is now fully operational. Created within the framework of the Human Induced Pluripotent Stem Cell Initiative (HIPSCI), it leverages expertise from several leading edge research projects which are ongoing at the Centre, on different cell types. From a personal perspective, I am privileged to be leading a team of scientists with expertise in high content and high throughput analysis and data integration. One of the most exciting things about this work is the collaboration and the impact it has on a diverse multidisciplinary community of scientists. We have genuinely become a meeting point for university and biotechnology companies. We host scientists from a range of different disciplines and backgrounds including clinical, translational and industrial who all have their own take on stem cells. It’s illuminating to hear different perspectives, and this allows us, like the cells we study, to be flexible in what we do.

Art installation at the entrance of our centre. An ‘Utopian lab’ celebrating Thomas More’s book and created by Inês Sequeira, with Chloe Hurling, Felicity Hurling and Flavia D’Amico.

TURNING BACK THE CLOCK Imagine bringing one specialised cell back into an embryonic-like stage so that it can again become any type of cell. This Nobel-prize winning technology is referred to as reprogramming cells into ‘induced pluripotent stem cells’. One recent example of the power of this approach is our study detailing the characterisation of a panel of 110 human induced pluripotent stem cell lines from 75 individual volunteers. We looked for cells behaving in an unusual way and were able to associate these unusual behaviours with single changes in a nucleotide, a letter of their DNA code. Data, including raw images from this study have been published to open access repositories,

granting the wider scientific community access and the ability to replicate the analysis. Scientists can now access specific cell lines with particular genomic characteristic or even a particular shape. This open science project is at the cross-road between databases with information about biological models (genes, proteins, etc) and biobanks of human samples. The impact comes here from the ability to define criteria to ‘benchmark’ or quality control cells based on these analysis methods. We have also recently published another study as a collaboration between our team of scientists at the Stem Cell Hotel and experts on endothelial cells. Endothelial cells are the cells that line the interior of our blood vessels and the vessels in our lymphatic system. Characterising these cells, and understanding how they differ when derived from different sources could help us find new ways to obtain the right vessels for tissue engineering for specific organs. In parallel, we compared two cell types: endothelial cells forming colonies derived from induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSC-ECFC) alongside primary human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC). We have derived information on the cells’ shape and form, and how they interact with each other in order to capture differences between cell populations. This approach exemplifies an important yet simple strategy to benchmark endothelial cells in different conditions, and to assist in development of new tools for biological research and regenerative medicine applications. Born from boldly translational research embracing the spirit of open innovation, the Stem Cell Hotel grants access to state-of-the-art technology for stem cell biology, high content analysis and artificial microenvironments. Its highly collaborative environment serves communities centred around academic, clinical, and commercial research.

Recapitulating embryonic development in vitro using human induced pluripotent stem cells.’ Credit: Alice Vickers, King’s College London

www.kclstemcellhotel.org www.hipsci.org

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Professor Che Connon in laboratory

A soft spot for stem cells helps cornea healing New research led by scientists at Newcastle University, UK reveals a potential revolutionary way to treat eye injuries and prevent blindness - by softening the tissue hosting the stem cells which then helps repair wounds, inside the body. The team discovered that the simple application of a tissuesoftening enzyme, collagenase, prevents the loss of corneal stem cells following an injury and could prevent patients from losing their sight. It offers hope to almost 500,000 people a year who lose their sight due to chemical burns including acid attacks. The study, published in Nature Communications and funded by the Medical Research Council shows that keeping

corneal stem cells in a soft environment is fundamental for their reproduction, self-renewal, and ability to heal damaged tissue.

IMAGING This discovery was made possible by the development of a sophisticated microscopy technique which enables imaging the physical properties of biological tissues at very high resolutions. Using this technology in collaboration with experts in Photonics from Imperial College London, the team was able to determine that the corneal stem cell niche - the area of tissue in the cornea where stem cells live - is a much softer environment than the rest of the tissue. The scientists also discovered that stiffening the niche causes stem cells to mature and lose their self-renewing and wound healing properties.

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Collagenase is a tissue-softening enzyme

Collagenase treatments were first tested in donor corneas

Dr Ricardo Gouveia, Research Fellow at Newcastle University and first author of the paper said: “This study demonstrates a potential new way to treat injuries by changing the stiffness of the natural environment which we have shown changes the behaviour of the adult stem cells. Our imaging approach provides a valuable tool to analyse live cells within the cornea, as well as to further explore new therapies for restoring or even improving their function.”

A NEW LOOK AT THE CORNEA As the outermost layer of the human eye, the cornea has an important role in focusing vision yet many of the processes keeping it transparent and resistant to damage are not well understood. Like skin, the cornea is covered by a multi-layered epithelium forming a barrier to physical harm and invading microorganisms. But unlike the skin, when injury occurs the corneal epithelium is repaired by stem cells clustered in the tissue’s periphery, first by quickly dividing in great numbers and then by migrating towards the damaged site as matured epithelial cells in order to seal the wound. However, this healing process can be compromised when injuries reach the stem cell niche. The research now published has important implications for developing new ways to heal this type of damage. The director of this study and leader of the Tissue Engineering Lab at Newcastle University, Professor Che Connon, explained: “We can now prove that the cornea becomes stiffer when exposed to injuries such as those caused by what are commonly known as acid attacks, and demonstrate that wound healing is impaired due to stem cells differentiating in response to the stiffening of their otherwise soft niche, and not because they are killed during injury, as previously thought. “This is an exciting development in the field of corneal biology, and allows us to better understand how vision works. But even more important, it provides us with a new set of strategies to treat eye conditions which were until now inoperable. We call these less invasive strategies Biomechanical Modulation Therapies.”

FROM LAB BENCH TO BEDSIDE In the work, the researchers from Newcastle, collaborating with scientists at the Imperial College London and University of Missouri, USA, also developed a proof-of-concept therapy to help restore corneal stem cell function and improve tissue regeneration following chemical eye burns.

Comparison between collagenase-treated and burned rabbit corneas

Using live corneal tissues as a model system, the team recreated the effects of chemical burns. After treating the wounded, stiffened areas of the cornea using small and localised doses of collagenase, a tissue-softening enzyme to restore the stem cell niche, it once again became pliable and able to support stem cells and promote healing. This collagenase formulation has already been approved for related therapeutic applications by both the US Food and Drug Administration and the European Medicine Agency. Dr Gouveia added: “We show that the topical application of collagenase is safe and effective in restoring the normal stiffness of the cornea and helps tissue regeneration by preventing the differentiation and loss of adult stem cells after such injuries. We were further surprised to discover that the ability for a wound to heal was not directly caused by a lack of stem cells, but instead due to the environment these cells are exposed to. This really makes our therapy revolutionary.” The scientists believe the same technique could be applied to help alleviate the lack of corneas available for transplantation by the almost 5 million people suffering from total blindness due to corneal scarring caused by burns, lacerations, abrasion or disease. In addition, ten million people worldwide are estimated to require surgery for preventing corneal blindness as a result of diseases such as trachoma, an infectious eye disorder affecting many people in developing countries. There is a real and pressing need for new therapies to treat these diseases which are both simple and cheap. The scientists intend to further expand the research, working with health partners to further test the potential of this study. Professor Connon explained: “Our research shows that corneal stem cells grow better in softer environments. We now want to build on that knowledge and test this method in patients, using biomechanical modulation therapy to re-create suitable environments for corneal stem cells to thrive within the body whenever their original niche is compromised by injury or disease. “We also think our study is relevant to other scientific and medical fields beyond corneal research, and can help the study, diagnostics, and treatment of diseases such as cancer, where tumour stiffening is a known marker of aggressive cancer cell behaviour and of metastasis.” Reference: Assessment of corneal substrate biomechanics and its effect on epithelial stem cell maintenance and differentiation. Nature Communications. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-019-09331-6

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nobel prize winner talks to us Dr Frances Arnold, the American chemist and engineer, who won the 2018 Nobel Prize in Chemistry and the 2016 Millennium Technology Prize for her work in pioneering directed evolution reveals more about her work.

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 from page 27

Dr Frances Arnold, the American chemist and engineer, won the 2018 Nobel Prize in Chemistry and the 2016 Millennium Technology Prize for her work in pioneering directed evolution. She is only the fifth female Nobel chemistry laureate since the prize was first awarded in 1901, and the only ever American woman to win in the subject, and the only woman to win the Millennium Technology Prize. She is the Linus Pauling Professor of Chemical Engineering, Bioengineering and Biochemistry at the California Institute of Technology (Caltech). Directed evolution mimics natural evolution to create new and better proteins in the laboratory. This technology uses the power of biology and evolution to solve many important problems, often replacing less efficient and sometimes harmful technologies. Thanks to directed evolution, sustainable development and clean technology have become available in many areas of industry, meaning they no longer have to rely on non-renewable raw materials. In 1993, Arnold conducted the first directed evolution of enzymes, which are proteins that catalyse chemical reactions. Dr Arnold’s innovations have revolutionised the slow and costly process of protein modification, and today her methods are being used in hundreds of laboratories and companies around the world. Modified proteins are used to replace processes that are expensive or that utilise fossil raw materials in the production of fuels, paper products, pharmaceuticals, textiles and agricultural chemicals. Dr Arnold was the third innovator who has first been awarded the Millennium Technology Prize and then the Nobel Prize. To mark nominations opening for the 2020 Millennium Technology Prize, Dr Arnold answers questions ranging from the future of directed evolution, her concerns over the current US administration’s lack of respect for science, and whether women are breaking the glass ceiling in the worlds of science and technology. What is the simple concept that you’d like regular nonscientists to understand about the work that you’re doing? The simple concept is that if we can write the code of life we can do all the chemistry and make all the products that living systems do in a clean, sustainable, green way. In other words, nature is the best chemist on the planet, so why not use nature to do our chemistry for us? You were right there at the beginning of the biotech revolution – has it progressed in the way you thought it would and what would you say has been the most impressive achievement to date? The most impressive achievement is our ability to manipulate DNA, the code of life. This ability has grown enormously. We now have the tools to read, write and edit DNA. What we don’t know how to do is compose it, and that’s where evolution comes in. We still have to learn how to compose useful new programs for biological systems, but evolution can do it for us. Like a lot innovators, you faced scepticism when you were first developing your technology. You said that there was a difference of opinion between science and engineering viewpoints. What do you think was the reason for that? Well, it was a clash of cultures. The scientists wanted to understand everything before they built new enzymes. The

Dr Frances Arnold with the 2016 Millennium Technology Prize engineers said, “Hell, let’s just move forward and use the methods that work.” And that’s evolution. After 30 years we’re still far from the understanding, although we’ve made some steps. In the meantime, directed evolution has made many useful enzymes. There have been some incredible developments in terms of more natural products being made in a more sustainable way thanks to your pioneering research. What is your dream for this in the future? My dream is that we will replace inefficient and toxic wasteproducing chemistry with microbes, with biocatalysts that are clean, efficient and can use renewable resources to make chemicals and fuels. I think there’s no doubt it is possible, but it will take time, money, and political commitment – the last part is still missing. One of your most fascinating developments is an enzyme that’s allowed you to convert plant sugars into the precursor to jet fuels. Is that scalable and does it mean that we’ll eventually have for example, 100% renewable aircraft fuel? There are a number of companies selling renewable aircraft fuel. The problem is it’s very hard to compete with companies pumping oil out of the ground. Many renewable fuels ventures need more money to invest in building plants to scale up operations. Again, a commitment in terms of more ambitious renewable fuel targets by the international community, and government investment, could help give this a real push. Directed evolution has led to the development of many medicines without the use of toxic metals in the production process, such as Januvia to treat diabetes, for example. Do you think we’ll see this happening more in the pharmaceutical industry? Certainly. Almost all the major pharmaceutical companies are now using enzymes to make drugs. Not all of their drugs, but they’re all looking closely at this technology because it can replace toxic metals and other expensive and

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problematic materials used in the manufacturing processes. I think the big advance is that the chemical community – and that includes many chemical and pharma companies – now understands that you can evolve enzymes to perform chemistry that only humans thought they could do. Biology can make molecules even better than humans do. You probably remember the story in December last year about a scientist in China who was gene editing embryos. Do you think we’re at a stage where that will become acceptable, or is it still too controversial? I think, looking at history and the way these things unfold, it will become less and less controversial as the benefits are realised. In the future, people may look back and be surprised to see the opposition that exists today. The problem with this particular case is that there were very limited, if any, benefits derived from the gene editing and lots of possible downsides. So what happened in China was completely wrong. But, remember that people were nervous about in vitro fertilization, IVF, for example, and now it is used all over the world and has given children to millions of families. Lots of technologies that were once controversial have since become mainstream because the benefits are big. The issue is we have to understand these technologies better to know their downsides, and then introduce them when we are certain the benefits far outweigh the risks. Are you concerned about a lack of respect for science by the current US administration?

NATURE IS THE BEST CHEMIST ON THE PLANET, SO WHY NOT USE NATURE TO DO OUR CHEMISTRY FOR US?

are challenges to having a family and competing at the highest levels that women often feel more acutely. Do you feel that being one of the few women to win prizes like the Nobel and Millennium Technology Prize has increased your awareness of being a role model for women innovators? And what advice would you give to young female scientists starting out now?

I’m terrified at the lack of science fact-based discussion on many important issues that touch all of us. If you don’t have a rational basis for a discussion, and that rational basis is science, how can you move forward? I’m very distressed at the current administration’s lack of support for science, and how support has become politicised. There are many people in the government who are as distressed as I am.

Well, I’m not keen on the idea of role models per se because I think people have to find their own path, but I do like looking out and seeing a sea of faces of people who love science, with lots of women in it. My advice is be inspired by others, but follow your own path. And don’t leave this fun work just for the men.

Where else do you see the biggest threat to science? Is it from anti-science forces on the religious side or from a lack of serous public debate, for example?

You are only the fifth female Nobel chemistry laureate, the first American woman to win the prize, and the only woman to win the Millennium Technology Prize. Do you think we’ll see a steady stream of women winning prizes like the Nobel and Millennium Technology Prizes now?

I think it’s just from ignorance of how important science is to all of us. For all of these huge issues that we and our children are going to face, a big fraction of the solutions will have to come from better science and technology. Without science you don’t have technology and without technology you don’t have advances. And you won’t have solutions to feeding, housing, clothing, and caring for the health of ten billion people. What do you think of the benefits of science prizes and what practical benefits have they given to you? When I won the Millennium Prize there was a wonderful outpouring of interest in my field, of people becoming more aware of sustainable chemistry, of young people of course contacting me and reading more about this field. So I think it was a real boost and shot in the arm for a field that few people know about. Are there still barriers facing women in science and technology? Do we still have a long way to go yet before we reach ideal “gender parity” in these fields? I believe that women still face external barriers. However, other barriers are more self-imposed: lack of confidence or desire to work in such a competitive environment, and perhaps a lack of appreciation of how much science and technology contributes to society. Science is not for everyone; it takes a lot of time and devotion to become good at it, and the same is true for engineering. You have to love it. Most talented women have many opportunities, and whether they choose to pursue science or engineering depends on how they feel about their whole life experience, perhaps more so than men. Opportunities for women today are excellent, but there

I do, because there are more and more women doing science and they’re doing it really well. I was a very rare female engineer when I started out in the 70s. When I applied to Princeton in 1973, I think I was only the second woman who signed up for a degree in mechanical and aerospace engineering. But now there are many wonderful senior women in the sciences and engineering, and they’re doing great work. They are also sitting on prize selection committees! What do you think are the big challenges science still has to solve? How do you feed, clothe, water and house ten billion people without destroying the planet? That takes chemistry. Electrons won’t feed people and they don’t house people. We need chemicals, materials, fuels, and food. How do we make those things without destroying the environment and the natural things that we find beautiful? How do we share the planet with wild animals, fish, birds, forests and other living things and still have a good quality of life? Those are the challenges we still need to find answers to. The Millennium Technology Prize is awarded every two years for ground-breaking technological innovations that benefit millions of people around the world, highlighting the extensive impact of science and innovation on the well-being of society. The Prize is one million euros and is awarded by Technology Academy Finland, an independent foundation. Nominations for the 2020 Millennium Technology Prize opened on 1 April 2019 and are accepted until 31 July 2019. More information is at millenniumprize.fi

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Harnessing pharmacogenomics for better health outcomes In this issue, we speak to Dr Jerika Lam of the School of Pharmacy at Chapman University, about her work applying pharmacogenomics to antiviral treatments. “A lot has happened in the field of hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection, especially with better antiviral treatments for individuals who are mono- or coinfected with HCV and HCV/HIV, respectively. Prior to the development of the second generation direct acting antivirals (DAAs) in 2013, cure rates were dismally low, ranging between 50-70%. “Furthermore, 20% of HCV-infected individuals would develop life-threatening complications, including cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. Liver failure from cirrhosis is the leading cause of liver transplantation in the US, resulting in an increased cost burden to our healthcare system. “Currently, individuals who are HCV-infected can receive highly effective oral DAAs and be successfully cured of the infection after 2 or 3 months of treatment. Therapy with DAAs is associated with cure rates of 95% or higher regardless of the HCV genotype. “There are few challenges that still exist today. Firstly, in 2012, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and, more recently, U.S. Preventive Services Task Force recommended all persons born between 1945 and 1965 should receive routine serologic testing for HCV. “If these “baby boomer” individuals are found to have HCV infection, then they could receive DAA therapy, be cured of the infection, and reduce the risk of developing end-stage liver disease and death. “Secondly, with the opioid epidemic, there is an increase in HCV-infection among individuals who use or share injection drug use since HCV is easily transmissible through blood-to-blood contact. “Thirdly, there is a high percentage of individuals who continue to develop non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), approximately 50% based on one US study, even after being cured of HCV infection. NAFLD is characterised by increased fat deposits in the liver that could increase the individual’s risk of liver cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. “Remarkable progress has been made in developing effective and well-tolerated oral treatments for HCV infection, which have led to a significant cure rate of the

infection. However, despite the therapeutic advances developed in this field, there is a proportion of those individuals who have achieved cure and still demonstrate evidence of NAFLD. “There are molecular mechanisms and genetic factors associated with the development of NAFLD, such as fatty acid synthase, acetyl-CoA carboxylase 1, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor, and the patatin-like phospholipase domain containing 3 (PNPLA3) gene. Many studies have reported genetic polymorphisms and their association with lipid metabolism, particularly the PNPLA3 genotypes within certain ethnic groups. “The PNPLA3 gene is associated with mediating lipid deposition in hepatocytes and adipocytes. Pharmacogenomics, or the study about the effect of genes on an individual’s response to medications, could help predict the specific genotypes that predispose an individual to risks of developing NAFLD and/or NAFLD fibrosis progression even after successfully responding to DAA therapy. “My research interests include applying translational clinical research (pharmacogenomics) in practice, determining mechanisms of viral resistance, promoting awareness of naloxone use and opioid misuse, and reducing the stigma associated with HIV and hepatitis infections. “Our research study aims to explain the underlying molecular mechanisms of hepatitis steatosis, or fatty liver and its correlation with the PNPLA3 genotypes. At the present, my research lab and I are exploring the impact of commonly used DAAs on the expression of the PNPLA3 gene polymorphism, rs738409 I148M, in a concentrationand time-dependent manner. We use a hepatic cell model and transfect it with a HCV genotype 2a isolate, the JFH1 plasmid. “After confirming infection of the hepatic cell model, we then treat the infected hepatic cells with DAA mono- and combination therapies at various concentrations and times to determine if there is any impact on the expression of the polymorphism. Our goal is to determine if there is a correlation of the PNPLA3 genetic polymorphism expression with specific DAA treatments over time.  page 32

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 from page 31 “By performing this translational research, we hope to explain the possible mechanisms behind the development of NAFLD in certain patient populations that are cured of HCV infection. More importantly, we hope that our research findings will promote screening HCV-infected individuals for the polymorphism prior to receiving treatment and predict their likelihood of improvement after successful DAA therapy. “The fact that there are several case reports of HCVinfected individuals who continue to have hepatic-related complications and development of NAFLD after being cured of the infection fascinates and challenges me to find an explanation. There are some scientific publications reporting the potential association between various molecular and genetic mechanisms and NAFLD. “For patients who are cured of the HCV infection, there is a proportion of patients who continue to develop hepatic steatosis and may require liver transplantation in the future. By determining the underlying molecular mechanisms that could explain and confirm the correlation of the PNPLA3 gene polymorphisms, we could then use precision medicine to identify individuals who could benefit most from DAA therapy either at the early or late stage of their liver disease. Perhaps the most difficult aspects of translational clinical research are to validate the same underlying polymorphisms in human studies. As of present, we have very interesting in vitro data to show that certain DAAs do affect the PNPLA3 gene polymorphism expression at higher concentrations and longer time intervals. With immunofluorescence assay, we also detected the translocation of the PNPLA3 gene from the nucleus to the cell membrane. We plan to publish our in vitro findings. “Our research study aims to address the underlying molecular mechanisms of PNPLA3 gene polymorphisms and their impact on fatty liver development. The challenge that we may face includes sampling the HCV-infected patients’ blood to determine if we are actually testing the gene or protein of PNPLA3. “The impact of our work is potentially significant. Knowing that the PNPLA3 gene is associated with NAFLD and alcoholic liver disease, screening for the PNPLA3 genotypes will allow us to identify the individuals who are less likely to recover after achieving cure of their HCV infection. Subsequently, these individuals would be closely monitored for potentially developing steatosis and educated to avoid certain foods and medications to reduce further injury to the liver. “Currently, I’m also working on the antimicrobial effects of fatty acids on various bacteria. I plan to expand this research into the fatty acids’ antiviral activity against HIV and the human papilloma virus. We are exploring natural treatments to combat antimicrobial and antiviral resistance that would be safer for patients. “I am also collaborating with faculty colleagues to evaluate the prevalence of naloxone furnishing and awareness among California pharmacists. Naloxone is an opioid antagonist and could save lives for those individuals experiencing an accidental overdose from taking too much synthetic and illicit opioids. “My personal interest in this public health type of research stems from the increased use of illicit substances and opioids that usually occur via injectable paraphernalia. As a result, the increased use of injectable substances and opioids have led to increasing HIV and HCV infection rates within our communities. “My inspiration as a research scientist stems from the fact that there are still many unanswered questions in science and research is essential toward improving clinical

Dr Jerika Lam knowledge and science. The possibility to find the hidden truth for the current health challenges and the opportunity to add to the body of science and knowledge further inspire me to continue my research studies. “My early academic career was focused on exploring the mechanisms of antiretroviral-associated toxicities in individuals living with HIV and applying pharmacogenomics in HCV-infected individuals receiving pegylated interferon and ribavirin dual therapy. “With respect to pharmacogenomics, I was investigating serotonin transporter polymorphisms and their correlation to an individual’s predisposition to depression during pegylated interferon therapy for HCV infection. “If the individual is screened to be at increased risk of having depression based on the genetic polymorphism, then he/she will receive an antidepressant as prophylaxis at least two weeks prior to starting pegylated interferon and ribavirin therapy. “My earlier research interests focused on nephrotoxicity associated with certain antiretroviral agents that were part of the preferred treatment regimen for patients living with HIV infection. The defining moment in my work as a researcher began when I was able to validate the study results with scientific experiments. I was excited by the fact that I could explain the nephrotoxicity observed in my patients with the in vitro findings conducted in the laboratory. “Obtaining intramural grant funding from my University to conduct studies exploring the impact of DAAs on PNPLA3 polymorphism expression was a huge step for me. Funding has led to my discovery of the molecular mechanism that may explain the influence of DAAs on PNPLA3 polymorphism expression in hepatic cells. “What keeps me motivated each day is the hope that there will, someday, be a cure for HIV and better antimicrobial treatments for multi-drug resistant virulent pathogens. I hope that we will be able to use precision medicine, or pharmacogenomics to individualize therapies and ensure successful health outcomes.”

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Will you be a winner in the war on plastic? The opening salvo was fired long before the Blue Planet II documentary, but just over a year ago, plastic became public enemy number one, even though it remains so pervasive in our lives. Plastic has been responsible for a huge number of advances over the years, but now it faces a dilemma. When is a plastic a “bad plastic”? It would appear as though plastics can be separated into good and bad plastics based on the amount of use that you can get from them. Single Use plastics = Bad, Multi-use/recyclable plastics = Good That therefore causes a significant challenge for the food and drink packaging industry which is probably at the centre of single use plastic, together with the food and drink retail industry. Just rooting around in my bin and recycling, it’s clear to see from the layman’s perspective why the industry is facing such a massive problem. Over half of the plastic that my family use on a weekly basis is either; “Not currently recycled”; or “check local recycling”. The same applies when you go to a fast food restaurant, in their efforts to recycle, they are clearly trying to recycle cups, cup lids and straws, but most of the cardboard food packaging is going to waste. There have been some significant changes over recent weeks and the appearance of Michael Gove on the One Show in April certainly highlighted the progress that was being made. A well-known fast food chain had contracted with a paper straw manufacturer in South Wales to help them remove all plastic straws from their outlets this year. There had been some fairly rigorous testing of the straws to ensure that they didn’t disintegrate, so there may well have been some R&D performed in improving the manufacturing process. However, it is not just a problem for the food and drink industry, there is also a significant problem with the recycling industry as different councils responsible for the co-ordination of local recycling schemes have very different contracts with the various providers, such that moving from one council to another could see completely different things being able to be recycled. This was one point picked up on by Michael Gove who said HM Government were planning on bringing through some legislation for universal recycling across the country. What’s the solution for the food and drink packaging industry? Well, I don’t suppose it will be too long before consumers are expecting that all of the plastic being used in packaging

is either recyclable or made from recycled plastic or even better recyclable and made from recycled plastic but is that going to be possible if most plastics can only be recycled a small number of times before they are downcycled into lower value products. I suppose it’s possible that more things may end up in aluminium or cardboard packaging, but is it practical? One of the main benefits with plastic is its weight and strength. So would more cardboard and more aluminium push up food prices. This is where we go full circle back to who the winners might be, it maybe those companies that are looking for innovations in plastics. Investigating whether it Is possible to improve the recyclability of plastics such that they can be recycled more times before downcycling, can you protect the plastic before use to prevent the absorption of the materials into the plastic that reduces it’s potential to be recycled. If you are thinking about innovating in plastics you might want to keep an eye on Innovate UK, the Government’s Innovation Strategy supporter if you are looking for some funding for a new project, but if you have already started one, then Research and Development Tax Relief will allow you to recoup roughly 25% of the costs back as a tax saving. What’s most important from the perspective of R&D Tax Relief is that you have to be trying to achieve something that is technically or scientifically challenging, you ultimately don’t have to succeed. So, as we have already highlighted anything that enhances the potential to recycle plastic more will certainly be meeting this brief. There’s nothing stopping you from obtaining a grant and then claiming Research and Development Tax Relief, you just won’t get the best tax relief if you’re an SME, you’ll just get back around 10% of your eligible costs. If you think you might have a claim for R&D Tax Relief, or if you are thinking of applying for a grant from Innovate or Horizon 2020 (the EU funding body for collaborative R&D) then why not give us a call and we’ll see if we can help you. Call Simon on 01424 225345 to start giving you the extra ammunition to win the war.

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THINK YOU KNOW HARROGATE? NOW IS THE TIME TO THINK AGAIN!

Harrogate and district has a long established reputation as a tourist destination. Mention of Harrogate brings up images of Bettys famous tearooms; of the Tour de Yorkshire; the beautiful parks and gardens. Spreading out from the western side of the Yorkshire Dales, the district is a mixture of high fells and peaks, steep sided valleys shaped by millennia of slowly moving glaciers and rolling hills of luscious farm land. Scattered throughout are chocolate-box villages with traditional stone buildings, floral displays, church towers and welcoming pubs. ď&#x201A;Š page 36

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 from page 35 With open squares, independent shops, cafes and restaurants and little museums and galleries they are the perfect base for exploring the District more widely. The Dales towns of Pateley Bridge and Masham make a great base for walkers, cyclists and those with a love of the outdoors who want to explore glorious Upper Nidderdale. Knaresborough and Boroughbridge have a deep and fascinating history in and amongst their thriving independent shops. The unspoilt little Cathedral City of Ripon is steeped in history with a selection of Museums, the 7th Century Cathedral itself and a World Heritage Site – Fountains Abbey and Studley Royal – nearby. The natural landscape of the district is often the star attraction, carved from the earth by the elements over millions of years, from the extraordinary formations at Brimham Rocks to the dramatic gorge where Knaresborough spills down to the river. With nine full sized reservoirs and a designated Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty, nature is never far away. Wetland nature reserves, deer parks and the open moors provide plenty of opportunity for the budding bird watcher or wildlife photographer. King fishers and dippers frequent the River Nidd and the distinctive shape of Red Kites is often seen overhead. Geographically the Harrogate district is slap bang in the centre of the UK; covering an area of 1,300sq km and with a population of 160,000. Equidistant from East and West coast and half way between London and Edinburgh, the area is well served by motorways and the rail network; and Leeds Bradford airport is only 20 mins from Harrogate – making it accessible from all corners of the UK and beyond. So there is undoubtedly plenty to excite visitors and keep the hotels and guesthouses busy, and Harrogate has three times been voted the happiest place to live in the UK.

Smithers Viscient However; there is MUCH more to this story than first meets the eye. Harrogate is a thriving district supporting prominent high value sectors, with an enviable talent pool and a vibrant network of start-ups, scales-ups and established players.

TO FULLY APPRECIATE WHERE HARROGATE IS TODAY IT’S A GOOD IDEA TO TAKE A LOOK BACK. Harrogate became known as The English Spa in the 16th Century after William Slingsby discovered that water from the Tewit Well mineral spring possessed similar properties to that from the town of Spa in Belgium. In the 17th and 18th centuries further chalybeate (iron-rich) and sulphur rich springs were discovered and became a popular health treatment with an influx of wealthy visitors descending on the town to take the waters – and to bathe in them – no doubt helped by a recommendation from none other than Queen Elizabeth I’s personal physician. The Royal Pump Room was built in 1842 and at its peak attracted 15,000 people each summer. The Turkish Baths were opened in 1897 and are still in operation today – although the treatments nowadays focus more on wellbeing and relaxation than the cures proffered in earlier times. Harrogate has always been a sought after meeting place and in 1884 the town changed its constitution to become a Borough Council with an appointed mayor, specifically in order to welcome the British Medical Association. One hundred years later the iconic Conference Centre was built and the Harrogate Convention Centre regularly hosts the annual conferences for some of the leading medical associations and scientific bodies including the Association of Anaesthetists, British Blood Transfusion Society, Association of British Neurologists, British Transplantation Society, the Royal College of Physicians and many more.

Testing the water at the Borough Analyst’s office in Harrogate in 1930

So coming forward to the summer of 2019 and businesses in and around the town continue to build upon the history of innovation and invention.

HARROGATE DISTRICT STATS: • A £3.5BN ECONOMY • OVER 13,000 BUSINESSES • ONE HOUR WORKFORCE CATCHMENT OF ALMOST 3 MILLION • 46% OF RESIDENTS ARE QUALIFIED TO DEGREE LEVEL

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| innovate in harrogate |

IN 1959 ICI FIBRES LAUNCHED AN INNOVATIVE NEW TEXTILE CALLED CRIMPLENE. THE NAME WAS CHOSEN BECAUSE ICI HAD THEIR HEADQUARTERS IN HARROGATE; SPECIFICALLY NEARBY CRIMPLE VALLEY

Harrogate centre by night There are a number of scientific research & development businesses established in the town with a network of associated support services such as specialist recruitment agencies and legal services. Smithers Viscient offers business solutions in the areas of environment and consumer safety through knowledge and technology and their UK division is in Harrogate. Ian Siragher, MD of Smithers Viscient told us “For an R&D business like Smithers one of the best things about being in Harrogate is the overall eco-system we’ve got, of a lot of businesses like this in the area. In addition we’ve got a very well educated workforce, so that’s important to us, and we’re a global business so we need good infrastructure, good links – we’ve got the motorways, we’ve also got Leeds Bradford airport in the area so if you take all those things together you get a very powerful package.” Covance Laboratories currently employ 1600 staff at their facility in the town and a spokesperson recently cited Harrogate’s location and connections to the supply chain as vital to the company’s expansion.

DID YOU KNOW? ONE THIRD OF MEDICINES ON THE MARKET TODAY WERE DEVELOPED BY A WORLD-LEADING CRO WITH A MAJOR BASE IN HARROGATE

Other sectors represented in the District include Europe’s largest cold-storage facility. Reed Boardall at Boroughbridge is the UK’s largest single-site frozen food consolidator. The 55 acre site boasts over 100km of rack space. As the screen industries continue to flourish in Yorkshire so do the dynamic and innovative Creative services companies that are on our doorstep – Stage One in Tockwith, for example, design and create awe-inspiring installations for Olympic Games opening ceremonies; as well as TV and theatre sets and experiential events.

“It’s a super place to work but also it’s a super place to live. It’s a great place to bring up children – the facilities and infrastructure here are World class and it’s just a delightful place to exist!” 37

Later this year the world’s eyes will be on the town in unprecedented numbers when the UCI World Road Race Championships take place – prepare to see more iconic aerial shots of the Victorian and Georgian buildings, the fan park on The Stray, cyclists in national kit powering up Parliament Street towards the finish line. With an expected global TV audience in the region of 250 million from 150 countries there will be even more opportunities for the world to see Harrogate and district in all its glory.

Tim Leigh, Sales and Marketing Director of Stage One Creative Services summed it up nicely “It’s a super place to work but also it’s a super place to live. It’s a great place to bring up children – the facilities and infrastructure here are World class and it’s just a delightful place to exist!” A major consideration for businesses locating in the district is access to a quality workforce and Harrogate scores well here – with 43% of the population educated to degree level or above. The district is part of the Leeds City Region which boasts the highest concentration of higher education institutions in the UK outside of London. With nine universities, in total the region produces 38,900 graduates a year, with over 15,000 of these in STEM subjects. If you would like to learn more about how Harrogate Borough Council can help with any aspect of your business please visit our website www.investinharrogate.co.uk or call us on 01423 500600

| motor neuron disease |

| BIOSCIENCE TODAY |

Relentlessly searching for the cure Martina Slapkova

Research Information Co-ordinator at the Motor Neurone Disease Association

the UK in 1996. However, although considered a standard treatment for anyone diagnosed with MND, riluzole only prolongs survival by around 3 months. Fast forward two decades when a second drug, edaravone, was licensed in Japan, South Korea, USA and Canada. Originally, edaravone was developed as an intravenous treatment for acute ischemic stroke. When it was later tested in rodent models and subsequently in people with MND, reduction of oxidative stress was observed. Follow-up trials were however only able to identify modest effect in a small subgroup of patients whose symptom progression was moderately slower. To this date, data on survival are still sought.

Motor neuron disease (MND), also known as Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis across the globe, has been puzzling researchers and clinicians ever since it was first characterised by the French neurologist Jean-Martin Charcot almost 150 years ago. An estimate of 5,000 people live with MND in the UK at any one time, with one’s lifetime risk being 1 in 300. WHERE DO WE GO FROM HERE? Initially manifesting itself by weakness in voluntary muscles that control limbs and speech, the disease gradually takes over the whole body, leaving the person trapped in a failing body - unable to move, talk, or eat. Death usually occurs 2-3 years after diagnosis, often due to respiratory failure. There is no cure. These devastating symptoms are caused by diseased motor neurons, which over time become unable to communicate with the muscles. Although we are still in the stages of identifying what exactly happens in the body to make the neurons go awry, substantial progress has been made in the past few years, making us hopeful of a new treatment.

WHERE ARE WE NOW? Clinical trials have been relentlessly testing drug targets ever since the first ever MND drug, riluzole, was licensed in

With only two drugs under our belt, and no effective treatment, the MND research community is far from losing hope and we are looking ahead of exciting times. There are many avenues researchers are exploring, each targeting a different mechanism by which the disease is suspected to develop and progress. Although the precise cause of why motor neurons die isn’t known, many pathogenic processes have been proposed. One common overarching pathological hallmark of the disease is the accumulation of sticky clumps of aggregated proteins in the affected cells. One such protein, found aggregated in almost all cases of MND, is called TDP-43. Accumulation of this protein outside its normal location in the nucleus creates toxic aggregates, slowly taking over the control centre of the neuron. An investigative drug arimoclomol stimulates production of natural chaperones – heat-shock proteins – which

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| motor neuron disease |

prevents potentially toxic proteins from being able to aggregate and clump. Its positive safety profile and ability to cross the blood-brain barrier makes it a good drug candidate, and it is now being tested for its effectiveness across the world, including the UK. Post mortem studies of brain and spinal cord tissue also revealed changes attributed to the effects of free radical damage, making oxidative stress another possible disease mechanism. A new investigational drug, Copper ATSM, is now being tested to investigate its effectiveness to selectively deliver copper to hypoxic cells, which has already been successful in cell and animal models, and recently found safe to administer in humans. Another suggested mechanism involves mitochondria, whose dysfunction is thought to induce abnormal levels of energy production. Cell and animal models are now focusing on improving antioxidant defences to improve mitochondrial function and gene editing to regulate mitochondrial permeability.

AN ESTIMATE OF 5,000 PEOPLE LIVE WITH MND IN THE UK AT ANY ONE TIME, WITH ONE’S LIFETIME RISK BEING 1 IN 300.

It is not however only about the neurons. The support cells of neurons, glia, normally have a protective and nurturing role in the central nervous system, however, in MND, they can cause more damage than good. Two specific types of glial cells, astrocytes and microglia, have the ability to turn to the ‘dark side’ and produce toxic environment to the motor neurons. This results in an inflammatory response where even the healthy motor neurons are attacked. Therapies such as low-dose interleukin-2, currently tested in a clinical trial MIROCALS, are now focusing on increasing the amount of regulatory T-cells (Treg) to help fight the inflammation. Higher amounts of Treg cells, which are thought to calm microglia, are found in MND patients with slower disease progression, hinting at a potential mechanism.

THE ROLE OF GENES MND is a disease of a complex origin, and a combination of genetic, environmental and lifestyle factors is necessary for the disease to develop. And although some involvement of genes is suspected in the majority of MND cases, a subgroup of ~10% of patients has a specific proneness to the disease due to an inherited genetic mistake. Although a heterogenous disease, clinical manifestations of MND are similar across patients regardless of the cause. Therefore, having a number of genes identified to

be associated with the disease provides the advantage of focusing treatment efforts into fixing these mistakes first. One way to do this, which is already being trialled for one of the most common genes associated with MND - SOD1 - is by using antisense therapy, whose recent success in other diseases, including treating Spinal Muscular Atrophy, gives it a strong foundation. This therapy allows a synthetic strand of RNA to bind to the gene’s messenger RNA, preventing the faulty protein from being made (effectively turning the faulty gene off). Interim findings have showed decrease in SOD1 protein in the CSF of people with MND and a trend towards reduced clinical decline. Another gene, C9orf72, which is also implicated in frontotemporal dementia, a disease sometimes co-occurring with MND, is another target of an antisense trial.

CAN A VIRUS BE TO BLAME? The theory that MND might be of viral origin has been around for some time and has recently resurfaced with the proposition that the human endogenous retrovirus-K (HERV-K) might be linked with the disease. These ancient viruses often go unnoticed in our bodies until they get activated from their dormant state. Post mortem studies of people with MND revealed presence of proteins made by the retrovirus that were found to be toxic to motor neurons and triggering neurodegeneration. Although the reason why this happens isn’t yet fully understood, antiretroviral therapies currently used for the treatment of HIV/AIDS are now being tested to suppress the activity of HERV-K to explore its efficacy in MND.

THE JOURNEY IS LONG, BUT THE TARGET IS GETTING CLOSER Researchers have made a great progress over the past few decades and with the recent boom of new technology, including whole genome sequencing, induced pluripotent stem cell modelling and gene therapy, our community is hopeful and motivated than ever to tackle MND, by attacking it from every possible angle. The MND Association is relentless in its fight against the disease and by funding research into the causes, treatments, symptom management and quality of life, while supporting the care needs of people living with MND and their carers, we hope for a world free of MND. mndassociation.org

| brain development |

| BIOSCIENCE TODAY |

Entangled exploring the influences on brain development

| BIOSCIENCE TODAY |

| brain development |

THE HISTORICAL DEBATE “Look back at the 18th Century and you see lots of attempts to explain the social inferiority of women on the basis of their ‘inferior’ brains. As time went on the debate became a little politer, now claiming that men and women had different skills that were complementary, but still based on an assumption that these differences were the result of biology.” Look a little closer and it soon becomes apparent that much of the literature purporting to be about brains over much of the last two centuries or more was not based on the study of human brains at all. Think first of craniology (the study of skulls) or phrenology (the study of bumps on your skull). “In the 21st century, it may not manifest itself in the same way, the terminology may have changed, yet the underlying beliefs are much the same and we still sometimes see outbursts that reflect a belief that men and women’s brains are inherently different,” explains Gina. Infamous examples in recent years include the internal memo by former Google employee James Damore in which the company’s diversity efforts were criticised. Whilst the comments of the then President of Harvard, Lawrence Summers regarding the underrepresentation of women in science and engineering alluded to the ‘different availability of aptitude at the high end’ between men and women, reigniting the debate.

THE SEARCH FOR DIFFERENCE Yet the continued search for difference draws attention away from the many similarities between men’s and women’s brains. It also negates the variability found in the brains of people of the same sex – which is much wider than any differences found between the brains of men and women. The belief that there is a simple dichotomy between male and female brains is based on an argument that these differences are driven by a genetically determined template that is fixed and unchangeable from birth – hence these differences can’t or shouldn’t be challenged.

Gina Rippon

Throughout history, much attention has been paid to the perceived differences between men’s and women’s brains – but are these differences real or imagined? One scientist overturning the myths of the ‘male’ and ‘female’ brain is Gina Rippon, Professor of Cognitive Neuroimaging in the School of Life & Health Sciences at Aston University. When asked: can you sex a brain? the emphatic response from Gina, is “no, certainly not at the moment. Decades of research has shown that there is no one area of the human brain that consistently distinguishes female brains from male brains.”

The danger in this assumption at best leads to inertia and can mean that no attempts are made to address the inequalities we know exist, in areas such as education, healthcare and the workplace – including the underrepresentation of women in science. “For a long time, it was assumed that your biology was your destiny and that your developmental endpoint was dictated by a biological blueprint set out right at the beginning of your life,” explains Gina. “It was assumed that the brain you are born with would be the brain you will always have. We know now that this is not the case. “Yes, there are average differences between men and women in many aspects of behaviour, but how do we explain these differences? There are factors, in addition to biological factors, that we should be taking into account. ‘Sex influence’ is a better term, reflecting that sex is one influence, but one amongst many and by ignoring those other factors we are missing a lot that is interesting.”

DISCOVERING NEURAL PLASTICITY “In the 21st Century we have new ways of looking at the brain and the more sophisticated imaging equipment available to us reveals that brains are malleable and mouldable, changing over time, rather than remaining static. There is a growing understanding of neural plasticity. “We can see that people’s brains are affected by the world in which they function, factors such as education, occupation and pastimes make a difference. The experiences you have can change your brain; and these changes wax and wane throughout your life. We know now the world in which we  page 42

| brain development |

| BIOSCIENCE TODAY |

 from page 41

“For a long time, it was assumed that your biology was your destiny and that your developmental endpoint was dictated by a biological blueprint set out right at the beginning of your life. It was assumed that the brain you are born with would be the brain you will always have. We know now that this is not the case.” operate has a much greater impact on our brains than was ever thought to be the case. “A good example of this is London’s black cab drivers. We know that structures in the brain change in taxi drivers who pass The Knowledge, in which they’re tested on the whereabouts of 25,000 streets in London. Those drivers who fail or drop out of training don’t show the same changes, whilst in those drivers that have retired their brains change once again.

EDUCATION AND SCIENCE “The brain generates rules from the world in which it operates, so understanding the role of socialisation is important. Stereotypes can be a threat at brain level and understanding this is helpful in addressing the inequalities or differences that many people see as fixed - these differences are nothing of the sort. “It’s crucial that all children know their biological sex does not solely determine their abilities or achievements. I’m very concerned about the underrepresentation of women in the sciences and that’s why I do a lot of work in secondary schools. “There are too many girls who genuinely believe they can’t do science, both because of existing stereotypes instilled

from an early age and because science is still viewed as a male domain. That’s why it’s important they have successful female scientists as role models. The loss to science of girls who don’t do science is enormous. “One of the worst things about the education system in this country is the specialisation that’s required from so young an age. The adolescent brain is particularly malleable and driven by social demands such as peer pressure and belonging to the right in-group, meaning it’s about the worst possible time someone could be asked to make an academic decision that will affect the rest of their lives.”

INTERTWINED INFLUENCES “There are differences between the sexes, looking at these differences is important, but the social and cultural consequences of how these differences are researched, interpreted and communicated are immense and that’s why it is so crucial this work is done well. If we understand these differences solely in terms of biology, we are missing many other factors that should be taken into account. “Biological and social influences are entangled. Brain development is not wholly down to either society or biology. There are many factors involved in how our brains come to be how they are and which influence how they operate in the world.”

| BIOSCIENCE TODAY |

| intellectual property |

Biosimilars and Patents The majority of the world’s biggest selling medicines can be classified as “biologics” or “biopharmaceuticals”. Such medicines contain one or more biologically active product produced from (or containing components of) living organisms as the active ingredients. Leonita Paulraj,

Associate, AA Thornton Biosimilars are biological products which are highly similar in structure, biological activity, efficacy, safety and immunogenicity profile to another already approved biopharmaceutical (the ‘reference product’). Traditionally, generic medicines contain the same active pharmaceutical ingredient(s) as the originally approved reference product upon which their marketing authorisation is based. In contrast, biosimilars do not contain active ingredient(s) identical to the originally approved biological product, but instead contain similar active ingredient(s). Therefore, a biosimilar cannot be regarded as a generic version of an already approved biological product since the natural variability and complex manufacturing process of biologics do not allow an exact replication of the original product.

HOW ARE BIOSIMILAR MEDICINES AUTHORISED FOR USE? In the EU, marketing authorisation applications for biotechnology-derived medicines, including biosimilars, are reviewed centrally by the European Medicines Agency (EMA). Biosimilar medicines require distinct regulatory pathways from those applied to generic medicines as they are not exact replicates of the originator (reference) medicine. For obtaining marketing authorization, developers of biosimilars must show through detailed comparative studies with the reference product that there are no clinically significant differences between the biosimilar and the reference product in terms of safety, quality and efficacy. Thus, although further clinical trials as already carried out for the reference product are not required, the regulatory approval process for biosimilars is far from trivial.

PATENTING BIOSIMILARS Patents are granted only for inventions which meet certain legal requirements. For example, most Patent Offices require that the invention described and claimed in a patent application must (at least) be new, inventive (not simply an obvious modification of something that is already known) and capable of industrial application.

In order to obtain marketing approval for a biosimilar, it must be shown that the biosimilar is highly similar to the reference product. Yet, for a patent to be granted, the invention must be both new and inventive. Thus, patenting biosimilars becomes complicated as the very nature of biosimilars requires that they should be as close as possible to products that are already in the market. Despite this, it may be possible to seek patent protection for inventions relating to a new process of preparing biosimilars, new formulations, combinations, mode of delivery, dosage regimen, and new medical uses including treatment of new patient groups using the biosimilar, as long as the improvement does not impart clinically significant differences. Thus, developers of biosimilars should check, prior to disclosing their biosimilar product, whether any feature of the product could be protected in its own right. Care should also be taken to ensure that any patentable differences over the reference medicine do not jeopardise an application for obtaining a marketing authorisation. Biosimilars are often developed by companies as the patent protection of an original biopharmaceutical product approaches expiry of patent term (generally this period is 20 years from the filing date of the relevant patent application). Most innovators also depend on Supplementary Patent Protection (SPC) and Data Exclusivity to extend the protection term. Recently, the European Commission (EC) issued a proposal to change the rules in relation to SPCs to include “export manufacturing waiver” for patented products to third parties in order to promote the competitiveness of the EU generic and biosimilar industries in global markets. This change may further encourage companies to develop more biosimilars. If you have queries regarding this topic, or other pharmaceutical or biotechnological matters, please contact Leonita Paulraj at ltp@aathornton.com or visit our website www.aathornton.com

| intellectual property |

| BIOSCIENCE TODAY |

Plant patentability and the European Patent Office – what is the latest update? Plant patentability has long been a contentious issue throughout intellectual property and scientific circles. The question as to whether plants or Jim Robertson animals created through essentially biological processes, such as genetic or selective breeding, can be patented has raged on through appeals and in legal debates for a number of years. Traditionally, plants or animals created in this way have been eligible to be patented, with landmark cases, such as the Broccoli II and Tomatoes II case, helping to reinforce this. However, a subsequent rule introduced at the European Patent Office in June 2017 has challenged this belief entirely and reignited the debate surrounding patentability. The rule introduced by the Administrative Council sought to clarify the issue of patentability, however in doing so it sparked numerous legal challenges which continue to this day. Here, Jim Robertson, a partner and patent attorney at leading intellectual property firm Wynne Jones IP, explains why this has become such a polarizing issue and discusses the current stance in relation to plant patentability.

THE BACKGROUND In March 2015 the Enlarged Board of Appeal found that Article 53(b) EPC, which prevents essentially biological processes producing plants from being patented, does not exclude plants or plant material from patentability.As such, plant variety obtained through such a process can be patented. This caused significant political upheaval (and lobbying), with the end result that new Rule 28(2) EPC was introduced. This stated: “Under Article 53(b), European patents shall not be granted in respect of plants or animals exclusively obtained by means of an essentially biological process.” The new Rule 28(2) clearly contradicts the earlier Article 53(b), and Mr Robertson suggests that for this reason the new rule should be unenforceable. Mr Robertson said: “This case hinges on the separation of power at the European Patent Office (EPO) - the legislature, the judiciary, and the executive. The legislature enacted the European Patent Convention. The executive (in the form of the Administrative Council) amended the implementing regulations to bring new Rule 28(2) EPC into force. Article 112 EPC confirms that the decisions of the Enlarged Board of Appeal are binding. “The European Patent Convention states that ‘In case of conflict between the provisions of this Convention and those of the Implementing Regulations [also referred to as the “Rules”], the provisions of this Convention shall prevail’. So it should have been fairly straightforward. However, the Administrative Council (despite numerous submissions from industry and professional representatives) introduced Rule 28(2) EPC in an attempt to prevent plants from being patented.

The end result of all of this was various patent applications being refused, and the current appeal.

THE DECISION The appeal surrounds the decision of the examining division to refuse the patent application in accordance with the provisions of Article 53(b) EPC and Rule 28(2) EPC. The Board of Appeal which heard the case was extended to include two additional members, including one legally qualified member, and ruled that amended Rules 27 and 28 EPC are in conflict with Article 53(b) EPC. Therefore, the Board found that Rule 28(2) is unenforceable. On the basis of that finding, the Board has returned the case back to the Examining Division to consider other patentability issues.

WHAT NEXT? Although not binding in case law, this case should be highly persuasive for all other Boards of Appeal, and its ruling should be followed. Mr Robertson added: “In terms of this specific case, so long as the other patentability issues are satisfied, a granted patent should issue.” The appeal on Nunhems/Bayer is being heard by the same Board of Appeal and so their decision in this case will clearly be followed. In relation to the opposition against Zeraim/ Syngenta, the decision in this case should resolve the Article 53(b) EPC patentability issues. For applications pending at the EPO, the examining divisions should follow the decision on this case. Mr Robertson added: “In terms of Rule 28(2) EPC (indeed, all of the changes to Rules 27 and 28 introduced by the Administrative Council), our hope is that the Administrative Council will ‘clean up’ the Implementing Regulations by rescinding its 29 June 2017 decision amending Rules 27 and 28 EPC. “Given the Board of Appeal’s decision on this case, it should (hopefully) not be a politically difficult decision for the Administrative Council members. “If politicians want to exclude plants from patentability at the EPO, the only way for them to do it will now be to amend the European Patent Convention (the EPC) itself. This would require the agreement of all EPC member states (not just a majority of them) and so will be extremely difficult to do.”

FINAL CONCLUSIONS Mr Robertson added that the decision is excellent news for those who want to obtain granted patents at the EPO for novel and inventive plant varieties obtained by means of an essentially biological process. He said: “Pleasingly, this decision also reaffirmsthe independence of the Boards of Appeal and the separation of powers at the EPO, which should boost confidence in the EPO.” www.wynne-jones.com

Your team for Life Sciences IP Is Life Sciences your field? When you need help with intellectual property rights, remember that we’ve been active in this field for decades. Whether you’re a lone inventor, SME or large corporation, you must identify and protect your Crown Jewels®. These are the core technologies, inventions or processes that are critical to your business strategy. We will work with you to fully understand the commercial and strategic needs of your business and take away the hassle and worry of IP.

What’s more we know our stuff in: Strategic IP management | Setting IP budgets | IP asset management | Funding for IP

What are you waiting for? Let’s talk Life Sciences. Jim Robertson, Life Sciences Team Leader T: 01242 267 600 E: jim.robertson@wynne-jones.com W: www.wynne-jones.com

| finance and funding |

| BIOSCIENCE TODAY |

Life sciences is bucking the trend in providing Venture Capital for female founders Life sciences is one of the most successful sectors in the UK economy and its continued growth is a key part of the Government’s industrial strategy.

Women are still severely underrepresented in STEM occupations. According to the Women in Science and Engineering (WISE) campaign’s latest analysis of UK labour market statistics, women make up just 27% of the science workforce.

The sector employs more than 230,000 scientists and staff across the country and generates at least £64bn of turnover for the economy.

Earlier this year the British Business Bank’s UK VC & Female Founders report found that for every £1 of venture capital (VC) investment in the UK, all-female founder teams get less than 1p.

If the UK is to maintain momentum in the industry, however, and stay at the cutting edge of innovation, we need to continue our efforts to invest in and support our best talent.

By comparison, all-male founder teams get 89p. In total 83% of deals that UK VCs made last year had no women at all on the founding teams.

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| finance and funding |

The life sciences sector, however, is bucking that trend, faring far better than many others when it comes to investing in women-led businesses. When looking at the distribution of UK VC deals by industry, the Bank’s research found all-female teams in the biotech and pharmaceutical sectors received 10% of funding, compared to 7% for all-male – a marked contrast to industry as a whole. All-male and all-female teams in companies producing healthcare devices and supplies received and equal proportion of VC funding (5%), while similar teams providing healthcare services and systems also received an equal proportion (2%). British Business Bank-supported funds provide some good examples of where the right sort of funding at the right time has helped female founders grow their businesses rapidly using equity funding. Doctify is a healthtech platform that empowers patients to find the right specialist doctor to suit their needs, view profiles of them and rate their experience. It is the brainchild of co-founder Dr Stephanie Eltz, who realised how difficult it was for patients to find the right specialist. She then took eight months off work to partner with her colleague Dr Suman Saha to create Doctify in 2014. British Business Bank’s Enterprise Capital Fund partner, Amadeus, has led two funding rounds in Doctify, with funding used to develop the product, build the executive team and fuel growth. Today, Doctify has an estimated turnover of more than £150m and employs 15 people, with sales doubling every year for the past three years. Patients can search, compare and book an appropriate health specialist for 47 different medical specialities, including cardiology, oncology and paediatrics, as well as dentistry and dermatology. The team is now looking to enter new markets. Kerry Weaver and Angela de Manzanos are the female founders of FungiAlert which develops tools that allow for the early detection of plant diseases in soil. Dr Stephanie Eltz, right, and Dr Suman Saha from Doctify

Over two funding rounds led by Bank partner Sussex Place Ventures’ Enterprise Capital Fund, they were able to hire three new team members, purchase key equipment and undertake extensive field trials. The funding allowed them to launch their first product in January 2019, and go on to build an experienced sales team, support on-going product development research and to expand internationally. These are just two examples of the progress being made in supporting female innovation in life sciences, and the Bank has recently set up a new £2.5bn subsidiary, British Patient Capital, designed to enable long-term investment in highgrowth potential companies in the UK.

FungiAlert develops tools that allow for the early detection of plant diseases in soil diversity in the UK entrepreneurial population by the end of 2020, and investing in new fund managers with approaches and networks outside the norm. BPC has also adopted the recently launched Institutional Limited Partner Association (ILPA) diversity template for venture capital firms applying for its programmes. The new template, part of an expansion of ILPA’s due diligence questionnaire, enables venture capital teams to measure and report the gender and ethnic diversity of their teams by seniority and role, and aims to encourage conversations about issues around diversity. There is growing consensus that embracing diversity is a critical success factor for high performing teams and innovative new businesses. The bioscience sector shows encouraging signs of progress in this area, but it is important to build on that so talented female entrepreneurs in the field can secure the right kind of investment, at the right time, to enable their business to grow and prosper.

As well as providing substantial finance to innovative ambitious companies, BPC is committed to improving diversity in the VC industry. This includes properly analysing the issue and publishing research and recommendations on

These are just two examples of the progress being made in supporting female innovation in life sciences, and the Bank has recently set up a new £2.5bn subsidiary, British Patient Capital, designed to enable long-term investment in high-growth potential companies in the UK. 47

Alice Hu Wagner Managing Director, Strategy, Economics and Business Development British Business Bank www.british-business-bank.co.uk

| training and education |

| BIOSCIENCE TODAY |

Bridging the gap between academic learning and on the job skills The University of Salford’s Environment and Life Science degree apprenticeship programmes are a key area of development. The Biomedical Science degree apprenticeship programme has expanded rapidly over the past couple of years and the university has plans to develop further programmes in this area from 2019/20 based on employer demand. The university works closely with employer partners to offer these industry-relevant programmes and is always keen to hear from employers in terms of their workforce development needs.

UPSKILL YOUR WORKFORCE This alternative route to higher level qualifications can be accessed by your current employees or used as a tool to attract new talent to your business. Develop and up-skill your workforce in a cost-effective way. Recruit and develop ambitious, motivated employees. Increase retention by offering your workforce the chance to develop and progress. Retain your talent and gain access to a broader pool of employees. Tailor learning to your requirements. Work around your commitments with flexible study options. Deborah Seddon, Haematology and Blood Bank Manager, Salford Royal NHS Foundation Trust “We are currently supporting an employee through the BSc (Hons) Biomedical Science apprenticeship programme at the University of Salford. The initial interest within the NHS in apprenticeships came from the impact the levy was having on our budget. I really believe apprenticeships are the way forward for our career – being able to grow your own talent and nurture the individual along the way results in a more knowledgeable Biomedical Scientist at the end. The apprentice will have the opportunity to encounter more situations with support before they start working alone. I also believe it is healthy

to have employees on such training programmes in the department as it keeps everyone on their toes – we are all continually refreshing our knowledge of developments in the field. I am passionate about Salford and about increasing the opportunities for individuals across the region and apprenticeships are the perfect route for people to pursue a career across a number of different sectors.” Shane Rhodes, Apprentice Biomedical Scientist, Manchester Royal Infirmary “The Biomedical Science degree apprenticeship and my role within the haematology and transfusion lab at Manchester Royal Infirmary go hand in hand - the on the job learning in the workplace really helps to consolidate the knowledge and theory from the classroom. If you are looking to get into a career as a Biomedical Scientist, then it really is a no brainer to go down the apprenticeship route – the real-world experience in the lab makes you such an asset to the team right from day one.” Dr Lucy Smyth, Biomedical Science Programme Leader, University of Salford “The Biomedical Science apprenticeship programme is delivered via day-release where apprentices spend time in the labs on campus and are integrated into the main teaching cohorts with the traditional students. The vocational skills that apprentices are learning on the job are crucial to their role as a Biomedical Scientist in their respective organisations and the application of the theory learnt on campus to the workplace is key.” Applications are now open for September 2019! Get in touch now to find out more: apprenticeships@salford.ac.uk 0161 295 4612

CAN YOU

AFFORD

NOT TO? INVEST TO EMPOWER YOUR WORKFORCE A great way to attract and retain talent for your organisation, boost productivity and up-skill your workforce. Our Healthcare Science Practitioner Degree Apprenticeship allows students to exit with a full BSc (Hons) Biomedical Science degree qualification. / Apprenticeship funding available / Delivered on a part-time, day-release basis / Increase retention by offering your workforce the chance to develop and progress / Tailor apprenticesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; learning to your requirements Get in touch today to find out more: www.salford.ac.uk/apprenticeships apprenticeships@salford.ac.uk

DEGREE APPRENTICESHIPS

| training and education |

| BIOSCIENCE TODAY |

The Open University – The higher education partner of choice for business In April 1969, The Open University (OU) received its Royal Charter and the vision of a university that would open up education for all, was finally brought to life – largely due to the personal determination of the then Prime Minister, Harold Wilson and the commitment of his Minister for Arts, Jennie Lee. Based at Walton Hall in Milton Keynes, the OU extends across the four nations, with alumni stretching over 157 countries across the globe. Since 1969, more than two million people have come through the OU’s virtual doors. From 24,000 in the first intake in 1971, the OU now has over 174,000 students. No prior qualifications are needed for most OU courses – widening access to higher education to self-motivated and determined people who want to progress in their career. The University has a strong pedigree and heritage in working with employers to re-train and upskill staff – making the OU a key partner for employers looking to address skills gaps. The University currently works with almost 2,500 organisations who sponsor staff through their studies. The OU’s flexible, blended learning is the perfect model to address recruitment and retention challenges, such as the shortage of NHS nurses. The Returning to STEM programme gives those returning to STEM-related careers the opportunity to prepare for employment around their current circumstances. An impressive 78 of the FTSE 100 companies have sponsored staff with the OUas it continues to play a key role in a wide range of sectors. Since 2016, the University has offered higher and degree apprenticeships. These work-based programmes allow employers to draw upon apprenticeship levy funds to develop both new and existing staff. Milton Keynes University Hospital NHS Foundation Trust is working with the OU to run a degree apprenticeship programme to help it deliver digital transformation. Robson Grant is boosting his career prospects through the Digital Technology Solutions Professional Degree Apprenticeship. “The apprenticeship is very flexible. In two and a half years when I finish my apprenticeship I will be in the perfect

situation,” said Robson. “I would recommend The Open University to pretty much anyone no matter who they are, or how old they are.” Deputy Head of IT Applications, Ian Fabbro said: “The apprenticeship scheme allows us to employ someone like Robson who can come in, get an education from the OU, and start providing value straight away. It’s something that previously we would never have been able to do.” Joe Harrison, Chief Executive added: “We want to train professionals as Milton Keynes grows as a place over the next 20 to 30 years. Getting people into work, experiencing what happens day-to-day in a hospital whilst they’re learning, is a fantastic opportunity both for the individuals and also for our hospital, as we attract and retain the best possible staff.” Management skills are another important area addressed by degree apprenticeships. Tony Sleight is a team manager based in Milton Keynes working for children’s charity Barnardo’s. He is enrolled on the Chartered Manager Degree Apprenticeship programme. “I’ve already seen an impact of studying with the OU in my own skills as a manager, said Tony. “People within the team have commented on my progression and they’ve seen a change.” Steve Woolcock, Head of Employment, Training and Skills at Barnardo’s explained: “We’re a national organisation, we’ve got staff right across the United Kingdom and we really needed a partner who could work alongside us, understand our needs, understand where our staff were and how they work, and provide the degree apprenticeships as part of that.” Find out more at: openuniversity.co.uk/skills-gap-england

68% of organisations in England

said they had difficulties recruiting for a role because candidates did not have the skills required The Open University’s 2018 Business Barometer

Invest in your workforce and bridge skills gaps with The Open University’s higher and degree apprenticeships: • Chartered Manager Degree Apprenticeship • Senior Leader Master’s Degree Apprenticeship • Digital and Technology Solutions Professional Degree Apprenticeship • Nursing Associate Higher Apprenticeship • Registered Nurse Degree Apprenticeship • Police Constable Degree Apprenticeship • Social Worker Degree Apprenticeship

openuniversity.co.uk/skills-gap-england

"The Open University has got a proven track record in delivering skills and knowledge to a business environment." Paul Milner, Senior Early Professionals Manager, IBM

The Open University is incorporated by Royal Charter (RC 000391), an exempt charity in England & Wales and a charity registered in Scotland (SC 038302). The Open University is authorised and regulated by the Financial Conduct Authority. © 2019 The Open University.

| circular plastic |

| BIOSCIENCE TODAY |

| circular plastic |

Circular Plastic Dr Timothy Whitehead, Lecturer in Product Design for Low-Income Countries at Aston University, explains how we can add value to waste plastic bottles and how these can be turned into essential products for the developing world.

ď&#x201A;Š page 54

| circular plastic |

| BIOSCIENCE TODAY |

 from page 53

It is hard to avoid awareness of plastic pollution throughout the world, with an estimated eight million tonnes dumped into oceans every year, which chokes out wildlife, there is an urgent need to provide global solutions to this crisis. Timothy Whitehead has identified that one of the main reasons plastic is put into landfill or just dumped into the ocean is that it is not seen as a valuable resource, worth saving and reusing, especially in the developed world. In developing countries, there is a greater need and necessity to reuse all resources which creates a thriving informal network of plastic recyclers. This often starts with local waste pickers collecting bottles and cartons from the streets and bins. These are sold to small recycling shops, which in turn sell to larger agitators which sort, wash and pelletise a range of plastic to re-enter the manufacturing cycle. At each stage of this process, each of the stakeholders will add value. A plastic bottles which is typically made from PET are in abundance and a commonly found in postconsumer waste streams: (approximate costs, based on global data in 2018). Mixed plastic bottles (recovered off the street)

£50 per tonne

Clear PET bottles (PET sorted into colour types)

£150 per tonne

Hot washed PET flake (PET flaked and washed)

£500 per tonne

Recycled PET pellets (ready for remanufacture)

£1200 per tonne

Researchers at Aston and De Montfort University are investigating ways PET (plastic bottles) can be used for 3D printer filament. This will not only increase the value of recycled PET but also enable people around the world the opportunity to decentralise the manufacture of products and will allow anyone to create products which meet their specific needs. The process of 3D printing is simple; firstly 3D geometry is created using specialist 3D modelling software. This geometry is then virtually sliced into layers and outputted as a numeric code. This code is read by the 3D printer, which prints layer by layer to create the final part. In recent years, there has been a growth in the number of desktop machines, including a Fuse Deposition Modelling (FDM) machine built from e-waste in Kenya, by AB3D and cost in the range of 400USD. The first challenge in this research is to create reliable and consistent filament which can be produced anywhere in the world using widely available technology. Ethical Filament, which is part of Tech for Trade has developed the Thunderhead extruder, which is capable of creating reliable filament using simple components found, or easily manufactured, in developing countries. If this can be replicated in other countries then this will open the door for local production which could be linked to local recycling facilities and in turn, increase the value of recycled PET thirteen times. Average global 3D Printer filament cost ($20 per kg)

£15,700 per tonne

In Chennai, India, Kabadiwalla Connect has developed an app which tracks and monitors the price of plastic waste through the informal sector. This works in a similar way to the fair trade system and ensures that at each stakeholder in the supply chain is paid a reasonable price for their waste. If aggregators of the recycled PET can produce 3D printing

3dprinted microsope - from plastic bottles

Plastic recycling centre

filament, this will increase their revenue which in turn would help the litter pickers at the bottom of the chain and help to raise them out of poverty and add value to a resource which is typically thrown into landfill or the oceans. However, it not just the price of recycled PET which is essential to this research, but the application of 3D printing technology in the developing world. Although developing countries may not be the most obvious place to adopt 3D printing, the rapid uptake of mobile phones and mobile banking demonstrates how new technologies can be used to leapfrog developed nations, and there are many examples of products which have been produced locally, in areas which lack robust supply chains. e-NABLE is a prosthetic hand which was established in 2013 as part of a community of makers and has now spread across 80 countries, including many developing nations. Prosthetics aren’t often available in the developing world due to limited resources, restricted access in rural areas and lack of experience or expertise. Using 3D printing overcomes these barriers and allows the e-NABLE hand to be printed on the AB3D printer. The typical cost of a prosthetic can range from £4000 - £50000. So to be able to print one locally dramatically reduces this to around £40 per prosthetic. Dr Richard Bowman developed a 3D printed microscope which replicated high-performance mechanism found in expensive models; it is small and cheap enough to be left in an incubator or fume hood for days or weeks. For example, this will enable the observing cells as they grow in an incubator. As this microscope is open source and available globally it has been used in Kenya in schools to introduce Biology. At the cost of £100 per microscope, it is three times cheaper than an equivalent and can be manufactured locally. These examples demonstrate the potential for 3D printing in the developing world and how it can have a significant impact on the cost of products, and live of those living in poverty. If these products are made using recycled PET this will add additional value to the material and create a sustainable, circular model, which the developed world can learn from. Although still at an early stage there is a real opportunity to add significant value to plastic waste and enable people in developing countries to locally manufacture products which meet their specific needs, while not polluting the oceans.

Having a big audience is one thing, knowing how to engage them is another.

e: info@be-everywhere.co.uk t: 0191 5805 990 www.be-everywhere.co.uk

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