HYDRO International 04-2024 by Geomares Publishing

Director Strategy & Business Development

Durk Haarsma

Financial Director Meine van der Bijl

Editorial Board Huibert-Jan Lekkerkerk, Mark Pronk, BSc, Marck Smit, Auke van der Werf

Head of Content Wim van Wegen

Copy Editor Serena Lyon

Marketing Advisors Myrthe van der Schuit, Peter Tapken

Traffic Manager Linda van der Lans

Circulation Manager Adrian Holland

Design Persmanager, The Hague

Hydro International is an independent international magazine published by Geomares. The magazine and related e-newsletter inform worldwide professional, industrial and governmental readers of the latest news and developments in the hydrographic, surveying, marine cartographic and geomatics world. Hydro International encompasses all aspects, activities and equipment related to the acquisition, processing, presentation, control and management of hydrographic and surveyingrelated activities.

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(No)

odd one out

Hydrography is not the odd one out when it comes to escaping the general trends in society and economy. That’s not a surprise.

In this year’s Business Guide – as in your own business environment – you will encounter a few of these inevitabilities. The first is to be found in the interview (see page 12) I had with John Nyberg and his mentee Maylord De Chavez. John Nyberg, as director of the IHO, started a discussion on the future hydrographer last year during the Hydro ’23 conference in Genoa, Italy, posing questions such as: ‘how will the profession change over time,’ ‘how do we stay relevant for youngsters,’ and ‘how do we attract good people and train them afterwards’? Many of these questions originate in the lack of a good workforce in many parts of the world, as the technical sector seems to be a victim of the appeal of other sectors such as marketing and new professions in the online realm.

More inevitable trends are derived from our yearly survey on the state of the business. Asked about challenges, many of the respondents – like Nyberg – stipulate the lack of good, skilled human resources, but also see the rapid digitization as a problem. The adjustment to new systems often requires a big investment, not something always carried easily by SMEs. On top of the necessity to invest because of digitization, climate change is also impacting hydrographic activities, according to many respondents. These adaptations come at a cost. Some are looking at the equipment needed to be able to work in harsh, often hot, conditions, while others are investing in efforts to make

a cultural shift to ensure that teams can engage with and improve their performance with respect to more sustainable maritime operations. For a complete overview of the outcomes of the survey – also on trends in planned investments for 2025 – please see the feature article by our head of content Wim van Wegen on page 6.

Lastly, I want to share a more personal observation that is impacting our sector. We’ve seen quite a few takeovers, mergers and acquisitions this year in our business. While this is nothing new, I cannot escape the feeling that there have been more than last year, and that we are not there yet. A recent report was published containing economic and societal outlooks on our small northern and coastal region of Friesland, in the Netherlands. Geomares is located in this region, which is sparsely populated with an aging population, making it increasingly difficult for smaller companies to find new personnel. This will necessitate considerable investment in AI and innovation in the upcoming years, but a lack of funds can often make the necessary investments difficult. This is a trend that is undoubtedly present elsewhere. While this is not the place to make the case for a scientifically proven correlation, I suspect this may be one reason why many smaller companies choose to find a warm nest in a bigger context.

I invite you wholeheartedly to write to me or reach out in some other way if you think differently. I also challenge you to share whether and how we can be an odd one out in our little corner of hydrography, instead of unwillingly follow the trends. Happy reading with this very special 2025 Business Guide edition of Hydro International!

Durk Haarsma durk.haarsma@geomares.nl

Survey highlights an industry at a crossroads

Skills and tech: hydrography’s balancing act

By Wim van Wegen, Hydro International

Each year, Hydro International picks up the sounding line to gauge the landscape of the hydrographic sector. By posing questions to the hydrographic community, we measure the currents and underlying trends shaping this everevolving field. In this article, we highlight key topics such as S-100 standards, automation, interdisciplinary coherence, equipment investment and the challenges faced by professionals, presenting the main findings of this year’s industry survey.

The hydrographic sector is undergoing a transformation while advancements in uncrewed and autonomous surface vehicles are redefining data collection and analysis. In a world that is increasingly demanding fieldproven, high-resolution data, hydrographers and ocean technologists are stepping into the spotlight. Their work is critical for tackling global challenges, from supporting offshore renewable energy projects to understanding the impacts of climate change. Bathymetric data, once very much a niche market, has become more and more a cornerstone for industries planning sustainable marine spaces, enhancing navigation and protecting biodiversity. These developments mark

an exciting era for the profession, as hydrography moves to the centre of global efforts towards sustainability and resilience.

The reality is that this surge in opportunities comes with significant challenges. The rise of automation and AI is reshaping workflows, requiring new strategies, skills and a forward-thinking approach. Hydrographic professionals must navigate questions around data accuracy, ethical practices and the environmental impact of their operations – all while meeting the growing demand for actionable insights. Despite these hurdles, the mood within the sector remains optimistic. It is not only about

Keeping

adapting to this evolving landscape but also about playing a critical role when it comes to shaping it, ensuring that their work supports a sustainable future for both the industry and the planet.

Most significant challenges

“Good-quality onshore and offshore personnel, especially the latter. One company alone cannot solve this; the industry needs to work together to promote suitable higher education courses to get young people feeding into the industry.”

This comment is in line with others made by participants in our industry surveys in recent years, with a steep upward trend. The issue, which is causing many headaches, needs to be given even more attention, which Hydro International will do in the coming year.

A hydrographer from Indonesia pointed out that the most significant challenges in their organization and the country’s hydrographic sector are transformation of the culture and the integration of artificial intelligence; instead of implementing strategies over and over again, it is important to focus on teaching and learning with an open mind.

Other respondents also mentioned the shift to remote and uncrewed acquisition methods as a challenge. Keeping pace with the swift evolution of technology demands continuous learning and adaptation, especially when working with sophisticated tools such as GNSS systems, remote sensing technologies and autonomous underwater vehicles.

pace with the swift advancement of technology demands continuous learning and adaptation, such as the shift to remote and uncrewed data acquisition methods, as illustrated here by a Kongsberg Sounder USV. (Image courtesy: Kongsberg Discovery)

Availability of the needed technology is a noteworthy point derived from this year’s contributions. A survey participant from Saudi Arabia stated: “In our marine construction survey division, we struggle with the unavailability of specific technologies, such as machinery control systems for placing quay wall blocks, and the high cost of bathymetric survey equipment, making it challenging to justify investments to management.” A fellow expert from Portugal stated that resistance to innovation is a serious hurdle: “Clients want to continue using traditional methodologies.” To change this: “It is necessary to participate more in scientific events and promote this knowledge in institutions.” The development of the correct strategy regarding innovation proves a challenge in itself in many organizations: “Work processes are changing; it will be more remote, more autonomous, more data. But how is still unclear, which is making new strategies very hard.”

Implementing S-100 standards

S-100 is set to bring significant changes to hydrographic data, reshaping the maritime industry. As a comprehensive framework, it supports the development of digital products and services for the hydrographic, maritime and GIS sectors. But how are companies and organizations adopting S-100 to enhance data interoperability and drive progress? A hydrographer from the Netherlands: “Most of the effort and coordination is made by my colleagues from ENC production, all in good cooperation nationally with the hydrography service of the Royal Netherlands Navy.” A respondent working at a UK-based port authority responsible for safety of navigation and associated hydrographic data and products commented: “We are working with the UKHO and other professional organizations, our pilots, harbour-masters and marine operators to assess the S-100 suite of products – specifically S-101, S-102, S-104 and S-111 – for which we have demonstration datasets and collaborative projects with stakeholders.” A respondent from the Norwegian Mapping Authority’s Hydrographic Service stated: “We attend IHO working groups to plan for implementation in our organization. We aim to have a parallel production with S-57 and S-101 for instance during the transition.”

The adoption of the S-100 standards is not progressing at the same pace everywhere. The comment: “We have consulted how hydrographic documents are related to S-100 more tightly. But the speed of standardization is very slow,” is a far from isolated remark – similar sentiments are echoed widely. A significant group indicated either that they had never heard of the S-100 standards or that the standards do not play a role in their current work.

The impact of automation

Robotics and automation will continue to evolve the hydrographic sector and related fields in the coming years. Think of the automation of workflows and the uptake of remote technology, resulting in faster, more efficient and safer operations. We are experiencing a shift towards remote and autonomous mapping, and the importance of this transition is highlighted by information gathered through this edition of our annual industry survey. However, as we will learn further on in this article, there are some changes taking place here. How will automation reshape hydrographic operations, and which skills will become essential for professionals?

While nearly everyone agrees that automation will advance hydrography, experienced and knowledgeable personnel remain essential.

A participant running a small dredging company emphasized that while automation is indeed around the corner, humans are still needed to validate the survey data and avoid incorrect conclusions: “Surveyors need to have additional skills to be able to fill that position.” A respondent working for a leading player in international marine geoscience and offshore construction support services pointed out: “Automation will assist and support hydrographic operations. AI tools or similar will speed up activities such as data processing but you still need experienced and knowledgeable personnel to evaluate the results of any tools. Therefore, the current skills and experience of industry professionals will still be required, especially offshore experience.” A marine construction company employee questioned the expectations that automation brings with it: “If automation means that no-one actually understands what they are actually doing then this is a bit dangerous. Because of automation, fewer people seem to understand the details of data acquisition and processing and therefore how changes in settings affect this process. The basic skills are still necessary.”

An offshore surveyor based in India wondered whether automation alone can transform hydrographic operations, highlighting the need for robust knowledge, established standards and comprehensive skills development programmes to complement traditional methodologies. Key areas such as an ability to work with autonomous vehicles, remote data processing and survey risk management are expected to become essential competencies of the future. “Automation of shipping will place more demand on hydrography as accurate up-to-date data is one of the keys to automation,” stated one respondent, continuing: “There is a requirement to gather accurate current and tidal data along with bathymetric data and for the dataset to have a high CATZOC.” (CATZOC values indicate chart accuracy, helping mariners assess navigation risks. Displayed on ECDIS as symbols, the stars denote confidence levels in position, depth and seafloor data, editor). The need for more and better data requires skilled hydrographers and nautical cartographers – necessary for producing accurate products – leading the latter respondent to wonder whether the trend towards autonomous surveying necessarily leads to a lower demand for hydrography experts.

Collaborative efforts

Hydrography may be a sector on its own when it comes to collecting data on the topography of underwater environments using high-end specialized equipment and advanced techniques and survey methods. However, it overlaps with other fields and the definition of what many companies involved in the hydrographic industry are doing can be blurred and is not strictly limited to pure hydrography alone. This is why this year’s industry survey also asked about collaborative efforts with other fields that can help drive innovation in hydrography.

This is underlined by a survey participant from the US: “Coastal engineering and hydrography go hand in hand in my mind. Marine biology will become an increasingly bigger part of this picture.” This is supported by multiple respondents, with comments that can be summarized as ‘hydrography, by its nature, links various fields of knowledge’. A respondent from the UK discussed the importance of combining hydrography with other key disciplines to address challenges such as biodiversity net gain and innovative coastal engineering, arguing that collaboration – particularly between industry and academia – is vital for many reasons, such as protecting habitats, managing sea-level rise and reducing the impacts of extreme weather.

“The critical field that will influence hydrography will be defence; the much wider adoption of uncrewed platforms means that the requirements for reliable data to feed into the autonomous systems goes up, rather than being able to rely on experienced marine crews on the boats to make the critical decisions,” added a hydrographic software developer based in Australia. Collaborative efforts with other fields can also lead to intertwining different technologies, as a port surveyor, also from Australia, stated: “The combination of photogrammetry and Lidar will provide greater detail for coastal engineering; machine learning could be introduced into backscatter seafloor classification making it easier for marine biology to identify habitats.” Multiple respondents indicated an overarching theme for a wide range of areas: “The collection of standardized data to support a wide range of uses – collect once, use many times.”

Essential gear for tomorrow’s surveys

As the need for high-quality hydrographic data continues to grow, with a focus on collecting data that can serve multiple purposes, organizations are exploring new ways to improve acquisition processes and meet rising demands. What strategies are they adopting to drive progress in this field? What solutions are they prioritizing for the years ahead?

In recent years, expectations around automotive have risen sharply, in terms of technology and certainly in terms of expected investments. This year we see that this is levelling off. Responses to both of the above questions varied depending on the survey participant’s background. For example, a port authority surveyor stated that they are investing in more surveying equipment for defining nautical depth and in developing a digital twin, but that they also had the impression that other ports across the globe also intend to invest in hardware and software solutions. A hydrospatial consultant from South Africa foresaw investments in uncrewed technology, with a focus on underwater photogrammetry and Lidar as well as ultra-high-resolution multibeam. These investment plans are based on the need for time management, operational planning and forecasting for field operations; for more environmental impact assessment, research and sea-level rise impact studies and consultancy appointments; and for survey service support for post-flood infrastructure damage and repairs. A

respondent representing a US interagency partnership to advance bathymetric Lidar named investments in physical models and processing algorithms for bathymetric Lidar as a key priority: “With bathymetric Lidar being able to acquire large complex areas quickly, a challenge remains how to sort such complex data in a timely manner for the data users’ needs and this will be the same issue with the digital twin. We will need investments in smarter ways to achieve the holy grail of good, cheap and fast data.”

The outcomes of the industry survey show that investing in MBES systems with integrated IMUs is a priority, particularly for hydrographic offices, aligning with the increasing demand for accurate and efficient seabed mapping solutions. These integrated systems enhance motion compensation, ensuring precise bathymetric data collection even in challenging marine environments – critical for tasks such as coastal mapping and producing nautical charts where data accuracy is paramount for navigation safety. Also on the investment lists of port authorities and hydrographic offices in particular for the years ahead: new survey vessels combined with unmanned remote-controlled vessels and multiple multibeam echosounders for the collection of data, from quay wall to seafloor.

Such investments may also tie into the stringent standards set by S-44, which define the required accuracy for hydrographic surveys. Hydro International

Hydrography goes hand in hand with many other fields, as exemplified here by a Saildrone USV off the Aleutian Islands – a solution that can also be employed for a wide variety of tasks. (Image courtesy: Saildrone)

YellowScan Navigator.

An innovative bathymetric LiDAR solution for exploring underwater and ground topography.

Inertial Navigation Solutions

For hydrographic applications:

From Sensor Design to Manufacturing

Individual Calibration for Outstanding Accuracy

Intuitive Post Processing Software

Open Online Documentation

published an insightful article in 2024 by Huibert-Jan Lekkerkerk, titled ‘S-44 and the systematic error’, which zooms in on an oftenoverlooked aspect of uncertainty in hydrographic surveys. The article features essential considerations for understanding and managing systematic errors, making it a valuable resource for professionals working to meet S-44 standards.

By integrating IMUs directly into MBES systems, hydrographic offices can address these uncertainties more effectively, reducing post-processing efforts and delivering high-resolution datasets suitable for a wide range of applications. This approach not only supports safer navigation but also provides valuable data for coastal engineering, environmental monitoring and renewable energy projects. This brings together again the multiple fields connected with hydrography.

Conclusion

The industry-wide shortage of experienced and skilled surveyors is a challenge that requires immediate attention, as it affects every stage of survey campaigns. Many of this year’s industry survey participants worry about the decline in professionals with hands-on experience, which has a particular impact on the effectiveness of governmental oversight. This gap often leads to impractical approaches and suboptimal solutions, resulting in avoidable costs and operational inefficiencies. Addressing this issue through targeted training and recruitment can help steer the industry towards more effective and harmonious outcomes.

While exploring the possibilities of S-100 services is essential, the survey outcome implies that many people working in hydrography have very little exposure to S-100 products and that more knowledge is highly recommended and necessary. Survey participants also mention that it is important to understand that more people need to be aware of the inherent risks associated with a higher level of automation. It is notable that artificial intelligence barely came forward as a topic this year; one would think that it

Wim van Wegen is head of content at GIM International and Hydro International. In his role, he is responsible for the print and online publications of one of the world’s leading geomatics and hydrography trade media brands. He is also a contributor of columns and feature articles, and often interviews renowned experts in the geospatial industry. Van Wegen has a bachelor’s degree in European studies from the NHL University of Applied Sciences in Leeuwarden, the Netherlands.

could be presented as a solution direction, also with the challenges mentioned here in mind. It is perhaps a sign that the hype is a little past its peak.

Many of the respondents to this year’s Hydro International industry survey believe that the industry needs to take a few steps back and revisit the basics, although without leaving the path of the many exciting technological advancements being witnessed, as they bring many solutions that helps the sector forward. Like last year, the survey highlights a pressing demand for skilled professionals and the ongoing difficulties in recruiting and retaining talent. The sector must come together to tackle this challenge, to increase awareness of the exciting opportunities in hydrography and to inspire greater interest among students and young learners.

About the author

The growing urgency for skilled surveyors, even more evident than last year, underscores the need to invest in attracting new talent and enhancing training efforts. (Image courtesy: Fugro)

Airborne Lidar bathymetry is likely to become a key tool for future hydrographic surveyors, illustrated here with imagery captured off the coast of Catalonia. (Image courtesy: Field)

Hydro International speaks with John Nyberg and Maylord De Chavez

Promising future for hydrography

By Durk Haarsma, Hydro International

The hydrography profession seems to have a lower profile among young people than other marine sciences. Enrolment on hydrography courses has been decreasing for many years and companies are finding it difficult to fill vacancies. What does the future of the profession look like? Hydro International talked to John Nyberg, director of the International Hydrographic Organization (IHO), and his mentee through the East Asia Hydro Commission Maylord De Chavez on the topic of the hydrographer of the future. First, we asked Nyberg to shed light on initiatives that the IHO could champion to increase hydrography’s appeal for the next generation.

“There are so many things to be excited about when considering hydrography as a profession. Modern geospatial programmes have already seen a transition towards computer science, and hydrography is no exception. In addition to the emphasis on information technology, autonomous hydrography is already here and is growing around the world. Promoting hydrography as a fundamental aspect of understanding how Earth systems work and change over time might encourage broader interest in the subject as a profession, but this should be coupled with current and potential advances in hydrographic technology.”

The public perception of hydrography often focuses on seafloor mapping, while the profession encompasses much more. How can we better communicate the diverse career opportunities and impact of modern hydrography?

“We really need to start working to make sure that hydrography is included in basic geographic and scientific school curricula. We have a wonderful story to tell, starting with the notion that the ocean is the last fully unexplored area of the Earth’s surface. When I think about my father as a child, there were still parts of the Amazon Basin that were not mapped or explored. If we tap the inner Indiana Jones’ in aspiring geographers, the ocean is where adventure lies. The study of temperature, pressure, salinity, depth

and more will certainly lead us to new discoveries, including undiscovered life. We should be more creative in stimulating interest, and we should get better at sharing career experiences with young people. I am regularly amazed at the path that my career has taken, and strongly believe that a start in hydrography can lead to opportunities in technology, diplomacy, management, business and much more.”

Given the rapid advancement of autonomous systems and AI in hydrography, how do you envision redefining the core competencies for future hydrographers to balance traditional skills with emerging technologies?

“We must continue along the path of an emphasis on computer science, maths and engineering, but this should be coupled with the strong study of Earth systems, including physical geography. Everyone has AI on their mind these days, and I am positive that it will be an important part of our work in the future. For now, we need to be sure that we have an excellent knowledge of traditional skills to be able to ensure that AI is serving us well. Anyone who has used AI to generate a paper or speech quickly discovers that the information needs an expert’s review before use. A big part of my education was in international business, and I have found it to be extremely useful when considering

both the economic and international value of hydrography and how it affects our society. So, for those of us who have focused our training on traditional cartography, which is still very important, an increasing emphasis on science, technology and engineering should be recognized as critical, while still understanding the basics of cartography. I believe that this is crucial to be able to ensure that the human experience combined with AI-generated products works under real-world conditions.”

Tap the inner Indiana Jones’ in aspiring geographers

Faced with increasing environmental challenges such as sea-level rise and coastal erosion, how can we better prepare hydrographers to contribute to climate change adaptation and mitigation strategies?

“We really need to take a mixed approach to training. Hydrographers are best equipped to provide the core data needed for understanding how nearshore systems work, and marine modellers to build the tools that bring the information together for decision-making. The challenge is to build

a hydrographic workforce that understands what it needs to do to provide the information needed to bring it all together. We are good at understanding hydrography, geodesy and GIS, but when you are in a room with land and sea mapping professionals, it sometimes seems like we come from different planets. In my view, hydrographers need to own the coastal zone, build expertise in land mapping, and make strategic thinking around climate mitigation a priority.”

What would enhance the appeal of the profession in times in which there are easier ways for young people to earn money?

“This is a tough question that boils down to some unfortunate personal views in the modern world. We all need money, and earning easy money is appealing – I get that. However, when the time comes for me to call it quits, I’ll be happy to know that I did something meaningful with my life. Hydrographers, from the secretary-general of the IHO to someone on their first day as a nautical cartographer, directly impact people’s lives. Accurate charts and modern surveys help to ensure that people get the things they need to survive. Hydrography helps us to understand how storms will affect coastal communities, to discover new underwater ecosystems, and to manage the marine environment, to name a few.”

What is the role of the IHO in shaping the future of the hydrographic profession?

“I hope that the IHO will serve as inspiration for future hydrographers. Our job is to help make sure that the profession of hydrography is accessible and that its potential is understood. We will continue to support and, I hope, modernize the standards of competence for our profession. I strongly believe that we need to be willing to work more with young people who are getting started in hydrography and with mid-career professionals who are trying to work their way up.”

What changes do you envision in hydrographic education to better integrate emerging technologies while maintaining fundamental surveying principles?

“We can’t ignore the fundamentals of surveying, cartography, geodesy or any of the scientific disciplines that we depend on for hydrography. To understand how emerging technologies work, there must be a basic understanding of the fundamentals. I imagine that in teaching new technology, the description of how basic science applies will become increasingly important. In a way, we may be teaching fundamental surveying principles to people who are excited about emerging technology without them realizing it. For example,

John Nyberg, photographed at the port of Monaco, home to the IHO headquarters.

most modern GIS courses teach the basics of geographic positioning and data transformation even though the software does it for you.”

What is the general role of education in producing the next generation of hydrographers?

“The initial role of education should be to let the next generation know that hydrography is available as a profession and that it is exciting. As part of this, I think that hydrography needs to become a much more prevalent part of modern Earth Science programmes. It also needs to be much more accessible. This means that we need regional programmes at the university level around the world – some regions do not have one. The expansion of online training must be prioritized and should be low-cost.”

Hydrographers directly impact people’s lives

As maritime spatial planning becomes increasingly important, how do you see the role of hydrographers evolving in supporting sustainable ocean management?

“In my mind, the two disciplines go hand in hand – I can’t imagine a marine spatial planner without an understanding of hydrography. I also think that hydrographers, in many ways, already provide base information for marine spatial planning. I am sure that the future will find humanity taking advantage of space in the ocean that we are not even considering today. Who knows what type of resources the deep ocean may

About John Nyberg

John E. Nyberg has over 25 years’ experience working with government and public sector stakeholders to facilitate international cooperation initiatives that ensure the safety, efficiency and sustainability of marine transportation. In 2023, John was elected a member of the IHO Directing Committee. John has a PhD in Earth Systems & Geo-information Sciences, an MA in International Business and a BA in Geography.

provide? I also think that hydrographers will be critically important for an eventual large-scale cleanup of the impact of human activities on the ocean; from microplastics to ocean acidification.”

Which components of current-day hydrography would you like to highlight as making the profession more attractive?

“I am forever amazed by international hydrography. Of course, I work for the IHO where international work is what we do, but the oceans are the last common space on Earth. I love the fact that what we do is scientific and technical with a touch of politics. We are living in complicated times and the world has become a complicated place. Hydrography is an area in which people from all parts of the world, from any background, can get together to work in a common direction to solve modern problems. I often feel that the field of hydrography might be one of the few places where the world can find common ground.”

Talking to the hydrographer of the future

John Nyberg mentors a young hydrographer from the Philippines, Maylord De Chavez. Hydro International interviewed De Chavez to learn more from the hydrographer of the future, on education, upskilling the workforce and expectations versus reality. Maylord starts by telling us which aspects of his daily work differ most from what he expected when entering the profession.

“Before starting my current job, I knew very little about hydrography or hydrographic surveys. I also had no prior experience using GNSS. The use of specialized equipment makes hydrography unique from other jobs. As a hydrographer, I have to understand the factors that affect the quality of data being collected. A surveyor must carefully plan a course of action to overcome the effects of the moving platform, the changing survey environment and tides on the accuracy of data. Long hours are also required for data

collection, processing and analysis, as well as occasional equipment troubleshooting.”

How do you see the balance between traditional surveying skills and digital technologies in your current role?

“I believe that traditional surveying skills are here to stay and that the rapid development of digital technologies should complement our long-standing hydrographic practices. The introduction of AI, machine learning, unmanned surface vessels, robotics and big data boosts efficiency and accuracy, which is timely with the increasing demand for digital products and services. The primary focus of hydrography has evolved from aiding navigation to providing support to other sectors in the maritime domain.

Hydrographic offices must acknowledge the need to upskill their workforce to ensure that new technologies and traditional skills work together to foster collaboration and innovation in the field.”

What challenges have you faced in building international professional networks, and what support would have been helpful early in your career?

“I had no idea how to start and grow my network of hydrography experts back then. When I started this job, the Philippines had very few professionals involved in hydrography outside the hydrographic office. No learning institution in the Philippines offers hydrography courses, and surveyors in the Philippines were mostly involved in land and construction surveys. Social media was not yet available to the public and it was prohibitively expensive to join conferences to gain access to professional organizations, so I only had the chance to meet professional hydrographers when I attended the IHO-sponsored Hydro programme in the US in 2014.

“Additionally, I believe that the lack of familiarity, language barrier and cultural differences keep young professionals from interacting with their counterparts abroad. Giving young hydrographers access to national and international professional networks at the beginning of their careers would be beneficial. Mentorship programmes benefit young professionals by providing access to information that could assist them in considering career options, challenge them to test new ideas, and further expand their network. Employers

Digital technologies should complement our longstanding hydrographic practices

must allocate resources and allow their technical staff to travel for conferences so that they can engage with diverse cultures to expand their perspectives and adopt best practices. Established global professional organizations also play a major role in building networks for newcomers. Young professionals gain new information for their career growth and establish global connections thanks to their presence on multiple social media platforms.”

Based on your experience, what aspects of hydrographic education should be emphasized more to better prepare new professionals for the current work environment?

“First of all: technical competency. Earlycareer professionals should be introduced to new software, remote sensing technologies and processing software to keep up with the rapid development in modern hydrography. Secondly: data management. Newer technologies make it possible to efficiently acquire more accurate data, and students need to develop their analytical skills to manage large datasets. Thirdly: hydrographers must have a good foundation in oceanography, meteorology and marine geology for a better understanding of the marine environment.

Maylord De Chavez.

Fourthly: environmental awareness. Hydrographers play a crucial role in supporting global initiatives to map the entire ocean, understand its processes and develop models for the conservation of our finite marine resources. Even the application of modern technology to reduce carbon footprints while collecting as much marine data as possible and using it multiple times is one way of raising environmental awareness. Fifthly, to conclude: soft skills and communication. Hydrography is a team effort, and effective communication and collaboration are essential for knowledge sharing, network building and sustaining innovation.”

What would you say to young people considering a career in hydrography, and what opportunities do you see for the profession in the next decade?

“Give it a try. The future of hydrography is very promising. With current initiatives such as Seabed 2030, S-100 and Empowering Women in Hydrography, hydrography

will undoubtedly improve our world, where data leads to informed decisions, drives innovation and enables everyone to take part in addressing the diverse challenges and needs of communities and stakeholders. These questions aim to create a dialogue between the strategic, highlevel perspective of IHO leadership and the practical, ground-level experience of earlycareer professionals.”

About Maylord De Chavez

Maylord De Chavez has ten years’ experience conducting hydrographic and coastline surveys, water level observation and levelling for the National Mapping and Resource Information Authority (NAMRIA) in the Philippines. He has a Bachelor’s degree in Geodetic Engineering and, sponsored by the IHO and the Republic of Korea, earned an MSc in Hydrographic Science from the University of Southern Mississippi.

Horizontal and vertical coordinate reference systems

Debunking geodetics in specifications

By Huibert-Jan Lekkerkerk, technical editor, Hydro International

The basis of any construction or charting project is the definition of an unambiguous, retrievable horizontal and vertical Coordinate Reference System (CRS). This should be included in the contract specifications. Nothing new here, but procedures from the past may no longer be suitable with modern positioning techniques such as PPP GNSS. While the horizontal CRS can be difficult, the vertical often poses even more of a problem due to ambiguous references during the design of a construction. Even when defined unambiguously, retrieving vertical reference levels is still difficult. In this article, I describe some of the issues from a hydrographic viewpoint, focusing on geodetic issues that should be addressed in the specifications.

The horizontal CRS specifies how the results from the survey should be provided to the client. Often, this is a regional or national projected CRS such as the UTM projection. A projection alone is not enough and should be accompanied by a horizontal datum. This horizontal datum is often not the same as that provided by the positioning system (GNSS) and thus in addition a datum transformation with accompanying parameters is required. The most common datum transformation requires seven parameters.

This datum transformation requires particular attention. Many people ‘assume’

that the output from a GNSS is in the WGS84 datum. Looking at for example the NMEA0183 specification, which even states this, this is logical. However, the output CRS of a GNSS receiver is directly tied to the CRS of the augmentation system. An absolute GNSS (unaugmented GNSS, code phase dGNSS and PPP) outputs its positions

Average continental plate drift. (Photo courtesy: NASA)

Horizontal (blue) and vertical (red) effect of continental drift between ETRS89 and WGS84 for the Netherlands.

according to a worldwide CRS. This can be WGS84, but most PPP systems output ITRF-based positions. Though WGS84 is kept to within 10cm of ITRF, there are some small differences which might be noticeable with PPP. To make matters worse, the Earth is not stable and, because of continental drift, ITRF (but also WGS84) is recomputed on a regular basis with the last iteration (epoch) being ITRF2020.

RTK outputs its coordinates in a CRS that is directly tied to the specified coordinates of the base station or network. In general, RTK is tied into a regional CRS such as ETRS89 in Europe or NAD83 in the US. The CRS used by a relative system drifts with the continental plate it is fixed to and as such horizontal positions on a regional CRS are relatively stable over time. Nevertheless, they are not fully stable due to changes in the plate orientation and new realizations (epochs) are created at intervals.

Datum transformations

This brings us to the issue of the datum transformation parameters. The output datum is effectively defined through the input datum from the GNSS and the datum transformation used. Different realizations of a horizontal datum require adjusted datum transformation parameters. The seven-parameter shift itself does not compensate for continental drift and as such the accuracy deteriorates over time (within a single survey a semi-constant error). This requires regular updates of the datum transformation parameters, something not necessarily done with copy-paste specifications. The alternative is 14-parameter shifts, which include the seven parameters and their change over time. These parameters can be used for a longer time but still need to be tied to the datum given from the GNSS receiver, which in turn depends on the augmentation used.

Often, the datum transformation parameters quoted do not match the output datum from the GNSS receiver. For example, the

Netherlands uses an ETRS89 to Bessel 1841 datum transformation inshore and nearshore. If RTK is used, this requires a check of the ETRS89 epoch in the RTK network and a selection of the appropriate datum transformation parameters in the software. However, matters are more complicated if PPP is used. In this case, we have an ITRF2020 output that needs to be transformed to ETRS89, which then needs to be transformed to Bessel 1841. Ignoring the first step results in errors of around nine decimetres, which is too much for most construction projects. Specifications usually quote ETRS89 to Bessel 1841 conversion (through a combined ‘RDNapTrans’ conversion set) and most (all?) survey software can only handle a single conversion. So, how to deal with the first step?

Some GNSS receivers have the internal option to do a datum transformation. While this is technically not allowed by the NMEA0183 protocol, it does solve an issue. In this case, the ITRF2020 to ETRS89 (check the epoch!) is done in the GNSS receiver and the ETRS89 to Bessel 1841 in the survey software. However, not all receivers have this option. The alternative is to perform a ‘block shift’ in the survey software. Most software allows this on the projected coordinates. In this case, the first datum transformation is computed as a dE, dN shift in UTM (or other chart projection) and applied to the transformed coordinates. For an area of a few tens of kilometres wide, the resulting error is limited to the cm-level and usually acceptable.

LAT and MSL

If the horizontal datum is complicated, the vertical datum is even more so. Depending on the type of project, a tide-derived datum is often specified such as ‘LAT’ or ‘MSL’. The former is also recommended by the IHO as vertical reference (or a level close to this). There is however no such thing as LAT or MSL. Or, as the EPSG database states for MSL (and LAT): “Approximate because not specific to any location or epoch. Users are advised to not use

this generic CRS but instead use one with a specific datum origin (e.g. ‘Mean Sea Level at xxx during yyyy-yyyy’) or defined through a specified geoid/hydroid model.”

In other words, tidal-based vertical datums should be specified for a specific place and with a specific epoch on which they are based. For MSL, this is easy to understand as we have all heard about sea-level rise. On average, MSL rises 4mm/year but this change is not the same for every location. LAT varies even more from location to location as it depends on the shape and amplitude of

the tidal curve. As a result, LAT can change significantly (decimetres to metres) over just a few kilometres of coastline whereas MSL is relatively stable.

GNSS heights and the vertical datum

This is however only one aspect of the vertical datum. Nowadays, many projects are performed using GNSS for height measurements (RTK or PPP GNSS). As stated above, these output their position in a global (ellipsoidal) datum. However, most projects are not interested in ellipsoidal heights but require ‘something’ related to either

Average world-wide sea-level rise per month over the last 30+ years. (Photo courtesy: NASA)

an onshore datum or a tidal reference. To convert an ellipsoid height to an onshore, geoidal (orthometric) datum, a geoid-ellipsoid separation model is required. Though often stated to be the same, MSL and the geoid are not identical. Where the geoid is based on gravity, MSL is (traditionally) based on actual tidal measurements. The differences depend on the geoidal (onshore datum) definition but also on the tidal behaviour. The changes over time between the two not only depend on sea-level rise but also on land subsidence (or indeed uplift), where the onshore datum can be influenced by geological changes (depending on how it is defined).

As a result, GNSS heights need to be transformed from ellipsoid heights to geoidal heights and from thereon to an MSL or LAT value using a separation model. For some areas in the world, models exist that allow direct transformation from a GNSS datum to a LAT or MSL value. For other areas, two separate corrections or models are required, one to derive the geoid height from the GNSS datum and another to determine MSL or LAT from the geoid. Though differences between the height as derived from different

World-wide sea-level rise between 1992 and 2019. (Photo courtesy: NASA)

GNSS datums are small (cm-level), they have a systematic effect nonetheless. Different models for deriving LAT and MSL potentially give different answers, even without regarding MSL rise and the accompanying LAT rise (relative to the GNSS datum – geoid).

Obtaining vertical offset values

It is possible to derive a local geoid-ellipsoid separation at relatively little cost providing at least one benchmark is available. The GNSS height should be recorded over this benchmark (preferably over an extended period, say 24+ hours) and when compared to the given benchmark height will provide an offset for that point. Using a levelling campaign around the project will allow further determination of additional points. Thus, with relatively small effort, a crude but effective local geoid-ellipsoid separation model can be created.

Deriving a local geoid-LAT offset requires tidal measurements with a tide gauge tied into the local, onshore datum. For a proper harmonic analysis, at least 18.6 years of data (continuous) are required. It is not impossible to derive LAT from shorter time series, but these have an inaccuracy that depends on how representative the conditions are for that period. For example, a 30-day measurement period can be influenced by short-term meteorological events such as storms and will not include seasonal influences. A 30-day harmonic analysis has an accuracy of centimetres to decimetres from the long-period LAT value. A year’s worth of measurements will provide a more stable value. If the project is short enough, a single value is sufficient. For longer projects or tidal measurements from some time ago, MSL rise should be incorporated in the vertical offset.

About the author

Huibert-Jan Lekkerkerk is a contributing editor, freelance hydrographic consultant and author of other publications on GNSS and hydrography and principal lecturer in Hydrography at Skilltrade (Cat B) and the MIWB (Cat A).

Specifications and geodetics

When writing specifications, all the above should be considered but not necessarily be solved by the specifier. The output horizontal CRS (including the local datum) should be specified, but the datum transformation can be left to the contractor if a control point coordinate is provided by the client on which the contractor can verify that the datum transformation has been implemented correctly. Alternatively, the specifier should state the exact datums and parameters to be used and keep these updated for consecutive projects.

The vertical datum should be specified using location and reference epoch or alternatively through a model (clearly stating which input and output from the model is required). It is advised to keep models constant for consecutive projects providing sea-level rise is not an issue. When switching between models, an investigation into the effects should be made.

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An increasingly promising instrument in the hydrographic surveying toolkit

Charting depths from above with airborne bathymetric Lidar

By Łukasz Janowski, Paweł Tysiąc and Gottfried Mandlburger

The mapping of underwater terrain and the monitoring of coastal and inland waters have been transformed by airborne bathymetric Lidar. The precision of laser-based remote sensing, combined with the ability to penetrate water surfaces, is utilized by this technology to provide critical data for environmental management, infrastructure planning and disaster preparedness. The principles, applications and advancements in airborne bathymetric Lidar are explored in this article, highlighting its potential to revolutionize the hydrographic surveying landscape

Airborne bathymetric Lidar uses a pulsed green laser, usually at a wavelength of 532nm, to penetrate water surfaces and gather data from underwater landscapes. This wavelength is ideal because it penetrates water effectively, experiencing minimal absorption and scattering in clear water, which allows for accurate measurements of submerged features. The technology works on the time of flight (ToF) principle, calculating distances by measuring the time it takes for a laser pulse to travel to an object and back, such as the seafloor or riverbed. To ensure precise depth measurements, advanced refraction correction techniques based on Snell’s law are used to account for the bending of the laser beam at the air-water interface.

The sensor systems are complex, multicomponent setups that include the following key elements:

1. Laser scanner: At the heart of the system is the laser scanner, which generates and directs laser pulses in scanning patterns over the survey area. While some scanners use only the green wavelength for measuring both bathymetry and topography in one go, others also incorporate infrared lasers to more precisely capture data from water surfaces. Dual-wavelength systems are particularly useful for mapping complex environments where water and land meet.

2. Global navigation satellite system (GNSS): The GNSS ensures that the sensor platform is precisely georeferenced. Highaccuracy differential GNSS setups, often used with ground-based base stations, provide real-time or post-processed corrections to achieve positional accuracy to within a few centimetres. This capability is crucial for creating detailed maps and aligning datasets across multiple survey missions.

3. Inertial measurement unit (IMU): The IMU continuously monitors the aircraft’s attitude, including roll, pitch and yaw, to compensate for movements caused by turbulence or manoeuvring. This data, combined with GNSS outputs, allows for precise orientation of the laser pulses and accurate georeferencing of the collected points in three-dimensional space.

Together, these components create a tightly integrated system that produces high-resolution, geospatially accurate datasets. This allows for detailed analysis of submerged topography, aquatic vegetation and underwater structures.

Key performance metrics of airborne bathymetric Lidar

1. Penetration depth

The depth that bathymetric Lidar can penetrate is influenced by the water’s clarity, the laser’s energy output and the receiver’s sensitivity. In ideal conditions, such as clear water with low turbidity, it can reach depths up to three times the Secchi depth. For example, in clear coastal or inland waters, this could mean depths of over 30 metres. However, suspended sediments, algae or other particles can scatter and absorb the laser, reducing its effective depth. Advanced laser systems with higher pulse energy and optimized wavelengths are designed to overcome these challenges, providing more consistent depth measurements in various aquatic environments.

Pielach river dataset captured with RIEGL VQ-840-G (and coloured with separate DJI P1 images).

2. Accuracy

Bathymetric Lidar provides impressive accuracy for both topographic and bathymetric data points, achieving vertical precision to within 10cm. This high level of accuracy is due to the precise time synchronization of the Lidar system’s components, including the laser scanner, GNSS and IMU. Additionally, advanced processing techniques such as full waveform analysis and refraction corrections further enhance measurement precision by accounting for factors that include water surface dynamics and signal attenuation within the water column.

3. Point density

High-density Lidar systems can achieve point densities of over 50 points per square metre, which is crucial for creating detailed digital terrain models (DTMs) and bathymetric maps. This dense data coverage allows for the capture of fine-scale features, such as small geomorphological structures, submerged vegetation and artificial underwater objects. Achieving this density depends on factors such as flying altitude, laser pulse repetition rate and scanning geometry. High point densities are especially valuable for applications such as habitat modelling, floodplain analysis and infrastructure monitoring. However, for the sake of eye safety, green lasers are not as collimated as IR lasers used for topographic mapping and show a laser footprint diameter on the surface of over 10–50cm when

These metrics highlight the versatility of airborne bathymetric Lidar in capturing detailed and accurate data across a wide range of aquatic and terrestrial environments.

Applications of airborne bathymetric Lidar

1. Coastal and riverine mapping. Airborne bathymetric Lidar is widely used for mapping submerged and intertidal topographies, providing high-resolution datasets essential for coastal zone management, floodplain analysis and navigation safety. The technology helps to identify underwater hazards, sandbanks and erosion-prone areas, supporting maritime activities and infrastructure planning.

Example: The RIEGL VQ-840-G has been successfully deployed in Austria to map submerged riverbeds with exceptional detail, enabling precise modelling of river morphology and aiding hydrological assessments (Mandlburger et al., 2023).

2. Hydrodynamic and erosion studies. Accurate DTMs generated from bathymetric Lidar are crucial for studying hydrodynamic processes and sediment transport. By capturing detailed information about channel morphologies and patterns of sediment deposition or erosion, this technology

is invaluable for understanding river systems and managing waterway stability. Morphodynamic studies can also use this data to document and predict changes caused by floods or infrastructure projects.

Example: Post-flood erosion analyses in fluvial environments highlight the ability of Lidar to track sediment displacement and quantify volumetric changes over time.

3. Environmental monitoring. Bathymetric Lidar plays a crucial role in environmental management by providing insights into aquatic vegetation distribution, habitat structures and ecosystem health. Its ability to capture water surface and column attributes also supports water quality assessments. Additionally, the technology helps detect submerged debris or pollutants, aiding in conservation and restoration efforts.

Example: Detailed submerged topography data from green laser systems has been employed to monitor vegetation habitats in coastal and riverine ecosystems.

4. Disaster management. In disaster scenarios, bathymetric Lidar is a crucial tool for modelling and mitigation. High-resolution elevation data supports simulations of storm surges, tsunamis and riverine floods, enabling predictive models to assess risks and plan evacuations. After disasters, Lidar can be used to quantify damage, such as erosion from storm surges or changes in channel morphology after flooding.

Example: Coastal flood simulation models enriched with Lidar-derived DTMs help forecast the impact of rising sea levels and storm events.

These applications demonstrate the versatility of bathymetric Lidar in addressing critical challenges in environmental and infrastructure management as well as disaster risk reduction.

Technological advancements in bathymetric Lidar

The evolution of bathymetric Lidar technology has been marked by substantial innovations in sensor design, data processing and operational platforms. These advancements have enhanced the technology’s accuracy, versatility and affordability, expanding its application

Example of RIEGL VQ-840-G in action on a drone with bathymetric Lidar sensor components. operated from drones or crewed aircraft, respectively.

potential across various fields. Key technological strides include:

1. Full waveform analysis. Full waveform analysis is a significant advancement in Lidar data processing. Instead of capturing just discrete points, this technique records the entire reflected laser signal, allowing for detailed modelling of water columns, submerged features and even turbidity levels. By analysing attributes such as pulse amplitude, echo width and waveform shape, full waveform analysis can distinguish between vegetation, sediment and solid surfaces, enriching datasets for ecological studies and sedimentology. Additionally, this approach enhances depth penetration by optimizing signal processing for attenuated returns in turbid waters.

2. Dual-wavelength systems. Combining green and infrared lasers, dual-wavelength systems address the challenges of surveying complex environments. The green laser excels in penetrating water surfaces and mapping submerged features, while the infrared laser provides water surface information and topographic data of land surfaces and vegetation. This dual capability enables seamless integration of bathymetric and topographic mapping in a single flight, making the technology ideal for areas such as coastal zones and riverbanks where land and water intertwine.

3. Integration with UAVs. The miniaturization of Lidar systems has enabled their integration with uncrewed aerial vehicles (UAVs). Lightweight, compact systems such as the RIEGL VQ-840-G and the YellowScan Navigator are designed for UAV deployment, significantly reducing operational costs and allowing surveys in remote or hard-to-reach locations. UAVbased Lidar can fly at lower altitudes, improving spatial resolution and point density, making it ideal for localized studies such as habitat mapping or infrastructure inspections. These systems also allow for more frequent data collection, supporting applications that require temporal analysis.

These advancements showcase the increasing sophistication of bathymetric Lidar technology, allowing for more accurate and comprehensive data collection while extending its use to new and challenging applications. Future innovations, such as AI-

driven data processing and improved sensor designs, are expected to further enhance the capabilities of this transformative technology.

Challenges and limitations of bathymetric Lidar

While bathymetric Lidar provides remarkable capabilities for underwater mapping, the technology also has limitations. These challenges can affect its operational efficiency and data accuracy:

1. Water turbidity. The effectiveness of bathymetric Lidar heavily depends on water clarity. In environments with high sediment loads, algae blooms or other particulate matter, the laser signal is significantly attenuated due to scattering and absorption. This reduces the penetration depth and limits the ability to accurately capture submerged features. Strategies such as full waveform analysis and laser pulse energy optimization help mitigate this, but the challenge remains significant in highly turbid waters.

2. Environmental conditions. External environmental factors, such as weather and surface dynamics, can greatly affect data quality. For example, cloud cover can block GNSS signals needed for precise georeferencing. Similarly, water surface conditions such as waves or sun reflections (glint effects) can disrupt the laser’s ability to penetrate uniformly, causing data inconsistencies. To minimize these impacts, it is essential to conduct surveys in calm conditions and at carefully chosen times.

3. High costs. Advanced bathymetric Lidar systems come with significant costs, not just for the hardware but also for maintenance, calibration and operation. Platforms such

as manned aircraft or UAVs equipped with specialized sensors such as the Teledyne Optech CZMIL Supernova or the RIEGL VQ880-GII require substantial investment. These costs can be prohibitive for smaller-scale projects or organizations. However, ongoing innovations in sensor miniaturization and UAV deployment are helping to reduce these expenses over time.

Despite these challenges, bathymetric Lidar is continually evolving. Ongoing research and technological developments are working to address these limitations and expand its usability across a wider range of environments.

Future prospects of bathymetric Lidar

The future of bathymetric Lidar looks bright, with ongoing advancements in both hardware and software technologies. These developments aim to overcome current limitations and open up new opportunities:

1. Integration of artificial intelligence (AI). AI-powered data processing is set to revolutionize the analysis of bathymetric Lidar datasets. Machine learning algorithms can enhance feature recognition, automate data classification and improve accuracy in complex environments. For example, AI can help detect submerged vegetation, sediment layers or underwater structures, significantly reducing the time and effort needed for manual post-processing. Additionally, predictive AI models can simulate environmental changes such as erosion or habitat shifts based on historical Lidar data.

2. Miniaturization of sensors. The trend towards compact and lightweight Lidar sensors is creating new deployment possibilities. Miniaturized sensors are

Bathymetric scan of the Reda river mouth entering Puck Bay, with individual points colour-coded according to their height values with orthophotomap representation of the terrain.

HIGH SECURE CLOUD APPLICATION

increasingly being integrated with UAVs and small autonomous platforms, enabling surveys in hard-to-reach or sensitive areas such as shallow rivers, coral reefs or disaster zones. These systems not only reduce costs but also make frequent, localized surveys feasible, supporting applications such as dynamic habitat monitoring or realtime infrastructure assessment.

3. Enhanced sensor technologies. Upcoming sensors promise higher precision, greater depth penetration and multispectral capabilities. For example, advancements in single-photon and full waveform Lidar are expanding the limits of underwater resolution and penetration, allowing for detailed studies even in turbid waters. Dual-channel systems that combine topographic and bathymetric capabilities will further streamline operations in mixed environments.

4. Affordability and accessibility. As production costs decrease due to technological advances and market competition, bathymetric Lidar is becoming more accessible to a broader range of users. This democratization will encourage its adoption in emerging markets and smaller-scale applications such as community-based coastal monitoring or environmental restoration projects.

5. Global applications. Expanding applications in climate change mitigation, disaster resilience and sustainable resource management are likely to further drive adoption. For example, bathymetric Lidar will play a critical role in modelling sea-level rise, designing resilient coastal infrastructure and managing aquatic ecosystems.

These advancements collectively point to a future where bathymetric Lidar becomes a standard tool in both scientific research and

References

Mandlburger, G., Pfennigbauer, M., Schwarz, R., & Pöppl, F. (2023). A decade of progress in topo-bathymetric laser scanning exemplified by the pielach river dataset. ISPRS Ann. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spatial Inf. Sci., X-1/W12023, 1123-1130. https://doi.org/10.5194/isprs-annals-X1-W1-2023-1123-2023

Janowski, L., Wroblewski, R., Rucinska, M., Kubowicz-Grajewska, A., & Tysiac, P. (2022). Automatic classification and mapping of the seabed using airborne LiDAR bathymetry. Engineering Geology, 301. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2022.106615

Choné, G., Biron, P. M., Buffin-Bélanger, T., Mazgareanu, I., Neal, J. C., & Sampson, C. C. (2021). An assessment of large-scale flood modelling based on LiDAR data. Hydrological Processes, 35(8), e14333.

Pricope, N. G., & Bashit, M. S. (2023). Emerging trends in topobathymetric LiDAR technology and mapping. International Journal of Remote Sensing, 44(24), 7706-7731

Tysiac, P. (2020). Bringing Bathymetry LiDAR to Coastal Zone Assessment: A Case Study in the Southern Baltic. Remote Sensing, 12(22), 3740. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs12223740

Igbinenikaro, O. P., Adekoya, O. O., & Etukudoh, E. A. (2024). Review of modern bathymetric survey techniques and their impact on offshore energy development. Engineering Science & Technology Journal, 5(4), 1281-1302.

About the authors

Łukasz Janowski holds a PhD in Earth Sciences and specializes in oceanography and remote sensing. His research spans GIS, object-based image analysis, underwater acoustics, archaeology, marine geology, geomorphology and benthic habitat mapping, with numerous publications and conference contributions.

Paweł Tysiąc specializes in remote sensing technologies, including bathymetric Lidar. His work focuses on developing analytical methods to enhance environmental and human safety through precise data acquisition and analysis of terrestrial and underwater environments.

Gottfried Mandlburger is a professor of Optical Bathymetry at TU Wien, Department of Geodesy and Geoinformation. His primary research areas include airborne topographic and bathymetric Lidar from crewed and uncrewed platforms, multimedia photogrammetry, bathymetry from multispectral images and scientific software development.

practical applications, offering unparalleled insights into the underwater world.

Conclusion

Airborne bathymetric Lidar is at the cutting edge of modern geospatial technology, representing a significant leap in our ability to map and analyse underwater environments. By combining precision, efficiency and versatility, this technology has become essential for applications in hydrology, environmental science, infrastructure development and urban planning. Its ability to capture high-resolution data from both submerged and terrestrial surfaces supports crucial initiatives such as coastal management, disaster preparedness and habitat conservation. Despite challenges that include water turbidity and operational costs, ongoing innovations in sensor technology, data processing and platform integration continue to enhance its capabilities and accessibility.

As we face increasing environmental challenges and technological advancements, the role of bathymetric Lidar in supporting sustainable development and disaster resilience will become even more crucial. By enabling informed decision-making and fostering a deeper understanding of aquatic and coastal systems, this technology is paving the way for a more resilient and sustainable interaction with our planet’s water resources.

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Saildrone’s autonomous, uncrewed systems deploy from and return to the safety of a protected harbor, without ever needing humans deployed at sea.

Deep-water Mapping and Trans-ocean Cable Surveys

Kongsberg EM 304 MKII

Kongsberg EM 2040 MKII 90-day endurance

PRICE YOUR SURVEY

AML Oceanographic

AML Oceanographic has 50 years of experience in the design and manufacture of high-performance hydrographic and oceanographic equipment. Our customer base spans all seven continents and our aftersales support network is equally extensive. We offer three product lines: hydrographic instrumentation, CTDs and multiparameter sondes, and underway profiling systems. In hydrography, AML invented time-of-flight sound velocity technology, now the market standard for multibeam sonar correction. In CTDs and sondes, we have the market’s most extensive sensor ecosystem, with an array of 20 sensors that can be directly installed on the instrument end cap. AML has delivered more underway profiling systems than any other company in the world, with over 200 MVPs installed on autonomous platforms, small launches and large vessels. Whether you are worried about deadlines, stakeholders or return on investment, we have got you. At AML, we are all about promises kept.

DEVELOGIC GmbH

Welcome to the world of develogic, where the deep sea becomes an adventure and passion and competence go hand in hand. As the driving force behind numerous deepsea research expeditions, our solutions have enabled industrial customers from diverse branches, leading universities and institutions around the globe to make groundbreaking discoveries and innovations for more than 20 years. The reasons for this are our love of the sea and a deep understanding of our work. In the process, from idea through development to production, every solution is 100% made by develogic. Our extensive know-how and our technological innovations make us a reliable partner for our customers.

AML Oceanographic amloceanographic.com

+ 1 800 663 8721 sales@amloceanographic.com Eye4Software www.eye4software.com sales@eye4software.com DEVELOGIC GmbH

Eye4Software

Eye4Software B.V., based in the Netherlands, specializes in the development of GPS and GIS mapping software for Windows. Eye4Software began developing Hydromagic after being asked by clients if it could produce a more cost-effective and user-friendly package for hydrographic surveys. The development of this software started in 2001 and has been used worldwide by all kinds of companies since 2011. Hydromagic currently has over 1,500 unique users, ranging from mining companies to water boards, dredging companies, surveying firms, departments of transportation and much more. The software’s unique selling point is that it has the great advantage that it can be used without intensive training by people with or without a hydrographic background. Eye4Software’s main vision is to keep the software as simple as possible, so that customers can learn the basics in a single working day.

Hydro-Tech Marine

Hydro-Tech Marine is a leading developer of underwater and hydrographic survey equipment for survey, engineering and science & research vessels, USVs and uncrewed underwater vehicles such as ROVs and AUVs. Its product line includes multibeam echosounders, sidescan sonars, sound velocity sensors and profilers. All Hydro-Tech products show great performance and high quality, which is why Hydro-Tech Marine wins its customer’s loyalty and so many industry awards. HydroTech Marine is very proud of the increasing market share of Hydro-Tech sonars worldwide. Hydro-Tech Marine is an expert in acoustic and sonar technology and, in addition to its off-the-shelf products, can leverage its strong research and development capabilities to create bespoke underwater surveying solutions to meet unique and demanding requirements.

HYPACK

HYPACK, a Xylem brand, has been developing HYPACK®, HYSWEEP® and DREDGEPACK® software since 1984. With 40 years of experience, 10,000 users and support for over 400 sensors and devices, HYPACK is a leading provider of hydrographic and dredging software worldwide.

Innomar Technologie

Our software provides the tools needed to design surveys, to collect, process, and edit hydrographic survey or environmental data and to generate final products. Our commitment to the industry and partnerships with manufacturers allow us to provide solutions for all your surveying needs and use cases, ranging from simple vessels to large survey ships with networked sensors and systems.

For more than 25 years, Innomar has been providing innovative and high-quality equipment and software for the marine and offshore business. The well-known Innomar parametric sub-bottom profilers and associated software are perfectly suited for high-resolution sub-seabed visualization in water depths from less than one metre to full ocean depth. Applications include, but are not limited to, dredging and geophysical surveys, mapping of buried pipelines, cables and UXO or reconnaissance and route surveys at prospective offshore construction sites, such as wind farms. The current product development is focused on solutions for USV and AUV integration.

Leica Geosystems

The Leica Chiroptera-5 airborne sensor combines topographic and bathymetric Lidar channels with a 4-band camera to deliver seamless data from water to land. The system provides 40% higher point density, 20% increased depth penetration and improved topographic sensitivity compared to previous generations. Chiroptera-5 delivers detailed Lidar data of submerged terrain and objects, supporting applications such as nautical charting, environmental monitoring and seabed classification. Combined with the Leica HawkEye-5 deep bathymetric module, the system offers unmatched capabilities in deep waters, covering the full bathymetric range. The LSS high-performance processing workflow provides full waveform analysis, automatic calibration, refraction correction and turbid water enhancement. The system provides near-real-time data processing and visualization, allowing operators to qualitycheck the captured data during flight.

NORBIT Subsea

NORBIT develops and manufactures wide-band sonar systems for applications in the hydrographic, security, energy and dredging markets. With strong service and support capabilities, the global organization has pioneered the development of integrated multisensor and ultra-high-resolution multibeam systems. NORBIT offers two series of sonar products: the WINGHEAD series, which provides ultra-highresolution bathymetry with 0.5° beams, and the WBMS series, which offers 0.9° beams. Both series are based on a state-ofthe-art analogue and digital platform featuring powerful signal processing capabilities. This offers stabilized bathymetry and several imagery and backscatter outputs, ensuring the highest quality survey data performance.

Nortek

Nortek designs, develops and produces scientific instruments that measure movement under water. It applies the Doppler principle to underwater acoustics to measure processes such as currents and waves or help subsea vehicles navigate.

Backed by our global support team, our acoustic Doppler current profilers (ADCPs) and Doppler velocity logs (DVLs) are used by scientists, researchers and engineers at research institutions, government agencies and pioneering robotics companies worldwide. They are employed in demanding environments that require state-of-the-art instrumentation that is reliable and easy to use.

Nortek’s scientific product portfolio is capable of measuring everything from small-scale turbulence to full-ocean current profiles. Our navigational aids bring vehicles safely and reliably to great depths under challenging conditions.

Our objective is to excite users with useful, innovative technology that is certified by leading quality assurance organizations.

Nortek nortekgroup.com nortekgroup.com/contact

RIEGL

RIEGL is an international leading provider of cutting-edge waveformLidar technology for applications in surveying. For the hydrographic and maritime context, dedicated airborne Lidar bathymetry (ALB) sensors and systems are offered. These systems enable efficient coastal and shallow-water mapping or river surveying and seamless high-resolution data acquisition of topographies onshore and below the water surface.

OceanAlpha

OceanAlpha, established in 2010 in Hong Kong, is a leading manufacturer of uncrewed surface vehicles (USVs) with over 14 years of experience and expertise. We are dedicated to applying USV technology to the offshore energy sector and have developed mature applications in offshore wind farm cable route and site surveys, oil and gas pipeline inspections, daily patrols, material transportation and oil spill detection.

RIEGL’s innovative ALB sensors provide up to 2.5 Secchi depths and are prepared for optional integration with high-precision IMU/GNSS systems and digital cameras. Their compact and robust housing enables long-term operation on most airborne platforms. For large-area data acquisition, they are used with fixed-wing aircraft and helicopters. For small-scale missions such as monitoring coastal erosion that need to be carried out at shorter intervals, they are ready for drone integration.

RIEGL riegl.com +43 2982 4211 office@riegl.com

Distinguished by a world-leading R&D team of over 200 engineers, OceanAlpha has developed and launched more than ten mature USV models. These range from one metre to 20 metres in length and are adaptable to various scenarios, including inland rivers and nearshore and offshore areas, offering clients unique one-stop, customized USV solutions.

SatLab Geosolutions

SatLab Geosolutions is a global provider of satellite positioning solutions based in Sweden, with 11 operations centres and over 100 reputable dealerships worldwide. We are committed to delivering timely services around the clock.

Our advanced innovations in GNSS, optical, Lidar and sonar technologies, combined with our expertise in data processing and analysis software development, empower customers across a range of industries, including civil engineering, construction, mining, forestry, agriculture and hydrology.

Through ongoing investment in R&D, SatLab aims to enhance productivity while ensuring user satisfaction. We are dedicated to helping our customers expand horizontally and dig vertically, fostering growth and unlocking mobility.

Geosolution i Göteborg AB satlab.com.se info@satlab.com.se

SBG Systems

SBG Systems delivers advanced inertial navigation and motion sensing solutions for the hydrographic industry. Known for its high-performance inertial measurement units and inertial navigation systems, SBG Systems empowers professionals in marine mapping, bathymetry and subsea operations with unmatched precision and reliability. The company’s flagship products, including Ekinox, Apogee and Navsight series, are designed to integrate seamlessly with echosounders and GNSS receivers, ensuring accurate data collection in challenging marine environments. Whether for shallow-water surveying, deep-sea exploration or dredging operations, SBG’s compact and robust systems deliver exceptional performance.

SBG Systems stands out with its user-friendly Qinertia postprocessing software, comprehensive technical support and global presence. By focusing on innovation and quality, the company is a solid partner for hydrographic surveyors seeking efficient, reliable navigation and motion solutions.

TCarta

TCarta delivers hydrospatial and geospatial solutions in the coastal domain using proven satellitebased remote sensing methods and machine learning.

We specialize in satellite-derived bathymetry (SDB), a remotely derived water depth and seafloor mapping product effective to 20m depths and 30m in ideal conditions. SDB offers a non-intrusive, rapid alternative or complement to traditional survey methods, making it ideal for coastal modelling, reconnaissance and operational planning.

TCarta’s products include 10m and <2m resolution SDB, 90m global bathymetry, seafloor classification, mangrove and seagrass monitoring, water quality monitoring, and world and coastal basemaps. Collaborating with global partners, our skilled team provides customized solutions to support engineering, navigation, environmental monitoring and geospatial intelligence projects. With experience spanning the globe, TCarta excels in remote island nations and challenging environments such as the Middle East and Arctic.

Woolpert

Woolpert’s certified hydrographers, land surveyors and GIS professionals develop and integrate topographic, bathymetric and hydrographic technologies to provide data, analyses and modelling to advance critical projects. Our full-service geospatial capabilities complement our expansive maritime services, which include elevation-derived hydrography, dredging and marine construction support, seafloor mapping, emergency response, reservoir capacity, tidal and river current survey, tidal gauge analyses, cable and pipeline alignment, geodetic and geophysical survey, environmental mapping and remediation, marine GIS and object detection. Owning and operating survey vessels and manned and unmanned aircraft, we enable immediate and proficient mobilization. Our responsive structure and leadership support the expert collection of high-accuracy topographic and bathymetric Lidar, multibeam and sidescan sonar data and high-resolution imagery, as required by public, private and governmental agencies.

YellowScan

At YellowScan, we design, develop and build Lidar solutions for professionals who require performance, robustness and accuracy. Our hardware and software solutions are easy-to-use data collection tools that come with training and support from our experts. Our products come with embedded laser scanners, INS, GNSS receivers and onboard computing. Each system is designed to meet the highest precision and accuracy needs for 3D mapping.

Founded in 2012 in the south of France, we now have sales, customer training and support representatives around the globe. Our customers use our products worldwide in the surveying, bathymetry, environmental research, archaeology, civil engineering and mining sectors.

EvoLogics gears up for 2025 with upgrades to its diver navigation system and complementing Sonobot 5 with USBL

EvoLogics in 2025: synergy between diver navigation and Sonobot 5 technologies

EvoLogics is a high-tech enterprise headquartered in Berlin, Germany, with a US sales office in Yorktown, Virginia. Founded in 2000, the company focuses its product portfolio on pioneering maritime technologies. Specializing in underwater smart robotics, sensor systems, acoustic communication and positioning networks, EvoLogics integrates advanced engineering with bionic principles.

2024 has been a busy year, with the company growing in size, expanding its production and delivering the first orders of the new diver navigation system that debuted at the beginning of the year.

Enhancements in standard and scooter configurations

The EvoLogics diver navigation system is one of the company’s key highlights of 2024, launched at Oceanology International London in March. The system simplifies complex underwater tasks involving multiple team members, such as search and rescue, salvage, recovery or cleanup operations. It facilitates map-based navigation for divers during missions, allows for waypoint set-up both pre-mission and in real time, and enables two-way communication between divers and the dive supervision team, as well as between divers.

The standard diver navigation system employs compact, battery-powered acoustic modems as diver trackers, positioned on the divers’ backs for unobstructed signal

transmission. Divers use a tablet display that visualizes the map with all diver positions plus a chat tool similar to smartphone texting. Map waypoints can be added before or during the mission to coordinate the mission and mark the discovered objects in real time.

After its initial launch, the system underwent final field testing and pre-production design optimization. The modem tracker and mount accessories were reworked for improved usability, and the transport case was equipped with built-in charging adapters for easier maintenance between dive missions.

Now in full-scale production, the system is also being launched in the new scooter configuration. This new version of the diver navigation system has been tailored for use with dive propulsion vehicles (DPVs), also known as underwater scooters, responding to professional divers’ needs for extended range, reduced effort and improved control in challenging environments.

EvoLogics selected the lightweight, reliable GAVIN NT scooter as the platform for the scooter-adapted system. The integration

Figure 1: Diver navigation system: the updated modem tracker.

Figure 2: Diver navigation system: the transport case with built-in chargers.

streamlines scooter-aided operations by embedding the acoustic tracker into the scooter body and adding a display mount within comfortable reach of the diver. These components are the additional wearable gear in the standard configuration for dive tanks.

The tracker modem and the display draw power from the scooter’s internal battery, so charging the whole gear package does not require additional accessories.

Sonobot 5 with USBL: mobile surface support

The Sonobot 5, EvoLogics’ compact uncrewed surface vehicle, has been a versatile platform since its 2011 debut. Today, the Sonobot is available with a wide range of hardware options that cater to various mission scenarios and survey requirements.

EvoLogics is dedicated to optimizing underwater operations with integrated systems built on a synergy of technologies, and in 2024 the team added an exciting new option for the Sonobot 5 – a submersible USBL antenna for acoustic data transfer and tracking of underwater assets. This follows earlier experiments with USBLequipped Sonobot prototypes: in 2015 to 2017, EvoLogics integrated an acoustic USBL antenna with Sonobot 3, the platform’s 3rd generation. The vehicle with USBL capabilities was used as an autopilot-driven solution for fast calibration of deployed LBL baselines, where each LBL node had to be accurately geolocated before putting the LBL system in operation. It was also tested as a mobile surface relay for AUV missions, where the vehicle communicated with a swarm of Manta Ray AUVs over the acoustic channel and transmitted their positions to the onshore operator over WiFi.

The lessons learned from the integration of the USV with a USBL modem were not shelved indefinitely, and in 2024 EvoLogics revisited the concept. A new Sonobot 5 prototype with a USBL antenna was developed and successfully tested. It features a streamlined moulded USBL modem, fitted on a motorized arm that lifts and submerges the USBL unit, controlled by the vehicle’s onboard software. Prototypes of Sonobot 5 with USBL are currently undergoing extensive field trials in preparation for market release in 2025.

Sonobot with USBL is envisioned to complement the diver navigation system by eliminating the need for stationary surface buoys, enabling greater operational flexibility. It adds mobility to the set-up, as the vehicle can follow a group of divers, allowing the team to move between areas of interest without the need to manually reposition and redeploy the surface node.

Another target application for the Sonobot with USBL is to provide an autonomous mobile surface link to data-collecting underwater vehicles, such as the EvoLogics Quadroin AUVs, moving along the target areas at greater depths.

EvoLogics at Ocean Business 2025

EvoLogics will showcase these latest innovations at stand M4 during Ocean Business 2025 in Southampton, UK. Visitors can explore the company’s solutions in underwater communication, positioning, robotics and AI, designed to tackle the most demanding scientific and industrial challenges.

EvoLogics is driven to push the boundaries of maritime technology with intelligent systems that redefine efficiency in underwater operations, and the team is looking forward to sharing its vision with the blue economy community in 2025.

Figure 3: Diver navigation system: the scooter version.

Figure 4: EvoLogics diver navigation system.

Figure 5: Sonobot 5 with USBL, 2024.

Accurate and up-to-date intelligence

Hydrographic data a crucial factor in the success of D-Day and beyond

By Dr Andrew Leitch, head of archives, UK Hydrographic Office

In 2025, the world will mark 80 years since the end of World War II – a conflict defined by pivotal moments such as the Normandy invasion. Known as D-Day, this extraordinary operation saw 156,000 Allied troops land on the beaches of Normandy, France, in the largest seaborne invasion in history. What many may not realize is that hydrographic survey data played a critical role in its success, ensuring precise planning and execution of the landings.

Launched on 6 June 1944 under the code name Operation Overlord, D-Day set in motion the Allied campaign to liberate Western Europe, defeat Nazi Germany and bring the war to an end. Insights from the UK Hydrographic Office (UKHO) Archives reveal how meticulous hydrographic work underpinned the Normandy landings and many other operations during World War II. This story not only underscores the immense contribution of hydrography to the Allied victory but also highlights the enduring importance of preserving our hydrographic heritage for future generations.

Collecting hydrographic data to support D-Day

The use of hydrographic data was pivotal during the D-Day landings. While we often focus on the immediate planning and execution of Operation Overlord, the UKHO’s archives reveal a deeper layer of detail and intricacies. These documents, preserved in one of the world’s largest collections of navigational data, stretch back over 400 years and continue to unveil hidden details, many of which reshape our understanding of important moments in history. There can be few of more significance than D-Day, which is particularly fresh in many of our memories following the 80th anniversary commemorations that took place this summer.

The Allied Forces required a variety of sea charts and coastal diagrams during the war and the Admiralty of the British Government tasked one of its departments, the UKHO,

with gathering the appropriate information, drawing the charts and maps, printing them in great numbers – as well as great secrecy –and issuing them to the fleet for operational use. A series of ‘Special Charts’, including top secret maps and charts of the Allied minefields, wrecks and enemy minefields were drawn by the cartographers at the UKHO to ensure that the British and Allied warships and merchant ships could navigate safely.

The hydrographic data used in the D-Day landings was a combination of long-

established charts and ‘borrowed’ German and French records, based on both existing survey data and intelligence, and highly detailed, newly collected information. Accurate and up-to-date intelligence was essential to the success of the planned assault on the Normandy beaches, and the information shown on these maps had to be gathered without betraying a hint of interest in the area.

In the years leading up to D-Day, reconnaissance missions and covert operations were carried out to gather

D-Day Naval ship movement and navigation channel chart showing routes to the beaches from the south coast of the UK. The large circle south of the Isle of Wight was a mustering area known as ‘Picadilly Circus’ and represented a gathering point for most of the landing craft on their way to the beaches of Normandy.

Chart of Arromanches-les-Bains, Calvados, Normandy, France (Gold Beach, D-Day landing site), 1944.

fresh data on the English Channel and the waters off the Normandy coast. A variety of methods were used, including x-craft submarines that surveyed the shoreline depths and evaluated defensive and shoreline features, and aerial recon from Mosquitos and Spitfires for photographic records. Perhaps most daring of all, hydrographic surveyors were sent by the Admiralty to make rapid reconnaissance surveys of the coast under the cover of darkness, though at the time they were kept blissfully unaware of the significance of their work.

In August 1943, a special covert unit was set up to gather this information, code-named Operation Neptune. Based at Cowes on the Isle of Wight, two hydrographic surveyors, Lieutenant Commander Berncastle and Lieutenant Glen, were issued with two 32-foot landing craft in which to operate. The low profile of these vessels made them difficult to detect by German radar and canoes were used when daring landings on the beaches were required.

The surveying could only take place under certain conditions, such as when there was no moon and a high tide during the small hours. On dark nights, the craft were towed halfway across the Channel, then motored quietly the rest of the way using silenced engines and underwater exhausts. The surveyors would begin their work just before midnight and were under strict instructions to leave the French coast by 04:00 hours to meet the gun boat and be towed back to safety. The top secret information they gathered was added to the charts and landing maps by draughtsmen at the UKHO.

The missions to the French coast were carried out without major injury or attack, although they were spotted one night and flares were sent up by the Germans. The only injury suffered was when someone burnt himself on a tin of the self-heating soup supplied to sustain the men on the long dark nights at sea.

When combined with other sources of intelligence, the information that made its way onto these charts went far beyond what would normally feature. It is remarkable to consider the intricacies that were involved in calculating every aspect of the operation, reflecting the breathtaking complexities required if D-Day was to succeed. This included every gun emplacement along the Normandy coast, the direction and distances covered by artillery shells, the size of the shells and the overlapping arcs of impact, all of which were meticulously mapped. This was crucial in informing the choice of the landing sites, given the belief of the German forces that it would be impossible to successfully execute a landing and bring ashore the volume of material required to sustain operations anywhere other than a major port.

Supporting the success of D-Day

This data was critical in charting the best possible navigation routes for the enormous fleet, which comprised over 4,000 vessels of various sizes. The UKHO’s navigational charts detailed everything from the south coast of England, through to rendezvous points such as the mid-channel mustering point south of the Isle of Wight, named Piccadilly Circus, to the precise landing points on the Normandy coast.

The incredible coordination on the day of the landings involved not only mapping and planning but also the precision of naval bombardments. Shelling began from the battleships, many of which had been uniquely prepared to adjust the angle of their guns to hit their targets accurately.

Juno Beach Landing Craft designation chart showing the sections of beach and area for navigation on D-Day. Ships were given designated locations to come ashore (e.g. Mike red), and in this way the landings and troops could be directed to specific points.

Secret June 1944 mustering chart of the Solent and surrounding areas showing the locations where D-Day landing vessels and support craft were to gather in advance of being given the ‘go signal’ to move off on their routes to the beaches at Normandy.

Each vessel involved in the landings carried custom-made charts, produced by the UKHO at its printing facilities in Taunton, Somerset. By the time D-Day arrived, over 1.5 million charts had been printed; a reminder of the critical role played in the war effort by so many away from the front line of the conflict. These charts ensured that commanders could lead their forces and fulfil their role in the operation, navigating minefields and hazards while guiding troops to their designated landing beaches. Even the troops themselves carried charts of the shores and inland areas to facilitate postlanding navigation.

The documents that were created, particularly the charts used by the invasion forces, demonstrate how multi-layered the operation was. The charts were not simply guides for navigating the waters; they combined geographical, geological and military intelligence into a single resource. Using these charts, the landing craft were directed to precise sections of the beach, and every soldier knew their role based on these detailed instructions.

These historical records, now housed in the UKHO’s collection, preserve not only the physical artefacts of that time but also the stories of the bravery and coordination that made D-Day possible. Every detail, from the depth of the water to the positions of the troops, was considered and mapped with an astonishing level of precision and detail, which therefore led and contributed to the success of the landings and the eventual victory.

The role of hydrography following D-Day

The days after D-Day placed continued reliance on the UKHO’s hydrographic data. The surveyors continued their work along the coast to ensure the ports and beaches were well surveyed for

potential dangers to the following fleet. After the beachheads were secured, the Allies had to establish supply lines and reinforce their positions. To do this, they constructed two massive artificial harbours, known as the Mulberry Harbours, on the Normandy coast. Hydrographic data was crucial to positioning these harbours and other offshore breakwaters, ensuring that supplies could flow in while the Allies pushed further inland.

The planning, management and execution of these ongoing operations, including the use of sunken ships as breakwaters and wave-deflecting systems, known as bombardons, was another triumph of hydrographic intelligence. These were charted meticulously by the UKHO and new charts were issued showing the positions of the Mulberry Harbours and breakwaters, as well as the new wrecks of landing craft where six weeks before the area had been littered with German sea defences. These historic charts stand as a testament to the ongoing importance of hydrography in the crucial days and weeks after D-Day.

Hydrography in conflict and humanitarian operations

While D-Day was a prominent example, hydrographic data played a broader role in the wider Allied war effort. Throughout World War II, knowledge of shorelines, underwater features and ocean conditions was essential for military operations across all aspects of the war. The UKHO’s charts facilitated safe navigation, mission planning and coordination of naval forces, and continue to do so to this day.

The UKHO’s data remains crucial for humanitarian operations. Whether responding to natural disasters or supporting peacekeeping efforts, hydrographic data enables the safe navigation of humanitarian aid vessels, ensuring timely relief to disasterstricken areas. This data is used globally to protect oceans, support global commerce and aid in defence operations.

Throughout the past 80 years since D-Day, there have been many examples of the vital role of hydrography in disaster relief. In recent times, this has been most evident in the support that the UKHO has been able to provide to relief and recovery efforts following extreme weather events. In the aftermath of the devastating impact of Cyclone Pam on the South Pacific island chain of Vanuatu, the UKHO rapidly produced and freely distributed two special purpose charts of Vanuatu to assist with the humanitarian relief effort.

Similarly, when the British Virgin Islands were struck by Hurricane Irma, the UKHO was able to provide emergency assistance. This was initially through the team of surveyors who coincidentally were already located in the area and took immediate action by conducting a lead-line survey that supported the reopening of ports, jetties and coastal facilities for the relief efforts, with the

The surviving artificial Mulberry Harbour at Gold Beach allowed the continuous supply of equipment, supplies and troops to service the Allied invasion of Europe until early 1945. The Hydrographic Office has all the planning, designs and logistical charts showing its inception, delivery and operations.

support of the Royal Navy. The UKHO’s team subsequently returned to gather data on bathymetric profiles, tidal information and navigational aids that enabled the reopening of Road Harbour, one of the islands’ main hubs.

Hydrography continues to play an important role in today’s conflicts.

Last year, the UKHO donated £1.6 million worth of equipment, including two full singlebeam echosounder systems and two

About the author

Dr Andrew Leitch is the head of the UKHO Archives, where he manages a collection of 14.2 million historic documents that span over 400 years of hydrographic and navigational history. Andrew recently helped to curate an exhibition in the United Arab Emirates of historic charts and surveys of the UAE from 1761 to 2014.

multibeam echosounder systems, to the State Hydrographic Service of Ukraine, to assist with efforts to keep the seas around Ukraine safe and to protect Ukraine’s ports and shipping lanes, including attempts to establish a humanitarian grain corridor.

Learning for the future by preserving the past

The UKHO’s extensive archival collection, one of the largest in the world, has continued to inform and support our understanding of the importance of hydrography to the world around us. Though initially compiled as part of an imperial mandate to chart the globe for British interests, these records now serve a more global purpose. Modern hydrographic work involves collaboration with international partners, using historical data as a foundation for modern safety standards, innovative navigation tools and new partnerships. For example, hydrographic charts from the eighteenth century once used during military engagements are now being shared with our counterparts in the United Arab Emirates, ensuring safer navigation, a shared understanding of our history and improved cooperation.

Our archives continue to educate us, not just about historical operations such as D-Day, but also about the value of historic records in shaping our understanding of the past and our approach to meeting today’s hydrographic needs. The work of cataloguing these archives is far from complete, but every new discovery adds another chapter to the story of hydrography’s importance in our history.

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Aerial photo of Arromanches-les-Bains, Calvados, Normandy, France (Gold Beach, D-Day landing site), 13 October 1944.

Exploring advancements in the mission to map the world’s ocean floor

Seabed 2030’s invaluable journey

In 2017, when the Nippon Foundation-GEBCO Seabed 2030 Project began, only 6% of the global ocean floor had been mapped to modern standards. By World Hydrography Day 2024, that figure had risen to 26.1%, marking significant progress towards the ambitious goal of mapping the entire ocean floor by 2030. This article provides an update on the achievements so far, the advanced technologies powering the project, the partners contributing to its success, key discoveries made along the way and what lies ahead for this transformative initiative.

Seabed 2030 was announced by Yohei Sasakawa, chairman of the Nippon Foundation, at the UN Ocean Conference in New York in June 2017. It was presented as an initiative aimed to consolidate all existing and newly acquired bathymetric data into a detailed, high-resolution digital model of the ocean floor and to promote international collaboration to collect additional data.

According to a statement issued at the initiative’s launch: “The more data we acquire about the details of the shape of the seabed, the more we recognize that the ocean and its floor are more dynamic than we ever thought. Given the vast expanse of the oceans of our planet, the goals of Seabed 2030 can only be achieved by international coordination and collaboration with regard to data acquisition, assimilation and compilation. Seabed 2030 therefore has a vital role to play in helping coordinate and initiate new bathymetric surveys that target unmapped areas of our oceans. This remains a substantial challenge. With the ultimate objective of leaving no features of the world ocean floor larger than 100 metres unmapped, a series of targets with varying resolutions as a function of water depth will be set. But it will require a major international effort by the world community to reach the ultimate goal.” How has all of this developed since?

MH370

The disappearance of Malaysian Airlines flight MH370 on 8 March 2014 sparked an extraordinary search operation in the remote south-eastern Indian Ocean, advancing the

frontiers of deep-sea exploration. Spanning June 2014 to January 2017, the search consisted of two key phases: a shipborne bathymetric survey to map the ocean floor, followed by a high-resolution search in targeted areas. The latter utilized cuttingedge technology such as sidescan, multibeam and synthetic aperture sonar, deployed on towed systems and autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs), to guide efforts to locate the aircraft wreckage. Unintentionally, this mission provided a significant boost to global seabed mapping efforts and, in hindsight, offered valuable insights that have since contributed to the development of the Seabed 2030 Project.

In 2017, Mathias Jonas took office as the new secretary-general of the International Hydrographic Organization (IHO), succeeding Robert Ward. As it had become clear that the survey of the MH370 flight path showed that the effort of creating a detailed map of the ocean floor requires many resources, Hydro International asked him shortly after he assumed his new position on his thoughts on this. “This campaign reminded us about the enormous dimensions of the seas and oceans and the fragmented image of what we currently hold. To create a detailed image of the deep remains difficult but the available technology enables us to make a quantum leap. Remote sensing, autonomous carriers and smart information processing offer expanding possibilities for survey and treatment of mass data,” he stated, adding that: “The Nippon Foundation-GEBCO Seabed 2030 Project will, without doubt, be the

flagship project of this campaign with the ambition to create a complete high-resolution bathymetry image of the seas and oceans by the end of the next decade. To meet this goal, it needs coordinated contributions from all parties involved, such as sensor and carrier technology, professional surveyors and crowdsourcing. The IHO is helping to synchronize these various activities by administration of the funding.”

In June 2021, Seabed 2030 was officially recognized as a flagship programme of the UN Decade of Ocean Science. Its mission to map the entire ocean floor aligns seamlessly with UN Sustainable Development Goal 14 (SDG14), which focuses on conserving and sustainably utilizing oceans, seas and marine resources. This milestone marked a pivotal moment, propelling the project forward with renewed momentum and global support.

Progress through the years 2018

The Nippon Foundation-GEBCO Seabed 2030 Project was officially launched in 2018. Alongside its inception, an 18-page concept paper was published outlining the project’s morphological statistics, technological framework and data assembly structure to ensure its success. The release of the paper was accompanied by a clear and urgent message: contributions of bathymetric data from hydrographic organizations are essential.

That same year, Texas-based surveying company Ocean Infinity contributed

Location map showing multibeam bathymetry data combined with sun-illuminated relief collected in the search for MH370. SEIR: Southeast Indian Ridge; CIR: Central Indian Ridge; RTJ: Rodrigez Triple Junction; SWIR: Southwest Indian Ridge.

120,000km2 of data to the initiative, which was integrated into the latest global ocean floor map. Using a fleet of eight AUVs, Ocean Infinity collected data at a speed far surpassing traditional mapping methods during its Indian Ocean search for the missing Malaysia Airlines flight MH370. An additional significant contribution came from Australia, which released 710,000km2 of open source data. Together, these inputs added at least 930,000km2 of high-resolution data to the map, marking a substantial update to GEBCO’s records.

2019

In March 2019, Seabed 2030 announced a partnership with the Five Deeps Expedition, setting the stage for mapping previously uncharted areas of the seafloor and making the data publicly accessible. As part of this collaboration, the Five Deeps Expedition – the first manned mission to the deepest point in each of the five oceans – committed to contributing data from regions that might otherwise remain unexplored. Beyond mapping trench sites, the expedition also agreed to keep its sonar systems active during transit, capturing additional bathymetric data along the way and further enriching the project’s dataset.

Also in 2019, Fugro, a key ambassador of the Seabed 2030 initiative, contributed over 110,000km2 of high-resolution bathymetry data from the North Atlantic Ocean, which significantly improved the quality and coverage of seabed mapping in the region. Shortly after, the Nippon Foundation-GEBCO Seabed 2030 Project announced a new partnership with the World Ocean Council (WOC), a leading organization in the global blue economy. This collaboration aimed to

further advance the mission of mapping the entirety of the world’s ocean floor.

In June 2019, it was announced that coverage of the world’s ocean floor had increased from 6% to 15%. This is equivalent to around 32,000,000km2 of bathymetric data, an area greater than the land mass of Africa. Later in 2019, Jamie McMichael-Phillips was appointed the new director of the Nippon Foundation-GEBCO Seabed 2030 Project. The announcement was made during the ‘From Vision to Action’ conference at the Royal Society in London in October. This event, which gathered leading scientists and maritime organizations, celebrated the progress achieved in the two years since the launch of Seabed 2030.

In the same weeks, the Schmidt Ocean Institute and the Nippon Foundation-GEBCO Seabed 2030 Project reached a significant milestone by signing a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU). This agreement ensured that all mapping data collected by the Schmidt Ocean Institute would be shared with the project, further advancing its mission.

2020

In 2020, Hydro International published an article highlighting the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s (NOAA’s) ambitious plan to systematically map all US waters. This initiative aimed to support the Seabed 2030 Project’s objectives and contribute to the global effort to fully map the world’s oceans within the next decade. NOAA also committed to compiling bathymetric data into the publicly accessible GEBCO Ocean Map, further advancing international ocean mapping efforts.

The foundation for this plan was laid as early as 2017, when a team from NOAA’s Office of Coast Survey (OCS), the National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI) and the University of New Hampshire conducted a comprehensive gap analysis of bathymetric

Seabed 2030 concept paper.

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coverage and sounding density. They also developed a GIS map service to inform a US ocean and coastal mapping strategy, ensuring a meaningful contribution to the Seabed 2030 initiative.

At the start of the United Nations Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development, the Schmidt Ocean Institute’s research vessel Falkor made history on 31 December 2020 by collecting the first publicly available seafloor data of the New Year. Australian scientists aboard the vessel ‘pinged in the New Year’ by deploying sonar waves to map the ocean floor at the stroke of midnight, continuing their efforts throughout New Year’s Day. Flying the official flag of the Nippon Foundation-GEBCO Seabed 2030 Project, this mission became a defining moment in the global quest to map the entire ocean floor by 2030.

2021

The first week of June 2021 saw the official opening of the UN Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development (2021-2030). Mathias Jonas, secretary-general of IHO, said on this occasion that he hoped that by the end of the decade all of the almost 100 IHO Member States would have given permission for the use of crowdsourced bathymetry to achieve the ambitions of the Seabed 2030 Project.

Also in June 2021, the Seabed 2030 Project entered a technical cooperation agreement with the UK Hydrographic Office (UKHO) and Teledyne CARIS. The MoU – announced on

the first official edition of World Hydrography Day to fall in the UN Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development – aimed to get parties working together to advance the effort associated with producing the definitive map of the seafloor by the year 2030. The announcement also coincided with the release of the latest GEBCO grid figure – 20.6% of the world’s entire seabed mapped. Commenting on the MoU, Seabed 2030 Project director Jamie McMichael-Phillips said: “Seabed 2030 is delighted to announce this new partnership with UKHO and Teledyne CARIS on the occasion of World Hydrography Day. As we enter the newly launched UN Decade, but also the final decade of Seabed 2030, we remain humbly aware of what we have yet to achieve – with just under 80% of the world’s seabed still to be mapped.”

Shortly afterwards, a new MoU was signed with another major player in the hydrographic field: Kongsberg. This partnership reinforced the global effort to create a complete map of the ocean floor. Under the agreement, both parties committed to advancing the understanding of ocean bathymetry. Kongsberg emphasized the valuable role that its surveying, positioning and navigation systems would play in supporting the Seabed 2030 initiative. The company also announced plans to develop freely available functionalities for its multibeam echosounders, singlebeam echosounders and AUVs, making it easier to contribute bathymetric data to Seabed 2030’s data centres.

“To achieve the aggressive goals of Seabed 2030, uncrewed survey systems must be

used to augment more traditional ocean mapping efforts, particularly on the high seas. In addition to providing a much-needed force multiplier for surveying, these systems lower environmental impacts by using harvestable energy, eliminating personnel at sea and reducing ship-generated noise, overboard discharge and potential for pollution,” stated Brian Connon, vice president Ocean Mapping at Saildrone and a retired US Navy captain, in Hydro International in August 2021. Connon penned this following the completion of a mapping mission by the Saildrone Surveyor, a 22-metre uncrewed surface vehicle (USV). The mission covered approximately 4,200 kilometres and mapped nearly 22,000km2 of previously uncharted seafloor. The USV relied primarily on renewable energy sources, including solar and hydro power, while being propelled by wind. According to Connon:

“As demonstrated by the successful ocean mapping transit of Saildrone Surveyor from San Francisco to Honolulu, long-endurance, lowimpact USVs offer a substantial and muchneeded increase in our ability to successfully achieve the goal of Seabed 2030, especially on the high seas.” In June 2021, the uncrewed, autonomous Saildrone Surveyor arrived in Hawaii after a groundbreaking maiden voyage from San Francisco to Honolulu.

In the final quarter of 2021, Seabed 2030 announced a partnership with EOMAP, a leading provider of shallow-water bathymetry derived from satellite data. EOMAP specializes in creating tools and datasets to map and monitor shallow waters and aquatic ecosystems using advanced satellite data analytics. Its mission is to develop and apply high-quality satellite-derived methods and data to precisely map and monitor aquatic environments. “Despite the ocean covering over 70% of the Earth’s surface, around 20% of it has been mapped to date. We have joined the ambitious Seabed 2030 Project to contribute with bathymetric data that is hard or impossible to access otherwise. Our contribution will be – in cooperation with our clients and stakeholders – to fill data gaps in coastal shallow waters and to encourage others to join in,” commented Dr Knut Hartmann, COO of EOMAP.

The latter part of 2021 marked the emergence of a partnership between Seabed 2030 and TCarta, a global innovator in satellite-derived bathymetry (SDB), marine remote sensing and space-based hydrospatial technologies.

2019 edition of the GEBCO Ocean Map.

The agreement aimed to leverage TCarta’s vision for scalable, global satellite-based surveying technology, developed through its National Science Foundation Small Business Innovation Research grant, to support the global ocean floor mapping initiative. From that point forward, TCarta has played a key role in advancing Seabed 2030’s goals by contributing bathymetric data to help fill critical gaps in existing hydrographic survey coverage.

2022

The Seabed 2030 mission is paired with remarkable discoveries. In the early months of 2022, it was revealed that satellite technology had been used to map the shallow seafloor of the Cook Islands with unprecedented detail. This achievement was made possible through collaboration between scientists at the National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research (NIWA), Toitū Te Whenua Land Information New Zealand (LINZ) and the satellite data analytics company EOMAP.

Kevin Mackay, a marine geology researcher at NIWA, leads Seabed 2030’s South and West Pacific Ocean Data Centre, one of the project’s four regional centres responsible for gathering and mapping data within their territories. Speaking about the use of satellites to measure shallow ocean floors, he stated: “To measure the depth of the ocean, you would traditionally have to send out a boat with an echosounder, which costs a lot of money and can be dangerous in rough and shallow seas. With satellites, we can access extremely remote locations, with a smaller carbon footprint and without having to endanger people.”

In March 2022, the UKHO signed a new MoU with the Nippon Foundation-GEBCO Seabed 2030 Project, following up on their June 2021 agreement. Part of the new MoU was that the UKHO would provide bathymetric gridded map products to be used by the project within the GEBCO gridded bathymetric dataset. The UKHO also promised to share and promote methods and best practices in technological innovation, infrastructure and solutions for ocean mapping and bathymetric data management.

In 2022, Seabed 2030 also partnered with the Ocean Research Project (ORP) to advance the global effort of mapping the ocean floor, with

a particular focus on polar regions through ORP’s expedition, GO-MARIE (Glacier-Oceans Mapping & Research Interdisciplinary Effort). ORP, a non-profit organization dedicated to eco-friendly ocean discovery, conducts expeditions that enable small, specialized teams of researchers to collect critical data from remote and sensitive areas worldwide. The GO-MARIE expedition marked the maiden voyage of ORP’s flagship, the RV Marie Tharp, a 22-metre Bruce Roberts steel schooner custom-built to navigate uncharted polar territories. The vessel features a base crew of ten, with rotating ocean science experts joining different legs of the journey to contribute to this ambitious mapping mission.

Halfway through 2022, Fugro became an associated partner of the European Marine Observation and Data Network (EMODnet), a long-term EU initiative aimed at making diverse sources of marine data freely and uniformly available to all. Beneficiaries of this work include policymakers, scientists, private industry and the public. The Fugro-EMODnet partnership was agreed with a focus on expanding private sector collaboration and marine data sharing in support of a sustainable blue economy. This partnership’s activities tightly align with Fugro’s industryleading involvement in the direct delivery of crowdsourced bathymetry acquired by Fugro for Seabed 2030 into the EMODnet data services. The collaboration proved an excellent occasion to ramp up Fugro’s ongoing contribution to the Ocean Decade and Seabed 2030 global initiatives.

A month later, NOAA administrator Rick Spinrad signed an MoU during the United Nations Ocean Conference, officially formalizing US participation in Seabed 2030. The agreement outlined best practices and protocols for data collection, fostering stronger collaboration among participating countries and partners. By 2022, 23.4% of the ocean had been mapped, representing an addition of 10.1 million km2 (nearly 3.9 million square miles) of new bathymetric data compared to 2021. The northern hemisphere summer also brought an announcement of a partnership with Terradepth, made on the heels of the 2022 United Nations Ocean Conference in Lisbon, Portugal. Terradepth’s Absolute Ocean portal provided Seabed 2030 with a secure platform to allow data contributors to visualize their contributions in an interactive way, and explore how they

A false-colour image of the valley mapped using RSV Nuyina’s multibeam echosounder. (False colour image: Geoscience Australia. Chart: Hydrographic Material reproduced with permission of The Australian Hydrographic Office – Courtesy: Commonwealth of Australia 2022)

relate to other open source data in the platform.

In October 2022, survey data from a vast underwater valley off East Antarctica, collected during icebreaker RSV Nuyina’s first voyage, was publicly released through the national seabed mapping programme AusSeabed. The 2,300-metre-deep, 2,000-metre-wide and at least 55-kilometre-long valley, extending from beneath the Vanderford Glacier into the ocean, was mapped using Nuyina’s multibeam echosounder, which uses sound to build a visual picture of the seafloor. Australian Antarctic data centre manager Dr Johnathan Kool said: “Through AusSeabed, the Australian Antarctic Division and other partners are contributing jigsaw pieces to fill in the Australian seabed puzzle, which researchers and policymakers can then use to meet their needs.” Since data from AusSeabed also feeds into Seabed 2030, this was another promising step on the road to developing a definitive map of the world’s ocean floor by 2030.

2023

The year 2023 began with very good news for the Seabed 2030 Project, with the announcement that NOAA and two of Australia’s leading science agencies had signed an agreement to collaborate on Pacific Ocean exploration and mapping, in support of NOAA’s priorities and the objectives of the United Nations Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development. This effort also aligned with the broader goal of using science to enhance ocean health and support sustainable development.

In February, a strategic partnership with ecoSUB Robotics, a subsidiary of Planet Ocean, was announced. The AUVs developed

by ecoSUB Robotics enable exploration of areas that are too dangerous for scientists and divers, making a valuable contribution to ocean mapping efforts. AUVs are instrumental in accessing hazardous and remote, uncharted regions, providing an effective solution where traditional methods fall short. They serve as a complementary tool to vesselbased surveys, enhancing ocean observation and improving the efficiency of data collection.

Also in February 2023, the Nippon Foundation-GEBCO Seabed 2030 Project announced that it would conduct a second online survey to identify global cumulative needs and priorities, and to inform the development of a benefits analysis and prioritization modelling for seabed mapping. The survey seeked views from the wider global community of national government agencies involved in seabed mapping data acquisition, production and use.

TCarta Marine, a global provider of hydrospatial products and services, expanded its involvement in the Seabed 2030 Project in March 2023. While it had already contributed extensive SDB data to the effort, now the company started offering capacity-building initiatives to train international hydrographic offices in creating their own datasets for Seabed 2030 and other applications.

In April that year, Hydro International published an interview with Jamie McMichaelPhillips. Considering the status of the global mapping effort at that moment, he explained: “We are very much limited by the speed with which ships can operate multibeam echosounder systems, which is one of the biggest challenges. A vast amount of ocean still needs to be mapped. Even if you take out the 23.4% I mentioned, we still have to map around 277 million km2 and incorporate it into the grid. Broadly speaking, this is an area twice the size of Mars, nine times the size of Africa and 36 times the size of Australia.”

To the final question of the interview: “2030 is only seven years away; will you be on time?”, McMichael-Phillips answered: “We most certainly aim to achieve it, and we need the world to come together to help us get there. We’ve grown enormously, from 6% in 2017 to 23.4% last year, and although the area that we still have to map is about twice that of Mars, look how far we’ve come. Sure, it is going to take a lot of effort, but it is achievable.”

Areas of the global seafloor that are considered mapped within the GEBCO grid. The regions coloured grey depict the coverage of mapped areas within the 2022 release of the GEBCO grid and the areas coloured red show the additional coverage included in the 2023 release. (Image courtesy: The Nippon Foundation-GEBCO Seabed 2030 Global Center)

At Ocean Business 2023, a partnership was agreed between Saildrone and Seabed 2030, entailing collaboration on advancing uncrewed ocean mapping technology in support of the global effort. Prior to this announcement, Saildrone had mapped over 45,000km2 of previously unexplored ocean floor during a months-long survey around Alaska’s Aleutian Islands and off the coast of California.

In May 2023, the Nigerian Navy joined the Seabed 2030 Project, marking a significant step as the first collaboration of its kind in Africa. The agreement included the potential deployment of up to 20 vessels from the Nigerian fleet, demonstrating the country’s commitment to advancing the initiative’s global mission. The partnership was formalized during the 3rd Session of the IHO Assembly, where representatives from 98 Member States and observers convened to discuss advancements in ocean mapping and technical standards. This milestone underscored the growing international cooperation essential for achieving Seabed 2030’s ambitious goals. At this IHO gathering, another collaboration was born: Norbit Oceans joined the initiative by providing innovative solutions involving a bathymetric survey dataset, research voyages and general survey activities.

In July 2023, it was announced that the Memorial University of Newfoundland’s Marine Institute had entered into a partnership with the Seabed 2030 Project. The Marine Institute is Canada’s most

comprehensive centre for education, training, applied research and industrial support for the ocean industries, with studies available in the School of Fisheries, the School of Maritime Studies and the School of Ocean Technology. The institute – which was established in 1964 and joined the university in 1992 – also boasts ‘The Launch’, a stateof-the-art marine living lab that offers a safe, reliable, near-Arctic environment to test new technology, train in harsh conditions and explore the next advances in ocean research. “The Marine Institute’s world-class expertise and research capabilities will greatly support our mission here at Seabed 2030,” commented McMichael-Phillips.

In October 2023, Hydro International published the article “Pioneering ocean mapping for a better world”, contributed by Jamie McMichael-Phillips and David Millar, the latter serving as Fugro’s government accounts director for the Americas and member of the GEBCO Guiding Committee. In the year that GEBCO, the only organization with a mandate to compile global bathymetry data, celebrated its 120th anniversary, the authors wrote: “When Seabed 2030 was launched in 2017, only 6% of the ocean had been mapped to modern standards. This figure has grown considerably, with just under a quarter – 24.9% – of the entire ocean floor now charted in the GEBCO grid.” The article zoomed in on Fugro’s success with its own data development and sharing programme. “This was made possible by early investments in remote command-and-control technology, which allowed the company to collect high-

resolution bathymetry while travelling to and between projects. Fugro’s philanthropic ‘in-transit’ bathymetry programme started in the Americas region with just one survey vessel in 2016. Today, nine of the company’s global survey vessels are participating, with contributions of Fugro bathymetry now totalling more than 2.36 million km². By 2025, the company aims to have 90% of its global fleet collecting in-transit bathymetry in support of Seabed 2030.”

The article highlighted a clear trend towards remote and autonomous technologies in ocean mapping. When Seabed 2030 was first envisioned, robotic ocean surveys were non-existent. Now, however, USVs collecting deepwater bathymetry are an established reality. A key factor in this progress has been collaboration, exemplified by the Shell Ocean Discovery XPRIZE – a global, three-year competition that spurred the development of uncrewed, high-resolution ocean mapping technologies. One notable outcome was the SEA-KIT USV, now deployed by Fugro across Europe, Australia and the Middle East. The focus has shifted to scaling these USV and other autonomous technologies within the industry, McMichael-Phillips and Millar wrote. By expanding their capabilities, the goal is to enable high-resolution mapping of entire ocean basins for regional partners in a way that is safe, efficient and environmentally responsible.

In November 2023, FarSounder started teaming up with the Nippon FoundationGEBCO Seabed 2030 Project to advance the collective understanding of the ocean floor in pursuit of the complete map of the entire seabed. This collaboration coincided with FarSounder’s Small Business Innovation Research (SBIR) Phase I grant awarded by the NOAA. This award provided funding for the research and development of a new project to develop a cloud-based service to share survey data collected by FarSounder customers. The project – titled ‘Enabling Expanded Crowdsourced Bathymetry Contributions With High-Quality Metadata via Commercially Sustainable Incentives to Contributors’ – allowed for data sharing with others across the FarSounder customer fleet and with Seabed 2030 via the IHO’s Data Centre for Digital Bathymetry (DCDB), which archives over 30 terabytes of oceanic depth soundings and serves as the long-term archive for Seabed 2030.

2024

In February 2024, Schmidt Ocean Institute announced that the crew aboard its research vessel Falkor (too) had discovered four underwater mountains during a transit from Golfito, Costa Rica, to Valparaiso, Chile. The tallest of these seamounts rose over 2.4 kilometres, with heights ranging from approximately 1,591 metres to 2,681 metres. This followed their November 2023 discovery of an underwater mountain measuring 1,600 metres – twice the height of the Burj Khalifa –in international waters off Guatemala.

Marine technicians and hydrographic experts

John Fulmer and Tomer Ketter confirmed the newly identified seafloor features using multibeam mapping, noting that none of them appeared in existing bathymetric databases. These discoveries were made while plotting a course to investigate gravity anomalies along the route, where subtle changes in the ocean surface – caused by variations in seafloor topography – offered clues. A trench creates a slight surface depression, while a seamount produces a barely noticeable rise, helping experts to refine seafloor maps. “These remarkable discoveries by Schmidt Ocean Institute underscore the importance of a complete map of the seabed in our quest to understand Earth’s final frontier,” said Jamie McMichael-Phillips.

In May 2024, the research icebreaker Polarstern returned to its home port of Bremerhaven, Germany, after a successful Antarctic season. The expeditions to the southern hemisphere and the transit there focussed on the oceanography and geology of East Antarctica as well as student training. As the Polarstern began its return transit through the Atlantic under the leadership of Simon Dreutter, it commenced the collection of valuable seabed survey data. Together with a small team from the AWI bathymetry department, Dreutter used the ship’s own soundings to map the seabed for the GEBCO Seabed 2030 Project.

In June, Challenger 150, a global initiative dedicated to mapping deep-sea life, signed an MoU with Seabed 2030. Challenger 150 is a global scientific cooperative under the Deep Ocean Stewardship Initiative (DOSI). It was developed in response to the needs of the Ocean Decade, aiming to build capacity for global deep-sea research, expand biological observations, enhance understanding of

deep-sea ecosystems and support their sustainable management. Dr Ana Hilario, deep-sea ecologist at the University of Aveiro and fellow co-lead of the Challenger 150 programme, said: “By combining the highresolution bathymetric data compiled by initiatives such as Seabed 2030 with our own, we can produce unprecedented ecosystem maps and predictive habitat models. This is incredibly exciting as it means we can fill the big holes in our knowledge of the deep sea and better target where to look for key ecosystems. The collaboration will also help us produce a ‘digital twin’ of the ocean, so that we can better understand the impacts of climate change and human use.”

In September 2024, an MoU was signed with Exail, marking the beginning of a collaborative partnership with Seabed 2030. Together, they will work to advance their shared objectives by exchanging knowledge and best practices in ocean mapping and bathymetric data management. As part of this collaboration, Exail will contribute bathymetric data, leverage its advanced technologies to support the Seabed 2030 vision, and actively engage with users of its sonar, navigation and autonomy solutions to further promote the initiative.

At the close of 2024, Seabed 2030 secured two significant and high-profile partnerships, further emphasizing the critical importance of its mission. Hexagon – a global leader in advanced digital solutions and a champion of innovation – emerged as a potentially transformative addition, poised to become an indispensable partner in the quest to create a comprehensive map of the ocean floor. The second key addition was Woolpert, renowned for its expertise in hydrography, surveying and geospatial solutions, combined with its forward-thinking application of cutting-edge technologies. Both partnerships were formally announced during Seabed 2030’s Pacific Ocean Mapping Meeting held in Fiji.

To learn how the Seabed 2030 Project serves as an outstanding ambassador for the hydrographic sector and is gaining global recognition, read the extended website version (please visit www.hydro-international.com) of this article. There, you will also discover its key building blocks and the three foundational principles behind its success.

Surveying the depths: the impact of real-time GNSS

Hydrographic surveying – the process of measuring and mapping underwater features to understand the physical characteristics of oceans, seas, rivers and lakes – is the quiet powerhouse behind safe navigation, coastal development and marine ecosystem protection.

From bustling harbours to the open seas, hydrographic surveyors face challenges as unpredictable as the waters they work in. Waves, swells and currents constantly challenge the stability of sensitive equipment that includes sonar systems and GNSS receivers. Environmental factors such as sudden shifts in wind, tide changes and strong currents add layers of complexity to operations. The corrosive effects of salt water wear down both equipment and the surveyors themselves. Safety is an everpresent concern, with unpredictable weather and equipment failures posing significant risks. In this demanding environment, the pursuit of improved efficiency and safety is paramount.

The importance of enhanced accuracy in hydrographic surveying

The demand for accurate data is high –marine navigation and construction hinge on precise depth measurements and seafloor mapping. While onboard sensors deliver relative accuracy, integrating satellite technology and employing GNSS (global navigation satellite systems) provides absolute accuracy, ensuring the precise real-world positioning necessary for detailed measurements. Any reduction in accuracy within corrections or post-processing can propagate through the system, compromising survey results.

This article explores how employing precise point positioning (PPP) technology and leveraging real-time data can simplify survey workflows, accelerate operations and ensure performance on water.

Beyond boundaries: real-time GNSS corrections for surveying excellence

Trimble RTX is a real-time PPP technology that uses Trimble’s global network of reference stations to accurately generate state space representation models of the

ionosphere and troposphere, as well as accurate GNSS satellite ephemeris data to mitigate clock and orbit biases. Trimble RTX is available over the internet or via L-band from geostationary satellites. The independent Trimble RTX Integrity Network checks and ensures the availability and accuracy of the Trimble RTX correction data. The result is a dependable real-time correction product that you can count on for your precision surveying needs.

Impact of real-time accuracy in hydrographic surveying

One key feature of a satellite-delivered PPP solution is the delivery of data in real time. This capability goes beyond merely meeting the demands of hydrographic surveying; it anticipates and addresses these needs as they arise, ensuring a proactive approach to challenges. Consider a typical project surveying a seabed for new port construction. Any inaccuracies during the survey could lead to costly errors in project design and implementation. Relying solely on post-processing is risky: missed areas or losses in RTK precision could lead to data rejection later, forcing surveyors to redo portions of the work. Using dependable real-time corrections helps ensure data acceptance in the office, reducing the risk of having to resurvey areas and thereby saving time and resources.

Numerous maritime applications benefit from access to immediate data:

• Charting and hazard reporting: Some commercial companies, as part of their operations, submit updated navigation data to agencies such as the Maritime and Coastguard Agency (MCA) and the Civil Hydrography Programme (CHP) in the UK. When potential hazards to navigation are identified, precise real-time data allows surveyors to report them to authorities within 24 hours, supporting safer and more accurate chart updates.

• Marine construction: Projects involve cable and pipeline route surveys, turbine and subsea assets installations. Real-time positioning ensures decisions can be made swiftly and that assets are placed with high precision, directly impacting safety on-site.

• Dredging operations: Dredging relies on constant updates to accurately track progress. Real-time corrections enable dredging machines to receive the latest progress data, ensuring operations move forward without delay. Precision here is also crucial for volume calculations and meeting specifications for factors such as standard deviation and sounding density.

• Seismic and geophysical applications: Real-time data is critical for activities such as seismic mapping, resource exploration and environmental monitoring, ensuring that geophysical data is accurately aligned with spatial coordinates, which improves the reliability of the results and supports timely decision-making.

Post-processed vs. real-time data: what’s the difference?

The difference between post-processed and real-time data lies primarily in the timing and method of data correction. In hydrographic surveying, raw data collected during the survey that is analysed, edited or cleaned afterwards is called postprocessed data. A workflow that integrates post-processing offers the ability to enhance accuracy by overcoming issues associated with real-time operations, such as correction telemetry outages. This step ensures that the multibeam sonar data meets stringent quality standards before final analysis and is essential for achieving high-accuracy results in hydrographic surveys.

Real-time data, on the other hand, often requires directly georeferenced data at the centimetre-level provided using an external correction source. While real-time integration aligns multiple data streams immediately during collection, data often requires post-processing for stringent quality assurance.

Real-time and post-processing methods are often combined, with the choice depending on specific survey requirements. When telemetry is interrupted – due to loss of internet, radio or line of sight –post-processing maintains data accuracy. Notably, as a satellite-delivered solution, PPP technology enables untethered operations, requiring no base station or connectivity and making it highly resilient to such interruptions.

From land to sea: Trimble’s entry into the marine sector

With over a decade of expertise in highaccuracy PPP solutions on land, Trimble Positioning Services has established itself as a leader in GNSS corrections. Recently, Trimble leveraged its extensive experience and expanded this proven technology to the marine realm – introducing the CenterPoint RTX Marine correction service. Although a later entrant to the market, CenterPoint RTX Marine quickly distinguished itself and set new standards with industry-leading horizontal and vertical accuracy, fastest convergence times, global availability,

The ability to use real-time data, while also having the option for post-processing, ensures that data meets the highest standards of accuracy.

unparalleled reliability and advanced security features.

Paired with the trusted Applanix POS MV system, Trimble now offers hydrographic surveyors a comprehensive, integrated positioning solution that is easy to use, efficient to deploy and built on a foundation of dependable precision.

How Trimble’s PPP solution works.

Aspect Land & Hydrographic Surveys

Aspect Land & Hydrographic Surveys Ltd, a Socotec company, is one of the leading coastal survey companies in the UK, with extensive experience and a proven track record in high-resolution hydrographic, geophysical, geotechnical, ROV, pUXO, oceanographic, environmental, topographic, GPR and UAV photogrammetry & Lidar surveys. With an impressive fleet of owned and operated survey vessels and equipment, a comprehensive range of survey disciplines can be accommodated across onshore, inshore and offshore environments. Working to the highest industry standards, all survey practices and procedures are governed by RICS regulations, with service quality underpinned by accreditation to ISO PAS99, Constructionline Gold and Achilles UVDB standards. Continuous investment in equipment, technology and personnel development ensures the company remains at the forefront of modern survey techniques and underpins a commitment to the provision of bespoke, turnkey solutions, optimizing outcomes for clients.

Darkocean

Darkocean is transforming the offshore and maritime industries with breakthrough technologies that redefine precision, efficiency and reliability. We are crafting the future of marine operations, blending advanced robotics, automation and geospatial data in a seamless experience that elevates global standards. Our vision is clear: to empower industries worldwide by providing cutting-edge solutions in offshore hydrography, geophysical and seismic surveys, powered by the most sophisticated AI and machine learning technologies. We leverage our global reach and pioneering spirit to deliver services that are as bold as they are innovative.

At Darkocean, we focus on what matters most: solving the toughest challenges. From geotechnical surveys to metocean studies, ROV operations and vessel chartering, we bring unmatched expertise and performance to every project, ensuring our clients can achieve more than they ever thought possible.

EdgeTech

EdgeTech is a leader in underwater technology solutions, serving the marine industry for over 50 years with products that include sidescan sonars, sub-bottom profilers, bathymetry systems and combined and modular systems. The solutions are available in a range of configurations for towed, pole-mounted, deep-towed, AUV, USV, ROV, ROTV and custom platforms. The company’s underwater actuated and transponding solutions include highly advanced deep-sea acoustic releases, shallowwater and long-life acoustic releases, on-demand (ropeless) fishing systems and underwater acoustic command and control systems.

EOMAP

At EOMAP, we provide smart solutions based on Earth observation, data science and IT. Put simply, we turn satellite data into actionable insights about coastal and inland waters. Hydrographers, surveyors and environmental stakeholders trust our passionate team of experts in over 100 projects a year around the world, saving them crucial time and money. Since 2006, we have been spearheading technologies such as water quality monitoring, seafloor classification and award-winning satellitederived bathymetry (SDB). For example, we were the first to deliver SDB for the UK Hydrographic Office and high-resolution SDB for the entire Great Barrier Reef. Moreover, EOMAP’s digital elevation models can enhance hydrodynamic modelling, blue carbon assessments or sustainable site planning. In addition to bespoke data delivery, our online tools – the ‘eoapp’ series – provide fast and cost-effective decision support. Contact our team to see how space-based insights can improve your work!

Falmouth Scientific Inc.

Falmouth Scientific Inc. provides advanced acoustic solutions for diverse marine applications with AquaPulse acoustic sources, ACM-Plus sensors and transducers. The AquaPulse generates broadband, repeatable lowfrequency pulses, penetrating 750m in 5m water depths, making it ideal for 2D, 3D and UHR geophysical, sub-bottom and engineering surveys. FSI transducers are available in standard and custom designs to support depth ratings up to 6,000m with frequencies from 10Hz to over 500kHz, addressing a wide range of acoustic needs. The ACM-Plus line of current, wave & tide sensors delivers reliable, precision measurements for extended deployments and real-time applications. FSI’s HMS CHIRP technology systems offer flexible configurations for sub-bottom profiling and sidescan imaging. FSI complements its technologies with OEM manufacturing, moulding, testing and design services. With over 35 years of experience, FSI delivers innovative acoustic solutions for the marine industry.

Fugro Marinestar GNSS

Fugro’s Marinestar GNSS service provides high-accuracy positioning that is tailored to meet high-precision and reliability maritime positioning needs. It offers L-band (+NTRIP) subscription-based services in coastal and deep-sea areas plus inland waterways on various types of vessel such as naval, hydrographic, dredging, research, wind farm support and other specialist craft. Marinestar is an integrated DGNSS, centimetrelevel, phase-based service using satellite ‘orbit and clock’ corrections that are valid worldwide, based on GPS, GLONASS, Beidu and Galileo. The Marinestar GNSS service provides a high-availability, high-integrity, global solution with an accuracy up to 2cm horizontal and up to 4cm vertical.

Falmouth Scientific Inc.

falmouth.com

+1 508 564 7640

Ocean Physics Technology Ltd.

Ocean Physics Technology (OPT) was established in Shanghai in 2020. The company’s philosophy is to popularize and introduce advanced underwater knowledge and technology, to research, develop and sell comprehensive domestic underwater product solutions, and to experiment with the integration of AI and underwater products. OPT has developed various product series represented by the GeoScope and GeoInsight Parametric sub-bottom profiler systems, HydroFrog 25 USV, handling & lifting solutions, and ROV services. In 2023, OPT officially set up in Wuxi, focusing on creating intelligent solutions combining underwater products and AI technologies.

R3VOX

Together with its US-based sister company R2Sonic, R3VOX designs and manufactures world-leading brands of acoustic hydrographic survey systems for all surface and subsea survey applications: the Sonic-V series, Sonic-V PLUS and the new revolutionary Voxometer®. As the original pioneers of wide-band, high-resolution multibeam sonar systems, the R3VOX team continues to challenge the status quo, providing better and new types of data in less time and at less cost and with improved user experience. Voxometer is the only multi-aspect hydrospatial, all-in-one survey system that is powered by multiple new patented technologies. R3VOX and its strategic network of global distributors is committed to providing personalized service and prompt assistance anytime, anywhere.

SIDUS Solutions

SIDUS Solutions, LLC, is a servicedisabled veteran-owned small business integrated systems provider of security and video surveillance systems for worldwide businesses in the research, heavy industry, commercial, military and energy markets. Specializing in environmental cameras, robotic-positioning and lighting systems, SIDUS services and manufactures complete, integrated security and surveillance solutions for any marine, defence and subsea application. SIDUS equipment, operational to in-bluewater and 6,500m depths, is available alone or to integrate with existing systems. From concept design to technical support, SIDUS has solutions for every need. With over 25 years of technical experience, SIDUS’ worldclass engineering staff provide seamless integration, design, installation, documentation and commissioning for all systems. From sea-floor observation platforms to surveillance systems for drilling rigs and ships to sonar deployment systems, SIDUS is a field-proven solution.

Subsea Europe Services

Subsea Europe Services is a hydrographic technology and operations specialist dedicated to simplifying marine data acquisition and analysis. Our core focus includes equipment sales & rental and marine survey and underwater inspection. We co-develop advanced solutions for industry-specific challenges with partners and the wider industry, bridging the gap between leading technology suppliers and end-user needs. Operating from Rostock, a major European marine innovation hub, we leverage in-house R&D and systems integration capabilities with technology from partners such as Sonardyne, MARTAC Systems, RTSYS and R2Sonic. Our partner-centric approach positively impacts customers that include offshore energy firms, contractors, wind farm operators, hydrographic surveyors, government agencies, research institutions and universities. Autonomous vehicle-based survey and inspection as a service, maritime security as a service and data as a service are also essential aspects of our unique offering.

SIDUS Solutions sidus-solutions.com +1 (619) 275-5533 Sales_Coordinator@sidus-solutions.com

Subsea Europe Services subsea-europe.com/ +49 40 30700784 surveyready@subsea-europe.com

Platforms, sensors and data collection

Pushing the boundaries of marine research and exploration

By Jyotika I. Virmani, Schmidt Ocean Institute

The ocean covers 71% of the surface of our planet and encompasses 93% of the habitable volume on Earth. However, most of it is inaccessible to humans without technical assistance. Fortunately, innovation is occurring at an exponential rate, with advances in areas such as 3D printing, artificial intelligence (AI), miniaturization and materials science rapidly increasing our understanding of the ocean and its inhabitants. The continuing evolution of marine technology promises to tackle both the vast scales needed to cover the ocean and the finer resolution needed to improve our understanding of oceanic processes and marine life. This article, with examples from the Schmidt Ocean Institute (SOI), explores some of the platforms and sensors that are pushing the boundaries of marine research, exploration and data collection.

Traditionally, access to the ocean for scientific advancement has been from research vessels, which continue to provide a robust platform to address a range of marine research and exploration goals. SOI has been operating research vessels over the last 15 years and its current research platform, RV Falkor (too) (Figure 1), is a global-class state-ofthe-art ocean research vessel that provides a sophisticated technical facility for scientists.

In addition to eight scientific laboratories, including a seawater flow-through system designed to avoid microplastic contamination and an onboard liquid nitrogen generator for biological sample preservation, the vessel is equipped with full ocean-depth sonars (Kongsberg EM2040, EM124 and EM712), two moon pools, a 150-ton crane and dozens of oceanic and atmospheric sensors. Falkor (too) also carries a high-performance computer

(HPC) onboard, which is made available to scientists to run models of the surrounding ocean and broader research area, allowing them to modify sampling strategies while at sea.

Recent improvements in low Earth orbiting satellites now provide vessels such as Falkor (too) with a more seamless ship-to-shore communication capability and a higher

Figure 1: Schmidt Ocean Institute’s research vessel RV Falkor (too). (Photo courtesy: Schmidt Ocean Institute)

bandwidth connection to shoreside laboratories which, in turn, enables broader participation by those joining remotely and expands the expertise available on each expedition. Scientists also have access to SOI’s ROV SuBastian, a remotely operated vehicle capable of descending to 4,500m. In addition to data and sample collection from the deep sea, the ROV is employed as a platform to integrate new scientific equipment and testing of prototype technologies. The capabilities of a research vessel for scientific exploration and discovery are substantial – in the inaugural year of operations of Falkor (too), scientists on this vessel discovered and studied a new animal ecosystem under the seafloor, five new hydrothermal vent fields, 11 new seamounts and over 150 potential new species.

Complementing the data gathering ability of the research vessels of today are a plethora of remote-controlled and autonomous technologies. Underwater platforms including gliders, autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs), Argo floats and vertical sampling systems such as the Bottom Stationing Ocean Profiler, have been routinely used in oceanographic data collection for over two decades. However, the last decade has seen an exponential increase in surface and aerial platforms, including surface uncrewed vehicles that can deploy and recover subsurface devices with no humans at sea.

Autonomous surface vehicles can collect standard near-surface marine atmospheric and oceanographic data either ahead of a research vessel (Figure 2) or in areas and situations that are difficult for research vessels to operate. For example, in 2021, a Saildrone vehicle collected video, wind speed and other data on Hurricane Sam, a category-four tropical storm. Such in situ observations in the upper ocean and just above the sea surface are notoriously challenging during a cyclone but vital for improving coupled ocean-atmosphere models and tropical storm predictions.

The Ocean Discovery XPRIZE saw the dawn of a new capability for uncrewed surface vessels; the ability to deploy and recover AUVs or other underwater devices remotely by humans at a mission control on land. Both the surface and subsurface components can be adaptable during a mission and configurable to work in tandem or independently while at sea to provide more flexibility and speed. One example, developed by SEA-KIT International, was used in 2022 to map the inside of the caldera following the large and violent eruption of the underwater volcano Hunga Tonga Hunga Ha’apai, which ejected its volcanic cloud 57km above the sea surface into the mesosphere. The USV Maxlimer, initially developed as part of the winning entry from The Nippon Foundation-GEBCO Alumni Team in the Shell Ocean Discovery XPRIZE, was deployed to map the caldera while it was actively venting, a scenario that was too hazardous for a crewed research vessel. The data confirmed that volcanic activity was still taking place and provided data for researchers to gain a better understanding of the impact of the eruption. In 2016, SOI’s RV Falkor mapped this undersea volcano, and a comparison with the new bathymetry showed that 9.5km3 of seafloor material was removed during the eruption but 6.3km3 was redeposited within 20km of the caldera rim, leaving 3.2km3 unaccounted for (Seabrook et al., 2022).

The coordinated use of multiple vehicles can effectively scale up marine scientific exploration. Further innovations in autonomous surface technologies that integrate AI will eventually lead to reduced human oversight and control, allowing machines to effectively gather the data needed for climate, weather and ecosystem modelling and monitoring. For example, the Mayflower Autonomous Ship (MAS) has an ‘AI Captain’ that can ingest and analyse weather data to create and follow a mission path independently, making it an appealing and low-cost platform for routine and longer-term data collection.

Figure 2: Saildrone deployed prior to RV Falkor arrival on site. (Photo courtesy: Schmidt Ocean Institute)

Advancing sampling technologies

In addition to furthering scientific knowledge through exploration, data collection and analysis at sea, a research vessel and ROV are versatile platforms for testing prototype marine technologies, including novel sensors to study marine life. ROV SuBastian has an ultra-high-definition pan-zoom-tilt camera for video acquisition, which is frequently used to observe animal behaviour and characterize the marine ecosystem, including seafloor features. Although invaluable, visual imagery alone is inadequate for new species identification and a sample specimen needs to be captured and brought back to the lab for analysis. However, innovations in imaging technologies are beginning to provide an avenue for biological oceanographers to gather in situ morphological and taxonomic data without the need for sample collection.

The Deep Particle Image Velocimetry (DeepPIV) instrument, developed by Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute (MBARI), was integrated on ROV SuBastian for testing. The DeepPIV consists of a laser and optics that illuminate a sheet of fluid, enabling the ROV’s science cameras to capture the movement of particles, plankton or other small creatures in the water. In addition to the rapid characterization of organisms, this allows fine-scale fluid motion to be quantified. The DeepPIV was coupled with the Eye Remote Imaging System (EyeRIS), also developed at MBARI, a real-time 3D imaging lens inspired by the

multi-lens eyesight of insects. The combined use of both instruments resulted in the illumination and imaging of mid-water organisms in 3D, allowing researchers to create and manipulate a digital image to study the creature from multiple angles on a screen (Burns et al., 2024).

Marine biological specimens that are softbodied, brittle or fragile have historically been difficult to collect without damaging their frame. To address this, researchers from the City University of New York and Harvard University developed fully robotic, soft arms and fingers, called ‘squishy fingers’, which can gently interact with deep-sea animals. The soft manipulators were 3D printed onboard RV Falkor, integrated on ROV SuBastian, and used for adaptive sampling of delicate specimens (Figure 3). The instrument was tested at depths over 2,000m and successfully grabbed fragile animals such as goniasterids and holothurians (Vogt et al., 2018).

Gelatinous creatures typically found in the mid-water column are also notoriously difficult to collect and study in situ, partly due to their fragile composition and partly because they are continuously mobile. A sphere-like encapsulation device that rapidly collects and preserves tissue samples of such delicate organisms was designed by a team led by the University of Rhode Island. The Rotary Actuated Dodecahedron (RAD) device was integrated on ROV SuBastian’s

manipulator arms in 2019, then further refined (RAD2) and re-integrated again in 2021 (Figure 4). The RAD2 device allows for rapid and targeted mid-water sampling of specimens without using nets that can capture additional and superfluous specimens.

These prototype technologies, combined with advances in eDNA sampling, miniaturization of sequencing technologies, low-cost sampling and AI for visual identification, are part of a suite of tools and sensors that set a new benchmark for imaging and sampling marine life and, in the future, will result in real-time and rapid in situ taxonomic identification.

Imagining marine technologies of the future

Advances in materials science, miniaturization of sensors and the integration of intelligent technology such as robotics with haptic suits have the potential to transform oceanographic research by utilizing power sources in new ways, enabling massive data collection and altering the way in which humans interact with the ocean.

Currently, oceanographic and atmospheric sensors require batteries or tethered power sources and are heavy or bulky. New materials, including ultrathin organic solar panels, can transition traditional sensors into longer-lasting (renewable power source) and lightweight (removal of batteries), ubiquitous data collection devices. Materials scientists at King Abdullah University of Science and Technology demonstrated the creation of ultrathin solar cells by inkjet printing and their placement on surfaces as fragile as air bubbles. Massachusetts Institute of Technology is developing a robust and more scalable version that will be easier to manufacture, is transparent, flexible and conductive and can be added seamlessly onto any surface, turning it into a renewable power source. Although currently nascent technology, the small solar panels could eventually be added as a coating or film to different at-sea technologies.

The miniaturization of sensors also offers an environmentally sustainable and cheap solution for mass data collection. For example, an integrated circuit with wireless communication capabilities and a renewable

Figure 3: ‘Squishy fingers’ used to collect a specimen by ROV SuBastian during the ‘Discovering Deep Sea Corals of the Phoenix Islands’ expedition. (Photo courtesy: Schmidt Ocean Institute)

Figure 4: The RAD2 sampler integrated on one of ROV SuBastian’s manipulator arms during the ‘Designing the Future 2’ expedition. (Photo courtesy: Schmidt Ocean Institute and University of Rhode Island)

power source that takes the form of a tiny microchip less than the size of a ladybird has been developed by Northwestern University. The miniature sensors were designed with natural drag mechanisms (like a maple tree propeller seed), to fall at a slow rate and in a controlled manner. As they descend, atmospheric conditions are measured and monitored, including air pollution, atmospheric pH and sun exposure as a function of altitude. Miniature, naturally descending sensors, perhaps mimicking marine snow, could in the future be used to measure and monitor the distribution of pollutants or other particles over or in the ocean and surface fluxes at the ocean-atmosphere boundary.

The ocean is a harsh environment generally inhospitable to humans. Direct human interaction is limited to the surface and scuba diving depths – barely scratching the surface of the ocean. However, integrating robotics with sophisticated haptic suits has formed realworld physical avatars on land, opening the potential for expanding human reach in the ocean in a novel way. Haptic suits and mixed reality techniques allow humans to interact remotely with objects, providing sensory input to the brain. Recently, the Italian Institute of Technology successfully demonstrated its iCub3 avatar robot connected to its iFeel haptic suit. In the demonstration, a human in Genoa, Italy, controlled a robot 300km away in Venice, Italy, and experienced what the robot sensed. Haptic technology and mixed reality techniques are already being developed for use in the ocean. For example, delicate marine specimens have been collected while scuba diving using a marine haptic-gloved human hand controlling a soft manipulator for greater precision and gentleness than a bare human hand (Phillips et al., 2018). Adapting this technology more robustly for oceanography, where a robot avatar could be immersed in the marine environment, will allow scientists to see, feel, smell and touch organisms in remote marine locations in real time, enabling interactions as if humans were indeed in the ocean. Such capabilities would enable remote and high-risk environments to be explored in different ways, allowing scientists to work in the aquatic ecosystem while physically remaining onshore and providing an opportunity for broader engagement by those who cannot go to sea or live at great distances from the shoreline.

Conclusion

In parallel to technological development on land, the pace of advances in marine technology is happening increasingly faster, allowing scientists to collect in situ oceanographic data at larger scales, at reduced costs, more efficiently and for longer durations in every ocean environment. While vessels remain integral to conducting research at sea by providing a platform for multidisciplinary studies, testing innovative technologies and serving as a mothership for remote and autonomous vehicles,

About the author

Dr Jyotika I. Virmani is executive director of the Schmidt Ocean Institute. Before this, she was executive director of Planet & Environment at XPRIZE and led the Ocean Discovery XPRIZE, advancing the development of seafloor mapping technologies. She sits on the MBARI Board of Directors and is a trustee of Plymouth Marine Laboratory.

robotic platforms make remote and harsh environments more accessible, provide an avenue for routine data collection, and extend the reach and capabilities of a vessel. Ongoing innovation in sampling capabilities provides the ability to gather more diverse and robust multidisciplinary data, such as 3D imagery and in situ characterization of marine species. Scientists and engineers working across multiple disciplines are imagining and conceptualizing the possible, designing and building the technology, and interpreting and analysing the data. This cross-disciplinary innovation, combining oceanographic expertise with expertise from other fields, is exciting and the next decade will give us an incredible capacity to understand and predict the complex interactions of the ocean, land and atmosphere.

References

Burns, J. A., Becker, K. P., Casagrande, D., Daniels, J., Roberts, P., Orenstein, E., Vogt, D. M., Teoh, Z. E., Wood, R., Yin, A. H., Genot, B., Gruber, D. F., Katija, K., Wood, R. J., & Phillips, B. T., (2024). An in situ digital synthesis strategy for the discovery and description of ocean life. Sci Adv., 10 (3), eadj4960. https://doi. org/10.1126/sciadv.adj4960

Phillips, B. T., Becker, K. P., Kurumaya, S., Galloway, K., Wittredge, G., Vogt, D., Teeple, C., Rosen, M., Pieribone, V., Gruber, D., & Wood, R., (2018). A dexterous, glove-based teleoperable low-power soft robotic arm for delicate deepsea biological exploration. Sci Rep. 8, 14779. https://doi. org/10.1038/s41598-018-33138-y

Seabrook, S., Mackay, K., Watson, S., Clare, M., Hunt, J., Yeo, I., Lane, E., Clark, M., Wysoczanski, R., Rowden, A., Hoffmann, L., Armstrong, E., & Williams, M., (2022). Pyroclastic density currents explain far-reaching and diverse seafloor impacts of the 2022 Hunga Tonga Hunga Ha’apai eruption. Preprint available at Research Square. https://doi.org/10.21203/ rs.3.rs-2395332/v1

Vogt, D., Becker, K., Phillips, B., Graule, M., Rotjan, R., Shank, T., Cordes, E., Wood, R., & Gruber, D., (2018). Shipboard design and fabrication of custom 3D-printed soft robotic manipulators for the investigation of delicate deep-sea organisms. PLOS ONE 13(8), e000386. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0200386.

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