Principales enfermedades en avicultura. INFECCIONES BACTERIANAS by Grupo Asís

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Principales enfermedades en avicultura INFECCIONES BACTERIANAS

PRESENTACIÓN Principales enfermedades en avicultura INFECCIONES BACTERIANAS Hafez Mohamed Hafez Rüdiger Hauck

La fuerza editorial de Grupo Asís La editorial Servet, perteneciente a Grupo Asís, se ha convertido en una de las editoriales de referencia en el sector veterinario a nivel mundial. Más de 15 años de experiencia en edición de contenidos veterinarios avalan su trabajo. Con una gran difusión nacional e internacional, las obras de su catálogo pueden encontrarse en multitud de países y ya han sido traducidas a más de ocho idiomas entre los que se encuentran el inglés, francés, portugués, alemán, italiano, turco, japonés y ruso. Su sello de identidad es un gran equipo multidisciplinar compuesto por doctores, licenciados en veterinaria y bellas artes y diseñadores especializados y con un gran conocimiento del medio en el que desarrollan su labor. Cada título se somete a un trabajo técnico y exhaustivo de revisiones, verificaciones y análisis que permite crear obras con un diseño único y un excelente contenido. Servet trabaja con los autores nacionales e internacionales más prestigiosos para incorporar a su catálogo los temas más demandados por el veterinario. Además de obras propias también elabora libros para empresas y entre sus clientes figuran las principales multinacionales del sector.

Infecciones bacterianas

Principales enfermedades en avicultura INFECCIONES BACTERIANAS

PRINCIPALES ENFERMEDADES EN AVICULTURA

Principales enfermedades en avicultura INFECCIONES BACTERIANAS Hafez Mohamed Hafez Rüdiger Hauck

AUTORES: Hafez Mohamed Hafez y Rüdiger Hauck FORMATO: 22 × 28 cm. NÚMERO DE PÁGINAS: 128. NÚMERO DE IMÁGENES: 100 aprox. ENCUADERNACIÓN: tapa dura.

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Libro riguroso de fácil manejo centrado en las principales infecciones bacterianas que tienen lugar en avicultura a través de un enfoque práctico y visual del tema, y escrito por autores de gran prestigio con una amplia experiencia en este campo. Se ha revisado metódicamente cada enfermedad incluyendo la información más actualizada (etiología, epidemiología, signos clínicos, etc.) con el objetivo de facilitar la comprensión del contenido y captar la atención del lector. Asimismo, se han incluido numerosos recursos gráficos (imágenes, gráficos, tablas, diagramas de flujo) que complementan la información proporcionada y permiten que el contenido sea comprensible y accesible para los lectores.

Principales enfermedades en avicultura Infecciones bacterianas

Presentación de la obra Muchas bacterias son capaces de infectar a las aves domésticas. Algunas como Pasteurella multocida, Salmonella gallinarum/Salmonella pullorum o Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae son agentes causantes primarios de enfermedades graves. Otras como Campylobacter spp. y algunos serotipos de Salmonella son responsables de infecciones subclínicas silenciosas y contaminan los productos avícolas, siendo las principales preocupaciones en salud pública. Otras especies como Ornithobacterium rhinotracheale, Mycoplasma spp. o Clostridium perfringens solamente causan signos clínicos o lesiones leves por sí solas, aunque junto con otros patógenos o condiciones ambientales desfavorables pueden conducir a brotes de enfermedad importantes. Muchas otras bacterias están incluidas en algún lugar entre las categorías antes mencionadas. Las enfermedades causadas por bacterias producen importantes pérdidas económicas debido principalmente a la reducción de la ganancia de peso o la producción de huevos, el aumento de decomisos en el sacrificio y el incremento de la mortalidad. Además, los costes están causados por la medicación en caso de enfermedad, así como por los gastos en medidas preventivas como la vacunación. La legislación y otras regulaciones relacionadas con la protección de los consumidores y el comercio se añaden a la carga administrativa de la producción avícola. Puesto que las bacterias desempeñan un papel significativo en la salud y producción de las aves domésticas, es obligatorio para todos los implicados en este negocio conocer las características básicas de los patógenos bacterianos más importantes. Las bacterias de las aves domésticas, al igual que ocurre en términos generales, son un grupo muy diverso. Además de las diferencias en cuanto a las enfermedades que producen, también varían en sus características básicas, como el tamaño, la estructura y el metabolismo. Asimismo, es importante ser consciente de sus formas y medios de difusión, la patogénesis de las enfermedades que producen, y los signos clínicos y lesiones patológicas resultantes. Este conocimiento proporciona la base para establecer los métodos para diagnosticar las enfermedades bacterianas, así como para fijar las estrategias de intervención contra ellas. El objetivo de este libro es presentar esta información de manera fácilmente digerible. Los autores

Los autores Hafez Mohamed Hafez

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Prof. Dr. Dr. Hafez es director del Instituto de Enfermedades Aviares de la Universidad Libre de Berlín. Obtuvo su Máster en Ciencias Veterinarias (MVSc) en el departamento de Enfermedades Aviares de la Universidad de El Cairo en 1975, y completó su Dr. medicinae veterinariae (Dr. med. vet.) en el departamento de Enfermedades Aviares de la Universidad de Giessen, Alemania, en 1981. Terminó la tesis de su Dr. habilitatus (Dr. med. vet. habil.) en el departamento de Enfermedades Aviares de la Universidad de Múnich, Alemania, en 1994. Dr. Hafez es veterinario especialista en avicultura desde 1982, especialista en Microbiología Veterinaria desde 1989, especialista en Higiene Veterinaria desde 1996, Diplomado por el Colegio Europeo de Salud Pública Veterinaria (Dipl. ECVPH) desde 2005, y Diplomado por el Colegio Europeo de Ciencias Veterinarias Avícolas (Dipl. ECPVS) desde 2009. La carrera del Dr. Hafez se ha centrado en el diagnóstico y control de las enfermedades de las aves domésticas en general y, en particular, en las enfermedades respiratorias y de transmisión alimentaria, la gestión, y la higiene. En la actualidad es el Presidente Honorario Vitalicio de la Asociación Mundial de Veterinarios Avícolas (WVPA). Expresidente de la WVPA, Expresidente del ECPVS, Presidente del Comité Científico de Avicultura de la Cámara Veterinaria Alemana, Presidente de la Rama Alemana de la WVPA y Presidente del grupo de trabajo 10 (Turquía) de la Rama Europea de la Asociación Mundial de Avicultura Científica (WPSA). Además, es Profesor Honorario en la Universidad de Hohenheim desde 1996, así como Profesor Honorario en la Universidad de Alejandría, Egipto, desde 2009. Asimismo, es miembro de varios comités científicos relacionados con la medicina veterinaria. Desde 2015 es asesor de la Federación Árabe para las Industrias Alimentarias (AFFI).

Principales enfermedades en avicultura Infecciones bacterianas

Rüdiger Hauck Dr. Rüdiger Hauck es investigador en la Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria de la Universidad de California, Davis (EEUU), donde realiza investigaciones sobre los virus causantes de la gripe aviar, la encefalomielitis aviar y la bronquitis infecciosa. Obtuvo su Licenciatura en Ciencias Veterinarias en la Universidad Libre de Berlín en 2002. Completó su Dr. medicinae veterinariae (Dr. med. vet.) en el Instituto de Enfermedades Aviares de la Universidad Libre de Berlín en 2006. Es especialista veterinario certificado para Enfermedades Aviares y Microbiología, y Diplomado del Colegio Europeo de Ciencias Veterinarias Avícolas (ECPVS). Sus áreas de interés incluyen los estudios de vacunación vírica, detección y tipificación de los patógenos bacterianos, y estudios de parásitos protozoarios. Dr. Hauck trabajó como consultor veterinario de la Bundesamt für Verbraucherschutz und Lebensmittelsicherheit (Oficina Federal de Protección al Consumidor y Seguridad Alimentaria), donde fue miembro del equipo de resistencia a los antimicrobianos. Es coautor de 41 artículos en revistas especializadas y tres capítulos de libros.

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Principales enfermedades en avicultura INFECCIONES BACTERIANAS Hafez Mohamed Hafez RÃ¼diger Hauck

Índice de contenidos 1. Introducción 2. Salmonelosis Infección causada por Salmonella gallinarum Infección causada por Salmonella pullorum Infecciones paratifoideas

3. Colibacilosis 4. Campilobacteriosis 5. Cólera aviar 6. Infección causada por Ornithobacterium rhinotracheale 7. Infección causada por Riemerella anatipestifer 8. Coriza infecciosa 9. Micoplasmosis Infección causada por Mycoplasma gallisepticum Infección causada por Mycoplasma synoviae

10. Clamidiosis 11. Enteritis necrótica 12. Infección causada por Clostridium botulinum 13. Erisipela 14. Estafilococosis y estreptococosis

BACTERIAL INFECTIONS

Salmonellosis Colibacillosis Campylobacteriosis Fowl cholera Ornithobacterium rhinotracheale infection Riemerella anatipestifer infection Infectious coryza Mycoplasmosis Chlamydiosis Necrotic enteritis Clostridium botulinum infection Erysipelas Staphylococcosis and streptococcosis

1 2 3 4Â 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

Ornithobacterium rhinotracheale infection

Ornithobacterium rhinotracheale (ORT) is incriminated as causative agent in the respiratory disease complex. Infections with ORT alone or in combination with other pathogens cause an acute and highly contagious disease of chickens and turkeys. The disease is accompanied by heavy economic losses, by increased mortality rates, increased medication costs, increased condemnation rates due to aerosacculitis and drops in egg production. The infection has been recognized in many countries worldwide.

Aetiology ORT is a gram-negative, rod-shaped to pleomorphic, fastidious and slow-growing, non-motile, non-sporulating bacterium (Fig. 1). The genus Ornithobacterium is a member of the Flavobacteriaceae within the Cytophaga-FlavobacteriumBacteroides phylum and represents a rather distinct line of descent within this family. ORT lacks pili, fimbriae and plasmids. Most strains (90–95 %) of ORT are resistant to gentamicin and polymyxin. All isolates produce oxidase; however, some isolates are cytochrome oxidase negative. In addition, all isolates are β-galactosidase (ONPG) positive as well as indole and catalase negative. Tests with variable results include urease and gelatinase reaction as well as the p-nitrophenyl-beta-D-glucoside (PNPG) test (Hafez and Vandamme, 2011).

A, while the turkey isolates are more heterogeneous and belong to serotypes A, B, C, D and E. Within this bacterial species, isolates with different virulence seem to exist. Neither the origin nor the serotype of the ORT strains does have an effect on the pathogenicity (Chin et al., 2013).

Pathogenesis and transmission The disease is spread horizontally by direct and indirect contact through aerosols or drinking water. Infection takes place by the respiratory route and the bacterium is shed in respiratory secretions. It is possible that wild birds play a role in the dissemination of the bacterium. Vertical transmission is suspected, since some research has isolated ORT at very low incidence from reproductive organs and hatching eggs, infertile eggs and dead embryos. However, it is not yet known if this vertical transmission is caused by ovarian or cloacal contamination (Gornatti Churria et al., 2012). There is very little information about pathogenesis. The bacterium has been detected in various organs, but infection is mostly restricted to the upper and lower respiratory tract. No virulence factors are known.

ORT has been isolated from many different gallinaceous bird species like chicken, turkey, guinea fowl, pheasant, partridge, quail and chukar as well as from duck, goose, pigeon, gull, ostrich, rook and birds of prey. Currently, 18 serotypes designated A to R are known. However, there is no indication of any host specificity of the serotypes. The prevalence of the serotypes is dependent on the host and the geographic region and may change over time. Currently, most of the chicken isolates belong to the serotype

Figure 1. ORT is a gram-negative, rod-shaped to pleomorphic and nonsporulating bacterium (Gram stain).

MAIN DISEASES IN POULTRY FARMING BACTERIAL INFECTIONS

Clinical signs The severity of clinical signs, duration of the disease and mortality are extremely variable and are influenced by many environmental factors such as poor management, inadequate ventilation, high stocking density, poor litter conditions, poor hygiene, high ammonia level, concurrent diseases and the type of secondary infection. In most field cases, especially in chickens, in which ORT is detected, other respiratory pathogens like Newcastle disease virus (NDV), infectious bronchitis virus (IBV), turkey rhinotracheitis (TRT), Bordetella spp., Escherichia coli (E. coli) as well as Chlamydophila psittaci (C. psittaci) are present. There are many reports showing synergism between ORT and those pathogens under experimental conditions (Marien et al., 2005, 2007; Chin et al., 2013). Turkeys outbreaks have been mostly observed in male birds over 14 weeks of age. However, in many cases young poults between the 2nd and 8th week of age could also be found to

be affected. The mortality ranges between 1–15 % during the acute phase, approximately 8 days. Initial symptoms are coughing, sneezing and nasal discharge, followed in some cases by severe respiratory distress, dyspnoea, prostration, sinusitis (Fig. 2) and arthritis. The symptoms are accompanied with a reduction in feed consumption and water intake. In turkey breeder flocks, clinical signs are mostly accompanied with drops in egg production of 2–5 % and increases in the number of unsettable hatching eggs (van Empel and Hafez, 1999). Clinical signs in broilers generally appear between the 3rd and 4th week of age with a mortality rate of 2–10 % (Hauck et al., 2015).

The clinical signs are depression, decrease in food intake, reduced weight gains, transit nasal discharge, sneezing, followed by facial oedema. In broiler breeders and layers the disease primarily affects the birds at the peak of production, mostly between 24th and 52nd week of age. The first signs are mild respiratory symptoms. The mortality is variable and relatively low in uncomplicated cases. The symptoms are generally accompanied with a drop in egg production, decrease in egg size and poor eggshell quality. Fertility and hatchability are unaffected in many cases (van Empel and Hafez, 1999).

Post mortem lesions Pathological lesions are more severe when other respiratory pathogens are present and more common in turkeys than in chickens. The lesions in broilers include pneumonic lungs, pleuritis and airsacculitis.

Figure 2. Sinusitis.

In the air sac, accumulation of creamy, “yoghurt-like” exudate can mostly be detected. In turkeys, lesions are generally localised in the lungs, and include oedema and uni- or bilateral consolidation of the lungs with fibrinopurulent exudate (Fig. 3) as well as caseous or fibrinous exudate in the air sacs (Fig. 4), airsacculitis, peritonitis and enteritis could be detected. In some cases, conjunctivitis, arthritis (Fig. 5), meningitis and inflammation of the cranial bones associated with ORT have been described.

ORNITHOBACTERIUM RHINOTRACHEALE INFECTION

Figure 3. Lungs with fibrinopurulent exudate.

Figure 4. Fibrinous exudate in the air sacs.

The most common histopathological lesions in the infraorbital sinus and trachea are heterophilic or mononuclear inflammatory cell infiltration. In the lungs and air sacs, inflammation was characterized by heterophilic infiltration and/or fibrin accumulation (Hauck et al., 2015).

Diagnostic procedures Clinical signs and lesions are of little value in diagnosis, since many other conditions produce similar clinical signs and post mortem lesions. Accurate diagnosis must be substantiated by direct detection or isolation of the causative bacteria and/ or indirectly through detection of antibodies using serological examination (Fig. 6).

Figure 5. Arthritis.

For detection of the bacteria a sensitive immuno-histochemical staining or a specific polymerase chain reaction (PCR) can be performed (Hafez, 1998).

Samples for bacterial isolation should be collected at an early stage of the disease. ORT can usually be isolated from trachea, lungs, air sacs and sinus. Swabs should be shipped cooled and in transport medium. Differences between various transport media like Amies gel medium and Stuart gel medium in keeping ORT alive are minor (Numee et al., 2012). Blood agar with 5–10 % sheep blood is commonly used for primary isolation, but ORT can also grow on tryptone soy agar and chocolate agar. No growth on MacConkey agar, 5

MAIN DISEASES IN POULTRY FARMING BACTERIAL INFECTIONS

ORT-Diagnosis

Direct

Indirect

Detection

PCR

Isolation

Immuno-histochemical

• • • •

Identification

Serotyping

Serological examination

API 20 NE API ZYM API NFT Fatty acid profile

• AGP • ELISA • Agglutination

• ELISA • Agglutination • AGP

Figure 6. Scheme for diagnosis of infections with ORT.

Endo agar, Gassner agar, Drigalski litmus lactose agar, and Simmons citrate media. More often than not, ORT occurs in mixed culture with other bacteria, especially E. coli. A good selective medium for culturing ORT is not yet available. The addition of 0.5 μm/ml gentamicin and 0.5 μm/ml polymyxin to the sheep blood media may suppress contaminating bacteria, but also the growth of some ORT strains. The incubation of the plates at 37 °C for 48 hours under anaerobic or microaerobic conditions is recommended, but ORT may grow under aerobic conditions. Colonies are very small, grey to grey-white and non-haemolytic (Fig. 7) (van Empel and Hafez, 1999; Chin et al., 2013). Serotyping is done using heat extracted antigen and reference hyperimmune sera by agar gel precipitation test (AGP) or enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). However, AGP is the method of choice for serotyping. Indirect diagnosis for detection of antibodies can be carried out using serological examination as slide agglutination test using antigen prepared from different serotypes or ELISA. The method of 6

choice for detection of antibodies against ORT is the ELISA. The serotype specificity of the ELISA depends on the method of antigen extraction used for coating the ELISA plates. Commercially available ELISA kits are able to detect antibodies against all tested ORT serotypes (Hafez and Sting, 1999).

Figure 7. Typical morphology of ORT colonies on blood agar.

ORNITHOBACTERIUM RHINOTRACHEALE INFECTION

Treatment The treatment of infections with antibiotics is very difficult because of the inconstant and regional sensitivity of ORT strains to antibiotics. For example, most of turkey isolates from Germany and the Netherlands are resistant to enrofloxacin, while isolates from other countries are sensitive against enrofloxacin. It is advisable to test the sensitivity of every isolate. However, currently there is no standard method, and accurate breakpoints to classify isolates as susceptible or resistant are missing. Under field conditions, water medication, using amoxicillin at a dose level of 250 ppm for 3–7 days, has given satisfactory results. Application of chlortetracycline at a dose level of 500 ppm in drinking water for 4–5 days also appeared to be very effective (Marien et al., 2007).

Control ORT infections appear to have become endemic and can affect every newly restocked flock even in previously cleaned and disinfected houses. This is especially true in areas with intensive poultry production as well as in multiple-age farms. There also seems to be a high prevalence in backyard flocks. Failure to clean and disinfect properly after an infected flock has left can cause infection of neighbouring flocks, and the causative agent can cycle continuously from house to house. Proper cleaning and disinfection of the houses between flocks is important to minimize the infection pressure.

ORT has been shown to be highly sensitive to different chemical disinfectants. The most commonly used disinfectants are based on the antibacterial effects of different organic acids such as formic and glyoxylic acids, and on aldehydes that

readily inactivate ORT in vitro. ORT was completely inactivated by a 0.5 % solution containing formic and glyoxylic acid and by a 0.5 % solution of an aldehyde-based product (20 % glutaraldehyde) after 15 minutes exposure time (Hafez and Schulze, 2003). Several attempts to combat the infection using vaccines were carried out with different results. Vaccination trials with an inactivated vaccine in broilers, broiler breeders as well as in turkey flocks were carried out. Vaccination of broiler breeders with an inactivated vaccine at 12th and 18th week of age also induces high antibody titers, which are passed to progenies and supply the offspring with a good protection against an ORT challenge for 14–30 days. The protection, however, decreases with increasing age of the progenies. On the other hand, investigating the effect of ORT vaccination of broiler breeders on antibody titers and performance of breeders and broilers revealed no differences in performance between vaccinated and unvaccinated breeders. However, a significantly lower mean mortality rate and higher mean production index in the broilers derived from vaccinated breeders could be observed (de Herdt et al., 2012). In the field, vaccinations with autogenic inactivated oil-adjuvant vaccines were proven to be successful in reducing the outbreaks of ORT in turkeys and are widely used in some countries. Using live vaccines at 1st day of age in broiler did not induce protection, while application of the vaccine at 7th or 14th days of age resulted in a good protection after experimental challenge. A temperature sensitive mutant of ORT also had some protective properties (Chin et al., 2013). The importance of the serotype for vaccination is not well understood. It is generally assumed that protection after vaccination with inactivated vaccines is serotype specific, but it was shown that cross-protective immunity against different ORT serotypes can be induced by live vaccination.

MAIN DISEASES IN POULTRY FARMING BACTERIAL INFECTIONS

References cHin RP, Van eMPeL PcM and Hafez HM. Ornithobacterium rhinotracheale infection. In: Diseases of Poultry, 13th edition, edited by DE Swayne, JR Glisson, LR McDougald, LK Nolan, DL Suarez and V Nair, eds. Iowa State Press, Ames, Iowa. 2013; pp. 828–834. de HeRdt P, BRoeckx M, VankeiRSBiLck w, Van den aBeeLe G and Van GoRP S. Improved broiler performance associated with Ornithobacterium rhinotracheale vaccination in breeders. Avian Diseases. 2012; 56(2): 365–368. GoRnatti cHuRRia cd, MacHuca Ma, ViGo GB and PetRucceLLi Ma. Ornithobacterium rhinotracheale infection in poultry: an updated review. International Journal of Molecular Zoology. 2012; 2(3): 23–38. Hafez HM. Current status on the laboratory diagnosis of Ornithobacterium rhinotracheale “ORT” in poultry. Berliner Münchener Tierärztliche Wochenschrift. 1998; 111(4): 143–145. Hafez HM and ScHuLze d. Examinations on the efficacy of chemical disinfectants on Ornithobacterium rhinotracheale in vitro. Archiv für Geflügelkunde. 2003; 67: 153–156. Hafez HM and StinG R. Investigations on different Ornithobacterium rhinotracheale “ORT” isolates. Avian Diseases. 1999; 43(1): 1–7.

Hafez HM and VandaMMe P. Genus XXVI. Ornithobacterium. In: Bergey’s manual of systematic bacteriology, 2nd edition, edited by NR Krieg, JT Staley, DR Brown, BP Hedlund, BJ Paster, NL Ward, W Ludwig and WB Whitman, eds. Springer, Williams & Wilkins, New York. 2011; pp. 250–314. Hauck R, cHin RP and SHiVaPRaSad HL. Retrospective study on the isolation of Ornithobacterium rhinotracheale from chickens and turkeys in central California: 294 cases (2000–12). Avian Diseases. 2015; 59(1): 130–137. MaRien M, decoSteRe a, ducHateau L, cHieRS k, fRoyMan R and nauwynck H. Efficacy of enrofloxacin, florfenicol and amoxicillin against Ornithobacterium rhinotracheale and Escherichia coli O2:K1 dual infection in turkeys following APV priming. Veterinary Microbiology. 2007; 121(1–2): 94–104. MaRien M, decoSteRe a, MaRteL a, cHieRS k, fRoyMan R and nauwynck H. Synergy between avian pneumovirus and Ornithobacterium rhinotracheale in turkeys. Avian Pathology. 2005; 34(3): 204–211. nuMee S, Hauck R and Hafez HM. Influence of different storage media, temperatures and time duration on susceptibility of Ornithobacterium rhinotracheale. Pakistan Veterinary Journal. 2012; 32(3): 438–442. Van eMPeL PcM and Hafez HM. Ornithobacterium rhinotracheale: a review. Avian Pathology. 1999; 28(3): 217–227.

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Principales enfermedades en avicultura INFECCIONES BACTERIANAS

PRESENTACIÓN Principales enfermedades en avicultura INFECCIONES BACTERIANAS Hafez Mohamed Hafez Rüdiger Hauck