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CONTENTS

Finding Balance in the Garden

STEALTH SCIENCE PART III

PRODUCT SPOTLIGHTS

20 Biochemistry of the Cold

72 WHO’S GROWING WHAT WHERE

57 THE PRUNING DEBATE

52 I N THIS ISSU E OF GA R D EN CU LTU RE :

13 Foreword

52 Biochemistry of the Cold

14 Product Spotlights

57 Who’s Growing What Where

20 Finding Balance In The Garden

62 The Ultimate Symbiotic and Business Relationship

26 The Climate Controlled Garden

66 Animal Agriculture:What is a CAFO?

32 In Between The Rows

72 Stealth Science: Plant Food and Ionic Relations

38 Ice, Ice Flushing

76 Trump In Denial

42 Best of the Blog: Recycling Food Waste

82 The Pruning Debate

46 Compost – Turn Waste into ‘Black Gold’

88 5 Cool Finds

GARDENCULTUREMAGAZINE.COM

Award-winning combinations

update

‘GHE Flora Series is the only nutrient I used at the Chelsea Flower Show because I knew I would get the result I needed’ Jason Ralph-Smith, AutoPot Owner and RHS Chelsea Flower Show Medallist

Try the medal winning combo today! AutoPot and GHE products are available from all good hydroponics retailers in the UK and across Europe. Visit www.eurohydro.com/autopot-fs to see why GHE mineral nutrients work so well in AutoPot, the world’s most popular irrigation system.

FOREWORD & CREDITS

FOREWORD

have been a passionate and active indoor gardener for over 15 years, using various equipment to control the environment in my grow room along the way. I was always

aware that without a sealed room it could be challenging to maintain balance. Until recently, I didn’t realise just how out of whack it was, and what a difference a little data can make.

I was given “the Minder”, a small and inexpensive device that data logs the temp, humidity, soil temp, and VPD in my grow room. It aler ts you to values you set as dangerous. It was amazing to see what was going on in there, especially once the light had shut off; mega humidity spikes in the summer months (99%), and ridiculously low humidity when the lights are on during those freezing winter days (20%). I knew this was happening, but when an alarm keeps going off reminding you that the environment in your room is horrible, it helps spring you into action. Data collection is key. Knowing how your room reacts to external conditions will help you as a grower. But only if you understand the readings and how to change your equipment to create balance and harmony for your plants. This edition is full of useful and interesting ar ticles about the impor tance of balance in your garden. From lighting to fer tigation, everything has a sweet spot. Knowing how to dial it all in at the right time is the key to squeezing out every ounce of your plants’ potential. As a whole, it can be overwhelming, but addressing each element, understanding its impor tance, and mastering it is essential. So read on, my friends, and become the gardening masters your plants want you to be. Eric 3

CREDITS SPECI A L TH A N KS TO: Albert Mondor, Andrew Abramson, Anne Gibson, Caroline Rivard, Catherine Sherriffs, Dr Callie Seaman, Evan Folds, Matt Mountain, Rich Hamilton, Simon Hart, Tom Forrest, and Tom Wall. PRESIDENT Eric Coulombe eric@gardenculturemagazine.com +1-514-233-1539 E XCU T I V E ED I TO R Celia Sayers celia@gardenculturemagazine.com +1-514-754-1539 ED I TO R Catherine Sherriffs cat@gardenculturemagazine.com DESIGN Job Hugenholtz job@gardenculturemagazine.com D I G I TA L & SO CI A L M A R K E T I N G CO O R D I N ATO R Serena Sayers serena@gardenculturemagazine.com +1-514-754-0062 ADVERTISING ads@gardenculturemagazine.com PUBLISHER 325 Media INC 44 Hyde Rd., Mille-Isles QC, Canada J0R 1A0 GardenCultureMagazine.com ISSN 2562-3540 (Print) ISSN 2562-3559 (Online) Garden Culture is published six times a year, both in print and online.

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D I ST R I B U T I O N PA R T N ER S • Maxigrow • HydroGarden • The Growers Wholesale • Highlight Horticultur e • WHG UK

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, electrostatic, magnetic tape, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise, without prior permission in writing from 325 Media Inc.

GA R D EN CU LT U R E M AGA Z I N E.CO M

PRODUCT SPOTLIGHTS GH E ®

Ripen® 0.5 - 7 - 6 Promotes increased and abundant flowering with greater oil and fragrance production. This highly concentrated formula provides macro-nutrients that are primarily responsible for flower and fruit growth. Ripen® is a liquid finisher that has been specifically engineered and developed to provide these essential macro-nutrients during this final stage in your high-value crop’s life. Use during the final one to two weeks to trigger early plant ripening and to promote robust flower and fruit production.Think of Ripen® as an investment in your plants. Visit EuroHydro.com/ripen.html to find a retailer near you.

Honey Chome Intensify fragrance and flavour in your plants with Honey Chome, an aroma and resin enricher from Emerald Harvest. Designed to enrich your valuable crops with a robust bouquet and plenty of resins during the flowering phase, Honey Chome is made from high-quality ingredients. This rich formulation is for tified with a boost of all three primary macroelements: nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. Plants reach their maximum genetic potential and achieve plentiful harvests with proper nutrition. The extra N, P and K in the bottle encourage crop potency and productivity for vigorous growth and fruiting. Visit TheGrowersWholeSaleLtd.co.uk to find out more.

G.A .S Step Controller Simple to use and the most efficient way to regulate your AC fans, the GAS AC Step controller line is made in Europe to the highest standards. Four versions available; 4Amp or 8Amp with optional 13 Amp heater control.The Pro Plus version has a heater control that works in unison with the fan controller. AC Step controller offers accurate temperature control, operates silently with no clicking between the steps, and, even at low speeds, no humming or vibration from your AC fan. Keep your grow room at the ideal temperature, all the time. Visit GlobalAirSupplies.co.uk for more information.

GROWING PRODUCTS

G.A.S. Intelligent Humidity Controller Precision control over grow room humidity. The Intelligent Humidity Controller learns as it operates and maintains the perfect humidity for your plants. Settings for day and night, the controller dynamically monitors humidity in your grow room environment and controls the levels using VPD (vapour pressure deficit) or relative humidity measurements. Maintain the perfect humidity and never run out of water in your humidifier with the Intelligent Humidity Controller. Available in 240V and Sonic Air Pro version. Learn more: GlobalAirSupplies.co.uk

SUPERth r Tried and True

ive

Used by home gardeners and professionals alike, the trusted, timeless formula is a concentrated non-toxic mixture of vitamins and extracts from kelp seaweed. SUPERthrive has been a staple for countless growers since 1938. Useful for many applications from Bonsai trees to transplanting, using SUPERthrive results in better uptake of nutrients and water. Provides superb results when used in a hydroponic system. But what makes SUPERthrive so effective? It’s the industry’s longest kept secret but, with over 300 stockists in the UK, you can visit your local hydroponic retailer to try it out for yourself! Learn all about its many applications: SUPERthrive.com/how-to-use

e c n e f e D lf e S e iv t c a Pro Prevention is Key! Self Defence from Jeff Winterbourne’s Proactive range offers your plants the chance to fend off almost any unwanted attacks from nasty grow room diseases. It works in a similar fashion to a vaccine for people: giving the plant the means to repel any nasty pathogens. All of this from the actions of an enzyme synthesised from Trichoderma fungi. Also, Self Defence is a veritable treasure trove of available Calcium, perfect for building strong and healthy plants. Contact your local store for more info, or check out the highly informative GrowProactive.com

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PRODUCT SPOTLIGHTS

Control Freak

Fusions

Whilst you may have seen vast swathes of new fan speed controllers on the market promising you the world, when it comes to running your fans without any sort of background hum, these control freak fusion controllers still outpace any of the newcomers! Perfect for controlling either box fans like Gekko or silent tube fans like Isomax, to ensure absolutely no background hum will be heard when turned down low. No more annoying hum keeping you awake at night! If you’ve invested in silent fans, then don’t let yourself down when it comes to choosing the controller, make sure you grab a Control Freak for the ultimate in silent air movement.

m i t S t o o R e P ro a c t i v Needless to say, plants need roots. They pass all the magical loveliness from the substrate to the shoots to ensure a timely and suitably robust yield. It doesn’t take a huge stretch of the imagination to realise that more healthy roots are going to quickly yield you more fruits. Proactive Root Stim has proven itself amongst growers to enhance root mass to an exceptional level, leading to a much stronger plant and, ultimately, a more productive harvest. A well balanced NPK ratio, amino acids, humic acids, and ACRECIACTIV™, a purified compound produced naturally by plants, help improve vigour and resist stress. Head down to your local store and grab a bottle now!

Cocos Premium

100% COCO Substrate Thanks to its ideal structure, Plagron Cocos Premium is the perfect basic substrate. Cocos Premium is natural and fully buffered with stable pH value. Particularly suitable for fast-growing plants, Cocos Premium meets the most stringent quality standards and does not contain any fertilisers. It can be re-used and afterwards, it is suitable as a soil improver. Cocos Premium produces the highest yields in combination with Plagron Cocos A&B and the additives from Plagron. Cocos Premium carries the RHP quality mark. Visit Plagron.com for more info.

GROWING PRODUCTS

Winter Frost

RIPEN; This is the definitive and physical explanation of exactly that in a bottle, made ready for your favourite fast-growing annual plants. Scientifically created with nature in mind, New Millenium presents the original terpene enhancing and essential oil boosting Winter Frost. The technology behind the label exploits natural plant processes as fruits and flowers ripen to peak perfection. Remaining energies stored or leftover from the bloom phase are spent bulking fruits and swelling flower clusters with copious amounts of natural terpene enriched oils. In nature, this signifies and promotes natural pollination by attracting insects with such fragrant produce. Keep an eye out as more plant-specific technologies drop from labs at New Millenium. Visit phive8.com for more info.

Sunmaste10k Finishing L r UV enhancement at its finest. Swapping your grow lights out to these UV enhanced 10K Metal Halide finishing lamps from Sunmaster will result in a much richer aroma and flavour in your final fruits and flowers. Making use of these during your last few weeks of flower will enhance your plants’ expressions of terpenes, flavonoids and essential oil production.

a m ps

Sunmaster is renowned for providing some of the highest quality lighting products. Head down to your local grow shop to up your oil production game today.

G.A.S. SonicAir The new standard in grow room humidifiers, both models use ultrasonic ceramic disks to create a very fine mist of water into your grow room environment. Reliable, powerful, and quiet, both humidifiers offer the perfect solution for small and larger grow rooms. The Pro version gives out a massive 6.5liters of mist an hour, equipped with a built-in float valve and can be connected to a water butt. Both units have built-in auto cut out if the water does run low to prevent damage to the unit. •One year guarantee •Both controllable with Intelligent Humidity Controller •Must be used with RO or filtered water Check out GlobalAirSupplies.co.uk for more information.

GA R D EN CU LT U R E M AGA Z I N E.CO M

Product Spotlights See the most recent Product Spotlights right from your phone or tablet.

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BY TOM WALL, COSMIC KNOT

FINDING

BALANCE

IN THE GARDEN Are you looking for an edge on your garden this year? Then strive for balance, something achieved through keen observation of Mother Nature.

BALANCE IN THE GARDEN

ver since the beginning of modern agriculture, farmers have been looking for ways to manipulate nature to improve gardening productivity. The majority have relied heavily on the use of harmful chemicals and pesticides to increase yields, while also ridding their fields of problems and pests. But why are these problems occurring in the first place?

Many mainstream farmers and gardeners are ignoring Mother Nature’s warning.

N-P-K levels have been the standard measurement of fertiliser since the 1800s, but it ignores a massive part of the equation when it comes to gardening elementally. As many of us already know, the abbreviation “N-P-K” stands for nitrogen, phosphorous, and potassium. They represent only three of 115 elements in the elemental chart, and yet many gardeners believe they are the key to achieving balance. In the grand scheme of things, a balance of all essential elements is necessary, and this is where synthetic gardening and organic gardening contradict each other. In synthetic gardening, there are three macroelements and generally up to 15 microelements that are said to be of use with no regard for the biology required to assimilate them. However, in a forest, it takes a proper balance on many levels to achieve the uninhibited growth every gardener wants. One can best learn to promote balance by observing and understanding Mother Nature in a natural, unhindered state. Only then can a more natural balance be created in the garden, as well as in our bodies. Natural balance in a garden leads to healthier, happier plants with less stress and disease. Studies have even shown how produce grown in a naturally-balanced environment has a greater potential to provide us with more nourishment once consumed. What we put into our plants is what we get out of it them. An average synthetic nutrient has roughly 13-15 elements out of the 115 possible. However, by using proper compost tea prepared with the right organic ingredients, that number can potentially reach over 100, leading to better nourishment for your plants and better food for your body. It’s similar to taking natural vitamins right from the source in the best form possible. Plain and simple, balance is harmony, and that is what nature is ultimately striving for. It is essential for vitality in all life.

In synthetic gardening, there are three macroelements and generally up to 15 microelements that are said to be of use with no regard for the biology required to assimilate them

credit: The Findhorn Community

If there is a problem in the garden, it’s directly related to an imbalance. Whether it’s too many pests, not enough nutrition, or too much salt, an imbalance is to blame. Most gardeners assume they lack something when things aren’t going right, but more often than not, that is not the case. To understand what causes an imbalance in the garden, we have to look beyond the standard N-P-K levels, and this is where organics and biodynamics come into play.

The Findhorn Foundation is a Scottish charitable trust registered in 1972, formed by the spiritual community at the Findhorn Ecovillage, one of the largest intentional communities in Britain

Long before the use of synthetic chemicals, people relied on keen observations of celestial cycles, as well as weather and growth patterns in their surrounding environment. Through these observations, farmers learned to work in harmony with Mother Nature, and many bio-dynamic and organic farming practices were born. Bio-dynamics is a belief that a garden isn’t just a thing, but a living, breathing entity all of its own. When we follow the natural guidelines, truly astounding results can be achieved in the garden. Many world records for vegetables have been set through natural organic and bio-dynamic practices, and entire communities have been built around gardening in this way, such as The Findhorn Community.

BALANCE IN THE GARDEN

One can best learn to promote balance by observing and understanding Mother Nature in a natural, unhindered state

Natural balance in a garden leads to healthier, happier plants with less stress and disease When we truly understand our surroundings, Mother Nature can teach us how to nourish the land naturally. By composting various forest items, using fine rock powders containing a plethora of essential elements, as well as organic compost teas, farmers can learn to grow highly nutritious food completely free of chemicals. It takes an intent observation, but amazing results have been achieved through these age-old practices. Planting and harvesting dates, as well as applications of compost and teas, are generally based on particular planetary and lunar cycles. The direction in which you spin the water while mixing nutrients has been shown in studies to be influential on your garden as well. Clockwise rotation is said to promote flowering plants, while a counter-clockwise rotation is supposed to support plants that are in vegetative stages. Bio-dynamic farmers have even suggested that singing the right tones while applying teas can imprint the water and the plants with vibrations that seem to affect the garden positively. There are many aspects of nature we donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t quite understand, and yet, nature is all there is, and we are all connected as an integral part of it. We need to rekindle our connection with nature to get back to balance. Natural gardens can make that possible. The connection is all around us. Studies have found the sound of crickets singing at night helps signal plants to open their stomata and take in the settling dew from the day. It is assumed the birds announce the morningâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s arrival and prepare the plants for the day. These are just a few of the many examples proving there is so much quietly going on around us. If we slow down and look just right, we might find the key to balance right at our feet. 3

BIO Tom Wall: Professional Musician, Writer and Gardening Consultant. Cosmic Knot/Therapeutic Horticulture Consultations Growing up on a deer farm located on 79 acres of land along the banks of one of Lake Michiganâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s tributaries, Tom grew a love for nature and all the beauties it could hold. Through that passion Tom has channeled his influences into educating the community on sustainable agriculture, becoming an activist, writing for magazines and creating music tuned to nature in his band Cosmic Knot. Follow Tom and all of his passions: https://www.facebook.com/tom.wall.946 https://www.instagram.com/cosmicknotmusic/ artistecard.com/cosmicknot

BY ALBERT MONDOR, HORTICULTURIST AND BIOLOGIST

the

climate

controlled

garden

In addition to being protected from the cold during spring nights, cucumbers planted under a small shelter covered with an agrotextile are not affected by the striped cucumber beetle, a vector of various diseases. With this technique, the harvest of cucumbers can be extended.

Itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s possible to start the growing season earlier and extend the harvest period by a few weeks

CLIMATE CONTROLLED GARDEN

Agrotextiles Agrotextiles are white, veil-like, textiles used primarily to protect crops against insects and bird attacks while also allowing the sunlight to reach the plants for photosynthesis. Some agrotextiles are insulating and help maintain a temperature of about 5 째C (41째F) more than the ambient air. For example, at an outside temperature of -4 째C (25째F), plants covered by an agrotextile are not affected by frost.

By covering a plot of ground with an agrotextile, it is possible to sow or plant leafy vegetables, such as lettuce, kale or spinach, as the winter ends. Since the ground is often not completely thawed at this time of the year, this technique gives better results if you grow your edibles in a tub or a gardening table, with new substrate, installed in a sunny place. Agrotextiles can also be very useful in the spring to protect tropical vegetables such as tomatoes and peppers planted before the last frost.

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There are many ways to cover edible plants with agrotextiles, but the easiest method is to place it on metal or plastic hoops. Flexible plastic tubing usually does a good job. A gardening table covered with an agrotextile

Do not forget to cover your cold frame with straw or a thick blanket when nighttime temperatures start to dip

Cold Frame Another useful technique for extending the outdoor urban agriculture season is the use of a cold frame. It is a structure made of wood, composite wood or metal, 30 to 50 cm (12â&#x20AC;? to 20â&#x20AC;?) high, without a bottom, and can be fixed or transportable. The frame is covered with a window or any other transparent plastic material (polycarbonate, corrugated polypropylene (coroplast), etc.). It is best to install the window or cover material at an angle and make it south facing.

A cold layer is relatively easy to build, but it is best to make it with a rotproof material such as composite wood or steel. If you opt for wood, use cedar, oak or torrefied larch, which are known for their resistance to rot.

Mini-greenhouse The cold frame can be built in several sections, which are superimposed according to the height of the cultivated plants. In sunny weather and when the temperature is hot, it is essential to open the cold frame to allow aeration, and thus avoid condensation and a crop of cooked vegetables! In the evening, you have to close the window completely. Do not forget to cover your cold frame with straw or a thick blanket when nighttime temperatures start to dip.

Of all the techniques, greenhouse cultivation is undoubtedly the one that is most effective for those looking to start the outdoor gardening season earlier.

However, the cold frame should be reserved for growing Brassicaceae plants, such as cabbages and kales, as well as root vegetables like beets and carrots, and leafy greens adapted to cool climates.

Vegetables like carrots, kale, leeks or onions can be planted in August, covered with a tunnel in the middle of fall and then harvested in winter or, in some cases, the following spring. These plants can also be seeded or planted under a tunnel in and then harvested in spring or early summer.

One method is to use a tunnel covered with a plastic film. The tunnel should be made of a thin transparent polyethylene membrane installed on metal or plastic hoops (flexible plastic hose usually does the job) firmly attached to the ground or the sideboards of the tub.

GA R D EN CU LT U R E M AGA Z I N E.CO M

CLIMATE CONTROLLED GARDEN

A greenhouse is a great way to practise urban agriculture twelve months a year but could be expensive to heat.

The polyethylene film lets in sunlight and keeps enough heat at night for some edible plants to grow even if it’s cold outside. The earth absorbs heat during the day and re-emits it during the night in the form of infrared radiation, helping to keep the air under the plastic film hot enough for the plants. Also, since there is virtually no evaporation, the soil remains wet permanently. Even though this technique requires very little intervention, it is vital to use a lot of compost during planting. Although the snow accumulated on the sides of the tunnel is an excellent insulating material, it may sometimes be necessary to cover the ground at the base of the vegetables with a mulch made of shredded leaves or straw to create a second insulating barrier during the cold periods of winter. You can also install a heating cable at ground level.

A second technique is to build a more elaborate greenhouse that will be heated using an electrical system. By keeping the temperature slightly above the freezing point, at about 5°C (41°F), you can expect to grow most leafy vegetables such as Swiss chard, lettuce, and arugula. If the greenhouse is not heated, however, it becomes challenging, if not impossible, to grow tomatoes and cucumbers during the winter months. In this particular case, it is often more profitable and economical to cultivate edible plants of tropical origin under artificial lighting inside a well-insulated building. 3

BIO Passionate about environmental horticulture, urban agriculture and extreme landscape design, Albert Mondor has practiced his craft for over 30 years and created numerous gardens in North America. In addition to teaching courses and lecturing at conferences across Canada, his weekly gardening column has appeared in the Journal de Montréal and the Journal de Québec since 1999. In April 2018, Albert Mondor published Le nouveau potager, his tenth horticultural book. He is a regular guest and contributor to radio and television programs and his hosting The Trendy Gardener spots broadcasted on Météo Média and online. You can also read his blog called Extreme Horticulture at albertmondor.com. Follow Albert on Facebook: fb.com/albert.mondor

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BY CAROLINE RIVARD

In Between The Rows

Under The Gardenerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Feet

The green rebellion likes to take over what used to be well-organised yards and rows 32

GARDEN WEEDS

s passionate growers, we all hope for beautiful flower beds, productive vegetable gardens, and lush patches of herbs. A place where different

colours, shapes, and sizes blend perfectly in harmony to satisfy our artistic goals.

There is nothing more satisfying than succeeding in bringing the perfect garden to life! But the path to “garden perfection” has some roadblocks, and weeds are a major one. There are so many of them, and they multiply fast and strong! The green rebellion likes to take over what used to be well-organised yards and rows.

How to destroy the enemy? Make some tea!

From making nutritious teas, herbal remedies, and delicious salads, to creating nutrient-rich green manure, the usually despised green intruders are, in fact, precious gems

Instead of feeling disappointment and extreme frustration (why didn’t we see them before they took over the full lot?!), think about viewing the weeds from a different perspective. Don’t just rip them up and throw them into the compost pile; put them to use in other ways throughout the year.

Knowledge is the key: from weeds to treasures

Over the years, the world’s soil has been significantly depleted of its nutrients through the commercial, large-scale modern way of farming. The apparent result is that the food we eat is now less nutritious for our bodies than it was a century ago. Today, we need more than an apple a day to keep the doctor away. But believe it or not, adding some weeds from the garden to your menu can make up for lost nutritional value.

If you have used cow or horse manure to fer tilise your crops, there is an excellent chance that Lamb’s Quar ters (Chenopodium album) grows happily and abundantly in your garden. You probably are already well-acquainted with its closest cousin; spinach! This is one of the most common weeds that grow in gardens. The tender tops, harvested in the spring or summer, can be sautéed, steamed, or added to soups. The benefits are many; it is an excellent source of minerals such as manganese, potassium, calcium, and copper. CREDIT: monte pallano - Alter vista

These plants need to be known better. They may not provide us with an abundance of food like our beloved vegetable patch does, and may not be as impressive-looking as our ornamental plants, but even with their muted colours and simple shapes, they are potent and effective! From making nutritious teas, herbal remedies, and delicious salads, to creating nutrient-rich green manure, the usually despised green intruders are, in fact, precious gems.

Annoying weeds, tasty and rich foods

Lamb’s Quar ters

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Whoâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Growing What Where in the UK?

See all the urban growers, backyard gardeners, and inspiring communities featured in Whoâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Growing What Where over the years.

NEW

visit: GCmag.co/WGWW

GARDEN WEEDS

CREDIT: ar thropodafotos.de

CREDIT: Rotary Botanical Gardens

Purslane

Broadleaf Plantain

CREDIT: Sur vival Gardener

Purslane (Portulaca oleracea) is also a power food that grows generously in gardens. Par t of the succulent plant family, its shiny, crunchy, and fatty leaves are filled with health benefits. With high amounts of beta-carotene, ascorbic acid, and alpha-linolenic acid, this weed has a better nutritional value than other cultivated vegetables. Packed with antioxidants, purslane can be eaten raw in salads or sandwiches or cooked in hear tier meals like a delicious quiche.

Medicine powerhouses The humble weeds that grow freely in our gardens have fantastic medicinal proper ties. For example, Stinging nettle (Urtica dioica) is widely-viewed as troublesome due to the sharp, tingling pain it can cause when touched. But this plant is practically a health super-hero. Nettle is very nourishing, and despite its thorns, has a very gentle effect on the body. Its chlorophyll content is high, and it is also very rich in minerals, like iron. An herbal infusion from the dried herb is one of the best ways to unleash its many benefits. Stinging nettle can also be used as a very rich green manure. All you have to do is soak the fresh plant in a bucket for three weeks, and then use the strong resulting tea to water your plants. Broadleaf Plantain (Plantago major) is another example of a precious garden weed. When applied to the skin, the crushed leaves can be used as a first-aid poultice remedy to treat insect bites, minor burns, and scratches. Also, a strong tea made with plantain leaves can help soothe the stomach and intestines, treating hear tburn and other digestive conditions.

Dandelion - Taraxacum off icinale

From flower to root, those pesky dandelions (Taraxacum off icinale) are even good for us! Drink them in a tea or tincture, or eat them fresh in a salad to help with urinary tract issues and boost liver function.

It’s time to make an essential shift in the garden! The next time you find the “annoying weeds” popping up around your flowers or crops, gather them joyfully! Fill your basket and be thankful for their presence and their generous health benefits. A new world awakens in between the rows from plants we never set out to grow. The moment we begin discovering and understanding our weeds, our gardens have the potential to become even more productive. The usually unwelcome herbs become treasured new friends, and this can be the way to achieve a genuinely perfect garden. 3

CREDIT: Wag!

A therapist and healer for over 15 years, Caroline’s passion for medicinal plants only began after leaving the city for the quiet country life in Quebec, Canada. Eager to learn, she’s never looked back, using forests and wildflower fields as her classroom ever since. In a time where reconnecting with plants and nature is badly needed, she spreads her love for herbalism by holding teaching workshops about the powers of medicinal herbs and natural remedies.

Bio

Stinging nettle

GA R D EN CU LT U R E M AGA Z I N E.CO M

BY RICH HAMILTON

Flushing

ICE-FLUSHING

T here is a me t hod t h at e s sen t i a l ly shocks t he p l a n t w i t h a n ice-col d f l ush, f ool ing i t in t o bel ie v ing t h at t he se a s on is ch a nging a nd t h at i t is at risk of f ree zing a nd dy ing

ou’ve raised your plants through the veg and flower stages, doing all you can to achieve the best yields possible. Now, you’re ready to flush them. The process involves feeding the plants with water only, which forces them to use, and therefore, flush any stored nutrients they have. But are there any other techniques you can use at this late stage to

push your plants to perfection? Absolutely!

I t is cruci a l t h at ice f l ushing is p erf ormed c orrec t ly. F ir s t of a l l , k now t h at p rol onged e x p o s ure t o ice-c ol d c ondi t ions c oul d be de t rimen ta l , p o s sibly e v en de s t roy ing your p l a n t. There is a method that essentially shocks the plant with an ice-cold flush, fooling it into believing that the season is changing and that it is at risk of freezing and dying. In response, the plant works harder than ever (just like a human body would in the cold) to protect itself, bulking up by increasing essential oil or trichome production, as well as by boosting colour, vibrancy, and aroma. If successful, your crop will not only be more pleasing to the eye but hopefully tastier too. But scientifically speaking, how does this happen?

Cold water flushing brings out anthocyanins. Anthocyanins are the pigment that gives red, blue, and purple plants their rich colour, and it’s also believed they play a protective role at the onset of extreme temperatures. A flavonoid linked to antioxidants, the more anthocyanins you produce, the better, especially if you are growing an edible crop. Research suggests anthocyanins may also have anti-inflammatory, anti-viral, and anti-cancer benefits, so they have been used often in herbal medicine.

Another exciting and seldom known benefit of ice flushing is that even after it has been done, most green plants still contain far too much nitrogen. The reason is that during a flush, contrary to popular belief, not all nutrients are removed from the plant. The plant instead moves some of the nutrients (especially nitrogen) into the buds to suppor t growth.

An ice flush is helpful in this instance, especially with plants that are for human consumption, because it helps lock up some of the excess nitrogen, which can be toxic to the human body in excessive amounts. It is crucial that ice flushing is performed correctly. First of all, know that prolonged exposure to ice-cold conditions could be detrimental, possibly even destroying your plant. It is safest and most effective to perform the ice flush for the 48 hours before harvest only.

If you feed your plants through a reservoir or a tank, be sure to top off or change your water supply for chilled water that you have kept in a fridge or cooler. Also, consider buying some big par ty bags of ice and add as much as possible to the tank on a regular basis. If feeding by hand and your plants and medium are in pots, then you have several options. The easiest and most common is to pre-chill your flush water, adding ice to it a half hour before you intend to use it. It’s impor tant to make sure the water is frigid when it hits the plant’s roots. Other options include placing the pot in a large bag of ice, adding ice to the top of the growing medium, or wrapping an ice collar around the container to keep the roots cold between flush feeds. The ice, of course, will have to be replenished as it melts, so be vigilant.

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ICE-FLUSHING

Fl ushing

Prolonged exposure to ice-cold conditions could be detrimental, possibly even destroying your plant Some argue that this technique is risky because having ice in the grow room has the potential to affect the overall temperature and humidity levels. If, however, you are ice flushing for only 48 hours, the process shouldn’t alter your environment too much. If you are still a little nervous, then perhaps star t with just the cold water feeds before venturing into ice applications.

It is essential that you don’t keep the lights on for longer than two hours before harvesting

There is another technique that can be combined with an ice flush, creating a two-pronged attack on the plants for maximum results. As the ice flush is taking place, keep the plants in complete darkness. Just like the cold, the dark will stress the plant, moving it into survival mode.

So much for thinking the flush stage marked the end of all the hard work! That’s the beauty of growing! Gardening is such a rewarding and complex pastime, and there is always so much to learn about our resilient, adaptable, and intelligent plants. By following these techniques, we can encourage our crops to be their best, pushing the boundaries of what is achievable. So, give it a go! What do you have to lose? After all, the more you know, the more you grow. 3

Once the ice flush is complete and the lights have been out for 48 hours, turn them back on for a couple of hours before you harvest. The surge of light will help the plant absorb all the water it can after its extended period of darkness. The final drink will drive any remaining goodness into the flower before harvest. It is essential that you don’t keep the lights on for longer than two hours before harvesting. This is an excellent rule to follow even if you haven’t done the ice flushing. From the day to night, plants perform different biological functions. At night (lights off ), plants transpor t sugars, starches, and nutrient traces from the feed down to the root mass. Once the sun comes up (lights on), the plants suck this matter back up into the leaves and buds. If the harvest takes place more than a couple of hours after the lights have come on, the plants will have already reabsorbed some of the nutrients that it had just finished flushing.

An industry veteran with over 20 years experience in a variety of roles, Rich Hamilton is currently a business development manager for a large UK hydroponics distributor.The author of Growers Guide book series, Rich also writes on all aspects of indoor gardening, as well as being an independent industry consultant working closely with hydroponic businesses worldwide.

Bio

GA R D EN CU LT U R E M AGA Z I N E.CO M

BY CATHERINE SHERRIFFS

MAJOR BREAKTHROUGHS IN RECYCLING FOOD WASTE The plastic is made of food waste, and so the scientists behind it say the bugs and bot tomfeeders in the water will degrade the objects

RECYCLING FOOD WASTE GardenCultureMagazine.com

Tackling climate change requires that we solve multiple problems; among them, plastic pollution and food waste. There are so many fresh ideas aiming to do precisely that. Find

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lastic is a problem. So is food waste. A team of researchers from Montreal, Canada has decided to tackle both of these issues at the same time, and the result is pretty impressive. A repor t by CTV News says the team of exper ts at McGill University has developed a durable and fully

biodegradable plastic from the leftover shells of shrimp, lobster, and other crustaceans. And if it ends up in the ocean like all of the other plastic we dump there every day? No problem. The plastic is made of food waste, and so the scientists behind it say the bugs and bottom-feeders in the water will degrade the objects. Wow!

Innovative Ideas

It’s a very complicated process. The researchers say they’ve modified chitin, the substance found in the shells, into a polymer called chitosan. The CTV report explains that the chitosan is made with a longer molecular chain, and the longer the chain, the stronger it is.

Around the world, there are many different efforts tackling food waste. A $2 million plant is in the works along Mississippi’s Gulf Coast where the hulls of peeled shrimp, which usually end up in landfills, will be dried and harvested for use in other products.

There’s still work to be done. While the process has been patented, the resulting plastic still has to be made more malleable before it can be sold. Still, the hope is to one day see this new material replace petroleum-based plastics, used for things like straws, disposable cutlery, plastic bags, food packaging, and even 3D printing.

Synthetic plastics can take hundreds of years to break down, but PHAs are said to degrade within one year in the environment and less than ten years in water

Chitin is also found in crickets, so people allergic to things like shrimp and lobster can’t eat the bugs, which are being touted as the protein of the future.

And in Toronto, Canada, a team of scientists at the U of T recently formed Genecis, a company taking wasted food out of landfills and converting it into PHAs, which is a quality, biodegradable form of plastic.

credit: fis.com

I’d be interested to know if this plastic would at all affect people with shellfish allergies. Although they won’t be ingesting the plastics, could residues be left behind on the skin and in various food and drink items?

In Vermont and New Hampshire, a company called White Mountain Biodiesel collects used cooking oil from restaurants and turns it into environmentally-friendly biodiesel fuel, which is non-toxic and easy to use.

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The hope is to one day see this new material replace petroleum-based plastics, used for things like straws, disposable cutler y, plastic bags, food packaging, and even 3D printing.

the blog

Carbon cycle of Bioplastics

credit: SlideShare

credit: http://idsnmow.blogspot.com

Chitin bioplastic

best of

Synthetic plastics can take hundreds of years to break down, but PHAs are said to degrade within one year in the environment and less than ten years in water. Not too bad. We should all be doing our part to reduce our food waste at home. Here’s hoping 2019 is a year where innovative projects like these continue to gain steam. It has to happen.

EDITOR’S NOTE: Of course, we strongly encourage people either make their compost at home or contribute to their community programs, but the fact remains that we produce too much of it, and the resulting plant fertiliser isn’t always of excellent quality. The world’s waste problem is a big one, and with innovative ideas like biodegradable plastic, the scientific community is working to find solutions that can work alongside our existing compost initiatives.

Sources: • CTV News: bit.ly/2CfbLvC • US News: bit.ly/2Fs3aZR • White Mountain Biodiesel: bit.ly/2CbK5aQ • University of Toronto: bit.ly/2OWVqAI

GA R D EN CU LT U R E M AGA Z I N E.CO M

BY ANNE GIBSON

TURN WASTE INTO ‘BLACK GOLD’ FOR YOUR GARDEN Composting is the natural process that turns raw organic ingredients into humus [...] also known as ‘Black Gold’ for growers 46

COMPOST

ompost is an asset sometimes called ‘Black Gold’, and for a good reason. This broken-down organic matter is a priceless resource. Creating this ‘asset’ is a way of ‘investing’ in your garden or commercially-grown plants, and can generate a healthy ‘return’ including higher yields, increased profits, and lower costs.

Composting is the natural process that turns raw organic ingredients into humus (the ear thy, dark crumbly, fully decomposed end product) - also known as ‘Black Gold’ for growers. Compost is the most convenient and easy way to return organic matter into the soil where it can produce healthy plants.

For a minimal ‘investment’ in time, ef for t, and processing organic inputs, the ‘dividends’ from compost can be significant

A Closed Loop Recycling Opportunity Compostable inputs that end up in the kitchen, such as fruit and veggies plus garden green waste, can easily be reused to cycle their embodied nutrient value, carbon, and nitrogen back into the soil to grow more food or plants. According to FoodWise, “up to 40% of the average household bin is food.” The UN’s Food and Agriculture Organ-

ization estimates that around the world, one-third of the food produced for human consumption is wasted annually, much of it ending up in landfills and producing harmful greenhouse gases. When binned, the water, fuel, and resources it took to get the food from paddock to plate are also wasted, and the potential value of a new product (compost) is lost. Imagine the amount of valuable ‘black gold’ that could be produced by also recycling the vast quantity of food waste from local businesses!

For a minimal ‘investment’ in time, effor t, and processing organic inputs, the ‘dividends’ from compost can be significant. Besides the personal satisfaction from implementing sustainable gardening practices (reducing household/garden waste, the burden on landfill and greenhouse gases), there are many other advantages.

Compostable inputs that end up in the kitchen, such as fruit and veggies plus garden green waste, can easily be reused to cycle their embodied nutrient value, carbon, and nitrogen back into the soil to grow more food or plants.

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COMPOST

The FAO estimates that around the world, one-third of the food produced for human consumption is wasted annually

Key Benefits •

•

• •

• • • • • • • • • •

Creates an asset in your soil by improving soil quality, leading to healthier plants, higher yields, and reduced losses. Saves money by removing the need for expensive, synthetic fer tilisers that may harm humans and the environment. Provides a natural slow-release fer tiliser. Reduces the need for frequent watering by helping the soil retain more moisture while still allowing the excess to drain away. Improves soil fer tility/vitality by adding valuable nutrients, especially crucial for food plants. Attracts and provides food for a wide variety of beneficial microorganisms in the soil food web. Combats sterile soil or ‘dead dir t’ by activating it with living micro-organisms. Increases microbial activity (decomposers), which in turn help feed plants available nutrients. Significantly improves soil structure, helping create a light, crumbly texture. Helps soil retain nutrients and air pockets for healthier plants. Improves access for plant roots to easily expand in the soil. Helps reduce and prevent pests and disease. Assists in balancing soil pH (the measure of soil acidity or alkalinity). Acts as a buffer for imbalances in the soil and helps reduce plant stress.

Uses for compost: • • •

•

A soil conditioner for all types of plants. An ingredient to improve the quality of potting mix or to make seed raising mix. A slow release fer tiliser, gradually feeding plants over a long period without additional inputs. A mulch for pots and gardens to protect plant roots from sun/wind damage, prevent erosion, and reduce soil diseases. Top dressing for lawns, to add nutrients and fill in gaps to encourage healthier grassroots and thatch. An amendment to improve sandy and clay soil structure by binding soil par ticles together helping aerate, retain moisture and nutrients. A liquid ‘compost tea’ fer tiliser.

With so many benefits and uses, every gardener should consider turning waste into ‘Black Gold’ and enjoy a rich return on investment. 3

Sources: • •

FoodWise: foodwise.com.au Food Agriculture Organization: bit.ly/1yhlqGF

Impor tantly, compost improves human health by unlocking soil nutrients, producing more nutrient-dense food crops. All good reasons to produce and utilise this asset.

BIO Anne Gibson, The Micro Gardener, is an author, speaker and urban garden community educator on the Sunshine Coast, in Queensland, Australia. Anne is passionate about inspiring people to improve health and wellbeing, by growing nutrient-dense food gardens in creative containers and small spaces. Anne regularly presents workshops, speaks at sustainable living events, coaches private clients and teaches community education classes about organic gardening and ways to live sustainably. She has authored several eBooks and gardening guides. Anne shares organic gardening tips and tutorials to save time, money and energy on her popular website - TheMicroGardener.com.

GA R D EN CU LT U R E M AGA Z I N E.CO M

BY DR CALLIE SEAMAN

W hen t he cel l s c ol l a p se, t heir t is s ue s die, of t en op ening t he door t o dise a se in t he f or m of f ungu s/ b ac t eri a or o t her v iruse s in t he p l a n t

Biochemis t ry of t he Cold

LOW TEMP BIOCHEMISTRY

F rom sl ow a nd s t un t ed grow t h t o f eebl e germin at ion r at e s, chl oro sis, a nd w ilt ing, c ol d s t re s s c a n e v en t ua l ly l e a d t o necro sis

ith winter here, temperatures are plummeting, and our plants are taking notice! From slow and stunted growth to feeble germination rates, chlorosis (yellowing of the leaves), and wilting, cold stress can eventually lead to necrosis (cell death). But as with all living organisms, evolution is inevitable, and plants adapt to survive

the icy conditions. Survival techniques are displayed in the form of cellular architecture, water content, gene regulation, the reprogramming of gene expression, a hormonal response, and the alteration of metabolic pathways.

Cold acclimation and acquired freezing tolerance have been extensively studied in winter cereals and Arabidopsis. In general, it has been found that reactions slow as the air cools and that each one has its optimal temperature. The same is true for many metabolic processes within plants, as well as cell division and reproduction. All of these processes slow down and take longer to achieve when the ambient temperature is lower, therefore, reducing a plant’s productivity.

Plants more tolerant to cold conditions have a much lower water content, such as spruce trees, spinach, and winter wheat

Cold stress has two stages. The first is classified as chilling, occurring when the temperature drops to between 0°C-15°C (32°F-59°F). The other stage, called freezing stress, occurs when it’s colder than 0°C (32°F). As water freezes, the molecules form a uniform structure, and rigid crystals start to develop (figure 1). The distance between water molecules grows farther apart, resulting in expansion and solidification. More than 60% of a plant is made up of water, and it can not produce antifreeze as animals can, so this expansion and crystal formation can be problematic, often resulting in irreversible damage as membranes split. When the cells collapse, their tissues die, often opening the door to disease in the form of fungus/bacteria or other viruses in the plant.

When temperatures are warmer (0°C-3°C or 32°F-37.5°F), the extracellular water is affected first (Figure 2). Salt/ion concentrations in the cytosol of the cells are much higher, and therefore, reduce the freezing point of the interior of the cell. However, at extremely low temperatures (<0 °C or <32°F), the cell content freezes, eventually causing it to explode. Plants with high water content are more likely to suffer from cold damage at warmer temperatures, one of the evolutionary mechanisms they use to adapt to the cold. Plants more tolerant to cold conditions have a much lower water content, such as spruce trees, spinach, and winter wheat.

Figure 1: The three structure of water as a solid (<0°C or <32°F), liquid (>0°C or >32°F) and gas (>100°C or >212°F)

Another alteration to the structure includes membrane modification and cell wall modification. An increase in the unsaturation of the lipid composition of the membranes and cell walls occurs to help prevent the puncher of the cells by ice crystals that form in the extracellular spaces (figure 2). This also helps with the stability of the membrane.

Figure 2: Extracellular water freezing in plants

Now that we know what happens to a plant at the cellular level, what happens at the molecular level? Studies have found that plants with greater tolerance to the cold have higher levels of unsaturated fat. While linolenic acid often increases after exposure to cold stress, palmitic acid was found to decrease within the plant. The situation is reversed in plants

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LOW TEMP BIOCHEMISTRY

Bu t how do t he y sense t h at t here is a t emp er at ure drop t o up regul at e gene e x p re s sion a nd dow nregul at e o t her s f or s urv i va l?

that are sensitive to the cold. For example, cold tolerant tomatoes that overexpress a par ticular gene (Sl ICE1, ironically!) also have elevated levels of several amino acids, amines, and sugars. All these factors lead to more antioxidant activity, thus increasing cold tolerance. In cucumbers, the same gene increases cold tolerance through osmotic regulation by enhancing the accumulation of soluble sugars and the amino acid proline in the tissue.

The ability to absorb light is not affected, but there is an imbalance in the consuming of the energy harvested, and a chain reaction begins

But how do they sense that there is a temperature drop to upregulate gene expression and downregulate others for sur vival? The identification of plant temperature sensors has not yet been achieved, however, some hypotheses exist including the involvement of multiple primary sensors, changes in the fluidity and other physical proper ties of the membranes. We do know that there is a complex, interactive relationship between many different pathways, which results in the regulation of cold acclimation in plants. There are so many factors that contribute to a plant being tolerant to the cold; too many to count!

When a plant is exposed to frigid temperatures, there is a rapid increase in cytosolic (the gooey bit inside the cell that the organelles float around in) calcium concentration. This calcium increase is caused by the stiffening of the cell membrane, which in turn induces the expression of cold response genes (COR) within the plant. Calcium is responsible for the regulation of many genes within plants. This cold stress-induced calcium signature in the cytosol triggers many different pathways linked with cold tolerance, including the production of cold response proteins (COR). Another theory of how plants sense the cold is via the chloroplasts (where photosynthesis occurs). Chloroplasts are the organelles that contain chlorophyll and are responsible for har vesting the energy from light. A drop in temperature causes a reduction in reaction speed, par ticularly those that involve enzymes. The ability to absorb light is not affected, but there is an imbalance in the consuming of the energy har vested, and a chain reaction begins. Essentially, the energy is not being conver ted quickly enough into a form the plant can use, resulting in the downregula-

tion of the capacity for the plant to har vest light. This process is known as photoinhibition, a topic wor th an entire ar ticle to itself. In consequence, the plant produces reactive oxygen species (ROS), which star t to destroy the cells from the inside. Acting as a secondary messenger to the plant, they let the plant know it is getting colder and to react appropriately!

The only thing we have not touched on yet is the effect on phytohormones, those ever stimulating organic molecules that not only confuse us but make the plant do the strangest of things. Cold stress is no exception to affecting the balance of hormones, including gibberellic acid, abscisic acid (ABA), salicylic acid, ethylene, and auxins. These effects can be both positive and negative, with external application helping to enhance cold tolerance in some plant species. This is par ticularly true of salicylic acid when an accumulation of free endogenous form in the shoots of chilled grape berry and Arabidopsis. It has been well documented that treating plants such as rice, maize, potatoes, and wheat with salicylic acid helps to increase cold tolerance. This should be minimal and at low concentrations, as growth delays can occur if treatment is continuous. The natural release of this hormone in a cold-stressed plant strongly suppor ts that it is par t of the signalling process. The architecture of the plant is key to its sur vival and adaptation to cold climates. Dwar fism does not occur by accident in many cold tolerant varieties. When it is cold, gibberellic acid and auxins responsible for cell elongation are found to be reduced in cer tain types of wheat, and therefore, the plants remain small. Just like us, plants must evolve, adjust, and adapt to colder climates. And just like us, they may be looking for ward to the warmer days ahead. Until next time, keep growing! 3

BIO Dr Callie Seaman is a plant obsessed Formulation Chemist at

AquaLabs â&#x20AC;&#x201C; the company behind SHOGUN Fertilisers and the Silver Bullet plant health range. She has been in the hydro industry for 15 years in research development and manufacturing and had previously worked on the VitaLink range. She has a PhD in fertiliser chemistry and a BSc (HONS) in Biomedical sciences and loves nothing more than applying this knowledge to pushing the boundaries of nutrient performance.

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Credit: Horizon Edible Insects

Insects are being touted as the protein of the future. Think deep-fried crickets, roasted super worms, caramelised mealworms, and so much more. The possibilities are endless, and Horizon Edible Insects is trying to remove the stigma surrounding these creepy crawlers. At its urban edible insect farm in West London, bugs are fed a natural diet of hay, bran, and vegetables before being harvested every six or seven weeks. They’re hormone, antibiotic, and chemical-free, and are regularly analysed to be sure they’re free of pathogens. Nutty and earthy in taste, insects are said to be three times more protein-rich than traditional livestock, and are also a good source of iron, omega, and amino acids. They’re sustainable and environmentallyfriendly; large quantities can be farmed using very little space, water or other natural resources, and they hardly emit any greenhouse gases. Bug burgers, anyone? Farming the food of the future... Learn more: horizoninsects.co.uk

Exeter, England

Coffee grounds are good for the garden, ask the GroCycle Urban Mushroom Farm. It collects hundreds of kilos from cafes in the South West of England and uses them to grow Oyster mushrooms for restaurants in the area. Delicious, nutritious, and quick to produce, waste from the mushrooms’ growing cycle is turned into fertile compost for local use. This urban agriculture project makes good use of old space; it’s taken over a vacant office building and transformed it into a booming business. But profit isn’t the bottom line for GroCycle. The farm is part of the Social Enterprise movement, where the goal is to have a positive impact on the environment and society as a whole. It’s even designed a Mushroom Grow Kit so the average person can take their coffee grounds and grow their own mushrooms at home. Looking to start your own business? GroCycle also offers an online course on how to start a successful low-tech grow venture. Keeping coffee grounds out of the landfills, and mushrooms on our plates… Learn more: grocycle.com

Credit: GroCycle Urban Mushroom Farm

Coffee and Mushrooms

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WHAT’S GROWING ON

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Mouth-watering flavours and ethical farming practices are at the heart of Coombe Farm. In the dairy business since the 1940s, the estate made a transition 20 years ago and was granted Soil Association organic status. In addition to milk, the farm now raises award-winning beef and lamb according to the highest possible standards. Organic pigs, venison, and chickens also live on the grounds. Refusing to give in to the pressures of mass and rapid production, Coombe Farm chooses instead to nurture both the animals and its soil to ensure that future generations have productive land available for them. Despite raising livestock for a living, the farm strongly encourages eating less meat. Sound strange? The idea is that when you do buy a steak, pay the extra amount for organically-raised so that you’re getting the best possible cut, taste, and benefits. They’re not just farmers. They’re foodies too… Learn more: coombefarmorganic.co.uk

Credit: Castleton Fruit Farm

Aberdeenshire, Scotland

Credit: Coombe Farm Organic

More than Milk

Abundant Harvests

A unique geographical location in the northeast of Scotland means Castleton Fruit Farm is privileged with long summer days and a temperate climate; just perfect conditions for berries. The family-run farm grows sweet strawberries and raspberries, amongst plenty of other fresh fruit. Castleton firmly believes it picks blueberries later than anywhere in the northern hemisphere and is the only farm in the world that picks fresh cherries as late as September. Impressively, the fruit harvest covers eight months of the year, made possible by a sophisticated network of polytunnels stretching along fields equivalent to 142 football pitches. Now that’s something to boast about! In addition to the polytunnels, Castleton Fruit Farm has also invested in multiple forms of renewable energy, including roof-mounted solar panels and biomass boilers that produce 80% of the electricity used on the grounds. Growing an abundance of fresh, sweet fruit for a better part of the year… Learn more: castletonfruit.co.uk 3

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Plants and fungi are so interconnected that they almost create a superorganism

ungi. From diverse ecosystems to life-saving medicine, almost everything is connected with them, and after a billion years of evolution, fungi are pretty fascinating. Although not at all the same, these organisms are most closely related to animals. Fungi are unique in that they grow

and change shape based on their environment. Compare it to watching tv and growing your arm to the fridge to get a drink without moving. Many of us are familiar with the fruit of fungi. When you see a mushroom growing, you see a fruit, but what grows underneath the surface is a massive fungal mycelium network. When plants came out of the water and forest soil. This extensive network has The relationship on to land 500 million years ago, fungi several significant benefits which are between the fungi were waiting and had a business deal to passed on to the plants which choose discuss. Fungi were already very efficient to trade carbohydrates. and plants is a at mining rock for nutrients. Remember, straightforward one The mycelium network, with its at this point, there would have been no soil, and for plants used to getting – you help me, and extensive coverage, is much better at nutrients out of the water around them, finding small pockets of moisture that I will help you. there was a deal to make by trading plant roots can’t access, known as carbohydrates. And so began the hygroscopic water. This extra water amazing relationship between plants and fungi that have makes a huge difference for plants in times of little rainfall. given us lichen, soil, trees – basically, life as we know it. These fungi also secrete enzymes and organic acids that help mine nutrients from sources that are not available to Plants and fungi are so interconnected that they almost plants. This helps plants find the minerals they need and create a superorganism, and one of the most impor tant are par ticularly crucial for nutrients such as phosphorous relationships we have discovered so far is built on a group and iron. Beneficial fungi can increase the root surface known as mycorrhizae (mycor –fungi, rhiza – root). These area by up to 1,000 times, helping capture extra water fungi live in and around roots, becoming an extension of and nutrients. Fungi also release useful substances into the plants themselves. More than 85% of the plants on the soil that can help improve soil quality and structure Ear th associate with mycorrhizae. like glomalin, yet another amazing benefit to the plants growing around them. There are even suggestions now The relationship between the fungi and plants is a that fungi have developed ecosystems based on who they straightforward one – you help me, and I will help you. like to work with. Quite the friend to have! Plants have developed a unique food strategy, which is to harness the sun’s energy to produce carbohydrates or Our modern agricultural system was built before we sugars. This energy helps them grow along with minerals understood anything about soil microbiology. Until late and organic material from the soil. Plants will give away last century, we knew very little about the soil other some of these sugars to the fungi. Some estimates show than a basic understanding of plant nutrients. There are plants give away 30-40% of the carbohydrates they still many in the world of agriculture and hor ticulture produce as well as other substances (exudates) from their that choose to ignore the benefits of improving soil roots to biology in the soil. But no one gets a free ride microbiology, the complexity of which may hold the key in the natural world, so what are the soil fungi providing to the future of successful agriculture on an increasingly to the plants? hungry and evolving planet. New research suppor ts the fact that fostering these fungi in the soil can reduce Plant roots may seem very fine to the human eye, but fer tiliser and water requirements by 30%. Amazing how in fact, they miss vast amounts of surface area in the many multinationals are now talking about bio-fer tilisers soil. Fungal “roots” or mycelium, are much finer and can and living soils. contact far more ground than plant roots ever could alone. A thimble full of soil can hold up to 5km (3 mi) Beneficial fungi are not present in most disturbed of the fungal filament. Take a moment to consider the landscapes. Soil tilling, fer tilisation, removal of topsoil, staggering amount of fungi that must exist in undisturbed site preparation, compaction, and invasive species have

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PLANTS AND FUNGI

Beneficial fungi can increase the root surface area by up to 1,000 times, helping capture extra water and nutrients

Fungus mycelium

redit: ResearchGate

Some estimates show plants give away 30-40% of the carbohydrates they produce as well as other substances (exudates) from their roots to biology in the soil Cor tex Vascular tissue

Fungus mycelium

a disastrous cumulative effect on all soil organisms but in par ticular, the fungal networks living in the soil. Commercial production of fungal colonies has resulted in the ability to reinvigorate the soil with fungi, which has been researched to provide improved conditions for growing crops and protecting landscape investments. Just like everything else, science is still pushing the boundaries and improving our understanding and finding new species that can handle the salty environment, like those applying fer tiliser to agricultural land and our backyard gardens. Science is also culturing varieties that can handle cultivation in a farming system rather than undisturbed forest soils. So, what can this understanding of soil do for your home garden? The symbiotic relationship has existed for hundreds of millions of years, and thanks to research and development, new products for home gardeners and professional growers can now take advantage of this longstanding example of natural teamwork. There are very few of us lucky enough to have undisturbed forests adjacent to our proper ty, and so it is essential to inoculate our soil, which simply means adding in our beneficial fungi when planting.

Different stages of Ectomycorrhizal symbiosis. (a) The symbiotic interaction star ts with the exchange of signals between the two par tners. . (b) Fungal hyphae attach to the root surface and star t to swell and branch until they completely colonize the root surface. Hyphae penetrate between epidermal cells to form a dense intercellular hyphal network, the Har tig net. (c) Mature ectomycorrhizae show three typical structures: the intercellular Har tig net (1) involved in the exchanges of nutrients between the two par tners, a dense mantle (2) that covers the root surface and (3) an extraradical mycelium that explores the soil.

By adding biology to containers, backyard gardeners or allotments gardeners can tap into the power of the natural world and bring added value to their crops. These species that help your plant might have been doing so for more than 500 million years. These ancient relationships are full of complex interactions that we are only just beginning to understand. One thing we can be sure of is that the use of biology and the movement towards living soils is a wor thwhile experiment in all gardens. 3

GARDENCULTUREMAGAZINE.COM

BY EVAN FOLDS

Animal Agriculture

With human waste, we use sewage treatment facilities, but for some reason we allow animal waste to be administered directly into the environment completely unprocessed 66

ANIMAL AGRICULTURE

What is a CAFO?

ne of the primary ways that modern agriculture has become compromised is a general lack of attention towards balance and diversity. Rather than rely on the wisdom of Mother Nature to produce her abundance, our efforts involve the faulty logic of increased yields at all costs and the use of artificial

methods that push and disturb to the point of degeneration in an attempt to grow living systems.

This reality is taken to the extreme in CAFO’s, or “Concentrated Animal Feeding Operation”. The term CAFO is often used loosely to describe any factory animal farm, but it actually has a designation from the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) as a farm with over 1000 “animal units”, or an animal equivalent of 1000 pounds live weight, that is raised in confinement for over 45 days a year. CAFO is also defined as an animal farm that discharges manure or wastewater into a natural or man-made ditch, stream or other waterways, regardless of size.

CAFO is also defined as an animal farm that discharges manure or wastewater into a natural or man-made ditch, stream or other waterways

In other words, rather than raising animals in a field on a natural diet, most livestock in the United States is fed an unnatural diet, kept alive using heavy doses of toxic rescue chemistry, and kept mostly in confinement. This is the process by which most meat in the United States is produced. Beyond the moral implications of such an approach, it produces untold contamination in the environment, in our food system, and in the people who eat it. I live in Wilmington, a historic por t city at the mouth of the Cape Fear River in southeastern Nor th Carolina. The Cape Fear is 202 miles long with a watershed covering over 9,100 square miles across eastern Nor th Carolina, flowing right through downtown Wilmington and directly into the Atlantic Ocean. The river is home to countless diversity of organisms and ecosystems, truly an invaluable natural resource for the citizens of Nor th Carolina, but despite its beauty, the Cape Fear is one of the top 50 most polluted rivers in the United States. Wilmington has massive water quality issues. We made headline news in 2014 when Duke Energy spilt toxic coal ash into the Dan River, a tributary of the Cape Fear. We experienced another coal ash spill recently from the devastating flooding from Hurricane Florence that dumped eight months of rain on us in three days.

We were again in the news in late 2017 for the discovery of a contaminant called GenX in our drinking water system. GenX is in the category of chemicals known as PFAS, or poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances. GenX is used in the manufacturing of fluoropolymers such as Teflon and produced by Chemours, a DuPont spinoff created to deflect potential liability. Watch the documentary The Devil We Know for more on this emerging threat and the history of litigation against PFAS manufacturers. There are thousands of these substances showing up in water systems everywhere, and we know very little about them.

But the most harmful pollutant we face here in regards to water quality is the waste stream generated by industrial animal agriculture. Nor th Carolina ranks first in the nation in egg production, second in hog and turkey production, and four th in production of broiler chickens, with all sectors increasing year after year. There are more pigs than people in Nor th Carolina. And similar to commercial vegetable and commodity farms, the animal agriculture industry is consolidating at a rapid pace. According to the USDA, it took one million farms to house 57 million pigs in 1966; by the year 2001, it took only 80,000 farms to accommodate the same number. This boom in production brings economic benefits, but also dire environmental consequences. The animals produce mind-boggling amounts of waste every year, all of which is vir tually unregulated primarily due to the multi-billion-dollar influence of industry over our State government. An analysis by Environmental Working Group shows that wet waste in Nor th Carolina’s industrial agricultural operations produces almost 10 billion gallons of faecal waste yearly, enough to fill more than 15,000 Olympic-size swimming pools.

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ANIMAL AGRICULTURE

Concentrated animal waste is highly toxic, so there are limits to the amount of animal waste that can be sprayed onto crop fields over time. There are now over 10 million hogs, over 16 million turkeys, and 300 million chickens produced annually in the Cape Fear River Basin. Cape Fear Riverkeeper Kemp Burdette says that the hog waste volume alone represents a human waste equivalent of 60 million people being crammed into southeastern Nor th Carolina east of Interstate 95. That is more than six times the population of New York City! With human waste, we use sewage treatment facilities, but for some reason we allow animal waste to be administered directly into the environment completely unprocessed.

According to the USDA, it took one million farms to house 57 million pigs in 1966; by the year 2001, it took only 80,000 farms to accommodate the same number

Concentrated animal waste is highly toxic, so there are limits to the amount of animal waste that can be sprayed onto crop fields over time. The excess is stored in unlined open cesspools called “manure lagoons” that receive little to no oversight. The NC Depar tment of Environmental Quality (DEQ) checks facilities once per year by reviewing logs, self-repor ted by the industry producer, who is contracted to manage the waste by the large industrial companies like Prestige Farms or Smithfield Foods.

According to our local watchdog group, Cape Fear River Watch, not only does the Cape Fear River Basin have the highest density of CAFO’s of any place on planet Ear th, but in Nor th Carolina alone there are 170 CAFO’s located within the 100-year floodplain. Many more were constructed in the so-called 1,000-year and 500-year flood plains that were both breached in separate weather events over the last two years.

Smithfield Foods is the largest pork producer in the world and owns much of the hogs in Nor th Carolina. One of their major packaging plants is located right along the banks of the Cape Fear River where they slaughter around 30,000 hogs every day. In 2013, a Chinese company, WH Group, bought Smithfield for nearly $5 billion and has developed a scheme of polluting our environment and shipping the pork overseas. Not long ago there was an ar ticle in Rolling Stone titled, “Why is China Treating NC Like the Developing World?”

Dana Sargent of Cape Fear River Watch said it best, “While industrial pollution has been seeping into our waterways for years, Hurricane Florence shined a dramatic, national spotlight on how industry, left unchecked, devastates our water quality, and with it, our environment, our economy, our public health and our way of life.”

WH Group said in its 2017 annual financial statement that its American operations account for about 60% of its overall revenue and close to half its profits. The CAFO operations are typically situated in low-income, minority neighbourhoods along the floodplain taking advantage of cheap proper ty value and a relative inability of low-

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ANIMAL AGRICULTURE

The CAFO farming model was born in the United States but is now spreading around the globe.

income homeowners to push back on the degenerative farming methods being practised. This isn’t by accident, there is a strong lobby towards the NC legislature for these farms to continue to take economic advantage of the citizens of Nor th Carolina, but the tides are turning.

“They know there’s a fix. They willfully choose to do nothing about it. We’ve been treating waste as a society for hundreds of years. There are superior technologies.”

For the first time, in 2018 Smithfield lost three hog nuisance cases where plaintiffs argued that their quality of life was hindered due to odours from neighbouring CAFO’s. The most recent lawsuit was for over $470 million, and there are many behind it. As published in the Washington Times, Michael Kaeske, a Dallas, Texas-based lawyer representing the citizens burdened by the industrial farms, told jurors, “They (industry) know there’s a problem. They know there’s a f ix. They willfully choose to do nothing about it. We’ve been treating waste as a society for hundreds of years. There are superior technologies.” Smithfield’s response has been to publish a statement that they intend to follow the lead of states like Missouri and cap manure lagoons to limit airborne environmental exposure and capture the methane produced as a source of energy. While this sounds like a welcome step forward, it does not address the problem of managing the actual animal waste. Are we merely going to contain the problem and continue to distribute it raw into the environment? The CAFO farming model was born in the United States but is now spreading around the globe. Reports of CAFO’s in Asia and Australia are now common. Nearly every county in England has at least one industrial-scale livestock farm, with an estimated 800 US-style mega-farms operating across the UK. The headline of an article in The Guardian said it best - “Rise of mega farms: how the US model of intensive farming is invading the world”.

The real solution is to diversify and change our agriculture to more regenerative practices, but there are stop-gap solutions that can upcycle the problem even without adopting more conscious and progressive agricultural methods. One method that I am working on locally is seeding microbe packages into biochar and creating simple biofilters to mitigate the problem at the source. The quality of biochar is critical, but we have already generated data to prove that it can handle the scale of the problem if implemented correctly.

As is often the case in the agricultural space, these sor ts of solutions, no matter how obvious they may seem to test and implement, involve a change in mindset and a measured and truly holistic approach. While this may be a challenging landscape for hungry human populations and an entrenched global industry to navigate, the key is a healthy incentive. The greatest tool we have to change agriculture for the better is transparency and buying power, as Big Ag can only afford to pollute the public if we continue to eat what they grow. Food for thought! 3

Evan Folds is a regenerative agricultural consultant with a background across every facet of the farming and gardening spectrum. He has founded and operated many businesses over the years - including a retail hydroponics store he operated for over 14 years, a wholesale company that formulated beyond organic products and vortex-style compost tea brewers, an organic lawn care company, and a commercial organic wheatgrass growing operation.

Bio

He now works as a consultant in his new project Be Agriculture where he helps new and seasoned growers take their agronomy to the next level.What we think, we grow! Contact Evan at www.BeAgriculture.com or on Facebook and Instagram @beagriculture

GARDENCULTUREMAGAZINE.COM

BY TOM FORREST, STEALTH GARDEN SUPPLIES

Stealth Science

Plant Food R

ecent scientific breakthroughs have taught us a great deal about how our floral friends find nourishment; however, it is

still very open to discussion and there is much to

This five-part series delves into plant science to help you understand why a garden flourishes or flops. Over the next five issues, we will discuss the important topics relating to plant biology and physiology, structure and function, covering roots to shoots and everything in between!

learn in this field (pun intended). This is our third Stealth Science lesson, and we will explore the role of plant food and ionic relations (sounds sexy, right?) to understand better the most economical and sustainable ways to fer tilise our fields.

The role of beneficial bacteria and their symbiotic relationship with plants is only barely understood by modern science. We are only just scratching the surface for the best methods to cultivate crops to maximise both sustainability and productivity, while simultaneously caring for our natural environment and other living organisms. Water culture experiments in the 19th century found that plants required 16 ‘essential elements’ for growth. These were determined as essential if, in its absence, a plant could not complete its life cycle. It was accepted that carbon, hydrogen and oxygen are sourced from the air and water, while the remaining mineral nutrients were sourced from the soil. An eminent German chemist named Justus von Liebig proposed that plants grew in direct proportion to their supply of nutrients and that a deficiency of any one element prevented growth.

Justus von Liebig “minimum law” illustrated by liquid in a barrel which can only rise as high as the shortest stave. 72

Understanding the science behind the art of horticulture ensures we can cultivate beautiful, healthier, and more sustainable crops. The Five Classes: • Plant Morphology and Anatomy (see last issue) • Water Interactions • Plant Food and Ionic Relations • Photosynthesis and Phloem • Plant Hormones: The control of growth and development

An eminent German chemist named Justus von Liebig proposed that plants grew in direct proportion to their supply of nutrients and that a deficiency of any one element prevented growth This was codified as his ‘Law of the Minimums’ and is commonly found in most modern agricultural textbooks as a useful barrel graphic. Our current scientific understanding states that there are distinct ‘macro’ and ‘trace’ elements, and the category is determined by the required amount of each element for growth. Macronutrients include nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), silicon (Si), sulphur (S) and iron (Fe). Trace elements include boron (B), chlorine (Cl), copper (Cu), molybdenum (Mo) and zinc (Zn). With inadequate or toxic amounts of these mineral elements, a plant will demonstrate chlorosis or necrosis symptoms. Chlorosis is a yellow colouring due to a lack of chlorophyll and necrosis is the death of specific parts or the entire plant.

STEALTH SCIENCE

and Ionic Relations

We are only just scratching the surface for the best methods to cultivate crops to maximise both sustainability and productivity

GA R D EN CU LT U R E M AGA Z I N E.CO M

Stealth Science Just like us, plants require a mixed diet of nutrition in different forms. They will survive on adequate food but will thrive on a wholesome diet with a comfortable environment It is challenging for home or even professional growers to isolate specific deficiencies or toxicities in plant nutrition, as many symptoms are very similar or are a result of many different imbalances. For example, iron, nitrogen, potassium, sulphur and magnesium deficiency can all cause chlorosis in leaves, but combinations or toxicities may have almost the opposite effect. Pest and disease issues can also demonstrate similar symptoms to nutrient deficiencies, meaning a holistic approach to problemsolving is always best. Generally, hydroponic grow mediums can be flushed or water reservoirs emptied and re-filled as a first step to remedy a deficiency. There are organic (enzymatic) methods of cleaning a substrate, or a variety of natural and synthetic chemicals can be used (citric acids, hydrogen peroxides etc.). In principle, it should be easy to diagnose mineral deficiencies through key symptoms and cure them by adding limiting nutrients (fertilisers). However, there are two significant problems: the effect of the soil (substrate) and the plant responsiveness. Indirect impacts of nutrient imbalances can cause further toxicities, and some elements may partially replace others, but not fully replicate their essential function. For example, a Ca2+ rich solution would be antagonistic to K+ entry, and the K+ deficiency symptoms would not be relieved by merely adding more K+ as the Ca2+ is still in excess. The Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) describes the capacity of a substrate to hold onto exchangeable cations (imagine chunks of food). Sand has an extremely low CEC, but clays and humus based soils have a much higher CEC. The CEC is an inherent soil characteristic and can be hard to change significantly. It determines the substrateâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s ability to hold onto essential nutrients and provides a buffer against acidification. Organic matter needs to be added and amended regularly to improve the CEC of soil. It depends if you are growing in soil or soil-less substrates (coco, Rockwool etc.) as to the best path for your crop nutrition. Soil blends can contain all necessary nutriment for growth but can be extremely difficult to maintain and sustain in small pots. â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;No-Tillâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Living soils and compost tea blends are gaining popularity as economical ways to cultivate crops, but the preparations and extensive required resources must be taken into account.

STEALTH SCIENCE

Clovers and other such rhizobial legumes are cultivated and chopped back into the soil, releasing nitrogen that will break down for future crops to consume Soil-less mixes generally require mineral nutrient for best plant performance. Organic soil-less mixes such as coco coir can utilise the benefits of organic nutriment and beneficial organisms in combination with mineral nutrition. Most commercial hydroponics brands include a combination approach of crop fertigation, using sea kelp, guano, and other organic blends alongside chelated mineral nutriment. For our gardens outside, most Australian soils are intrinsically old and low in nutrients. In traditional commercial cultivation, we add fertilisers to increase the mineral nutrition for crop growth as our land has been dangerously depleted. Initially, only organic fertilisers were known (manures and seaweed), and these were heaped and left to decay before planting (otherwise it would ‘burn’ the plants). Once mineral nutrition was discovered, inorganic (mineral) fertilisers were relied upon to supply the growing demand for food crops. Nitrogen and phosphorus were the most common limiting factors and are most often applied in fertilisers. Over time, we can build up the correct ratios of organic matter into soils and improve their quality, but modern commercial farming has done significant (potentially irreparable) damage to our farmable land. Pesticides, fungicides, herbicides and excess mineral nutrition all cause harm to the naturally occurring beneficial organisms within the soil. Without these organisms and fungus, our natural ecosystem would fail to exist. But if we achieve the correct balance of nutrition, predominantly in the NPK ratio, we can reduce any limiting factors for growth. We need to aim to match the plant potential to the availability and solubility of limiting factors from fertilisers. Some commonly known plants have impressive powers to ‘fix’ nitrogen from the atmosphere and collect it in the soil. Legumes allow ‘rhizobia’ bacteria inside their root nodules to store the atmospheric nitrogen. There is a symbiotic exchange of amino acids, sugars, and minerals between the bacteria and the plant host.

Clovers and other such rhizobial legumes are cultivated and chopped back into the soil, releasing nitrogen that will break down for future crops to consume. There is extensive use of legumes as cover crops in certain sectors of commercial agriculture. The phosphorus cycle in natural systems explains the effective solubilisation of phosphorus from soil particles. Symbiotic bacteria and fungi around plants (mycorrhizae) allow for the increased penetration of soil particles by fine hyphae, a superfine underground web of fungus ‘roots’. This encourages the uptake of soluble phosphate for the plant. Ectomycorrhizal fungi are the external hyphae that interact with the sheath around the root hair, while endomycorrhizal are internal hyphae. Various bacteria also help to break down compounds into absorbable forms for the plant while the acidity/alkalinity of the soil is also a significant influence on these processes. The pH affects the development of beneficial bacteria and even the ability of certain compounds to chemically bind to other particles, making it more difficult for the plant to absorb. Just like us, plants require a mixed diet of nutrition in different forms. They will survive on adequate food but will thrive on a wholesome diet with a comfortable environment. It’s always better to source your fertilisers from recognised sources to ensure the quality and purity or investigate making your living soils at home if you’ve got the space and resources. Once our floral friends have consumed their daily diet, they need to digest it. So how do the plants turn these chunks of food into usable energy? In the next feature of ‘Stealth Science,’ we will investigate the phenomenon of photosynthesis and the phloem, the most influential piece of the plant growth puzzle! 3

BIO Founder of Indicated Technology Pty Ltd, Tom is a certified horticulturalist and paid consultant working in the Australian medical cannabis industry. After finishing studies in production horticulture (hydroponics) and plant biology; Tom has spent the past 6 years working in the protected cropping space. Tom is passionate about sustainable yet economic cultivation methodologies and also teaches cannabis cultivation as part of university and private education programs. Tom is also the Communications Manager for Stealth Garden wholesale supplies.

GA R D EN CU LT U R E M AGA Z I N E.CO M

BY ANDREW ABRAMSON

TRUMP

IN DENIAL

CLIMATE CHANGE

n a Friday in late November, when Americans were shopping for presents and indulging in Thanksgiving leftovers, the Trump Administration quietly released a damning climate change report. It’s no coincidence this 1,600-page report — which made clear “Earth’s climate is now changing faster than

at any point in the history of modern civilisation, primarily as a result of human activities” — was released on a holiday weekend. The anti-science, climate change denying Trump Administration was forced by law to release the study but hoped few would notice it. Fortunately, in the age of cell phones and news alerts, they couldn’t bury the news. If anything, “Black Friday” was a fitting day for the government to reveal what most of us already know: climate change will have a devastating impact on the entire planet, and we’re only making it worse by the day.

Somehow, climate change has morphed into one of the most politicised issues in the United States

Climate change is the world’s most pressing issue, and it should be immune from politics. We can disagree on the best way to administer healthcare to our fellow countrymen and at what rate to pay taxes, but we all need to breathe clean air and protect our food and water supply. Somehow, climate change has morphed into one of the most politicised issues in the United States. This began long before Trump. But climate change denial has become an alarming reality since Trump took office and his actions could set climate initiatives back decades. There might be no turning back. The GOP is funded by Big Coal and Big Oil, two industries that must make significant concessions to save the planet. That won’t happen voluntarily. “I don’t believe it,” Trump said of the report’s central conclusion that global warming is causing ongoing and lasting economic damage.

If you’re wondering why Trump would even release a report that goes against his repeated claims that climate change is a Chinese hoax, understand that it’s a federally mandated study dating back to the George H.W. Bush Administration. In 1989, the U.S. Global Change Research Program was established by a Presidential Initiative from Poppy Bush. A year later, Congress passed the Global Change Research Act of 1990 which required the council to release an assessment at least every four years on the effects of global change.

At the time, it wasn’t the least bit controversial. In an era when Congress wasn’t packed with conservative Climate Change Deniers, the Senate passed the Global Change Research Act 100-0. Fritz Hollings, a conservative “Southern Democrat” of the 1980s, said at the time “the problem we face is potentially enormous. Global warming could radically change world climate and world agriculture.” Fast forward nearly 30 years, and the latest report was due to be released in December. The Trump Administration inexplicably released the document early to minimise its findings. So what was in there that Trump was so quick to deny? Here are some of the highlights:

Considering Trump doesn’t read his administration’s own intelligence reports and appears to have little knowledge of most of America’s domestic and international issues, there’s zero chance he has an even basic understanding of climate change. By saying he doesn’t believe his own administration’s report, Trump is actually saying he doesn’t want to believe it. Why should Trump, a man who cares about nobody but himself, give any thought to a crumbling planet? He’ll be dead when the impact of climate change is truly felt. His descendants, if not imprisoned, will have the funds to live in an Oxygenated Zone along with other Trust Fund elites.

The quality and quantity of water available for use by people and ecosystems across the country are being affected by climate change, increasing risks and costs to agriculture, energy production, industry, recreation, and the environment. Impacts from climate change on extreme weather and climaterelated events, air quality, and the transmission of disease through insects and pests, food, and water increasingly threaten the health and well-being of the American people, particularly populations that are already vulnerable.

GA R D EN CU LT U R E M AGA Z I N E.CO M

CLIMATE CHANGE

Without adaptation, climate change will continue to degrade infrastructure performance over the rest of the century, with the potential for cascading impacts that threaten our economy, national security, essential services, and health and well-being.

Rising temperatures, extreme heat, drought, wildfire on rangelands, and heavy downpours are expected to increasingly disrupt agricultural productivity in the United States. Expected increases in challenges to livestock health, declines in crop yields and quality, and changes in extreme events in the United States and abroad threaten rural livelihoods, sustainable food security, and price stability.

To downplay a report that the government has spent years researching, White House Press Secretary Sarah Sanders attacked its methodology

Our Nation’s ageing and deteriorating infrastructure is further stressed by increases in heavy precipitation events, coastal flooding, heat, wildfires, and other extreme events, as well as changes to average precipitation and temperature. Without adaptation, climate change will continue to degrade infrastructure performance over the rest of the century, with the potential for cascading impacts that threaten our economy, national security, essential services, and health and well-being. Even in a future with lower greenhouse gas emissions, many communities are expected to suffer financial impacts as chronic high-tide flooding leads to higher costs and lower property values. Outdoor recreation, tourist economies, and quality of life are reliant on benefits provided by our natural environment that will be degraded by the impacts of climate change in many ways. Trump views environmental policy with the same disdain as healthcare reform. That’s why this report terrifies him. While he promises a booming economy, high real estate values, and an improved infrastructure system, the government believes much of that is at risk of collapsing from climate change. To downplay a report that the government has spent years researching, White House Press Secretary Sarah Sanders attacked its methodology. She said the report is “not based on facts” but instead “is based on the most extreme modelled scenario, which contradicts long-established trends.”

In typical Trumpian fashion, Sanders was wrong. Katharine Hayhoe, one of the report’s authors, set the record straight on Twitter. She said the report wasn’t based on the most extreme circumstance and that the study considered a very broad range of scenarios. “Over the last century, tho, it’s important to recognize that climate models — even the super-basic ones from a decade ago — do a darn good job of reproducing observed changes,” Hayhoe tweeted.

Yes, the climate is changing for the worse, and it’s a manmade calamity. The record wildfires in Californias and super hurricanes across the Atlantic are happening for a reason. But as long as Trump is in office, expect the United States to do next to nothing to address the problem from an executive level. At the Legislative level, Democrats regained control of the House and are establishing a committee that will work on solutions to combat climate change. Peter DeFazio, an Oregon Democrat and the new House Transportation and Infrastructure Committee Chairman, called climate change “the existential threat to the future of the planet. I don’t think we can have too many members actively involved.” Leave it to a Trump ally to follow up that grown-up statement with the dumbest argument yet on climate change. Steve Milloy, a lobbyist for Big Oil, said DeFazio’s “existential threat’ comment was “insanity.” “For comparison, the atmosphere Venus is 96.5% CO2 — and the planet is still there. In contrast, Earth’s atmosphere is only ~0.04% CO2,” Milloy tweeted. So climate change is not an existential threat because Venus exists? These are the people running and advising the United States government. We should all be terrified. 3

Follow Andrew Abramson on Twitter @AbramsonFL

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Super Spreaders are designed to disperse radiant heat, not to block light. They ensure that all plants feel nice and warm, not just the ones directly beneath the lamp.

INCREDIBLE LIGHT: SPREAD M_EANS BIGGER YIELDS!

,· ...

...

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Adjust-A-Wings reflectors are purposefully lightweight.

Air movement in the grow room will gently sway the reflector, lighting areas that static fixtures cannot.

T:WO..- SYST:EMS IN .-O. NE -

Set your system up to suit your growing area. A fixture style combination unit or a remote ballast unit.

-:UNBEATABLE QUALIT:Y AND PERFQ:RMANCE

The Adjust-A-Wings Reflector. Hellion ballast and Hellion DE lamp are all crafted from materials of the highest quality.

The Hellions produce perfect. even light distribution across your crop.

These three components combine in harmony to create the Hellion Defender.

No hot spots or cold corners, just beautiful, even and prolific growth.

A lighting system of unparalleled power and performance.

ABSQlUT:E LIGHTiNG CQ:NTRQl The Hellions have:-

3 power settings - 450w, 600w and 750w 5 reflector width settings 5 lamp height settings

DISTRIBUTED BY MAXIGROW WWW.MAXIGROW.COM CREATION WWW.CREATION-HYDRO.CO.UK HIGHLIGHT HORTICULTURE WWW.HIGHLIGHTHORTICULTURE.CO.UK

BY MATT MOUNTAIN

The PRUNING

debate

Just like us, plants run on a metabolic network, and every living cell in a plant makes demands on that network for food and water that must be balanced 82

THE PRUNING DEBATE

s with most topics in the hor ticultural world, if you ask the internet or a selection of growers for advice on pruning flowering plants, you’ll get different opinions. Even plant scientists will find unexpected results in this area, although, not necessarily surprising.

What the best way to prune for yield? Well, in reality, there are as many answers as there are plant species. A quick online search for the species you have (provided you search for advice from a recognised hor ticultural institution) will tell you what time of year or phase of growth is best for pruning. So, why is there still so much debate on this issue? More interestingly, what are the basics we need to know before we star t?

If you prune or remove leaves during flowering, it is possible all of the plant’s resources will go towards flower rather than leaf replacement

If you suspect that this is yet another plant-based debate where the only universally correct answer is “balance”, you are right. Like the hippies say, “in all living things, energy is shared.” Balance isn’t just impor tant: it’s unavoidable. Just like us, plants run on a metabolic network, and every living cell in a plant makes demands on that network for food and water that must be balanced. That process of resource attribution is called par titioning. Have you ever heard someone talk about applying a specific treatment or product to a plant and making it do something? It can sound a bit anthropomorphic. Treat plants a cer tain way, and you can let them know they are going to die. In response, the plants will change their behaviour. For example, If you allow lettuce to repeatedly dry and wilt before re-watering and feeding it, it will bolt or go into flower. It is inevitable, no matter how much nitrogen and veg boosting products you supply it. It “thought” it was going to die, and so it put all available resources into reproduction, or flowering and seeding.

the unconscious physical processes regulating our metabolisms and keeping us alive, are complex self-righting mechanisms, where a myriad of interconnected balancing acts tend to push the overall system one way or another depending on circumstances.

Plants have experienced a wide range of situations over their evolutionary history, such as unstable weather and nutrient supply, high pathogen levels, and more. Those that have survived, especially those adapted to non-specialist or varying conditions, have a range of different growth responses available to them. These responses and the flexibility of the resource par titioning system that powers them is what allows us to manipulate plants in so many ways, making them grow and yield differently compared to how they perform in their natural habits. Reproducing is a non-negotiable requirement for existence, and flowering and fruiting are evolved responses to the challenges of doing so effectively over the long term. So, it’s not surprising that more energy is needed if plants are taking a shortcut to flower, devote, or partition. This is where balance and oxygen come back in.

Many scientists and science communicators (myself included on most days) don’t mind this intention-based way of talking about biology, plants, or humans. It comes naturally and is relatable. However, many flat out reject this idea. The problem is it’s not technically true in the sense that plants don’t “know” anything. They, similar to

THE PRUNING DEBATE

Remember oxygen? The thing that keeps your plant’s roots from drowning and rotting? It turns out it’s not just your roots that need that sweet, sweet O2 . We already know that plants make their food through photosynthesis and give out oxygen. Water, sunlight, and air come in, oxygen and food go out. Right?

Well, sor t of. Every cell needs to make energy (food), then burn it with sunlight and unicorn tears. Just like us, to break sugars down and make the molecules that power cellular mechanisms, they need oxygen in every cell. Keeping an oxygenated rootzone isn’t If you grow bushes with ten just crucial for plant health in an abstract way. It directly fuels levels of leaves that end up every cell in the organism, and if hiding the flowers under their there isn’t enough, growth will be canopy, you would almost limited. So, here’s what you need to know: certainly do better with some •

• • •

Plants par tition energy resources internally between areas and different activities (roots, leaves, flowers/growing, reproducing, etc.) depending on the circumstance. Plants get energy from the sun through its leaves. They transpor t that energy around internally as sugars. All cells in plants use energy to survive and reproduce (plant growth).

thinning out

These are the basics of the pruning debate. The reason there is so much confusion, differing opinions and results, is mainly because all the factors at play are interconnected and interdependent. Despite all this apparent complexity, the idea is very straightforward. When a plant is in flower, it allocates a higher percentage of its energy resources to flowering than it does in vegetative growth. So, if you prune or remove leaves during flowering, it is possible all of the plant’s resources will go towards flower rather than leaf replacement. However, go too far with the pruning, and the loss of leaf area will restrict the plant’s ability to make food for growth, which results in fewer flowers and fruit yields. In a nutshell, flowers can be restrained by either having too many leaves or not enough of them.

What is the solution? Balance. One of the most current scientific studies on this subject is a Dutch paper by S Xiao, A. van der Ploeg, M. Bakker and E. Heuvelink that looks at the impact reducing leaves by 30% has on tomato plants. In shor t, they found that lowering leaf numbers can increase resource allocation to the fruit by modest, but commercially significant amounts. In the same paper, a reduction in overall mass was observed, which is to be expected given the plants absorb less energy after pruning. One of the ways the authors compensated for that in tests was to increase planting density, which worked in this case, delivering higher yields. So, should you go out and chop 30% of the leaves off all your plants? Not necessarily. The plants used in this study were optimised, commercial tomatoes, therefore, increasing density after removing leaves was done very accurately. The plants were not overly congested before or after. If you have perfectly-spaced plants with sparse leaf structure, you should not expect a productivity gain from removing one-third of their leaves, or by adding more plants and making the overall density too high.

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THE PRUNING DEBATE

Congested plants with inward branches or with very dense canopies block air circulation and can attract pests and disease, so removing them, even during vegetative growth, is essential

On the flipside, if you grow bushes with ten levels of leaves that end up hiding the flowers under their canopy, you would almost cer tainly do better with some thinning out, as well as some extra plants to take advantage of the previously shaded areas. What about the tricky intermediate cases? First of all, one of the main reasons we prune leaves outside of flower production is general plant health and maintenance. Congested plants with inward branches or with very dense canopies block air circulation and can attract pests and disease, so removing them, even during vegetative growth, is essential.

Remember, above all this is a balance.

The same rule applies for yellowing, damaged, and lowdown shaded leaves; remove them. Leaf pruning can only allocate resources to flowering if the plant is in bloom, so tidying up in the vegetative phase will help create a plant that is structurally ready for efficient and healthy flowering. If you apply this philosophy to intermediate plants during flowering, by progressively removing the oldest leaves star ting at the bottom of the plant, you can get the benefits of forced re-allocation to flowers while preempting the leaves the plant will drop anyway as it ages. Remember, above all this is a balance. If you start seeing the ground through the plant, you have gone too far. If you find more than three or so leaves one above another, the ones below can probably be removed, within reason. 3

Matt Mountain - Clearspeech.london With a Bachelor of Sciences degree and background in management consultancy, Mattâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s day job is helping everyday people - aka customers, understand and benefit from the developments that researchers and manufacturers in advanced horticulture make every year.

Bio

Matt manages General Hydroponics Europe and General Organics operations in the UK, and with 20 years of urban gardening experience in France and England, is now particularly concentrated on the practical application of hydroponics in small-scale urban food production with a focus on high value, high carbon cost produce.

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