PRESENTATION
BROCHURE
Vaccines in Small Animals
Canine Vaccination Fernando Fariñas (editor) María Luisa Palmero Rafael Astorga
Vaccines in Small Animals
Canine Vaccination
Vaccines in Small Animals
Fernando Fariñas (editor)
Canine Vaccination
María Luisa Palmero Rafael Astorga
eBook
available
Correct vaccination of dogs requires consideration of a broad range of clinical situations and vaccination options, and obliges veterinary surgeons to constantly update their knowledge in order to appropriately deal with the challenges that arise in daily clinical practice. Using a thoroughly practical approach, this book takes an in-depth look at vaccines and vaccination to provide veterinary professionals with the information they require to address the many doubts and questions that arise in relation to this topic.
TARGET AUDIENCE:
ESTIMATED
RETAIL PRICE ✱✱ Small animal vets ✱✱ Veterinary students FORMAT: 22 × 28 cm NUMBER OF PAGES: 104-112 NUMBER OF IMAGES: 33 BINDING: hardcover
€50
Authors FERNANDO FARIÑAS EDITOR Expert in the fields of clinical immunology and infectious diseases. MARÍA LUISA PALMERO Degree in veterinary medicine from the Complutense University of Madrid, Spain. Gattos cat hospital, Madrid. RAFAEL ASTORGA PhD in veterinary medicine from the University of Murcia, Spain. Full professor of animal health at the University of Córdoba.
KEY FEATURES:
➜➜ P rovides answers to the most frequent doubts about vaccination in dogs. ➜➜ Includes recommendations about when and how to vaccinate dogs depending on the disease and situation. ➜➜ Review of the current knowledge on infectious diseases and how they are prevented written by renowned experts in the field.
Presentation of the book Vaccinations form an important part of the health plans we prepare for our pets. In veterinary practice, vaccines are our most effective tool in the preventive medicine arsenal, besides constituting a significant source of income. Vets normally follow the administration guidelines indicated by the manufacturer. However, in recent years questions and even doubts have arisen concerning the duration of the immunity conferred by some vaccines and whether annual revaccinations are required. Contrastingly, other specialists believe that current data do not provide conclusive evidence of the immunity periods claimed by the manufacturers. This places vets in a difficult position when it comes to offering advice to their patients’ owners. Vaccination is not always a harmless procedure and each administration must be accompanied by a risk assessment to determine the vaccine strain’s potential for residual virulence and unwanted side effects. The immunogenicity of a vaccine depends on many factors, not least those specific to each animal, including their age, sex, breed, whether they have any underlying diseases, are being administered immunosuppressants, malnourished, stressed, etc. Another point to consider is that in developed countries, with access to veterinary services, there is a relatively high population of immunosuppressed dogs and cats. A large number of pets receive immunosuppressive therapies for multiple diseases, not to mention the long list of animals that undergo major surgery or suffer from chronic illnesses or “immunodysregulatory” infections. This increases the likelihood of primary vaccination failure, with vaccines that prove ineffective or only confer short-lived immunity. There is a current tendency towards a change in practice and mentality by both veterinary surgeons and pet owners in pursuit of greater, better, and more rational immunisation for our pets.
Vaccines in Small Animals. Canine Vaccination
Immunisation protocols must therefore undergo a change in policy wherein the pet’s vaccination regime forms part of a complete annual health and well-being revision programme. Vaccinating is a clinical activity that should be performed exclusively by vets after a thorough evaluation of each patient’s specific state of health and characteristics, with the ultimate aim being to decide whether or not to vaccinate and, when necessary, to select the most suitable protocol. The variety of clinical situations, possibilities, and options available for the vaccination of dogs means small animal vets must remain abreast of the latest developments at all times, so they can offer the appropriate solution to any problem that arises in their daily clinical practice. With this in mind, we have decided to publish this book in which the first unit explores the essential knowledge regarding vaccines and vaccinations, followed by a predominantly practical unit which will help veterinary clinicians find answers to the many and often significant doubts that arise when practising canine vaccinology.
hkeita/shutterstock.com
Dr. Fernando FariĂąas Guerrero Editor
Authors Fernando Fariñas Guerrero Fernando Fariñas is a recognised expert in the fields of clinical immunology and infectious diseases, and was based outside of Spain for a large part of his professional career. He is the founder and president of Fundación IO, an organisation dedicated to developing international projects to combat outbreaks of zoonoses and emerging infectious diseases. He holds an international diploma in tropical medicine and leprology. His work focuses primarily on the study of zoonotic diseases in the fields of infectious pathology and immunoinfectology, vaccinology, immunonutrition, auto immunity, and immunodeficiencies within the field of clinical immunology. He is an advisor to various national and international public and private organisations, and a member of specialised study groups including immunotherapy, immunodeficiencies, and vaccinology groups, as well as various working groups focused on vector-borne infectious diseases and zoonoses. He currently coordinates the International Group of Experts on Emerging Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses and the global health group of the One Health Initiative. He has presented his work at numerous conferences, master’s courses and specialised courses in the fields of clinical immunology, infectious diseases, and vaccinology. He is the author of several books and numerous articles in his field of expertise in both Spanish and international journals. He currently directs the Institute of Clinical Immunology and Infectious Diseases in Málaga, and serves as president of the Spanish Ynmun Association, which studies immunological and infectious diseases. He has received numerous national and international awards.
Vaccines in Small Animals. Canine Vaccination
Marisa Palmero Colado María Luisa Palmero Colado holds a degree in veterinary medicine from the Complutense University of Madrid, Spain. She is a cofounder of and partner at the Gattos Centro Clínico Felino, a hospital for cats in Madrid. In 2016 she was awarded the title of University Specialist in Endoscopy and Minimally Invasive Surgery by the University of Cáceres at the Jesús Usón Minimally Invasive Surgery Centre. She is certified in feline medicine by the Spanish Small Animal Veterinary Association (AVEPA) (2012) and in 2011 earned her General Practitioner Certificate in Feline Practice from the European School of Veterinary Postgraduate Studies. In 2011 she enrolled in the Feline Internal Medicine course at the Centre for Veterinary Education at the University of Sydney. She is a member of the International Society of Feline Medicine, American Association of Feline Practitioners, Madrid Small Animal Veterinary Asssociation, AVEPA, and the scientific committee of GEMFE (AVEPA’s working group of specialists in feline medicine). She teaches postgraduate students in feline medicine at CEU-UCH University, Valencia, Spain, as well as in Chile and Argentina. She is coauthor of the book Enfermedades infecciosas felinas (Feline Infectious Diseases) which was published in 2010, and has authored clinical case reports and original articles in Spanish and international internal medicine and feline medicine journals. She has spoken at conferences in Spain and elsewhere and delivered lectures throughout Spain. Her main areas of interest are internal medicine and diagnostic imaging.
Rafael Astorga Márquez Rafael Jesús Astorga Márquez holds a degree in veterinary medicine from the University of Murcia, Spain. He is currently professor of animal health at the University of Córdoba, where he coordinates year 5 of the Preventive Medicine and Health Policy module of the veterinary medicine degree. He has also served as Vice Dean of Students and University Extension (2006–2010) and academic secretary of the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine (2010–2014). He is a corresponding academic of the Royal Academy of Veterinary Sciences of Eastern Andalusia, a diplomate of the European College of Small Ruminant Health and Management (ECSRHM), and a member of the editorial committee of the journal Producción Animal (Animal Production) since 2013. He is a member of the AGR-256 research group (Animal Health: Disease Diagnosis and Control) of the University of Córdoba. He has authored numerous publications in technical and scientific journals, as well as JCR-indexed scientific journals, and participated in multiple Spanish and international research projects. His main lines of research are infectious diseases of domestic and wild animals, preventive medicine in companion animals, diagnosis and control of animal salmonellosis, animal health and food safety in Iberian pigs, use of essential oils as an alternative to antimicrobials, mastitis in goats, and farm biosecurity. He has been a member of the Spanish Association of Veterinary Specialists in Laboratory Diagnosis (AVEDILA) since 1997, and served as the organisation’s spokesperson from 2004 to 2009.
Table of contents Basic vaccinology 1. Immunological aspects of vaccination 2. Characteristics, types, and composition of vaccines 3. Immunisation failures 4. Introduction to vaccine reactions 5. Frequent doubts about vaccination in small animals
Canine vaccination 6. Parvovirus vaccine failure: myths and realities 7. Vaccination against leptospirosis 8. Rabies vaccination 9. Vaccine protocols 10. Vaccination in special circumstances 11. Vaccination against Leishmania
References and recommended reading
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Vaccines in Small Animals
Canine Vaccination Fernando FariĂąas (editor) MarĂa Luisa Palmero Rafael Astorga
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Vaccines in Small Animals
Finally, it is important to emphasise that leptospirosis vaccines must have proven efficacy against each of the following: (1) mortality, (2) clinical signs, (3) infection (leptospiraemia), (4) bacterial excretion, (5) renal colonisation, and (6) kidney damage.
Vaccination of dogs residing temporarily in dog boarding facilities or municipal shelters Temporary stays in dog boarding facilities are increasingly common. Over the years these centres have improved and become more specialised to offer more professional and personalised dog care. For many dog owners, the holiday period involves leaving pets with caregivers or in the hands of professionals in pet boarding facilities. In these centres, contact between animals from diverse epidemiological backgrounds, and in some cases with incomplete vaccination status, entails a potential risk of transmission of pathogens. The most common pathogens found in canine communities are those associated with kennel cough. This syndrome has multiple aetiologies, and involves the combination of parainfluenza virus (type 2) and the bacterium Bordetella bronchiseptica, which has tropism for the respiratory mucosa. As a general recommendation, dogs that have received a primary vaccination course and will spend 15–30 days in a canine community should first be given a booster shot containing a dose of complete kennel cough vaccine (B. bronchiseptica + parainfluenza virus [BbPi]). If the animal’s stay will exceed 1 month, revaccination after 15 days (BbPi) should be considered (Table 2). On the other hand, if a dog has not received the appropriate primary vaccination (e.g. dogs collected by the municipality and transferred to shelters), it is recommended to begin a pentavalent vaccination protocol (DAP + L + BbPi) consisting of two doses separated by 21 days (standard intervaccination interval). In these cases, unidentified dogs and those that have not been vaccinated against rabies must be included in the vaccination protocol approved by the regional authorities.
Vaccination in special circumstances
Table 2. Vaccination schedule before admission to dog boarding facilities.
Adult dogs that have received primary vaccination Example: admission to a summer residence (15–30 days). ➤ One dose of BbPi upon entry and a second dose 2 weeks later if the stay exceeds 30 days.
Adult dogs that have not received primary vaccination Example: dogs collected by local authorities and placed in an animal shelter. ➤ Two doses of DAP + L + BbPi, separated by 21 days.
Vaccination of specific at-risk groups In this section we have focused our attention on different groups that, in our opinion, pose a potential epidemiological risk of pathogen transmission. Thus, in the case of hunting packs, breeding centres, and animal experimentation centres, cohabitation of dogs increases the likelihood of transmission of infections/diseases. In these special and high-risk epidemiological situations standard protocols must be adjusted accordingly. Moreover, in the case of experimental animals (e.g. Beagles), a specific epidemiological and vaccination framework must be developed. For the special situations described here, we recommend adjusting primary vaccination by bringing forward the parvovirus vaccine (P) to 4 weeks of age and revaccinating at 6 weeks of age (P). Revaccination at 6 weeks can be combined with the complete kennel cough vaccine (BbPi + P), and revaccination 21 days later can be combined with the classic combination vaccine against distemper, hepatitis, parvovirus, and Leptospira (DAP + L + BbPi). Revaccination at 12 weeks of age can be combined with the rabies vaccine (DAP + L + R) (Table 3). Depending on the rabies vaccination protocol required by each regional authority, revaccination against rabies should be considered 30 days later, for completion of the primary vaccination protocol by 16 weeks of age. To avoid the residual effect of maternal immunity DAP + L revaccination at 6 months should be considered; by this stage maternal antibody interference is considerably reduced. Finally,
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annual revaccination will consist of a DAP + L + R + BbPi combination. In the case of rabies, it will be necessary to follow the specific rabies vaccination protocol recommended by each regional authority (compulsory annual, biennial, or noncompulsory vaccination). As previously mentioned, in the case of Beagles used in animal experiments, other epidemiological issues must be considered. In these cases, in addition to the standard vaccines included in the primary vaccination protocol (distemper, hepatitis, parvovirus, kennel cough, and rabies), the Borrelia burgdorferi (Lyme disease) vaccine should also be included, where available. Lyme disease is an emerging zoonosis that can be transmitted to humans through the bites of ticks (genus Ixodes), or through contact with infected urine or blood. Dogs in experimentation centres are vaccinated at 4 months of age and given subsequent annual booster shots.
Table 3. Vaccination guidelines for dogs in at-risk environments: hunting packs, breeding centres, experimentation centres.
Parvovirus (P) ■
One dose at 4 weeks of age
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Revaccination at 6 weeks of age
Classical kennel cough vaccine ■
One dose of BbPi at 6 weeks of age (+ P)
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Revaccination 21 days later (DAP + L + BbPi)
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Revaccination of DAP + L + R at 12 and 16 weeks
Annual revaccination (DAP + L + R + BbPi)
4 weeks P
15 days
6 weeks P + BbPi
21 days
21 days
9 weeks DAP + L + BbPi
12 weeks DAP + L + R Rabies (30 days) according to local regulations
Annual revaccination DAP + L + R + BbPi
16 weeks DAP + L + R
Vaccination in special circumstances
Vaccination in cases of epidemiological risk of parvovirus infection Vaccination protocols in situations of risk of canine parvovirus infection have evolved over the years. In its latest guidelines on dog vaccination (Day et al., 2016), WSAVA recommends strengthening immunological protection against parvovirus in situations of epidemiological risk. The following are the main risk factors: ■ History of parvovirus-positive litters ■ Prevalence in surrounding geographical area ■ Risk groups, especially susceptible breeds (e.g. German Shepherd, Rottweiler, Doberman) In situations of epidemiological risk of parvovirus infection, the WSAVA Vaccination Guidelines Group (VGG) recommends incorporating the following strategies into primary vaccination protocols (Table 4): ■ Initial dose against distemper and parvovirus (D + P) at 1 month (4 weeks) of age, followed by standard revaccination (6 weeks of age) ■ Revaccination at 6 months (24 weeks) of age
Table 4. Vaccination schedule in situations of parvovirus risk.
1 month (4 weeks): first dose D + P (optional) 6 weeks D+P
21 days
9 weeks DAPPi + L
21 days
12 weeks DAPPi + L + R
30 days
16 weeks DAPPi + L + R
6 months (optional): Revaccination D + P ■ Absence of maternal antibody interference. ■ In high-risk dogs. ■ Viral shedding in carriers is reduced.
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In addition to reinforcing protection against infection/disease, revaccination at 6 months avoids maternal antibody interference with vaccine activity, which can occur at younger ages. Furthermore, this dose at 6 months decreases potential viral shedding by animals with subclinical infections, reducing the likelihood of transmission. Taken together with the poor immune response of certain breeds to the parvovirus vaccine (e.g. German Shepherd, Doberman, Rottweiler, Setter, Labrador Retriever, Golden Retriever) these beneficial effects of revaccination at 6 months more than justify its inclusion in the vaccination protocol. Finally, following WSAVA recommendations, revaccination against parvovirus infection should be carried out every 2 years.
Vaccination of pregnant bitches Standard vaccination protocols include the option of vaccinating pregnant bitches 1Â month before delivery. It should be stressed that the administration of an inactivated or attenuated vaccine any later is highly contraindicated and poses a potential risk of perinatal mortality. In these protocols, and in situations of epidemiological risk to the litter, a single vaccination against parvovirus 1 month before delivery is proposed. These vaccines are intended to reinforce the immunity of newborn puppies before beginning the primary vaccination protocol (6 weeks of age). The importance of vaccinating against canine herpesvirus in pregnant females in order to prevent the clinical and pathological signs associated with this infection, as well as neonatal mortality, should be stressed. Moreover, it should be noted that WSAVA canine vaccination guidelines (Day et al., 2016) do not include recommendations regarding vaccination of pregnant females, since to date the efficacy of new vaccines has not been demonstrated in experimental studies (Table 5).
Vaccination in special circumstances
Table 5. General recommendatons of WSAVA.
1. Do not vaccinate pregnant bitches. Efficacy has not been proven and this is not recommended. 2. Never vaccinate against rabies before 3 months of age. Vaccines offer protection as early as 6 weeks of age, but for legal reasons the first dose should always be administered after 3 months of age. 3. Perform appropriate revaccinations: ■ Annual revaccination against parainfluenza, Leptospira, and rabies. ■
Biennial revaccination against distemper, parvovirus, and hepatitis (adenovirus).
Vaccination and transport of pets Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 577/2013 of 28 June 2013 on the model identification documents for the noncommercial movement of dogs, cats, and ferrets, establishes the legal requirements, including rabies vaccination requirements, for the “noncommercial” movement of pets within the European Union. The European pet passport, which came into force on December 29, 2014, is the document required to demonstrate compliance with these legal requirements. In Spain, this document is processed and issued by veterinary professional associations in each of the different provinces, under the coordination of the General Council of Veterinary Professional Associations. A memo released by the Spanish Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries, and Food (MAPA) also specifies the health requirement criteria of EU member states for the noncommercial movement of pets (dogs, cats, and ferrets). A section on its website (Livestock/Foreign Livestock Trade) on “Traveling with pets” provides information on the procedures associated with this new regulation. Veterinary professional associations have also sought to provide pet owners with the necessary information by distributing brochures in veterinary clinics.
The first premise of this regulation expressly prohibits entry into any EU country of dogs, cats, or ferrets of less than 3 months and 21 days of age.
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The risk posed by the illegal entry and trade within a country of unvaccinated animals of less than 3 months of age, originating from EU member states and other countries, cannot be ignored. Some examples in Spain are provided below: Example # 1: On two occasions in 2013, members of the Nature Protection Service (SEPRONA) of the Spanish Civil Guard in the Autonomous Community of Aragón seized two trucks containing a total of 125 dogs of different breeds that had been transported from Slovakia. These animals were impounded because European regulations for the transport of companion animals had not been observed. These regulations state that animals must travel with the corresponding European passport, and must be identifiable by microchip. Moreover, animals must receive the rabies vaccine at 3 months of age and cannot be transported during the 21-day period after receiving this vaccine. None of the animals in this case fulfilled this last requirement; based on body size, tooth eruption, etc., veterinary border control agents estimated that the animals were 1.5–2 months old, which did not correspond with the date of birth indicated on their forged passports. ■ Example # 2: In July 2014 in the province of Sevilla the Civil Guard arrested five people accused of trafficking undocumented puppies, which had been acquired from Slovakia at a cost of €30 per animal and had a final market value of €300 each. The animals discovered by SEPRONA did not meet the minimum criteria to enter the country (i.e. minimum age of 3 months and ■
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documentation indicating that the animals had received the compulsory vaccines for sale). The illegal documentation found with the animals included forged intracommunity certificates, pet passports, and microchips, designed to give the impression of legality for the purposes of online sale. Example # 3: In October 2014 a Slovakianregistered truck carrying 39 dogs with similar characteristics to those described in the 2013 case was stopped in the city of Zaragoza. It carried animals of less than 3 months of age, most around 2 months of age. According to the corresponding records in the Trade Control and Expert System (TRACES, an international document that indicates the origin and destination of transported animals based on their microchip number), they were destined for sale in stores in Guadalajara, Madrid, and Cáceres. Example # 4: On November 18, 2014, in the town of Pina de Ebro in the province of Zaragoza, another Slovakian-registered truck was stopped and found to contain 44 dogs and other animals including birds and turtles, which according to TRACES were destined for sale in stores in Guadalajara, Cáceres, and Badajoz. As in the previous examples, the animals did not meet the minimum age requirements to travel through EU territory. Moreover, they were transported in cramped cages in completely inadequate sanitary conditions. Example # 5: In December 2015, SEPRONA agents from Madrid preventively impounded 73 puppies during an inspection at the Adolfo Suárez MadridBarajas Airport for failure to comply with EU
Vaccination in special circumstances
regulations on intracommunity live animal transport; the animals in question were of less than 3 months of age. The puppies had been transported from Prague (Czech Republic) and were destined for the south of Madrid. In general, the methods described in the aforementioned cases are commonly used by organised animal trafficking networks, which take advantage of the ignorance of the general population regarding the legal criteria regulating the entry of animals into the EU (age, vaccines, and passport requirements). One of the most commonly used methods is to issue a new sanitary card so that the client is unaware of the true origin of the animal, and therefore has no recourse in case of death or illness caused by infections acquired at source.
These infringements constitute a significant health risk and further justify the implementation of a preventive programme against rabies that includes annual revaccination.
The following are the established requirements for the movement of dogs, cats, and ferrets within the European Union (Reg. 577/2013): ■ Possession of a European passport for the movement of pets ■ Identification with an electronic microchip or, in the case of pets identified before 03/07/2011, with a tattoo ■ Vaccination against rabies with a valid vaccine at the time of travel
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Antiparasitic treatment for Echinococcus granulosus. The passport must reflect the date and time of antiparasitic treatment, which is valid for 1 year.
Animals can move throughout the EU 21 days after rabies primary vaccination (i.e. 21 days after vaccination at 3 months of age, regardless of whether revaccination is required 30 days later in the region in question, e.g. Andalusia). In addition, for pets travelling to the United Kingdom, Ireland, Malta, Finland, or Norway praziquantel should be administered 24–120 hours before travelling. The aforementioned EU travel requirements are identical to those applied to pets travelling to certain non-EU countries (Andorra, Switzerland, Faroe Islands, Gibraltar, Greenland, Iceland, Liechtenstein, Monaco, Norway, San Marino, Vatican City). Requirements for travel to other countries (listed in Annex II of EU Regulation 577/2013) can vary, and should be checked before travelling (Fig. 1).
Figure 1. Dogs ready for boarding at Kingsford Smith Airport, Sydney (Australia) (EQRoy, Shutterstock.com).
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It is advisable to obtain the relevant information from the embassy or consulate of the country of destination, or the corresponding website, or to consult the CEXGAN (Foreign Livestock Trade) protocol for the export of companion animals. This web page (see References section) provides information on the different requirements listed in Table 6. To return from any of these countries (included in Annex II of EU Regulation 577/2013) to an EU country, the following three requirements must be fulfilled: European passport, microchip, and up-to-date rabies vaccination. Finally, it should be noted that when traveling to a country where there is a risk of rabies (i.e. countries not included in Annex II of EU Regulation 577/2013), the requirements are considerably more strict. In these cases the animal in question should undergo a neutralising antibody test before traveling, performed by an authorised laboratory, and should have levels ≥0.5 IU/ml. The test quantifies levels of anti-rabies antibodies using a viral neutralisation procedure with a quantified (known) rabies virus suspension (CVS-11 strain). This test should be performed 30 days after vaccination, and is valid for the duration of the animal’s life provided that the annual rabies revaccination protocol is completed. In countries in which rabies is endemic (e.g. Morocco) there are no EU-authorised laboratories. On returning from these countries pets must remain in quarantine for 3 months (incubation period). For these reasons, it is advisable to perform serological testing before travelling. Sanctions for noncompliance include the following: ■ Refusal of entry at EU borders. Deportation to the country of origin (Morocco) ■ Quarantine for 3 months (sanitary requirement) and fines of €500–1,000 ■ Euthanasia
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