Ecosystem Value Study Report Li Diqiang ENSM by ECBP VAC

Economic Value of Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services in China

Li Diqiang ZhouJianhua

Septemberďź&#x152; 2009

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First and foremost, we wish to thank Mr. Spike Millington who provided valuable comments and helped to polish and significantly improve the report. We especially wish to acknowledge Dr. Wang Haibin, he provided a lot of support in project preparation and gave us useful comments for the draft report. We also wish to acknowledge the support and assistance of Ms. Liu Xiangru. We also wish to thank Dr. Zhu Lizhi at Chinese Agricultural Science Academy and Dr. Ouyang Zhiyun at Chinese Science Academy for providing valuable comments and materials at the early stage, Dr. Chen Min at the Nature of Conservancy for her valuable comments and critique of the draft report, which have helped to significantly improve it. This work has also greatly benefited from the hard work of Beijing Forestry University graduate student Wang Yubing and China Forestry Science Academy graduate students Yang Hailong and Peng Honglan, who helped compile the list of documentation and literature sources. We also acknowledge Dr. Su De at the Chinese Enviromental Science Academy, Dr. Lei Guangchun at Beijing Forestry University for their support.

ABBREVIATIONS & ACRONYMS BT

Benefit transfer

BWG

Biodiversity Working Group of

CBA

Costs-benefits analysis

CBD

Convention on Biological Diversity

CCFG

Conversion of Cropland to Forestland and Grassland Program

CCICED

China Council for International Cooperation on Environment and Development

CDM

Clean Development Mechanism of the Kyoto Protocol

CVM

Contingent valuation method

Damage avoid cost

GDP

Gross domestic product

GEF

Global Environment Facility

GNP

Gross national product

Hectare

IUCN

The World Conservation Union

Millennium Ecosystem Assessment

MEP

China Ministry of Environmental Protection

MoA

China Ministry of Agriculture

MoF

China Ministry of Finance

MoLR

China Ministry of Land and Resources

NDRC

China National Development and Reform Committee

NFCP

Natural Forest Conservation Program

OECD

Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development

PES

Payments of ecosystem services

SEPA

China State Environment Protection Administration (Now the Ministry of Environment Protection)

SFA

China State Forestry Administration

SSTC

State Science and technology Committee of China

TCM

Travel cost method

TEEB

The economics of ecosystem and biodiversity

TEV

Total economic value

UNEP

United Nations Environment programme

Contents 1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 7 1.1 Biodiversity and ecosystem services ........................................................................... 8 1.2 Valuation biodiversity and ecosystem services ......................................................... 11 2. The Practice of valuation biodiversity and ecosystem services in China............................ 21 2.1 The studies on terrestrial ecosystems services .......................................................... 27 2.2 The studies on forest ecosystems services ................................................................ 34 2.3 The studies on wetland ecosystems services ............................................................. 40 2.4 The studies on grass/rangeland ecosystems services ................................................ 45 2.5 The Overall Conclusion and Policy Implication of the Current Study...................... 52 Reference ........................................................................................................................................ 65

Executive Summary The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment noted that over the past 50 years, the ability of ecosystems to provide ecosystem goods and services has been degraded in 60% of cases, primarily as a result of human impacts. The true economic values of ecosystems, their biodiversity and the goods and services they provide are consistently underestimated and poorly understood throughout the world. Studies indicate that the economic value of the goods and services provided by natural habitats and ecosystems often far outweigh the value of their conversion (and consequent biodiversity loss) for alternative uses. Economic valuation can be a valuable tool to increase understanding, awareness and transparency in biodiversity and ecosystem management and to promote decision-making that recognizes the public goods aspects of sustainable conservation. Valuation of biodiversity and ecosystems can not only promote public awareness but also help biodiversity conservation policy making. Although there is still some controversy over the methods for valuing biodiversity and ecosystems, it has been widely accepted and a large number of case studies have been undertaken. The European Union has launched a program, “The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB)”, aiming at promoting a better understanding of the true economic value of ecosystem services and offering the economic tools to better reflect this value. The interim report of TEEB shows that valuation of ecosystem & biodiversity can be a useful tool in policy making. China is among the countries with richest biodiversity and its biodiversity suffers from the explosive increase in the intensity and extent of human activities. How to promote the ecosystem and biodiversity conservation effectiveness in China is important both to China and the global community. This report first gives a conceptual framework of the valuation and identifies valuation methods used in ecosystem and biodiversity economic value assessment. The main part of the report reviews and analyzes the current studies on the valuation of China’s ecosystems and biodiversity. This report documents a vast array of studies of valuations on ecosystem and biodiversity and related policy instruments. The study collected materials related to the valuation of ecosystem and biodiversity on China from various sources. Those studies varied in quality and methods used. We highlighted those studies published in higher reputation journals and with consistent theory, methods and data. We introduce those studies related to terrestrial ecosystems services at different levels (national, regional and local) as well as the studies on forest, wetland, grassland/rangeland and marine ecosystems. The report reached a number of conclusions: 

The studies significantly promote awareness on ecosystem and biodiversity conservation. The results of these studies showed the ecosystems services value provided are much larger 4

than the goods they provided. Such studies help the public to understand the importance of the ecosystems and biodiversity. 

A large of number studies have been implemented, and the methods of valuation still need to be improved. Since 1990s, there are hundreds of studies on the valuation of ecosystem and biodiversity and diverse methods were used. However, the limitations and drawbacks of these studies are the technical constraints for their use, and need to be improved: Firstly, most of the ecosystem valuation studies focus on the “total value” of large scale ecosystem in static valuation, which have few implications for policy making. The strength of the valuation is its value change in response to the marginal land use change, in which marginal value is more appropriate to use; Secondly, the double counting problems widely exist; Thirdly, using the benefit transfer approach without considering the appropriateness; Fourthly, studies have rarely considered the uncertainty during the valuation. Actually, ecosystems generally face uncertainty and we need to consider the uncertainty under different scenarios; Finally, almost none of the current studies analyzed the distribution of the ecosystem services, nor did they calculate relative values.



Political considerations pose constraints to the practice of valuation of biodiversity and ecosystem services. These include the primacy of economy growth goals due to employment pressure, food security objectives, government’s performance assessment criteria and institutional structure.

This report also provides some recommendations to move forward economic valuation study and its use in policy making. These recommendations include both scientific and policy aspects. 

Recommendations on scientific aspects

Valuation of biodiversity and ecosystem services is currently an area attracting much attention. However, there is still a lot work needed to promote the research and make the studies more useful in decision making. 

These include:

Establishing set of valuation methods and procedure that are fully understood and accepted by researchers and policy makers;





Collecting information and continuously monitoring ;



Strengthening capacities and promoting research.

Recommendations on policy making

There is a need to keep in mind the Precautionary Principle in all policy making, the government should find effective tools to to conserve biodiversity and ecosystems. In order to promote the research and its application of the valuation of biodiversity and ecosystem services in the future, the 5

government need to play a key role promote it. 

State Forestry Administration (SFA): Should compare the relative values of timber production with the full set of forest ecosystem services when adopting forest management measures; conduct ecological compensation for areas of biodiversity conservation, natural forest and the forest with important ecological service protection; identify the multiple functions of forests and promote sustainable forest management; give the clear definition and the distribution of forestland and forest property rights during the forestry property rights reform that include service valuation; cover the ecosystem services and biodiversity changes in forestry inventory; push forward to make national legislation to identify and establish biodiversity and ecosystem conservation priority regions/zones, and ecosystem services should be considered as the key indicators in determining such priority; change the investment mechanism in biodiversity and ecosystem conservation.



Ministry of Environmental Protection (MEP): promote “Green Accounting”; update the guideline for the environment impact assessment to include ecosystem services; to make a minimum safe criteria for biodiversity and ecosystem conservation;



The Ministry of Land and Resources (MoLR): Re-evaulate the land reclamadation policy; to conduct an integrated benefit-costs analysis in assessing the land use change; to conduct ocean ecosystem service assessment and establish more ocean protected area; to improve ocean eco-compensation system to reduce ocean pollution and unsustainable utilization of ocean resource;



National Development and Reform Committtee (NDRC): use the economic valuation of biodiversity and ecosytem services in zoning the Main Function Land Zone; consider the loss of biodiversity and ecosystem services in assessing the impacts of the regional development and large infrastructure construction; link to climate change adaptation and mitigation strategy to ecosystem service maintance and biodiversity conservation and identify the biodiversity and ecosystem services in mitigating climate change impacts.



Ministry of Finance (MoF): make suitable input mechanism for biodiversity and ecosystem conservation; make some tax incentive policy to encourage the farmers and other insustry employ environemental friendly technology and approach in production and resource utilization.



Ministry of Agriculture (MoA): Rethink about the grain production policy, adjust the grain domestically production percentage; strengthen the management of grassland; strengthen the manegment of freshwater biodiversity and ecosystems in cooperating with the water resources department. 6

1. Introduction With the ongoing degradation of environment and natural resources in recent decades, there is increasing international recognition of the need for nature protection and for the sustainable use of biological resources. This has resulted in series of global actions, for example, the creation of Convention on Biological Diversity, which aims at ‘‘the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources’’ (UNEP, 1992) . However, because there are often trade-offs between economic growth and nature conservation, we have to make choices among the sites and approaches to be taken in conservation. This means that we have to set the priorities for conservation in decision-making. Such decisions result in alternative environmental futures, and if they are to have a rational basis, they must involve identification and assessment of the values affected or created by each alternative (Lockwood, 1999). Biodiversity and ecosystem services are often structurally undervalued from an economic perspective (Pearce and Moran, 1994), mainly because of the multiple problems related to valuation. Many services do not pass through the market; services such as clear air and clean water have been considered public goods for all to enjoy with no price attached. Suppliers of ecosystem services are either not adequately organized to sell their service provision or do not find a market willing or able to buy; and policy failures may cause inappropriate or perverse government intervention (Katoomba Group, 2006; Pearce and Moran, 1994). Valuation of biodiversity and ecosystem services is an essential tool not only to assess the relative importance of different components in the system, but also to inform decision-makers, who are often unaware of the value and importance of ecosystem services, particularly if these services accrue to people far from the ecosystems themselves (Gutman, 2003; Mertz et al, 2007). Although there is still some kinds of controversy on vauluation biodiversity and ecosystems, it has been widely accepted and a large number of case studies have been undertaken. China is one of the countries with richest biodiversity and ecosystems, but also suffers from serious biodiversity loss and ecosystem degradation. At the same time, China is still a developing country and there is a tremendous pressure for economic growth, which may cause loss of habitat for biodiversity and degradation of ecosystems. How to balance between the economy development and nature conservation is a big challenge. Valuation of biodiversity and ecosystems can not only promote public awareness on it but also help biodiversity conservation policy making.

1.1 Biodiversity and ecosystem services According to the Convention on Biological Diversity, biodiversity can be defined as: “the variability among living organisms from all sources, including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; this included diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems”(CBD, 1992). The definition highlights the complexity of biodiversity that arise from many dimensions of it. The various dimensions make the measurement of levels or changes in biodiversity an especially challenging task (Mulan and Kontoleon, 2008). There are several scales of biodiversity: genetic diversity within species; species diversity among species and ecological diversity at community and ecosystem level. Functional diversity is also regarded as part of biodiversity (Nunes and van den Bergh, 2001). Even for a given level of diversity, no consensus seems to have emerged about the ways to define and measure biodiversity. Many different measurement indicators have been proposed, but they do not always provide consistent or comparable results, making any general interpretations somewhat difficult (Bene & Doyen, 2008). As a result, valuing biodiversity remains a challenging endeavour. Ecosystem services “are the conditions and processes through which natural ecosystems and the species that make up them up sustain and fulfill human life” Daily (1997). They represent the multiple benefits human beings can obtain from ecological functions. The base of the ecosystem services is the ecological functions of the ecosystems, including water conservation, gas regulation, water dilution, soil conservation, aesthetic and recreational benefits, climate regulation etc. Ecosystem services and functions do not necessary show one-to-one correspondence. In some cases a single ecosystem service is the product of two or more ecosystem functions whereas in other cases a single ecosystem function contributes to two or more ecosystem services (Constanza et al., 1997). Biodiversity in itself provides a range of services, including aesthetic, cultural and recreational values as well as goods that have direct use value and it enhances many other ecosystem services on which humans depend (Bulte et al., 2005). Nunes and van den Bergh (2001) proposed a useful framework for analyzing biodiversity and its impacts on human welfare at different levels. (see figure 1).

Figure 1: The impacts of biodiversity on human welfare at different levels (Adapted from Nunes et al., 2001) From figure 1, we know that biodiversity can have impacts on human welfare at different levels, and we can then characterize the different value categories of biodiversity. A first category, denoted by link→5, 2 captures the benefits in terms of an overall provision of species diversity. This value category generally focuses on the genetic and species diversity and can represent the indirect value of biodiversity on biological resources in terms of inputs to the production of market goods. A second category of biodiversity value, denoted by link 1→4→5, captures the value of biodiversity in terms of supply of ecosystem space or natural habitat protection for species. This category value describes the different levels of biodiversity that can combine together, affecting human welfare, and species in this category are human’s ultimate targets of concern. However, those species need habitat to support them. Therefore, this category can represent the impact of natural habitat destruction on the loss of species as well as natural areas related to high tourism and outdoor recreational demand. A third category, denoted by link→6, 1 depicts biodiversity benefits in terms of ecosystem life support functions and preservation of the ecological structure in natural systems (Nunes, 2001). Therefore, this value category can represent, for example, the benefits of flood control, groundwater recharge, nutrient removal, toxin retention, and biodiversity maintenance (Turner et al., 2000). This category of biodiversity value is generally assessed as ecosystem services. Finally, a fourth category, captured by link 3, denotes a passive/non-use component of biodiversity value, reflecting human moral considerations or reflecting human philanthropic or bequest 9

considerations (Nunes and van den Bergh, 2001) This category of biodiversity value can exist at all four levels of biodiversity, and they are independent of their actual or potential human use. Accordingly, the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA, 2005) categorized ecosystem services into four main types: provisioning; regulating, cultural and supporting services. The provisioning services include providing goods such as foods, fresh water, fuel and fiber.; the regulating services cover climate regulation, flood regulation, disease control and water purification; the cultural services include but are not limited to aesthetic, spiritual, educational and recreational services; the supporting services include nutrient cycling, soil formation, primary production and related functions.(MEA, 2005). Detailed examples of each type of service is listed in Annex 1. Biodiversity and ecosystems have complicated interactions and services connect with different aspects of human wellbeing (See figure2).

Sourceďź&#x161;Millenium EcosystemAssessment Figure 2: Biodiversity, ecosystem services and human wellbeing According to MA (2005), biodiversity contributes to ecosystem services in several ways: firstly, it provides cultural services such as recreational opportunities or intangible spiritual, educational or 10

aesthetic benefits; as well as provisioning services such as timber, food products or medicinal plants. Secondly, biodiversity maintains and enhances ecosystem functions, which in turn generate regulating services such as erosion control and climate regulation, and supporting services which are necessary for the production of all other ecosystem services. In addition to these impacts on ecosystem services, biodiversity increases the overall resilience of ecosystems, and increase the likelihood of all ecosystem services being maintained into future. There remain challenges in fully understanding the linkages between biodiversity, ecosystem functioning and the provision of ecosystem services. The complexity and uncertainty underlying the functioning of biodiversity complicates the assessment of biodiversity and the ecosystem services (Bene and Doyen, 2008). Despite a number of attempts to clarify the linkages between biodiversity change and ecosystem functioning (Kinzig et al., 2002; Loreau et al., 2002; Tilman et al., 2005), we still do not have a clear idea about the linkage. Though the scientific knowledge on relationships and interdependencies among species is still relatively incomplete and the effects of biodiversity on the functions of ecosystems are still need to be explored (Tilman et. al. 2005), the so-called insurance hypothesis is widely recognized.

This emphasizes that loss of biodiversity may increase the

variability of ecological productivity in a significant way and that it may therefore be extremely desirable to maintain small but viable samples of genetically diversified alternatives crops as insurance against catastrophic extinction shocks (Bene and Doyen, 2008).

1.2 Valuation biodiversity and ecosystem services Biodiversity is a valuable asset for current and future generations (OECD, 1999). The loss of biodiversity has led to the global action to prevent its further loss and degradation. As a result of such global collective action, the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) was signed and ratified by most countries in the world. CBD calls on the Signatory Parties to â&#x20AC;&#x153;â&#x20AC;Ś adopt economically and socially sound measures that act as incentives for the onservation and sustainable use of components of biological diversityâ&#x20AC;?. Economic valuation of biodiversity and biological resources is regarded as an important tool for well-targeted and calibrated economic incentive measures. Moreover, valuation of biodiversity and ecosystem can help raise public and political awareness of their importance. As a result, social science needs to be incorporated into conservation science and practice because biodiversity conservation is as much about people as it is about other species. Scientists argued that economic criteria need to be part of the design and implementation of conservation policies (MA 2005).

1.2.1. Development of valuation of Biodiversity and Ecosystems The value of biodiversity can be interpreted in different dimensions, so the valuation of biodiversity can have different means. Nunes and van den Bergh (2001) list nine pairs of perspectives on biodiversity value, reflecting how the value of biodiversity is viewed in different disciplines. The concept of total economic value (TEV) is a widely used framework for looking at the utilitarian value of biodiversity and ecosystems (Pearce and Warford 1993). The TEV of bioversity incudes use value and non-use value. The use value covers direct use value, indirect use value and option value, while the non-use value covers existence value1(See Figure 3).

Figure 3: The Total Economic Value Framework Source: Pagiola et al. 2004 In economic terms, a specific benefit or flow of services derived from an environmental resource has value if individuals are willing to make trade-offs between this service and all other available goods and services. Thus economic value is an anthropocentric and relative concept that can only be applied to goods or services over which individuals are willing to make trade-offs (Mulan and, 2008). As Mulan and Kontoleon (2008) pointed out: “Generally, we express the economic value of biodiversity in monetary terms, though we should note that monetization is not an integral part of the economic concept. Expressing benefits in terms of monetary values is a useful convention as it allows us to express trade-off using a single metric, money, which in turn facilitates the aggregation and comparison of costs and benefits in a CBA framework”. Economic values reflect individuals’ preferences for or against the object being valued. So, the economic value of biodiversity could be small if individuals reveal a low preference for its conservation (OECD, 2002). Many people argue that biodiversity has a value on its own, which is known as ‘intrinsic value’. The intrinsic value is independent to human’s preference, and it is a kind of non-economic value. The notion of intrinsic value would be relevant to awareness raising, but may not assist in making choices when trade-offs are needed. The concept of ecosystem services provides a robust and complementary rationale for biodiversity conservation compared to the traditional arguments based on intrinsic value. The 1

In some literature (e.g. Braat et al., 2008), bequest value is regarded as non-use value. 12

valuation of ecosystem services is a new perspective in valuing biodiversity. It focuses on ecosystem functioning and the services biodiversity and ecosystem provide. The concept of ecosystem valuation “is a method of determining the relative importance of environmental consequence of economic activities”. It enables political authorities to make informed decision about biodiversity conservation (UNEP, 1995). A number of studies have drawn attention to the changes in ecosystem services and the need of valuing such changes to human societies (e.g. Daily, 1997). There have been serval attempts to estimate the ecosystem services for the whole world, or large parts of it (e.g. Costanza et al. 1997; Norberg, 1999). There are serious concerns over the reliablility of such estimates (e.g. Pearce, 1998). The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA, 2003; MA, 2005) has brought a new perspective on biodiversity valuation. The MA has directed attention to the services that depend on the variety and proportions of biological resources, rather than on the existence of one or a few species. The MA draws attention to benefits that human derive from a small number of species, and the the services provided by the existence of species that substitute and complement the species we directly rely on for provisioning services as well. According to the MA (2003), the ecosystem services can be categoried as four types: provision services; cultural services; regulating servcies and suppoting services (see annex 1). The provison service is we most familiar with, and is has often been regarded as ‘goods’. The other three ecosystem services are less familiar, and the MA’s report provides more explanation and detail about such services and their value. Efforts have been been made to build the framework connecting biodiversity, ecosystem services and the TEV (See figure 4).

Figure 4: The framework of connections between biodiversity, ecosystem servcies and economic value（Adapted from Mulan and Konteonon, 2008） Figure 4 shows that biodiversity can provide ecosystem services directly and can provide ecosystem services indirectly through affecting ecosystem functions, as analyzed in figure 1. The supporting services capture the process that underpin all other services. But such services are not directly consumed themselves, their value is embedded in the provisioning and cultural services. In addition, ecologists also draw attention to a wider insurance value of diversity in terms of its value in ecosystem integrity and functioning. The diversity would appear to be linked to resilience, the capacity of ecosystem to deal with externally imposed change, which is beyond the economic value.

1.2.2 Valuation methods Biodiversity and ecosystem services valuation could be a difficult and controversial task, and economists have often been criticized for trying to put a “price tag” on nature. However, economic valuation can be useful, as a way to justify and set priorities for programs, policies, or actions that protect or restore ecosystems and their services. Environmental economists have developed a series of methods to estimate the economic value of biodiversity and ecosystem services. They can be divided into three categories: 1) using market prices where the price actually occurs in the market for biodiversity and ecosystem products/services; 2) the revealed preferences approach where the prices are ‘revealed’ in some other market; and 3) the stated preference approach where the willingness to pay is estimated from questionnaires Market pricing method Market pricing method uses the prices of the products or services that biodiversity and ecosystem provide.

Market prices can provide estimates of the increase in the value of commercial activities, such as fishing, extraction timber etc., the value of revenues from tourism activities related to visits to natural areas and the value of bioprospecting contracts (Markandya et al., 2008). Market price approaches consider the costs that arise in relation to the provision of environmental goods and services which may be observed directly from actual markets. These costs can take the form of opportunity costs or the cost of alternative provision as well as mitigation costs or the costs of avertive behaviour and shadow project costs. So, the market prices method includes three approaches: the observed market value and related goods approach; the productivity approach and cost-based methods. The observable market price is the most obvious type of biodiversity and ecosystem value. But the observable market prices method is not used widely because ecosystem services do not trade in markets and market price is not available in most cases. It is also important 14

to note that the observed market prices should be adjusted where necessary to reflect economc values. The cost-based methods include replacement costs, opportunity costs, restoration costs, relocation costs and preventative expenditure approaches. The replacement cost method has recently received much attention in papers attempting to estimate the value of ecosystem services (e.g. Constanza et al., 1997). The replacement costs need to meet three conditions to be a valid estimation: 1) that a human-engineered system provides functions that are equivalent in quality and magnitude to the natural function; 2) the human-engineered solution is the least cost alternative way of performing the function; 3) that individuals in aggregate would in fact be willing to incur these cost if the nature function were no longer available. These conditions are rarely met in existing studies, so have generated quite a lot of criticism (e.g. Pearce, 1998). Revealed preference methods Revealed preferences methods seek to elicit preferences from actual, observed market-based information that is indirect linked to the ecosystem service in question. Preferences for biodiversity and ecosystem services are usually revealed indirectly, when an individual purchases market goods to which the ecosystem services are related in some way. Because the services in question themselves are not traded, the methods are all indirect. Generally, detailed information about the demand curve in the surrogate market should be obtained. Since the demand functions estimating is required, these techniques are also referred to as â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;demand curveâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; valuation techniques. Commonly used revealed preference methods include: travel cost method; hedonic price method; averting behavior model and random utility model. The main drawbacks of revealed preference are the inability to estimate non-use values and the dependence of the estimated values on the values on the technical assumptions made with respect the relationship between the environmental good and the surrogate market good. Stated preference methods Stated preference methods are used in situations where both use and non-use values are to be estimated and when no surrogate market exists from which ecosystem services value can be deduced. Stated preference methods are based on the simulation of the market through a questionnaire given to a sample of the affected population. One of the most crucial issues in this kind of method is to be precise in the description of the market, and yet simple and clear enough for people to understand it. Stated preference methods do not suffer from the same technical limitations as revealed preference methods and can be used for both use value and non-use values. However, the hypothetical nature of the market constructed has raised a lot of questions regarding the validity of the estimates. The stated preference method includes contingent valuation method and choice experiment (choice modeling) 15

approach. The brief descriptions of each valuation method are shown in table 1. Table 1: Biodiversity and ecosystem valuation methods

Source: DEFRA (2007) Benefit transfer（Value transfer） All the methods discussed above involve significant estimation complexities and data collection and processing requirements that require highly specialized expertise as well as considerable time and money. In many situations, it may not be feasible to obtain the required specialist expertise or necessary funding to undertake original data collection and analysis. As an alternative, under certain circumstances, the analyst may employ techniques that utilize estimates of biodiversity and ecosystem values obtained in one context as proxies for those in another context. Such techniques are referred to as ‘benefit transfer’ (BT) methods (also called ‘value transfer’). The benefit transfer method is used to estimate economic values for ecosystem services by transferring available information from studies already completed in another location and/or context. Thus, the basic goal of benefit transfer is to estimate benefits for one context by adapting an estimate of benefits from 16

some other context. The site or source where the original valuation estimates come from is usually referred to as the ‘study site’, while the location where the data are transferred is called the ‘policy site’ (see Navrud and Ready 2007). In the context of ecosystem and biodiversity valuation, the general idea is to explore the use of previous and original valuation studies (‘study site’) and to transfer their estimates' values to the site where the new value estimate is needed (‘policy site’) (Brouwer et al. 1999; Navrud and Bergland 2001). Benefit transfer is often used when it is too expensive and/or there is too little time available to conduct an original valuation study, yet some measure of benefits is needed. It is important to note that benefit transfers can only be as accurate as the initial study. In economics, benefit transfer can be applied across different sites — spatial benefit transfer, or for one specific site or valuation object over time — temporal benefit transfer. If the values of the ecosystem services were known, benefits transfer efforts could be substantially improved. Benefits transfer may play a variety of different roles, ranging from an attempt to place a precise value on a particular resource to providing information that feeds into the process of building support for projects already implemented .(Deck and Chestnut, 1993) . In empirical research, two benefit transfer approaches are available: unit benefit transfer and function benefit transfer. The unit benefit transfers include simple unit benefit transfer and unit benefit transfer with income adjustments, which means monetary value estimated directly from the study site to the policy site, with possible income adjustments. The function benefit transfer could transfer the entire benefit function rather than the benefit estimates. Combining the results from several valuation studies to estimate one common benefit function is called meta-analysis (Navrud, 2001). The meta-analysis is the new effort in developing the valuation methods on environmental goods and services. A major advantage of benefit transfer for policy guidance is that it ensures more comparability and consistency across different evaluation studies. It may also be helpful in an initial screening of a large number of public projects that cannot be investigated in full detail. Another important advantage of benefit transfer is that it is a cost-effective way to make quantitative statements about phenomena that have not been subject to previous analysis (Johnson and Button, 1997). Furthermore, the outcome of a previous study may be used as a benchmark against which results of studies can be evaluated. According to the results from validity tests show that the uncertainty in benefit transfer could be large. Thus, benefit transfer should be applied to uses of environmental valuation where demand for accuracy is not high. This means more caution needs to be exercised in using benefit transfer method 17

in valuing biodiversity and ecosystems in decision making. Navrud (2001) pointed out that “there are four main difficulties or challenges in benefits transfer: 1) availability and quality of existing studies; 2) valuation of new policies or projects are difficult in respect of: expected change resulting from a policy is outside the range of previous experience; discrete vs. marginal change; increase vs. decrease in environmental change; 3) differences in the study site(s) and policy sites that are not accounted for in the specification of the valuation model or in the procedure used to adjust the unit value; and 4) the determination of the ‘extent of the market’. …there is a need for guidelines on how to determine the size of the affected population.”

1.2.3 Valuation of biodiversity and ecosystem services Biodiversity and ecosystems provide the basis for ecosystem services and the ecosystem services are extremely important, so people are willing to pay for conserving them and they have value. It is not necessary for ecosystem services to be bought and sold in markets in order to measure their value in dollars. What is required is a measure of how much purchasing power (dollars) people are willing to give up to get the service of the ecosystem, or how much people would need to be paid in order to give it up, if they were asked to make a choice similar to one they would make in a market. The Total Economic Value (TEV) framework was developed and widely used in biodiversity valuation. The total economic value consists of use value (include direct use value, indirect use value and option value) and non-use value. In practice, biodiversity valuation can be studied using one or more of them. A large number of studies have been implemented in forests, wetland, rangeland, marine and other ecosystems. Pearce and Moran (1994) presented a systematic summarize on some of the studies. The pioneer study of Constanza et al. (1997) has raised a conceptual model which links ecosystem processes and functions with outputs of goods and services, which can be assigned monetary value. This model provides a sound basis for multidisciplinary/interdisciplinary research on ecosystem services valuation. This economic valuation-based functional approach has been accepted by United Nations in the Millenium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA, 2003) and is widely used in valuing biodiversity and ecosystem services. In the MEA, various ecosystem services of different ecosystems are identified (see table 2).

Table 2: Main ecosystems types and their services 18

Figure 5: Ecosystem services provided by different ecosystems Current studies on biodiversity and ecosystem services cover both the marginal change and the total change of the ecosystem services. The former is still based on the TEV framework and tries to value the total economic value or some types of values with marginal changes in biodiversity. The latter can also be divided into two categories: (1) valuation of entire biomes or ecosystems; and (2) valuation of one or more particular ecosystem goods or services. Of the first group of studies, probably the most cited valuation of the total economic value of ecosystems is the study by Constanza et al. (1997) who estimated the values of 17 ecosystem services for 16 different biomes using results of existing studies as well as some new analyses. They concluded that for the entire biosphere, the value was of the range of US$16-54 trillion per year, with an average US$33 trillion per year. The result is more than the total income of the world. The weaknesses of this and other studies, often acknowledged by the authors themselves, include partial coverage of services, unreliable benefit transfers, possible “double counting” of services, and non-inclusion of services due to lack of previous studies. As an alternative, authors such as Balmford et al. (2002) and Pagiola et al. (2004) find it more useful to estimate the marginal rather than the total value of the ecosystem services. Because, in the reality, we generally face marginally degrading rather than completely losing a kind of ecosystem and the services it provides since humans cannot live without biodiversity and ecosystems and their ‘supporting function’ and the services they provide (OECD, 2002). Calculating the complete loss of the ecosystem has the implication that ecosystem disappears and life would not exist. This is totally unacceptable in the reality. As a result, it is more reasonable in the policy making process to consider the marginal change and the marginal value of the ecosystem 19

service and compare it with the costs to conserve the ecosystem or to prevent its loss. The second group of studies focuses on the value of particular ecosystem goods and services, such as watershed services, carbon storage, non-timber forest products, recreation, and landscape beauty, biodiversity for medicinal or industrial uses, natural crop pollination and cultural benefits (Pagiola et al. 2004; Pearce and Moran 1994; Rausser and Small 2000). Values identified are often very significant. Crops pollinated by wild bees and honey bees in the United States, for example, represent a value of USD 30 billion (Myers 1996). Economists stress that the valuation should focus on changes rather than levels of biodiversity. Total economic value (TEV) is typically used as a framework to measure marginal (small-scale) changes in the stocks of biodiversity and the resulting flows of goods and services. Marginal changes are used for economic valuation because they are most relevant for decision making purposes. While it may be feasible to estimate the welfare impacts of partial reduction in the area of particular ecosystem, for example, the forest area, or a decline in their quality, it is much less clear how to assess the welfare impacts of the loss of all forests in the country, or at global scale. Pearce and Moran (1994) argued that many economic studies are measuring the economic value of ‘biological resources’ rather than their biological diversity as: “much of the literature on the valuation on the economic valuation of ‘biodiversity’ is actually about the value of biological resources and it is linked only tenuously to the value of diversity”. This is mainly due to poor understanding of the role biodiversity plays in ecosystem services. As mentioned earlier, biodiversity can provide cultural services directly, maintain and enhance ecosystem functions as well as increase the resilience of ecosystems. There is increasing evidence for the so-called insurance hypothesis of function of biodiversity. Loreau et al. (2001) suggest that major advances have been made in describing the relationship between species diversity and ecosystem processes, showing that to reduce temporal variability in ecosystem processes in changing environments, larger numbers of species are probably needed. Worm et al. (2006) raised powerful evidence that marine biodiversity loss is increasingly damaging the ocean’s capacity to provide products, maintain water quality, and recover from disturbance. However, there is still uncertainty how the evidence gained from local and short-term experiments extends to large-scale, long-term ecosystems. Another reason is that our goal of the valuation is help to biological resources conservation. The ambiguity between valuing biodiversity and biological resources do not affect achieving our goals. Thus, in practice, this confusion does not draw much attention even though it is important in the theoretical perspective.

2. The practice of valuation of biodiversity and ecosystem services in China China is among the countries which harbour the richest biodiversity. It has more than 30,000 species of vascular plants, ranking the third in the world (behind only Brazil and Colombia) and about 2340 species of terrestrial vertebrates (SEPA,1994; Axelrod et al.,1998).It is estimated that half of China's species can not be found elsewhere (SEPA, 2002). Just like other places in the world, China's biodiversity suffers from the explosive increase in the intensity and extent of human activities. Forest cover now accounts for only 18.2% of its area, of which an increasingly large proportion is artificial planted forest of limited biodiversity value. Its rangelands are severely overgrazed, its wetlands are shrinking rapidly, and invasive species are an increasingly serious problem. The World Conservation Union (IUCN) 2002 Red List places China among the countries with the most threatened birds and mammals (IUCNďź&#x152;2002). With biodiversity loss and ecosystem degradation, China has experienced increasing natural disasters in recent decades. These disasters have caused large losses in both assets and lives and prompted the government to reconsider the value of the biodiversity and ecosystems and revise the conservation strategy. Valuing biodiversity and ecosystem services is regarded as an important tool for biodiversity and ecosystem conservation.

The Chinese government has given increasing

attention to valuation policy research since 1990s. Although studies on assessing the ecosystem functions, for example, the forest ecosystem functions date from the 1980s (Zhang, 1982; Hou et al. 1995), valuing biodiversity and ecosystem services did not appear in China until early 1990s. After that time, some of the valuation methods such as travel cost method and opportunity costs method were introduced to China to value the forest environmental benefit value (Chen & Chen, 1994, 1995; Meng & Chen, 1994, 1995; Xu, 1997). UNEP (1993) called for all the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity to conduct country studies with emphasis on economic valuation of biodiversity in order to show policy-makers and the public the significance of biodiversity conservation and ecosystem functions. In response, China proposed to establish a comprehensive national accounting system inclusive of environment and natural resources in Chinaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Agenda 21. Subsequently the State Science and Technology Committee of China established some small study projects to study pricing and accounting of eight types of natural resources. In these studies, they introduced many methodologies currently used in Western countries, such as the alternative cost method, opportunity cost method and travel cost method 21

(SSTC 1995). With funding from GEF/UNEP, a country study on China’s biodiversity was conducted during 1995-1997 and biodiversity valuation is an important part of the study (SEPA, 1998). This pilot research project introduced the value classification and valuation method of biodiversity widely used in the world (Pearce and Moran, 1994; Ehrlich and Ehrlich, 1992). The first systematic trial of valuing the country wide biodiversity came from Biodiversity Working Group of China Council for International Cooperation on Environment and Development (BWG/CCICED). According their study, the estimated value of biodiversity benefits and services in China was as high as $ 255 – 410 billion in 1995 (Wang Song et al. 1996). The detailed items of these benefits and services values are listed in Table 3 as follow. Table 3. Evaluation of biodiversity benefits and services in China

($ billions/yr)

Carbon sequestration of forest

140 – 200

Soil and water conservation of forest Recreation and Tourism Contribution to agriculture production Direct harvest of foods from nature Firewood supply Medicinal plants/animals Timber and construction wood Rattan/bamboo Wildlife heritage and keystone effect Fisheries Contribution to animal husbandry Carbon sequestration by rangelands Environmental cleaning services Total

20 – 48 20 – 30 6–8 5–7 5 – 12 5 –20 8 – 15 4–6 4–7 15 – 20 4–6 7 – 17 14 – 25 $255 – 410Billion

(Source: Wang Song et al., 1996)

In 1996, in order to determine more practically the value of forest cover and biodiversity in a real case study in China, BWG/CCICED conducted field studies in a selected catchment in Hubei Province (Wang Song et al. 1996, 2001). In addition, BWG/CCICED evaluated in more detail the value of natural vegetation in China (see table 4). The study categorized the ecosystem service of natural vegetation into 6 types: water & soil conservation (including 6 sub-types); climate & weather moderation (including 5 sub-types); pollution control; biological disaster prevention; biodiversity utilization and renewable energy. The study generally used substitution cost method and damage cost avoided method to evaluate the ecosystem services. For example, in order to estimate the water conservation/drought prevention services value, the study calculated that natural vegetation could conserve and provide water to the total population with 2275m3 per capita. Then it used the water price Hongkong pays to Guangdong 22

as a reference and adjusted the water price with average income to have the final results. The study claimed that it was not a full evaluation but estimated that some of the ecosystem services of natural vegetation together yield a figure exceeding 4,500 billion RMB (US$ 500 billion) per year. Even without estimation for many of the ecosystem services, this was greater than the GNP at that time. Increased cover of natural vegetation would bring economic benefits far outweighing the costs to assure such an increase. (MacKinnon et al, 2001). Table 4. Summary of ecosystem service estimates for natural vegetation in China Ecosystem service

Current value

Potential value

(billion RMB)

WATER & SOIL CONSERVATION Water conservation/Drought prevention

200

>1,079

2,980

>>2,980

320

>320

>>144

151

>151

280

Microclimate and local climate

Fire protection

4.3

>4.3

Carbon storage

474

>>474

Carbon fixation

>>20

>20

>99

>>80

>>160

336

>618

>>12

236

>>4,766

>>6,582

Flooding prevention Soil erosion prevention Soil fertility maintenance/nitrogen fixation Siltation prevention Desertification prevention Coastal stabilization CLIMATE & WEATHER MODERATION

Storm protection

POLLUTION CONTROL BIOLOGICAL DISASTER PREVENTION BIODIVERSITY UTILIZATION Direct uses of biodiversity Nature based tourism RENEWABLE ENERGY Increased hydropower efficiency Minimum value (Sources: MacKinnon et al, 2001).

Xue Dayuan (1997) systematically introduced the valuation method and practically applied it to value the biodiversity in Changbai Mountain nature reserves as a case study. He was the first in China using the framework of Total Economic Value (TEV) and valuation method on biodiversity widely used in the world (Pearce and Moran, 1994; Ehrlich and Ehrlich, 1992). The TEV of the biodiversity is composed with direct use value, indirect use value option value and non-use value. The study used market price method value those marketable goods and services, as well as revealed preference methods, such as the travel cost method (TCM), Damage avoid cost (DA) etc. and stated preference method such as contingent valuation method (CVM) for those non-market goods and services. By using these methods, value of Changbai Mountain Biosphere Reserve was calculated. 23

Direct extractive goods value was RMB 8.42×107 in 1996, the direct non-consumptive use values of the biodiversity reached RMB 4.77×108, of which RMB 3.55×107 were scientific research values, RMB 2.1943×107 culture and education values, RMB 1.2508×108 of domestic tourist values and RMB 2.94224×108 international tourist value (Xue Dayuan, 1997). Since this comprehensive book was published, many other studies also were conducted with the same framework and valuation methods both on theoretical issues and as case studies. Guo & Li (1998, 1999) introduced the economic value concept and different parts: use value, which is composed of direct use value, indirect use value and option value; and non-use value, which is mainly composed of existence value. They also introduced three approaches to value biodiversity. Zhang Ying (2001) calculated the forest biodiversity value in the view of “Green Accounting”. The study used selected 9 sample sites to study the national scale value of forest biodiversity, and he concluded the forest biodiversity value in China was RMB 7.03×1010. Xu & Peng (2003) also introduce the study progress on biodiversity valuation with approaches and some results of case studies. Bu (2006) used market price method, shadow price method, production cost method and travel cost method calculated the biodiversity value in Hunan Province, and he concluded that the total economic value of biodiversity in Hunan 12 11 province in 2000 was RMB 1.91×10 , including direct use value RMB 2.02×10 , indirect use 12 11 value RMB1.68×10 , and option value RMB2.50×10 . The total economic value of biodiversity was 5.17 times of GDP in Hunan Province in 2000. Swanson et al. (2001) conducted a study focus on the giant panda, a flagship species for China. According to the result of the study, the value of ecotourism in the Wolong Panda Natural Reserve (if properly managed) lies between $ 29 and 42 million per annum. The average tourist would be willing to make a contribution by means of the purchase of a Giant Panda Conservation Stamp at the time of the acquisition of a tourist visa. The optimal price for such a Conservation Stamp would be about $12. At current levels of foreign tourist’ arrivals in China, the amount of revenues generated by such a program would amount to approximately $57 million per annum. Since Costanza et al. (1997) published his pioneer paper, Chinese ecologists have carried out a series of similar research and valuation studies at different scales and for various types of ecosystems using a similar approach, including those valuation studies undertaken at a national scale (Ouyang et al. 1999; Chen and Zhang, 2000; Zhao et al., 2004) as well as on regional or local level considering different ecosystem, including forest services ( Ouyang, 2004, Kang et al., 2005), grasslands (Min et al., 2004) and wetlands (Xin and Xiao, 2002). State Forestry Administration and State Ocean Administration supported some projectes in some institutes. In recent 5 years, China National Basic Research Program (“973” Program) had supported many projects in the resources and environmental field to conduct ecoservice assessment and research (See table 1), Many detailed field test for ecosystem service had conducted. In the meantime, Ministry of Finance and Ministry of Environment Protection tried to establish a national green accounting system and ecological compensatory mechanism in State Forestry Administration. All of those promoted studies of ecoservice in China. Table 5 Key project for ecosystem service studies in China 24

Project Number 1998040800

Name Formation and evolution of Tibetan pleateau and its impacts

Type China National Basic Research Program (“973” Program)

on environment and resources G2000046800

The change of biodiversity,

China National Basic Research

sustainable use and regional

Program (“973” Program)

ecological security in the Yangtze River 2007CB106800

The scientific base for ecosystem

China National Basic Research

maintance and adaptive

Program (“973” Program)

management for north grassland and agriculture and grassland transit zone. 2009CB421200

Carbon cycling in China Seas -

China National Basic Research

budget, controls and ocean

Program (“973” Program)

acidification 2002DGSIDOI

2009CB421100

the Ecological Service Function and the Demonstration of its High—powered Economy Construction in Hainan Main ecosystem serviceand ecological security in China.

National Soft Science Foundation of China

China National Basic Research Program (“973” Program)

2002CB412500

Carbon cycling and driving force in the terrisitrial ecosystem

China National Basic Research Program (“973” Program)

2002CB111500

90302012

The regulation machnism of Forest vegetation on the agriculture ecological environment in the west part

China National Basic Research Program (“973” Program)

Model of society, economic and ecosystem sustainable development in Aibi lake in Xinjiang

West key research project, National Scoence Fundation

Ecosystem change and

China National Basic Research

transboundary ecological security

Program (“973” Program)

in the longitudinal range-gorge 25

region in south eastern China 2006CB403300

Hydro-ecological process,

China National Basic Research

water-environment effect and

Program (“973” Program)

integrated control for ecological security of wetlands in Huang-Huai-Hai region, China 2006CB403200

rocky desertification and

China National Basic Research

adaptive ecosystem regulation

Program (“973” Program)

in Southwest krast region 2005CB422000

G1999043500

Tibetan Environmental Changes

China National Basic Research

and Adaptations

Program (“973” Program)

Research on ecological

China National Basic Research

environmental evolution trend

Program (“973” Program)

forecast in drought area of west China 2002CB412406

Typical Estuarine-land and

China National Basic Research

Qcean interaction and its

Program (“973” Program)

environmental effect 2002101

908-02-04-03

2003DIB3J113

Ecoservice and valuation in

Key research project of State

Jiaozhouwan ocean.

Ocean Administration

Assessment and evaluation of

Key

marine ecosystem service

Administration

Typical marine ecosystem

Basic research project for social

service valuation studies and

walfare

project

State

Ocean

demonstration 200705029

Marine ecosystem service

Special project for ocean social walfare research

G1999043500

research on ecological

China National Basic Research

environmental evolution trend

Program (“973” Program)

forecast in drought area of west China 26

Transforming payments for

Supported by Birtish international

environmental services in Chinaďź&#x161;

Environment and development

Moving from state control to

institute

equitable market mechanisms Reducing environmental stress in

UNDP/GEF PROJECT

the Yellow sea large marine ecosystem Nature conservation and flood

UNDP/GEF

control in the catchment Wetland biodiversity and

UNDP/GEF

sustainable use in China

Those studies cover mainly the total value of the ecosystem services. They can be divided into two categories: (1) valuation of entire biomes or ecosystems; and (2) valuation of one or more particular ecosystem goods or services. In the follow section of the report, we will introduce most of these studies in different biomes and ecosystems. Though there are many papers published in the journals and as working papers, we chose those studies published in higher reputation journals and with consistent theory, methods and data. We first introduce those studies concerned about the terrestrial ecosystems services at different levels (national, regional and local). Then the studies on forest ecosystem, wetland ecosystem and grassland/rangeland ecosystem are introduced. Although other ecosystems such as cultivated land and dryland are also very important, the scope of this studies determined the focus on these eosystems.

2.1 Studies on terrestrial ecosystem services Terrestrial ecosystems include almost all of the ecosystem types except coastal and marine ecosystems. Since 1990s, numerous studies have been carried out in China, and these studies vary in scope, from the entire country to individual river basins. They also vary in the methods used. The studies mainly estimate the total value of the ecosystem services or their value change in responding to land use change. Generally, the studies use three types of methods in valuation: (1) calculating the values directly from the services (using observable market price, replacement costs, costs of 27

alternative goods etc.); (2) use benefit transfer approach; (3) use CVM to estimate public’s willingness to pay for maintaining/restoring the ecosystem services. (1) Cases calculating the values directly from the services Studies of this type mainly focus on the terrestrial ecosystem functions and the services such functions can provide. After quantifying the services the ecosystems provides, fixed prices of the services are multiplied to estimate the total value of ecosystem services. The essence of such studies is more to identify the services the ecosystem provided rather than valuation itself. Because terrestrial ecosystems are combinations of many different subecosystems, the total services of the terrestrial ecosystem are generally regarded as the sum of each subecosystem service. The main methods these studies use are market prices methods, including the observable market price for the goods and alternative/substitute costs method. Ouyang et al. (1999) first identified the terrestrial ecosystem services in China and estimated a minimum value of Chinese terrestrial ecosystem services of RMB 3.04×1013/yr., including organic matter production (RMB 1.57×1013), CO2 fixation (RMB 7.73×1011), O2 release (RMB 2.84×1012), nutrient cycling (RMB 3.24×1011), soil conservation (RMB 1.57×1012), water conservation (RMB 1.57×1011), and environment purification (RMB 4.89×1012). In the study, he calculated the ecosystem services as a whole directly from refering to the existing studies and then the services were valued with market price methods. Zhao Tongqian (2004) categorized the terrestrial ecosystem in China into forest, grassland, wetland, deserts and cropland ecosystems. The functions and services of each type of ecosystem were calculated and then summed to arrive at the total value. The study estimated the total ecosystem services value was RMB 9.17×1012 per year, and the relative values from forest, grassland/rangelands, wetlands, deserts and croplands were RMB 1.41×1012, 1.03×1012, 1.09×1011, 9.81×1011 and 1.39×1012 respectively. Lu Chunxia et al. (2005) studied ecosystem services in Qinghai－Tibet Plateau, and concluded the total value in the area is RMB 1.22×1012 in total or RMB 4817/ha per year. The study uses the direct use value and indirect use value concept. The direct use value referred to value of ecosystem goods, including those products value from agriculture, forestry, animal husbandry and aquaculture, and the market price method was used to value it. The indirect value refers to value from ecosystem services, including gas regulation, water conservation and purification. The economic valuation of ecosystem service on the Qinghai-Tibet plateau resulted in a ratio of the values of goods to ecological service of 1:70. The study used substitute cost method to value the indirect use value and the functions data related to the services the ecosystems potentially have rather than those actually generated. 28

Dong et al. (2007) used market price method and substitute cost method, and calculated the value of agricultural ecosystem services in Ansai county in the Loess region. The ecosystem services include soil conservation, water conservation, CO2 fixation and O2 release, maintaining nutrient cycling and decontaminating the environment. The results show that the gross value of services from the ecosystem amounts to RMB 3.17× 1010, of which the services provision is 170 times the goods value. This implies that even this fragile ecosystem has an important support function, although it has been undervalued for a long time. In 2001, Zhang et al. carried out research on valuation of Heihe River watershed ecosystem. The total economic value of Heihe River watershed ecosystem in 1987 is US $2.16×109, equivalent to RMB 1.79×1010; the value in 2000 is US $1.77×109, equivalent to RMB 1.46×1010. This is 1.43 times the 1999 GDP of Heihe River watershed, which is RMB 1.03×1010. Guo et al. (2000) assessed the capacity and benefits of water flow regulation by ecosystems in Xingshan County, Hubei Province. Because most land area was covered by forest, the study actually estimated the benefit of water regulation services that forest provides. According to the study, the simulation model estimated that in a wet season the watershed can retain about 8.68×108 m3 water, which may result in a decrease of water flow by about 111.63m3/s in the Yangtze River. The model also estimates that in the dry season the watershed can discharge about 8.07×107 m3 water, resulting in an increase of water flow by about 10.38m3/s. As the result of water flow regulation, the Gezhouba hydroelectric power plant increased its electricity production by up to 4.04×107 kWh in a year and generated an additional economic value of about RMB 5.05×106/yr. This kind of study may be helpful in developing Payments for Ecosystem Services (PES) schemes. (2) Cases using benefits transfer method The studies of this group mainly focus on the land use and ecosystem types. When the area of each type of land use and ecosystem is determined, the unit value of each ecosystem from existing studies (e.g. the criteria used by Constanza et al. (1997), which is also a result of benefit transfer, is most widely used) were used to calculate the total ecosystem services values. So, the essence of such studies is to find out the types, extent and changes in land use in the area. Chen Zhongxin and Zhang Xinshi (2000) employed the classification and economic parameters from Costanza et al. (1997) to estimate ecosystem function and services in China. Using the data from 1980s, this study concluded that the total value of ecosystem services in China is RMB 7.78×1012 per year, including RMB5.61×1012 for terrestrial ecosystem and RMB 2.17×1012 for coastal eosystems per year. The value for forest, wetland, grassland and coastal ecosystem services are RMB1.54×1012, RMB 2.67×1012, RMB 8.70×1011 and RMB1.22×1011 per year respectively. 29

Zhao et al. (2004) estimated the ecosystem service value change with the land-use change on the Chongming island, an important wetland near Shanghai. The study categorized the land into five types: aquaculture ponds, farmland, orchard/plant nursery, settlement and wetland/tidal flats. Using the unit value as in Constanza et al. (1997), the study calculated the ecosystem services value changes from 1990 to 1997 and to 2000. It showed that land-use change has reduced the ecosystem services in Chongming Island drastically, mainly due to conversion of wetland/tidal flats to other uses. According to the study, the total ecosystem service value reduced from US $3.17×108/yr in 1990 to US $2.05×108/yr in 1997 and US $1.20×108/yr in 2000 respectively. Wang et al. (2006) valued changes in ecosystem services in Sanjiang Plain in Heilongjiang province delivered by each land category using value coefficients by Costanza et al. (1997). The total annual ecosystem service values in Sanjiang Plain have declined from US$ 3.76×1010 in 1980 to US$ 2.25×1010 in 1996 and to US$ 2.20×1010 in 2000, declining by about 40% between 1980 and 2000. The decline is largely attributed to the 53.4% loss of wetlands. The ecosystem services of waste treatment, water supply and disturbance regulation account for more than 60% to the total ecological values. Hu et al. (2008) used satellite image data sets to estimate changes in ten land use and land cover categories in Menglun Township, Xishuangbanna, Yunnan province, and generalized value coefficients to estimate changes in the ecosystem services provided by each land category. The results showed that from 1988 to 2006, rubber plantations increased from 12.10% of total land cover to 45.63%, while forested area and swidden field decreased from 48.73% and 13.14% to 27.57% and 0.46%, respectively. During this period, the estimated value of ecosystem services dropped by US $1.14×1010, or 27.73% from 1988. Su Peixi (2005) valued the ecosystem services of the Hexi corridor using unit area value of Constanza et al. (1997) in grassland, cultivated land, lake/river and forest, and concluded the total ecosystem services value reached RMB 2.08×1010 per year, with unit area total ecosystem services value of RMB 749/ha. （3）Case using Contingent Valuation Method (CVM) CVM has a clear foundation in economics and is widely used in estimating the economic value of non-market environmental goods and services. Generally, CVM can be used at a small scale and valuing small marginal change of environment, because the questionnaire based method is costly and it also has some technical challenges and so is seldom used in China. Xu Zhongmin et al (2003) applied CVM to obtain estimates of willingness to pay for restoring Ejina 30

ecosystem services. The study found the annual aggregate benefits was RMB 8.84 million to Hei Valley households.

Table 5: Value of Terrestrial Ecosystem Services Sources

Geographical

Biomes

（ha）

location Ouyang Zhiyun et

Area

China

9.6×10

al. (1999)

Ecosystem

Value

services/value

(RMB/yr)

Organic goods

CO2 fixation O2 production

Chen Zhongxin &

China

16 biomes as in

Zhang Xinshi (2000)

Zhao Tongqian

China

9.6×10

5.6098×1012

17 ecosystem

8 8

1.3×10

Benefit transfer

1.406×1012

Wetland cropland

damage avoid

cost etc.

et al (1997)

1.28×10

transfer,

3.24×10

Data Source

Benefit

2.71×1011

(1997)

Desert

3.04×10

Water conservation

services in Constanza

3.9×10

Methods

cost, substitute

Constanza et al.

Grass/rangeland

2.84×10

（RMB/yr）

5.69×1012

Forest

(2004)

7.73×10

Valuation

Soil conservation

Nutrient cycling 8

1.57×10

Total Value

4.9×1012

Market price,

The

1.0286×10

substitute cost,

services refer to the

1.0915×10

damage

9.8108×10

avoided

1.3874×10

and

cost

ecosystem

services

Constanza (1997).

benefit

transfer etc. Lu Chunxia et al. (2004)

Qinghai & Tibet

Goods provision

1.7×10

Gas regulation

1.0015×10

area 2.5296×108

Water conservation

1.75×1011

Air purification

2.55×1010

Water flow regulation

5.047×105

plateau,

with

Guo Zhongwei et al.

Xingshan

Forest

(2000)

county, Hubei

Grass Cropland

2.316×105

1.2185×10 12

total

in or

4.817×103/ha 5.047×106

Productivity

through

Methods

hydroelectric

the power

production

Table 5: Value of Terrestrial Ecosystem Services （continued） Xu Zhongming et al.

Erjina, Inner

Oasis

(Cropland,

(2003)

Mongolia

rangeland,

3.11588×105

forest

etc.)

8.84×106

Control soil erosion;

CVM

value the WTP of

Wildlife habitat;

ecosystem restoration

Water purification;

survey

Wastewater dilution

households

695

Salinization control Bu Yuexian et al.

Hunan

Biological

(2006)

Direct use value

resources

Indirect use value Option value

Dong Xiaobin et al. (2007)

Ansai county, Shaanxi

Li Fang et al. (2004)

Sanjiang Plain 7

1.89×10 ha

Peixi

(2005)

al.

Hexi Corridor in Gansu

2.5825×10

Water supply

1.39136×109

1.56×104

Gas regulation

1.38262×109

Sparse forest

6.933×103

Nutrient cycling

2.848141×1010

Cash forest

5.333×103

Grassland

9.045×104

Wetland

1.1289×106

6.1807×1010

1.2066×10

Cropland

9.3333×10

Timber forest

Forest

4.206×10

Cropland

5.2076×106

Forest

Rivers/lakes 2.77446×10 ha

3.6044×10

Grassland

Grassland 7

of the GDP that year.

Erosion control

Good provision

Cropland

4.612×10

9.476×10

8.1802×10 2.08×10

6.092×10

6.9687×10 2.694×10

3.151365×10

1.66×1011

Benefit

Each of the land use

transfer

category was value in

several services such

3.1841×1010

as water conservation, gas regulation etc.

0 2.386×10 6

1.6526×10 1.432×10

The biodiversity TEV in 2000 is 5.17 times

Settlement Su

2.50×10

1.8506×10

1.94×10

Shrubs

Heilongjiang,

1.68×10

1.91×1012

Windbreak trees

2.02×1011

4.64×10

2.079×10 10

Benefit

The unit ecosystem

transfer

services value refer to Constanza

al.

(1997) and Chen & Zhang (2000)

2.2 Studies on forest ecosystem services Forest is regarded as the most important terrestrial ecosystem and it plays a very important role in supporting human life. China has the fifth largest forest area in the world, but the forest coverage is only 61% of the world’s average (Li et al., 2004). Of the 158.94 million ha forest area, 46.66 millions ha (about 29.35%), is artificial plantation. Due to long term overexploitation, the percentage of mature forest is only 30% and is still declining. The large percentage of planted young and middle-aged forest means the forest ecosystem functions and the services may be comparatively lower than the average forest. Forests play a very important role in environment regulation and its functions are widely recognized by the government and the public.

The government of China implements very strict

regulations and policy in managing its forest resources. At the end of 1990s, China launched “Six Forestry Priority Programs” to conserve its forest resources. A large number of studies have been carried out assessing forest ecological functions. Since 1993, when a pilot project launched by then-state Science and Technology Committee to find the ‘right price’ of forest resource, many studies have assessed forest resources from a monetary perspective (Hou, 1994; Bi et al. 1998; Guo and Li, 1999; Lang et al., 2000; Zhang, 2001, 2002). Chen & Chen (1994, 1995) introduced the different value method to value the recreation value of forest, including travel cost method and contingent valuation method. The paper published by Costanza et al. (1997) encouraged many scientists working on this field and these studies value different services of forest ecosystem. Table 6 shows the typical services valued in different studies: Table 6: Services valued in different studies Ecosystem Service

Jiang&Zhou

Zhao et al

Xue&Tisdell

1999

2004

2001

Zhang et al. 2008

Chen

Li.

2007

1998

2005

2004

●

Water supply

●

Water regulation

● ●

●

Freshwater

Erosion control

●

Food

●

Timber, fuel and fiber

●

Biological control

●

Genetic resources

●

Nutrient cycling

●

Soil formation

●

Air quality and climate

●

Climate regulation

●

O2 releasing

●

CO2 asorption

●

SO2 asorption Disturbance regulation

●

Detoxification

●

Recreation

●

Cultural

●

● ● ●

●

Costanza et al. (1997) and MA (2003) showed forest ecosystem can provide wide range of ecosytem services. But in the actual valuation practices, only few services can be clearly identified and valued. Water conservation, O2 release, CO2 absorbtion and erosion control are the services most widely used. In his comprehensive book, Xue Dayuan (1997) actually valued the biodiversity and ecosystem service of forest in Changbai Mountain. The research concluded that the biodiversity value in Changbai Mountain reached RMB 1.76×109 totally or RMB 10534/ha, the study used market price method, travel cost method and substitute cost method. Zhang Ying (2001) calculated the forest biodiversity value in the view of “Green Accounting”. The study used nine selected sample sites, as well as carrying out national level value of forest biodiversity. Market price method and opportunity cost method were used in the valuation, and he concluded the forest biodiversity value in China was RMB 7.03×1010. Jiang & Zhou (1999) valued the forest ecosystem services of China at national scale using the framework and methods of Constanza et al. (1997). The study concluded the total value of the forest ecosystem services was RMB 9.74×1010. Zhang Biao et al. (2008) valued forests ecosystem services on water conservation. The term water conservation is described as a comprehensive regulation of forests on water resources through various hydrological processes, and grouped into three services, i.e., rainfall interception, soil water storage and fresh water provision. On the basis of Beijing's forest resource survey data and mathematical simulations, the function and the economic value of water conservation was estimated. The result showed that, the forest ecosystems of Beijing could intercept approximately 1.43 billion m3 of rainfall and 277.82 million m3 of soil water under ideal conditions, and supply 286.67 million m3 of fresh water.

Economic values were estimated to be about RMB 2.77 billion

(RMB 8.28=US$1), RMB 2.15 billion, and RMB 315.33 million, respectively. The total economic value of water conservation provided by Beijing's forests was RMB 5.23 billion, and the economic benefit per hectare was equal to RMB 5704. Furthermore, the spatial variation of water conservation functions and the monetary values of the main forest ecosystems in different 35

locations in Beijing were analyzed, and the effects of water conservation provided by the forest ecosystem on the development of society and economy in Beijing were discussed. This work contributed to increasing awareness of the value of forest resources in Beijing and their improved protection. A case study (Li Jing, 2006) shows that the average annual key Public forest ecosystem services values of Shanxi adds up to RMB 9.91×l09 (or RMB 747/ha) annually, which consist of RMB 3.48×l08 of production of organic substance, RMB 2.84×l08 of carbon fixation and oxygen release, RMB 1.30×l09 of water storage, RMB 3.56×l09of soil conservation and RMB 4.42×l09of air purification. The indirect values are as 25.8 as much as the direct value. Bi Xudai et al. (1998) estimated the forest ecosystem services value from water conservation, soil conservation, gas regulation and related services. The total value reached 1.6228 ×1010 /year, or RMB 6537/ha.year. Li Changrong (2004) estimated the annual ecosystem services of the Wulingyuan Natural Reserve. He concluded that the forest ecosystems could provided the services valued RMB 2.05×109 annually, and the unit forest value reached RMB 72747/ha. A site specific study on the indirect use value of the forest ecosystem of Baiyun Mountain in Guangdong province shows that the total ecological value is RMB145.80 million annually, equivalently, RMB 8055/ha annually. Less than 10% of the total value comes from timber production. The study of the forest ecosystem in Xingshan county was by Guo et al. (2001). The ecosystem goods include timber, other forest products and forest tourism, and produced a direct economic value about 54.23 million RMB in 1997. The ecosystem services assessed relate to three aspects: water conservation, soil conservation and gas regulation. Water conservation includes hydrological flow regulation, and water retention and storage. Soil conservation relates to the reduction of land disuse, prevention of silt accumulation, decrease of soil deposit, and protection of soil fertility. Gas regulation is by both carbon fixation and oxygen supply. These services provide an indirect economic value of 528.73 million RMB per year. Thus, the total economic value of forest ecosystem services in Xingshan County is estimated to be 582.96 million RMB per year, being a part of actual ecosystem service. (see table 5 for the summary of part of current studies)

Table 5: Summary of Forest Ecosystem Services Value Sources

Geographical

Area

location

（ha）

Ecosystem services

Value (RMB/yr)

Total Value

Valuation Methods

Comments

（RMB/yr） Bi Xudai et al.

Hebei

2.4828×10

1.6228×1010 /year

(1998)

Substitute

cost,

benefit transfer Jiang

Yanling

Zhou

Guangsheng

1.02187×108

China

17 ecosystem services in

(1999)

Constanza

9.744288×1010

Benefit transfer

(1997)

Zhou Xiaofeng and

Heilongjiang

38 forest ecosystems types in China,

Forestry products 4.98687×1010

Ecological services

Jiang Minyuan (1999) Xue Dayuan (1997，

Changbaishan

1999); Xue Dayuan

Jinlin

and

Clem

NR,

1.67081×105

Forest products 1.76×109 in total or

Water conservation Soil conservation

Tisdell

Gas regulation

(2001)

10534/ha

Nutrient cycling

Xiao (2000)

Han

al.

Jianfengling Hainan

NR,

4.4667×104

Forest products

7.16411×107

Water conservation

3.942921×108

6.64385×108

Market price

Soil conservation

2.4726×10

Gas regulation

1.785312×108

Substitute cost

Shi Peili et al. (2002)

Western Sichuan

3.131×10

Nutrient cycling

4.2855×106

CO2 fixation

1.31624×107

Benefit transfer

17 ecosystem services according to Constanza

RMB3.8877×1010 in

Benefit

(1997)

total, or 124145/ha

(using the parameter

the

of Constanza)

USD4.684×109totally,

transfer

The study focus on nature

forest.

or USD14965/ha Guo Zhongwei et al.

Xingshan

(2001)

Hubei

county,

1.07×10

Goods provision

5.423×10

Water conservation

8.67×106

5.8296×108

Soil conservation

3.7264×10

Gas regulation

9.172×107

MP and TCM

DA and RP

Yu Xinxiao et al.

Beijing

4.0556×105

(2002)

Goods provision

9.075×10

Water conservation

9.167×109

Soil conservation Gas regulation

(2008)

Beijing

9.17509×105

MP 7

Recreation and culture

Water dilution

Zhang Biao et al.

8.73×108

1.53×10

1.6778×10

Benefit transfer Substitute cost

In total or 41123/ha

Benefit transfer

2.807×10

Substitute cost

4.977×10

Benefit transfer

Rainfall interception

2.7704×109

Water storage

2.14756×109

Water provision

3.1533×10

5.23×109 in total

Substitute cost

(or 5704/ha)

Substitute cost

Substitute cost Guan Wenbin et al.

Gongga

（2002）

Sichuan

Mountain,

9.55877×10

Water conservation

7.10175×10

Soil conservation

2.1657×108

1.844778×1010 10

Gas regulation

1.11294×10

Water conservation

1.22×108

CO2 absorption

6.54×107

2.05×109 in total (or

O2 release

7.16×107

72746/ha)

total (or 19299/ha)

Pan Yongjian

Li Changrong (2004)

Liu

Lin,

Lin

Wulingyuan NR

Anhui Province

Fengchun （2006）

2.818×104

3170500

Soil conservation

3.22×10

Environ. Purification

8.98×107

Recreation

1.67×109

Water conservation

1.41×1010

O2 release

2.56×109

CO2 absorption

2.99×109

Environ. Purification

1.097×1010

Soil conservation

4.21×1010

7.27×1010 in total

Wang Yanzi et al.

Wuyi Mountain,

Water conservation

3.5464×106

(2006)

Fujian

Soil conservation

7.81575×107

Gas regulation Recreation and culture

2.02×108

The

other

values

7.39493×10

include forest product

1.36947×10

RMB3.2321×107 and biodiversity value.

2.3 Studies on wetland ecosystems services According to the Ramsar Convention, “Wetlands are areas of marsh, fen, peatland or water, whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of marine water the depth of which at low tide does not exceed six metres”. In practice, wetlands types include coastal, lakes and rivers, reserviours, ponds and marshes. According to the recent wetlands resources inventory, the total area of the wetland with area larger than 100ha is 38.48 million ha, of which 94.07% belongs to natural wetlands. Historically, the wetlands were viewed as a waste of valuable land that could only be “improved” through drainage and destruction of wetland (Mitsch and Gosselink, 1986). Many wetlands were drained for food production. However, the values of wetland have been increasingly recognized by the public. The services provided by wetlands include habitat for species, water regulation and storage, protection against floods, water purification, amenities and recreational opportunities. Wetland ecosystems are associated with a diverse and complex array of direct and indirect uses. Direct use of the wetland are for water supply and harvesting of wetland products such as fish and plant resources, while indirect benefits are derived from environmental functions such as flood water retention, groundwater recharge/discharge, nutrient abatement, etc., depending on the type of wetlands, soil and water characteristics and associated biotic influence (Wang, 2006). Figure 5 is the framework of the connecting of services & goods wetland provided to the benefits to society.

Figure 5: The framework of wetland and human well being Source: DEFRA (2006) 40

Globally, many wetland valuation studies have been conducted and the range of the estimates is remarkable. In China, there are also many wetland valuation studies since the end of 1990s. The wetland valuation studies started late compared with forest ecosystems due to low awareness of the importance of the ecosystem services wetlands provide. Because wetland ecosystems have several forms, the services they provide are complex. Different studies may focus on different categories of services. Most of the wetland valuation studies followed the framework of Constanza et al. (1997) based on ecosystem functions. In the study of Yangtze River Estuary wetland valuation, Wu et al. (2003) valued the ecosystem services: Land forming, goods provision, gas regulation, water regulation, water dilution, habitat and scientific & cultural services. The study concluded the total value of the wetland ecosystem services was 4.0×109 totally, or 1.86×104 /ha. In the study, land forming value was assessed with market price of the land tenure transfer, the goods provision services was valued with market price method, gas regulation, water regulation, and water dilution services were valued with substitute cost method, and other services were valued with benefit transfer method. This study is a typical study reflecting the difficulties in services value. The study showed the largest three services are land formation, goods provision and scientific and cultural.use, and they accout for about 65% of the total value. The land formation value is quite a paradox: if the wetland changes to land, the wetland disappears, and whatever services the land provides come from the land rather than the wetland. Another study conducted by Zhang & Li (2005) to estimate the value of Baiyangdian Lake wetland ecosystem services encountered a similar problem in identifying the services provided by the wetland. The study regards the water leakage during the period of transferring water as the function and services that Baiyangdian Lake provides. Actually, when the wetland is dry, it is not a wetland anymore. The water leakage during the water transfer cannot be regarded as the service wetland provides, since the water is not from the lake. A case study (Su & Zhang, 2007) focused on the services provided at different development scenarios is useful for decision making. The study was conducted on the Jiuduansha Wetland in Shanghai. The net present TEVs of three land-use scenarios (“conservation” and “selective use”, “partial conversion into terrene (dry land)”) over one hundred years were evaluated. The results proved that simply based on ecosystem valuation, “conservation” should be the optimal choice for the well-being of the people in Shanghai. Land price was identified as the most important factor. This situation is likely due to the scarcity of land available for traditional economic development in Shanghai. In this case study, the value of tidal flats is RMB 2,910/ha.yr and 2,230/ha.yr respectively with conservation and selective use scenarios, which are quite low compared with the 41

result of Constanza et al. (1997), RMB 82,920 /ha annually in selective scenario. The non-use value of wetland can be estimated by using contingent valuation methods. Cui & Zhang (2006) conducted a contingent valuation method to estimate the non-use value of Zhalong wetland. The study found that the non-use value of Zhalong wetland was about RMB 4.93×109 annually, of which the existence value was RMB 3.02×109, the heritage value was RMB 1.36×109, the option value was RMB 5.53×108. The mean WTP for Zhalong wetland was RMB 40 per household per year in the research area. . Wu (2006) studied the mangrove ecosystem services functions and value in Guangxi. The study valued the direct use value with market price value, the indirect use value with benefit transfer method and the non-use value with contingent valuation method (CVM). The study concluded that the value of mangroves in Guangxi was RMB 4.12×109 totally (or 51647/ha) annually, and the direct use value, indirect use value and non-use value were RMB 1.26×108 , RMB 7.23×108, and RMB 3.27×109 respectively. There are also many case studies follow this function based valuation method (Yang, 2005; Sun, 2006; Wang, 2006; Xu, 2006). These studies all used similar methods at different sites (see table 7). A study on Lalu wetland, which is a typical alpine meadow and marsh wetland, showed the annual total value of the ecosystem services from Lalu wetland was about RMB 5.48×107/year, of which only 5.75%, RMB 3.15×106/year from goods provision (Zhang Tianhua et al., 2005).

Table 7: Value of Wetland Ecosystem Services Source

Yang Yilin (2005)

Geographical

Area

location

（ha）

Dongting

Lake,

2.3828×10

Hunan

Zhang

Suzhen&Li

Guobao (2005)

Baiyangdian

lake,

3.12×104

Ecosystem

Value

services/Value

(RMB/ha/yr)

Gas regulation

3.1249×1010 1.524×10

Water conservation

1.1189×1010

Water dilution

3.996×109

habitat

4.57×108

Culture and recreation

5.622×109

Water regulation Gas regulation Habitat

(2003)

Yangtze estuary wetland

River

2.15×10

1.04216×10 2.0121×10

Gas regulation Water regulation Water dilution Habitat Scientific and culture

56381/ha

Market Price

integrity use the cost

Damage Avoid cost

of water diversion as

Substitute cost

replace;

ecosystem

Production cost Benefit transfer

8.93×107

Goods provision

The

6.82×10

1.427×10 9.0×10

Travel and recreation

Land forming

Market Price

88006/ha

4.23498×10 9.2×10

1.76×109 totally or

（RMB/yr）

Ecosystem integrity

Scientific and culture Wu Lingling, et al.

4.8348×108

3.35×10

Comments

Water flow regulation

Food & Fibre

Valuation Methods

2.097×1011 totally or

4.772×10

Water dilution

Goods provision

Water supply

Hebei

Total Value

Damage avoid cost Travel cost 6

Benefit transfer 4.0×10

totally, 4

Market Price

The habitat use the

8.86×10

Market Price

consanzta

1.15×10

Substitute cost

(1997)

1.54×10

Substitute cost

modification.

3.41×10

Substitute cost

The cultural value

2.86×10

Benefit transfer

use constanza et al.

8.38×10

Benefit transfer

(1997)

1.86×10 /ha

al. with

unit

value

Recreation and tour Zhang Tianhua et al.

Lalu wetland, Xizang

620

Good provision

(2005)

Gas regulation Water regulation

Sun Yufang （2007）

Bosten lake wetland,

1.5133×10

4.38×10

Recreation and tour

5.67×106

Water regulation Water filtration

Liaoning Province

1.242222×10

5.48×10

totally or

Market Price

Substitute cost

8.8387×10 /ha 7

1.88×10

7.75×10

Substitute cost Substitute cost Benefit transfer

Benefit transfer Benefit transfer 7.81585×10

totally

Market Price

5.896×10

1.553×10

Travel cost

4.102×10

Substitute cost

5.93×10

3.68×10

Culture

5.9×108

Substitute cost

or 51644/ha

2.348×10

Habitat

Benefit transfer 8

Substitute cost

Benefit transfer Benefit transfer 10

Include water dilution ,

7.5167×10

goods provision, and

or 60510/ha

totally

The study mainly use benefit

water conservation Wu Shujie (2006)

Mangrove in

8.3749×10

Direct use value

Guangxi

Indirect use value Non-use value

Xu Yumei (2006)

Yellow River Delta Area, Shandong

6.02101×10

transfer;

Scientific and culture

Gas regulation

Travel Cost 7

1.48×106

Tourism

Wang Honglu (2006)

2.867×10 3.57×10

Water conservation

6.05×10

Habitat

Goods production

Xinjiang

3.15×10

Water dilution

Climate regulation 5

4.81×108

transfer

approach. 1.263×10

7.2287×10 3.269×10

4.12×10 8

totally or

49190/ha

Market Price, CVM ,

The CVM was used

substitute cost and

in non-use value

benefit transfer 1.47667×10

totally

or 24616/ha

2.4 The studies on grass/rangeland ecosystems services Grassland ecosystems have the most extensive land cover in China, with about 3.99 billion ha (41.6% of total land), 2.78 billion ha of which are concentrated in the western region of China. Of the total grassland area 49.2% are pasturing areas, 14.9% are half agriculture and half-pasture areas, 30.8% are agriculture and forest stand areas, and 5.1% are found in lake, river, and coastal belts (Ren et al, 2007). Grassland ecosystem plays important role both in economic and ecological issues. In addition to those valuation studies (Ouyang, 1999; Chen & Zhang, 2000; Zhao, 2004) on terrestrial ecosystems included the grassland ecosystem, increasing studies have conducted on valuation the grassland/rangeland ecosystems specifically. Xie et al. (2001) followed the framework and method of Constanza et al. (1997) with minor adjustment to estimate the grassland/rangeland ecosystem in China, and conclude its total value was US$1.5×1011 /year, equivalent to RMB1.2×1012 /year. Using benefit transfer method, Xie et al. (2003) estimated the ecosystem services value, and the estimation reached RMB 2.5718×1011 in total or 2.032×103/ha annually. The result showed that the conservation of the grassland ecosystem in Qinghai－Tibet Plateau is very important. In the Xie et al. (2003), a benefit transfer method, referring to Constanza (1997), was used. The ecosystem services value was simply calculated based on the land type and area. Ming Qingwen et al. (2004) used the emergy transformation method to estimate the value of the ecosystem services of grassland/rangeland in Qinghai The study estimated the value of the ecosystem services from unit grassland/rangeland was RMB5074/ha annually. In 2004, Zhao et al. pointed that the services of China grassland ecosystem that provide indirect values for human being including soil erosion control, rainfall regulation, waste treatment, nutrient cycling, air quality purifying, cultural diversity, and biodiversity maintenance. The economic values of these services are RMB2.28×1010, RMB6.92×1010, RMB6.58×1011, RMB2.28×1010, RMB8.33×1010 and RMB2.47×1010 respectively. The total indirect value of the foregoing services of the grassland ecosystem in China is up to RMB 8.80×1011(or RMB) annually. A study (Shi, 2007) estimated the total value of the ecosystem of Hulunbeier grassland is approximately RMB 2.653×1011 /year (or RMB 33687/ha), which can be classified as goods provision (food and raw material production equals to RMB 7.082×109 /year; gas regulation 45

2.958×109 /year; water resource conservation RMB1.23×1011 /year ;soil conservation RMB8.199×1010 /year; nutrient cycling RMB1.348×109 /year; waste treatment RMB4.2×107 /year; biodiversity RMB5.706×109 /year; recreation and culture RMB3.687×109 /year. There are many other studies on valuation biodiversity and ecosystem service. Some of them value the biodiversity on the different level and aspects, and they are not covered in the four ecosystems we mentioned above. Besides the valuation of biodiversity and ecosystem services, there also exist other related studies, for example, the loss of invasive species issue. Wan Fanghao(2002) calculated economic loss of several major invasive species in China as RMB57.4 billion per year. Xu (2004) pointed out that total economic loss from invasive alien species (rate at 8.28) is US$14.48 billion (equivalent to RMB120.184 billion) which is 1.36% of GDP of China in 2000. The methodologies used for direct economic loss are market valuation method, opportunity cost method, labor cost method, and cost payment method. For indirect economic loss evaluation, authors built some indirect economic loss evaluation models for forest, agriculture, grassland, wetland and lawn grass ecosystems separately. The direct loss is RMB1.99×1010/year, in which 1.60 ×109 /year for forest, agriculture, husbandry, and fishery, 8.47×108 /year for transportation and postal industry, 8.65×107 /year for water resources and public facility management, and 2.92×109 /year for human health. The indirect loss is 1.00×1011/year, in which 9.98×1010 /year for ecosystem service, 7.10 ×107 /year for species diversity loss, and 1.21 ×108 /year for genetic resource loss. The book also calculated value of genetic resources by using willingness to pay method (WTP), landtax method, and marginal opportunity cost method for natural existing value, function alternative cost method, benefit exchange method and emerge value method for indirect use value, and cost method and market method for direct use value. The book calculated the total value of genetic resources of wild bean in China is US$9.11×1010 per year and will increase in the future. The total value of Bt gene is RMB70.31~70.346 billion.

Table 8: Value of Rangeland Ecosystem Services Author

Xie

Gaodi

al.

(2003)

Geographical

Area

location

（ha）

Qinghai&Tibet

Ecosystem services

Value

Total Value

(RMB/yr)

1.2653×10

Valuation Methods

Comments

（RMB/yr） 2.5718×1011 in total

Benefit transfer

plateau

or 2.032×10 /ha

Ming Qingwen et al.

3.34507×10

(2003)

1.692×1011 in total

Emergy

or 5.057×103/ha

transformation; benefit

1US$=8.3RMB

transfer Ming Qingwen et al.

Inner Mongolia

1.975×10

(2004)

Gas regulation Soil conservation Water conservation

Shi Yidan (2007)

Hulunbeier, Mongolia

Inner

7.8999×106

2.723×10

2.988×10

1.82×10

3.3259×10 in total 4

or 1.684×10 /ha

Market price; benefit transfer; substitute cost and damage avoid cost

Food and raw material

2.752×10

Habitat

1.61×109

Recreation and culture

3.8×108

Goods provision

7.082×109

2.653×1011 in total

Gas regulation

2.958×109

or 3.3687×104/ha

Soil conservation

8.199×1010

Water conservation

1.23×1011

Nutrient cycling

1.348×109

Waste treatment

4.2×107

Biodiversity protection

5.706×109

Recreation and culture

3.687×109

2.5 The studies on marine services In China, the coast line is up to 18000km，The area of authorized marine is up to 380000km2. The marine ecosystem services come from the aspects of ecosystem component, ecological process, and biodiversity. Marine ecosystem services were originated from biological components, and implemented by certain ecological process. Therefore, any damage to the ecosystem’s components and processes would weaken, and even lose the ecosystem services, which would further affect human being’s benefits and welfare. To understand the sources and implementation processes of marine ecosystem services was of significance to realize the importance of marine ecosystem and to provide scientific supports to marine ecosystem restoration, and helpful to the services management and the sustainable development of whole society. Shi（2008）took Sanggou Bay as an example, the values of fishery production, gas regulation, wastewater treatment, cleaning the air, beach travel and culture service were assessed respectively. The ecosystem services value of Sanggou Bay in 2004 is 10.5067×108 Yuan, and the direct economic value(i.e., fishery production) is 6.86×108 Yuan . In recent years，seagrass ecosystem in China has been degraded seriously．Han（2008）took the seagrass bed ecosystem in Hepu of Guangxi Province as example，and employing the basic theories of ecology and economics，its services value loss caused by human activities was primarily estimated based on the local statistic data from 1980 to 2005．The evaluation indicator system includes food production，atmosphere regulation，ecosystem nutrient circulation，water purification，biodiversity maintenance and functions of scientific research．The results showed that the total services value loss of seagrass bed ecosystem in Hepu of Guangxi was 34657.95 x 104 Yuan RMB from 1 980 to 2005．The direct use value increased 4452.88 x 104 Yua n RMB．while the indirect use value loss was 39110.83 x 104Yuan RMB，with the loss ratio accounted for 81.82 ％ from 1980 to 2005 proving that the increasing trend oil human exploitation intensity was evident． Zhu(2007) summarize the progress of marine ecosystem service studies. Among the numerous definitions of ecosystem services, the concept suggested by Daily (1997) was widely accepted by ecologists, while that by Millennium Ecosystem Assessment(MA, 2003) was more apt to sociology and management There was no standard classification for ecosystem services, but the MA’s classification was more practical and operational for valuation. It was lack of systematical research on the marine ecosystem services, neither from theoretical aspect nor for suitable 48

classification. As for valuation methods, there were lots of discussion in ecological values and societal values. Although many techniques could be used to know people’s willingness to pay (WTP), the valuation for non-market services was still quite weak. Most application researches focused on the trade off between economic activities and ecosystem services, which would benefit to the management and sustainable use of these services. How to apply the ecosystem services to the management and policymaking was also discussed and prospected. Li Tiejun (2007) provided a case study on value of the marine ecosystem services loss in the Fanya jetty project construction. The case study estimated that the loss reached RMB9.0646×107 /year, which was not considered in the project construction cost. The services of ecological system are critical to the functioning of the Earth’s life-support system and they are fundamental for the sustainability of humans in the biosphere．Yang(2003) evaluated the ecosystem services value of the coastal zone in Guangdong an d Hainan according to the report on the synthetically investigation on the coastal Zone and tideland in Guangdong Province in 1987．The total value estimated of the ecosystem services of the coastal zone in Guangdong and Hainan is 3.1697×1010 US$/a. Among them the value of the terrestrial ecosystern services and the coastal waters account for 1.8738×1010 US$/a and 1.2959 ×1010US$/a respectively. This value account for 4.07％ of that of the whole country in China．In the nutrient cycling，water regulation, recreation and water supply have higher values and account for 6.17％，3.98％, 3.66％, and 3.37％ of that of the whole country in China， respectively． The ecological compensation of the land resource has been put into effect at certain extent, but not much has been done for the marine. For generations, the marine had provided enormous raw materials and ecology service value for society. Its economic value is not allowed to be converted into cash worth of public interests. Moreover, marine ecological environment deterioration is mainly due to the excessive demands yielded to humans. The problem of fisherman “sea loss” is serious. It is high time to put forward the view of building the ecological compensation mechanism of marine. All this will support and encourage people to conserve marine ecological environment, and develop national economy. Wang (2008) suggests the rule of compensation, the beneficiaries, and the sources of funds for the ecological compensation of marine ecosystem.

Table 9: Value of Marine Ecosystem Services Author

Geographical location

Area

Ecosystem services

（ha） Shi et al (2008)

Fujian, Sangou Bay

1.632×104

Fish production

Waste water treatment Air cleaning Bay travel

Shangdong,

Sanggou

1.432×10

6.86×108

Valuation Methods

10.5067×108

1.26×10

market

0.0887×10 1.05×10

1.04×10

Comments

30633.83×104

Water quality regulatin

transfer;

substitute

WTP

Food provision

Air quality regulating

benefit

0.208×10

Climate regulating

valuation

method,

cost Market price

culture

Material provision

Bay

Total Value （RMB/yr）

(RMB/yr)

Air adjusting

Zhang et al(2007)

Value

508.70×10

60716.63×104

Market

valuation

method,

benefit

5574.60×10

transfer;

substitute

4198.93×10

cost Market price

755.2×10

Harmful organism and disease

Han(2008)

Guangxi, Seagrass Bed

Hepu

540

control

1.03×104

Knowledge expanding

900.04×104

Tourism& entertainment

18146.34×104

Fishing

2.84×104/a·ha

indirect use value non-use value

6 29356 /ha

market

valuation

method,

contingent

valuation

4.47×10 /a·ha 1.54×10 /a·ha

carbon method,

1US$=8.3RMB

method, and

tax benefit

transfer method and expert survey method

(2004)

Bohai Sea

7.7×107

76.07×109

food production gene resources provision O2

release

and

36.34×10

climate

8170.3×109

139.89×10

transfer; 9

cost

regulation biological control， and

substitute

and

damage

avoid cost contingent 43.25×109

Waste disposal， leisure

Market price; benefit

24.02×10

recreation ，

valuation method,

273.77×109

scientific search and culture 27.34×109

primary production biodiversity

and

habit

1428.7×109

provision 401.71×109 Chen

Zhongxin

Total China Sea

4.37×109

Nanjilie island nature

2.01×104

2.1736×1013

（2005） Liu Xin et al(2005)

Travel cost

serve Li Yuanhua (2007)

Dalian City

Consumer surplus

2.9×10

2.830×108 4.303×10

7.134×108

Travel Cost Interval Analysis

Market price; benefit

李元华,任学慧：区

transfer;

substitute

域海洋生态系统服

contingent

务功能价值及其贡

Gas regulation

807.3/ha

2.367×10

Climate regulation

1534.3/ha

13387/ha

Water regulation

2698.7/ha

cost

Waste treatment

648.9/ha

valuation method,

Biodiversity protection

2021.5/ha

Food production

982.4/ha

Material provision

645.8/ha

Recreation and culture

4048.1/ha

献率.海洋开发与管理 3 期:25-27

2.6 Analysis of the Current Studies As we mentioned above, ecosystem services are assigned too little or zero value and weight in policy decision (Turner, et al. 1998) due to a lack of adequate market price data of such services, together with inadequate property right regimes which ensure that resource values can be practicably appropriated. It is important to demonstrate how valuable ecosystem services really are for economic and social development and the cost and benefit for conservation. The valuation for the non-market goods and services from biodiversity and ecosystem can play two distinct but related roles: First, demonstrating that biodiversity and ecosystem have economic value; second, assisting to design proper mechanism to capture such economic value and to improve the resources allocation. The current studies have achieved its first part of the intention drawing significant attention on the value of biodiversity and ecosystem services. In many of the studies, the results showed the value of services the ecosystems provided are much larger than the goods they provided. For example, Hou (1995) pointed that the value of forest ecosystem services is as 13 times large as the timber products it provided. Lu et al. (2004) concluded that the ratio of ecosystem service value to the ecosystem goods value is 1:70 in Qinghaiďź?Tibet Plateau. Bu et al. (2006) concluded that the biodiversity value in 2000 is 5.17 times of the GDP of Hunan province in the same year. Other studies also provide quite large estimations of the value of those non-market services. A study (Dong et al., 2007)on fragile ecosystem in Loess region conclude that the services is as many 170 timesof the goods it provide. These studies can help to promote the awareness of the public on the issues of environment and ecosystem conservation, and help to set policy priority for biodiversity and ecosystem conservation in decision making. The specific value identification and valuation can help us to identify the beneficiary of of such services. It makes it is possible to nurture the market for capturing the specific values: for those values can not be captured in the market, government intervention and financial support for conservation is needed; for those relatively easy to be captured through market, maybe the market mechanism is good way for financing, which is the foundation of payment of Ecosystem services (PES). The study by Swanson et al. (2001) demonstrated that the proper management of the Giant Panda Reserves in Sichuan province should be able to generate an estimated $100 million per annum for the Wolong Reserve. This stands in contrast to the $250 thousand currently being allocated to reserve management. If a small proportion of this value is appropriated and then channeled to the local peoples, this would dramatically alter the incomes of these local communities and their perceptions of the value of 52

the Giant Panda. The "opportunity cost" of allowing the continuing demise of the species, by reason of the continuation of conflicting uses and activities within the Reserve, is the loss of these natural values. Another study by Gong (2004) finds the benefit of conservation program is overpass the cost. But the local people must forgo more than they can benefit from the conservation program. This means the distribution of the benefits and costs among different entities is ainapropriate, and the local people burden more cost and less benefit during the conservation. So, proper compensation, which at least can make up the gap between the cost they burden and the benefit they receive from the program, must be given to local communities if new conservation programs are to be implemented in protected areas without conflict with local communities.. Carbon Sequestration may be an example of services potentially be captured through the market. At moment, only a small part of the carbon sequestration can be traded in the market and carbon benefits are scarcely considered in land use decision making. But in the future, with growing attention on combating climate warming, the development of new mechanism to compensate landowner for forest conservation or reforestation, and this is like to continue (Mullan & Kontoleon, 2008). China is active in pursuing participating the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) and is the host of 22 percent registered CDM projects (Bennett, 2009), and forest ecosystem plays an important role in this process. These studies have promoted awareness on the importance on the ecosystem services and affected the policy making and implementation. For example, Chinese Government has conducted a series ecosystem restoration programs, including the most famous Natural Forest Conservation Program (NFCP) and Conversion of Cropland to Forest and Grassland Program (CCFG) in order to avoid the degradation of biodiversity and ecosystem. The core principle of these programs is compensation for the losses of the ecosystem services providers due to giving up some specific economic activities. Though many eco-compensation and Payment for Environmental Services (PES) or Eco-compensation projects already exist across China, there is no clear linkage between the ecosystem services value and the payments. While compensation systems are supposedly largely designed based on costs to service producers such as direct economic loss of farmers from reforestation (Hang et al., 2002; Liu et al., 2007), in actuality the final compensation amounts rarely follow those guidelines.Because these project are generally implemented with a top-down approach, it tends to set a unified criteria for all people in a large scale. But the natual condition and endowments vary at different places and the opportunity costs are also different. The unified compensation criteria could not be appropriate for some place. But people have to face it when the 53

top-down approach continues. In some cases, similar programs have large difference in the compensation standards. For example, the Forest Ecosystem Compensation Fund provides RMB 75/ha annually, and is considered too low in terms of opportunity cost of alternative uses while the CCFG, which is RMB3000/ha annually in Yellow River Baisin and RMB4500/ha annually in Yantze River Baisin, has their generous payments for reforestation of agricultural lands to improve water and soil retention. The payment of CCFG amount to 15 times the average per hectare rental payment (in Purchasing Power Parity) of a similar Conservation Reserve Program implemented in the United States (Uchida et al., 2005). Though the current valuation studies on biodiversity and ecosystem have promoted the public’s awareness on biodiversity and ecosystem conservation and also have pushed the nature conservation policy changes forward. Some policy instruments have been designed to internalize the ecosystem services. However, studies on valuation of ecosystem and biodiversity did not contribute too much in the important environmental policy design and implementation as they supposed to be. This reality is caused by both technical reasons and political reasons. The technical reasons are obvious, becuase there exist drawbacks and limitations in current studies, which are mainly due to the complex characteristics of such valuation studies as well as lacking of sufficient funds, skills and data avaiability. The main drawbacks and limitations can be listed as follow: Firstly, except a few cases most of the ecosystem valuation studies focus on the “total value”of large scale of ecosystem in static valuation. The studies try to value the total value of ecosystem services rather than the marginal change of the ecosystem services. However, those static total ecosystem services value have no implication on the policy making, because we can’t survive without the ecosystem. From this view, the ecosystem value is infinite. The strength of the valuation is its value change in response to the marginal land use change, so we can compare the benefit and cost change due to marginal land use change. Secondly, the double counting problems widely exist. Aggregation across different functions provided by a given ecosystem should be constrained for the danger of double counting. Exploitation of one function may preclude another one, while some keystone processes and related functions may be underpin others and the system infrastructure. There may also be possible incompatibilities between different valuation measures (such as opportunity costs, consumer surplus, market price). For example, within a wetland, the exploitation of particular function service of wastewater cycling will preclude, or limit, the provision of the services of 54

recreation. In these studies, most of them hope to calculate the “complete” values, added all of the functions, thus have the double counting problem. As we mentioned, those valuation all conclude the large number of the value. It plays nothing in the policy except attracting the attention of the public. Thirdly, Most of the studies related use the benefit transfer without considering the appropriateness of the approach. Many studies (see the tables) value the biodiversity and ecosystem services actually using the unit benefit transfer method. The procedure of ‘benefit transfer’ must be handed with extremely cautious and have real limits. China is so large country and the ecosystem varies both in spatial and temporal, which means using the benefit transfer method faces a lot of risks. Many value estimates will not be amenable to legitimate aggregation beyond local to ‘regional’ scales. Fourthly, almost all of the studies have not considered the uncertainty during the valuation. Actually, ecosystems generally face uncertainty and we need to consider the uncerntainty at different scenarios. Finally, almost all of the current studies did not analyze the distribution of the ecosystem services and calculate the value. This not only violates the economic value rules, which is based on the principle of willingness to pay, but also reduce its use in policy making. In practice, biodiversity and ecosystem services can benefit people from local, national and global. The different beneficiary scope needs different policy to regulate. In addition, it is difficult to assess the impacts of any policy implementation without analyzing the distribution of the ecosystem services. The drawbacks and limitations listed above can be regarded as technical reasons that valuation of ecosystem and biodiversity did not play much role in conservation policy making. But this is not the whole story about it, some political considerations also have negative impacts on it. They include high economy growth goal due to employment pressure, food security consideration, local government performance assessment criteria and institutional structure. High Economy growth goal due to employment pressure. China is a developing country and it is in the phase of transforming to developed country. During the period, a large number of labor force transform from agricultural industry to non-agricultural industry. Furthermore, as the population growth, millions new labor forces are released to the labor market. How to absorb these labor force in employment is the key policy consideration. So, keeping a relatively high and steady economy growth rate (it is estimated at least 7% annual growth rate) is very important to achieve such policy goal. When the economy growth is set as the policy priority, the 55

environment and ecosystyem conservation issues can be easily neglected when they are conflicted with the economy growth. The valuation of ecosystem services and biodiversity is a good instrument to measure the real benefits and costs. However, when the economy growth is an overwhelming objective, this instrument are usually be neglected. Food security objective. China has 1.3 billion population, about 20% of the world population, while is has only 7% arable land. Such a huge population causes a tremendous pressure on food supply security. China can not depend too much on the international market to meet its domestic food demand because we there is no much surplus food in the international market. In addition, the transportation capacity is also a constraint for the import more food. So, China has set a objective of 95% grain was produced domestically. To achieve such a objective, China has to maintain the cropland area relatively stable, even some places are inapproprate for cultivation if considering the ecosystem services they provide. In the land use planning and related policy making, food security issue is always put in the most priority. In practice, China produces more than 95% of its consumed grain. The technology progress as well as the stability of the culivated land contributes to achieve such objective. Even though the Conversion of Cropland to Forest or Grassland Program (CCFG) was designed and implemented, which conversion quite a large number of cropland to forest or grassland in ecological vunerability region, China still cultivate new cropland from wildland, which is regarded as â&#x20AC;&#x153;wastelandâ&#x20AC;?. The ecosytem services provided by such wildlands are not considered in the decision making. Governmentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s performance assessment criteria. As we have mentioned above, China is a developing country and it faces a lot of social and economic pressures and the government generally make its decision under such pressures and constraints. Meanwhile, the performance of the government and its leading officials, especially that of the local governments and their leading officials, are assessed based on those economy growth indicators. Environment protection and ecosystem and biodiversity conservation generally are not the priortiy in the assessment. Because the economy growth conflict with ecosystem and biodiversity conservation in many cases, we can find it is reasonable that the local government pay less attention on ecosystem and biodiversity conservation and the use of the valuation of biodiersity and ecosystem. Institutional structure. The current institutional structure also set some negative impacts on the biodiversity and ecosystem conservation and the use of valuation of biodiversity and ecosystem. Two aspects can explain such negative impacts. On one hand, the ecosystems are managed by different secotors of the government according to the types they are. For example, forest ecosystem and wetlands are managed by the forestry sectors and the cropland and the grasslands 56

are managed by the agricultural sectors. Each governmental sector also has many other responibilities in addition to ecosystem conservation. For example, the agricultural sectors have the responsibility to secure the grain production. When there are conflicts among different objectives and responsibilities, especially when the conflicts are among different sectors, ecosystem conservation can become the soft constraint. On the other hand, the property rights of both the ecosystem (lands) and its services are not clear under the current regime. The government sectors generally manage the ecosystem without owning their property rights, so they generally can not put a hard constraint on biodiversity and ecosystem conservation.

3. Recommendations Valuation of ecosystem services and biodiversity can be a useful tool in ecosystem and biodiversity management and the related conservation policy making. However, the current situation shows that the studies can not meet the practical need. In order to make the valuation suitable for the policy making in China, there still a lot work to do. The following recommendations are prepared to move forward economic valuation study and its use in policy making. These recommendations include two parts: academic aspect and policy aspect.

3.1 Recommendation on academic aspect Valuation of biodiversity and ecosystem services is one of the hottest fields which attract much attention. However, there is still a lot work need to do to promote the research and make the studies more helpful in decision making. (1) Establish a set of valuation methods and procedures that are fully understood and accepted by researchers and policy makers. As the current valuation studies were conducted by researchers from different disciplinary, especially most of them conducted by ecologists rather than economists, they prefer to use the approaches they familiar with. Many studies have the drawbacks as we mentioned above, which cause the valuation controversial and can not be referred in policy making and implementation. It is a pressing demand for establishing a set of widely understood and accepted valuation methods and procedure.

ď Ź

We should keep in mind that we face a world with high uncertainty, do not force us believe we can value biodiversity and ecosystem services any time and anywhere. Precautionary approach (such as setting a safe minimum standard) should be mandatory in view of the risk 57

that a change in ecosystem may produce irreversible effect.



Organizing research from different disciplinary work together to develop the suitable approaches can be used in China. The approaches should include: clear concepts of different services and corresponding values; identified ecosystem services in specific ecosystem and biomes; the strength and weakness of each available valuation approach; the procedure of valuation such as approach choosing criteria, data collecting etc.



Conducting a series pilot valuation using at different location and summarize the standard valuation approach at different types of ecosystems and their services;



Based on understanding the functions of ecosystems and their interaction, those services supporting ecosystems themselves should be reduced from valuation in order to minimize the double counting in valuation;



To be extremely cautious in using benefits transfer method. If the valuation studies have been made in the very similar area on the same services, it is possible to use benefit transfer method. This requires close examination of the similar studies and their overall economic, social and environmental context.



To identify the beneficiary of each ecosystem services at different scenarios. This will greatly help in policy impact analysis.

(2) Collecting information and keep monitoring Because the ecosystems keep changing, the services they provided also change all the time. So, it is very important to keep collecting information and monitoring in order to update the valuation. One set of the information is related to the functioning of ecosystems and ecosystem services, depending on land use and environmental change. The other set of information is related to social, economic information such as demographic characteristics and economic characteristics.



The collecting in information and monitoring should be recognized as one of the critical aspects of valuation of biodiversity ecosystem. Information quality determines the quality of valuation practices.



The establishment of monitoring system can use the existing networks of environment survey and resource inventory. Corresponding adjust should be made in data collecting, data management and assessment.



Establishing participatory monitoring and evaluation systems with different stakeholders, including those institutions use those data to value the ecosystems and those communities 58

potentially affected by future policy adjust. Furthermore, the exchange of data and information among different institutions and stakeholders is crucial and should be free of charge. (3) Strengthening capacities building and promoting research In order to promote the study on valuation of biodiversity and ecosystem, capacity building and research promoting are necessary.



Ensure capacity building with regards to valuation of ecosystem services, especially those local institutions. Training programs on the valuation, ecosystem functions and sustainable use of the ecosystems are needed, especially at regional and local level.



To promote the research on the process of the interaction among the different factors of ecosystems in order to better understand the roles and functions of different ecosystems and their abilities to provide services,;



To identify the critical thresholds of different ecosystems, which will make us better understand the ecosystem and better valuation.

(4) Challeges we face



The linkage of climate change, land use practice and ecosystem services provision;



The mechanism and criteria of eco-compensation and payment of ecosystem services;



The flow of ecosystem services across region and its compensation;



The complexity and the uncertainty of the biodiversity and ecosystem maintaining mechanism.

3.2 Recommendation on policy making As we have mentioned above, the Precaution Principle should be kept in mind in all policy making process due to the irreversibility and uncertainty in ecosystem and biodiversity degradation. According to such principle, any policy related to ecosystem and biodiversity should first secure the ecosystem and biodiversity. If any policy action have the possibility causing the irreversible degradation of ecosystem or the loss of biodiversity, it should be banned (at least suspended) in order to avoid such uncertainty. However, the Precaution Principle is the general principle and practice we should face more complicated situations. The goal of the valuation the biodiversity and ecosystem is to find an approach to conserve biodiversity and ecosystem. To promote the research and its application in the future, government need to play a 59

key role promote it. (1) State Forestry Administration The State Forestry Administration (SFA) is responsible for administering the management of forest resource, wetland ecosystem, desert ecosystem and terrestrial fauna and flora. It is the key sector in administer biodiversity and ecosystem service. The policies for biodiversity conservation and ecoservice maintenance should be considered in the following aspects: 

Should compare to timber economic value with the forest ecosystem service when adopt forest management measures, try to maintain the ecosystem service and biodiversity through government investment;



Conduct ecological compensation for the area for biodiversity conservation, natural forest and the forest with important ecological service protection;



Identify multifunction of forest and promote sustainable forest management;



Give the clear definition and the distribution of forestland and forest property rights during the forestry property rights reform;



Cover the ecosystem services and biodiversity changes in forest inventory;



Push forward to make national legislation to set biodiversity and ecosystem conservation priority region/zone, ecosystem services should be considered as the key indicators in determining such priority;



Change the investment mechanism in biodiversity and ecosystem conservation. The current project-oriented investment mechanism, which is a short-term with a certain time period, can cause the project unsustainable and costly. In the future, the investment (payments) should be input based on the ecosystem services they provide (or avoid losing).

(2) Ministry of Environmental Protection The Ministry of Environmental Protection (MEP), which was originated from former State Environmental Protection Administration, is the leading institution in China responsible for the environment monitoring and assessment as well as implementing the environment regulation. It was common to use the command and control approach in its management. However, with the planning economy transforming into the market economy, the command and control approach has its disadvantages in some area, especially when the information is asymmetric in the policy implementation. So, the economic instruments can be good alternatives in environment 60

management. 

Push forward to implement the “Green Accounting”, which integrated the biodiversity and ecosystem services values into economic accounting system, into practice. Overcome the existing technical and political constraints in implementing the “Green Accounting”, in which the valuation of biodiversity and ecosystem services studies will play an important role.



Update the guideline for the environment impact assessment. The current environment impacts assessment only has the quality assessment on the impacts of the policy and projects and such quality assessment generally focus on the material dimensions rather than the services and corresponding values related to such materials. Such environment impact assessment can not be applied to the benefit-costs analysis framework. So, the result can be more flexible and cause the decision more subjective, which makes the assessments less helpful. The new guideline for the environments impact assessment should cover both quality assessment and quantity assessments.



Make minimum safe criteria of biodiversity and ecosystem based on the precautionary principle in order to overcome the uncertainty and irreversibility of biodiversity loss and the ecosystem degradation. If actions may cause the biodiversity and ecosystem degradation to dip below the threshold of the minimum safe criteria, they should be prohibited.

(3) The Ministry of Land and Resources. The Ministry of Land and Resources (MoLR) was set up in 1998, merging the former Ministry of Geology and Mineral Resources, the State Land Administration, State Ocean Administration and the State Bureau of Surveying and Mapping. The mission of the MoLR is responsible for the planning, administration, protection and rational utilization of natural resources such as land, minerals and marine resources in the People’s Republic of China. The MoLR plays a very important role in biodiversity and ecosystem conservation, especially in land and marine resources planning and protection. The recommendations to the MoLR are as follow: 

Re-evaluate the land reclamation policy. China is implementing the strict agriculture land control policy and the core of the policy is to keep the cultivated land area stable. This means we should transform the same area of some types of land onto cropland if the commercial and industrial land use occupies a certain amount of cropland. Generally, such new cropland was generated from the wild land, swamps and even forestland. 61

During the current practice, the loss of biodiversity and the ecosystem degradation are not considered in the decision making. In the future, they should be evaluated and considered in the practice. 

Conduct an integrated benefit-costs analysis in assessing the land use change, which should consider the value of biodiversity and ecosystem services change at different land use scenarios. Such analysis can internalize the benefits and costs of different land use.



Conduct ocean ecosystem service assessment and establish more ocean protected area.



Improve ocean eco-compensation system to reduce ocean pollution and .unsustainable development of ocean resource.

(4) National Development and Reform Committee The National Development and Reform Committee (NDRC) is the major agency to make the national macroeconomic policies as well as the planning for economy development and infrastructure construction. The polices and planning the NDRC make have significant impacts on the biodiversity and ecosystem conservation even though the NDRC is not the agency direct has the responsibility on the nature conservation.  Use the valuation of biodiversity and ecosystem services in zoning the main function land Zone. NDRC is responsible for determining in the zoning of the Main Function Land Zone. According the 11th 5-year planning, the land can be categorized into four main types: optimized development zone; priority development zone, restricted development zone and the prohibited development zone. The current criteria for the zone are the land carrying capacity, population pressure and development intensity and development potentials. The valuation of biodiversity and ecosystem services on different land use scenarios can be used in zoning process and help to make the decision. 

Consider the loss of biodiversity and ecosystem services in assessing the impacts of the regional development and large infrastructure construction.



Link to climate change adaptation and mitigation strategy to ecosystem service maintenance and biodiversity conservation. Identify the ecosystem services and biodiversity in abating climate change impacts.

(4) Ministry of Finance

The Ministry of Finance (MoF) is the agency responsible for setting the fiscal policies both on government expenditure and tax income. Such fiscal policies can have significant impacts on biodiversity and ecosystem conservation. 

Make suitable input mechanism for biodiversity and ecosystem conservation. The investment in environment and ecosystems should be assessed on the services that biodiversity and ecosystem provide. The payments for ecosystem services and eco-compensation could be the appropriate approach for the ecosystem conservation. The criteria for the payments of ecosystem services and eco-compensation should be studied.



Make some tax incentive policy to encourage the farmers and other industry employ environmental friendship technology and approach in production and resource utilization. The criteria of such tax incentive should base on the valuation of biodiversity and ecosystem services of resources use in different scenarios.

(6) Ministry of Agriculture The Ministry of Agriculture (MoA) is a member of the State Council in charge of the agriculture and rural economic development. Among its numerous roles are “…to guide the exploration of agricultural land, fishery waters, grasslands, marshes and swamps suitable for agricultural purposes and the exploration of rural regenerative energy as well as the protection and management of resources of biological species of agriculture…”. The MoA mainly focuses on the economic activities in agriculture and rural development. Agriculture is one of the major industries responsible for land use change and biodiversity loss and ecosystem degradation. The MoA can potentially contribute to biodiversity and ecosystem conservation. 

Rethink the grain production policy. We have mentioned above that China has a big challenge on food security and set an objective to secure 95% grain domestically produced. With the trends of biodiversity loss and ecosystem degradation, China needs to rethink its grain policy. MoA should carefully assess its grain production potential and the cost of ecosystem services loss in the process of grain production.



Strengthen the management of grassland. The ecosystem services provided by grassland are often neglected in policy making. Actually the grasslands provide a large amount of ecosystem service including carbon sequestration and greenhouse gas regulation as well as erosion prevention. Grassland degradation is one of the serious environmental problems in China.



Strengthen the management of water biodiversity and freshwater ecosystem, in 63

cooperation with the water resources department. In the construction of hydrological facilities, the changes of biodiversity and ecosystem services loss should be considered in the benefit-costs analysis.

Reference Axelrod, D. I., Al-Shehbaz, I., Raven, P. H.,1998. In Proceedings of the First International Symposium on Floristic Characteristics and Diversity of East Asian Plants, A. Zhang, S. Wu, Eds. (China Higher Education Press: Beijing. pp.43-55. Bai Xiaofei，Chen Huanwei The changes of ecosystem services and their values in various constructions of land use—A case study from Yijinhuoluo County of Inner Mogolia， Chinese Journal of Eco—Agriculture，2004，12(1)：180～ 182. The theory of ecosystem services can be used to quantify the economic valuation of services supplied by ecosystems ． The actions of ecosystem services valuation in land use are stated．With adduced and amended figures，the ecological consequence of land use from 1990 to 2000 in Yijinhuoluo，a county of Inner Mogolia is assessed．The results show that the ecosystem services have diminished 226.96 million Yuan in the ten years．This demonstrates that it induces prodigious result on regional ecological environment of increasing economy Bai Xiaofei, Chen Huanwei, Peng Jinfu. Study on Spatial Change of Ecosystem Services Value. A Case Study of Yi Jin Huo Luo County. China Land Science. 2006, 20( 6)：16-20,30 The purpose of the study is to quantify the ecological benefit of land use and its spatial change on the basis of eco-system service theory. Such methods were applied as ecosystem services theory, environmental economics, USLE and wind erosion statistics model. The results revealed that the total ecosystem services value decreased 2.1 × 108 Yuan from 1990 to 2000 in Yi Jin Huo Luo County of Inner Mongolia along with local economic growth. Based on spatial analysis, it is found that the ecological value distribution is unbalanced. The spatial change of ecosystem services can be helpful to well balance ecological protection and economic growth and can be an effective tool in spatial allocation of land use. Balmford A, Bruner A, Cooper P, Costanza R, Farber S, Green RE, Jenkins M, Jeveriss P, Jessamy V, Madden J, Munro K, Myers N, Naeem S, Paavola J, Rayment M, Rosendo S, Roughgarden J, Trumper K, Turner RK (2002) Economic reasons for conserving wild nature. Science 297:950–953 On the eve of the World Summit on Sustainable Development, it is timely to assess progress over the 10 years since its predecessor in Rio de Janeiro. Loss and degradation of remaining natural habitats has continued largely unabated. However, evidence has been accumulating that such systems generate marked economic benefits, which the available data suggest exceed those obtained from continued habitat conversion. We estimate that the overall benefit: cost ratio of an effective global program for the conservation of remaining wild nature is at least 100:1. Béné, C., and L. Doyen. "Contribution Values of Biodiversity to Ecosystem Performances: A 65

Viability Perspective." Ecological Economics 68.1-2 (2008): 14-23. This paper deals with the contribution value of biodiversity to ecosystem performances under a viability approach. Two contrasted cases are considered. First, a no-exploitation situation where the ecosystem performances are measured through the capacity of species richness to maintain the ecosystem above a minimum ecological viability threshold measured through a Shannon index. Second, an exploitation situation where the performances of the ecosystem are measured through its economic sustainability, that is, its capacity to generate direct-use values greater than a minimum guaranteed utility level. The analysis, based on numerical simulations, shows that biodiversity has a positive effect on both ecological and economic performances and that in both cases the marginal contribution of biodiversity is positive. Furthermore, this marginal contribution exhibits maximum values. These maximum values seem however to decrease with the level of species richness. These results show interesting links with two of the main current debates on biodiversity: the Noah's Ark problem and the assumption of decreasing marginal value supported by some recent works on bio-prospecting. Bao YH (Bao, Yonghong), Wu WL (Wu, Wenliang), Wang MX (Wang, Mingxin), Liu WN (Liu, Wenna). "Disadvantages and Future Research Directions in Valuation of Ecosystem Services in China." international journal of sustainable development and world ecology 14.4 (2007): 372-81. Bergstrom, John C., and Laura O. Taylor. "Using Meta-Analysis for Benefits Transfer: Theory and Practice." Ecological Economics 60.2 (2006): 351-60. Meta-analysis, or the "study of studies", attempts to statistically measure systematic relationships between reported valuation estimates for an environmental good or service and attributes of the study that generated the estimates including valuation methods, human population and sample characteristics, and characteristics of the good or service itself. In this paper, we discuss the general theory behind and practice of the emerging use of meta-analysis for benefits transfer. If carefully conducted following systematic protocols for model development, data collection, and data analysis and interpretation, we believe that meta-analysis may prove to be a useful tool for benefits transfer in particular applications. However, before widespread application of this method, more convergent validity tests are needed. One of the greatest strengths of using meta-analysis for benefits transfer is the ability to combine and summarize large amounts of information from previous studies. This strength can also lead to one of the greatest weaknesses of this method which is the loss of important valuation details across time and space in the aggregation process. Thus, application of this method to policy questions and issues should always proceed with caution. Biao, Zhang, et al. "Water Conservation of Forest Ecosystem in Beijing and its Value." Ecological Economics In Press, Corrected Proof. Biodiversity Target. Report for the European Commission, Wageningen/Brussels. Available at 66

http://ec.europa.eu/ environment/nature/biodiversity/economics/index_en.htm (last access 8 May 2008). Boris Worm et al. Impacts of Biodiversity Loss on Ocean Ecosystem services [J]. Science, 2006, Vol. 314: 787~790. Human-dominated marine ecosystems are experiencing accelerating loss of populations and species, with largely unknown consequences. We analyzed local experiments, long-term regional time series, and global fisheries data to test how biodiversity loss affects marine ecosystem services across temporal and spatial scales. Overall, rates of resource collapse increased and recovery potential, stability, and water quality decreased exponentially with declining diversity. Restoration of biodiversity, in contrast, increased productivity fourfold and decreased variability by 21%, on average. We conclude that marine biodiversity loss is increasingly impairing the ocean's capacity to provide food, maintain water quality, and recover from perturbations. Yet available data suggest that at this point, these trends are still reversible. Braat, L., ten Brink, P. et al. (eds.) (2008) The Cost of Policy Inaction: The Case of Not Meeting the 2010 Cao Zhihong,Xu Xinwang,Wang Yanlin. Evaluation of Wetlands Ecosystem Services Value of the Yangtse River Region in Anhui Province. Chinese Agricultural Science Bulletin. 2008. 24(8):413-419. The wetlands of the Yangtze Region in Anhui Province are very important marshes, which located in the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River. This Area is also a distribution of concentrated water network with lots of rivers, lakes and reservoirs.[OBJECTIVE]Through estimating wetlands ecosystem services value of this region, expect to provide scientific reference for the relevant sector regional planning and rational using of wetland resource;[METHOD]Based on the investigation and data collection, reference 17 items of valuating parameters and methods proposed by Costanza and othersďź&#x2C6;1997ďź&#x2030; ,evaluated 9 items of ecosystem services value of the wetlands of the Yangtze Region in Anhui using the market value approach, assets value method, shadow project method and travel cost method and so on.[RESULTS]The results show that the annual value of the wetlands ecosystem service is about 106.12 billion Yuan RMB, which the carbon storage value is the highest with 43.42 billion RMB; secondly is the hydrological conditioning value, material production value and cleaning up the environment value, respectively reached 22.08 billion RMB,16.35 billon RMB and 10.81 billon RMB; and thirdly is the release oxygen value, water supply value and leisure tourism value; the last is cultural value and habitat value; the wetland direct value is about 21.48 billon RMB and indirect value is about 84.64 billon RMB, which indirect value is far more than direct value.[CONCLUSION]At the last present that wetland carbon sequestration has great effect to the global climate warming, human should develop rationally and protect 67

wetland resource. Chavas, Jean-Paul. “Valuation Ecosystem under Uncertainty and irreversibility.” Ecosystems (2000) 3: 11-15. Chen Guangqing,Kang Xingang, 2001. Valuation of eco-benefit value and its adjustment in Wudaohe Forest Farm. [J].Journal of Beijing Forestry University, 23 (3): 56-59 Chen Shang, Zhang Zhaohui,Ma Yan, Shi Honghua,Ma Anqing, Zheng Wei,Wang Qixiang, Peng Yalin,Liu Jian. Program for Service Evaluation ofMarine Ecosystems in China. ADVANCES IN EARTH SCIENCE.2006. l21（11）1127-1134. State Oceanic Administration of China (SOA) has already initiated a five-year program entitled“ Evaluation of Marine Ecosystems Service in China” in 2005. The principal investigator (PI) of this program is professor Chen Shang from First Institute of Oceanography, SOA. The co-PIs are Professor Gao Huiwang from Ocean University of China, professor Liu Rongzi from China Institute for Marine Affairs and professor Ouyang Zhiyun from Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences. The program is divided into 7 task packages: (1)Theory and assessment methods for marine ecosystem service in China waters; (2)Index system for service evaluation of marine ecosystem in China waters; (3)Evaluation methods for loss of marine ecosystem service caused by ecological disasters( red tide, pathogens and invasive species); (4)Development of software for marine ecosystem service evolution; (5)Service assessment practice of Chinas' marine ecosystems; (6) Loss assessment of marine ecosystem service caused by ecological disasters, (7). Management plan to improve the utilization of marine ecosystem service. It aims to develop a set of service assessment system of marine ecosystem featured with local ecological and social-economic development characteristics to evaluate the service value of Bohai sea, Yellow sea, East China sea, South China sea and 11 coastal provinces and service loss of marine ecosystems caused by red tide, pathogens and invasive species, will be distributed to local governments and the public. The outcomes of the program will be applied to optimize the marine function zoning and development plan of sea area and to calculate the ecological compensation fee of pollntion accidents and ocean engineering. The program will contribute to optimize the exploitation model of costal ecosystems and to facilitate ecosystem-based marine management and the sustainable services of Chinese marine ecosystems. Chen Kelong, LI Shuangcheng, LI Diqiang, Chen Ying-yu, Duo Hai-rui, Wang Yongsheng Quantification Study on Ecosystem Service Functions in Source Regions of the Yangtze River and the Yellow River. ECOLOGICAL ECONOMY. 2009:32-35. Based on remote data of TM in 1986 and ETM in 2000 in the source regions of the Yangtze River and the Yellow River, this paper evaluated the ecosystem service values in these areas according to the quantification method proposed by Costanza,and then revealed the variations of various values of ecosystem services. The results show that there is a general decreasing 68

trend of ecosystem service values in source regions of the Yangtze and the Yellow River with19.9 billions Yuan and 3 billions Yuan respectively, obviously a greater loss occurred in the source region of the Yangtze River.As to the functions,there are significant changes of climate regulation in the source region of the Yangtze River and water conservation in the source region of the Yellow River.The ecosystem services mainly consist of grassland,wetland and water bodies.The driving forces of ecosystem service functions are different in two areas,i.e.the significant decrease of wetland is the main cause of ecosystem function changes in source region of the Yangtze River,and the integrative variations of wetland and water bodies reduce the functions in source region of the Yellow River.Key words:ecosystem service functions;variations of values;source regions of the Yangtze River and the Yellow River. Chen Jun, Jing Yuebo. Evaluation of Forest Ecosystem Services of Monsoon Evergreen Broadleaved Forest in Nuozhadu Nature Reserve. Guangdong Forestry Science and Technology. 2008. 24(3):38-42. Using themethods ofmarketvalue, shade price and opportunity-cos,t the ecosystem services including water-holding, soil conservation, carbon fixation and airpurification etc. ofmonsoon evergreen broadleaved forestwith the area of11 037 hm2 in Nuozhadu NatureReserve were evaluated. The results showed that the annual integrated forest ecosystem service value amounted to 123. 90 million yuan (Chinese RMB), ofwhich, 27. 535 1million yuan forwater-holding, 65. 889 0million yuan for soil conservation, 10. 749 2million yuan for carbon fixation and reducing green house effec,t and 19. 725 3 million yuan for air purification. Chen Ligen, Liu Fawei, Chai Taoxiu. Dynamic change of land ecosystem service value in fast developing regions â&#x20AC;&#x201D;â&#x20AC;&#x201D;A case study of Yizhen city. Journal of Anhui Agricultural University. 2008. 35(3):346-351. Studying the influence of land-use change on land ecosystem service value change is very important to region economic development and land-use policy establishment. On the foundation of synthesizing the researches in existence, this text discusses the relation between economic development and land ecosystem service value change through analyzing the land-use change of Yizhen city from 1995 to 2005 and estimating land ecosystem service value of each year. The result indicates that the speed of land-use change was relatively quick in this period; and relatively slow in the first 5 years, its dynamic state degree was only for 0. 11%, but relatively quick in the last 5 years, its dynamic state degree reached to 1.18% ;land ecosystem service value increased from 2 561. 543 6 million yuan in 1995 to 2 572. 982 8 million yuan in 2001, then quickly descended to 2 552. 501 9 million yuan in 2005, this change is mainly subjected to quick economic growth and reforesting policy of Yizhen city after the year 2001. Above research proves that high economic growth speed to some extent sacrificed land ecosystem environment. Henceforth, economic development should be unified mutually with ecosystem environmental protection so as to promote sustainable development 69

of social economy and ecosystem environment. Chen Guoqiang, Chen Peng. Study on the Change of Service Value of Natural Coastal Wetlands in Xiamen City. Journal of Fujian Forestry Science and Technology. 2006. 33(3):91-95 In this paper, the change of coastal natural wetlands among 18 years in Xiamen City was analyzed by using the interpreted data of the Landsat TM images of 1986 and 2004. Preliminary assessment on the ecosystem service value and its impact was achieved by using Costanza ＇ s method of evaluating the world＇ s ecosystem service. The results indicated the area of natural coastal wetlands decreased obviously in the past 18 years. The total ecosystem service value of natural coastal wetlands had reduced from 183 100.804 × 10^4 RMB （1986） to 161 296. 066 × 10^4 RMB （2004） with the span of 11.9 %. Among the different types of natural eoastalwetlands, shallow seas and silt beaches supplied about more than 9496 of the total ecosystem service value, and the span of service value of mangroves and rivers dropped dramatically. Among the different kinds of ecosystem service, the lossvalue of detoxification and decomposition of wastes, water regulation and mitigation of storm tide were most remarkable. Chen Jun Jing Yuebo.Evaluation of Forest Ecosystem Services of Monsoon Evergreen Broadleaved Forest in Nuozhadu Nature Reserve. Forestry Science and Technology of Guangdong Province. 2008(3)：38-41 Using the methods of market value, shade price and opportunity-cost, the ecosystem services including water-holding, soil conservation, carbon fixation and air purification etc. of monsoon evergreen broadleaved forest with the area of 11 037 hm2 in Nuozhadu Nature Reserve were evaluated. The results showed that the annual integrated forest ecosystem service value amounted to 123.90 million yuan （Chinese RMB） , of which, 27. 535 1 million yuan for water-holding, 65. 889 0 million yuan for soil conservation, 10. 749 2 million yuan for carbon fixation and reducing green house effect, and 19. 725 3 million yuan for air purification. Chen Jibin, Liu Shengxiang, Huang Jiawe, Liao Qizhi, Liu Qiyi. Value Calculation on the Service Function of Ecological System at Panzhihua River Section of Jinshajiang Rive. Subtropical Soil and Water Conservation. 2008. 20(2):5-7,19 In this chievements of the paper, the market value method .traveling cost method 、engineering substitution method and the a- predecessors were used to evaluate the ecosystem services in Panzhihua section of the Jinsha River. The results showed that the total economic ecosystem value of the ecological services in Panzhihua section of the Jinsha River was about 280.62 hundred million RMB per year,which as much as 1.1 times the total GDP of the Panzhihua city in 2003. Among the value, the ecosystem value of the ecological services was 28.45 times as much as the ecosystem value of the ecological products. Among the value, water storage function contributed the largest at about 268.27 hundred million RMB per year; providing habitat function contributed the smallest at about 0.02 hundred million RMB per year. We 70

analyzed that the water storage function was the core service function. So during the management of the river, we should think about the core function,but also think about how to guarantee the realization of the supports in other functions. We provide important basis for the protection of ecological environment and the adoption of sustainable development strategy. CHEN Peng. Evaluation on Service Value of Wetland Ecosystem in Xiamen City. Wetland Science. 2006. 4 (2)：101-107. This paper pay more attention to the 7 services functions of wetland ecosystem, which include those services of water purification, water conservancy, culture and scientific research, wild species habitat, erosion control and organic matter production. The economic theory and methods are used to evaluate the value of wetland eco system＇s services, and GIS technologies are also applied to data processing, statistical analysis and compiling the spatial distribution map of services value of wetland ecosystem. The results indicate that the total value of wetland ecosystem is about 135.54 × 10^8 Yuan （ Chinese RMB） in 2003, which equal to 17.8 percent of the gross domestic product（GDP） in Xiamen city（760 ×10^8 Yuan）. According to values of these seven kinds of services, the value decrease from water purification to tourism, wetland production, Erosion control, culture and scientific research, wild species habitat and water conservancy. Among all these services values, value of purification, tourism, wetland production and erosion control are contributed to 95.7%. Water purification value is 66.46× 10^8 Yuan, and the value of tourism, wetland production, Erosion con-trol, culture and scientific research, wild species habitat and water conservancy are respectively34. 14 × 10^8 Yuan, 16.82 ×10^8 Yuan, 15.83 × 10^8 Yuan, 2.59 × 10^8 Yuan, 1.96 ×10^8 Yuan, 1.22 × 10^8 Yuan. Variation between different ecosystem service＇ contribution is obvious among these nine wetland ecosystems. Specifically, the shallow sea and tidal flat ecosystem play the most important role in the ecosystem services. Shallow sea contributed 47.59% of the total value; the second is tidal flat with 37.97% of all values. The service value of mangrove, estuary, river, sand beach, breed, brine pan, pond and reservoir are 0.07×10^8Yuan, 1.18×10^8 Yuan, 2.46×10^8 Yuan, 0. 13 ×10^8 Yuan, 14.31 ×10^8 Yuan, 1.19×10^8 Yuan, respectively, The service of natural wetland is far higher than artificial wetland . The spatial distribution of wetland ecosystem services of unit area showed Mangrove is more than Silt beach, Shallow sea and Estuary,, River, Sand beach, Breed, Pond, Reservoir and Brine pan. Wetland, especially natural wetland ecosystem plays an important role in sustainable development and protection of land resource in Xiamen city. In the process of urbanization and exploitation, natural wetlands around city are continuously transformed into farming, industry, port and residential area ere, which lead to loss and degradation of wetlands. Consequently wetland ecosystem services are greatly discounted. The assessment of wetland ecosystem service provides us a new concept of conservation, and development of wetlands. Primary evaluation of the wetland ecosystem services is favored to cognizing the value of wetland resources. Rationally developing natural wetland and protecting wetland ecological environment are 71

beneficial to not only the sustainable utilization of wetland ecological service, but also the sustainable development of regional economy and society in Xiamen city. In this paper, estimating service of wetlands ecosystem is preliminary study; and more detailed methods of assessment should be applied to study of wetlands＇ ecosystem service in the future. CHEN Qing, CAI Yong-Li, LUO Kun Ecosystem Services Valuation of Sanchahe Wetland in Bengbu City. Wetland Science. 2007. 5( 4)：334-340 Sanchahe Wetland is located at Huaishang region of Bengbu city, which lies in the middle reaches of Huai River. Long time ago Sanchahe was a canal for human beings and many weeds distributed around it. In the 1950s; 4 levees were built there that divided the wetlands into 2 parts. The eastern part was exploited to plant paddy and the western one was reserved as natural condition. Therefore Sanchahe Wetland could be divided into 2 major ecosystems： the natural wetland and the constructed wetland. Below them wetland types should be put into 6 categories based on classification system of wetland types in China, which are permanent rivers, seasonal river, weed, irrigation canal, pond and paddy field. Among which weeds were consisted of Phragmites autstralis and Scirpus triqueter. Wetlands resource was abundant and various there. Hypsography of 1 ： 10 000 and investigation results were used to draw the spatial distribution map of different wetland types. ArcGIS9.0 software was applied to survey area data of different wetland types. And some economic methods were quoted for ecosystem services valuation. Parts of the statistical data were obtained from field research, like water capability of Sanchahe Wetland, carbon absorption of plant and annual output of product in wetlands. Parts of the data were obtained from other researches, such as purification of pollutant, value of habitat provision in wetlands. As a result, total area of all the wetlands is almost 5.23 km^2. Natural wetland including permanent rivers, seasonal rivers and weeds are 3.36 km^2. Among them weeds are 3.12 km^2 occupying 59.66% of the total area. Constructed wetlands including irrigation canals, ponds and paddy fields are 1.87 km^2, among which paddy fields are 1.48 km^2 occupying 28.30% of the total area. Ecological services and economic value of various wetland types were assessed by 6 functions ： water regulation, carbon fixation, water purification, product provision, tourism and scientific researches, habitat provision. Value of unit area was assessed, and then they were multiplied by area data to evaluate general value of different wetlands. As a result, the total value of ecosystem services in Sanchahe Wetland is 2 157.23 × 10^4 Yuan RMB. In natural wetlands, value of water regulation was the highest occupies 562.80 × 10^4 Yuan RMB. Value of carbon fixation was the second highest, which is 314.30 × 10^4 Yuan RMB. Value of water purification was the lowest. In constructed wetlands, value of product provision was the highest, which is 304.62× 10^4 Yuan RMB. Value of water regulation was the lowest. Value of water purification and value of tourism and scientific researches in constructed wetlands was not considered. It was found that value of water lands take 26.09% and constructed regulation occupies 26.88% of the total value, among which natural wetwetlands only take 72

0.79%. Value of product provision and carbon fixation occupies 51.44% of the total value that was because Sanchahe Wetland had powerful productivity of plant yielding. And value of water purification was only is 38.14 × 10^4 Yuan RMB which far from the other ones because paddy fields displayed contrary effect of purifying. Accordingly, the main functions of Sanchahe Wetland were water regulation, product provision and carbon fixation. Indirectly use value including water regulation, carbon fixation and water purification took 59.93% of the natural wetlands services value. Directly use value including product provision, tourism and scientific researches took 48.35% of the constructed wetlands＇. So that natural wetlands displayed ecological service function chiefly, and constructed wetlands represented producing service function mainly. CHEN Shang, ZHANG Zhao-hui, MA Yan, SHI Hong-hua, Ma An-qing ZHENG Wei, WANG Qi-xiang, PENG Ya-lin , LIU Jian. Program for Service Evaluation of Marine Ecosystems in China Waters State Oceanic Administration of China （SOA）＂Service Evaluation of Marine Ecosystems in China Waters＂ in has already initiated a five-year program entitled 2005. The principal investigator （ PI ） of this program is professor Chen Shang from First Institute of Oceanography, SOA. The co-PIs are professor Gao Huiwang from Ocean University of China, professor Liu Rongzi from China Institute for Marine Affairs and professor Ouyang Zhiyun from Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences. The program is divided into 7 task packages ：（ 1 ） Theory and assessment methods for marine ecosystem service in China waters ; （2） Index system for service evaluation of marine ecosystem in China waters ; （3） Evaluation methods for loss of marine ecosystem service caused by ecological disasters （ red tide, pathogens and invasive species） ; （4） Development of software for marine ecosystem service evalution; （5）Service assessment practice of China＇s marine ecosystems; （6） Loss assessment of marine ecosystem service caused by ecological disasters, （7）. Management plan to improve the utilization of marine ecosystem service. It aims to develop a set of service assessment system of marine ecosystem featured with local ecological and scocio-economic development characteristics to evaluate the service value of Bohai sea, Yellow sea, East China sea, South China sea and 11 coastal provinces and service loss of marine ecosystems caused by red tide, pathogens and invasive species, The outcomes of the program will be applied to will be distributed to local governments and the public. optimize the marine function zoning and development plan of sea area and to calculate the ecological compensation fee of pollntion accidents and ocean engineering. The program will contribute to optimize the exploitation modd of costal ecosystems and to faciliate ecosystem-based marine management and the sastainable services of Chinese marine ecosystems. CHEN Wei;Lan Guoyu;Chen Qiubo;Jiang Jusheng Ecosystem Service Functions and Protection Countermeasures of the Vitica mangachapoi Forest in Hainan. Journal of Northwest 73

Forestry University. 2007. 22(5)：207-210,221 Vitica mangachapoi Blanco, one of dominant species in Hainan tropical rain forests, play an essential role in ecosystem of Hainan tropical rain forests. V.mangachapoi forest has some ecosystem service functions, such as conserving biodiversity, increasing precipitation and water resources conservancy. V.mangachapoi forest on the seashore has functions of withstanding winds and waves and consolidating the sea dikes. Nowdays, the population of V.mangachapoi forest has been damaged by human activity, especially by deforestation and cultivation of tropical crop. So it is necessary protect the natural V.mangachapoi forest from being destroyed. Chen Zhongxin, Zhang Xinshi. Value of ecosystem services in China [J]. Chinese Science Bulletin. 2000.45(10):870-875. CHEN Xiao-lin, YANG Zhong ,XIONG Dong-hong, ZHOU Hong-yi, XIAN Ji-shen The Valuation of Ecosystem Services in Changdu, Tibet. Research of Soil and Water Conservation. 2007, 14( 4)：111-113 The study of ecosystem services and their valuation is a hot-pot issue in ecology , which plays an important role in boosting sustainable ecosystem management. Changdu is a typical ecological frangible district in tableland of Tibet. Ecosystem valuation is in favor of the strategy of sustainable development of economy and entironment in the region. This article valuates the ecosystem services in Changdu district by using the methods of valuation of land ecosystem in China which established by Xie Gaodi etalc. The results indicated that ecosystem services value of Changdu is some 105 435.12×10^6 Yuan annually, which is 37 times than the GDP in the same year of the region. The woodland is the most valuable type in ecosystem and grassland in the next place. The direct values including food and raw materials manufacture along with tourism are 13 567.38×10^6 Yuan annually, the indirect values in terms of climates adjusting, pneumatic control and soil formation and protect are 59 412.5 ×10^6 Yuan annually, the conclusion which indirect values higher than direct values indicates that indirect values have the same contribution and effect with the manufacture itself. Cheng Lili ,Huang Fang ,Wang Ping. Dynamics of the ecosystem service values of the ecotone in west Son~nen Plain. Resources Survey & Environment. 2007. 28( 2)：145-149 Using RS and GIS ,based on the data of 1：100 000 Landsat TM,the paper analyzes briefly land use/cover change in the ecotone of Songnen Plain from 1986 to 2000. Thus the dynamics of eco-environmental quality caused by LUCC was evaluated by using Costanza＇s method of evaluating the world＇s ecosystem service. The results indicate：during 1986-2000, the ecosystem service values in this area diminished due to land use change. The area of cultivated land, city and town land increased ,while the area of woodland, pasture ,water body and unuseland decreased. The increase ratio of cultivated land is up to 9.80% ,city and town land construnction uses increase by O. 66% ;the ratios of woodland,pasture,water body and 74

unuseland are reduced by 1.10% ,6.80% ,1.20% and 1.20% respectively. Values of the ecotone in the west Songnen Plaing ecosystem service reduced 7000. 15 x 10^4US $ ,in equal to 57891.24 x 10^4 RMB ￥causing the ecosysten service value lose of 9.74%. Chong Jie, Libo, Hong Rui, Zhang Xinshi. Dynamic evaluation on ecosystem services of Manas County. Arid Land Geography. 2008. 31(3)：477-484 This paper dynamically evaluated the ecosystem services of Manas County from 1988 to 2003, according to the researches on the world＇ s ecosystem services value evaluation by Costanza in 1997 and the table of ＇ Chinese ecosystem services value unit area of different ecosystem types＇ presented by Xie Gaodi in 2003. The results showed that the values of ecosystem services in Manas County respectively were 58.98 × 10^8 yuan in 1988, 49.76 × 10^8yuan in 1997 and 50.22 × 10^8 yuan in 2003. And the decreased quantity from 1988 to 1997 was 9.22 × 10^8 yuan with the change change rate change rate of 0. 92 -14. rate of - 15.6 percent ; while the value increased 0.46 × 10^8 yuan from 1997 to 2003 with the percent; And the total reduced quantity was 8.76 × 10^8 yuan from 1988 to 2003 with the 9 percent. At the same time, the ecosystem services in its villages and towns of Manas County were estimated, and spatial heterogeneity of the dynamic change of ecosystem services in Manas County was discussed. Manas County located on middle - north slope of Tianshan Mountain and south edge of Junggar Basin in Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, while the north slope of Tianshan Mountain is an important section of the new Eurasia＇s continental bridge, which is not only the political, economic and cultural center, but also the most important region of West Region Development of China. However, irrational land use, lackage of water sources and other reasons have been making eco - environmental deterioration in study area. The function of ecosystem services in mountain and fan- edged regions in Manas County is very important, and in which ecosystem service value was high but had decreased heavily. While the value of south desert increased remarkably, which might be the main reason resulting ecological crisis. MBS （ mountain - basin system ） is the basic pattern of natural heterogeneity and regionalization in Northwestern China, and its big extent, multi - layer and regular complex of terrestrial ecosystems in Northern Tianshan Mountains, Xinjiang, China, is the basin and frame to form this kind of pattern. The sustainable development strategy forum, namely GBS （green bridge system ） for MBS in Northern Tianshan Mountains had been gotten. Therefore, by this study, it was believed that GBS was an important theoretical foundation and also had directing significance to the development in this county, as well as typical eco -economic region of MBS in the arid area of great Northwestern China, and additionally other similar areas in the world. Compilation Group,1998.China's Biodiversity: A Country Study (in Chinese). China Environmental Science Press, Beijing. Cork SJ, Shelton D (2000) The nature and value of Australia’s ecosystem services: a framework for sustainable environmental solutions. In: Sustainable environmental solutions for 75

industry and government. Proceedings of the 3rd Quensland Environmental Conference, May 2005. Environmental Engineering Society, Queensland Chapter, The Institution of Engineers, Queensland Division, and Queensland Chamber of Commerce and Industry, Australia, pp 151–159 Costanza R, d’Arge R, de Groot R, et al. 1997. The value of the world’s ecosystem services and natural capital[J]. Nature, 387:253~260. The services of ecological systems and the natural capital stocks that produce them are critical to the functioning of the Earth's life-support system. They contribute to human welfare, both directly and indirectly, and therefore represent part of the total economic value of the planet. We have estimated the current economic value of 17 ecosystem services for 16 biomes, based on published studies and a few original calculations. For the entire biosphere, the value (most of which is outside the market) is estimated to be in the range of US$16-54 trillion (10(12)) per year, with an average of US$33 trillion per year. Because of the nature of the uncertainties, this must be considered a minimum estimate. Global gross national product total is around US$18 trillion per year. Costanza,R . "Social Goals and the Valuation of Ecosystem Services." Ecosystems 3.1 (2000): 4-10. Cui Wenyan, Luo Yang, Wang Ying, Wang Hongcui, Fu Xiaoliang. Studies on wetland ecoservice assessment and strategies in Haihe Rive. Haihe Water Resources. 2007. 6:13-16. Daily, G.C., 1997. Nature’s Services: Societal Dependence on Natural Ecosystems. Island Press, Washington, DC. Dayuan Xue and Clem Tisdell. "Valuing Ecological Functions of Biodiversity in Changbaishan Mountain Biosphere Reserve in Northeast China." Biodiversity and Conservation 10.3 (2001): 467-81. Conservation of biodiversity can generate considerable indirect economic value and this is being increasingly recognized in China. For a forest ecosystem type of a nature reserve, the most important of its values are its ecological functions which provide human beings and other living things with beneficial environmental services. These services include water conservancy, soil protection, CO2 fixation and O2 release, nutrient cycling, pollutant decomposition, and disease and pest control. Based on a case study in Changbaishan Mountain Biosphere Reserve in Northeast China, this paper provides a monetary valuation of these services by using opportunity cost and alternative cost methods. Using such an approach, this reserve is valued at 510.11 million yuan (USD 61.68 mill.) per year, 10 times higher than the opportunity cost (51.78 mill. yuan/ha.a) for regular timber production. While China has heeded United Nations Environmental Program (UNEP)'s call for economic evaluation of ecological functions, the assessment techniques used need to be improved in China and in the West for reasons mentioned. 76

Deng Yonghong. Evaluation on Ecological Service Function of Forest Biodiversity of Daweishan Nature Reserve. Forest Inventory and Planning. 2006.31(5): 92-96. The economic value of ecological service function of forest biodiversity of Daweishan Nature Reserve has been evaluated through computer by using data collected, consulting evaluation methods at home and abroad and relevant theoretical knowledge about ecological service function, and comprehensively utilizing the diverse methods including direct evaluation of economic value, shadow engineering, substitute expense, chance cost and carbon tax law, etc. Deck L. B., Chestnut L. G., 1993. Benefits transfer: how good is good enough? In: Benefits Transfer Procedures, Problems, and Research Needs, United States Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Policy, Planning, and Evaluation (PM-21), Report No. EPA 230-R-93-018. Dong Qiong, LI Xiangwang. Evaluation of forest ecosystem services of Dazhongshan Nature Reserve in Yunnan. Journal of Shandong Forestry Science and Technology.2008.38(6)： 8-11 This paper evaluated the forest ecosystem services of Dazhongshan Nature Reserve and provided data supports to the decision-makers based on the field investigations and researches. Beginning with the concept of forest ecosystem services, the authors adopted the eeo-economy evaluation methods and classified the forest ecosystem service of Dazhongshan Nature Reserve into direct and indirect benefits. Direct benefits of forest ecosystem mainly include the income form timber and tree crops products; indirect ecosystem service of forest is the principal part of its environment protection function and consists of water resource and soil conservation, air and water resource purification, carbon fixation and oxygen production. The total value of forest ecosystem services of Dazhongshan Nature Reserve is up to 514.8 million yuan/a（Chinese RMB）per year,of which, direct benefits makes up 2.91% and are about 15 million yuan/a,whereas indirect benefits make up 97.09% and are 499.8 million yuan/a,which consist of 30.9 million yuan/a of water-holding,5.3 million yuan/a of water purification,and about 151.6 million yuan/a of soil conservation, about 177.4 million yuan of carbon fixation and oxygen production, about 133.7 million yuan/a of air purification. Compared to the direct benefits of forest ecosystem,indirect benefits are more important for the survival of human being. Dong Rencai,Chen Chundi, Deng Hongbing, Zhao Jingzhu. Forestland prediction of China based on forest ecosystem services for the first half of 21st century. Journal of Forestry Research 2008. 19(3):181-186 A new model was developed to predict forestland demand of China during the years of 2010–2050 in terms of the concept of forest ecosystem services. On the basis of the relationship between forest ecosystem services and classified forest management, we hypothesized

that

the

ecological-forest

provides

ecological

services,

whereas 77

commercial-forest supplies wood and timber production, and the influences of the growth of population, social-economic development target, forest management methods and the technology changes on forest resources were also taken into account. The prediction reveals that the demand of total forestland of China will be 244.8,261.2 and 362.2 million ha by the year 2010,2020 and 2050,respectively.The results demonstrated that China will be confronted with a shortage of forest resources, especially with lack of ecological-oriented forests, in the future. It is suggested that sustainable management of forest resources must be reinforced and more attention should be drown no enhancing the service function of forest ecosystem. Deng Yonghong. Evaluation on Ecological Service Function of Forest Biodiversity of Daweishan Nature Reserve [J]. Forestry Inventory and Planning (in Chinese). 2006.Vol.31 (5). Department for Environment food and Rural Affairs (defra 2007), An Introductory Guide to Valuing

Ecosystem

Services.

Available

Http://www.defra.gov.uk/wildlife-countryside/natres/index.htm Du Ying, Yang Gaihe, and Liu Zhichao. "Evaluation on Ecosystem Service Value of Converting Farmland into Forest and Grassland Project in Loess Hilly and Gully Areas - a Case Study of Ansai County." journal of northwest a & f university natural science edition 36.6 (2008): 131-40. [Objective] The ecological benefits of Converting Farmland into Forest and Grassland Project could be measured by the increase of ecosystem service value after the conversion. The assessment of the Project＇s ecosystem service value can validate the Project＇s impact and provide scientific foundation of policy. [Method] According to the changes of ecosystem characteristics brought by Converting Farmland into Forest and Grassland Project and the definition of ecosystem service value, six indexes, including soil conservation, water storage, nutrition circulation, assimilation of CO2 and O2 release, air purification and biodiversity protection, were adopted to measure the spatiotemporal changes of ecosystem service function and value in Ansai county combined with a series of scientific methods, also the service value of different vegetation type were evaluated. [Result] The results indicated, thanks to Converting Farmland into Forest and Grassland Project, the total ecosystem service value of Ansai county increased by 27.95% ,from 18. 837 billion yuan in 1998 to 24. 103 billion yuan in 2005;the service value of water storage was the highest, accounting for nearly 75% of total ecosystem service value, then followed by the soil conservation（11. 43%） ,nutrition circulation （6. 83%）, assimilation of CO2 and O2 release （3. 94%）, biodiversity protection （0.54%） ,the service value of air purification was the lowest,only 0.18% of total ecosystem value;of all the vegetation types, shrub forest had the highest service value, then the grassland, arbor forest and economic forest;as to the per unit area service value, the sequence were arbor forest, shrub forest ,grassland, economic forest,cropland. [Conclusion] As a conclusion, Converting Farmland into Forest and Grassland Project has great significance in environment 78

protection,mainly in controlling water and soil erosion. Fan Xue-zhong, LI Yu-hui, JIAO Yuan-mei. ANALYSIS ON THE LANDSCAPE PATTERN AND ECOLOGICAL SERVICE VALUE OF THE DIFFERENT CLASSIFIED REGIONS OF ECOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS IN KUNMING DISTRICT. Resources and Environment in the Yangtza Basin. 2007.16(A02):50-54 Eight classified regions of ecological functions were taken as the research objects; and applying the land use investigation data and other related ones in 2005, then this paper calculated and analyzed the landscape pattern indices and ecological service value on the different classified regions. The results indicated that ： 1 ） There were higher landscape diversity and heterogeneity in the whole Kunming district. However, 8 classified regions differed obviously. 2）The gross ecological service value of the whole district was 339. 712 4 × 10^8 Yuan in 2005. Among all classified regions, the function region of agricultural development and the function region of supporting water source had the highest gross ecological service value respectively; while the function region of constructing town had the lowest. 3）The current situation of the function region of agricultural development was especially similar to the average situation of Kunming district in the landscape pattern characteristics, ecological service value of per hm^2 and other aspects. 4）Some region had also higher similarity to another classified region in the landscape pattern characteristics or the structure of ecological service value. 5）Forests and water areas were distinguished in all classified regions; and they usually dominated the diversity and stability of landscape, could also enhance the gross ecological service value and that of per hm^2 FAN Fan-rong. Evaluation of forestry ecosystem service function in Ninghua Yashushan Natural Reserve. Journal of Fujian Agricultural and Forestry University.2006. 35(3)：283-287 Based on the characteristics and connotation of forest ecosystem services, the physical and value assessment methods, including market value method, shadow engineering price method, production cost method, opportunity cost method and administering expenditure method, were used to evaluate forest ecosystem services in Yashushan Natural Reserve. The results showed that the total annual service value of forest ecosystem in Yashushan Natural Reserve was up to 8.9866×10^7 Yuan （RMB）, of which 7.695×10^6 Yuan for standing tree value, 1.925×10^6 Yuan for forest by-production, 7×10^5 Yuan for cattle breeding, 2.496×10^6 Yuan for forest recreation, 3.6805×10^7 Yuan for water conservation, 5.446 ×10^6 Yuan for soil conservation, 1. 823×10t Yuan for CO2 absorption and O2 release, 1.5732×10^7 Yuan for environmental purification, 1.37×10^5 Yuan for nutrient storage, 7.8×10^4 Yuan for forest calamity prevention and 6.24×10^5 Yuan for gene resource. Feng Ling, Cheng Shengkui, Su Hua, Min Qingwen. A theoretical model for assessing the sustainability of ecosystem services. Ecological Economy. 2008. 4(3):258-265. The Value of the World＇s Ecosystem Services and Natural Capital by Costanza in 1997 is 79

generally regarded as a monumem for the research of valuing ecosystem services. However, the classification of ecosystem services, the method of various services summation and the purpose for static global value had be confronted by many criticisms. Based on the summary of these criticisms, suggestions, related function assessment and further study direction, the sustainability of ecosystem Services is presented. The two basic indicators in ecology, productivity and biodiversity, respectively charactering the ability of producing and self-organizing, not only represent the internal function of ecosystem, but also are proportioned to its external function of supporting and providing for human life. On presenting the general. form of ecosystem services assessment, this paper improves the mathematical formula by giving a function adjusting coefficient composea of productivity and biodiversity. Theoretically, the integration of the two indicators reflects the changes of ecosystem services at spatial and temporal scales, can physically assess the sustainability of ecosystem services, and build a firm scientific fundament of value assessment for ecosystem services. Objectively, its application should be strictly tested in next step. Guo XinChun;Zhao Yan;Feng Jiang;Wang HongYang. THE ECONOMIC EVALUATION OF STEPPE ECOSYSTEM SERVICES IN YAOJINGZI NATURE RESERVE. Journal of Nanchang University(Natural Science) . 2005. 29( 4)：404-408 By using methods proposed by Constaza et al and others, this paper revises the economic value of steppe ecosystem services in Yaojingzi nature reserve according to its biomass. Some sorts of direct and indirect using values are calculated ,such as food production and raw material, CO2 reserve, O2 release, water regulation and water supply, erosion control and sediment retention, soil formation, waste treatment, pollination, biological control, refugia, recreation and culture. The result shows that the annual value of steppe ecosystem services in this area is 26.42 × 10^8 RMB/a. Gong Bikai, Deng Liangji, Hu Yu-fu, Deng Xu-yan. Study on Ecosystem Service and Its Value Assessment of Cultivated Land of Reservoir Inundated——A Case Study of Huangjinping Hydropower Station. Resource Development & Market. 2007. 23(12): 1085-1088. Taking Huangjinping Hydropower Station for example, adopted carbon tax law, afforest law of cost and industry oxygen price method of substitution to confirm gas regulating function value, and using many methods to quantify the water and soil conservation value at the same time, by confirming the ecological value of the cultivated land of reservoir inundated. On this base, it established the model of total price, supplied scientific foundation for setting up reasonable cornpertsation mechanism, and cultivated land value composition and quantization tend to be intact. Gu Shigui, Chen Yuanquan, and Gao Wangsheng. "Eco-Capital Assessment and Development Countermeasures of Taihang Mountainous Areas in Hebei Province." research of agricultural modernization 26.3 (2005): 173,176, 181. 80

Guo Jian, Yu Li, Dong Xinguang An Analysis of Land Use/Cover Changes and Ecosystem Services Value in the Peacock River Basin. Xinjiang Agricultural Sciences. 2006. 43( 4)： 260-263 By interpreting three rern3te sense images of the Peacock River Basin [1973 MSS, 1990（TM） 1999 ETM ）, basic data about area of the land use/cover type of the basin in the last three periods are extracted. On the basis of these data, this paper carries out analysis on changes of rand use/cover type, ecosystem services value land use/cover type of the study area in the Peacock River Basin between 1973 and 1999.Through the analysis , the results shows as follows. （ 1 ） In 1973, grassland, woodland , and saline land were the main land use/ cover type in the basin. In 1999 , grassland, agricultural land , and saline land became the main land use/cover type in the basin . （2） The total tendency of land use/cover change in the study area from 1973 to 1999 was that： the area of agricultural land, residental land, and grassland were increased even more the area of woodland ,water area, saline land were greatly decreased; the area of gobi and swampland was decreased by a small margin;the area of desert and exposed rock land was invariant on the whole.（3） The total ecosystem services value of the study area was decreased clearly in the entire period of study. Guo Qingxia, Chen Huanwei, Zhou Xin. Spatial distribution and changes of ecological service value of land use in the southern suburb of Datong City. Chinese Journal of Eco-Agriculture. 2007. 15(5):188-192. Based on established equivalent weight factor of ecosystem service value of China, ecological service value of land use in the southern suburb of Datong City was estimated. The spatial distribution and changes of ecological service value of land use were analyzed using land use classification data from Landsat TM/ETM ＋ images for 1987 and 2002 and spatially imitating land use ecological service value within rectangular units by Fragstat and ENVI soft. Results show that positive ecological service value land use area outweighs that of the negative for both 1987 and 2002. Ecological service value land use quality of the plains is higher than that of the massifs in 1987, while it is higher for the massifs in 2002. Decreasing ecological service value land area is larger than increasing ecological service value land area in the plains from 1987 to 2002 ,while the opposite trend is the case in massifs and the entire southern suburb research area. On the whole ,decreasing ecological service value land area in the plains is larger than that of the massifs, while increasing ecological service value land area in the plains is smaller than that of the massifs. Guo Z W and D M Li, 1999. The basic approaches for valuation of biodiversity. Chinese Biodiversity, 7(1): 60~67. Guo Zhongwei, Xiao Xiangming and Li Dianmo, 2000. An assessment of ecosystem services: water flow regulation and hydroelectric power production. Ecological Applications, 10(3): 925-936. 81

In this study we combined models and a GIS-embodied spatial database to assess the capacity and benefits of water flow regulation by ecosystems in Xingshan County, Hubei Province, China. The capacity of water flow regulation differs substantially among the 90 types of vegetation-soil-slope complexes in the watersheds. The simulation model estimates that in a wet season the watershed can retain similar to 868.07 X 10(6) m(3) water, which may result in a decrease of water flow by similar to 111.63 m(3)/s in the Yangtze River. The model also estimates that in a dry season the watershed can discharge similar to 80.74 X 10(6) m(3) water, resulting in an increase of water flow by similar to 10.38 m(3)/s. As the result of water flow regulation, the Gezhouba hydroelectric power plant increases its electricity production by up to 40.37 X 10(6) kWh in a year and generates an additional economic value of similar to 5.05 x 10(6) RMB/yr (1 US$ = 8.3 RMB, Chinese currency). This value is 0.42 times the annual income from forestry in the county in 1994 and may reach 2.2 times the annual income from forestry when Three Gorges Hydroelectric Power Plant runs. We also proposed a model of economic compensation for the region. Guo Zhongwei, Xiao Xiangming, Gan Yaling and Zheng Yuejun, 2001. Ecosystem functions, services and their values â&#x20AC;&#x201C; a case study in Xingshan County of China. Ecological Economics 38: 141-154. In this case study, at county-level, we estimated the annual economic value of some ecosystem services by forest ecosystems in the Xingshan County of Hubei Province of China, using both simulation models and geographic information system (GIS) that helps to analyze the effect of ecological factors (vegetation, soil and slope) on ecosystem functions. Xingshan County is rich in forest resources, covering 50.64% of total land area in the county. In this study, we referred to ecosystem goods and services together as ecosystem services. The ecosystem goods include timber, other forest products and forest tour, and produce a direct economic value about 54.23 million RMB in 1997 (RMB: Chinese Currency, 8.3 RMB = US$1). The ecosystem services assessed relate to three aspects: water conservation, soil conservation and gas regulation. Water conservation includes hydrological flow regulation, and water retention and storage. Soil conservation relates to the reduction of land disuse, prevention of sill accretion, decrease of soil deposit, and protection of soil fertility. Gas regulation is by both carbon fixation and oxygen supply. These services provide an indirect economic value of 528.73 million RMB per year based on our estimation. Thus, the total economic value of forest ecosystem services in Xingshan County is estimated to be 582.96 million RMB per year, being a part of actual ecosystem services. In addition, we analyzed the spatial distribution of forest capital stock in the county based on the economic values of forest ecosystem service. Our work can contribute to the conservation of the forest ecosystems and effective use of the ecosystem services. Guo, Z. W and D M Li. 1999. The economic value of biodiversity, Chinese Biodiversity. 6(3): 180~185. Gutman P (2003) From goodwill to payments for environmental services. a survey of financing 82

options for sustainable natural resource management in developing countries. WWF, Washington DC Han Qiuying, Huang Xiaoping, Shi Ping, Zhang Jingping. Seagrass Bed Ecosystem Service Value in Guangxi .A Case Study Province on the Hepu Seagrass Bed. Marine Science Bulletin. 2007. 26( 3)：33-38 Seagrass bed ecosystem is a coastal ecosystem with abundant biodiversity and high production. It is also a very important system for the sustainable development of human society and economy. Based on local research, statistical data and prevenient research result, the main service of Hepu seagrass ecosystem is analyzed in the paper, including fishing production, nutrient cycling, scientific research, protecting the coast from eroding, climate regulation, biodiversity, cultural, bequest value, option value and existence values et al. At the same time, we use ecological and economic methods for economic value evaluation of seagrass in Hepu of South China, including the market valuation method, contingent valuation method, carbon and tax method, benefit transfer method and expert survey method. The results show that the total value of the Hepu seagrass ecosystem service is about 6.29×105 Yuan RMB/hm^2 in 2005. Among these services, the indirect use value is the main aspect, which was 4.47×10^5 Yuan RMB/hm^2 in 2005, accounting for 70.97 % of the total value. The non-use value was 1.54×10^5 Yuan RMB/hm^2 in 2005, accounting for 24.52 % of the total value. The direct use value is the least, which was only 2.84× 10^4 Yuan RMB/hm^2 in 2005, accounting for only 4.51% of the total value. Han Qiuying,Huang Xiaoping,Shi Ping,Zhang Jingping. Seagrass Bed Ecosystem Service Valuation—A Case Research on Hepu Seagrass Bed in Guangxi Province. Marine Science Bulletin. 2008. 10(1):87-96. Seagrass bed ecosystem is a coastal ecosystem with abundant biodiversity and high production. It is also an important system for the sustainable development of human society and economy. Based on the local research, statistical data and prevenient research results, the main services of Hepu seagrass ecosystem were analyzed in the paper, including fishing production, nutrient cycling, scientific research, protecting the coast from eroding, climate regulation, biodiversity, culture, bequest valuation, option valuation and existence valuation and so on. At the same time, we used ecological and economic methods for economic evaluation of seagrass in Hepu of Guangxi, including the market valuation method, contingent valuation method, carbon and tax method, benefit transfer method and expert survey method. The results showed that the total valuation of the Hepu seagrass ecosystem service was about 6.29×105Yuan RMB/ha in 2005.Among these services, the indirect using valuation is the main aspect, which was 4.47×105Yuan RMB/ha in 2005, accounting for 70.97%of the total valuation. The non-using valuation was1.54×105Yuan RMB/ha in 2005,accounting for 24.52%of the total valuation. The direct using valuation is the least, which was only 2.84×104Yuan RMB/ha in 2005,accounting for 4.51%of the total valuation 83

Han Qiuying, Huang Xiaoping，Shi Ping，Zhang Jingping. Effects of human activities on seagrass bed ecosystem services value in Hepu of Guangxi Province． Chinese Journal of Ecology，2007，26(4)：544—548． In recent years，seagrass ecosystem in China has been degraded seriously．Taking the seagrass bed ecosystem in Hepu of Guangxi Province as example，and employing the basic theo— ries of eco．economics，its services value loss caused by human activities was primarily estimated based on the local statistic data from 1 980 to 2005．The evaluation indices system included food production，atmosphere regulation，ecosystem nutrient circulation，water purification， biodiversi- tv maintenance．and functions of scientific research．The results showed that the total services value loss of seagrass bed ecosystem in Hepu of Guangxi was 34657.95 x 104 Yuan RMB from 1 980 to 2005．and the loss ratio reached 7 1．97％，in which，the direct use value increased 4452．88 x 104 Yuan RMB．while the indirect use value loss was 39 1 10.83 x 104Yuan RMB，with the loss ratio accounted for 81.82％ from 1980 to 2005．proving that the increasing trend oi human exploitation intensity was evident． Hao Huimei, Ren Zhiyuan. Quantifying Response of Ecosystem to Land Use/Cover Changes in Yulin Prefecture based on Ecological Services Evaluation. Resources Science. 2007. 29(6):90-97. The technologies of remote sensing （RS）, global position system （GPS）, geographic information system （GIS） and various ecological and economic analysis methods were employed in this paper, and based on remote sensing images, DEM and other data, and spatial and temporal distribution of ecological service values in Yulin Prefecture were calculated. In order to quantitatively evaluate the response of ecosystems to land use/cover changes, the factors affecting regional total ecosystems service were analyzed and separated, and response index and response degree of ecosystems to land use/cover changes were presented. The results revealed that 1 ） The total values of ecosystems services in Yulin Prefecture were 237.58 billion Yuan in 1987, 173.43 billion Yuan in 1999 and 283.69 billion Yuan in 2002, and varied with the spatial variation. Generally, the value of ecological services per unit land in Northern Six Counties is less than that in Southern Six Counties, while the total value of ecosystems services in Northern Six Counties is more than that in Southern Six Counties. During the study period, the proportions of the services values of farmland was decreasing continuously and that of forests and grasslands was increasing respectively, both in Northern Six Counties and Southern Six Counties. The sharpest increase in Northern Six County happened in forestland, and in Southern-Six-County grasslands; 2） Land use/cover changes and climate fluctuation are mainly responsible for the changes of regional total values of ecosystems service annually. Thus, only when the influence of climate fluctuation eliminated, the response of ecosystems to land use/cover changes can be evaluated more objectively. This was exactly indicated by the results of response indexes of ecosystems to land use/cover changes. For most of regions at different spatial scales in Yulin Prefecture, the contribution 84

rate of land use/cover changes to the variation of total ecosystems services values is less than that of climate fluctuation during the two study stages, which indicates that the limitation of climate to the selection of vegetation types should be considered when ecological construction in arid area with large precipitation variation; 3） Various response degrees of ecosystems to land use/cover changes in different regions and stages can be compared. Response degree of ecosystems to land use/cover changes during the period of 1987 - 1999 is 65.66 Yuan per hectare per year, and 81.64 Yuan per hectare per year during the period of 1999 - 2002, and the latter is higher than the former. Besides Yuyang District, Shenmu County and Mizhi County, in other regions at different spatial scales in Yulin Prefecture, the response degree of ecosystems to land use/cover changes during the latter period was higher than that during the former period. The change of total ecosystems services values resulted by land use/cover changing in Northern Six Counties during the former period was greater than that in Southern Six Counties, while it was reverse during the latter period. HU Bi-yan;XU Song-jun;YE Jian-fen. The services valuation of forest ecosystem in nature reserves-case study of Gudou Mountain Nature Reserve of Guangdong Province. Ecologic Science. 2007. 26(3)：237-241 It is important to protect the structure, functions and process of nature ecosystem. This paper discussed the services valuation of forest ecosystem in nature reserves, which taking the Gudou Mountain Nature Reserve of Guangdong as an example. The methods applied in this paper included market-method , shadow-engineering method, product-cost method and substitute-expense method. Results showed that the total ecological value of this reserve was 57.887 615million Yuan. Among that, the production value was about 6.9 377 million Yuan; the production from the standing trees was about 4.05 million Yuan which was increased by tourism; the production from improving atmospheric environment was about 32.2 177 million Yuan; the production value from water holding and water cleaning was about 5.809 million Yuan and the value from soil conservation was about 8.878 215 million Yuan. The object of this study was to show the huge valuation of ecosystem services that provided by forest ecosystem of nature reserves and bring more attention from society to the valuation of ecosystem services, strengthen management and protection the forest ecosystem services. HU Hai-sheng.Evaluation of the Service Value of the Forest Ecosystem in Lushan Mountain Nature Reserve. Resources Science. 2007. 29（5）：28-36 Forest ecosystem, as the principal part of global terrestrial ecosystem, has many important ecological functions. Lushan mountain nature reserve, which is characterized by scenic resort and historic site in China, world heritage, and world geo-park, is the key area in the system of nature reserves in China. Based on the evaluation of forest ecosystem services, this paper focuses on all kinds of values in the study area. It is estimated that the total value of the seven forest ecosystem services in Lushan mountain nature reserve is 26. 1086 × 10^8 RMB Yuan, the direct and indirect economic value is 16. 1605 × 10^8 Yuan and 9. 9481 × 10^8 Yuan 85

respectively. The former is 1.62 times more than the latter. The forest ecosystem has played a positive role in boosting local economy. The opposite results in contrast with other researches should be attributed to a variety of reasons. The most important reason is the matured tourism industry around the mountain, specially centered in the Kuling areas. The situation is profoundly presented in the unit value and its fight place within the total value. The contribution rate of Lushan ecosystem is ranked from high to low as recreation and eco-tourism, assimilation of CO2 and O2 release, erosion control, air purification, water storage, timber and other products, biodiversity protection. The recreation and eco-tourism is 16. 0838 Ă&#x2014; 10^8yuan, accounting for 61.60% of the total value. CO2 assimilation and O2 release take the second place, accounting for 32.91%. The the two takes up 95. 51% in the whole list. Tourism industry also have an adverse impact on protection of the ecological environment and biodiversity. So we should increase capital input and improve the indirect services value. The value constitution of its forest ecosystem is quite different from that of the other places in China. Jigongshan mountain natural reserve ranks first in total value with 23. 5162 Yuan/hm^2. Next is Bifengxia scenic spots and Lushan mountain natural reserve. The lowest is Qilian mountain. Gele mountains take the first place in value of water storage, which is 88 times higher than that of Lushan mountain. The proportion of erosion control differs greatly from each other. The maximum is Jigongshan mountain, accounting for 81.86%. The value per unit of CO2 assimilation and O2 release shares low price, the highest is Lushan mountain, while the lowest is Qilian mountain. The value of air purification in Lushan mountain is only higher than Qilian mountain and Bifengxia scenic spots, but the value of recreation and eco-tourism is put in the first place, producing approximately 5. 3257 Yuan/hm^2. Results shows evaluation indicators are closely connected with special circumstances. The evaluation of the forest ecosystem services in Lushan Nature Reserve is conducive for us to understand the value of it and facilitate the implementation of the sustainable development policy and environment protection. Huang X W and B M Chen, 1999. The theory of Chinese ecological capital division and its application. Acta Ecolgcia Sinica. 19(5): 6002~606. (in Chinese). Huang Wei, Chen Xutu. Ecological Service Function and Degradation Reason Analysis of.Lhalu Wetland. Journal of West China Forestry Science. 2008. 37(3):41-45. Lhalu wetland is the biggest urban wetland in the world and it plays multiple functions such as adjusting regional climate, carbon sequestration, oxygen production, atmosphere purification, wastewater purification, scientific study and public awareness building, which is very important for improve the ecological environment of Lhasa city. Lhalu wetland is now facing the decrease of area, decline of water environment and quality decrease of grass-land. It was analyzed that two natural factors namely fragile natural environment and climate warming, and a series of personal factors such as overgrazing, improper construction, stone quarrying, sand fetching, city construction and lack of management, constituted the important reasons for 86

degradation. Huang Jinlou, Wang Rusong, Yang Wenrui, Li Feng, Jin Jiasheng, Zhou Chuanbin. Exploration on the Exploitation and Utilization of Coastal Zone Beach Land Based on Ecological Service Function in Dafeng city. Journal of Anhui Agricultural Sciences. 2008. 36(21):9215-9238. Based on the comprehensive evaluation on the significance of ecological service function, the concept development planning pattern （1 Road, 2 Belts and 5 Regions） of coastal zone beach land in Dafeng city was pointed out. It provided references to compile planning of conservation, exploitation and utilization the coastal zone beach wetland resource in Dafeng city in overall, to conserve its ecosystem service function in beach wetland and to enhance the comprehensive management in coastal zone. It ensured the economy, society and environment benefit, thus guarding the regional ecological security of Dafeng city. Hyde W F and K R Kanel, 1994. The marginal cost of endangered species management. In: M Munasinghe and J McNeely (eds.), Protected Area Economics and Policy. IUCN, Cambridge, 171~180. Hua Lizhong, Cui Shenghui , Li Xinhu , Yin Kai , Qiu Quanyi. Remote sensing identification of earthquake trigged landsides and their impacts on ecosystem services： a case study of Wenchuan County. Acta Ecologica Sinica. 2008. 28(12): 5909-5916. In this paper, the authors present a method for assessing landslides and associated ecosystem service losses based on TM/ ETM ＋ remote sensing techniques. The method includes three major steps. The first step is to calculate the four indexes, Soil-Adjusted Vegetation Index （SAVI） , Modified Normalized Difference Water Index （MNDWI） , Normalized Difference Built-Up Index （NDBI） and Normalized Difference Cloud Index （NDCI） , and layers tack them as a new image. The second step is to use SAVI for identifying non-vegetation areas from the new image. The final step is to execute once unsupervised and supervised classification respectively. We applied this method in the spatial analysis of the landslides in Wenchuan County after the 8.0 earthquake of May 23, 2008. The result shows that the area of a landslide increases with land-slope when the slope is smaller than 30 --40 degrees, whereas it decreases with slope when the slope is greater. The affected areas of the earthquake-triggered landslides in Wenehuan County are summed to 260.5 km^2. The most seriously damaged areas are located in between two major fault zones, such as the town of Yingxiu where 15.9% of its area was affected by land sliding. County-wide, it is estimated that 151.08 km^2 of forestland, 16.13 km^2 of grassland, 5.11 km^2 of farmland and 3.45 km^2 of river channel were destroyed by the earthquake. The associated cost due to the loss of various ecosystem services is about 226.5 million Yuan, 89.8% of which is resulted from the loss of forestland. Although the area of the lost farmland is relatively small, it exerts additional stress on the farmland shortage by decreasing the average ownership by 45.6m^2 per person in 87

Wenchuan County IUCN, www.iucn.org/themes/ssc/redlist2002/rl_news.htm (2002). JI Guizhen. Evaluation on services value of ecosystem in Nanping City Territory & Natural Resources Study. 2007.( 4)：55-56 Ecosystem service is a life-support system for all the biology in the Earth,which provide a wide range of direct goods and in direct service.This paper select fixation of CO2,release of O2,nutrient circling、decontaminating environment、modulate flood and other index,using substitution engineering、opportunity cost、market value methods calculate the value of three land use types in this region..The results shows that： in direct value 7.06 times direct value in this region,the total value is 3.63 times GDP in this area.Value created by forest ecosystem contribute 87.25% to the whole ecosystem,then is agricultural system、water system. JIA Lin-ping, JIANG Yuan-sheng, RONG Xiao-hong. Evaluation of Ecosystem Services in Bifengxia Scenic Spots. Scientific and Technological Management of Land and Resources.2006. 23（3）：108-112 Based on an analysis of ecosystem services, this paper applies market valuation method, shadow engineering method, and opportunity cost method to measure the value of Bifengxia scenic spots ecosystem.The results show that average annual ecosystem services benefits of Bifengxia, which covers all areas of 2000hm^2, add up to 227 million yuan （RMB）, including 23 million·a^-1 of water holding, 87 million·a^-1 of soil conservation, 14million·a ^-1 of CO2 fixation and O2 production, 3 million·a^-1 of air purification, 80 million·a^-1 of tourism, 16 million·a^-1 of biodiversity, 3 million·a^-1 of recreation and culture JIANG Hao, CHENG Lei-lei, YIN Chang-bin. On Ecosystem Services Valuation in Hongze Lake Wetland. Research of Agricultural Modernization. 2008. 29(3)：331-334 Hongze Lake, as the fourth biggest fresh-water lake in China, is the most important wetland in the middle and lower reaches of Huaihe River with many functions of ecosystem service. This paper analyzes the main ecosystem services of Hongze Lake, and provides monetary evaluations on the function of these services by direct market evaluation, shadow project approach, replacement market method. The evaluation results indicate that the total value of the ecosystem services is 80.59 x 108 RMB, and that the most important ecosystem service is flood regulation, which accounts for 61.68%. Based on the results, some useful discussions have been put forward on the sustainable utilization of the wetland resource. Jiang Hongqiang, Pan Wen, Zhao Yue, Yu Fang, Cao Dong, Liu Wugang, Wang Junfeng. Theory and methodology of green fortune accounting and their applications： A case study of Shengnongjia Forestry District. Ecology and Environmnet.2007. 16(5): 1533-1538 In this paper present the concept of Green Fortune Accounting, define its content and scope, and carry out the study on the accounting methods of various components of Green Fortune on the 88

basis of the results of previous researches. By using Shennongjia forest as an example, it is the first time to perform the Green Fortune Accounting at national or regional level. The result shows that the total Green Fortune of Shennongjia forest in 2004 is RMB 23.613 billion Yuan, total natural capital RMB 4.691 billion Yuan, which accounting for 19.86% of the former; total value of ecological service function is RMB 18.923 billion Yuan, accounting for 80.14% of the total Green Fortune, that is, the ecological service function value is 60 percent higher than the natural capital; furthermore, Shennongjia forest has the higher Green Fortune than the material wealth, the former is 4.6 times of the latter, the excess is approx. RMB 18.5 billion Yuan, and the Green Fortune is playing a key role in the total national wealth. The methodology and conclusion of this paper offer a quantitative analysis basis for developing the policies of ecological compensation to National Nature Reserve, transferring fianc6 payment and management of natural resources, and provide a significant mean to resolve the problems of ecological protection and poverty reduction in our country＇s nature reserves.

JIANG Li-peng, QIN Zhi-hao, XIE Wen,WANG Rui-jie,XU Bin,LU Qi Estimation of Grassland Ecosystem Services Value of China Using Remote Sensing Data. Journal of Natural Resources. 2007. 22( 2)：161-170 Grassland ecosystem is a very important terrestrial ecosystem in China.It provides not only a large number of economic products but also many ecological services for mankind. Estimation of the grassland ecosystem services values is urgently required for administration of the precious natural resource.This paper intends to propose a practical method to estimate grassland ecosystem services value using remote sensing data.First of all,the relationship between the value of organic matter production,O2 released and CO2 fixed,nutrient recycle,and environmental pollution cleaning and the net primary productivity （NPP）was established using various methods such as market value,substitution,shadow price,opportunity cost.Consequently, the relationship between the value of soil erosion control and the quantity of soil conservation,which can be calculated from vegetation coverage fraction,was also constructed.The value of water conservation function was calculated by vegetation coverage fraction.Then,a net primary productivity （NPP）model of grassland based on photosynthesis efficiency model was proposed,in which all the parameters were retrieved from EOS/MODIS data.The

method

determination

vegetation

coverage

fraction

was

also

introduced.Finally,the value of grassland ecosystem services of China in 2003 was computed using the proposed method.Our results indicated that spatial variation of the ecosystem services value per unit area was consistent with the distribution of grassland types.The service value per unit area varied greatly with different grassland types. Shrub-meadow with sparse trees had the highest services value of 990259yuan/km^2 （RMB）.The service value of upland meadow is also high up to 968586yuan/km^2（RMB）.Alpine desert steppe had the lowest services value of 56202yuan/km^2 （RMB）.Alpine desert also had a low services value of 89

89952yuan/km^2（RMB）.Total service values of Chinese grassland ecosystem in 2003 was 1.70503×10^12yuan （RMB）.Different grassland types had different total services values depending on their areas.Alpine meadow had the largest amount of total value of 4.05998×10^11yuan, accounting for 23.81% of the total services values of the entire Chinese grassland ecosystem.The services value was also varied with different ecosystem functions.The released O2 and the fixed CO2 contributed the highest percentage to the total service values being 54.06%.The contribution of organic matter production,soil erosion control,nutrient recycle,and water storage was 19.66%, 14.28%,5.63% and 4.20%,respectively. Jin Fang;Lu ShaoWei;Yu XinXiao;Rao LiangYi;Niu JianZhi;Xie YuanYuan;Zhang ZheMing. Forest ecosystem service and its evaluation in China. Chinese Journal of Applied Ecology. 2005. 16( 8)：1531-1536 Facing the relative lag of forest ecosystem service and estimation in China, this paper proposed to quickly carry out the research on the evaluation of forest ecosystem service. On the basis of the classification of forest ecosystem types in China, the service of artificial and semi-artificial forest ecosystems was investigated, which was divided into eight types, i. e., timber and other products, recreation and eco-tourism, water storage, C fixation and O2 release, nutrient cycling, air quality purifying, erosion control, and habitat provision. According to the assessment index system for global ecosystem service proposed by Costanza et al., a series of assessment index system suitable for Chinese forest ecosystem service was set up, by which, the total value of forest ecosystem service in China was estimated to be 30 601.20 x 108 yuan· yr^- 1, including direct and indirect economic value about 1 920.23 × 10^8 and 28 680.97 × 10^8 yuan· yr^- 1, respectively. The indirect value was as 14.94 times as the direct one. The research aimed to bring natural resources and environment factors into the account system of national economy quickly, and to realize the green GDP at last, which would be helpful to realize sustainable development and environment protection. JIN Liang, YAO Yun-feng, ZHANG Wen-juan. Review on the ecosystem services evaluation of grassland reserve. Grassland and Turf. 2008(5)：70-72,76 Based on the research achievements related to the evaluation of the nature reserve, the major method for nature reserve evaluation were summarized and the following views in terms of grassland reserve evaluation were addressed. 1） The ecological service value of grassland reserve was higher than the common grassland ecosystem in terms of genetic resource and culture;？.） The space-time dynamic assessment on the value of nature reserve ecosystem services was very important, so it should be strengthened for the evaluation of different functional region;3） The theoretical and methodological innovation for assess the value of ecosystem services should be strengthened in order to establish a evaluation system suitable in China. John MacKinnon and XIE Yan (eds.). 2001. Restoring China’s Degraded Environment – The 90

Role of Natural Vegetation. China’s Forestry Press. pp: 1-50. Katoomba Group (2006) A tale of two continents. Ecosystem services in Latin America and East and southern Africa. Katoomba Group, www.ecosystemmarketplace.com Kinzig, A.P., Pacala, S., Tilman, D., 2002. The Functional Consequences of Biodiversity: Empirical Progress and Theoretical Extensions. Princeton University Press. Kong Dechang ,Dong Qiong. Evaluation on the Values of Service Function of Forest Ecosystem of Gulinqing Nature Reserve in Maguan. Forest Inventory and Planning. 2008. 33( 2)： 84-86 The methods for substitute engineering and market value were adopted to evaluate the values of ecological service function of forest ecosystem of Gulinqing Nature Reserve in Maguan in direct and indirect ways. The result revealed that such sort of total value was 562.5 million yuan per year, in which the value for conserving headwaters was 3.29 - 108 yuan, the value for purifying water was 5.69 - 107 yuan, the value for conserving water ＆ soil was 5.64 - 107 yuan, the value for carbon fixation and oxygen production was 6. 11 - 107 yuan, the value for cleaning the environment was 4.13 - 107 yuan, and the direct economic value for fruits and forest products was 1.75 - 107 yuan. Lai YaFei, Zhu QingKe, and Zhang YuQing, et al. "Evaluation of Ecological Benefit of the Project of Turning Cultivated Lands Back into Forests in Wuqi County." journal of soil and water conservation (china) 20.3 (2006): 83-7. LI Qing-fang, ZHANG Jia-en, LIU Jingling, TANG Guo-ling. Reviews on ecosystem services of mangrove wetlands. Ecologic Science. 2006. 25( 5)：472-475 Mangrove wetlands, a typical ecosystems in tropical and subtropical coastal areas, play a very important role in ecological services. Because of special ecological functions and high economic and social values of mangrove, its study is becoming a hot topic recently. In order to promote the protection and utilization of mangrove ecosystem, this paper reviewed some ecological functions of mangrove ecosystems which can provide large quantity of organic matters, epeirogenic processes and shelterbelts, and protect dikes and seashores, reduce disasters, decrease water pollution, sustain high biodiversity in wetlands, provide medicine resources and ecotourism etc. This paper also pointed out that further studies should be conducted on the ecological processes, effects and value assessment of mangrove wetlands in the future. Li Changrong. "Forest Ecosystem Services and their Valuation in Wulingyuan Natural Reserve." scientia silvae sinicae 40.2 (2004): 16-20. Forest services include water conservation，prevention of soil erosion，climate regulation， environmental purification ， biodiversity conservation and recreation ． Based on the characteristics and connotation of forest ecosystem services，the physical and value assessment 91

methods，including market value method，shallow engineer method，production cost method and opportunity cost method ， were used to evaluate the forest ecosystem services in Wulingyuan Natural Reserve．The results showed that the total annual services value of forest ecosystem in Wulingyuan Natural Reserve were up to 2．05×1 09 Yuan(RMB)，of which 1.22×108Yuan for water conservation， 6.54×107 Yuan for CO2 absorption，7．16×107 Yuan for O2 release，3．22×107 Yuan for soil fertility conservation，8.98×10 7Yuan for environmental purification and 1．67×109 Yuan for forest recreation in 2002． Li Haili Zhao Shanlun. Evaluation on functions of Baiyun Lake Ecosystem. Journal Shandong Normal University(Natural Science). 2005.20(4):51-53 Baiyun Lake is a most natural freshwater lake in Jinan, Shandong province，Because the supply of water was unstable，it effected directly ecological and economical benefits of wetland．Basis of analysis on functions of Baiyun Lake ecosystem，this paper provided monetary evaluations on the ecological and economical benefits comi ng from every function of wetland ecosystem．The results showed that the total monetary value of the main functions of Baiyun Lake was 7 041.2×104 yuan．The most important function was flood regulation，which was about 60.5％ of the whole value． LI Jlahn , YANG Xiaoping, TONG Yiqing, ZHANG Dianfa, SHENG Yongming, ZHANG Renshun. Influences of Spartina alterniflora Invasion on Ecosystem Services of Coastal Wetland and its Countermeasures. Marine Science Bulletin. 2005. 24( 5)：33-38 Biological invasions, a ubiquitously ecological phenomenon, can result in serious ecological consequences to native species and ecosystems through a variety of avenues. So the ecological impact of invasive plants is one of the most important issues in the study of biological ecology. Based on analyzing the Spartina alterniflora invasion process into the Chinese coastal wetland, the paper discussed major influences of Spartina alterniflora invasion on ecosystem services. They can increase the biomass of salt marsh ecosystem by spreading on the tidal flat, and have the potential to exclude native plants by competition. They also have great influence to on the hydrodynamic status, depositional process, soil formation, nutritional accumulation and vegetation succession. Therefore, pertinent countermeasures should be taken to manage the Spartina alterniflora ecosystem. It is very important to take full advantage of Spartina alterniflora and reduce the negative effect based on flat characters and using programming. Li Hua, Cai Yongli. The iredicted evaluation of the impact of eco-service value of the planning of wetland park. Territory & Natural Resources Study. 2008(2):56-58. In view of the particularity and sensitivity of the wetland＇s ecological system, the scientific preservation and utilization of wetland resources and the rational planning of wetlands have been the central focus of the researchers concerned. By taking as a concrete example the Sanchahe Wetland located in Bengbu, Anhui province, this essay gives an economical evaluation of the ecological service function of wetlands in such domains as hydrological 92

regulation, atmospheric regulation, water purification, material production, cultural function, blodiversity. The methods used are ： shadow engineering and market value and so on. In addition, the respective theoretical values（2152.9×10^4 Yuan RMB ） and the practical values（1982.7×10^4 Yuan lIMB） of the Sanchahe Wetland＇s ecological service function are adopted as the criterion so as to expound and prove the functional division of wedand planning and the measures of wetland protection and utilization. The predicted evaluation of the impact of eco-serviee value of the planning of Sanchahe Wetland Park is 2477.2×10^4 Yuan RMB, which is higher than the respective theoretical values and the practical values. Except for the material production, all the Impact of eco-service Value is positive. What＇s more, the increase of value of hydrological regulation, water purification and cultural function is more obvious. So, it is proved that the planning of wetland park is reasonable and feasible in view of eco-service Value. LI You-bin, WANG Gang. Ecological value of vegetation services in Minqin desert oasis. Journal of Lanzhou University(Natural Science). 2006. 42(1) :44-49 The ecological value of vegetation services in Minqin desert oasis was estimated with the table of equivalent weight factor of ecological value of ecosystem services of China, and the economic value of food production per hectare was supplied by cropland ecosystem and vegetation area in 1983, 1993 and 2003. The results showed that the ecological value of vegetation services in Minqin Oasis was 5.22 × 10^9 Yuan/a in 2003, 3.02×10^9 Yuan/a in 1993 and 2.22×10^9 Yuan/a in 1983. Net increase was 135 percent between 1983 and 2003 and, at the same time, the causes for the change of vegetation services were discussed. The forest and grassland vegetation services offered the main ecological value and the value of soil formation and disposition and biodiversity provided by vegetation services is the highest in Minqin desert oasis ecosystem. LI Jun-mei, ZHU Fu-jin, DUAN Chang-qun, FEI Yu, WANG Hong-bin. Assessment of Ecosystem Services Benefit for Mengla Nature Reserve in Xishuangbanna. Ecological Economy. 2007. 2：367-371 Based on the data from perennial measurement of forest ecosystems and from forest resource inventory, water conservancy and meteorologic departments, this paper quantitatively assess the ecosystem service benefits of Mengla Nature Reserve in Yunnan Province, using the methods of ecological economics and Environmental economics. Ten benefits are calculated including forest production, soil and water conservation, soil melioration, micro-climate improvement, air purification, flood and drought abating, forest recreation, wild living things protection and plant diseases prevention. All of this study will provide certain references for the development of Nature Reserve, the establishment of ecological compensation policies and the mode selection of economic development. Li Ying， Pei Jiayin. Research on Demand Condition and Supply Method of Urban Forest 93

Ecological Services. Issues of Forestry Economics. 28(1):28-33. Based on defining the urban forest ecological service，the paper analyzes the condition on residents’demand on urban forest ecological service from three aspects of living condition， urban ecological environment an d recognition on environmental protection． The paper proposes the diversified supply methods of urban forest ecological service，which are based on the supply from the government，supplemented by marketability supply an d volunteer supply， in case of government supply incapable of meeting residents’demand on ecology． The paper also explains the meaning of government supply，marketability supply an d volunteer supply， and the interaction between scope of action an d operation mechanism Li Rongli. Evaluation of the Resource Value of China Tea Garden Ecosystem, Journal of Tea. 2008, 3:175-178 The present paper give an evaluation of the resource value of China tea garden ecosystem based on the theory of natural resource value, the value of product produce, social guarantee, organic materials accumulation, nutrient recycle, water self-restraint, soil hold, atmosphere adjust, culture service as well as minus value of tea production was evaluated, it concludes the total resource of China tea ecosystem is RMB 1301.7364 hundred million Yuan. Li Shaoning, Wang Bing, Guo Hao, Qu Hui, Li Binbin, Zhang Lirong. Assessment of forest ecosystem services value in Dagangshan. Science of Soil and Water Conservation. 2007. 5(6)：58-64 A series of assessment index system suitable for Dagangshan forest ecosystem services value was set up. We assessed the economic value of forest ecosystem services of Dagangshan on the basis of the data of Dagangshan long-term observation, the forest resource of Dagangshan, and the data of social commonality. The resuits show that the total value of the Dagangshan＇ s forest ecosystem services is 184.95 million yuan per year in the period of ninth five years. The value of forest ecosystem services is 789 hundred yuan/（hm^2· a）. The total value of tenth five years is 191.80 million yuan per year,and 809 hundred yuan/（hm^2· a）. The value went up 3.70% and 2.63% respectively. In the seven types of services, the value order is water retention, carbon fixed and oxygen released biodiversity conservation, air environmental purification, soil conservation, forest nutrition storage, forest tourism and ecological culture. The value order of forest type is Phyllostachys edulis, Cunninghamia lanceolata, hard broadleaved forest, soft broadleaved forest, mixed forest of conifer and broadleaf, shrub, Pinus massoniana. The value order of tree species is hard broadleaved forest, soft broadleaved forest, PhyUostachys edulis, shrub, Pinus massoniana, mixed forest of conifer and broadleaf, Cunninghamia lanceolata. Li Shuangcheng, Yang Qinye. Nature and theoretical foundation of ecoregionalization: a case study in China[J]. The Journal of Chinese Geography. 1999, 9(1):35~42 LIANG Shou-zhen, LI Ren-dong, ZHU Chao-hong DIFFERENTIATION IN ECOSYSTEM 94

SERVICES VALUE IN DIFFERENT AREA OF DONGTION LAKE AREA Resources and Environment in the Yangtza Basin. 2006( 15): 2：196-200 In order to quantitatively analyze and compare the change of ecosystem services caused by land use change, the economic value of ecosystem services in 17 administrative districts in Dongting Lake Area was estimated with the table of equivalent weight factor of economic value of ecosystem services of China, and the economic value of food production per hectare was supplied by cropland ecosystem and on the basis of Chinese resource and environment spatial-temporal database land use situation at the end of 1970＇s, 1980 ＇s and 1990＇s extracted by analyzing three-period TM data. During 20 years the change of the ecosystem services value was calculated and compared, and the area differentiation was measured by coefficient of variation. At last, the causes of the change were discussed. The result shows that the land use change is different among 17 administrative districts and the total value of ecosystem services was up to 93.4 billion yuan at the end of 1990＇s, but the larger coefficient of variance indicates that the difference among 17 administrative districts is obvious. On the whole, the ecosystem services value in East Dongting Lake is much larger than that in West Dongting Lake. In the past two decades the difference of the ecosystem services value among 17 administrative districts changed very largely, In all administrative districts the change in Huarong is the most, which was more than 200 million yuan, and the least was Jinshi which was 12 million yuan. LI Yu-ying , LI Yi-min, GAO Wan-li , MEI Le-xiang. On the service function of Danjiangkou reservoir wetland ecosystem. Journal of Nanyang Teachers College. 2007. 6( 3)：46-50 Danjiangkou reservoir is the first largest artificial fresh water lake in Asia, called water level regulator of Hanjiang. As a special ecosystem type, Danjiangkou reservoir wetland has various beneficial types. According to ecological and economical principle, on the basis of investigation of the wetland resources, the wetland ecosystem service functions of Danjiangkou reservoir were researched including store water, regulating river level, adjusting climate, purfying water, soil and air, fixing C and releasing O2 , controlling erosion, protecting soil, nutrition circling. In the end, some countermeasures for the wetland conservation were put forward. LIU Jian ,CHEN Shang ,XIA Tao ,WANG Qi-xiang. Analysis on Changes of Wetland Delta and Influences on Landscape in Yellow River Ecosystem Services. Advances in Marine Science。2008. 26( 4)：464-470 Changes of wetland landscape in Yellow River Delta are analyzed and the influences on ecosystem services are evaluated by means of RS and GIS techniques. The results show that the total area of wetlands was 2 929.76 km^2 in 2004, increasing 354.26 km^2 compared with 1992. And 120 of the wetland patches were correspondingly added. Although the area of intertidal wetlands and grassland shrunk, the wetland landscape was still dominant in Yellow 95

River Delta. Dramatic changes from the nonwetland to the wetland happened in the river delta in the period from 1992 to 2004. The most of those changes were the change into grassland and reservoirs with their increased area of 324. 90 km^2 and 189.16 km^2 respectively. Less changes happened from one kind of wetland to the another. It is shown from the quantitative evaluation that the the regional ecosystem services can be much affected by the dramatic changes of the landscape structure in the delta, especially the main service affected i. e. the regional biodiversity maintenance might risk a great loss because of the dramatic changes, and the species of those living things in the critical environmental conditions would be hardly protected. LIU Qing, HU Zhen-peng. STUDY OF ECOSYSTEM SERVICES AND THEIR ECONOMIC VALUES ON THE RIVERHEAD AREA OF EAST RIVER. Resources and Environment in the Yangtza Basin. 2007. 16( 4)：532-536 The ecosystem service is the support system for us human beings and the whole life system on this planet, and it also refers to the formed qualification and maintained efficacy of the whole ecosystem for us. In this paper,based on cases of the natural and social-economic features of the riverhead area of East River and results of Costanza et al. , the methods of ecological economics, welfare economics and ecology were applied to analyze the economic values on the riverhead area of East River. The total value estimated of the ecosystem services is 81 × 10^8 yuan,and it is 4.11 times as the GDP of the riverhead area of East River in 2004. At the same time,the estimated results were analyzed. Through the research,this paper intended to explore the ecological function of riverhead area and its importance in maintaining the ecosystem service functions of the region and the watershed, so as to provide scientific basis for the ecological protection and sustainable use of resources of riverhead area,and also provide references for the research of ecosystem service value of riverhead area. Liu, can. "Marketing Practice of Forest Environmental Services in China." Chinese forestry science and technology 2.4 (2003): 54-9. LIU Xiao-Hui, LU Xian-Guo, JIANG Ming, SHANG Li-Na, WANG Xi-Gang. Research on the valuation of wetland ecosystem services. Acta Ecologica Sinica. 2008.28(11)：5625-5631 Ecological economics is increasingly concerned to find appropriate ways to value wetland ecosystem. This paper examines evaluation methods and values estimation of wetland ecosystem services. The characteristics of different methods are discussed. A wetland ecosystem services value sequence is described, and value coefficients, value changes are discussed. It then describes possible future developments in the field of wetland ecosystem services valuation, which includes confirming the main services, considering assessing the influence of various other factors, developing the dynamic models for values, the establishment of an ecological compensation mechanism and investigating the flow change of the constructed wetland service values. It strengthens understanding of wetland ecosystem 96

services values and provides theoretical support for a sustainable balance between human and wetland environments. Liu Jian, Chen Shang, Xia Tao, Wang Qixiang. Analysis on Changes of Wetland Landscape in Yellow River Delta and Influences on Ecosystem Services. Advances in Marine Science.2008. 26(4):464-471. Changes of wetland landscape in Yellow River Delta are analyzed and the influences on ecosystem services are evaluated by means of RS and GIS techniques. The results show that the total area of wetlands was 2 929.76 km2 in 2004,increasing 354.26 km2 compared with 1992.And 120 of the wetland patches were correspondingly added. Although the area of intertidal wetlands and grassland shrunk, the wetland landscape was still dominant in Yellow River Delta. Dramatic changes from the non wetland to the wetland happened from one kind of wetland to the another. It is shown from the quantitative evaluation that the regional ecosystem services can be much affected by the dramatic changes of the landscape structure in the delta, especially the main service affected i.e. the regional biodiversity maintenance might risk a great loss because of the dramatic changes, and the species of those living things in the critical environmental conditions would be hardly protected. Liu Li. Transformation and Practice of Governments Ecology Service Function in New Period. China Environmental Protection Industry. 2008:8:48-52. Building of service-oriented government, serious ecological problems and construction of harmonious society present an urgent demand on the transformation of government s ecology service function. Therefore, the government s ecology service function should accomplish two changes from "environment" to "ecology" and from "control "to" service", and should give play to ecology service function in the domains of nature, economy and society. In new era, the government should speed up the formulation of related legislations, integrate the government’s ecology service function. Perfect the organizational structure system, establish perfect regulations for government’s ecology service function, transform the ways for function realization and display the function substitution effect. Liu Lin, Meng Fengchun.2006 Evaluation of services of forest ecosystem in Anhui SCIENCE ＆ TECHN0LOGY INF0RMATION, 33:86-87 Liu Xiaohui, Lu Xianguo, Jiang Ming, Shang Lina, Wang Xigang. Research on the valuation of wetland ecosystem services. Acta Ecologica Sinica. 2008. 28(11):5626-5633. Ecological economics is increasingly concerned to find appropriate ways to value wetland ecosystem. This paper examines evaluation methods and values estimation of wetland ecosystem services. The characteristics of different methods are discussed. A wetland ecosystem services value sequence is described, and value coefficients, value changes are discussed. It then describes possible future developments in the field of wetland ecosystem services valuation, which includes confirming the main services, considering the influence of 97

various other factors, developing the dynamic models for values, the establishment of an ecological compensation mechanism and investigating the flow change of the constructed wetland service values. It strengthens understanding of wetland ecosystem services values and provides theoretical support for a sustainable balance between human and wetland environments. LIU Yu, CHEN Xue-hua, LUO Yong. Effects of Land Use Variations on Ecosystem Services Value --A Case Study in Guizhou Province。 Journal of Northwest Forestry University. 2008. 23（1）：219-223 It is of importance to study the dynamic variations of regional ecosystem service value under the variations of land use it will provide scientific references for regional land use planning, econvironmental protection and eco-recovery. In recent 17 years, there existed significant changes of land use in Guizhou Province. Researches on the variations of ecosystem service value changing under the conditions will provide references for eco-restoration, rebuilding and decision making on land use management in the province. Consulting ecosystem service valuation on terrene ecosystems in China provided by Gaodi Xie etc, according to corresponding land use classification, ecological value coefficient of each land use type in Guizhou was calculated. With land use data of four periods, based on computation, analysis on land use change in this region was carried out. Combined land use change data and ecological value coefficient of each land use type, calculation of ecosystem service value of each ecosystem and the total ecological service value in Guizhou was performed. All the results showed a steady increase of ecosystem service value in this region, which was mainly contributed by the increment of forests. Meanwhile, farmland increase played an important role in this trend. The trend informed a visible achievement of eco-restoration and rebuilding, and the degradation trend of eco-environmental in this area was held back. Lockwood M (1999) Humans valuing nature: synthesising insights from philosophy, psychology and economics. Environment Value 8:381–401 A rational process for assessment of environmental policy options should be based on an appreciation of how humans value nature. Increased understanding of values will also contribute to the development of appropriate ways for us to relate to and manage natural areas. Over the past two decades, environmental philosophers have examined the notion that there is an intrinsic value in nature. Economists have attempted to define and measure the market and nonmarket economic values associated with decisions concerning natural areas. Psychologists have tried to assess the extent to which people believe in an intrinsic value in nature, and have also begun to work with economists to improve nonmarket valuation techniques. I briefly review the contributions made to our understanding of natural area value by environmental philosophy, psychology and economics, and develop a model that integrates insights from these disciplines. Components in the model include cognitions, held values, assigned values and various modes of value expression. I make recommendations for future validation, 98

development and use of the model. Loreau, M. et al. Biodiversity and Ecosystem Functioning: Current Knowledge and Future Challenges [J], Science, 2001. Vol. 294: 804~808. The ecological consequences of biodiversity loss have aroused considerable interest and controversy during the past decade. Major advances have been made in describing the relationship between species diversity and ecosystem processes, in identifying functionally important species, and in revealing underlying mechanisms. There is, however, uncertainty as to how results obtained in recent experiments scale up to landscape and regional levels and generalize across ecosystem types and processes. Larger numbers of species are probably needed to reduce temporal variability in ecosystem processes in changing environments. A major future challenge is to determine how biodiversity dynamics, ecosystem processes, and abiotic factors interact. Loreau, M., Naeem, S., Inchausti, P., 2002. Biodiversity and ecosystem functioning: synthesis and perspectives. Oxford University Press, Oxford. Lu Chunxia, Xie Gaodi, Xiao Yu, Yu Yunjiang, 2004.(J).Ecosystem diversity and economic valuation of Qinghai-Tibet Plateau(J). ACTA ECOLOGICA SINICA. 24(12):2749~2755. LU Yu-biao.Evaluation of Ecological Benefits of Public Welfare Forest in Guangxi[J]. Journal of Nanjing Forestry University (Natural Sciences Edition) ，2005，29(4):61~64. Lu Yuan. Huacui Land Use Change and Its Ecologic Effect in Typical Region of the FarmingPasture Zigzag Zone in Northeastern China. China Polulation.Resources and Environment. 2006. 16(2)：58-62. Western Jilin province, located in the southwestern of Songneng plain, is a part of farmlng-pasture zigzag zone in Northeastern China, which is characterized by transition and vibration with either the natural condition or human activities. These, to some extent,result in instability of the model of human activities, and cause spoiledeco-environment in this region. As a result, the potential vulnerability is transformed into practical spoilage. Based on the land coverage by interpreting Landsat TM/ETM sensing images of the year 1986 and 2002, the value of ecosystem services in western Jilin province were calculated by using Costanza＇ s method and modifying the unit value of forest, cropland, grassland, residential land, desert and saline-alkaline land according to the real situation of ecosystem, and natural conditions there. The result shows that there were rapid increases in the amounts of cropland and saline-alkaline land and dramatic decreases in grassland, water area and wetland between 1986 and 2002. The annual value of the ecosystem services was RMB ￥ 767.1 ×10^8/a in 1986, and RMB ￥ 624. 1 ×10^8/a in 2002. The total annual losts was RMB ￥ 143 ×10^8 during the past 16 years, RMB ~8.9 ×10^8 per year. To conclude, the eeosystem services and functions of western Jilin province have declined in the past 16 years because the deterioration of regional ecoenvironment and the adjustment of land use, bringing significant harm to the local regional 99

economy and sustainable development. LUO Chuan-xiu, PAN An-ding, XIA Li-hua. The Evaluation of Forest and Function of Tourism Zoology Services of Dinghu Mountain Journal of Northwest Forestry University. 2005. 20( 4)：161-164 The ecosystem function of water conservation, soil conservation , air purification , CO2 fixation , tourism of Guangdong Dinghu Mountain were first evaluated by the methods of opportunity-cost ,market price ,shadow project price . The result indicated that the annual general forest ecosystem service value in this area amount to 42a. 40 million yuan/a, of which, 66. 17 million yuan/a for water conservation, 36. 64 million yuan/a for soil conservation, 4. 37 million yuan/a for air purification., 2. 53 million yuan/a for CO2, 313. 69 million yuan/a for tourism . This kind of evaluation is very important to arouse the con- sciousness of environment. Luo Zhijun, Zheng Hongbo Service Function of Forest Ecosystem of Dayaoshan of Guangxi Province. Forest Inventory and Planning. 2002.27 (3)：37-39 The service function of forest eco-system of Dayaoshan，Guangxi province included the following aspects，producing forest products，maintaining biodiversity，conserving water， modifying the climate．maintaining and enriching the soil fertility and developing eco-tourism as well. Owning to the undeveloped economy of this mountainous area，frequent happened deforestation and reclamation，illegal logging，charking，the forests were damaged，and the ecological environment was deteriorated．Some measures focusing on protecting resources and promoting sustainable development were proposed． Luo Jun, Wang Kelin, Chen Hongsong. Economic Response of Ecosystem Service Functions to Landuse Changes in Karst Region. Bulletin of Soil and Water Conservation. 2008. 28(1):19-24. By taking Hechi City of Guangxi Province in karst mountainous region as an example, the economic value of ecosystem service functions was estimated. The economic values of food production per hectare of cropland ecosystem in 1988, 1998, and 2003 were used as a base of the study. Then the economic values in the three years were contrasted with the landuse situations in corresponding years so as to find out the features of economic value changes of ecosystem service functions induced by landuse changes in different periods. Results showed that during the years from 1988 to 2003, the ecological responses to landuse changes were obvious. Economic values of ecosystem service functions were improved in general. From 1988 to 1998, except the 14.6% increment of economic value for farmland ecosystem, the increments of economic value for other ecosystems were all above 25.9%, while from 1998 to 2003, the increments became slow evidently and negative economic value for grassland ecosystem even appeared. Landuse changes were almost accordant with the changes in ecosystem economic value. These facts prove that the local landuse manner needs to be 100

reformed. Especially, reconstruction of wider unused land and ecological restoration of stony desertification land may bring very significant ecological benefits. LV Guang-hui, YANG Jian-jun, YU En-tao, MENG Ji-xiang. Evaluation and Analysis of Ecosystem Services Value in Xinjiang. Ecological Economy.2007. 8:58-62. Understanding and research of ecosystem service value is the foundation to guaranteed ecological safety and realize sustainable development in Xinjiang, according to the land use change of Xinjiang in 1989, 1996, 1999 and 2003, we estimate the ecosystem service value and its dynamic change in Xinjiang, and analyzed the reason for its change. Lv Qiaoling, Guan Xiaoke, Wu Kening, Wang Xiuli, Chen Xiaoming, Wang Jianping. The Soil＇ s Ecosystem Service Function Analysis and Evaluation in the Suburban of Zhengzhou. Chinese Agricultural Science Bulletin. 2008. 24(2):362-365. Based on the geographic information system （GIS）, with the DEM and SOTER of zhengzhou, the authors analyze the soil＇s service function of ecosystem in the suburban of zhengzhou region, including soil conservation, water-holding, It＇s ecological functions were assessed with methods of market valuation. The results indicate that the value of conservation were 5.36×10^5yuan/a, the value of water-holding were 2.64×10^7yuan/a , we can see that the value of ecosystem is tremendous ,so with the city developing we must pay attention to the service function of ecosystem in the suburban area. Lv Xing, Li Hetong, Wu Yanli. Ecological Compensation of Watershed --An Approach for Sustainable Watershed Management. Forestry Economics.2007. 12:70-72. Maintenance of the health of watershed environment and realization of sustainable utilizating the resources are the main contents for sustainable watershed management. All levels of the governments in China provide a lot of funds for supporting it. The research shows that the local communities located in watersheds also have burdened certain charges for maintain the functions of watersheds. The authors analyze the feasibility of establishing the mechanism of ecological compensation for Supa River watershed in Baoshan Municipality, Yunnan Province; introduce different stakeholders＇ viewpoint and questions they raised, and discuss the feasibility and limited factors ecological compensation of watershed as an approach for sustainable watershed management. MA (2003) Millennium ecosystem assessment. Ecosystems and human well-being: a framework for assessment. Island Press, Washington DC MA (2005) Millennium ecosystem assessment. Ecosystems and human well-being: synthesis. Island Press, Washington DC MA Jian-wei , ZHANG Song-zhi , GUO Xiao-long ,ZHANG Hui-jun ,CHEN Li-tong ,ZHAO Chang-ming. Evaluation on Service Function of the Forest Ecosystem of Xiaolong Mountain. Rural Eco-Environment. 2007. 23( 3)：27-30,35 101

Xiaolong Mountain woodland, located in the west of the Qinling Mountains and the southeast of Gansu Province, provides an important role as ＂blue barrier＂ for the Loess Plateau. This area is also a crucial forest ecosystem that conserves water sources to the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River and the Changjiang River and guarantees ecological safety of these two large river watersheds in China. Based on the accumulated and collected data of this area, service function of the forest ecosystem was evaluated using the market valuation method and substitute cost method. Results show that the annual average value of the service function of the Xiaolong Mountain forest ecosystem was estimated at around 40. 236 × 10^8 yuan RMB, among which direct economical value amounted to around 2. 204 × 10^8 yuan RMB and ecological value around 38. 032 × 10^8 yuan RMB,forming a ratio of 1： 17.26. Obviously the latter is much larger and more important than the former. Based on these estimations and conclusions, it is suggested that in developing local economy, first priority attention be given to understanding ecological value of the local forest ecosystem, so as to protect and exploit forest resources reasonably and scientifically. Ma Yujun, Huang Xianjin, Xu Miaomiao, Zhong Taiyang, Du Wenxing. Sensitivity Analysis of Ecosystem Service Value to Coastal Tideland Development in Jiangsu Province. China Land Science 2006. 20(4): 28-34 The purpose of this study is to analyze the sensitivity of regional ecosystem service values to tideland development. Methods of sensitivity and elastic analysis were employed. The results show that all of present 3 prevalent modes of tideland development make regional ESV decrease; however, the magnitude of decreases is different. The ESV sensitivity to converting tideland to construction land is the highest, with value of 0.93% in some area, while that of developing tideland to aquicuhure use is the lowest, and that of converting tideland to cultivated land is moderate. It shows that the regional ESV sensitivity to development is closely related with scale of developed area, The larger the tideland area is, the higher the ESV sensitivity to development. Conclusion of this study is that, in order to ensure safety of regional ecosystem and to promote coordinated development between ecological and soceconomic aspects, tideland development should be planned legitimately and the tideland ecosystem should be protected properly. MAO De-Hua, WU Feng, LI Jing-Bao, PI Hong-Li Evaluation on Ecosystem Service Value of Dongting Lake Wetland and Ecological Restoration Countermeasures. Wetland Science. 2007.5( 1)：39-44 To evaluate the ecological service value of Dongting Lake wetland and put forward the ecological restoration countermeasures. The market value method, shadow engineering approach, carbon tax method and alterrestoring the ecological function, the target is developing the wetland industrial group which is accommodated to the wetland ecological environment and accelerating the fine cycle of economy and ecology, and the measures is the perfect unite of the outer ecological restoration and the inner ecological restoration. So as to 102

increase the ecological services value and realize sustainable development of Dongting Lake wetland. The restoration of functions of adjusting and storing the flood and maintenance of biology diversity must be strengthened according to the priority principle. Water resources engineering and biological controling technique are used in the restoration of the former function, habitat renewal and habitat mitigation and natural protection area construction are the measures of restoration of the latter function. The product - producing function should be excavated adequately according to the sustainable use principle. The main methods are to design landscape ecology, construct the wetland industrial group which is accommodated to the wetland ecological environment etc. The other functions are restored by the environmental protection keeping to the principle of sustainable development and benefit. Mao FuLing;Guo YaRu;Liu YaXin. Evaluation of forest ecosystem services of Wuling Mountain Nature Reserve. Hebei Journal of Forestry and Orchard Research.2005. 20( 3)ďź&#x161;220-223 This paper evaluated the forest ecosystem services of Wuling Mountain Nature Reserve. The total value of forest ecosystem services of Wuling Mountain Nature Reserve is up to 30.27 million yuan per year. Among them, the forest indirect benefit is 28.14 million yuan per year, being about 92.97% of the total value. Its direct use value is 2.13 million yuan per year, being about 10.03% of the total value. The forest ecological benefit value is so important that while we are protecting the value of the forest, it is not merely to protect its timber, but its indirect value of the forest ecosystem services. Markandya, Anil, et al. "Counting the Cost of Vulture declineâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;An Appraisal of the Human Health and Other Benefits of Vultures in India." Ecological Economics 67.2 (2008): 194-204. Widespread use of the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) diclofenac to treat livestock has resulted in dramatic declines in the populations of vultures across India. This has become an issue of considerable concern as vultures are a keystone species and their decline has a range of socio-economic, as well as cultural and biodiversity impacts. In this paper, we review these impacts and estimate in detail the economic cost of one of them: the human health impacts of the vulture decline. Livestock carcasses provide the main food supply for vultures, and are also eaten by dogs. Dogs are the main source of rabies in humans in India, and their populations have increased substantially in parallel with the vulture decline. The potential human health impact of rabies associated with the vulture decline is found to be significant. This, and a wide range of other impacts suggest that significant resources should be put into (1) testing of pharmaceutical products to ensure that similar situations are not repeated, (2) helping vulture populations to recover through the use of alternative drugs to diclofenac that are of low toxicity to vultures, and (3) through conservation breeding programmes. Mertz O, Ravnborg HM, Lovei GL, et al. "Ecosystem Services and Biodiversity in Developing 103

Countries." Biodiversity and Conservation 16.10 (2007): 2729-37. The concept of ecosystem services has become important for our understanding of the role of nature for maintaining human livelihoods. But is biodiversity essential to maintain ecosystem services? Many studies suggest that higher biodiversity allows a higher level of ecosystem services, but others argue that there is little hard evidence, especially from tropical environments, to document the necessity of high biodiversity for provision of most ecosystem services. Thus, effective valuation of biodiversity for ecosystem services and long-term studies and monitoring are needed to fully understand the complex biodiversity-ecosystem service interface. This introduction briefly reviews some of the main arguments in this debate and provides an overview of the other five special issue papers. Exploring biodiversity and ecosystem interactions in the context of the provision of ecosystem services, these papers address population and biodiversity coexistence, the importance of dung beetles in agricultural landscapes, the knowledge and use of palms by local communities, bioprospecting for drugs and how biodiversity conservation may have added benefits in terms of improved watershed functions and health. Mi Feng, Li Jiyue, and Lv Nan. "Research on Evaluation of Forest Ecological Benefit." Chinese forestry science and technology 4.3 (2005): 70-9. Min Qingwen, Liu Shoudong, Yang Xia, 2004. Evaluation of the Ecosystem Services of the Inner Mongolia Steppe(J).ACTA AGRESTIA SINICA,.12(3):165~175. Min Qingwen, Xie Gaodi, Hu Dan, Shen Lei, Yan Maochao, 2004. Service Valuation of Grassland Ecosystem in Qinghai Province(J). RES0URCES SCIENCE. 26(3):56~60. MO Chuangrong . Evaluation of hydropower development on river ecosystem services. Ecology and Environmnet. 2006. 15( 1)ďź&#x161;89-93 A river provides mankind multifarious ecosystem services. It has great significance to evaluate the effects of hydropower development on river ecosystem services. This paper puts forward a method of ďź&#x201A;flow measurementďź&#x201A; to evaluate the value of river ecosystem services, and the development of Guangdong Heyuan Fengguang Hydro Project is taken as a case of quantitative analysis. Based on the classification of river ecosystem services and according to the actual situations and characteristics of river ecosystem services influenced by hydropower development, this paper selects appropriate approaches and parameters to calculate the changes of ecosystem service value caused by hydropower development. The results of the case study show that, the positive benefit of Fengguang Hydro Project on river ecosystem services is 76.76 million yuan per annum, the negative benefit is -38.94 million yuan per annum. In addition, the negative benefit of the hydro project accounts for more than a half of the positive benefit, which makes it clear that the negative effects of the hydro project on river ecosystem services should not be neglected and appropriate ecological compensation measures should be adopted. 104

NIU Shu-wen, ZENG Ming-ming, LIU Zheng-guang, WU Wen-heng. The Valuation of Ecosystem Services and the Design of Policies on Ecological Management in Maqu County in the Upper Reaches of Yellow River. China Polulation.Resources and Environment. 2006. 16( 6)：79-84. It is significant for ecological safety of the entire Yellow River basin to protect grassland ecosystem in Maqu County. The value of Ecosystem Services in Maqu County was calculated according to the Costanza＇s methods and researching achievements of Xie Gaodi et at, which is 9.625×10^9 yuan/a and far higher than the current value of its economical products of 1.93×10^8 yuan/a. Based on requirement of sustainable use of grassland resources and improvement of people＇s life level, the policy design on management of grassland ecosystem with ecological compensation as key was put forward. The amount of ecological compensation should not be less than 0.93×10^8 yuan/a. The policy contents of ecological management should include that industrial development and industrial restructuring, ecological emigration and herdsmen settlement, grazing management, technology popularizing, the control of population growth and promoting social progress. Nu JiaLin;Xu JiQin;Zhang DianFa;Yang XiaoPing;Tong YiQin;Shen YongMing. Function of Spartina alterniflora Salt March and Its Eco-economic Value in South Coast of Hangzhou Bay. Areal Research and Development. 2005. 24(5)58-62,80 Based on analyzing many research about Spartina ahemiflora, the paper discussed S. alterniflo-ra＇s 7 ecosystem services in south coast of Hangzhou Bay. The methods of emergy analysis, market valuation and substitute expense were used to estimate the economical value of the ecosystem. The results show that the value of S. aherniflora ecosystem services is relatively higher. The gross economic value is 1. 045×10^8 yuan, in which, the direct value is about 6.00 × 10^6 yuan, the indirect value about 1. 642 × 10^7 yuan, and the indirect gross economic value is 16.42 times higher than that of the direct. Norberg, J. 1999. Linking Nature’s Services to Ecosystems: Some General Ecological Concepts, Ecological Economics 29: 183-202 I present a selected review of ecological concepts that are important for understanding how nature's services are linked to their support system, the ecosystem. The paper is mainly aimed at an audience of non-biologists to facilitate cooperation among disciplines. A list of services compiled from the literature is classified according to ecological criteria that relate to the properties of the services. These criteria are: (1) if the goods or services are produced and maintained within the ecosystem or shared with other ecosystems; (2) if the goods or object of the service are living or inorganic material; and (3) what biological unit is associated with production and maintenance, i.e. an individual, a species, a group of species, an entire community, the ecosystem, the landscape or on a global scale. Using these criteria I have identified and selected three major groups of ecosystem services for which some common 105

ecological concepts apply. These are: (1) the maintenance of populations; (2) the use of ecosystems as filters of externally imposed compounds; and (3) the property of biological units to create organization through selective processes. These three categories are examined and exemplified in detail. Nunes, Paulo A. L. D., and Peter Nijkamp. "Introduction to the Special Issue on Biodiversity and Policy." Ecological Economics 67.2 (2008): 159-61. Nunes, Paulo A. L. D., and van den Bergh,Jeroen C.J.M. "Economic Valuation of Biodiversity: Sense Or Nonsense?" Ecological Economics 39.2 (2001): 203-22. This paper critically evaluates the notion and application of economic, monetary valuation of biological diversity, or biodiversity. For this purpose four levels of diversity are considered: genes, species, ecosystems and functions. Different perspectives on biodiversity value can be characterized through a number of factors: instrumental vs. intrinsic values, local vs. global diversity, life diversity vs. biological resources, etc. A classification of biodiversity values is offered, based on a system of logical relationships among biodiversity, ecosystems, species and human welfare. Suggestions are made about which economic valuation methods can address which type of biodiversity value. The resulting framework is the starting point for a survey and evaluation of empirical studies at each of the four levels of diversity. The contingent valuation method is by far the most used method. An important reason is that the other valuation methods are unable to identify and measure passive or nonuse values of biodiversity. At first sight, the resulting monetary value estimates seem to give unequivocal support to the belief that biodiversity has a significant, positive social value. Nevertheless, most studies lack a uniform, clear perspective on biodiversity as a distinct concept from biological resources. In fact, the empirical literature fails to apply economic valuation to the entire range of biodiversity benefits. Therefore, available economic valuation estimates should generally be regarded as providing a very incomplete perspective on, and at best lower bounds, to the unknown value of biodiversity changes. Ouyang Z Y, X K Wang and H Miao, 1999. Study for the functions of Chinese terrestrial ecosystem service and their ecological economic values. Acta Ecologica Sinica, 19(5): 607~613. (in Chinese) Ouyang, LY et al . "Ecosystem Services and their Economic Valuation." yingyong shengtai xuebao 10.5 (1999): 635-40. Pagiola S, von Ritter K, Bishop J (2004) Assessing the economic value of ecosystem conservation. Environment Department Paper No. 101. The World Bank Environment Department in collaboration with IUCN, New York Pearce, W. D. 1990. An economic Approach to saving the tropical Forests. LEEC papers 90-06, London 106

PENG Hao , LI Zhen-qing. Evaluation of grassland ecosystem services in Xilin River basin. Acta Prataculturae Sinica. 2007. 16(4)：107-115 Ecosystem service is one of the hotspots of ecology, natural resources science and economics. Grassland ecosystems are the second largest vegetation stratum, smaller only than the forest ecosystem. In China, the grassland ecosystem is the biggest terrestrial ecosystem,and the usable area of grassland resources reaches over 3.9×10^8 hm^2. Therefore, it plays a crucial role in maintaining structures,functions and ecological processes of natural ecosystems. As one ecological protective barrier in North China, the Xilin River basin grassland has a pivotal location and unique habitat condition. Therefore, it is very important to evaluate its ecosystem services. This paper appraises the value of grassland ecosystem services in the Xilin River basin, using the methodology of Constanza. We divided the Xilin River basin natural grassland into 5 grades on the basis of biomass and the hierarchical standard of degraded grassland, and then calculated the total economic evaluation of grassland ecosystem services in the Xilin River basin through summing the service value in unit area of grassland of each ecosystem type. Results showed that the total value of the annual grassland ecosystem services was about 76. 154 ×10^8 yuan. For the integrated effects of productivity and grazing density, the contribution ratio of ecosystem services per hectare of different grassland at 5 health levels differed greatly. From the 1st grade to the 5th grade, the contribution ratio was reduced. it reduced to 4.8% for the 5th grade of grassland. in the XiLin River basin were different at three The contribution ratio of the 1st grade reached 38. 1%, but Furthermore, the values of the grassland ecosystem services spatial scales, international, domestic and Xilinhaote local scale. At these three spatial scales, the total values were 88. 199 ×10^8 ,76. 154×10^8 and 14. 236 ×10^8 yuan/a, respectively. For example, for gas regulation, at these three spatial scales, the contribution ratio was 3.7%, 11.0 % and 7.9 % respectively. This finding indicated that the value of ecosystem services was closely related to spatial scale. PENG Zi-heng, WANG Huai-Ling, WANG Yu-xin.

The Evaluation of Forest Ecosystem

Services Value in Jinggangshan National Nature Reserve Problems of Forestry Economics. 2008. 28(6):512-516 Based on the theory and methods of ecology and ecological economics, the valuation of the forest ecological services in Jinggangshan National Nature Reserve was estimated in this paper. The resuits indicated that the total value of the annual ecosystem services in Jinggangshan National Nature Reserve was 11. 299 8 x 10^8 yuan/a, the direct economic value was 0. 895 2 x 10^8 yuart/a and the indirect economic value was 10. 404 7 x 10^8 yuan/a, 11.62 times that of the direct economic values. Pushpam Kumar. Payment for ecosystem services: emerging lessons. Ecological Economy. 2008. (1):2-14. 107

Market based initiatives for management of degrading ecosystems and their services have received the added attention as one of the innovative responses in the reent years. Those initiatives such as direct and indirect payment for ecosystem services like premium for rain forest honey, payment by the people at the lower reach to those at the upper reach for the watershed services etc. have drawn the attention of the decision makers as they have proved to be far more cost effective.This paper wynthesizes the key messages from some of the paper are carbon, watershed services and biodiversity, We find that while credible valuation of ecosystem services for all services remain a critical concern behind setting up the payment mechanism, absent of necessary institutional framework may seriously undermine this innovative response for management of ecosystems. In the paper, necessary institutional mechanisms enabling the market for those services have been sketched out, Key messages from those cases have been synthesized. Qiao Lifang, Qi Anguo, Zhang Yichuan. Evaluation of Forest Park Ecosystem Services in Henan Province. Journal of Northwest Forestry University. 2008, 23(4): 189~195. To provide scientific basis for the construction of the forest park ecosystem in Henan Province, China, the quantitative method was used to evaluate the forest park ecosystem services. The vegetations of the forest park ecosystem in Henan were confirmed as temperate and subtropical deciduous broadleaved forests. The appropriate evaluation methods were used in different ecosystem services. And the total value of the forest park ecosystem services in Henan was 68.55×108yuan(RMB), of which the direct economic value was 10.5×108yuan, and the indirect was 58.05×108yuan. The latter was 5.53 times of the former. In all kinds of the service values, the value of water source conservation was the highest, accounting for 46.8% of the total. The second was the value of fixing carbon and making oxygen which occupied 16.3% of the total. The recreation value occupied 15.3% of the total. It indicated that the main services of the forest park ecosystem were water source conservation, air-conditioning and leisure & recreation. Meanwhile, the value of air purification and biodiversity conservation was remarkable. The forest resource is very deficient in this province, and the forest park is much more precious. In Henan Province, based on careful protection, the forest park should be actively constructed to protect ecological environment and satisfy the public recreation. QIAO Li-fang, LIU Zhi-hong. Evaluation on Service Value of Wetland Ecosystem in Henan Province, China. Science Technology and Engineering. 2008. 8(20):5648-5651 In order to provide the gist for protecting the wetland in Henan Province, the service value of wetland ecosystem was evaluated by quantitative analysis. The total value of wetland ecosystem＇s service function in Henan Province was 337×10^8 yuan. Among the values of wetland ecosystem＇s service function in Henan Province, the direct economic value was 139.17×10^8 yuan,while the indirect economic value was 197.83×10^8 yuan, which was 1.43 times of direct economic value. Among all kinds of wetland ecosystem＇s function value, the leisure and culture value, material production value, water supply value and biodiversity value 108

were more remarkable. The wetland on the basis of strengthening the protection of the wetland resources be should renew and rebuild in Henan Province. QIAO Li-fang; QI An-guo; ZHANG Yi-chuan Evaluation of Forest Park Ecosystem Services in Henan Province. Journal of Northwest Forestry University. 2008(4) To provide scientific basis for the construction of the forest park ecosystem in Henan Province,China,the quantitative method was used to evaluate the forest park ecosystem services.The vegetations of the forest park ecosystem in Henan were confirmed as temperate and subtropical deciduous broadleaved forests.The appropriate evaluation methods were used in different ecosystem services.And the total value of the forest park ecosystem services in Henan was 68.55×108 yuan(RMB),of which the direct economic value... Qin Yan-hong, Kang Muyi. A Review of Ecological Compensation and Its Improvement Measures. Journal of Natural Resources. 2007. 22(4):557-567. Ecological conservation or protection is a kind of socioeconomic activity with positive externality.To internalize the externality,the concept of Ecological Compensation （EC） is put forward.It adopts economic and market-based instruments to encourage people participate in ecological conservation.Participant Gets Principle （PGP） and Beneficiary Pays Principle （ BPP ）

are the two basic principles of it.EC has been widely applied to

afforestation,watershed management, agro-environmental protection, biodiversity conservation, carbon sequestration, and so on.While its theories and practices are still in infancy,the compensation system is imperfect with respect to who should be compensated ,who should pay ,how much to be compensated, and how to finance and allocate compensation payments.By reviewing EC approaches and some efforts that have been made in developed countries （e.g. America and some European countries） and developing countries （e.g. China and Latin American countries）,we find out there was very little use of the BPP, ecology and economics have not been well integrated into EC studies, most programs just focus on payments ,ignoring the influence of socioeconomic factors on ecological conservation,and so on.After the review and comments,we summarize a functioning mechanism of ecological improvement compensation, which can guide methods concern：（a） identifying us to improve ecological compensation system.The providers and beneficiaries of ecosystem services; （b）on the basis of opportunity cost approach,integrating ecological conservation with regional socioeconomic development,settling proper compensation standards to services providers; （c） calculating payment levels from the side of beneficiaries they receive, their willingness to pay and their bearing by integrating the quantity of services capacity; （d） seeking financing sources and allocating payments cost-effectively;and （e）building up the framework of EC.We consider an effective EC system should take ＂hematogenesis＂ rather than ＂blood transfusion＂ as its object,and EC research should integrate ecological theories and methods with those of economics. 109

RAN Hong ,CHEN Feng – yun. Study on Protection and Development of Forest Ecosystem Service at Lushan. Resource Development & Market. 2008. 24(10)：891-893,932 This paper referenced the basic analysis method of forest ecosystem services,and calculated the value of the forest ecosystem service at Lushan.It was about 1142.2126 million yuan/a to the total service value of the forest eeosystean of Lushan, among them the directly economic value to be worth 708.55 million yuan/a, accotmted for 62.03% of the total value;the ecological value was 433.5726 million yuan/a, accotmted for 37. 97% of the total value. In addition, the tourism value to be worth 636 million yuan / a at Lushan, accounted for 55.68% of the total value, Therefore, the protection and development on forest ecosystem at Lushan,on one hand was protect and develop the ecological function of forest,the focal point was to comb/nation the protection of ecosystem and development the resources of travel. Ravnborg HM, Damsgaard MG, Raben K (2007) Payment for ecosystem services – issues and pro-poor opportunities for development assistance. DIIS Report. Danish Institute for International Studies, Copenhagen REN Yan,ZHENG Zhao-pei. Evaluation of the Ecosystem Services Value of Dongping Lake. Research of Soil and Water Conservation. 2007. 14(3)：131-133 Based on the ecological function analysis and some economic methods, the main ecosystem services value of Dongping Lake are evaluated. The conclusion can be drawn that the total assets value of Dongping Lake is 9.89×10^8RMB; the value of flood control is 5.33×10^8RMB, it is 53.89 percent of the total value. The result shows that the flood control and the ability of maintaining the biological diversity are the main functions, so the main functions should be brought into play to achieve the aim to protect the environment of Dongping Lake and realize the sustainable utilization of resources. Ran Shenghong, Li Xiubin, Lu Changhe. Multi-scale Modeling of Land-cover Change and Ecosystem Service Values： A Case of the Yuzixi Catchment in Sichuan. Acta Geographica Sinica. 2006。 61（10）：1113-1120 The Yuzixi Catchment is located in the core of the Panda Natural Reserves in western Sichuan Province, with an area of 1742 km^2. Due to influences of climate change and human activities, the land cover shows marked changes in the last decade. Using the land-cover data obtained from the remote sensing images of two years of 1986 and 1994, this paper developed two models based on the Markov Chain and Patch-dynamics approach, to simulate land-cover changes in the Yuzixi Catchment. Both models were verified using the land-cover data in 2002. Starting from the year 1994, the land-cover of the year 2002 was simulated in a time-step of 1 year and 8 years with these two models, respectively. Compared with the real land-cover data in 2002, it was found that the time scale had a marked effect on the simulation results, and the simulation error varied among different land use types. The simulation error of Patch-dynamics model of cultivated land （-8.2%/-5.6%）, forest land （-0.5% /-0.4% ）, 110

grassland （0.7%/0.4%） and residential area （-29.9%/-16.4%） is bigger based on one-year scale than eight-year scale, and their changing trends are unstable due to the significant effect of anthropogenic factors. By contrast, the simulation error of bush land （-1.5%/-1.7%） and ice land （27.3%/41.9%） is smaller based on one-year scale than eight-year scale, and the changing trends are stable because they are mostly affected by natural factors. The research results also show that the simulation results of Markov Chain model are similar to that of Patch-dynamics model. However, the simulation results of Patch-dynamics model are more stable and reliable. SEPA (the State Environment Protection Administration of China) (1998) China’s Biodiversity: A Country Study, pp 257–283. China Environmental Science Press, Beijing SEPA,1994. Action Plan for Biodiversity Conservation in China (China Environmental Science Press, Beijing, 1994). SEPA,2002.People's Republic of China National Report on Sustainable Development (in Chinese).China Environmental Science Press:Beijing. SHAO Ning-ping, LIU Xiao- peng, QU Xiao-yi. Valuation of lake wetland ecosystem services of Yinchuan City. Chinese Journal of Ecology. 2008.27( 9)：1625-1630 Yinehuan City is a typical oasis area in arid and semi-arid region of Northwest China, and its lake wetland is a kind of most characteristic and significant ecological resources. By the methods of market price, shadow price, substitute expense, expenditure, carbon tax, outcome reference, and shadow engineering, etc. , the lake wetland ecosystem services of the city were evaluated. The results showed that this ecosystem provided a total of 130 288 × 10^4 yuan services per year, among which, the service of material production was the largest （54 765 × 10^4 yuan）, followed by that of climatic regulation （25 851 × 10^4 yuan）, biological diversity （20 000 × 10^4 yuan）, recreation （9 661 ~ 104 yuan）, teaching and scientific research （7 460× 10^4 yuan）, water conservation and flood- and drought control （5 360 × 10^4 yuan）, habitat （5 000 × 10^4 yuan）, water supply （ 1 889 × 10^4 yuan）, and water purification and environmental landscaping （302× 10^4 yuan）. Therefore, in the economic development and urban expansion of Yinehuan City, a scientific utilization and protection of its wetland resources should be taken, based on the consideration of whole ecosystem. Sheng Jing; Chen Liugen; Zhu Puping. Evaluation of ecological service value of rice-wheat rotation ecosystem. Chinese Journal of Eco-Agriculture. 16(6):1541-1545. The value of ecological service function(including crop production, atmosphere regulation, water storage, nutrient cycle and soil conservation) of agro-ecosystems under typical rice-wheat rotation in Jiangsu Province was comprehensively evaluated using three evaluation methods(market value, replacement valuation and shadow price).Results show that rice-wheat rotation ecosystem provides an average overall service value of 45 998.08 yuan·hm2·a-1,in which environment regulation function value is 26 458.86 yuan·hm2. a-1; 1. 35 times that of 111

direct service value of crop production. That means 1. 00 yuan cost of rice wheat rotation ecosystem provides an environmental benefit value of 3.58 yuan.

Air regulation being the

dominant constraint accounts for62.20% environment regulation service value. The study reveals the significance of non-marketed ecological service of rice-wheat rotation agro-ecosystem, and that government should pay much attention on environment regulation function of agro-ecosystems in making decisions on land utilization. Shi Xiaoli, Wang Wei. Evaluation method of integrated valuation of ecosystem functions and its application: a case study ofKangbao County, HebeiProvince. ACTA ECOLOGICA SINICA. 2008. 28(8):3998~4006. Ecosystem functions could be used to evaluate the environmental quality and provide scientific evidence in decision-making of environment protection and ecosystem construction. Many evaluations on the values of ecosystem functions had been done during the last decades, whereas the researches considering the integrated mi pacts of spatial quality and temporal factors on the values of ecosystem functionswere rare. Focusing on these issues, KangbaoCounty inHebeiProvince, which located in the north agro-pastoral ecotone, was selected as the study area, technology ofRS and GIS were applied in the study, combined with the theory of ecological value, coefficient of regional difference, coefficient of spatial heterogeneity and coefficient of service-payment were calculated tomodify the spatia,l quality and temporal factors of theCostanzas'method andmodelof integrated evaluation of ecosystem functionswasput forward in the paper. Meantime, the dynamics values of ecosystem functions of Kangbao County were discussed. The model mi proved the evaluation methods of ecosystem functions by comprehensive consideration of socia,l natural and economy influence on the value. Based on the mode. the values of ecosystem functions of Kangbao County was evaluated and the results mi plied that: the unreasonable land use could lmiit the supplying capacity of ecosystem functions, while the planned ecosystem construction could promote and resume the ecosystem functions. Ecosystem constructionmainly including the returning land for farming to forestry (grass) was effectivemeasure to resume ecosystem functions. Model of integrated evaluation of ecosystem functionswith comprehensive consideration of spatia,l quality and temporal factors could provide tmi ely, exactand helpful information in decision-making ofecosystem conservation and socialdevelopment, and had practical significance for ecosystem construction and environment protection. Shi Jin Zhang Peidong Forest Ecosystem Services and Their Value Evaluation of Ziwuling in Gansu Province. Forestry Economics. 2007. (10)ďź&#x161;69-71 The forest ecosystem of Ziwuling in Gansu Province plays a special role in the Loess Plateau. In order to make the function of ecosystem services more clearly and to make the forest ecosystem in a healthy and sustainable conditions , this forest ecosystem function of ecosystem 112

services and its value were studied by the related theory and methods in this paper. The results indicate that the annual general forest ecosystem service value in this area amount to 16946-42657 million yuan （Chinese RMB）, the direct values were 3717 million yuan, the results show that this ecosystem provide huge indirect values which were 13230-38940 million yuan. SHI Yi-dan, LI Yu-jin, YANG Dian-lin, LIU Hong-mei, HU Yue-gao. Evaluation on the Service Function of Hulunbeier Grassland Ecosystem. Journal of Agro-Environment Science( J. Agro-Environ. Sci.). 2007. 26( 6)：2099-2103 Grassland ecosystem services are critical to the functioning the Earth＇s life-supporting system. Based on the analyses of grassland ecosystem, the index system of grassland ecosystem services valuation was constructed. The ecosystem services of Hulunbeier grassland were firstly evaluated by using some eco-economics methods. The result shows that the total value of the ecosystem services of Hulunbeier grassland is about 2 601.24×10^8 yuan·a-1 annually, among which, the value of food and raw material production equals 70.82×10^8 yuan·a^-1, gas regulation 429.58×10^8 yuan·a^-1, water source conservation 1 230.17×10^8 yuan·a^-1, soil conservation 819.90×10^8 yuan·a^-1, nutrient cycling 3.48×10^8 yuan·a^-1, waste degradation 0.42×10^8 yuan·a^-1, recreation and culture 36.87×10^8 yuan·a^-1. Ecological value of grassland ecosystem exceeds greatly its economic value. Of all the services, nutrient cycling and soil conservation account for the largest proportion and therefore, to strengthen and promote the protection and construction of the Hulunbeier grassland ecosystem and to maintain the regional ecological safety is the vital significance. SHI Na-na. Study on the Spatial Division of Core Ecosystem Service Functions in Xilingol League of Inner Mongolia. Journal of Anhui Agricultural Sciences.2008. 36( 34)： 15149-15152 The evaluation index system of the ecosystem service functions in Xilingol League was constructed.Using the data of 1 km grid composition,each ecosystem service function and its importance were distinguished in the space by using factor analysis method.Then the fuzzy clustering analysis was made at the level of 1 km×1 km grid to calibrate and identify the map spot units with consistent ecosystem service functions.On this basis,the spatial zoning of ecosystem service functions was studied.The research results showed that the importance order of the core ecosystem service functions in Xilingol League extracted by factor analysis method were as follows ：

cultural function,regulation function,support function and supply

function.According to the consistence characteristics of ecosystem service functions and the spatial fuzzy clustering method,Xilingol League was divided into 6 ecological subareas,which had important guiding values for formulating the decisions of the ecosystem management in this area. SHI Hong-hua, ZHENG Wei, CHEN Shang, LV Ji-bin, DING De-wen. Study on Marine 113

Ecosystem Service and Its Value Assessment. Ecological Economy. 2007. (3)：139-142 Based on detailed analysis of the advance for ecosystem service function and its value assessment, the connotation and definition of marine ecosystem is discussed. According to the characters of marine ecosystem of China, the classifying system of marine ecosystem is established and value assessment methods of several representative ecosystem services are studied. Finally, the research prospect of marine ecosystem service is analyzed and several important problems in further study are pointed out. Shi Pei1i, Li Wenhua, He Weiming and Xie Gaodi, 2002. Economic Estimation of Ecosystem Services of Natural Forests Shi Yidan, 2007. Evaluation of the Service Funation of Hulunbeier Grassland Ecosystem [D]. Chinese Agricultural Science Academy. SPC (the State Planning Commission of China) (1994) China’s Agenda 21: White Paper on China’s Population, Environment, and Development in the 21st Century. China Environmental Science Press, Beijing SSTC (1995) The report of accounting researches on natural resources. The State Science and Technology Commission of China, Beijing Su Peixi, Zhao Aifen, Liu Xinmin, 2005. Study on the benefit value of ecosystem in Hexi corridor region of China[J]. Chinese Journal of Ecoagriculture.13(1):179~181. Su, Yong Zhong, et al. "Ecological Effects of Desertification Control and Desertified Land Reclamation in an oasis–desert Ecotone in an Arid Region: A Case Study in Hexi Corridor, Northwest China." Ecological Engineering 29.2 (2007): 117-24. Su Xun-fan, XU Lian-zhen, ZHANG Shuo-xin. Evaluation Indices of Forest Ecosystem Service Value in Qingzang Plateau ——A Case Study of Linzhi in Tibet. Journal of Northwest Forestry University. 2008. 23( 3)：66-70 According to the research results of evaluation on forest ecosystem services at home and abroad, selecting principles of evaluation indices were discussed. Simultaneously, combining to the natural condition and forest resources in Linzhi of Tibet, and using analytical hierarchy process, expert consultation method and frequency analytical method, 2 indexes of first grade, 8 of second grade and 20 of third grade were selected as evaluation index of forest ecosystem service value in Linzhi of Tibet to provide scientific basis of forest ecosystem service value in the plateau. Su, Yong Zhong, et al. "Ecological Effects of Desertification Control and Desertified Land Reclamation in an oasis–desert Ecotone in an Arid Region: A Case Study in Hexi Corridor, Northwest China." Ecological Engineering 29.2 (2007): 117-24. SU Xiao-Ling, KANG Shao-Zhong , TONG Ling. A dynamic evaluation method and its application for the ecosystem service value of an inland river basin. A case study on the 114

Shiyanghe River Basin in Hexi Corridor of Gansu Province. Acta Ecologica Sinica. 2006. 26( 6)：2011-2019 The estimation method of the ecosystem service value per unit area proposed by Costanza et al. is a crude approximation without consideration of the spatial heterogeneity within the same biome. It is based on the values of the structure and functions of the ecosystem and hence named as static evaluation here. When it is used for optimal allocation of water and land resources in a basin to obtain maximal integrated social, economic and eco-environmental benefits, such method can ＇ t reflect the scarcity of ecological resources and the willingness-to-pay of individuals for ecosystem services, which will appear with the social and economic development and the depletion of ecological resources. Therefore this method is difficult to be applied. Here the concept of a dynamic evaluation of the ecosystem service values is proposed. It is a currency value based on the current willingness-to-pay of individuals for ecosystem services. Referring to the method of Costanza et al., a modification coefficient for the ecosystem service value per unit area is proposed according to the cover degrees of biomes combined with expert consultation. Based on the developmental coefficient and scarcity of ecological resources, a dynamic evaluation method is proposed. The Shiyanghe River Basin in the Hexi Corridor of Gansu Province is selected as the study area. The annual static value of the ecosystem services in the Shiyanghe River Basin is estimated as 0.417 billion $ , equal to 0. 3657 times of the local GDP in 2000, and showing a descending trend from the upper reaches to the lower reaches. The annual dynamic value is 0.235 billion $ , more in the lower and upper reaches than in the middle reaches. This study shows that the dynamic evaluation method is useful for the optimal allocation of the natural resources. Sun ling, Zhu Zesheng，Liu Yu，Zhang Yilin Evaluation of service values of the intertidal land ecosystem of Dafeng City．Rural Eco-Environment。2004. 20(3)：10 一 14 Change in land use of the intertidal land resources of Dafeng City was analyzed with the aid of the remote-sensing technique and Landsat TM data to evaluate service value of the intertidal land eco．system with the Costanza method．The results show that the service value has been on the decline due to irrational land use in the past 18 years．The loss was reckoned to be around 33．45％ or 88.37×104 US$ in 2002． Sun Xinzhang, Zhou Hailin, Xie Gaodi. Ecological Services and Their Values of Chinese Agroecosystem. China Polulation.Resources and Environment. 2007.17(4):55-60. Agroecesystem not only provides people with grains, vegetables, fibre, etc., but also plays an important role in gas regulation, soil and water conservation, environmental decontamination, etc. Furthermore, Agroecosystem has negative effects on our environment, such as, soil and water pollution caused by fertilizer and pesticide utilization. So, the ecological services of farmland are more complicated than grassland and forest. So far, there are a few of research findings about Chinese farmland＇ s ecological services but only part of ecological services 115

were involved in these documents. An integrated research is needed now in order to understand agroecosystem comprehensively. This paper gave a primary result of ecological services and their monetary values of Chinese agroecosystem. The results showed that the total monetary value of ecological services provided by Chinese agroecosystem is 1 912.18 billion yuan RMB in 2003（presont price in 2003）; the positive value is 2 233.41 billion yuan and negative is - 321.23 billion ynan. The services value per hectare is 18 960.6 yuan/hm^2; the value of farm products is 14 788.7 yuan/hm^2, others are 4 171.9 yuan/hm^2 and negative value is 318.52 yuan/hm^2. There is great distinction of farmland ecological services in different regions. The values range from 8.68 - 505.08 billion yuan and Huang-Hnai-Hai Region and Middle and Lower Reaches of Yangtse River are bigger than other regions. The values of per hectare range from 515.90 - 3 498.43 yuan/ hm^2. South China and Middle and Lower Reaches of Yangtse River are bigger and Inner Mongolia and Northeast region are smaller. SUN Yu-fang, LIU Wei-zhong. Evaluation on the Service Functional Values of the Wetland Ecosystem in the Bosten Lake Basin, Xinjiang. Arid Zone Research. 2008. 25( 5)：741-744

In this paper, a monetization assessment on the direct utilization value （material production function and tourist service function） and the indirect utilization value （water conservation function, flood control function, purification service function, habitat service function, cultural service function and scientific research function） of the wetland ecosystem in the Boston Lake Basin is carried out based on the theories and methods of resources economics and ecological economics. The results reveal that the total annual value of indirect and direct service functions of the wetland ecosystem in the Boston Lake Basin is 7. 835 × 10^9 yuan, in which the direct utilization value is 1. 487 × 10^8 yuan and accounts for 1.89% of the total value ; the annual value of water conservation service function is 5. 896 × 10^9 yuan and accounts for 75.30% of the total value. The results also show that the main function of the wetland ecosystem in the Boston Lake Basin is to conserve water for the ecosystem maintenance and the social and economic development in the Tarim Basin. While making the construction and development planning of the wetland ecosystem in the Boston Lake Basin, it is suggested to pay great attention to the continuous construction of its ecological service function value and consider proportionally all the ecosystem service functions in the study area. After analyzing, an ideaabout the sustainable utilization of the wetland ecosystem in the Bosten Lake Basin is put forward, and the study results can be referred in achieving sustainable development in the Bosten Lake Basin. TANG Zhong-xia, LIU Ze-hua, KE Jun, QIU Dan. The Analysis of Ecological Values of Wetland

Ecosystem

Qinghai

Lake

District.

Journal

Qinghai

Normal

University(Natural Science Edition). 2007. (4)：81-83 116

According to the theories and methods of ecosystem value analysis, the paper reviewed the use and indirect values of the wetland ecosystem in Qinghaihu Lake District. The results shown that the total assessment value of the wetland resources is 362.71 ×10^8 yuan RMB, in which regulating water is of the biggest part, 289 ×10^8 yuan RMB. Other values include the conversation of biological diversity, scientific study and tour, and aquiculture. For the reasons of climate changes, the ecological values are decreasing. To attain the continual development of society and economics, the conversation plans should be applied.

TANG Lei , XU Dong , MU Xue-zheng. Change in Ecosystem Service Values in Liaohe River Delta. Research of Soil and Water Conservation. 2006. 13.(5) ：108-110 It is of significance to study the change in ecosystem service values. Based on dynamic data of land use/cover obtained by interpreting remote sensed images,the change in land use and ecosystem service values in Liaohe River Delta is analyzed using the ecosystem service values coefficients put forward by Costanza et al. Results showed that from 1986 to 2000, area of wetlands and water bodies has decreased, and that of farmland and urban area has increased. The total ecosystem service values of Liaohe River Delta reduced dramatically, from 2. 79× 10^9 US$ in 1986 to 2.48×10^9 US$ in 2000. At last, problems of ecosystem protection and sustainable development in this area were pointed out according to the change in ecosystem service values and some solutions were proposed. Tilman, D., Polasky, S., Lehman, C., 2005. Diversity, productivity and temporal stability in the economies of human and nature. Journal of Environmental Economics and Management 49 (3), 405-426. Timothy Swanson, Wang Qiwen, Andreas Kontoleon, Qiao Xuejun and Yang Tao. 2001. The Economics of Panda Reserve Management. Aileen International Press, USA. Pp. 1~203 TONG Chuan, LI Rong, YONG Shipeng Changes of steppe ecosystem service values in Xilingol Biosphere Reserve of Inner Mongolia, China. Chinese Journal of Ecology 2006，25(3)： 259-264 Grassland ecosystem is the largest terrestrial ecosystem in China, and plays an important role in maintaining the ecological safety of Northern China. In this paper, the maps of steppe degradation in the Xilingol Biosphere Reserve of Inner Mongolia in 1985 and 1999 were drafted, based on remote sensing data and field survey. The changes of steppe ecosystem values were estimated by selecting the ecosystem functions such as soil erosion control, soil nutrient maintaining, nutrient cycling, C storage, and O2 production. The total valuation of the steppe ecosystem services in 1987 and 1999 was 28.24 × 10^8 Yuan RMB and 26.75 × 10^8 Yuan RMB, respectively, with a decrease of 5.28%, while the valuation of the steppe ecosystem services per unit area in 1987 and 1999 was 2.99 × 10^3 Yuan RMB·hm^-2 and 2.83 × 10^3 Yuan RMB·hm^-2, respectively, with a decrease of 5.35 %. The results indicated 117

that owing to over-grazing, the steppe became more and more degraded, and the functions and ecosystem services of the steppe were also decreased. To restore the degraded steppe, keeping the densities of human and livestock under the carrying capacity of the steppe region should be the most essential solution. Tobias, R. and Mendelsohn, R.1991. Valuing Ecotourism in a Tropical Rainforest Reserve, Ambio. Vol.20, no 20: 91-93 Turner, R. K., W. N. Adger, and R. Brouwer. "Ecosystem Services Value, Research Needs, and Policy Relevance: A Commentary." Ecological Economics 25.1 (1998): 61-5. UNEP (1995) Global biodiversity assessment. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge Wang Cheng, Wei Chaofu , Shao Jing an, Gao Ming, Jiang Wei. Responses of regional ecological service value to land use change：A case study of Shapingba County in Chongqing. Chinese Journal of Applied Ecology. 2006. 17(8):1485-1489 Land use has significant effects on the products and services provided by ecosystem, through its interaction with ecosystem processes and services. Taking Shapingba County in Chongqing as an example, and by the Costanza method and ecological sensitivity analysis, this paper analyzed the effects of land use change on ecological service value. The results indicated that from 1992 to 2002, the ecological service value of this County was from $ 1.74 ×10^7 to $ 16.8 × 10^7 , i. e. , $ 0.54 × 10^5 was lost. Accordingly, each hectare land suffered an average loss of $ 13.62. The ecological service value coefficient assigned to different categories of land use had little effects on the total ecological service value, and the total change of ecological service value was inelastic. The summation of the ecological service value coefficients assigned to cultivated land, forestland and garden land was very close to regional actualities. But, the ecological service value coefficient assigned to the waters was higher than the actual value, while rectifying 30 percent of the previous coefficient by 5 667 $ · hm^-2 · yr^-1 would be very close to the actual one. Applying Costanza method to estimate the change of regional ecological service value was practicable, and would make a reference for the evaluation of land use benefits and the organization of land use planning. Wang Hai-bin, Qiu Huajiao, Cheng Xu, Qi Ye, Zhu Wanbin. A New Angle of View to Realize the Economic Value of Ecological Service III --The Theory of Ecological Capital Operation and Its Application. Ecological Economy. 2008. 4(8):36-40. The theory of Ecological Services and its value have been widely accepted in recent years. But the difficulty to realize the economical value of Ecological Services baffles the construction of sustainable eco-economical society. The serial articles ＂A new angle of view to realize the value of ecological services （totally 3 papers）＂ analyze these problems and bring up a theory of Ecological Capital and Ecological Capital operation to solve them. The theory of Ecological Capital Operation and a Miyun county application case study are introduced in this paper. 118

Wang Honglu, Wang Qiubing A Comparison Study of Ecosystem Service Value Before and After Reed Marsh Empoldered to Paddyfield --Take Yalu River Wetland National Nature Reserve as an Example. Chinese Agricultural Science Bulletin. 2006. 22( 2)：348-352 The reed marsh wetland has important function in regulating the climate, purifying sewages, urging the silt anticorrosion, maintaining bio-diversity etc. But reed marsh wetland is developed all the time, the market value method, method of cost of afforestation, shadow engineering method, substitution method was used to evaluate the valuations of the ecosystem service of the Yalu River nature reserve,lt supposes the reed wetland is all empoldered for the paddy field and evaluated its valuations of the ecosystem service.The result indicates：the value of the valuations of the ecosystem service of reed marsh wetland is 123.95×10^6 RMB yuan in the protection zone .And is 89.25×10^6 RMB yuan after empoldered for the paddyfield, valuations of the ecosystem service has been reduced by 28%. The wetland ecosystem service function of the reed is 8 items, they mainly show on regulating function of water and protecting soil, they partly account for the valuations of the ecosystem service of reed wetland 35% and 32%, the number of valuations of the ecosystem service is 4 items after it is empoldered to the paddyfield, it is shown as material production value mainly, accounts for 75% of the value of whole ecological service of the system. Wang Guangcheng, Li Zhongca. The valuation of ecosystem services based on temporal, spatial and benefit characters. Acta Ecologica Sinica. 2007. 27(11): 4758-4765 The valuation of ecosystem services is highlighted in many eco-economics researches. However, there is relatively little elaboration of the temporal and spatial scales at which ecosystem services are given. Based on the new methods of evaluating ecosystem services, the framework to valuate ecosystem services is enhanced, i. e. to be added the spatial, temporal scales and benefit analysis on ecosystem services and benefit characters. The ecological services in Changdao island, Shandong province, are analyzed and the resuhs are as follows ： the changeable trend of ecosystem service values from 1994-2003 fluctuates and the aquatic product, food, fruit scales, namely, the values trough is 7. 4523 × 10^8 ￥ in 1999,wave crest 1. 018186 × 10^9 ￥in 2003 ; the values of , nature conservation and recreation are calculated, their services are characterized with spatial of aquatic product, food and fruit are only important to people in Changdao island, recreation value to not only Changdao island but also provincial or national scale, nature conservation to national and international scale. Our analysis shows that communities or people at different spatial scales can have different interests in ecosystem services. The valuation of ecosystem services based on temporal, spatial and benefit characters supports the decisionsmaking by departments of ecosystem management. Wang Hai-bin, Qiu Huajiao, Cheng Xu, Qi Ye, Zhu Wanbin. A New Angle of View to Realize the Economic Value of Ecological Service III --The Theory of Ecological Capital Operation and Its Application. Ecological Economy. 2008. 4(8):36-40. 119

Wang Hongrui ,Xiao Yang, Wu Lina. QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS OF ECOLOGICAL VALUE OF WATER ENVIRONMENT[J]. Journal of Beijing Normal University (Natural Science edition) 2002,38(6)：836~840. Wang Jianguo. 2007 Valuation of the Ecological Service of Regulating Climate of Ebinur-Lake wetland, WETLAND SCIENCE ＆ M ANAGEM ENT 3(2):38-41 An important ecological function of wetland IS to increase air humidity and to cool down air temperature．This is particularly evident for the wetlandin arid areas．The large amount of evaporation from the water surface and the strong transpiration from the dense vegetation cover of the wetland are the major causes fr this climatic buffering function. By calculating the annual evaporation and transpiration of the Ebinur lake wetland,

the annual cost of

ecological service of climatic buffering was estimated at 97788．86×104,accounting 31.9％，the ecoiogical services and the largest among other ecological services of the wetland. Results indicated that the function of climatic bufering if the most important ecological function of Ebinur lake wetland in extremelv draught condition. WANG jian-Hua , LU Xian-Guo, JIANG Ming. Evaluation of ecosystem services of Park of Nanhu Lake in Changchun city, China. Wetland Science. 2008. 5：159-165 A large amount of green spaces and water areas in urban parks have important amenity values that include provision of leisure opportunities and aesthetic enjoyment. However, most of these services are public goods without a market price. Consequently, they are usually ignored or underestimated by urban planning policy - makers, with the result that some urban parks are being poorly managed, seriously polluted, or gradually encroached upon by urban sprawl. Park of Nanhu Lake in Changchun city was selected in this study,. Based on analyzing its ecosystem functions, several methods were chosen to estimate the value of its ecosystem services, such as the market pricing method for material production, the replacement cost and shadow project methods for environmental regulation, and the bedonic price method for social culture services. The results showed that the total value of the ecosystem functions and services of Park of Nanhu Lake was about RMB 3.13 × 10^9ytian per year. Among which, the economic value of recreation and culture was nearly RMB 3.12 × 10^9yuan per year, taking up 99.57%. Environment regulation was RMB 1.31 × 10^7yuan per year, accounting for 0.42%, and the percentage of production services was only 0.01%. The results indicated that as open green spaces, urban parks were rare landscape and nature resources, and played a vital role in satisfying cultural and spiritual needs of urban dwellers. WANG Jing-sheng, LI Wen-hua, REN Qing-shan, LIU Mou-cheng The Value of Tibet＇s Forest Ecosystem Services. Journal of Natural Resources. 2007. ( 5):831-841 Forest is one of the most important terrestrial ecosystems on the earth.Besides timber and other goods,forest has vital effect on environment and provides significant supplying ecological services for people.Forest ecosystem as renewable resource is a type of public goods,which is 120

non-competitive and non-exclusive.These two characteristics mean that the market is a poor provider of the socially optimal quantity of public goods.This is particularly important in China, which possesses limited forest resources and a large population.With rapid economic development, resources over-exploitation and environmental deterioration have become a bottleneck to the socio-economic development in China,and forest resources loss is believed to be closely associated with ecological and environmental degradations.Therefore,forest conservation has gained increasingly attention and the Chinese government has taken a series of actions to protect forest resources. This paper evaluates Tibet ＇ s forest ecosystem services,and the main evaluation methods include market valuation,opportunity cost,shadow price,replace project,travel- cost and so on.As a result, the storage value of Tibet＇s forest ecosystem services is 4454.35 billion yuan RMB,which includes C pool,timber products and biodiversity conservation,and the ecological vale is as 2.24 times as the direct economic value.Additionally,the flow value of Tibet＇s forest ecosystem services is 173.83 billion yuan,including annual ecological vale which is 156.59 billion yuan,direct economic value 17.24 billion yuan and social value 0.95 billion yuan,and the ecological vale is as 9 times as the direct economic value.h is proved by the above-mentioned results that forest ecosystem can not only provide direct economic value for society,but also provide ecological function with much higher value,and all of these will provide a solid base for study and practice of eco-compensation and Green-GDP evaluation in Tibet. Wang Jiguo. Research on the Eco-Service Value of Modulating Climate in the Case of the Ebinur Lake Wetland in Xinjiang. Journal of Jiangsu Teachers University of Technology. 2007. 13(4):58-62. Wetland, due to its evaporation of lake water and transpiration of plants, possesses the important ecological function of increasing air humidity and modulating temperature. With the help of literatures, the net primary productivity （dehydrated weight） of eco-system in research area can be calculated. Combined with the evaporation coefficient of the local production of plants, the annual amount of evaporation reaches 8 498.78 × 10^4m^3. The control of evaporation is to maintain the area of the Ebinur Lake above 557.5km^2 and the annual evaporation at the amount of 6 × 10^8m^3. With the consideration of the evaporation that is a main factor of modulating climate function in eco-system, Costanza＇s research and the current state of the research area with certain rectification norms, the annual value achieved by eco-service of climate modulation on the Ebinur Lake wetland is 97 788.86 × 10^4RMB, taking up 31.9% of total value of eco-service which tops all the eco-values in the research area. This paper fully displays the significance of eco-service of humidification and temperature adjustment in dry areas. WANG Jianhua, LU Xianguo. Valuing wetland services：the complexity and a review of studies. Ecology and Environmnet. 2007. 16(3)：1058-1062 Valuing wetland services is meaningfully significant in both theory and applications. There are a 121

variety and abundance of wetlands all over the world, and they have very different values which vary in type and magnitude depending upon their location, effect upon society or ecological processes and their relationship to other wetlands. So, it is a complexity and a real challenge to try to evaluate the wetland services. The complexity of wetland evaluation lies in that：wetland is an emerging science and the process and function of wetland ecosystems need further study, opinions on the services and values of ecosystems are various, and wetland science is a kind of interdisciplinary science. At present, studies on evaluation of wetland services have made tremendous progress, but as a rapidly developing discipline, it is faced with many problems, such as the lack of basic theory support, the roughness of ways of evaluation, and the disagreement in the assessment results, etc. Moreover, there are some disagreements on should or shouldn＇t the ecosystems and natural capitals be valued. So, it is necessary to give a review and objective assessment of wetland economic valuation studies, to strengthen the knowledge of welfare and benefits of wetland to human beings. At last, the main points and directions of studies on valuing wetland services in future were put foreword. WANG Jing-sheng, LI Wen-hua, REN Qing-shan, LIU Mou-cheng. The Value of Tibet＇s Forest Ecosystem Services. Journal of Natural Resources. 2007. 22(5):831-841. Forest is one of the most important terrestrial ecosystems on the earth.Besides timber and other goods,forest has vital effect on environment and provides significant supplying ecological services for people.Forest ecosystem as renewable resource is a type of public goods,which is non-competitive and non-exclusive.These two characteristics mean that the market is a poor provider of the socially optimal quantity of public goods.This is particularly important in China, which possesses limited forest resources and a large population.With rapid economic development, resources over-exploitation and environmental deterioration have become a bottleneck to the socio-economic development in China,and forest resources loss is believed to be closely associated with ecological and environmental degradations.Therefore,forest conservation has gained increasingly attention and the Chinese government has taken a series of actions to protect forest resources. This paper evaluates Tibet ＇ s forest ecosystem services,and the main evaluation methods include market valuation,opportunity cost,shadow price,replace project,travel- cost and so on.As a result, the storage value of Tibet＇s forest ecosystem services is 4454.35 billion yuan RMB,which includes C pool,timber products and biodiversity conservation,and the ecological vale is as 2.24 times as the direct economic value.Additionally,the flow value of Tibet＇s forest ecosystem services is 173.83 billion yuan,including annual ecological vale which is 156.59 billion yuan,direct economic value 17.24 billion yuan and social value 0.95 billion yuan,and the ecological vale is as 9 times as the direct economic value.h is proved by the above-mentioned results that forest ecosystem can not only provide direct economic value for society,but also provide ecological function with much higher value,and all of these will provide a solid base for study and practice of eco-compensation and Green-GDP evaluation in Tibet. 122

Wang Lei , Zhang Xiaofeng, Zhou Wei. Study on Assessing Losses of Ecological Service Value Caused by Highway Network Planning in Henan. Journal of Zhengzhou University: Eng Sci. 2008. 29(3):141-144. This article studied the assessment of ecological environment of superhighway network planning in Henan. All kinds of ecological systems are valuable because they provide products and services directly or indirectly. In the process of implementing the road network planning, ecological system and semi-ecological systems such as forests, pastures, farmlands and rivers are transformed to human system like transportation equipment, which changes the service value of ecosystem. This paper gives the methods of assessing the losses of ecological service value caused by road construction, and its results can be used as basis of ecological compensation. Wang Lei , Wang Ning , Zhang Yi, Research progress on evaluating the ecosystem services of grassland. Journal of Agricultural Sciences. 2006. 27( 4)：50-53 The service of ecological system and its natural resources are critical to the function of the earth＇ s life support system. The ecosystem services contribute to human life in directly and indirectly and therefore represent a part of the total economic value of the global. Grassland ecosystem is the biggest terrestrial ecosystem in China, and plays special role in maintaining the structure, functions and ecological processes of natural ecosystems. This article reviews the conception of ecosystem services, the grassland ecosystem services~s meaning, its valuation indices and present study conditions. At last, the paper proposed several problems in the study of ecosystem service and its development direction. Wang Sung and John MacKinon. 1996. Conserving China’s Biodiversity. Chinese Environmental Sciences Press. (in Chinese and English). WANG Sung, Peter Schei, and XIE Yan (ed.). 2001. Conserving China’s Biodiversity (II). Chinese Environmental Sciences Press. (in Chinese and English). Pp. Wang Weimin,Zhu Linghui,Ren Hongchan. Assessment of Shrub Ecosystem Service Benefits in Western China. FOREST RESOURCES MANAGEMENT. 2008. (4):124-128 The service values of shrub ecosystem had been assessed individually·Environmental benefit which can be monetized,is 9836×108Yuan /a·Value of oxygen liberating and carbon deposition, about 58 percent,is the most among these environmental benefits,while value of air cleaning is the second, which is about 22 percent,water and soil conservation benefit is about 16 percent·Sum of these values is 2·8 times of Gross Agriculture Product of the same region· Wang Yi, Zou Fangbin, Li Bihua. The Natural Capital Theory and Compensational Standards on Ecological Service Amid Regions. Systems Engineering. 2008. 26(6):116-119. This paper analyses the properties and characteristics of natural capital and ecosystem service. The essence of interregional eco-compensation for eco-service is to balance the investment 123

levels of natural capital amid different regions. Two types of interregional eco-compensation models, namely the interregional spillover compensation of ecosystem service model and interregional expense compensation of natural capital model, are prominently identified. Based on the benefit principles of economic compensation, this paper also respectively puts forward the theoretical criteria for distinguishing ecological compensators or those compensated and measurable compensation quantity or the one compensated one. Wang Yong,Luo Shiming. Principles and advances in agro-ecological service assessment. Chinese Journal of Eco-Agriculture, 2008. 16（1）21-216. Advances in agro-ecological service assessment was summarized and core operational principles proposed. Compared with ecological services of natural ecosystems,ecological service of agricultural system was divided into two functional categories： one from natural regulation and the other from human regulation. During the ecological service assessment, the types of ecological services and differences between regions, as well as materialized and non-materialized index, static and dynamic index, index influenced by quantity and system structure, index indication process and end result, and positive and negative influences should be taken into account. For correct assessments, the definition of ecological service, scope of assessment, index chosen, and the direct measurement approach were proposed。 WANG Ying- zi, HE Dong- jin, HONG Wei, HU Hai- qing, LIU Yong - sheng , CHEN Xiao ling , BIAN Li – li.

Evaluation of Forest Ecosystem Services of Wuyishan Scenery

District. Acta Agriculturae Universitis Jiangxiensis. 2006. 28( 3)：409-414 Based on the characteristics and connotation of forest ecosystem services, physical and value assessment, including the assessment methods of shallow price ,opportunity cost, substitution expenditure ,capitalized returns and so on were used to evaluate the forest ecosystem services in Wuyishan Scenery District. The results showed that the total annual general service value of the forest ecosystem in Wuyishan Scenery District is up to 202 million Yuan, of which, 3.55 million Yuan is from storing water, 78.16 million Yuan from soil conservation, 42.74 million Yuan from carbon dioxide fixation, 32.32 million Yuan from the output of standing economic trees and forest products, 13.69 million Yuan from forest landscape and tourism, 0. 069 million Yuan from biodiversity protection. Wang Yong, Luo Shiming. The assessment method for gas regulation function of an agro-forestry ecosystem. Ecologic Science. 2007. 26(2):165-169. The advance of the gas regulation function for an agro-forestry ecosystem, as one kind of the ecosystem services, including its pattern of receiving and releasing gas, the measure methods and relative factors, the effect for the agricultural managements and the changed atmosphere on agro-forestry ecosystem, is summarized. While being assessed, the function can be divided into three main parts（regulating C and O, absorbing or releasing CH4 and N2O, cleaning SO2）, then the operational assessment formulas and parameters are proposed here. The gas 124

regulation function for the agro-forestry ecosystem of Foshan in 2005 was assessed, the result was that valued 1.818 billion yuan （ RMB ）. Wang Yu,Ou Minghao,2006. A Study of Ecological Value and the Protection of Cultivated Land[J]. Scientific and Technological Management of Land and Resources.1:104~108. WANG Yu, YIN Jun, YANG Min, LIU Xiao-Zhuang, LI Zhi-Wei.

Studies on the changes of

land use and value of the ecosystem service in Hebei Province. Chinese Journal of Eco-Agriculture. 2006. 14( 4)：240-243 The land is the ecosystem carrier. Land use changes affect the ecosystem structures and functions, and cause the changes of ecosystem service values. The paper analyzes the changes of land use and ecosystem service values from 1993 to 2000 in Hebei Province. Results show that the cultivated land, water area, swamp and unused land are decreased, but fruit land, woodland, grassland and building land are increased. Ecosystem service values are remarkably decreased in Hebei Province in the period of 1993- 2000. Ecosystem service values are decreased from 15. 73116 billion US dollars in 1993 to 15. 23503 billion US dollars in 2000. The decreasing rate of ecosystem service value is 3.15 %. Wang ZM, Zhang B, Zhang SQ, et al. "Changes of Land use and of Ecosystem Service Values in Sanjiang Plain, Northeast China." Environmental monitoring and assessment 112.1-3 (2006): 69-91. Agricultural activities, especially reclamation, are considered major threats to the wetland ecosystems in Sanjiang Plain, the largest concentrated area of the freshwater wetlands in China. In the past decades, the area of the cultivated land and its grain production have been increased at the cost of wetlands shrinkage. The large-scale land reclamation severely affected the ecosystems in this region. However, such effects at the regional scale are seldom evaluated quantitatively. We used three datasets of LANDSAT MSS and/or TM imagery to estimate the area changes and the transition of land use types from 1980 to 2000. We also valued changes in ecosystem services delivered by each land category using value coefficients published by Costanza et al. [Nature 387, 1997, 253-260]. Sensitivity analysis suggested that these estimates were relatively robust. Finally, the contribution of various ecosystem functions was ranked to the overall value of the ecosystem services in this study. According to our estimates, the total annual ecosystem service values in Sanjiang Plain have declined by about 40% between 1980 and 2000 ($ 156284-182572.18 million in total over 20 years). This substantial decline is largely attributed to the 53.4% loss of wetlands. For individual ecosystem functions, waste treatment, water supply and disturbance regulation account for more than 60% to the total ecological values. During those two decades, the contribution of disturbance regulation, cultural and recreation decreased, while the contribution of water regulation, nutrient cycling, food production, raw materials and climate regulation increased during the same period. We also put forward a few proposals concerning the future land use policy formulation and 125

sustainable ecosystems. They are adjusting the 'food first' agricultural policy, establishing more nature reserves for wetlands, creating systems for the rational use of water, harnessing the degraded cultivated land and encouraging eco-tourism. Wang Miao,Duan Zhixia. Discussion on building the ecological compensation mechanism of marine. Chinese Fishery economics. 2008.26(3):12-15 The ecological compensation of the land resource has been put into effect at certain extent, but not much has been done for the marine. For generations, the marine had provided enormous raw materials and ecology service value for society. Its economic value is not allowed to be converted into cash worth of public interests. Moreover, marine ecological environment deterioration is mainly due to the excessive demands yielded to humans. The problem of fisherman “sea loss” is serious. It is high time to put forward the view of building the ecological compensation mechanism of marine. All this will support and encourage people to conserve marine ecological environment, and develop national economy. The paper suggests the rule of compensation, the beneficiaries, and the sources of funds for the ecological compensation of marine. Wang Yingzi, He Dongjin, Hong Wei, Hu Haiqing, Liu Yongsheng , Chen Xiaoling Bian Lili. Evaluation of Forest Ecosystem Services of Wuyishan Scenery District. Acta Agriculturae Universitis Jiangxiensis. 2006.28(3)：409-414 Based on the characteristics and connotation of forest ecosystem services, physical and value assessment, including the assessment methods of shallow price ,opportunity cost, substitution expenditure ,capitalized returns and so on were used to evaluate the forest ecosystem services in Wuyishan Scenery District. The results showed that the total annual general service value of the forest ecosystem in Wuyishan Scenery District is up to 202 million Yuan, of which, 3.55 million Yuan is from storing water, 78.16 million Yuan from soil conservation, 42.74 million Yuan from carbon dioxide fixation, 32.32 million Yuan from the output of standing economic trees and forest products, 13.69 million Yuan from forest landscape and tourism, 0. 069 million Yuan from biodiversity protection. Wang Jianhua,Wang Haijun, Li Weike. Evaluation of Forest Ecosystem Services in Gele Mountains of Chongqing City. Journal of Shihezi University(Natural Science). 2006. 24(2)： 223-226 The paper evaluates the forest ecosystem services in Gele Mountain by using the method of opportunity-cost and market price including water-holding, soil conservation, carbon fixation, air purification and so on. The results show that annual integrated average forest ecosystem service value in Gele Mountains is 236.56 million yuan and the Gele Mountains play a great role in the environmental construction of Chongqing city. WANG Yu-Tao;GUO Wei-Hua;LIU Jian;WANG Shu-Jun;WANG Qi;WANG Ren-Qing. . 126

Value of ecosystem services of Kunyu Mountain Natural Reserve. Acta Ecologica Sinica. 2009, 29(1)：523-531 The Kunyu Mountain Natural Reserve is an original habitat and natural distribution center of Pinus densiflora in China,which has the largest area of distribution and the most complete protection of the natural forest ecosystem of Pinus densiflora.In this paper we assessed the direct and indirect ecological service values using shadow engineering method,opportunity cost method,market value method and other methods.The ecosystem services value of the natural reserve is 4.99×10^8yuan/a.The economic value of per unit area is 32351yuan/ （hm^2·a）.The direct value is 0.32×10^8yuan/a,accounting for only 6.42% of the total.The indirect value is over 4.67×10^8yuan/a.The ratio of direct value to indirect value is ca.1： 15.The order of indirect value of ecosystem service is： water conservation〉air quality purifying〉provisioning of habit〉erosion control〉C fixation and O2 release〉 recreation and culture.Despite the Kunyu Mountain Nature Reserve takes only 9.71% in area of the Muping,the ecosystem services value accounts for 7.00% of GDP in Muping District in 2003.For each local individual,the available ecosystem services value can reach 1039 yuan per year.In conclusion,the Kunyu Mountain Nature Reserve plays a decisive role in maintaining the sustainable development for the local society. WU Hou jian, WANG Xue-lei , NING Long-mei, LU Yun-feng EFFECTS OF LAND USE CHANGE ON ECOSYSTEM SERVICES VALUE——A CASE STUDY IN WUHAN CITY. Resources and Environment in the Yangtza Basin. 2006, 15(2)：185-190 land cover change and to examine their effects on ecosystem services value（ESV） in the rapid urbanization area of Wuhan City by interpreting 1996 and 2001 Landsat-TM remote sensing images. The methods are based on ESV computing formula and ESV coefficients. The following results and conclusions could be obtained：（1）From 1996 to 2001, the area of cultivated land, grassland, water area and unutilized land decreased, while woodland, wetland and build-up land increased; （2）The total value of ecosystem services of the study area declined from ￥457.74 × 10^7 in 1996 to￥456.14×10^7 in 2001 ,with the net decline of ￥1.61 × 10^7 during the 5Tyear time period; （3）The contribution of various ecosystem functions to the overall value of the ecosystem services comes from the increase in gas regulation, climate regulation, raw materials and recreation, while water conservation, soil formation and disposition, waste treatment, bio-diversity conservation and food production had a decreased effect; （4）The sensitivity analysis suggested that these estimates are relatively robust. WU Kong-Yun, JIANG Zhong-Cheng, DENG Xin-Hui, YE Ye. Ecosystem service value of restored secondary forest in the Karstic-rocky hills --A case study of Nongla National Medicine Nature Reserve, Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region. Chinese Journal of Eco-Agriculture.2008. 16(4)：1011-1014 127

An economic approach of ecological evaluation was used to assess the value of restored secondary forest in Nongla Na- tional Medicine Nature Reserve of Mashan County, Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region. Results show a high ecological value （on economical scale） of restored secondary forests in Nongla. Over the period of 25 years （ 1981～2006） accumulated total ecosystem service value of Nongla restored secondary forest is estimated at RMB 0.882 billion and above. Direct use of lumber, herb and fruit is valued at RMB 0. 049 billion, 5.57% of the total forest value. Indirect use of the restored secondary forest is RMB 0. 833 billion, far exceeding the direct use value and accounting for 94.44% of the total value. Service values for soil erosion, biodiversity, research and culture are RMB 0. 313 billion, RMB 0. 174 billion and RMB 0. 052 billion respectively. Nongla restored secondary forest plays an important role in preventing water and soil erosion, sustaining soil fertility, developing biodiversity, and promoting research and education.

Wu Kongyun, Jiang Zhongcheng, Deng Xinhui, Ye Ye. Ecosystem service value of restored secondary forest in the Karstic-rocky hills --A case study of Nongla National Medicine Nature Reserve, Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region. Chinese Journal of Eco-Agriculture. 2008. 16(4)1101-1014. An economic approach of ecological evaluation was used to assess the value of restored secondary forest in Nongla Na- tional Medicine Nature Reserve of Mashan County, Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region. Results show a high ecological value （on economical scale） of restored secondary forests in Nongla. Over the period of 25 years （ 1981～2006） accumulated total ecosystem service value of Nongla restored secondary forest is estimated at RMB 0.882 billion and above. Direct use of lumber, herb and fruit is valued at RMB 0. 049 billion, 5.57% of the total forest value. Indirect use of the restored secondary forest is RMB 0. 833 billion, far exceeding the direct use value and accounting for 94.44% of the total value. Service values for soil erosion, biodiversity, research and culture are RMB 0. 313 billion, RMB 0. 174 billion and RMB 0. 052 billion respectively. Nongla restored secondary forest plays an important role in preventing water and soil erosion, sustaining soil fertility, developing biodiversity, and promoting research and education. WU Shu-jie, LIANG Shi-chu. Impacts of human activities on ecosystem in mangroves. Marine Environmental Science. 2008. 27(5)：537-542 The mangrove is an important ecosystem in the coast of tropic and sub-tropic, and there are the manifold ecosystem services in it. The major aims are that correct estimating the impacts of human activities on ecosystem services in the mangroves and insuring sustainable utilization of mangrove resources. The direct and indirect impacts of human activities on ecosystem services in the mangroves were analyzed systematically on land for the agricultural, salt industrial, urban developmental use, and for breed aquatics, building sea walls, browse, 128

firewood, digging marine product, dirty discharging, and tourism, and so on. The results show that the ecosystem services were banned by human activities through the changes of mangrove eeo-environment, ecosystem configuration and its biogeochemical cycle. In order to actualize the sustainable development and utilization of mangrove resources, some effective measures should be adopted to improve the eco-environment and maintain the ecosystem services. By this token, it is urgent to make clear the ecological mechanism that the ecosystem services how to keep, to circulate and to develop. The suggestion was ststed in this paper. Wu Lan, Qin Fucang, Yu Xinxiao, Yao Liangyi. Ecological Values Provided by Biological Management in China. Journal of Arid Land Resources and Environment. 2007. 21(9):20-24. Based on the theories of soil and water conservation, ecology, and eco - economics, the ecological service provided by biological management was defined as the maintaining, improving, and protecting effects to the hu-man beings and their conditions. It concluded 6 functions, such as water conservation, soil amelioration, biodiversity conserving, C fixation ＆ 02 release, airfiltering, and sand fixing ＆ wind preventing. Using the methods of expenditure substituting, market pricing, and marginal cost, the values provided by biological management in China was be measured, which was ￥239.5 billion per year. In the total amount, the value of soil amelioration was ￥209.9 billion, the value of water conservation was ￥4.8 billion, and the value of sand fixing ＆ wind preventing was ￥8.2 billion. However, ￥4.1 billion was brought by C fixation ＆ O2 release, and ￥7.5 billion was offered by biodiversity conservation. Furthermore, it supplied ￥ 5.1 billion through airfiltering. Wu Lingling ，Lu Jianjian ，Tong Chunfu ，Liu Cunqi. Valuation of Wetland Ecosystem Services in the Yangtze River Estuary. Resources and Environment in the Yangtze Basin 2003. 12(5): 411- 417 Wetlands in the Yangtze River estuary, which have some important value in ecosystem services， are main components of coastal wetlands in China．Based on the reference of the 17 major valuating parameters and methods proposed by Costanza et al(1 997)and others，the market value approach，reforestation cost approach,shadow project method，surrogate market method， and contingent valuation method are used to evaluate the value of wetland ecosystem services in the Yangtze River estuary． The results prove that the annual value of the wetlands ecosystem services in the Yangtze River estuary is about 4.00 billion Yuan RMB，among which the reclamation value is 0．9 billion Yuan RMB，material production value is 0.89 billion Yuan RMB，gas regulation value is 0.12 billion Yuan RMB，water regulation value is 0．15 billion Yuan RMB， waste treatment value is 0.34 billion Yuan RMB，habitat value was 0.29 billion Yuan RMB，cultural value is 0.84 billion Yuan RMB，and recreation value is 0.48 billion Yuan RMB．The principle of sustainable development should be followed in the application of ecosystem service 129

WU Jian-zhai, LI Bo, ZHANG Xin-shi, XIA Yan-ling, CHONG Jie. Land use / cover change and ecosystem service values in the north of Tianshan Mountains. Arid Land Geography. 2007. 30(5)：728-735 Land use / cover change and its eco-environmental effects are the key contents of regional eco-environment change and the study has great significance to regional eco-economy harmonious development. This paper aimed to provide the theory support for regional sustainable development by analyzing the ecosystem service values change in the Northern Tianshan Mountains. Based on data of land use, paper analyzed the change in land use and ecosystem service values, including the spatial heterogeneity. Results showed that the area of grassland, unused land decreased and other categories increased from 1989 to 2000. The county with the highest land use dynamic degree was Qitai County and the lowest was Urumqi City. The total ecosystem service values increased slightly, from 31 993.31×10^6 Yuan to 32 126.27×10^6 Yuan, which was mainly caused by the increase quantities, provided by cultivated land, forest land, industrial and mining land, offseted the decreased quantities, provided by grassland, water bodies, unused land. The regional total increased quantities was 132.96 ×10^6 Yuan with a 0.42% net increase. Qitai＇ s total ecosystem service values increased most among the counties in the study area and Manas County had the most decreased value. Piedmont fan was the hot spot of Land use / cover change and also ecosystem service values. The increase of total ecosystem service values did not indicate the ecosystem was protected well, which was the important factors to the establishment of regional sustainable development strategy. Wu Ping, and Fu Qiang. "Valuation of Ecosystem Services in Zhalong Wetland." Research of Agricultural Modernization 29.3 (2008): 335-7. Based on the ecosystem services in Zhalong Wetland, the market value method, reforestation cost method, shadow project method, surrogate market method was used to evaluate the value of wetland ecosystem services in Zhalong. The results proved that the total value of ecosystem services in Zhalong Wetland is 2.33 billion Yuan RBM. The cultural value is 33.4 percent of the total value, and the climate regulation value is 21.81 percent of the total value, and habitat value is 20.84 percent of the total value. Wu Shujie, Liang Shichu Impacts of human activities on ecosystem in mangroves. MARINE ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE. 2008. 27(5):537-543. The mangrove is an important ecosystem in the coast of tropic and sub-tropic, and there are the manifold ecosystem services in it. The major aims are that correct estimating the impacts of human activities on ecosystem services in the mangroves and insuring sustainable utilization of mangrove resources. The direct and indirect impacts of human activities on ecosystem services in the mangroves were analyzed systematically on land for the agricultural, salt industrial, urban developmental use, and for breed aquatics, building seawalls, browse, 130

firewood, digging marine product, dirty discharging, and tourism, and so on. The results show that the ecosystem services were harmed by human activities through the changes of mangrove eco-environment, ecosystem configuration and its biogeochemical cycle. In order to actualize the sustainable development and utilization of mangrove resources, some effective measures should be adopted to improve the eco-environment and maintain the ecosystem services. By this token, it is urgent to make clear the ecological mechanism that the ecosystem services how to keep, to circulate and to develop. The suggestion was stated in this paper. WU Shan-shan, LIU Rong-zi, QI Lian-ming, LIANG Xiang-bo Value Assessment of Marine Ecosystem Service in Bohai Sea. China Polulation.Resources and Environment. 2008. 18(2)：65-69 It plays an important role in ecological protection and marine management that the value of marine ecosystem service is assessed objectively. On the basis of classification of marine ecosystem services, the article constructs the value assessment methods of marine ecosystem service, such as food production, gene resources provision, 02 release and climate regulation, waste disposal, biological control, leisure and recreation, scientific search and culture, primary production, biodiversity and habit provision. Then, the author quantitatively assesses 9 services of marine ecosystem in Bohai Sea. As a result, the total value of these services is estimated as 81703×10^8 yuan RMB, 1.73 times the recent GDP in the Bohai Sea Rim. The direct value is 12873 × 10^8 yuan RMB, and the indirect value is 68830 × 10^8 yuan RMB. The indirect value is more than its direct value. The value of marine ecosystem services is mainly on support function which is about 74.68 percent of the total value in the Bohai Sea. The article shows that the classification and value assessment methods of marine ecosystem service should be improved in future. To a certain extent, the appraised value is deviated to the real value of marine ecosystem service in Bohai Sea. XIAO Han，OUYANG Zhiyun，ZHAO Jingzhu．WANG Xiaoke. Forest ecosystem service and their ecological valuation— A case study nf tropical forest In Jinfengning of hailan is1and．CHINESE JOURNAL OF APPLIED ECOLOGY． 2000．11(4)：481～484 This paper attempts to present forest ecosystem services and their indirect economic value of Jianfen ning tropical forest in Hainan and．The results show that average annual integrated ecoystem service value of Jianfeng ling tropical forest, Which cover8 44667.00ha，adds up to 664．38 million yuan(Chinese RMB)，of which about 71.64 million yuan is of the output of standing tree and other forest products.about 394.29 million yuan of water-holding．About 2.47 million yuan of soil conservation against erosion．about 13．16 million ylmn of carbon fixation for reducing greenhouse effect．about 4. 29 million Yuan of nutrient retention for N，P，K， Ca and Mg. about 178. 53 million yuan of air purification． Xiao Han, Ouyang Zhi-yun, Zhao Jing-zhu et al, 2000. The spatial distribution characteristics and eco- economic value of soil conservation service of ecosystems in Hainan Island by 131

GIS[J]. Acta Ecologica Sinica. 20(4): 552~558.（in Chinese） Xiao Hongsheng,Wang Yong,Luo Shiming. Functions and assessment methods of protecting soil fertility of agro-forestry. Chinese Journal of Eco-Agriculture.2008. 16(5):1225-1229. Advances in the soil fertility （ including SOM and N,P,K ） conservation functions of agro-forestry ecosystem and their assessment methods were summarized and key operational assessment principles proposed. The agro-forestry ecosystem function to conserve soil fertility in the two ways： i） natural soil fertility, including tree and crop residue, underground biome remaining in the soil, and ii） artificial chemical and organic fertilization of the soil. For assessment purposes, the functions were put into two categories — the flow-type eco-service （FE）,interpreted as enhancing soil fertility, and the storage-type eco-service（SE）,interpreted as sustaining soil fertility. The formulas and assessment parameters are inherently different for specific regions and sub-ecosystems. Using this approach, the soil fertility conservation function of Foshan agro-forestry ecosystem was assessed for year 2005,the FE value is estimated at 83.2 million yuan and SE value calculated at 1 982.8 million yuan. Xiao Jianhong,Shi Guoqing, Xing Zhenxiang. Preliminary study on effects of hydraulic engineering on river ecosystem services. Journal of Economics of Water Resources. 2008 26(6):29-34 Based on the supply-demand theory of western economics and the evaluation methods of economic value of natural resources, the theory and methods about the effects of hydraulic engineering on river ecosystem services were established. The effects of Three Gorges Project(TGP) on river ecosystem services were evaluated by use of the following methods: the market value, the opportunity cost, the shadow project, the prevention expenditure and the restoration expenditure. The results show that the flood control and hydro... The results show that the flood control and hydropower generation by TGP are the main positive effects on the river ecosystem services, and the reservoir contamination, sedimentation and inundation by TGP are the main negative effects. XIAO Jian-hong, SHI Guo-qing, MAO Chun-mei,XING Zhen-xiang. Pre-evaluation of Valuation Effects of TGP on River Ecosystem Services. Journal of Natural Resources. 2006, 21(3)：424-431 The accurate valuation of effects of hydraulic engineering on river ecosystem services is very important to Environmental Impact Assessment （EIA）of hydraulic engineering and the reserve river ecosystem services.On the basis of the effects features,an index system for the assessment of effects of the Three Gorges Project （TGP）on river ecosystem services has been established.The six positive effects and five negative effects were pre-evaluated when TGP was finished.The result indicated that flood control and hydropower generation were the main functions,with annual values being 106.84 ×10^8yuan （ RMB ） and 211.70 ×10^8 yuan,respectively. Tourism,harmful gas emission reduction and navigation channel 132

improvement were importance functions of TGP,too.Their annual values were 74.50×10^8 yuan,79.44×10^8yuan,and 14.64×10^8yuan. The annual values of the six positive effects were 489.70×10^8yuan.The reservoir contamination, reservoir sedimentation and reservoir flowage by

TGP

were

the

main

negative

effects,and

the

annual

losses

were

24.06×10^8yuan,7.22×10^8yuan and 6.27×10^8yuan separately.At the same time, the effects of TGP on biological factors and occupation of river ecosystem were also negative effects,which couldn＇t be ignored and the annual losses were 0.27×10^8yuan and 0.01 ×10^8Syuan respectively.The annual losses of the five negative effects totalled 37.83×10^8yuan.The researches show that EIA of the large hydraulic engineering was not only done on single factor evaluation, but more attention was also given to effects of engineering on river ecosystem health and river ecosystem services. Xie G D, Y L Zhang and C X Lu, 2001. The value of Chinese natural grassland ecosystem services. Journal of Natural Resources, 16(1): 47~53 (in Chinese). Xie Gao-di, Lu Chun-xia, Cheng Sheng-kui. Progress in Evaluating the Global Ecosystem Service[J]. Resources science. 2001, 23(6): 5～9. 2001, 23(6): 5～9.）（in Chinese） Xie Gao-di, Zhang Yi-li, Lu Chun-xia et al. Study on valuation of rangeland ecosystem services of China[J]. Journal of Natural Resources. 2001, 16(1): 47～532001, 16(1): 47～53）（in Chinese） XIE Bin, Nurbay · ABDUSALIH,WU Yu- xiu. Service Benefits of Altay Mountain Wetland Ecosystem and Its Sustainable Utilization. Environmental Protection of Xinjiang. 2008. 30( 2)：14-19 Altay Mountain Wetland is one of the largest wetland ecosystem in Arid Area of Xinjiang, it has various important ecoservice benefits like supporting water sources, flood diversion and storage, modulating climate and water regime. There are abundant biodiversities, including gene, species and ecosystem diversity. It has capacity to degrade and enrich contaminations and purify the water, supply the recreation travel and scientific and cultural research and ect... However, there are some unilateral ideas and nonreasonable utilization for Altay Mountain Wetland, some problems for the sustainable utilization of service benefit of wetland ecosystem is discussed, and the scientific strategies for wetland sustainable utilization are presented. Xin Kun, Xiao Du-ning. Brief Account of Ecosystem service study[J]. China Population, Resources and Environment. 2000, 10(3): 20~22 2000, 10(3): 20~22.）（in Chinese） XU Hui, CUI Guang-bo. Economic Criteria for Exploitation and Preservation Limitation of Lake Wetland Resources：A Case Study of Baoying Lake. Resources Science. 2006. 28( 1)：51-56 Economic Criteria of Exploitation and Preservation Limitation of Lake Wetland Resources （ECEPLLWR） means that net marginal earnings of lake should not less than net marginal losses when lake wetland is exploited, i.e., it is the lake wetland exploitation scale when 133

ecological losses decrease dramatically and are more than the net earnings. The crucial process is the analysis of compatibility of each ecosystem service with another and the estimation of ecosystem service values. The functions of biodiversity aegis and inheriting pool of resources are not compatible with the functions of shipping and assimilating and decomposing waste. The former is compatible with many other functions conditionally and compatible with minor functions completely. Excepting these two functions, the remaining ones are compatible with each other conditionally or completely. So the net earnings are the values of those ecosystem services that are conforming to the exploitation functions while the net losses are the values of those ecosystem services that are not compatible with the exploitation functions. For Baoying Lake wetland, net earnings include the values of breeding crabs, adjusting regional climate and absorbing CO2 while net losses are the values of water supply, water purifying, sluicing, biodiversity aegis, scientific research, education, and entertainment. The estimation is based on environmental and ecological economics. The result shows that net earnings are 37 304 yuan/hm^2 and net losses are 16 222 yuan/hm^2, so the values of AE, which is the economic criteria of exploitation and preservation limitation, is 21 082 yuan/hm^2. The preliminary study shows that the ECEPLLWR of Baoying Lake wetland is not overstepped under the current social and economic conditions and Baoying Lake wetland can be exploited potentially to some extent. XIONG Hei-Gang, QIN Shan. Estimating the Economic Values of the Forest Ecosystem Service Function in XinJiang. Journal of Arid Land Resources and Environment. 2006. 20( 6)： 146-151 This article deals with ecosystem service function on the basis of a large number of researches to describe the Xinjiang forest ecosystem intension of service function, and apply the law of market value, method of substitution of the expenses,proiect law of the shade,substitute the project law,law of cost of chance,direct value of appraising the direct and indirect value of forest ecosystem service function in- Xinjiang. The result shows that the forest ecosystem service function total value of the regional state of Xinjiang is 1. 1364 ×10^2 Yuan, direct value is 9. 1763 ×10^9 Yuan, indirect value is 1. 0428 ×10^11 Yuan （bring coniferous trees is 3.5758×10^10 Yuan,foliage forest bring is 6. 8518×10^10 Yuan ）,which is the 11.36 times of economic worth. It is obvious that the economic worth of the forest ecosystem of Xinjiang reflects in indirect value mainly, namely the life supports systematic value. XU Zhi - hui, DING Deng- shan. EVALUATION OF THE ECO- ECONOMY BENEFIT IN NANKUN MOUNTAIN NATURE RESERVE. Economic Geography. 2006. 26(4) ： 677-680 The Nankun mountain nature reserve is one of the conservation well ecosystem in south subtropical zone of China. There are very plentiful nature resources. Based on the Nankun mountain nature reserve resources＇ character, the economies theory and method is applied in the paper, on the base of the investigation and experiment to analyses the asset value type of 134

the forest resources and to evaluate the direct values in use and the indirect values in use in Nankun mountain nature reserve, such as the method of tax rate of Sweden. Researching value, travel consumption method, robert constanza method, market value method, assets value method. The conclusion shows that the total assets value of the forest resources in the Nankun mountain nature reserve is 58 292.77 × 10^4 ￥ RMB. The result suggest that renewing the forest ecological environment, protecting the forest resources and carrying out the assets managemem of the forest resources in Nankun mountain nature reserve, are the good ways to realize the sustainable utilization of the forest resources and to guarantee the sustainable development of the regional economy in Nankun mountain nature reserve. XU Wen-jie. Evolution of Ecosystem Service Function of Dongchang Lake and the Analysis of Influencing Factors. Journal of Anhui Agricultural Sciences. 2006. 34(21)：5644-5645,5647 The ecosystem service function of lake includes supplying function, supporting function, regulating function and aesthetics function. Exertion of all functions is related to hydrologic features, condition of water quality, biological diversity, spatial physical structure and landscape of the lake zone. Based on the analysis of the history of Dongchang lake, the evolution process of the ecosystem service function of Dongchang lake was summarized and the effect of influencing factors was analyzed. At last, some suggestions were presented in order to ensure good circulation of ecosystem of Dongchang Lake. Xu linyu ,Yang Zhifeng ,Shuai Lei, Yu fingshan, Liu Shiliang. Eco-compensation of Reservoir Project based on Ecosystem Service Function Value. China Polulation.Resources and Environment.2006.16(4)：125-128 Eco-compensation is an economic instrument of environmental management to protect eco-environment by adjusting mankind＇s producing activities and living behaviors. In this paper, the mechanism of eco-compensation is studied with the project of Lianhua Reservoir in Xiamen city as a case. The Ecosystem Service Function Evaluation method is chosen to determine the standard of eco-compensation. The results show that the eco-compensation fee is expected to be about 128, 582, 700 yuan when the reservoir is put into use, and should be collected from government subsidy or additional water fee. XU Ji-quan, ZHONG Quan-lin. The Evaluation on the Values of Forest Ecosystem Service Function of Wuyishan Nature ReserveWuyishan Nature Reserve. Forest Inventory and Planning. 2006. 31( 6)：58-61 The ecosystem Service functions of Wuyishan Nature Reserve including forest＇ s headwaters and soil conservation, air purification, carbon fixation to release oxygen, tourism, etc are preliminary evaluated by the methods of opportunity-cost, market price substitute shadow project price. As a result, the general forest ecosystem service value in this area amounts to 1.334 billion yuan （RMB） / a, of which the headwater conservation value as 2280 million yuan/a; soil conservation value as 760 million yuan/a; air purification as 1760 million yuan/a; 135

2200 million yuan as carbon absorption to release oxygen; tourism value as 6340 million yuan/a. XU Yang-ping, LIN Mei-zhen, CHEN Zhi-yun. Assessment of the indirect forest ecosystem services in Liuxi river national forest park. Guangdong Agricultural Sciences. 2008. (8)： 131-134 The quantitative studies on the ecosystem service function of forests have became a worldwide discussed issue in current days, due to the various forest-related environmental problems. From the perspective of the benefits of studying forest ecosystem, several methods （including market value,shade price and opportunity-cost method） are applied to assess the indirect economic value indexes such as water conservation, environmental purification, soil conservation, carbon fixation-oxygen released, species conservation and medical care of the ecosystem service function in Liuxi river national forest park. It is concluded that the total forest ecosystem service value of Liuxi river national forest park counts RMB 2.18 billion. Xu Fenglan, Qian Guoqin, Yang Lunzeng. Economical Assessment of the Lose＇s Value Brought by the Blizzard and Frozen Disasters to the Forest in the Ecosystem Services——Take the Disaster Forest of Fujian Province as the Example. Scientia Silvae Sinicae. 2008. 44(11):193-201. Firstly, the assessment index system for the economical loss brought by the blizzards and frozen to the forest ecosystem in the functional value of ecological environment services were established and the estimating methods for the various index were ascertained, according to the principles and methods of environmental economics. And then put to calculate the value of assessment indicators through the methods of quantitative and semi-quantitative converting, in order to reflect the loss of ecological functions value in the monetary form and achieve the goal of quantitative evaluation. At the same time, evaluated empirically the value loss, taking the disaster-stricken forest in Fujian province as an example,the results show that the indirect economic loss brought by 2008＇ blizzard and frozen disasters to Fujian provincial forest in water conservation, soil conservation, carbon sequestration release oxygen, purify air, biodiversity conservation, and other ecological functions value were 10.7906, 8.0228, 5.2617, 2.7782 and 0.0720 million yuan yearly, a total of the indirect economic loss in the value of ecosystem services reached 26.925 3 billion yuan yearly, and the direct economic loss brought by 2008 blizzard and frozen disasters to Fujian provincial forestry in provision of forest products is 4.597 5 billion yuan. The results indicated that the indirect use value loss of forest in ecological environment services is far greater than the value loss of the direct provision of forest products Xu Haigen, Wang Jianmin, Qiang Sheng and Wang Changyong. 2004. Study of key issues under the Convention of Biological Diversity: alien species invasion, biosafety and genetic resources. Science Press. Beijing. 78~128 and 313~397. 136

Xu Hui, Qian Yi, and Peng BuZhuo, et al. "Evaluation of Indirect-use Value of Biodiversity in Yaoluoping Nature Reserve." Journal of Nanjing Forestry University 27.2 (2003): 16-20. Xue Dayuan, 1997. Economic valuation of biodiversity – A case study on Changbaishan Mountain Biosphere Reserve in Northeast China. Chinese Environment Science Press. Beijing. Yang Hong, Liu Guangping. Valuation of ecosystem services in Yangtze River Estuary. Marine Environmental Science. 2008. 27(6):624-629 Yangtze River Estuary，which is full of resources and with widen surface．has many ecosystem services．This paper investigates the wetlands and water area respectively，based on the character of Yangtze River Estuary ecosystem and the reference of the 17 major valuating parameters and methods proposed by Constanza et al(1997)．The market value approach， shadow project approach，surrogate market method，and contingent valuation method are used to evaluate the value of Ecosystem Services in Yangtze River Estuary．The results prove that the value of Ecosystem Services in Yangtze River Estuary is about 12.35 billion Yuan RMB in 2005. Yang Fengwei, Lu Shaowei, Wang Bing. Value Estimation of Service Function of Forest Ecosystem Damaged by Frozen Rain and Snow in the South China. Scientia Silvae Sinicae. 2008. 44(11):101-110. Based on the data of the area and grade of the damaged forest resources by frozen rain and snow disaster, as well as on the relevant researches, the forest ecosystem services standardized assessment criterions were used to estimate the erosion control, water storage, C fixation and biodiversity conservation of the forest ecosystem in the south China. The result indicated that frozen rain and snow disaster caused a loss of ecosystem services valued 711.7 billion RMB. The value loss of various service functions ranked as：water storage 〉C storage 〉biodiversity conservation 〉 C fixation 〉erosion control. Comparing the value order of ecosystem services damaged in different provinces in the south China, Jiangxi and Hunan lost the most of value, that were 149.98 billion RMB and 146.375 billion RMB; Jiangsu, Shaanxi and Qinghai lost the least of value, that were 5.896,5.342 and 0.106 billion RMB respectively. The value losses of Masson Pine and Chinese Fir were the most serious and the value loss of Masson Pine was up to 157.016 billion RMB. The value loss of service functions in different species ranked as： Masson Pine 〉 Chinese Fir 〉broad-leaved tree 〉bamboo〉 other tree species〉economic forest tree〉 Slash Pine〉eucalyptus. YANG Li-Wen, HE Bing-Yu, HUANG Pei-You, Nuerbayi. Assessment of ecological service values for native Populus euphratica forest in Khotan watershed. Acta Ecologica Sinica. 2006. 26( 3)：681-689 Riparian Popuhts euphratica forest is endemic to the arid and desert areas of China. It plays an important role in maintaining the health and stability of arid ecosystems. The aim of this paper is to better the relationship between the P. euphratica forest system and people and to offer a 137

solid basis for scientific management and sustainable utilization of the P.euphratica forest. In this paper, we take P. euphratica forest occurring in the Khotan watershed as a case study and collected the related data through filed survey. Using these data, we assess the direct and indirect ecological service values （ESVs） of the P. euphratica forest system, using some mathematic and physical methods and economic methods, such as market pricing method, opportunity cost method, water quantity equation method, and shadow project method. The indirect ESVs are the production of organic matter, climate regulation, soil formation and protection, water regulation, environment purification, biodiversity conservation, and the value of recreation and culture. The direct ESVs are timber production and industrial raw material. The indirect ESVs are the production of organic matter, climate regulation, soil formation and protection, water regulation, environment purification, biodiversity conservation, and the value of recreation and culture. The direct ESVs are timber production and industrial raw material. The indirect ESVs are the production of organic matter, climate regulation, soil formation and protection, water regulation, environment purification, biodiversity conservation, and the value of recreation and culture. The direct ESVs are timber production and industrial raw material. Results from this study showed that the average ESV of the P. euphratica forest system, covering an area of 3.184×104 hm^2 in the study region, was 67 million Yuan per year, which accounted for 19.0% of the Khotan region＇s gross national production in 2002. Of the total forest＇s ESV, the annual value of organic matter production was 19.2 million Yuan, which accounted for 28.7%, followed by biodiversity＇ s conservation value being 16.4 million Yuan per year, which accounted for 24.5%, and environmental purification value being 12.3 million Yuan per year, which accounted for 18.4 %. Moreover, the annual values of climate regulation and soil formation and protection are also significant, which are 7.9 and 7.0 million Yuan and accounted for 11.7% and 10.5% of the total ESV, respectively. For the direct value of the P. euphratica forest system, the value of timber product is found to be 7.6 million Yuan per year and accounted for only 3.3 % of the total ESV, which was different from people＇ s normal thinking . Our results also showed that the economic value is much higher than its investment, and the indirect value is several times higher than the direct value. Thus, we should pay much attention to developing forest＇ s management practices in river origins, as in the case of the P. the forest＇s ecosystem service functions in euphratica forest ecosystem in the Khotan＇ s watershed. We hope that our study could stimulate more investigation on the assessment of local P. euphratica forests in order to have a better understanding of ecological functions of riparian forests in the arid and desert regions of northwest China. YANG Guang-Mei, MIN Qing-Wen, LI Wen-Hua ,ZHEN Lin. Scientific issues of ecological compensation research in China. Acta Ecologica Sinica. 2007. 27(10)：4289-4300 In China, researches on ecological compensation should be dated back to the 1980s when the discussions on ecological compensation in ecological and economic senses were initiated. Since the United Nation＇s Conference on the Human and Environment in 1992, ecological 138

compensation researches have entered into a phase of theoretical discussions on damager pays principle. With the implementation of ecological protection programs and the reorganization of conflicts between ecological protection and economic development, ecological compensation researches have paced into a phase of theoretical and practical discussions with special emphasis on beneficiary pays principle. Nowadays, ecological compensation has been a hot-spot in all walks of Chinese society. While the key scientific issues in ecological compensation research, such as connotation, standard, approach, implementation mechanism and theoretical basis, etc remains unsolved. Connotations of ecological compensation in China have been moving from emphasizing on ecological senses to economic senses. The clarification of the relationships between ecological fees, environmental fees and resource fees is a key for implementation of ecological compensation mechanism. It is recognized that the basic principle of environmental economics, or externality theory and public goods theory, could be considered as the basis for ecological compensation research. And the consideration of ecosystem services as the basis for compensation is dependent on the controversy of compensation for the benefits or for the values. Determination of eco-compensation standards is at its early stage, and the current research involves the elements such as quantitative assessment of ecosystem services, opportunity cost, demand and supply analysis, etc. The resolution of aforementioned issues is critical for ensuring feasibility and validity of ecocompensation mechanism and its successful implementation, which calls for integration of theoretical and practical researches with association of the Chinese situation and within regional specific challenges. The paper suggests that the future research should focus on, but not limited to, the following perspectives ：（ 1 ） definition of terminology of ecological compensation with consideration of regional requirement; （2） study on theoretical basis and calculation of eco-compensation standard based on practical validity; （3） eco-compensation mechanism with participation of stakeholders; （4） integrated research on ecosystem service and ecological compensation mechanism. Yang Zhirong, Wu Cifang, Liu Yong, Lu Zhangwei. Research on response of ecosystem to changes in land use in rapid urbanization areas-a case study of Zhejiang Province. Journal of Zhejiang University(Agriculture & Life Sciences).2008. 34(3):341-346. Land use change and ecosystem services value change were studied based on the data of land use survey from 1996 to 2005 in Zhejiang Province. Economic niche, integrated index of land use degree and ecosystem services value were employed. The results show （1）Driving forces of cultivated land conservation in Zhejiang Province increased yearly, land use developed as a whole toward high intensity and extent, but the value of ecosystem services decreased. （2） The ecosystem services value in Zhejiang Province was negatively correlated with economic niche and integrated index of land degree. （3）In the course of urbanization, controlling the extension of construction land, improving the ecological compensation of cultivated land conservation, and reducing economic niche of land use could availably restrain decrease of 139

cultivated land, and advance the growth of ＇economy＇ and ＇ecology＇ harmoniously. YANG Guang-mei, LI Wen-hua, MIN Qing-wen, ZHEN-Lin, Mario Lucas. Reflection on the Limitation of Ecological Service Studies in China and Suggestion for Future Research. China Polulation.Resources and Environment. 2007. 17(1)：85-91 Since the introduction of the concept of ecosystem services in 1997, papers on ecosystem services have increased exponentially in China. But above 90% researches was confined to the evaluation of ecosystem services in different regions and different types of ecosystem,which leads to the wrong idea that researches on ecosystem service is about ecosystem service evaluation. Because results of ecosystem evaluations are lach of scientific and practical effectiveness, importance of ecosystem services is questioned. In this paper some susgestions on some suggestions on ecosystem service are put forward with reords to torrent demands, bias of research on ecosystem services and the outcome of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment （MA）. Suggestions for future researches are as follows, researches on the contribution of ecosystem services to human well-being; researches on the degradation of the ecosystem services; the reasons and approaches on the ecosystem services degradation. YANG Bo-su, ZHAO Tong-qian, YIN Gang-qiang, ZHENG Hua, OUYANG Zhi-yun, HE Ping. Study on Ecosystem Service Function Change of Zhangjiajie Scenic Area in 1990-2000. Forest Research. 2006. 19( 4)：517-522 Taking the forest park of Zhangjiajie scenic area as an example, the study analyzed and appraised each service function in the area from 1990 to 2000. The result indicated that according to the evaluation result, the service function of the ecosystem in the scenic area was enhanced nearly doubled during the ten years; from the value constitution, compared with 1990, the function of providing product and supporting increased to different extents. From the sole function target, compared 2000 with 1990, there were six kinds of function targets-forest by-products and agricultural products, maintenance of soil, conservation of water, purification of environment, leisure tourism, and maintenance of biediversity-whose service function value of the ecosystem in the scenic area was added; while forest product, fixed C, circulation of nutrients and photosynthesis reduced. The above tendency of the change, on the one hand, reflected that with the people＇s living standard improved, the scenic area attracted more and more tourists due to its unique natural condition and landscape. Its cultural function obtained the full display and the total value got a great growth. On the other hand, with tourist income increasing rapidly, the development of the scenic area was shifted from forest product and agricultural product to the protection of the natural resources and the tourist development. To some extents, it promoted the ecosystem conservation in the scenic area and caused the improvement of the regional forest ecosystem and the quality of the overall ecological environment. YANG Li-Wen, HE Bing-Yu, HUANG Pei-You, Nuerbayi Assessment of ecological service 140

values for native Populus euphratica forest in Khotan watershed Acta Ecologica Sinica. 2006. 26(2):681-689 Riparian Popuhts euphratica forest is endemic to the arid and desert areas of China. It plays an important role in maintaining the health and stability of arid ecosystems. The aim of this paper is to better the relationship between the P. euphratica forest system and people and to offer a solid basis for scientific management and sustainable utilization of the P.euphratica forest. In this paper, we take P. euphratica forest occurring in the Khotan watershed as a case study and collected the related data through filed survey. Using these data, we assess the direct and indirect ecological service values （ESVs） of the P. euphratica forest system, using some mathematic and physical methods and economic methods, such as market pricing method, opportunity cost method, water quantity equation method, and shadow project method. The indirect ESVs are the production of organic matter, climate regulation, soil formation and protection, water regulation, environment purification, biodiversity conservation, and the value of recreation and culture. The direct ESVs are timber production and industrial raw material. The indirect ESVs are the production of organic matter, climate regulation, soil formation and protection, water regulation, environment purification, biodiversity conservation, and the value of recreation and culture. The direct ESVs are timber production and industrial raw material. The indirect ESVs are the production of organic matter, climate regulation, soil formation and protection, water regulation, environment purification, biodiversity conservation, and the value of recreation and culture. The direct ESVs are timber production and industrial raw material. Results from this study showed that the average ESV of the P. euphratica forest system, covering an area of 3.184×104 hm^2 in the study region, was 67 million Yuan per year, which accounted for 19.0% of the Khotan region＇s gross national production in 2002. Of the total forest＇s ESV, the annual value of organic matter production was 19.2 million Yuan, which accounted for 28.7%, followed by biodiversity＇ s conservation value being 16.4 million Yuan per year, which accounted for 24.5%, and environmental purification value being 12.3 million Yuan per year, which accounted for 18.4 %. Moreover, the annual values of climate regulation and soil formation and protection are also significant, which are 7.9 and 7.0 million Yuan and accounted for 11.7% and 10.5% of the total ESV, respectively. For the direct value of the P. euphratica forest system, the value of timber product is found to be 7.6 million Yuan per year and accounted for only 3.3 % of the total ESV, which was different from people＇ s normal thinking . Our results also showed that the economic value is much higher than its investment, and the indirect value is several times higher than the direct value. Thus, we should pay much attention to developing forest＇ s management practices in river origins, as in the case of the P. the forest＇s ecosystem service functions in euphratica forest ecosystem in the Khotan＇ s watershed. We hope that our study could stimulate more investigation on the assessment of local P. euphratica forests in order to have a better understanding of ecological functions of riparian forests in the arid and desert regions of northwest China. 141

Yin Qinglian, Xie Li. Heshuihu Lake ecosystem service valuation. Haihe Water Resources. 2007. (6)：17-19 Ye Mao , Xu Hailiang, Chu Xinzheng , Qiao Mu. Impact of Construction of a Forestry Ecological Sci-Tech Demonstration Zone of the Yili River Basin on Ecological Service Value. Rural Eco-Environment. 2008. 24(2):17-21. The ecological services valuation method is adopted to calculate variation of the ecological services value of the forestry in the Yili River basin before and after it was built into a forestry ecological sci-tech demonstration zone. Results show that the ecological services value was 64.0 × 104 yuan - a^-1 before grassland degradation, and dropped to 45.9 × 104 yuan ; a-1 in 2003 owing to over-loading and over-grazing in the past decades. However, after the establishment of the demonstration zone, it soared up in 2006, being 64.5% over that before the grassland was degraded, and 129.2 % over that in 2003. The increment was mainly attributed to improved indirect ecological services value. Obviously the construction of the demonstration zone has greatly raised the ecological services value of the Yili River basin, and its ecological economic benefits are significant. Ye Mao, Xu Hailiang, and Wang Xiaoping, et al. "An Assessment of the Value and Valuation of the Grassland Ecosystem in Xinjiang." acta prataculturae sinica 15.5 (2006): 122-8. Yu Deyong, Pan Yaozhong and Wang Yanyan, et al. "Valuation of Ecosystem Services for Huzhou City, Zhejiang Province from 2001 to 2003 by Remote Sensing Data." Journal of Forestry Research (harbin) 16.3 (2005): 223-7. YE Lin- qi,YUAN Xing- zhong,LIU Hong. Ecosystem Services Evaluation of River Wetland in Yulinghe Watershed Resource Development & Market. 2008. 24（1）：22-24,46 There were important ecosystem services for river watershed. Based on land-use and vegetal maps, this paper analyzed the wetland ecosystem of Yulinhe river, summarized the main service of the wetland ecosystem, as well as material outputting, air ingredients controlling, purifying,culture service and leisure service.This paper also calculated service value and came out the reset that the total value of the Yulinhe river wetland ecosystem service was about 43.9 thousand Yuan.It was 28.52% of the local GDP at 2000. YU Ge, LU Chun-xia , XIE Gao-di. Seasonal dynamics of ecosystem services of grassland in Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau. Chinese Journal of Applied Ecology. 2007.18 (1)：47-51 Based on the theory system services of grassland in season as time unit. The results of ecosystem services and by using RS and GIS techniques, the ecoQinghai-Tibetan Plateau were analyzed and evaluated, with growth showed that the service of supplying biomass presented an up-downup trend, and the peaks appeared in May and September. Its main affecting factors were PAR, soil moisture condition, and underground biomass. The service of carbon accumulation and oxygen release also presented up-down-up trend, which was related to the 142

supplied biomass and its formation. As for the services of holding soil nutrients and water, the former had a peak in May, while the latter presented staggered variation due to the different water consumption characters of herbages at their different growth stages. Yu Ge, Lu Chunxia, Xie Gaodi. Progress in Ecosystem Services of Grassland. Resources Science 2005. 27（6）：172-179 The grassland biome covers an enormous fraction of the surface of the earth. Grassland ecosystem, as one of the most important parts of terrestrial ecosystem, plays an important role in global environment change. Grasslands produce an array of goods and services for mankind, but only a few of them have market value; simultaneously grassland ecosystems provide humans with many other vital and often unrecognized services. This paper reviews the research progress in grassland ecosystem services from different aspects including the ecological services of net primary product, carbon sink, atmospheric composition regulation, water holding, erosion control, soil melioration, and the maintenance of biodiversity based on great deal of former researches. There are several problems in the studies of grassland ecosystem services that include： 1 ） lack of dynamic research; 2） neglect of spatial change of ecosystem services; 3） lack of eco-economic logical frame of evaluation and calculation; 4） no good assessment approaches for economic value; 5 ） no consideration of ecosystem services change caused by human＇ activities; 6） using the same approaches to evaluate different ecosystems; 7） a few of researches focus on Chinese grassland ecosystems. So some priorities need more attention in future research of ecosystem services of grassland：1 ）good eco-economic evaluating and calculating logical frame work; 2） seeking for the scientific methods for different ecosystem types of grassland; 3） research of ecosystem services change as a response of human activities; 4） combining dynamic research and spatial change of ecosystem services with the methods of RS ＆ GIS. Yu Xingguang, Zheng Senlin, Lu Changyi. Affecting factors of ecosystem degradation in Xiamen

Bay and significance of ecological remediation.

Chinese Journal of

Ecology,2006,25(8):974~977. This paper analyzed the degradation in ecological service function of Xiamen Bay, and illustrated the key affecting factors, including unreasonable sea reclamation and sea-bank construction, unsuitable coastal resources exploitation, and lagged pollution treatment works in intensively exploited coastal area.The great expenditure and difficulty of damaged ecological service function restoration suggested the great ecological function value of undamaged ecosystem, and the great economic value of harmonious develop... Yu Xinxiao Qing Yongshen，QIN Yongsheng ，Chen Lihua ，Lu Song. The Forest Ecosystem Services and Their Valuation of Beijing Mountain reas Acta Ecoloica sinica， 2002.22(5)： 783～786． This paper attempts to evaluate the forestry ecosystem service benefits of Beijing mountain area 143

and provide data supports to the decision makers based on the field investigations and researches of more than ten years．Beginning with the concept of forest ecosystem services， the authors adopted the eco economy evaluation methods and classified the forest ecosystem service of Beijing mountain area into direct and indirect benefits．Direct benefits of forest ecosystem include the income form timber and tree crops products and tourism~indirect ecosystem service of forest is the principal part of its function and consists of water resource and soi1 conservation，air and water Pesource purification．Carbon fixation and oxygen production. The studies’results show that average annual forest ecosystem services benefits of Beijing mountain areas．which covers 4056.64km adds up to 16.78 billion yuan (Chinese RMB)，of which，direct benefits makes uP 5.74 and are about 0 964 bilIion yuan．which includes about 90.7498 million yuan incom from tourism．about 873 million yuan of the output of standing economic trees and forest products．Whereas indirect benefits make up 94.26 and sire15.816 billion yuan．which consist of 9.167 billion yuan of water-holding，1.53 billion yuan of water purification and about 28.0692 million yuan of soil conservation，about 224 million yuan of carbon fixation and oxygen production·about 4 865 billion yuan of air purification．Compared to the direct benefits of forest ecosystem，indirect benefits are more important for the survival of human being. Yu Weiwei, Chen Bin, Zhang Luoping. Cumulative Effects of Reclamation on Ecosystem Services of Tidal Flat Wetland——A Case in the Xinghua Bay, Fujian, China. Marine Science Bulletin. 2008. 27(1):88-94. The study area was classified into seven landscape categories： cropland, aquaculture pond, saltern, grass and forest, uncovered land, island, and tidal flat. Based on GIS -tech, the changes of ecosystem area between 1959 and 2000 were estimated by using the remote sensing data and chart, and prospective ecosystem distribution was predicted with the data of issued planning. Then the values of ecosystem services in different periods were calculated by reference of published studies. The area of tidal flat declined by 21.35 % between 1959 and 2000, and the total value of ecosystem services in the tidal flat wetland declined by 16.35 % from 5.31×10^9 yuan to 4.45×10^9 yuan per year during the same time. If the reclamation plannings are implemented, the area of tidal flat will decline greatly by 24.43 %. Meanwhile, the total value of ecosystem services in the tidal flat wetland will be 3.48×10^9 yuan per year, which is only 65.52 % of the amount in 1959. Reclamation causes the shift of tidal flat with high ecosystem value to other ecosystems with low ecosystem value, and the loss of tidal flat is the major reason for the decrease of ecosystem service value in the tidal flat wetland in the Xinghua Bay. Yu Xingguang,Lu Chang-yi,Wang Jinkeng, Lin Zhilan Challenges and regulation strategies the nearshore marine ecosystem services faced in Fujian. JOURNAL OF OCEANOGRAPHY IN TAIWAN STRAIT. 2005. 24(5)：257-263. In this paper, the present statement developing trend and the main ecological problems about 144

exploitation and utilization of the nearshore marine resources in Fujian Province are analyzed. It is that the ecosystem services are the basic guarantee of sustainable development. With the rapid development of harbor construction and port industry, the nearshore ecosystem services in Fujian are faced with severe challenges.The regulation strategies for protectingmarine ecosystem services are put forward, such as rationalzing the port function arrangements, estalblishing the emergency response mechanism of pollution accidents, strengthening the wastewater treatment which discharged into sea, enforcing the total mass control of pollutants,managing the coastal wetlands according to law, and strengthening the harmful algalbloom(HAB)monitoring. Yu Xinxiao, Wu Lan, Rao Liangyi, Zhou Jian, Li Jingrui, Yang Yongqiang. Assessment on the ecological services value of soil and water conservation. Science of Soil and Water Conservation. 2008. 6(1):83-86. Yu XinXiao;Lu ShaoWei;Jin Fang;Chen LiHua;Rao LiangYi;Liu GuiQiao .The assessment of the forest ecosystem services evaluation in China. Acta Ecologica Sinica. 2005. 25(8) ： 2096-2102 Forest, as the main body of land ecosystem, plays an important role in global ecosystem. The research on forest ecosystem services evaluation has been the focus of discussion. According to the fifth national investigation of forest resource （1994-1998） and the estimation method given by Costanza et al , the research has estimated that the total value of the eight forest ecosystem services in China is 30601.20× 108 yuan/a, the indirect economic value is as 14.94 times as the direct economic value, and all kinds of forest ecosystems of unit acreage provides the average value of 23095.25yuan/（hm2·a）. The tropic provides the biggest value of 32417.45yuan/（hm2·a） and the desert of temperate zone provides the smallest value of 12507.90yuan/（hm2·a） in water storage, C fixation and O2 release, nutrients cycle, air quality purifying and erosion control of forests. Among contribution of value of all ecosystem services, the order of value is below： C fixation and O2release〉air quality purifying〉erosion control 〉 water storage 〉 nutrients cycle 〉 timber and other products 〉 provisioning of habit〉 recreation and eco-tourism. The aim of research is that the factors of natural resources and environment will be taken up by the business accounting system of national economy quickly, which provides the basis for realizing the green GDP in the end and provides the scientific basis for the policy of sustainable development and the protection of environment. Yuan Welling Cao Cougui Wang Jinping. Economic valuation of gas regulation as a service by rice-duck-fish complex ecosystem. Ecological Economy. 2008. 4(3):266-272. Valuating the function of ecosystem services is crucial for accounting green GDP, making a conservation policy of ecological environment and the decision of regional development as well as sustainable development strategy. R ice-duck-fish symbiosis has been promoted in several developing countries as a way of increasing incomes for rice farmers, but 145

investigations of its value have mainly focused on direct economic＇ benefits, such as food and raw material production. Few studies have been conducted on the estimation of indirect services provided by rice-duck-fish complex ecosystem. The gas regulation service and its economic values provided by rice-duck-fish complex ecosystem were studied in Wuhan, China. The major components of gas regulation are O2 emission and greenhouse gases（GHGs, CO2） regulation. The results show that O2 emission from different treatments （including rice-duck （RD）, rice-fish （RF）, rice-duck-fish （RDF） and rice （CK）） ranged from 26,370 kg/ha to 33,910 kg/ha per year. with an economic value of 10,050-12,920 yuan/ha per ）,ear （Chinese currency： 1 euro =10.2475 yuan, August 28, 2007）. The net GHGs exchange varied from 1,200 to 3,320 kg/ha per year; and its economic value ranged from 1,040 yuan/ha to 2,900 yuan/ha per year Consequently, the total economic value of gas regulation provided by symbiosis complex ecosystems ranged from 11,090 yuan/ha to 15,820 yuan/ha per year. and the maximum overall economic value of gas regulation was provided by RDF complex ecosystem. The work will be useful for further understanding of the functions of rice-duck-fish complex ecosystem services and supplying the theoretical references to agricultural policy. YUE Tian-xiang, MA Sheng-nan, LI Zhen-qing, CHEN Si-qing, TIAN Yong-zhong. A Comparative Analysis of Ecological Diversity and Ecosystem Functions on Multi-Spatial Resolutions. Resources Science. 2006. 28 (4)：11-18 The relationship between ecological diversity and ecosystem function has been a central but contentious issue within ecology. Many specialists have discussed effects of different spatial scales on ecological diversity and relationship between ecological diversity and ecosystem functions. It was noted that relationship between ecological diversity and ecosystem function requires particular attention on various scales. Debates on relationship between ecological diversity and ecosystem functions are meaningless if the applicability of different diversity indices on various spatial scales would not be fully understood. This paper made a review of studies related to effects of different spatial resolutions on diversity calculation and the methodologies adopted in the past studies for analyzing the relationship between ecological diversity and ecosystem functions. Three diversity indices, namely Shannon diversity index, Simpson diversity index and Scaling ecological diversity index were used in this study. Taking grassland ecosystem located within the Bayin Xile grassland of Xilin Gol League of Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region as an example, effects of different diversity models and spatial resolutions on the calculation of ecological diversity and its relationships with ecosystem functions are analyzed. The results show that different diversity models might come into different conclusions and spatial resolution has a great effect on the relative conclusions. The traditional diversity index such as Shannon index and Simpson index show a decreased trend generally across 20 scales, but fluctuating increasingly with grain size getting coarser. Scaling ecological diversity index decreases strictly with spatial resolution. Generally, relationships between ecological diversity and productivity is logarithmic, the coefficient increases when 146

spatial resolution getting coarser. Relationships between ecological diversity and desertification area show a negative power curve. But curves of correlation coefficient between ecological diversity and ecosystem functions fluctuate increasingly with spatial resolution getting coarser. The influence of spatial resolution on the relationships between ecological diversity and ecosystem functions is non-linear. YUE Shuping, ZHANG Shuwen, YAN Yechao. Impacts of Land Use Change on Ecosystem Services Value in the Northeast China Transect （NECT）. Acta Geographica Sinica.2007. 62（8）：879-886. Ecosystem services are basis of human living and development. Land use and its changes have deep effect on the ecosystem structure and functions, even its services. According to the different land use patterns in the Northeast China Transect （NECT）, this paper selects Fusong county, Panshi city, Gongzhuling city, Tongliao city and Linxi county as typical regions and analyzes the effects of land use change on ecosystem services during the past 30 years by using the GIS and RS. This paper selects the evaluation method based on money. According to partial global ecosystem services value evaluation results obtained by Costanza et al. and the state of the study area, this paper uses per unit area ecosystem services value of Chinese terrestrial ecosystems to analyze the change of ecosystem services value in the study area. The result shows that the land use pattern has changed greatly in NECT from 1976 to 2000. The area of cultivated land and the town and construction land increased rapidly in Fusong county and Panshi city, while the woodland and grassland decreased greatly. The woodland and grassland tend to change into the cultivated land in Gongzhuling city. The area of woodland in Tongliao city increased and the grassland decreased, while it is on the contrary in Linxi county. This change is related to the policy implementation of converting slope farmland into forestland and grassland. Viewed from the land use degree, we can see that all typical counties have increased from 1976 to 2000, especially in Panshi city and Tongliao city. The analysis on ecosystem services indicates that per unit area ESV in different types of regions differs greatly. The fundamental distribution rule is, from big to small, the forest region, the farming-forest region, the pastoral region, the farming-pastoral region and the farming region respectively. This has close relationship with the ecological value coefficient of different land use types and the land use degrees. From the dynamic change, the ESV of the cultivated land, the woodland and the grassland all change greatly in all kinds of typical regions in NECT. The total value has tended to decrease in all regions except Tongliao city. The analysis on the sensitive coefficient shows that the ESV is short of flexibility in the study area and the result is credible. Yue Wencong,Xu Linyu Study on the Accounting Methods of Green GDP Based on Ecosystem Services. ECOLOGICAL ECONOMY. 50-52. Green GDP,bringing the cost of resource and environment into GDP,is an effective economic way of environmental protection.There is a technical difficult point on how to correctly value the cost.Accounting the cost becomes a hot issue in the research field of ecological economy 147

recently.This paper summarizes two different approaches of accounting Green GDP，which bring the cost of environmental pollution and resource loss from GDP and put the value of ecosystem services into GDP. The paper also develops prospect of accounting Green GDP,putting the cost of environmental pollution,resources loss and benefits of ecosystem services into Green GDP. Zhai Shuijing ,Hu Weiping, Qian Yi. Evaluation of the Ecological Service Function of the Hongze Lake Wetland Nature Reserve in Sihong, Jiangsu. Rural Eco-Environment. 2008 24(1):24-28. Based on field investigations, evaluation of the ecological service function of the Hongze Lake Wetland Nature Reserve in Sihong, Jiangsu, was conducted, using a number of methods, such as market value method, shadow project method and travel cost method. Results show that the annual total value of the ecological service functions was estimated at 1 397 million yuan, accounting for 20.82% of Sihong＇s Gross National Product in 2005. Among all the wetland ecosystem service functions of the reserve, provision of habitat for important wildlife species, regulation of water and regulation of air accounted for 27.49%, 25.27% and 19.33%, respectively. So obviously they are the major service functions. The service function value per unit area of the Hongze Wetland is 28 299 yuan, about 4.09 times as high as that of the wetlands of the globe and 4.85 times as that of the wetlands in China. Therefore, in developing the local economy of Sihong, it is essential to scientifically and rationally protect and exploit the wetland resources by following the basic characteristics of the wetland ecosystem of the reserve. Zhan Lan, Zhou Yong, Xu Yan. A CASE STUDY ON JINGZHOU CITY： REGIONAL LAND UTILIZATION CHANGE AND ITS ECOLOGICAL SERVICE VALUE. Resources & Industries. 2008. 10(2):93-97. This paper, according to land utilization change survey during 1998 to 2004, applies land utilization dynamic model and land utilization comprehensive index model analyzes quantitatively the land utilization change, and studies the induced ecological service value with the results indicating an outstanding change in land utilization structure, which means an increasing land utilization extent followed by a decreasing ecological service value. This paper suggests that a sustainable development of land utilization in Jingzhou shall he based on high land utilization efficiency and a good ecological environment. ZHANG Aiping，ZHANG Hua. Effects of Land Use Change on Ecosystem Service Values in Chifeng City. Journal of Inner Mongolia University for Nationalities 2007.22 (5):527-603 Based on the land use data of 1995 and 2000 year, and referring to the table of Chinese land ecosystem service value of unit area which was established by Xie Gao- di etc. , the effects of land use change in principal part of Horqin Sandy Land - Chifeng city on ecosystem service value were estimated. The result indicates that, from 1995 to 2000, the area of farmland 148

increased 5. 04 96, the area of forest/and decreased 2.44 96, and one of grassland decreased 1.32 %, of one water bodies decreased 0.58% ,one of wetland increased 0.16% , and the land of rural- urban, industrial mining and residents reduced 0.19 % , unused land decreased 0.55 %. The land use in the studied area were different greatly from region to region, as most county kept abusing land by destroying forestland and grassland, especially for Aohan banner. The total ecosystem service value in Chifeng city Land decreased from 782.88 × 10^8 yuan to 778.49 × 10^8 yuan in period of 1995 - 2000, there was a 0.56% net decrement of 4.39 × 10^8yuan, and the decrease was caused by the decrease of grassland and forest and the increase of farmland. ZHANG Hong-feng, OUYANG Zhi-yun, ZHENG Hua. Spatial scale characteristics of ecosystem services. Chinese Journal of Ecology. 2007.26(9)：1432-1437 Ecosystem services depend on the earth system processes taking place over a range of spatial-temporal scales. The significant dominant effect of ecosystem processes and ecosystem services can only be expressed in particular spatial-temporal scale. Stakeholders at different institutional scales attach different values to ecosystem services at different ecological scales. Generally, product-providing services have close relationships with the benefits of local people, regulating and supporting services tend to have close relationships with the benefits of people at regional, national, and even global scales, and cultural services have close relationships with the stakeholders from local to global scales. Sometimes, there exists contradiction between ecosystem services across different scales, which leads to different ecosystem management strategies. This paper discussed the spatial characteristics of ecosystem services, and probed into the relationships between the ecosystem services at different spatial scales and the stakeholders at different institutional scales, as well as their implications in ecosystem services evaluation, ecological compensation, and ecosystem management. ZHANG Zhaohui, SHI Honghua, JIANG Zhen bo, CHEN Shang, DING Dewen Sources and implementation of marine ecosystem services. Chinese Journal of Ecology. 2006. 25(12)： 1574-1579 This paper analyzed the marine ecosystem services from the aspects of ecosystem component, ecological process, and biodiversity. Based on the similar effects and characteristics, marine ecosystem services were classified into 15 types. Although many of the organisms and ecological processes in marine ecosystem were still unknown, the connections between its services and their sources were built, aimed to better understand the services implementation process. Marine ecosystem services were originated from biological components, and implemented by certain ecological process. Therefore, any damage to the ecosystem＇s components and processes would weaken, and even lose the ecosystem services, which would further affect human being ＇ s benefits and welfare. To understand the sources and implementation processes of marine ecosystem services was of significance to realize the importance of marine ecosystem and to provide scientific supports to marine ecosystem 149

restoration, and helpful to the services management and the sustainable development of whole society. Zhang Liang, Hu Bao-qing. Estimation of ecosystem service value losses based on land use change in karst area -A case of Du＇an county. Carsologica Sinica. 2008.27(4):335-339 In order to quantitatively analyze the change of ecosystem services caused by land use change ,the economic value of ecosystem services in karst landform area during different periods is estimated with the economic value of food production that is supplied with the cropland ecosystem. The database of Chinese resource and environment spatial-temporal land use in 1988, 1999 and 2005 are used for analyzing two period TM data and a SPOT2/4 data. Over the 17 years, changes in ecosystem services value is 0.91 billion RMB Yuan and their causes analyzed. It is shown that the use of land is not reasonable so that the ecosystem service value lost and economic development is not sustainable. Zhang Caixia, Xie Gaodi, Yang Qinke, Li Shimei. Influence of Human Activities on the Value of Ecosystem Services:Case Study of Zhifanggou Watershed. Resources Science. 2008. 30(12):1910-1916 Human activity and policy have great influence on the value of ecosystem services, but there is insufficient integrated research concerning long timescales. A small typical watershed in a hilly region of loess plateau was selected to study the influence of human activities and policies on the value of ecosystem services based on land use changes during the past 60 years. The results showed that the total value of ecosystem services in 1938 was 5.74×10~8 yuan, which was the highest during 1938～2000 due to minimal human disturbance before 1938. From 1938 to 1978, as a result of specific historical reasons, unreasonable policy guidance and a lack of awareness of ecological protection, the ecological environment deteriorated sharply. There was a rapid increase in sloping farmland and a decrease in natural vegetation, which resulted in the total value of ecosystem services declining to the low of 1·92×108yuan in 1958, with only a very slight increase in the value of ecosystem services through watershed management in 1973 ~1978. From1978 to 2000, with strong support for watershed management from the Chinese government and the increasing awareness of ecological conservation, as well as the implementation of rational policies such as returning farmland to forests, the ecological environment was greatly improved, and the value of ecosystem services reached 3·43×108yuan in 2000. However, the total value of ecosystem services in 2000was 2·31×108yuan lower than for 1938, which indicates that there is still a lot of potential for increasing the value.“Grain for green” needs to be optimized further in light of local conditions, and ecological protection and watershed management still have a long way to go. Zhang Sifen, Yu Ping, Sun Bo. Estimating Compensation for Damaged Vegetation Ecosystem in Shaanxi Province based on HEA. Resources Science. 2007. 29(6):61-67. This paper focuses on selection of the standards and methods for estimating the damage of 150

ecosystem services and compensation of damaged vegetation, and establishing a scientific, precise, and feasible system for estimating ecosystem services compensation of damaged vegetation. On the basis of reviewing relevant papers and literature related to ecological vegetation restoration and ecosystem services, this paper finds out that relevant studies lack quantitative methods in estimating the degree of ecosystem services damage and compensation of damaged vegetation. This paper brings in the method of HEA, which is mainly utilized in the Natural Resources Damage Assessment （NRDA） in the USA. The characteristic of HEA is that it estimates natural resources damage based on the calculation of ecosystem services loss of damaged natural resources. Through adapting the methods of HEA, this paper applies Table of Indicators of Ecological Systems Service Functions in China to deduce the formulae of estimating ecosystem services damage and compensation of damaged vegetation. Based on the relevant statistical materials of Shaanxi Province and application of the formulae, this paper estimates the damage and compensation of ecosystem services of forests and grassland in Shaanxi Province. The results show that from 1986 to 2004, the level of ecosystem services of forests in Shaanxi Province increased by 1.7% annually, and the level of ecosystem services of grassland decreased by 3.0 % annually. Furthermore, this paper calculates the scale of ecosystem services compensation and brings forward the countermeasures for compensating grassland in Shaanxi Province. Zhang SuZhe;Li GuiBao. The Wet Land Ecological Service Function and Value Estimation of the Baiyangdian Lake Wetland. South-to-North Water Transfers and Water Science & Technology.2005. 3( 4)：22-25 The wet land has its own multi funtional and unique ecosystem and the evaluation of its ecological service function provides the scientific basis for its managemend and protection. This paper, by adopting the market value method,tact evaluation method,production cost method, reflection engineering method, fuzzy maths method, travel cost method and ecological value method, takes the Baiyangdian Lake as the object of study to estimate the value of its wet land ecosystem and its service function. The estimated total usable value of the wetland ecosystem service function is RMB 175910. 1×104yuan/year, among which, maximum RMB 68200×104 yuan/year is used to maintain the integrity and the natural service process of the wetland, and minimum RMB 94×104yuan/year is used to maintain the habitat. This paper, finally analyses and discusses the value formation of the wetland ecosystem service function. Zhang Wen-guang, Hu Yuan-man , Liu Miao , Yang Zhaoping , Chang Yu , Li Xiuzhen , Yang Meng , Wen Qingcun. ESTIMATION OF THE GAINS AND LOSSES OF ECOSYSTEM SERVICE VALUES BASED ON LAND USE/COVERAGE CHANGE——A CASE OF UPPER REACHES OF MINJIANG RIVER. Resources and Environment in the Yangtza Basin. 2007. 16(6):821-825. In order to quantitatively analyze the change of ecosystem services caused by land use change, the economic value of ecosystem services in upper reaches of Minjiang River during different 151

time period was estimated with the table of equivalent weight factor of economic value of ecosystem services of China, and the economic value of food production was supplied with the cropland ecosystem of 2001. The database of Chinese resource and environment spatial-temporal land use during 1986,1995 and 2000 was used for analyzing three-period TM data. Over the 15 years, changes in ecosystem services value was calculated,with their causes analyzed. It is shown that the land use change is evident： the area of farmland increased by 60 801 hm^2 from 1986 to 1995 ,and the area of forest decreased by 89 012.17 hm^2. The value of ecosystem services had decreased by 119.9 × 10^8 yuan from 1986 to 2000,mainly because of the change of forest into farmland or meadow. To compare the data in 1995 and 2000,it is found that the area of forest in 2000 was 4 165.28 hm^2 less than in 1995 ,and the ecosystem service value had about 7.9×10^8 yuan difference since the introduction of forest protection policy. It is shown that the forest protection policy has some effect on the change of other land types to forest type. Zhang Xiaohu, Lei Guoping, Yuan Lei, Wang Yubo. Ecosystem Service Values Based on Land Use Change in Black Soil Region of Northeast China——A Case Study of Bayan County. Research of Agricultural Modernization. 2008. 29(6):739-742. According to GIS and RS technique , exercise the ecosystem service value method, take the Bayan County which lies the typical black soil region, the paper studies the ecosystem service values change which is begotten by land use change during 1991-2006. The results indicate that during 1991-2006, the land use structure of the Bayan County takes on simplified development trend, the whole circs of land use is in the development phase reviewing from land use degree. During 1991－2006,the cultivated land,the constructed land and the water area of the Bayan County takes on ascending trend and the another land type reduces, then the cultivated land increases the most fast at 5.79％and the meadow reduces the most fast at 23.19％.The overall ecosystem service values decreases to 9235.41 thousand yuan, reduce to 3.65％than 15 years ago. As a result of the woodland and the meadow decreasing, the overall ecosystem service values of the Bayan County decreases. ZHANG Xiao-Yun, LU Xian-Guo, SHEN Song-Ping, GU Hai-Jun. Service Value Evaluation of Main Ecosystems of Ruoergai Plateau Marshes. Wetland Science. 2008. 6( 4) :466-472 With satellite remote sensing data, social, ecological and economic data, Ruoergai plateau marshes ecosystem services were evaluated by building an evaluation model and using a series of ecosystem service evaluation methods. In result, the total service of Ruoergai Plateau Marshes is 16.99 billion Yuan （RMB） in 2006. Among this, 1.96 billion Yuan is physical production and recreation value and 15.03 billion Yuan is regulation value. In conclusion, Ruoergai Plateau Marshes has huge ecosystem service. Physical production and recreational value are only small part of total ecosystem service. Regulating value has significance to total service. Protect and wise use of wetland resource is the way to keep Ruoergai Plateau Marshes ecosystem service in high level. 152

ZHANG Yi-chuan, QI An-guo. Evaluation on Ecosystem Service Value of Wugongshan National Forest Park. Science Technology and Engineering. 2008. 8( 20):5652-5655,5667 To provide basis for construction of the Wugongshan national forest park, the quantitative method was used to evaluate the forest park ecosystem services. The total value of the ecosystem services of the Wugongshan national forest park was 26.954×10^8 yuan. The direct economic value was 3.48×10^8 yuan, and the indirect economic value was 23.474×10^8 yuan. The latter was 6.75 times of the former. In all kinds of the services, the value of was the highest, and it was 33.4% of the total value. The second was the value of water source conservation which was 25.3% of the total value. It indicated that the main services of the forest park ecosystem were water resources protection, air-conditioning. The forest park should be actively constructed to protect ecological environment and satisfy the public recreation. Zhang Yifei, Zhao Min. Review on the Validity and Reliability of CVM in Evaluation of Ecosystem Service and a Case Design Study. Advance in Earth Sciences. 2007. 22(22):1141-1149. Allocating appropriate funds to the provision of non-market public goods must be based on appropriately measuring the benefits gained. The Contingent Valuation Method （CVM） is a technique based on stated individual preferences, which has been extensively used for assigning monetary values to goods such as those provided by the ecosystem. But due to the hypothetical market it employs, the validity and reliability of the method has been controversial especially since 1993. This paper is a review on the above field： This paper can be divided into the following three parts. （ 1 ） CVM has been primarily developed：by economists and is founded on neo-classical demand theory. Its core assumption is that the preferences of consumers are stable. But the present abundant literature has shown that results of CVM often appear to be inconsistent with this core assumption and the expectations of economic theory. The dependence of CV outcomes on the hypothetical situation the respondent is to value （content dependence ） and the often large divergences between WTP-and WTA measures of benefits raise question about whether measured benefits in one study can be transferred to other locations or situations. This paper cites many CVM case studies to illustrate these anomalies and summarize different explanation ; （2） Based on a general review of CVM research in China, the authors points out that the absence of tests of validity and reliability will hamper the future application and practicality of cost-benefit analysis ; （3） The paper puts forward multiple schemes for establishing CVM＇s validity and reliability testing which are in accordance with the ecosystem characteristics and social structure particularities in China based upon a previous case study about the ecological restoration of urban river in Shanghai. The scheme provides some direction and suggestions for future research in China. Improving validity and reliability is the key for CVM to being applied in practice and to making a decisive input to policy-making. In spite of not reaching a 153

conclusion it is a hot problem in developed countries but not in China. Despite the different social circumstance, further studies including this paper are necessary and urgent for the application of CVM in China. ZHANG Hua,ZHANG Ai-ping,YANG Jun. Effects of Land Use Change on Ecosystem Service Values of Horqin Sandy Land. China Polulation.Resources and Environment.2007. 17(3)： 60-65 Studying the changes of land use on ecosystem service values can assess quantitatively the effects of land use activity on the regional eco- environment. Based on the land use data of 1995 and 2000, and referring to the table of Chinese land ecosystem service value of unit area which was established by Xie Gaodi, etc., the effects of land use change in Horqin Sandy land on ecosystem service value were estimated. The result indicates that from 1995 to 2000, the area of farmland increased 4.87%, the area of forestland decreased 2.25%, and of grassland decreased 0.03%, of water bodies decreased 1.32%, of wetland increased 0.54%, and the land of rural - urban, industrial mining and residents reduced 3.21%, unused land decreased 8.83%. The land use in the study area were different from region to region, as most cotmty kept abusing land by destroying forestland and grassland. The total ecosystem service value in Horqin Sandy I.and increased from 146.367 × 10^9 yuan to 146.736 × 10^9 yuan in period of 1995 - 2000. There was 0.25% net increment of 369 × 10^6 yuan, and the increment was not caused by the extent of farmland, but by the effective management on the sandy land in some counties. ZHANG Wen-guang, HU Yuan-man , LIU Miao , YANG Zhao-ping , CHANG Yu , LI Xiu-zhen , YANG Meng , WEN Qing-cun. ESTIMATION OF THE GAINS AND LOSSES OF ECOSYSTEM SERVICE VALUES BASED ON LAND USE/COVERAGE CHANGE——A CASE OF UPPER REACHES OF MINJIANG RIVER. Resources and Environment in the Yangtza Basin. 2007. 16( 6)：821-825 In order to quantitatively analyze the change of ecosystem services caused by land use change, the economic value of ecosystem services in upper reaches of Minjiang River during different time period was estimated with the table of equivalent weight factor of economic value of ecosystem services of China, and the economic value of food production was supplied with the cropland ecosystem of 2001. The database of Chinese resource and environment spatial-temporal land use during 1986,1995 and 2000 was used for analyzing three-period TM data. Over the 15 years, changes in ecosystem services value was calculated,with their causes analyzed. It is shown that the land use change is evident： the area of farmland increased by 60 801 hm^2 from 1986 to 1995 ,and the area of forest decreased by 89 012.17 hm^2. The value of ecosystem services had decreased by 119.9 × 10^8 yuan from 1986 to 2000,mainly because of the change of forest into farmland or meadow. To compare the data in 1995 and 2000,it is found that the area of forest in 2000 was 4 165.28 hm^2 less than in 1995 ,and the ecosystem service value had about 7.9×10^8 yuan difference since the introduction of forest protection 154

policy. It is shown that the forest protection policy has some effect on the change of other land types to forest type. Zhang Yongli, Yang Fengwei, and Lu Shaowei. "Estimation on the Economic Values of the Forest Ecosystem Service Function in Qinghai Province." Journal of Northeast Forestry University 35.11 (2007): 74,76, 88. The data from the sixth national forest resource inventory of Qinghai Province and the price parameter released by the authority in the world were used to evaluate the economic values of ecosystem service function for different forest typos in Qinghai Province in 2004 by market value method, shallow engineering method, production cost method and opportunity cost method based on the long and continuous observation. Result shows that the total value of forest ecosystem service function of Qinghai province is 155.35 ×10^8 yuan, and the economic value of every service function is sequenced as biodiversity protection, C fixation and O2 release, water conservation, air purifying, erosion control, nutrient cycle, recreation and eco-tourism from high to low. The economic value of service function per unit area for polar is the highest, and then followed by soft broad-leaved trees, larch, oak, birch, Chinese weeping cypress, spruce, fir, Chinese pine, economic forest in order. The total values of the service function for different forest types are ranked as Chinese weeping cypress, spruce, birch, poplar, pine, economic forest, larch, soft broad-leaved trees, fir and oak from high to low. Zhang Zhaohui, Shi Honghua, Jiang Zhenbo, Chen Shang, Ding Dewen. Sources and implementation

marine

ecosystem

service.

Chinese

Journal

Ecology,2006,25(12):1574~1579 This paper analyzed the marine ecosystem services from the aspects of ecosystem component, ecological process, and biodiversity. Based on the similar effects and characteristics, marine ecosystem services were classified into 15 types. Although many of the organisms and ecological processes in marine ecosystem were still unknown, the connections between its services and their sources were built, aimed to better understand the services implementation process. Marine ecosystem services were originated from biological components, and implemented by certain ecological process. Therefore, any damage to the ecosystem’s components and processes would weaken, and even lose the ecosystem services, which would further affect human being’s benefits andwelfare. To understand the sources and implementation processes of marine ecosystem services was of significance to realize the importance of marine ecosystem and to provide scientific supports to marine ecosystem restoration, and helpful to the services management and the sustainable development of whole society. ZHANG Zhao-hui , LU Ji-bin, YE Shu-feng, ZHU Ming-yuan Values of marine ecosystem services in Sanggou Bay。 Chinese Journal of Applied Ecology. 2007. 18（11）：2540-2547 A valuation study was conducted in Sanggou Bay, a typical and intensive coastal aquaculture 155

area in China Yellow Sea. The results showed that the total value of ecosystem services （VES） in Sanggou Bay was 6. 07 × 10^8 ￥ in 2003, with an average unit VES being 4.24 × 10^6 ￥·km^-2. Within the total VES, the provision services, regulation services, and culture services accounted for 51.29% , 17.34%, and 31.37%, respectively. Among the eight primary and secondary services valuated in Sanggou Bay, food provision services held the highest value （50. 45% ）, followed by tourism and entertainment services （29. 89% ） and climate regulation services （9. 18% ）. Harmful organism and disease control services have the lowest value（0. 0017% ）. The aquaculture activities had greater contributions to the local social economy, environmental regulation, and social culture. Aquaculture activities, especially macro-algae farming, are of significance in maintaining and enhancing the ecosystem services. ZHANG Zhao-hui, WANG Zong-ling,ZHU Ming-yuan. Research progress on marine ecosystem services. Chinese Journal of Ecology. 2007. 26( 6)：925-932 This paper reviewed the research progress on marine ecosystem services from the aspects of basic theories, valuation methods and practical applications. Among the numerous definitions of ecosystem services, the concept suggested by Daily （1997） was widely accepted by ecologists, while that by Millennium Ecosystem Assessment （MA, 2003 ） was more apt to sociology and management. There was no standard classification for ecosystem services, but the MA＇ s classification was more practical and operational for valuation. It was lack of systematical research on the marine ecosystem services, neither from theoretical aspect nor for suitable classification. As for valuation methods, there were lots of discussion in ecological values and societal values. Although many techniques could be used to know people＇ s willingness to pay （ WTP）, the valuation for non-market services was still quite weak. Most application researches focused on the tradeoff between economic activities and ecosystem services, which would benefit to the management and sustainable use of these services. How to apply the ecosystem services to the management and policy making was also discussed and prospected. ZHANG Xu-liang, YE Si-yuan, YIN Ping, GU Dong-qi. Ecosystem services value and its temporal change of coastal wetlands in southern Laizhou Bay. Chinese Journal of Ecology. 2008. 27(12)：2195-2202 Based on the classification of ecosystem services value and of wetland types, the ecosystem services value of coastal wetlands in the southern Laizhou Bay was calculated by using the Landsat 7 satellite remote sensing images of October 1987 and October 2002, and the temporal change of the value in 1987-2002 was analyzed . The results showed that the material production values of aquatic products and crude salt as well as the values of gas regulation and water regulation were the dominant ecosystem services value of the coastal wetlands in southern Laizhou Bay. The values of gas regulation and water regulation were the primary ecosystem services value of natural wetlands, and those of the material production values of 156

aquatic products and crude salt were the primary ecosystem services value of artificial wetlands. From 1987 to 2002, the total ecosystem services value of the coastal wetlands in southern Laizhou Bay had descended by 28.8%, being from 38. 953 × 10^8 yuan to 27. 743 × 10^8 yuan, and the ecosystem services value per hectare had descended by 29.4%, being from 4. 291× 10^4 yuan · hm^-2 to 3. 031× 10^4 yuan · hm^-2. The main reason for the decline was that part of natural wetlands had been converted into artificial wetlands, which caused the direct use value of the coastal wetlands in southern Laizhou Bay to rise, but the indirect use value and non-use value to descend. To avoid the decrease of the value, local governments should strictly control the construction of artificial wetlands, and protect the existing natural wetlands. ZHANG Zhao-hui, ZHOU Jun,LUE Ji-bin, DING De-wen Connotation and characteristics of marine ecosystem services Marine Environmental Science. 2007. 26（ 3）：259-263 Based on the concepts of ecosystem services, 3 characteristics which were identified from the carrier, route, and impact of achieving ecosystem services were brought forward to define the connotation of marine ecosystem services. At the same time, some misunderstandings for the marine ecosystem services were also clarified with those connotations. In this paper, it was also pointed out that the marine ecosystem would provide more services for human being than that of land ecosystem, because there were much more biological species and ecological process in the marine ecosystem. At meanwhile, the marine ecosystem services showed two significant characteristics： hetero-location and open-access. Finally, the consequence of weakening and losing the marine ecosystem services, more harmful disasters and worse living environment were analyzed. The authors hope that the paper could be helpful to realize and understand the marine ecosystem services, and provide the base for the management of the marine ecosystem services maintenance. Zhang Zhengfeng. Estimation of gains and losses of ecosystem services value with land consolidation. Transactions of the Chinese Society of Agricultural.2008. 24(9):69-72. In this paper, three land consolidation projects locating on the east, the center and the west in China respectively are selected as cases. Based on the data of land use change in land consolidation project area, applying Costanza’s method of evaluating the world’s ecosystem services and the table of Chinese ecosystem service value per unit area of different ecosystem types, evaluates the ecosystem services value before and after land consolidation, then estimates the gains and losses of ecosystem services value. This research can provide reference on the decision of land consolidation and help to achieve the sustainable aim. The ecosystem services values all decreased after land consolidation in the three project area with the maximum loss rate of 23.63% and the minimum of 0.94%, which represent that one of the prominent problems in land consolidation in China are ecological problems. Meanwhile, in the three project area, the values of climate regulation, soil formation and preservation, food production added. However, the values of water conservation, biodiversity, recreation 157

decreased. And others functions values decreased or added in different land consolidation project area. ZHANG Zhiqiang ， XU Zhongmin ． WANG Jian ， CHENG Guodong.Value of the Ecosystem Services in the Heihe River Basin.Journal of Glaciology and Geocryology.2001. 23( 4)：360-366. Based On the data of 1：100 000 Landsat TM in the Heihe River Basin in 1987 and 2000．this paper analyzes briefly the landuse and land coverage changes． It is found that the landuse and land cover in the Heihe River Basin has changed greatly dufng the past 13 a， because of human s irrational development and utilization of water resources and ecosystems． The ecosystems of the Heihe River Basin have been deteriorating continuously． The ecosystem services Of the Heihe River Basin in 1980 and 2000 are evaluaed by using Constanza’s method．The result shows that the annual value of the ecosystem services in the Heihe River Basin was 2．1623×109 $，equal to 178．822×10 8RMB￥，in 1 9 8 7，and 1.7674× l08$ ．equal to 146．164× 108 RMB￥in 2000．The iotal annual flow value of the ecosystem services in the Heihe River Basin was 0．3949×105$，equal to 32．658×108 RMB￥during the past 13a．The value ofecosystem services decreases 2．5l2× l0 RMB￥per year．The great decrease indicates that protection of the ecosystems is essentia1．Comparing to the gross domestic product (GDP)in the Heihe River Basin in 1 999，102．54×108 RMB￥，the annual flow value of the ecosystem services ln 2000 was l.425 times the current GDP of the whole basin．Taking into account that such ecosysterns as permanent snow／glaciers，construction land，salt lick，and desert／gravel desert also have ecosystem services value ， this value of the ecosystem services in the Heihe River Basin is a conservative estimation． ZHANG Zhi-Guo,WEI Jian-Jun. Influence of returning cropland to forest and grassland on ecosystem service value of downstream Yanhe River. Chinese Journal of Eco-Agriculture. 2008. 16(3)：737-740 In order to evaluate the impact of returning cropland to forest and grassland on the ecosystem of downstream Yanhe River, ecosystem service value of the region was calculated and compared using TM and CBERS satellite data. The ecosystem service value of downstream Yanhe River before and after returning cropland to forest and grassland were analyzed. Results show appreciable improvement in ecological quality of returned cropland to forest and grassland. The order of the ecosystem service value of the different land-use types remains unchanged with grassland 〉 cropland 〉 forestland and the ratio of the ecosystem service values of the different ecosystem service types remains unchanged too. Zhao Jun, Yang Kai. Valuation of ecosystem services： characteristics, issues and prospects. Acta Ecologica Sinica. 2007. 27( 1) ：346-356 For about 30 years the valuation of ecosystem services has been the focus of ecological economics and environmental economics, and China begin the study since later 1990s. This 158

paper firstly in four spatial scales reviews the international study of ecosystem services valuation, as regional ecosystem, single ecosystem, watershed, and species and biodiversity. Then the domestic studies up to date are summarized and some notable empirical cases are singled out for their importance. The main characteristics of current study of ecosystem valuation are critically remarked based on four points like study object, value components, valuation method, and spatial and temporal scales. It is showed that, （ 1 ） Large scale ecosystems are our common valuation objects, this may be greatly helpful for us to recognize the global or national natural assets, but studies in this scale contribute little to regional ecosystem management. （2）Direct market valuation method is generally chosen for those large scale objects. Unfortunately, the non-use or intrinsic value of ecosystem services are often ignored, so we suggest that the non-market valuation method such as contingent valuation method （CVM）, and travel cost method （TCM） should be introduced into domestic studies, only in this way the non-use value and some direct use value such as recreation could be effectively calculated for government environmental decision- Almost all the case studies are just in a static perspective, in that the total value is often assessed but the caused by land use or climate change is rarely concerned, and we can not establish a clear relationship between one ecosystem and its adjacency, so the in-situ value is better valued than the off-site. Some basic problems in current studies are pointed out, and the key point is that there is not yet a consensus on the understanding of total economic value of ecosystem, so fundamental research about ecosystem services classification and its valuation method is of imperative importance. The most interesting is that valuation results of the same ecosystem vary greatly from one researcher to another, in this sense we hold that the reliability of today＇s valuation results might be seriously doubted by the public. What＇s more, we find that the valuation results of ecosystem services are seldom used for the government public policy making and this must be greatly strengthened in the future study. Beside this, the domestic must pay much more attention to the theory and method of valuation, because these two aspects still are in a blank state though we have practiced quite many cases. Some other issues for the further direction are also put forward. Zhao Jing-zhu, Xiao Han, Wu Gang. Comparison analysis on physical and value assessment methods for ecosystem services[J]. Chin. J. Appl. Ecol. 2000, 11(2): 290~292. 2000，11 （2）：290~292.）（in Chinese） ZHAO Sheng, HONG Hua-sheng, ZHANG Luo-ping, CHEN Wei-qi. Emergy Value of Mangrove Ecosystem Services in China. Resources Science. 2007. 29( 1)：147-154 Mangroves are woody plants that grow at the interface between land and sea in tropical and subtropical latitudes. These plants, and the associated microbes, fungi, plants, and animals, constitute the mangrove forest community or mangal. The mangal and its associated abiotic factors constitute the mangrove ecosystem. Mangrove ecosystem is a very important category of the wetland systems in China. It has important direct and indirect economic, ecological and 159

social values to human being. However, the mangrove area of China has been severely reduced during the past fifty years by destroying mangroves as agricultural fields, aquaculture mangrove ecosystems continue ponds, and to be used urban construction and so on. An important reason why in unsustainable ways is that their economic value is not and often the economic valuations of mangroves only include the direct uses and products of mangroves, which only represent part of the total value of mangroves. The non-market values, such as biodiversity and nutrient export, are not easily quantified but have shown to be significant. Through estimated the emergy China used in our a study of the energy flows, and using the value of the mangrove ecosystem in China. analysis method of emergy analysis, this paper The ecosystem services of mangrove in include organic matter production, raw materials, habitat, disturbance regulation ,waste treatment and education. The organic matter production is leaf litter and detrital matter, which are valuable sources of food for animals in estuary and coastal waters. The raw materials are the production of timber. The habitat is the capacity of mangrove ecosystem to provide refuge and reproduction habitat to wild animals, especially wild birds. The disturbance regulation is the capacity of mangrove ecosystem to protect and stabilize the coastlines. The wastewater treatment services can be assessed based on the data concerning the capacity of mangroves to remove nutrients from adjacent waters. The education relates to the unlimited opportunities for nature study. The results show that total emergy money value of mangrove ecosystem services in China, which covers 13 646hm^2, adds up to 12.6 × 10^8 Yuan （Chinese RMB） ,of which,about 2 826.58 × 10^4 Yuan of litter fall,about 1 170.81 × 10^4 Yuan of biomass, about 63 866.15 × 10^4 Yuan of habit,about 10 473.30 × 10^4 Yuan of storm prevention,about 47 567.13 × 10^4 Yuan of waste treatment, and about 206.86× 10^4 Yuan of scientific study. In addition, the concepts of the emergy flow value and the emergy storage value of ecosystem services were analyzed and discussed with the details of mangrove ecosystem in China. Zhao Tongqian,Ouyang Zhiyun，Zheng Hua，Wang Xiaoke，Miao Hong Analyses on grassland ecosystem services and its indexes for assessment．Chinese Journal of Ecology，2004， 23(6)：155～160． Grassland ecosystem sen-ices imply the natural environmental conditions and their effectiveness formed and sustained by grassland ecosystem and its ecological processes，on which，human life relies for existence．Grasland ecosystem services can be divided into four groups： provisioning ， regulating ， cultural ， and supporting services based on new study reports．Provisioning services consist of the products from livestock and vegetation in grassland．Regulating services imply the benefits obtained from the regulation of ecosystem processes，including weather regulation，soil C fixation，water storage，erosion control，air quality purification，waste treatment，and nutrients cycle．Cultural services include the nonmaterial benefits people obtained through spiritual enrichment，cognitive development， recreation ， and aesthetic experiences ， such as cultural diversity ， recreation and 160

ecotourism．Supporting services are foundation of the production of all other ecosystem services，including sand dune fixation，soil improvement and providing of habitat．Based on the above analyses，an index system of assessment of grassland ecosystem services ，which consists of 13 function indexes，was established． Zhao Xu,Yang Zhifeng,Xu Linyu. Study and application on the payment for ecological services in drinking water source reserve. Acta Ecologica Sinica. 2008. 28(7):3152-3159. It is imperative to introduce the mechanism of the payment for ecological services as indispensable complement for the restrictive policy on drinking water source reserve.There are economic and ecological value systems to evaluate the ecosystem services.The payment for ecological services aims to compensate the people who lose their benefits after primarily conserving the ecosystem to assure its well function when two mentioned value systems conflict.The strategy of payment for ecological services can be framed through distinguishing the provider and beneficiary of the services associated with their corresponding value systems.Thus,the payment for the drinking water source reserve services can be regarded as the payment for the functions of water-holding and soil conservation derived from the non-commercial forest.The drinking water source reserve in Wuyishan city is also studied using the opportunity cost of the protector as compensation standard. The results show that from year 2005-2020 the providers should be compensated for 8.977 Million yuan RMB,which can be collected by an extra water fee（0.07yuan RMB/（t·a））as the theoretical upper limit, while the concrete extra water fee should be determined by the willingness of the payer. Zhang Huimin, Wang Yiping, Sun Hua. A Primary Discussion on Ecosystem Service Value Theory for Environmental Impact Assessment of Land Consolidation Planning. Guangdong Land Science. 2007. 6(4):27-30. ＂Environmental Impact Assessment Law of the People＇s Republic of China＂ explicitly prescribes that land-use planning in the process of drawing-up must carry out an environmental impact assessment. At present, China ＇ s environmental impact assessment of land consolidation planning at an exploratory stage, theory, method is imperfect, through the analysis, in the process of land consolidation planning environmental impact assessment, the application of ecosystem service value theory can the quantitative reflection the influence of land consolidation planning to the environment, enhance the environment feasibility of the land arrangements plan, and through analyzed the case of Xiaojian town＇s land consolidation planning, to provide quantitative techniques for the environmental impact assessment of land consolidation planning. Due to the decrease in the water area, Xiaojian town＇s ecosystem services value reduced 7.3% ,in the process of planning and designing must protect a certain number of water area, to reduce the adverse impact on the ecological environment. Zheng Xuehui, Yao Jian, Yang Xian , Yan Song. Study on Environmental Assessment of Land Use Planning Based on Ecological Serving Value.

Sichuan Environment. 2008. 161

27(6):56-59. Based on review of the existing problems in the techniques of the land-use planning of environmental assessment, the ecosystem serving value was taken as its assessing index, and the ease of land use planning in Binhuai town was analyzed as an example. The results showed that by application of the ecosystem serving value in the land use planning, the ecological benefits of different kinds of land usage could be converted into currency formally, which is simple and easily understandable. In this way, the ecological benefits could be assessed quantitively in land use planning. Zheng Haixia , Zhang Lubiao , Feng Zhiming. Ecological Compensation Mechanism and Policy Recommendations in Jinhua River Basin. Resources Science. 2006. 28(5): 30-35 Establishment of eco-compensation mechanism plays an important role in the watershed environmental protection. The core contents of eco-compensation comprise 5 aspects： principles, target group, range, criteria, mechanism and legislation of ecological compensation. The ecological compensation should abide by the principles of beneficiaries-pay, polluters-pay and protectors- gain under the framework of equity, development and operability. The target and range of eco-compensation should clarify who will pay and who will get payments. The criteria of payment are important basis for eco-compensation. Based on payment criteria and mechanism, the regulations and laws should be worked out for regulating the implementation of ecological compensation. The Jinhua watershed is located in the middle part of Zhejiang Province in the subtropical monsoon climate area with an annual average temperature of 16.1 ℃. The area of arable land accounts for 12.06 % ; forestland 78.45 % ;construction and mining land 1.78 %. The mode of ecological compensation in Jinhua River basin features the combination of water use rights trading and development of industry zone in the downstream. At the same time, the mode of water use right trading is pushed by market under government instruction and its relation with watershed protection is closer than other modes. Therefore, markets play a key role in payment for watershed services. Based on the field survey and analysis in the Jinhua River basin, this article puts forward four terms and mechanism of compensation for watersheds services： 1 ） It must be an independent river between the upstream and downstream and the regions of water supply and receiving are relatively concentrated and close;2） Both the up streams and down streams are subordinated to the same administrative region, which is conductive to better coordination and management in the whole watershed and easy for financial transfer of payment ; 3） The water quality and watershed environment in the headwaters are good, and the cost of water supply of the same quality in the lower streams is much higher than that in the upstream or there is an extreme freshwater deficiency. The cost caused by the limitation of economic development is much higher than the payment for watershed services, and there is a greater demand for water quality and water quantity in the lower streams;4） The level of economic development in the lower streams is higher than that in the upstream with capacity to pay. The author also puts forward the policy 162

suggestions on ecological compensation, which are： form unified management mechanism; clarify water use right; set up the criteria and enact ecological compensation law; establish resource taxation and price system; ensure watershed management information transparent and minimize trade-off costs. ZHI Ying-biao, HAN Xue, WU Jian-jun, WANG Zhong-sheng, DENG Zi-fa, LI Hong-li. Study on functions of wetland ecosystem assessment in Hongze lake. Journal of Anhui University(Natural Sciences) .2009. 33(1)：90-94 Application of the way for the eco-environmental economy, we have estimated the ecosystem function of the the Hongze lake wetlands in the value of the monetary assessment. The results showed that China＇s Hongze lake as the fourth largest fresh -water lake and the Huang-Huai Plain and subtropical North middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River within the transitional zone of a typical inland freshwater wetlands, birds, plant products, tourism value, research and cultural value, such as direct use Value of 525.03 million yuan, accounting for 10.07% of the total value; indirect use value （fixed value of CO2 and the release of O2, water conservation and flood storage value, control soil erosion and corrosion of values, values＇and biological waste treatment haven value） 3. 043 077 billion yuan, accounting for 58.38%. The present value of non - use category, choose the value of heritage value and the value of 1. 644 67 billion yuan, accounting for 31.55%. Hongze lake reached the eastern part of wetlands each year of service in the human value of up to 5.2 billion yuan. On Hongze lake wetland ecosystem function and structure pending further study, as well as other wetlands and evaluation of the value of ecological restoration and conservation for reference. Zhu Xin-hua, JIAYan, HOUHu-ping. Effects of Land Use Change on Values of Ecosystem Services ——With Xuzhou as an Example. Scientific and Technological Management of Land and Resources. 2006. 23(2)：97-99 There have been great changes in land use of Xuzhou City in recent years. Studies of the change of ecosystem service value in the land use can supply scientific basis for the protection and restoration of regional eco-environment. Referring to the table of Chinese land ecosystem services value of unit area and utilizing the data of land use of the city from 1994 to 2002, this paper estimates the change of the ecosystem services values caused by land use change. The study shows that in the period of 1994 to 2002 there was a decrease in the area of cultivated land and forestland but simultaneously there was an increase in area of other types of land, with the influence of artificial landscape surpassing that of natural landscape. Values of ecosystem services increased 74.35 × 108 yuan each year. The main reason for the increase of the ecosystem services value was the increase of water body and the transformation from unutilized land to forestland and field. ZHONG Xue - bin, YU Guang - ming ,HE Guo - song ,CHENG Dong –lai. The Valuation of Ecological Services From the Forest Ecosystems in the Jiugon- gshan Mountain Nature 163

Reserve. Journal of Xianning College.2005. 25(6)：92-97,101 Based on the characteristics of eco- environment in Jiugongshan Mountain Nature Reserve , according to differences of the forest types, climate and soil in Jiugongshan Mountain Nature Reserve, combine-d with the advance of new research, this paper explores the theory and methods for the valuation of the vegetatio - ns ecosystem services, establishes the data basis of forest ecosystem, GIS and forest vegetation eco - account. By dete-rmining vegetation productions and eco -adjusted mass, taking advantage of the theory and methods on eco/ogyeconomics, the paper studies the value of the forest vegetation ecosystem services. The results show that ：（ 1 ） the total value of Ecological Services from the Forest Ecosystems in the Jiugongshan Mountain Nature Reserve is 4.939 × 10^8 yuan · a^-1; （2） the value of vegetation s soil and fertilization conservation is 15. 025 × 10^6yuan · a^- 1; （ 3 ） the value of vegetation water conservation is 9.30 × 10^6 yuan · a^ - 1 ; （4） the value of fixing CO2 and releasing O2 is 108.04 × 10^6yuan · a^-1 and 107.59 × 10^6yuan · a^-1 respectively; （5） the total value of the other ecosystem service is 195.12 × 10^6yuan · a^-1. The rate of contribution to subtropical broadleaf- mixed is the highest, accounting for 75.4% of the total value. The second is subtropical evergreen broadleaved forest ,accoun-ting for 6.29% of the total value. Zhou Fei, Chen Shiyin, Wu Mingfa. Land utility structure changing trend and its response to ecological service functions——A case study in Zhanjiang City, Guangdong Province. Journal of Safety and Environment. 2007. 7(5):76-79. The present paper is aimed at introducing its analysis of the effect of land utility structure on the ecosystem service function. For this purpose, the paper takes the land use situation in Zhanjiang City, Guangdong, as a case study. Quoting the alternative land use investigation data of the city during the period from 1996 to 2005, the paper has analyzed the land use changing situation by way of landscape ecology along with the response of the ecosystem service functions to the land use structure changing situation with the ecosystem service function unit area of the Chinese terrestrial ecosystem proposed by Mr. Xie Gaodi. The results of the paper＇ s analysis show that the GMi, Hi and Ei of the land utility continue to increase. whereas the Di of land utility goes on decreasing in the city from 1996 to 2005, which may account for the ever more diversifying trend and the ever more equalization of land use types. It also accounts for the complexity and stability of ecosystem being ever more enhanced in the city. Moreover, it is necessary to point out that the ecosystem service function also changes noticeably because of such a land use structure change, though the change seems somewhat irregular with timely fluctuation, In spite of this, the correlation analysis between the ecosystem service values and the GMi, Hi, Di and Ei of land use also reveals that correlation because their correlation coefficients are only 0. 143, 0. 104, - 0. 104 and 0. 103 is not enough evident. However, the stability of the land use ecosystem remains the basis and prerequisite to improving the ecosystem service functions. Therefore, measures are to be taken to adjust the 164

land use structure in the new round of land utility planning revision so as to improve the ecosystem service functions of Zhanjiang City. Zhu Mingyuan Research progress onmarine ecosystem services.ZHANG Zhao-hu,i WANG Zong-ling, .Chinese Journal ofEcology, 2007,26(6): 925-932. This paper reviewed the research progress on marine ecosystem services from the aspects of basic theories, valuation methods and practical applications. Among the numerous definitions of ecosystem services, the concept suggested by Daily (1997) was widely accepted by ecologists, while that by Millennium Ecosystem Assessment(MA, 2003) was more apt to sociology and management There was no standard classification for ecosystem services, but the MA’s classification was more practical and operational for valuation. It was lack of systematical research on the marine ecosystem services, neither from theoretical aspect nor for suitable classification. As for valuation methods, there were lots of discussion in ecological values and societal values. Although many techniques could be used to know people’s willingness to pay (WTP), the valuation for non-market services was still quite weak. Most application researches focused on the trade off between economic activities and ecosystem services, which would benefit to the management and sustainable use of these services. How to apply the ecosystem services to the management and policymaking was also discussed and prospected. ZongYue-guang, Xu Hong-yan, Tang yan-bing et al. The Systematic Analysis on Value of Urban Ecosystem Services[J]. Urban Environment & Urban Ecology. 1999, 12(4): 19~22.）（in Chinese） Zuo Taian, Su Weici, Zhang Fengtai, Song Zengwei. A Study on the Valuation of Water and Soil Conservation Service Function of Forest Ecosystem in the Three Gorges Reservoir area of Chongqing. Issues of Forestry Economics. 28(5):401-405 The forest ecosystem service function is the effectiveness and the natural ambient conditions of human survivable necessary formed and maintained during the course of the development of ecosystem. The paper takes the Three Gorges Reservoir area of Chongqing as a case, has studied in water and soil conservation service function of the forest ecosystem service function. It evaluates the valuation of water and soil conservation service function of forest ecosystem in the Three Gorges Reservoir area of Chongqing by using the method of opportunity-cost, shadow project, substitution and so on. The results indicate that the value amount to 1 480. 41 million Yuan of which 2. 25 million Yuan for land conservation, 11·96 million Yuan for reducing the deposit of the mud and sand 1466·20 million Yuan for the soil fertility. Provides the correct method to calculate Three Gorges Reservoir Region green GDP.

ZONG Wenjun, JIANG Deming, A Lamusa Research advance in ecosystem services valuation. Chinese Journal of Ecology. 2006. 25( 2)：212-217 165

Natural capital, labor capital, and manufactured capital are the three capitals supporting human beingďź&#x2021;s existence and development. Compared with the latter two capitals, natural capital and its offered ecosystem services didnďź&#x2021;t have any perfect economical valuation system. In recent years, ecosystem services valuation has made significant progress under the common concern of economists and ecologists. In this paper, the theoretical basis on ecosystem services valuation was discussed from the aspects of energetics and economy, and some improved methods and means for ecosystem services valuation were summarized, including the adjustment of unit value by biomass, identification of different spatial scales, improvement of contingent valuation method, and application of dynamic simulation models. There still exist some problems needed to be solved and improved in the future.

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Annex 1ďź&#x161; Examples of Each Type of Ecosystem Services

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