De_Centralized: Flood Resistant Community Design by Selena Isildar

DECANTRALIZED DECANTRALIZED

DECANTRALIZED

DE_CENTRALIZED IS A THESIS DEVELOPED TO CORRESPOND THE EMERGING CLIMATE CRISIS IN COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS WITH RESISTANT AND ALTERNATIVE HOUSING SOLUTIONS

MASTER THESIS Selena ISILDAR, 916798 Politecnico di Milano Architettura Urbanistica Ingegneria delle Costruzioni / Master of Science in Architecture Professor Ingrid Paoletti Supervisor Maria Anishchenko Academic Year 2020/2021

Acknowledgement

I could not have undertaken this journey without the supervision of Prof.Ingrid Paoletti and dear Maria Anishchenko. “Material Balance Research” has shown me how it is possible to change the current polluting construction techniques and work with climate neutral solutions. I would like to express my deepest gratitude to Prof. Richard Ingersoll, who passed away in 2021 due to Covid. He had been a true lover of nature and cared deeply about other humans. He was the one to teach us how to build sustainable communities in harmony with nature. This project wouldn’t be realized without what I learned from Prof. Simone Giostra. He was a great mentor that introduced me to biomimicry, systematic methodology, and a data-driven approach to architecture that allows us to respond to the needs of nature.

Index RESEARCH Abstract 1.0 Water Cycles 1.1 Water Cycles 14 1.1.1 Introduction 1.2 Global Ecosystems 15 1.2.1 Introduction 1.3 Coastal Ecosystems 16 1.3.1 Introduction to Coastal Ecosystems 1.3.2 Benefits of the Intertidal Ecosystems 1.4 Coastal Ecosystem in Declinne 19 1.4.1 Human Impact: Ecological Footprint 1.4.2 Carbon and Climate 1.4.3 Water Stress 2.0 Ganges Delta 2.1 Ganges Delta Ecosystem 26 2.1.1 Introduction and Formation 2.2 Sundarbans Wetland Ecosystem 28 2.2.1 Geomorphic Characteristics 2.2.2 Ecoregions 2.2.3 Mangrooves as Bio- Shield 3.0 Sundarbans, Climate Vulnerability 3.1 Climate Vulnerability 34 3.1.1 General Discussion 3.2 Anthroponic Threats 35 3.2.1 Excessive Land Use 3.2.2 Anthroponic Pollution 3.3. Natural Drivers 37 3.3.1 Sea Level Rise, Flooding and Cyclones 38

3.4 Social and Environmental Outcomes 3.4.1 Defrostation and Biodiversity Loss 3.4.2 Carbon Cycle + Blue Carbon Release 3.4.3 Rising Migration Risks 4.0 Shelter Aprroach 4.1 Sundarbans Housing Survey 44 4.1.1 Resilience Overview 4.1.2 Thatch Roofs of Sundarbans 4.2 Standard Shelter Practices 48 4.2.1 Emergency Shelter Approach 4.3 Alternative Housing Solutions 4.3.1 A Permeable Approach 4.4 Case Studies 4.4.1 Floating Architecture 5.0 Alternative Resilient Housing 5.1 Permeable Approach 56 5.1.1 Responding to the Needs 5.2 Construction Technologies 58 5.2.1 Modularity 5.3 Addictive Manufacturing 59 5.3.1 Benefits for Social Housing 5.3.2. Possible Materials 5.4 Recyling Plastic 60 5.4.1 Methodology 5.4.2 Collecting, Sorting, Distrubuting 5.5 Sand Printing 65 5.5.1 D- Shape Technology

PROJECT 6.0 Project: Decentralized 6.1 Sundarbans, India 70 6.2 Manifesto 74 6.2.1 Resilient and Climate Responsive Community 6.3 Building Resilience 76 6.3.1 Re-establishing Coastal Defense 6.4 Strategy 78 6.4.1 Global to Local Approach 6.4.2 Decentralized Action (Global) 6.5 Form Finding (Local) 82 6.6 Global and Local Properties 84 6.6.1 Ecological Growth 6.6.2 Flood- Resistance 6.6.3 Establishing the Community 6.7 Modules 88 6.7.1 Shelter Module 6.7.2 Community Module 6.7.3 Services Module 6.7.4 Functions 6.7.5 Modifications 6.8 ASSEAMBLAGE 102 6.8.1 Modularity 6.9 Decomposition 104 6.9.1 Future Senarios 7.0 Conclusion 104 Bibilography 110 List of Figures 114 Figure Citations 116

Abstract

English Decentralized is a thesis developed to correspond to the emerging climate crisis in Coastal Ecosystems. The project is located in the Ganges Delta of India, where the Mangrove ecosystem is subjected to disturbance by the arising pollution. Sea level rises are also threatening many families to migrate. The design aims to mimic the Coastal Defence System of the native Mangrove Trees and develop flood-resistant and modular shelters to protect the ecosystem while providing a resistant community center. Italian Decentralizzata è una tesi sviluppata per corrispondere alla crisi climatica emergente negli ecosistemi costieri. Il progetto si trova nel delta del Gange in India, dove l’ecosistema delle mangrovie è soggetto a perturbazioni dovute all’inquinamento che ne deriva. Anche l’innalzamento del livello del mare sta minacciando la migrazione di molte famiglie. Il progetto mira a imitare il sistema di difesa costiera degli alberi di mangrovie nativi e sviluppare rifugi modulari e resistenti alle inondazioni per proteggere l’ecosistema fornendo al contempo un centro comunitario resistente.

PART

Research

Water Systems

Fig 01 - A satellite view of Ganges Delta

1.1 Water Cycles 1.1 Introduction Life on earth depends on water which makes up most of the earth’s surface. Earth’s water cycle refers to circular and continuous water exchange between the atmosphere, lithosphere, and hydrosphere. It is crucial to sustaining life. Water is continually being recycled within the biosphere that undergoes a variety of states of matter between liquid, vapor, and ice. This water feature makes it easier to be transferred among the complex water system of the earth, which maintains the balance to sustain life. Through evaporation, water from the water bodies and ocean moves towards the atmosphere. Vapor is condensed with the cooler temperature and falls back to the earth through precipitation (80% on the ocean and 20% on the land). Soil retains a portion of this water for the vegetation and stores it as groundwater. The rest flows through the ground as surface runoff and returns to the water bodies like rivers and eventually to the ocean. Through transpiration and evapotranspiration, water that plants, animals, and soil use, is recycled back into the atmosphere. Nearly all water is continuously in motion, transporting water from one side of the world to the other.

Fig 02 - Natural water cycle, simplified diagram 14

1.2 Global Ecosystems 1.2.1 Introduction Ecosystems are a critical part of the global water cycle and are necessary to create biodiversity. Its dynamic structure embodies living organisms (biotic) to abiotic components. This constant interaction between various organisms and their environment is essential in establishing a state close to equilibrium. As the water cycles, ecosystems also work in cycles. Energy and nutrition are constantly recycled within the system, controlled by various external and internal factors. The landscape and climate, for example, are the defining factors of the physical/abiotic environment and act as external factors. Whereas the internal factors are defined by the biome itself, their allocation, root composition, and shading potential. Therefore, we can say that internal factors are defined by the symbiotic relationship of the living units and the effect of their co-existence on each other. These interdependent relationships define various habitats within the ecosystem. Earth contains a series of interconnected ecosystems. There are no defined boundaries between these ecosystems since the energy and material constantly flow in and out of the system as the living organisms move. Major categories of ecosystems: - Agroecosystems; - Coastal ecosystems; - Forest ecosystems; - Freshwater systems; - Grassland ecosystems.

1.3 Coastal Ecosystems 1.3.1 Introduction to Coastal Ecosystems Coastal ecosystems exist where the land meets the ocean. This diverse combination of freshwater and saltwater creates a unique ecosystem rich in nutrients in the water and sediments, resulting in a highly productive habitat. Consequently, these ecosystems are indispensable to the global water cycle. They are required for the development of abundant biodiversity. INTERTIDAL ZONES Estuaries are a type of coastal ecosystem in which a river empties into the sea. Consequently, these landscapes, also known as Intertidal Zones, are simultaneously subject to marine and river influences. Occasional tides bring salt water into the Estuary ecosystem, which is constantly diluted by the influx of fresh water from rivers. Nonetheless, a tidal limit denotes the farthest point where tides reach upstream and, consequently, where salt water reaches. When the tides are low, the sediment carried by the river accumulates at the river’s mouth and forms The Delta Ecosystems, also known as wetlands. These transitional zones between the river and the ocean are also an illustration of how diverse ecosystems can coexist and be interconnected.

Fig 03 - Shoreline Morphology of Estuary vs Delta 17

1.3.2 Benefits of the Intertidal Ecosystems WATER FILTRATION + NUTRITION CYCLING Intertidal parts of the coastal zones are biologically highly productive areas. It accommodates various ecosystems and living organisms within its system. Therefore, valuable elements to sustain life, such as carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, phosphorus, and nitrogen, are constantly recycled within the ecosystem. Mangrove Forests, Wetlands, and Seagrass beds are some of the habitats found in the Coastal Areas that contribute to the nutrition cycle. These ecosystems are essential habitats for many living organisms because of their dense nutrition environment. These habitats are also effective as a water filtration method. As the water flows through the wetlands, pollutants that are carried from the human settlements by the river, filtered out by the vegetation, and clean water flows back to the ocean. HABITAT PROTECTION + EROSION CONTROL Since the presence of dense vegetation, these habitats effectively prevent erosion and stabilize the shorelines with their root system. The vegetation and plant distribution in the Intertidal Zones, such as mangrove forests, act as buffer zones to protect the land from flooding and storm surges. Since delta ecosystems are partially enclosed water bodies, it also provides a safe reproduction environment for many species. It acts as a migration corridor for several fish species and a convenient stop for migrating birds. HUMAN SETTLEMENT Since its largely available resources and highly fertile lands, coastal environments have hosted numerous civilizations in their landscape. Most civilizations grew around the deltas because of their abundance and easy reachable lowlaid landscape. For years, people benefited from activities like agriculture, fisheries, and harbors.

1.4 Coastal Ecosystems in Decline 1.4.1 Human Impact: Ecological Footprint Humans benefit from these highly productive coastal regions, as do other species. However, coastal nations are experiencing rapid population growth, which poses a threat to the integrity of the ecosystem. Human activity has introduced significant problems in these areas, altering the delicate ecological balance. First, densely populated regions face a resource depletion issue.These fertile lands are over-consumed with intensive production methods solely for economic benefits. Agriculture and fishing are examples of industries that deplete the natural habitat of numerous species. In addition to contributing to the deterioration of the ecosystem, the escalating costs of human activities have additional consequences. Numerous agricultural operations utilize inorganic fertilizers such as ammonium nitrate and potassium sulfate, resulting in phosphorus pollution as the fertilizers runoff into rivers. The algal bloom results from the fertilizers’ excessive amounts of phosphorus and nutrients.It poses a threat to numerous marine species because it blocks access to oxygen. This phenomenon of animal life dying due to a lack of oxygen is known as eutrophication. 80% of marine life is polluted by industrial, agricultural, and urban activities on land. While rivers flow through urbanized areas, they transport human-made waste such as construction debris, sewage water, and hazardous industrial waste. The bioaccumulation of these untreated industrial contaminants also increases over time. Since heavy metals enter rivers that are later used for drinking and bathing, the health of humans is also severely compromised.

1.4.2 Carbon and Climate BLUE CARBON Blue carbon refers to the carbon stored in Coastal and Marine Ecosystems. Densely vegetated habitats such as Mangrove Forests, Seagrass Meadows, and tidal Marshes play a vital role in capturing and storing the carbon in their tissues and soil at a higher rate than the terrestrial forests. As the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is caused by anthropogenic impact, these ecosystems, also known as “Carbon Sinks,” are crucial to reducing greenhouse gas’s impact and increasing the oxygen source through carbon sequestration. CARBON RELEASE: DEFORESTATION Nonetheless, this carbon system is in jeopardy due to the rapid degradation of coastal ecosystems caused by human activity. Coastal ecosystems are essential when mitigating climate change. If the resistance of the ecosystem declines and biodiversity starts to deteriorate, the stored carbon will start to emit back into the atmosphere, causing irreversible effects.

Fig 04 - Overview of global distribution of mangroves, saltmarshes and seagrasses 20

Annual change in all 14 impacts comprising the cumulative impacts for each ecosystem, with outer bars above zero indicating increasing impacts and inner bars below zero indicate decreasing impacts

Cumulative impacts on ecosystems for the year (2013)

Relationship between annual trend and current cumulative impacts for each ecosystem.

Fig 05 - Cumulative human impacts on marine ecosystems 21

1.4.3 Water Stress

Human-driven climate change is altering each day the functioning ecosystem. Although we have water on earth in abundance, it is still a limited resource. Anthropic activities pollute the water ecosystem each day, causing the deterioration of freshwater resources. With the growing population, if the demand for clean water increases more than the available resource, it will create tension, called “Water Stress” for the coastal communities. This water stress issue also puts a barrier to healthy agricultural practices and, consequently, public health. Decreasing water quality by human-induced water pollution is also affecting wildlife and causing loss of biodiversity. As we can observe from Fig 06, India faces a high risk of water stress. A critical Mangroove Habitat is located in Ganges Delta, India. Increased water pollution in the area causes mangrove forests to diminish under draught. These vegetation are essential to mitigate climate change and sustain a healthy local ecosystem.

Description: Coastal flood risk measures the percentage of the population expected to be affected by coastal flooding in an average year, accounting for existing flood protection standards. Flood risk is assessed using hazard (inundation caused by storm surge), exposure (population in flood zone), and vulnerability.17 The existing level of flood protection is also incorporated into the risk calculation. It is important to note that this indicator represents flood risk not in terms of maximum possible impact but rather as average annual impact. The impacts from infrequent, extreme flood years are averaged with more common, less newsworthy flood years to produce the “expected annual affected population.” Higher values indicate that a greater proportion of the population is expected to be impacted by coastal floods on average. Source: WRI Aqueduct 2019

Description: Riverine flood risk measures the percentage of population expected to be affected by Riverine flooding in an average year, accounting for existing flood-protection standards. Flood risk is assessed using hazard (inundation caused by river overflow), exposure (population in flood zone), and vulnerability.16 The existing level of flood protection is also incorporated into the risk calculation. It is important to note that this indicator represents flood risk not in terms of maximum possible impact but rather as average annual impact. The impacts from infrequent, extreme flood years are averaged with more common, less newsworthy flood years to produce the “expected annual affected population.” Higher values indicate that a greater proportion of the population is expected to be impacted by Riverine floods on average. Source: WRI Aqueduct 2019

Description: Overall water risk measures all water-related risks, by aggregating all selected indicators from the Physical Quantity, Quality and Regulatory & Reputational Risk categories. Higher values indicate higher water risk. Source: WRI Aqueduct 2019

Fig 06 - Water Risk Global Analysis 23

02 Ganges Delta

Fig 07 - A satellite view of Ganges Delta, taken in several shots

2.1 Ganges Delta Ecosystem 2.1.1 Introduction and Formation The Ganges is a transboundary river that starts from the Himalayas and across through India and Bangladesh, 2,525 km long. Since it is spread widely through continents of Asia, Ganges’s highly fertile lands provide a home for millions of people, which makes the surrounding densely populated. Ganges Delta is located where several major river systems, such as the Ganges river and Brahmaputra river, meet with the North Indian Ocean and open up to the Bay of Bengal. It is also known as the world’s largest river delta since it stretches hundreds of kilometers (87,300 square kilometers) which is a direct result of the combination of various river tributaries. One of the many importances of the Ganges-Brahmaputra Megha Delta (GBM) is its contribution to the water system. The distributary branches of GBM provide low-salinity water input and act as the primary freshwater source of the “Bay of Bengal.” Freshwater input is essential to keep a stable salinity stratification for the Bay, which refers to different layers based on their salinity. The role of freshwater in the vertical stratification system acts as a protective barrier for the layers beneath and provides a long-lasting cooling effect by trapping heat. As the river split up into many channels, it allows the carried sediments to form flat islands, called Wetlands. Since the rivers carry rich nutrients within its body, the wetland creates highly fertile habitats for many living organisms. As the water flows slowly and steadily in these landscapes, it also provides a suitable settlement area for humans and rich soil for their farming activities. More than 100 million people live in and rely on the GBM, despite the awaiting risks due to its climate vulnerability. The area is prone to flooding due to the flat landscape. However, the delta ecosystem is facing a climate crisis due to the dense population, which is threatening the wildlife and water system.

Ganges Delta

Fig 08.1 - Ganges Delta Localization

Fig 08.2 - Catchment of the Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna Rivers

West GDM, India

East GDM, Bangladesh

Fig 08.3 - Ganges Delta with Boundaries

Fig 08 - Ganges Delta Localization & Formation 27

2.2 Sundarbans Wetland Ecosystem 2.2.1 Geomorphic Characteristics Sundarbans is a mangrove forest that is located in a tidally active area on the coast of the Ganges Delta. The complex intersection of tidal waterways, mudflats, and low-lying islands creates a unique region that supports diverse biodiversity. Its dominant ecosystem consists of Mangrove Forest. It hosts a wide range of Fauna and Fiora, including encouraging species like the Bengal Tiger. Sundarbans is an “Estuarine Delta,” formed due to the deposited sediments in the estuary end. This area is continually affected by freshwater outflow and sea waves / tidal inflow. Therefore, it is highly prone to flooding. Mudflats are dominant when the tides are low. The cover area of Sundarbans is 10,000 square kilometers, and it contains a total of 102 islands in its landscape. Hald of the cover area is populated by the reserve Mangrove Forests, which hosts the Bengal Tiger Population. The other half, around 54 islands, is populated by more than 4.5 million people. In a study done in 2006, the area is divided into several geomorphic units, includingA-alluvial, B-mixed/ transitional, C-coastal and D-marine. The alluvial area is far from the marine, and freshwater is dominant because of the tidal limit. The coastal area consists of several units, such as mangroves, mudflats, salt flats, beaches, and dune complexes. The lower coastal delta plain is subjected to massive erosion, and there are few areas of new depositional lands. Hence, the area is protected by Unesco; it is facing both natural and anthropological effects. In 2020, it was enlisted in engraved landscapes due to the rising sea levels, climate change, and human impact.

Fig 09 - Tidal Influence on Ganges Delta 29

2.2.2 Ecoregions There are two Ecoregions in Sundarbans: “Mangrove Forests” and “Freshwater Swamp Forests.” The forests host a unique ecosystem within their region that supports biodiversity with a rich Fauna and Flora. FRESHWATER SWAMP FORESTS The Swamp forest is located around the primary Mangrove Ecoregion of the Sundarbans, where high salinity concentrations can be found. These salinity levels cause a brackish-water. During the rainy seasons, the Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers bring fresh water to the ecoregion and carry away the excessive salt while introducing silt deposits. This area is subjected to intense human activity, like excessive agriculture, while embodies endangered species, which causes the ecoregion to become nearly extinct, like Bengal Tiger. MANGROVE FORESTS Sundarbans Mangrove Forest is the world’s largest contiguous mangrove ecosystem. It is located on the coast of the Bay of Bengal. Mangroves are subjected to frequent tidal floods from the ocean, which makes the area a transitional zone between freshwater and salty water. This unique wetland is built by nutrient-rich sediments and hosts many species in its ecosystem since it combines both terrestrial and marine ecosystems.

2.2.3 Mangroves as Bio-Shield Since the Mangrove wetlands are subjected to frequent ocean flooding, it lacks oxygen in the soil because of high salinity. Therefore, the root system of Mangroves submerges above the ground to allow access to oxygen. This aerial root system acts as a bio-shield. It provides a buffer zone for the densely populated human settlements against the coastal flooding and tropical cyclones. The roots can hold up the built sediment and stabilize the soil beneath, which is also effective against erosion. A study shows that the mangrove forest can dissipate up to 66% of the wave energy in the first 100 meters of width, which significantly decreases potential damage. The decline in the Mangroove ecosystem is a threat to the nearby settlements. It increases the coastal risk for the population.

Fig 10 - Schematic of wave height reduction across coastal habitats 31

Sundarbans Climate Vulnerability

Fig 11 - Insufficient Embarkments in Sundarbans, Ganges Delta

3.1 Climate Vulnerability 3.1.1 General Discussion Sundarbans Delta is vulnerable to climate change by various factors, both natural and human-introduced. These factors bring pressure to the macro and micro environment and threatening not only wildlife but also the livelihood of many people. All these climatic pressures are interconnected and raise with themselves another issue. Therefore, we should investigate these factors to find a complete and responsive solution.

Fig 12 - Distribution of geomorphic studies assessing different components of the DPSIR framework 34

3.2 Anthroponic Threaths 3.2.1 Excessive Land Use GBM is the highest populated delta globally, with more than 400 million people. Most the livelihoods depend on natural recourses to earn a living. The socio-economic benefits of the delta area have been exploited with many activities such as agriculture, fishing, timber production, and construction. About 25% (35 million people) of the population live in the deltaic coastal areas, and most families are dependent on coastal natural resources for their livelihood (Hidayati, 2000). AGRICULTURE AND LACK OF FRESHWATER The rapidly rising population demands more fresh water each day. In GBM, the freshwater enters the riverbanks only during the monsoon flooding, and tidal waves bring freshwater to the riverbanks. Therefore, an increase in soil fertility can be observed. However, because of the increased salinity in the soil caused by low seasonal flood levels, agriculture activities has been decreased gradually. OVER-FISHERY AND AQUACULTURE EXPLOITATION As an outcome of the decrease in agriculture activities, fishing farms increased visibility. There is a continuous uptrend in shrimp and fish production in the delta area. This is an obvious biodiversity threat to the fish population. Shrimp farms are causing erosion and the degradation of the mudflats. Without the mudflats, the roots of the Mangroves cannot hold onto the soil, which destroys the Mangroove ecosystem slowly. The fishing nets also block the mouth of the river, contributing to the damages the tidal waves cause.

3.2.2 Anthroponic Pollution Ganges River is considered one of the ten highly polluted rivers globally that cause 90% of the marine pollution. Even though it provides fresh water for most of the surrounding population, waste management is not regulated. Therefore, lots of anthropogenic byproducts ended up in the rivers. HUMAN WASTE + PLASTIC POLLUTION Due to the poor waste management, the plastic waste from the riverside settlements is carried to the ocean with the Ganges River and its tributaries. Besides daily life, religious practices are also a major contributing factor to river pollution, especially after the festivals, where lots of waste is dumped into the running water. Another source of plastic pollution in the riverbank of the Ganges is a direct result of over-fishery. Many abandoned and discarded plastic fishing gear can be found on the riverbanks, and it is one of the main polluters of the Ganges river system and the global marine pollution. These plastic gears degrade as microplastics and raise health risk problems for the population and the native species. INDUSTRIALIZATION AND WASTEWATER POLLUTION Besides the growing urbanization, because of the lack of proper urban planning, most of the sewage water runs off directly to the rivers and household wastes. This untreated sewage water has high pathogen input. Combined with a warm climate, low flood causes massive algal blooms in the Ganges waterway; it threatens human health and the ecosystem. Moreover, the lack of urban policies allows the industries to dump their chemical byproducts into the river. In 2014, a significant Oil Spill caused many species to be endangered, like the Ganges Dolphin.

3.3 Natural Drivers 3.3.1 Sea level rise, Flooding and Cylones MONSOON PRECIPITATION The freshwater supply of the river depends on the year from the monsoon precipitation, which happens from June to October. This period is where most of the annual precipitation happens that exceeds 1.5m. However, due to human-induced changes, such as increasing global temperature, there is a significant decrease in the annual monsoon precipitation. The decrease in freshwater supply means increased salty water introduced from the tidal waves. This decrease is mainly affecting the most fertile lands where agriculture is dominant. However, the overall number of floods increases in these high monsoon months due to the change in riverbank sediment composition. The sand proportion decreased, which caused increasing numbers of silt and clay. RISING SEA WATERS Sundarbans is a low elevation area located a meter above sea level. Due to climate change and melting ice glaciers and snow from Himalayan mountains, the number of tidal floods and their intensity increases daily. Even though mangrove trees can submerge in water, the frequency of these events can affect their health and cause a significant decrease in the ecosystem. The introduction of frequent salt water and regular floods in high tides makes the land more prone to coastal erosion. Many residence freshwater organisms cannot resist the extra salt accumulation, which can lead to a drastic decrease in biodiversity. NATURAL DISASTERS: CYCLONES This area is prone to tropical cyclone storms, especially before the monsoon season and at its end. For centuries, several catastrophic storm surges have occurred. In 1970, the deadliest Bhola cyclone killed around 500,000 people and left many people homeless. This event swipes out the croplands and threatens the entire nation’s food supply.

3.4 Social and Environmental Threats 3.4.1 Deforestation and Biodiversity Loss Mangroves forest is highly affected by the highly contaminated river from the disregarded polluters and other anthropogenic activities. Land conversion activities such as agriculture have already destroyed a considerable percentage of biodiversity and the demonstration of mangrove trees. The lack of mangrove trees in the area not only makes the land prone to flooding but also increases the risks of land erosion. Another impacting factor is the water quality of the river, which shows an overall decreasing trend.

3.4.2 Carbon Cycle + Blue Carbon Release Since Mangroove Forest stores a great amount of CO2 in their body, their disturbance is a sign of an unimaginable carbon release. Around the world, the mangrove forests hold an approximate number of 4.2bn tonnes of carbon dioxide, which is called “Blue Carbon,” as discussed in the previous chapter. When these forests are cleared to open up a space for aquaculture, the stored carbon is emitted back into the atmosphere. Another problem that arises is that once the trees get cleared, they lose their future carbon sink capacity and sequestration potential. Between 2000 and 2015 total number of 122 million tons of carbon were released into the atmosphere by the destruction of Mangrove trees.

Fig 13 - Land Cover Change, Indian Sundarbans 39

3.4.3 Rising Migration Risk TIDAL FLOODING + RISING SEAWATER As many cities are situated in the Ganges river’s low-lying floodplain, they are susceptible to rising sea levels and increased flooding risks. In spite of being one of the least developed regions of the country, Sundarbans is home to more than 4 million people. Consequently, no urban development plan exists for the area. People are desperate as they watch their homeland slowly sink. Due to climate-related disasters, nearly 50 million people are preparing to migrate. These regions require resiliency and eco-friendly solutions. POLLUTION + DRINKING WATER SCARCITY During the dry months, increasing water pollution and the loss of water in the river’s tributaries led to a decrease in access to potable water, which prompted mass migration. Additionally, as a direct consequence of the retreat of Himalayan glaciers, there will be a long-term shortage of freshwater. INCREASE IN WATER SALINITY + FOOD SCARCITY Tropical cyclones have carried a large amount of salty water from the Bay of Bengal to the freshwater zones of the GBM delta. Due to the rise in salinity and the natural disaster, numerous agricultural lands are destroyed. The level of salinity makes it difficult for any crop to grow. Therefore, farmers are unable to invest in agriculture and change careers. Even though agriculture is one of the main sources of income in Surdabans, it is a dying practice. Only smallscale agricultural and fishing methods are available. Therefore, their livelihood is dependent on agriculturally productive land. Currently, a large number of individuals are attempting to relocate to areas where there are more job opportunities.

Flood Inundation Risk

Exposure Index

Sensitivity Index

Resilience Index

Fig 14 -Vulnerability to storm surge flood , Sundarbans Reserve, India 41

04 Emergency Shelters

Fig 15 - Emergency Shelter for flooding, Sundarbans

4.1 Sundarbans Housing Survey 4.1.1 Resilience Overview Due to the region’s extreme poverty, the majority of houses in the Sundarbans are constructed by their owners from locally sourced materials. The durability of these houses varies depending on the construction material. However, these houses are not designed as flood-resistant and are vulnerable to extreme weather conditions. Types of local houses: - Mud houses - Bamboo house - Tin house (Ganguly n.d.) These houses are resilient neither to the flooding nor the cyclones. To protect the inner land and the self-made houses from flooding, often earthen dams are constructed. However, with the rising sea levels, these barriers are not sufficient to protect the villages anymore. Therefore, new embarkment solutions have been applied in recent years, including concrete wave breakers and bamboo pillars. “Providing improved replacement houses after a disaster has not provided either timely or cost-effective in terms of increasing resilience of the most vulnerable groups to future disasters.” (Hodgson,1995).

Fig 16 - Pictures from flooding season of Sundarbans 45

4.1.2 Thatch Roofs of Sundarbans The framing of the roof is mainly constructed using bamboo, which is abundant in the landscape. For thermal insulation, generally, CI Sheet is used. However, it is not an efficient method for insulation. The final layer of the roof is the Thatch covering. Different roof based types: - Roof made of straw. - Roof made of giant leaves. - Roof made of earthen tiles. (Ganguly n.d.) In Sundarbans, four different types of plantations are common to construct the thatch roofs. Each of these plant types provides a different life span with a minimum of one year and up to 6 years. These varieties are listed respectively; Rice Straw (1 year), Wheat Straw (2 years ), Sugar Cane (3-4 years), and Chon Grass (5-6 years.) (Hodgson,1996). Rice Straw: - Abundant but has many other uses. - It needs to be rematched annually. Wheat Straw: - Stiff straight stem. Sugar Cane: - Hard to lay (broad leaves). Chon Grass: - Expensive solution. - Low crop field, not available.

Fig 17 - Roof Types of Sundarbans

4.2 Standard Shelter Practices 4.2.1 Emergency Shelter Approach The most commonly used material for shelters is plastic. After the time that it is being utilized, most of these shelters end up in the trash. Instead of making these shelter solutions sustainable, it creates more plastic pollution for the environment. One of the advantages of choosing non-recycled plastic shelters is their cost-effectiveness and considerable short construction process. However, these types of emergency shelters are, first of all, not suitable for some climates, and secondly, they are not durable. We should focus on more durable shelters for Ganges Delta because this area is prone to storm surges, flooding, and cyclones. Therefore, it should be long-lasting for extreme natural events. EMERGENCY SHELTERS: Use it and throw it away Mindset These shelters can be built in around 30 minutes. It acts as a shader unit and only proves a temporary living space. The lifespan of one unit is one year. TRANSITIONAL SHELTERS These shelters can be built around 12-16 hours. It provides a more stable structure with insulation properties. The lifespan of one unit is 3-4 years. DURABLE SHELTERS These shelters can be built around 5-7 days. Concrete and brick is the common construction material. It has a strong foundation and is long-lasting.

Emergeny Shelter units of UNHCR. Prefabricated vs local materials

Transitional Shelter units of UNHCR. Prefabricated vs local materials

Durable Shelter units of UNHCR. Brick walls with framed openings

Fig 18 - UNHCR Emergency Shelter Standards 49

4.3 Alternative Housing Solutions 4.3.1 A Permeable Approach The standard strategy for emergency shelters is utilized and then discarded. In addition to being a cheaper and quicker alternative, this solution has certain limitations.Typically, the materials are not resistant and do not provide a safe environment for humans. Since all of these units are identical and there is no community space, a sense of longing will be evoked. The transitional and long-lasting shelters, on the other hand, are safer alternatives. This type of shelter’s use of local materials provides a sustainable alternative. Construction, on the other hand, can be labor-intensive, so it is typically not the first option in an emergency. However, we should create more long-term solutions for those living below the poverty line and impacted by natural disasters. It is cruel to imagine a home being destroyed in extreme environments and not being able to afford a replacement. Obviously, these temporary shelters will not provide them with the emotional stability necessary to maintain family and community unity. The shelter should provide more than just a place for the community to develop. However, it must be resistant to other extreme weather conditions. To meet these requirements, we must find and invest in a more costly but permanent solution. These places should be beyond a temporary place to help rebuild the existing community.

Fig 19 - Recommendations for shelter planning and design due to different disasters 51

4.4 Case Studies 4.4.1 Floating Architecture Float-resistant housing solutions are used in many coastal cities. These traditional practices can date back several centuries. Nowadays, as a result of the effects of climate change, it is becoming more prevalent. Over the years, new methods have been studied and implemented. We can divide the floating system into three categories: Flood resilient architecture This traditional method generally uses locally grown materials such as wood planks or bamboo stilts to elevate the houses. A strong foundation and structure are necessary to stabilize the houses. Floating architecture This method has no foundation; therefore, it is not connected to the ground. It floats at sea level. It is common to use plastic barrels as the base to utilize the floating properties of plastic. This method was popularized by the Makoko floating school prototype of NLE architects, which eventually collapsed in heavy rainfall after three years of its life span. Amphibious Architecture This solution is a hybrid of these two building techniques. The foundation is fixed to the ground, but it can rise and fall with the force of water while remaining fixed. Buoyant Foundations are a common type of Amphibious Architecture that can be retrofitted in existing structures.

Ganvie Lake Village, Benin, Africa Image © Christian Goupi

Flood resilient foundation

Makoko Floating School by NLÉ, Image © Laurian Ghinitoiu

Floating foundation

Bb Home by H&P Architects, Image © Doan Thanh Ha

Amphibious Foundation

Fig 20 - Flood Resilient Foundation Types 53

Alternative Resilient Housing

Fig 21 - Earthen Dam raised above sea level

5.1 Permeable Approach 5.1.1 Responding to the Needs The Indian part of Sundarbans contains 106 islands and 24 Parganas (districts). The Sunderbans is a challenging area to live in. The area is prone to natural disasters such as typhoons and flooding. “The population of 19 blocks of Sunderban was estimated at 4.7 million in 2011. It is an area of extreme poverty and ill health exacerbated by access difficulties. Almost half of the population (47%) are historically marginalized groups such as Scheduled Castes and Tribes. More than 40% of households live below the poverty line, and 13% are officially declared the “poorest of the poor .”(Dr. Asim Sil, 2017) When it comes to emergency shelters, temporary solutions do not provide stable living conditions for the population in need. The short life span of these tiny huts brings only problems. The living conditions of such spaces are inhumane and do not provide anything besides a cave to sleep in. This constant search for a stable home to sustain a family raises lots of stress for the population. The whole community depends on their income from farming and fishing. However, with the increasing pollution and intrusion of salty water, these practices are in danger too. A methodology should be developed which corresponds to these basic human needs and provide a safe space where people can reach stability to sustain themselves and continue their daily routine.

Ganges river is the highway of plastic

Creating a coastal defense system

DYING MANGROVE ECOSYSTEM

MIMIC MANGROVE ROOTS

Cyclones and sea level are rise threatening communities

Understand the main source of income

FRESHWATER SCARCITY

AN ALTERNATIVE FARMING SOLTUION

Temporary Solutions only provides cover

Using available local materials and construction techniques to minimse the C02 emission

PROBLEM a decentralized post-disaster shelter units should adreseses the facing problems and human conditioning

SOLUTION a climate responsive solution, where plastic waste is upcycled into moduler unit combined with traditional constructio to withstand flooding events and possible cyclones.

5.2 Construction Technologies 5.2.1 Modularity Due to poverty and lack of investment in the new housing solutions in the area, locally available materials and technologies should be utilized. However, the traditional construction methods do not always provide a stable and long-lasting solution. Traditional Building Methods The majority of the time, building a bamboo structure community is labor-intensive. In times of emergency, these structures are constructed quickly and carelessly to provide a temporary solution. Modularity Modular and precast structures provide a faster alternative in the case of an emergency. Modular units can be stored in warehouses and deployed directly to the emergency zone, where they can be assembled fast, without skilled labor.

5.3 Addictive Manufacturing 5.3.1 Benefits for Social Housing Addictive Manufacturing is an alternative solution to realize modular structures. Even though it needs initial investment for the machines, it is generally a faster and more efficient solution for modular units. It gives flexibility to the designer to customize the structure, which responds to the climate conditions. As a result of the substantial reduction in labor time, 3D printing is generally more cost-effective than conventional methods.

5.3.2 Possible Materials The most common material used for Addictive Manufacturing is plastic. However, instead of contributing to plastic pollution, raw plastic and recycled plastic can be alternative solutions. In our case, printing with plastic can be a waste reduction strategy to minimize the plastic pollution in the Ganges River. Another alternative is a new technology that prints using sand. Sand is a more sustainable material and has no polluting effects on the environment. Instead, it can mimic the porosity of coral reefs to promote the underwater ecosystem.

5.4 RECYLING PLASTIC 5.4.1 Methodology “The Ganges River system (known as the Ganga in India, and Padma and Meghna in Bangladesh, hereafter referred to as the Ganges) has been identified as one of 14 continental rivers into which over a quarter of global waste is discarded and is considered the second-largest plastic pollution contributing catchment in the world (0.12 million tonnes plastic discharged per year), after the Yangtze River in China (0.33 million tonnes; Lebreton & Andrady, 2019; Lebreton et al., 2017; Schmidt et al., 2017)”. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species has reported the Sundarbans area as endangered. In addition, after the Cyclone Amphan, the plastic disaster relief brought tonnes of plastic to Sundarbans. Since plastic is cheap and widely available, it is commonly used in natural disaster scenarios. However, most of this plastic returns to the ecosystem and threatens the local mangroves. The idea is that reusing plastic waste helps clean the unregulated plastic waste in the Deltaic Area. Recycled plastic will be upcycled into a new life and offer many sustainability benefits. Advantages -Wind Exposure & Durability: Plastic can withstand severe weather conditions. It can be effective against cyclones. - Produces less greenhouse emission, reduces environmental pollution. Disadvantages -Microplastic: Segregation of plastic by weathering can cause microplastic pollution to the environment. This puts aquatic life along with many species in danger. Mangrove trees are also vulnerable to microplastic, which blocks their respiratory system. “The microplastics in Sundarbans are increasing quite fast. It is not just the plastic waste from relief material, but there are other issues. Synthetic bags filled with mud and stones are used to protect the embankments, but those bags are getting degraded and forming microplastic within 2-3 years” Dr. Punarbasu Chaudhuri.

Fig 22 - Relief material being taken to Sundarbans in synthetic bags 61

5.4.2 Collecting, Sorting, Distrubuting Due to the fishing practices among the Ganges- Meghna- Bbrhamaputra rivers, plastic pollution has increased. As a by-product of the current fishing methods, plastic waste caused by disregarded fishing gear is commonly found in the GDM Riverine Environment, which eventually opens up to the Bay of Bengal and threatens the Sundarbans region. Small mesh nets are commonly found as a discarded waste, also known as “ghost gear, which is not only a marine issue but freshwaters are concerned as well “(Spirkovski et al., 2019). If these fishing nets and gear do not get collected, it will take up to 600 years for them to break down. A study from 2020 has found that polymers such as Nylon, Polyethylene, and Polypropylene are the top three polymer types that can be traced from along the Ganges river. For 3d printing purposes, it is important to understand which polymer type to sort and how to process these plastics. STEPS 1- Collect ( participation and engagement) 2- Sorting of the plastic types 3- Shredding and Processing 4- Create 3d printed modules ( can be reinforced with fiberglass) 5- Printing and distribution to warehouses 6- Deployed in the case of emergency

a) Scatterplot showing the correlation between ALDFG density and sampling location distance from the sea as investigated using a generalized linear model (GLM). Red solid line represents fitted model and dashed red lines represent ±1 standard error; b) barplot showing the composition (%) of riverbank ALDFG items by polymer. N6; Nylon 6, PE; polyethylene, PP; polypropylene, PCT; poly(1,4-cyclohexanedimethylene terephthalate), HDPE; high density polyethylene, PS; polystyrene, PET; polyethylene; c) stacked barplot showing the polymer composition (%) of ALDFG items in each gear type category; d) violin plot showing mesh size (mm) of nets recorded in each sampling location (1–9). Asterisks indicate those locations with significant differences in mesh sizes. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

Fig 23 - Common Polymer types in Ganges River 63

5.5 SAND PRINTING 5.5.1 D- Shape Technology D Shape is a large-scale particle-bed 3d printing technology developed by Enrico Dini in 2007. “This method uses a machine with a width of 6 m and a print head comprising up to 300 nozzles to produce large objects. The computer-sliced object is made by depositing 5 mm thick layers of sand, which are selectively bonded with a binder applied to the surface in 2 to 4 print head passes. After finishing the production process, the residual sand is removed, and the object is infiltrated by an additional binder. Afterward, the object is sanded and polished.”(Lowke, Dini, 2018) ADVANTAGES Flexibility: This technology allows much flexibility when it comes to free-form design. And its production cost. Realization and Built on Site: The printing bed can be constructed on-site, significantly eliminating the transportation cost. -Form Optimization: Allows the realization of site-specific ad complex forms -Durability: The end product is solid and has concrete properties. -Underwater properties: The product can be placed underwater to mimic the coral reef properties to promote ecological growth, DISADVANTAGES -Costly Binder: Needs a liquid binder, such as Magnesium Oxide Resin. However, this material is relatively costly for social housing purposes.

Fig 24 - D- Shape Particle Bed-3d Printing 65

Project

06 DECENTRALIZED 68

Fig 25 - Project Render

6.1 Sundarbans, India

Bay of Bengal

Sundarbans, translated as Beautiful Garden, is a mangrove forest located in the Ganges- Brahmaputra Delta. This area has four Unesco World Heritage Sites; three of them are located in Bangladesh, and one is within India’s boundaries. This project considers the Indian side of the Sundarbans mangrove forests, and all the analyses will be made accordingly.

West Bengal, India

Fig 26 - Localization Maps 71

Permanent Inland Water + Mangrove Density The area selected is 24 Paganas (districts) in West Bengal. It shows the permanent inland water and the current mangrove density. This map is developed in QGIS. Permanent Inland Water

Fig 27 - Permanent Inland Water + Mangrove Density 72

Mangrove Population

Population Density + Seasonal Flooding Level The area selected is 24 Paganas (districts) in West Bengal. It shows the annual floating scenario of 24 Paganas and the population density. As seen, the population is primarily affected by seasonal monsoon precipitation. Population Density

Seasonal Flooding Levels

Fig 28 - Population Density + Seasonal Flooding Level 73

6.2 Manifesto 6.2.1 Resilient and Climate Responsive Community MANIFESTO The people in Sundarbans deserve better living conditions. When a cyclone or an extreme flood event destroys one’s home and the entire community, one loses everything that cannot be replaced permanently. Temporary solutions are only causing more pollution without any permeable effects and desirable living conditions. In order to rebuild the community, we need to understand that only an individual shelter design is not enough. We should be talking about a place that corresponds to the communities social and physical needs. However, before providing these basic human needs, we need to understand how to establish resilience and durability in our design, which will provide a safe space for large communities. Since Sundarbans is vulnerable to many environmental conditions, the design/formwork should be responsive to weather events and climate change issues, such as flooding and sea level rises. With the help of computational design tools, it is possible to establish a design that can work with the environment, not against it. In order to create the least possible impact on the environment and design a carbon-neutral structure, the utilization of locally available materials plays an important role. On the other hand, the reusability of the available resources, such as plastic waste, not only helps to clean the pollution but helps to reduce the carbon emission from plastic production. Finally, The design should be modular and, therefore, easily transportable by the community. The modularity will allow an easy assembly without the need for many skilled workers.

RESILIENT AND CLIMATE RESPONSIVE COMMUNITY SHOULD BE DURABLE AGAINST EXREME CLIMATE CONDITIONS SHOULD BE RESISTANT TO FLOODING USE OF AVAILABLE MATERIALS + REUSABILITY LEAST POSSIBLE IMPACT TO THE ENVIRONMENT

Fig 29 - Resilient and Climate Responsive Community 75

6.3 Building Resilience 6.3.1 Re-establishing Coastal Defense Due to the increasing water pollution caused by human impact and increasing sea level rises, the Mangrove Forest of Sundarbans is under a significant threat. We can observe that mangrove density is increasing and leaving many areas scarce. Since the root system of Mangrove trees are effective in stopping the flood, it acts as an essentially coastal defense mechanism. The lack of Mangroves trees in coastal areas of Sundarbans is leaving inner land, along with many families, exposed. It is essential to understand the wave dissipation mechanism of the mangroves to apply the system to our flood-resistant design practices effectively. Mangrove Root System & Wave Dissipation “The most important factors affecting the rate of wave attenuation with distance in mangroves are water depth (which is related to tidal phase) and the structure and characteristics of the mangrove vegetation. Together, these determine the nature of obstacles encountered by waves as they pass through the mangrove forest.” “If the obstacles are mainly near the ground and the water is deep, then most of the water motion will be unaffected by the obstacles, and little wave attenuation will occur. (Mclvor, Moller, Spencer, Spalding, 2012)

Fig 30 - The amount of wave reduction through a 100 m-wide mangrove belt. 77

6.4 Strategy 6.4.1 Global to Local Approach GLOBAL APPROACH To establish a coastal defense system, we worked on a global approach, where we studied how these mangroves work as a whole. In the local coastal ecosystem, we observe that Mangroves are not repeating themselves in the same pattern; they vary in size and shape. These varieties of units were then aggregated and positioned along the coast to form a complex and global structure. Aggregation density is essential to understand to establish a working mangrove system. If the aggregation is too dense or too sparse, the system’s efficiency decreases significantly. LOCAL APPROACH After establishing a global approach, we should focus on the units individually. It is crucial not to neglect how the morphology of each Mangrove is evolved to form a complex system. Factors such as porosity and unit density are essential to tackle. There is a particular growth system of how each Mangrove evolved. When designing the units, the unique root mechanism and densities of Mangroves should be considered.

MAN- MADE COASTAL DEFENSE SYSYEM

COASTAL ECOLOGICAL SYSTEM

LOCAL APPROACH

GLOBAL APPROACH

ROOT MORPHOLOGY

DIFFIRENTIATION

ROOT DENSITY

AGGREAGATION DENSITY

POSITIONING

POROSITY

Distance

Coast

Wave

GOAL GLOBAL 1- Establish Ecological resilience 2- Flood and Wind Resistance GOAL LOCAL 1- Climate Neutral 2- Modularity and easy expansion 3- Use of readily sourced material 4- Responding to the communities needs

Fig 31 - Global to Local Approach 79

6.4.2 Decentralized Action (Global) Due to the scarcity of the Mangroves, some coastal areas are prone to flooding. This project aims to localize in these scarcity areas to mimic to coastal defense strategy of the mangroves. Since the landscape may vary depending on the location, a decentralized system has developed. The idea is that our modular structure will cover the scarcity area to act as a barrier. This system can be applied to various landscapes and forms a decentralized algorithm. Once the cover area is defined, the intersecting modules will follow the shape of the coast to form the protection. CUSTOM ALGORITHM Our algorithm allows us the realize a flexible expansion system using a defined point cloud. These points act as anchor points, which will be used to determine the settlement plan. The algorithm turns the points into circles and randomizes them in various sizes, which will define the housing units. In our case, we used three different-sized modules. The smallest module represents the housing units; therefore, we give a higher density ratio to it. COVER AREA TO MODULAR PATHWAY The result of the metaball algorithm gives a cover area, which can later be transformed into a promenade module. This module is designed using GH. The hexagonal shape will allow flexibility for rotation to apply in various landscapes.

From Strategy to Realization

Custom Algorithm

Flexible Expension

Fig 32 - Decentralizeed Expension System 81

6.5 Form Finding (Local) 6.5.1 Mimicing the Mangrove Root Density Several research papers have been analyzed to understand and mimic Mangroves’ root system. A laboratory study from 2012 has developed parametrized root model to analyze the efficient density of each root system. For the analysis, “Rhizophora” has been used as a mangrove specie. This tree is characterized by its central trunk system, followed by roots spreading from this central structure. “The idealized forest conditions assumed in these experiments, namely the maximum forest density, healthy mangrove trees of idealized resistance to wave attack, result in overestimation of the attenuation performance of the forest model. As indicated by the results, wave energy reduction by 70% was attributed to the widest forest of B = 3.0 m (75 m in prototype) in case of the weakest flow depth conditions examined. In case of larger flow depths, reaching the top of the canopy, wave transmission is reduced to ca. 40 - 50%.”( Husrin, Strusińska, Oumeraci, 2012) DESIGN In order to achieve a similar result, several iso surface models are tested. These isosurfaces are built using points, which are placed strategically to mimic the root system of “Rhizophora.” A central trunk has been fixed, followed by many spreads. Among the form studies, we selected one with the most efficient root density, according to the study. This selected root model then transformed into an iso surface to provide a shelter. The density of the module slowly decreased, reaching up to the top, allowing the desired living space to be full of light. The isosurface has evolved using double skin to act as a wind barrier. This structure will allow the wind and flood to pass without significant damage.

Fig 33 - Different root densities of Mangrove Models

Fig 34 - Form Studies for the Root System of the Uniits 83

6.6 Global and Local Properties 6.6.1 Ecological Growth These shelter modules provide flood resistance and act as a habitat for the underwater ecosystem. Its porous form allows fishes to inhabit the cave-like openings to replicate. Since these structures will aggregate along the coast, it will provide an environment for ecological growth and form a green belt. This is needed, especially in an area where the fishing industry threatens many species. SAND If sand printing is used to build these structures, it will benefit the ecosystem. The structure will have similar properties as Coral Reef since both are made of calcium carbonate. A similar porosity level will also allow the microorganism to inhabit the structure.

6.6.2 Flood- Resistance Besides their flood-resistant properties, Mangroves are also effective for soil stabilization. They are known to be effective against coastal erosion. This project uses additional bamboo flooring to realize the pathway, and these bamboo pillars will act as a man-made dam to support the flood-resistance properties of the shelters. With time, as the deposit of sediment around the structure, it will be stabilized even more.

Moss growth

Porous Cave System

Fig 35 - Ecological Growth

WAVE DISSIPATION

SEDIMENT DEPOSITION

Fig 36 - Coastal Defense Mechanism 85

6.6.3 Establishing the Community

ACCESSIBILITY MODULAR PATH ALLOWS ACCESIBLITY TO THE INNER LAND

FARMING INNER PROTECTED AREA, SUITABLE FOR FARMING

MANGROVES

THE PATHWAY THE PATH BECOMES AN EXTENTION OF LIVING SPACES

SUITABLE LOCATIONS TO GROW PROTECTED MANGROVE TREES

Fig 37- Strategy Diagrams 87

6.7 Modules 6.7.1 Shelter Module The first module is the shelter module dedicated to the families. It covers basic human needs, such as a safe place to sleep and privacy. The mid-column will provide flexibility to arrange the living space as needed. However, this space is intended not to be limited to its perimeter. The path is designed to be a wide space to encourage the community to interact and build themselves again. The hexagonal modules of the path will act as an extension of living space to increase interaction with the community rather than isolation. The structure will be assembled in parts, as seen in the diagram. After placing the root module, a bamboo flooring will be placed on top. This flooring will not have a ground fixation since the root module will hold and stabilize it. A water collection module is inserted in the middle of the structure to act as the middle column. The collected water will be stored between bamboo flooring and the root system and used as fresh drinking water.

COVER MODULE

WATER COLLECTION PIPE

BAMBOO FLOORING

WATER COLLECTION BOX

ROOT STRUCTURE

Fig 38 - Module 01, exploded diagram 89

6.7.2 Community Module The community module consists of two structures. It is the combination of traditional construction techniques and additive manufacturing. The main structure is made of a bamboo structure, covered with a thatch roof. The 3d printed structure will be placed around the traditional structure and act as a protective barrier. This barrier will be effective against wind protection and stabilize the ground. This module can host the following functions: COMMUNITY SPACE Community Space provides an environment for people to socialize and organize activities. KITCHEN The kitchen will be a common area where residents or volunteers can cook in turns and serve the whole community. There will be available dining spaces. EDUCATION AREA To build a sustainable community, this space will be dedicated to the kids for educational purposes. EMERGENCY AREA When needed, these modules can be transformed into emergency areas to be utilized in extreme weather events.

PROTECTIVE LAYER

THATCH ROOF

BAMBOO ROOF STRUCTURE

PILLARS+ FLOORING

Fig 39 - Module 02, exploded diagram 91

6.7.3 Services Module The service module is developed to correspond to basic human needs and is adaptable for many other purposes. The pipe which connects the floor to the ground will act as a tube to store waste and decompose it. In addition, bamboo pillars can be used as a ventilation tube, except for providing structural stability. This module is realized using local construction techniques. COMPOSTING Instead of contributing to the landfill, a composting unit has been developed. This unit provides nutrition for farming as the food decomposes. STORAGE This unit is necessary to store the basic utensils. It will be beneficial in the case of an emergency. TOILET For the toilet, a composting system should be used. The long tube will have sand and gravel layers to filter and compost the black water. SHOWER The shower module will have a water collection unit placed on the top of the roof. In the case of need, the drain can be opened to take a shower.

THATCH ROOF

ROOF STRUCTURE

RATTEN BAMBOO WALLS

FLOORING w/ CENTRAL OPENING

COMPOST TUBE

Fig 40 - Module 03, exploded diagram 93

PLAN 1:200

Fig 41 - Plan 94

MODULES 1:100 MODULE 1

MODULE 2

MODULE 3

Farm

Fig 42 - Functional Diagram 95

6.7.4 Functions After establishing a resilient environment, we need to correspond to the community’s needs. These needs are derived from the research part of the thesis. One of the critical topics that the community is suffering from is the saline water intrusion into the farmlands. The Sundarbans community, besides the fishing, depends on the rice farms. However, these rise farms have lost their fertility because of the constant flood threats. FLOATING FARMING Rice farms are protected from salinity water by using a floating structure. Plastic Sheets and raised beds will allow the topsoil to be elevated. There are several methods to realize a floating farm. Aquaponic farming is also an option, where there is no need for the soil, and the roots are directly underwater. AGRICULTURE & AQUACULTURE - An integrated farming approach A holistic approach has been applied to an effective farming strategy. Combining agriculture and aquaculture are combined to fight climate change, such as salty water. To improve the income rate of the community, sustainable shrimp farming can be implemented as well. Building a shrimp farm, which is close to a rice farm, has beneficial effects. Rice farms can filter the brackish water, a by-product of shrimp farming.

Fig 43 - Project Render, Farms

Fig 44 - Project, Perspective Sectioon 99

6.7.5 Modifications The units are designed as a skeleton and work as a protection mechanism. However, there is room for improvement when it comes to the customization of these spaces. This unit gives flexibility to the users to adapt their living spaces to their lifestyles. PRIVACY The spacing between the modules will give the desired privacy between each module. Furthermore, a fabric or a cloth can be tied to the skeleton to provide full privacy for covering purposes. These semi-transparent cloths will also provide a semi-translucent light that protects them from harsh sunlight. Moreover, a bamboo wall can be attached to the middle pillar of the shelter unit, which can be used to divide the space, to form some room divisions. These divisions can be arranged according to the families’ needs. WEATHER COVER Sundarbans is a humid and subtropical climate. The skeleton will allow the wind to pass through to regulate the air circulation within the unit. During the rain season, which is from July to September, this cloth can be replaced by plastic sheetings to cover the space from rain. SAFETY Providing a safe area with protection is vital for the kids. The community structure can be covered using bamboo walls to provide extra protection for the educational module. The same idea can be applied by using a bamboo fence for the path.

100

FABRIC or PLASTIC SHEETING

RATTEN BAMBOO WALL

Fig 45 - Project Render, Modifications 101

6.8 ASSEAMBLAGE 6.8.1 Modularity Modularity is important when designing in a threatened area with sea-level rise. Modularity allows not only easy assemblage but also easy disassembling. These modules can be carried away and find a new life in another location. These modules should be prepared before the disaster happens. Therefore, they should be stored. Each unit can be disassembled into smaller parts, which can snap on each other to provide an efficient storing. The build time is significantly reduced using a modular structure. With the given guidelines, it is easy to follow the steps to assemble the units. Within a week, the whole system can be built without preparation. PREVENTION STRATEGY It is recommended to place these units in the Mangrove Scarce Areas to build prevention before the disaster happens. This approach will also protect the inner land from flooding. FIXING THE MODULES The modules are fixed to the ground with T-shaped anchors and heavy rocks. Another possibility is that a mixture of sand and stone can be placed inside the modules to give enough weight to the structure to sink. After anchoring the base structure, the fragmented modules will be fixed to each other.

102

Traditional Modules

3D-printed Modules

Bamboo Cultivation

Collection & Sorting of Plastic Waste

Construction of Modules in Warehouse

Processing and Printing in warehouse

Stored in Warehouse

Deployed for emergency/ or preventation cases

Fig 46 - Asssembly Process 103

6.9 Decomposition 6.9.1 Future Senarios IN CASE OF DAMAGE The lifespan of plastic modules is long. In case of damage, the damaged module can be replaced instead of replacing the whole structure. It is the same with the bamboo structures. Since bamboo is the fastest growing plant, damaged structures can be prepared and replaced in a short time. SCENARIO 1 In this scenario, the base modules of the structures, the root mechanism, will stay in their fixed location to not disturb the established ecosystem. Only the covers of the shelters will be disassembled and placed on the land side. SCENARIO 2 The community can be disassembled and built in another location. The modules can be transported via trucks. If needed, skeletons can be dispatched from their anchors and allowed to float. In this case, the modules can be transported by the river and carried away.

104

Fig 47 - Units exploded into its modules 105

7.0 Conclusion

River deltas host important ecosystems; they are the most vulnerable to pollution, climate change, and sea-level rise. One of the most significant polluted rivers is the Ganges river, which starts from the Himalayas and reaches the Bay of Bengal. Nearby cities are dumping their waste into this river due to unregulated laws. This wasteful water is carried away and reaches its destination, The Ganges Delta, which hosts an important Mangrove Forest within its boundaries. However, it is affected largely by rising pollution levels, and the ecosystem has started to degrade. The loss of the Mangrove population raises another concern for the communities which live in this area. Since the Mangroves are known for their wave dissipation properties, their loss means a threat to the communities with increasing flooding events. Many homes are destroyed, and fertile lands become salinated so that the local population is forced to migrate. Our project tries to tackle these issues and create a flood-resistant community complex, which can mimic the mangrove root system to provide a coastal defense mechanism. Our modules are designed using computational tools to study and mimic the Mangrove root systems. These units will be intended to be placed in areas where mangroves are scarce and provide a coastal barrier. These units can also be used as a permeable alternative to one-time emergency shelters. Each unit is a modular structure, and it allows an easy assembly in case of natural disasters. For the construction, traditional and contemporary building techniques are combined to provide efficiency. The path and flooring are realized with highly available bamboo and constructed into flexible modules. One can assemble these units, following the shape of coastal landscape. For the units, 3d printing has been used to upcycle the plastic waste from the river and give a new function with climate-resistant properties.

106

Fig 48 - Project Render, Community Space

107

108

Fig 49 - Project Render, Masterplan

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List of Figures Fig 01 - A satellite view of Ganges Delta Fig 02 - Natural water cycle simplified diagram Fig 03 - Shoreline Morphology of Estuary vs Delta Fig 04 - Overview of global distribution of mangroves, saltmarshes and seagrasses Fig 05 - Cumulative human impacts on marine ecosystems Fig 06 - Water Risk Global Analysis Fig 07 - A satellite view of Ganges Delta, taken in several shots Fig 08 - Ganges Delta Localization & Formation Fig 09 - Tidal Influence on Ganges Delta Fig 10 - Schematic of wave height reduction across coastal habitats Fig 11 - Insufficient Embarkments in Sundarbans, Ganges Delta Fig 12 - Distribution of geomorphic studies assessing different components of the DPSIR framework Fig 13 - Land Cover Change, Indian Sundarbans Fig 14 -Vulnerability to storm surge flood , Sundarbans Reserve, India Fig 15 - Emergency Shelter for flooding, Sundarbans Fig 16 - Pictures from flooding season of Sundarbans Fig 17 - Roof Types of Sundarbans Fig 18 - UNHCR Emergency Shelter Standards Fig 19 - Recommendations for shelter planning and design due to different disasters Fig 20 - Flood Resilient Foundation Types Fig 21 - Earthen Dam raised above sea level Fig 22 - Relief material being taken to Sundarbans in synthetic bags Fig 23 - Common Polymer types in Ganges River Fig 24 - D- Shape Particle Bed-3d Printing Fig 25 - Project Render

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Fig 26 - Localization Maps Fig 27 - Permanent Inland Water + Mangrove Density Fig 28 - Population Density + Seasonal Flooding Level Fig 29 - Resilient and Climate Responsive Community Fig 30 - The amount of wave reduction through a 100 m-wide mangrove belt. Fig 31 - Global to Local Approach Fig 32 - Decentralizeed Expension System Fig 33 - Different root densities of Mangrove Models Fig 34 - Form Studies for the Root System of the Uniits Fig 35 - Ecological Growth Fig 36 - Coastal Defense Mechanism Fig 37- Strategy Diagrams Fig 38 - Module 01, exploded diagram Fig 39 - Module 02, exploded diagram Fig 40 - Module 03, exploded diagram Fig 41 - Plan Fig 42 - Functional Diagram Fig 43 - Project Render, Farms Fig 44 - Project, Perspective Sectioon Fig 45 - Project Render, Modifications Fig 46 - Asssembly Process Fig 47 - Units exploded into its modules Fig 48 - Project Render, Community Space Fig 49 - Project Render, Masterplan

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Figure Citations Fig 01 - The European Space Agency [https://www.esa.int/ESA_Multimedia/Images/2020/10/Ganges_ Delta](https://www.esa.int/ESA_Multimedia/Images/2020/10/Ganges_Delta) Fig 02 - Pop, Emil & Leba, Monica & Barbu, Camelia & Buzdugan, Livia. (2008). Optimal renewable energetic system placement based on local microclimate. 186-191. Fig 03 -Bhattacharya J. (1978) Deltas and estuaries. In: Sedimentology. Encyclopedia of Earth Science. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg . [https://doi.org/10.1007/3-540-31079-7_62](https://doi.org/10.1007/3540-31079-7_62) Fig 04 - The United Nations Environment - World Conservation Monitoring Centre (UNEO-WCMC13) databases Fig 05 -Halpern, B.S., Frazier, M., Afflerbach, J. *et al.* Recent pace of change in human impact on the world’s ocean. *Sci Rep* **9,** 11609 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-47201-9 Fig 6 -Aqueduct Water Risk Atlas, World Research Institute Fig 07 -The European Space Agency [https://www.esa.int/ESA_Multimedia/Images/2020/10/Ganges_ Delta](https://www.esa.int/ESA_Multimedia/Images/2020/10/Ganges_Delta) Fig 08.2 - [J. of Coastal Research, 32(5)](https://bioone.org/journals/journal-of-coastal-research/volume-32/issue-5) :1212-1226 (2016). [https://doi.org/10.2112/JCOASTRES-D-14-00232.1](https://doi. org/10.2112/JCOASTRES-D-14-00232.1) Fig 09 - Lecture 7: Deltas and estuaries Carl T. FriedrichsVirginia Institute of Marine Science Fig 10 -Narayan, Siddharth & Beck, Michael & Reguero, B.G. & Losada, I.J. & Van Wesenbeeck, Bregje & Pontee, Nigel & Sanchirico, James & Ingram, Jane & Lange, Glenn-Marie & Burks-Copes, Kelly. (2016). The Effectiveness, Costs and Coastal Protection Benefits of Natural and Nature-Based Defences. PLOS ONE. 11. e0154735. 10.1371/journal.pone.0154735. Fig 11- Joerg Boethling / Alamy Fig 12- *Amelie Paszkowski, Steven Goodbred Jr., Edoardo Borgomeo, M. Shah Alam Khan and Jim W. Hall (2021) Geomorphic change in the Ganges– Brahmaputra–Meghna delta* Fig 13 -Ghosh, A.; Schmidt, S.; Fickert, T.; Nüsser, M. The Indian Sundarban Mangrove Forests: History, Utilization, Conservation Strategies and Local Perception. *Diversity* **2015**, *7* , 149-169. https://doi.org/10.3390/d7020149 Fig 14-Mehebub Sahana, Haroon Sajjad, Vulnerability to storm surge flood using remote sensing and GIS techniques: A study on Sundarban Biosphere Reserve, India, Fig 15-**Abhijit Chakraborty**[https://photography.mangroveactionproject.org](https://photography. mangroveactionproject.org/)

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Fig 16 - **Abhijit Chakraborty &** [https://photography.mangroveactionproject.org](https://photography.mangroveactionproject.org/) Fig 17 - [https://photography.mangroveactionproject.org](https://photography.mangroveactionproject.org/) Fig 18 - UNHCR Emergency Shelter Standards Fig 19 - Mr. Yuan Liao, Dr. Sudarshan Krishnan (2019) Paper ID #27512 Integrating Shelter Design and Disaster Education in Architectural CurricuFig 20 - Bradecki, Tomasz & Konsek, Paulina. (2020). Examples and Concepts of Floating Architecture in the Face of Climate Change - The Example of Szczecin. IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering. 960. 032062. 10.1088/1757-899X/960/3/032062. Fig 21 - Photo by **Abhijit Chakraborty** Fig 22 - Photo by Sourav Mukherjee Fig 23 - Sarah E. Nelms, Emily M. Duncan, Surshti Patel, Ruchi Badola, Sunanda Bhola, Surfarsha Chakma, Gawsia Wahidunnessa Chowdhury, Brendan J. Godley, Alifa Bintha Haque, Jeyaraj Antony Johnson, Hina Khatoon, Sumit Kumar, Imogen E. Napper, Md. Nazmul Hasan Niloy, Tanjila Akter, Srishti Badola, Aditi Dev, Sunita Rawat, David Santillo, Subrata Sarker, Ekta Sharma, Heather Koldewey, Riverine plastic pollution from fisheries: Insights from the Ganges River system, Science of The Total Environment, Volume 756, 2021, Fig 24 - Dirk Lowke, Enrico Dini, Arnaud Perrot, Daniel Weger, Christoph Gehlen, Benjamin Dillenburger, Particle-bed 3D printing in concrete construction – Possibilities and challenges, Cement and Concrete Research, Volume 112, 2018, Pages 50-65, ISSN 0008-8846, [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2018.05.018](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2018.05.018). Fig 30- Gijón Mancheño, A.; Herman, P.M.J.; Jonkman, S.N.; Kazi, S.; Urrutia, I.; van Ledden, M. Mapping Mangrove Opportunities with Open Access Data A Case Study for Bangladesh. *Sustainability* **2021**, *13*, 8212 https://doi.org/10.3390/su13158212 Fig 33 - Strusinska-Correia, Agnieszka & Husrin, Semeidi & Oumeraci, Hocine. (2014). ATTENUATION OF SOLITARY WAVE BY PARAMETERIZED FLEXIBLE MANGROVE MODELS. Coastal Engineering Proceedings. 1. 13. 10.9753/icce.v34.management.13. Cover and Back Page Imagery : The European Space Agency

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