What are They ?

Since their earliest discovery all types of boxes have been considered unusual and enigmatic artefact. Of the boxes examined by the author most display evidence of use indicated by smooth and polished external metal surfaces, others (e g. Aldborough, Bucklands Dover Grave 107, Dover Painted House, Kempston Grave 71) have been repaired. Wear and repair are not always good indicators of age, they can also reflect use, as a consequence we cannot accurately determine when boxes were made or how long they were in use prior to deposition (see dating evidence).

Their function has long been the subject of guesswork and academic research, yet a fundamental question remains unanswered 'What are They?' In 1771 Rev. Bryan Faussett on finding a box at Kingston Down Grave 96 remarked (Faussett 1856, 58), it was "very much like our common dredging box" and "designed to hold perfume". Stephen Stone (1856-1859, 93) writing of the lost Stanlake box said it resembled a "pepper pot". Wyatt (1864, 168) was told by his labourers that the Kempston Grave 71 box was a "tobacco box with tobacco in it". Later reports have also failed to reach a consensus to their purpose. Hawkes (1973, 197) was astonished that they functioned mostly as container for sewing kits, " but as such seems to be the case". In a re-appraisal (Campbell 1982, 89) her opinion changed, and she expressed the view that "the so-called thread-boxes, cylindrical bronze capsules which may in fact have been Christian reliquaries". Meaney, in an attempt to explain their purpose (1981,181-189) presented a number of possible functions, work, thread or relic boxes, amulet capsules, first-aid boxes or containers symbolically to reflect and identify the role of women in Anglo-Saxon society. Crowfoot (1987, 51) with some qualification approached the boxes as reliquaries with the small fragments of cloth and threads demonstrating a " last mingling of pagan with Christian beliefs". Gibson (2015, 10) on design, technical and physical examination of twenty-six boxes argued that the long-held theory that they are 'work boxes' (vide Bayliss and Hines, 2013, fig. 5.217) or 'needle cases' (Walton Rogers, 2007, fig. 2.32) in the accepted sense of sewing repair boxes or containers to hold needles is unsustainable. The method used to open and close Type l boxes (Gibson and Harris 1994, fig. 2) is by sliding the lid assembly over the body, the box is then held in the closed position by metal friction between the internal diameter of the lid and the external diameter of the body. Of the boxes physically examined only the Aldborough example exhibit any degree of wear indicated by metal serrations on the body assembly as a consequence of constant use in opening and closing. Four Type l boxes Arncliffe, Finglesham Grave 8, Westfield Grave 2 and Wolverton Grave 2168 have the added refinement of a hinged lid to secure and protect their contents.

Hills seminal papers (2011, 14-19 and 2016, 51-61) argued that so called 'work or thread boxes' should be considered Christian relic boxes and when textiles, thread, pins, and organic material are found inside boxes they should be considered brandea. French (2011, 1-11) approached the boxes and contents from a biblical (Mark 5: 2534) and female prospective and reached the same conclusion. Of the fifty complete or near complete boxes, 20 (Table 3) have been recorded as containing contents regarded as brandea. The most compelling evidence that these containers should be recognised as Christian reliquaries relates to a total of forty boxes, thirty-one Type l, five Type ll boxes the two box components reused as pendants Ilam and Marina Drive and a metal fragment from Wolfhamcote all displaying some form of cruciform decoration(s).

Further, included among the iconography on the important Burwell Type ll Village box is what could be considered an iconic symbol of Christianity, the ichthys image.

This represents a high proportion of decorated boxes, that demonstrates an affinity to the Christian religion. Further, this number could be understated as incomplete boxes, missing lid tops and body bases may have had cruciform symbol(s) included in their iconography. This number argues that boxes can be seen as not only having an association with the Christian faith but possibly participation by their female owners in ritual and worship. Boxes with cruciform and other symbols were a visible declaration of their owners’ Christian religious beliefs and practices and would have be recognised as such.

Iconographical features that require an explanation relate to the chevron and the conjoined chevron cross saltire diamond patterns used on pottery from earlier pagan context, the former evidenced on metal fragments from Caerwent, Hambleton Moor, Stroud and Wolverton Grave 2005 box; the latter displayed on ten boxes Finglesham Grave 8, Dover Painted House, Harford Farm Grave 18, Hawnby, Kempston Graves 46 and 71, Lechlade Grave 14, Tidworth, Uncleby Grave 29 and Verulamium Grave 21 and the metal fragment from Wolfhamcote. The use of these decorative schemes and motifs indicates a continuation of pagan iconography and demonstrates a spiritual connection with the past; possibly an apotropaic devise linking pagan rites and customs to the new religion. It is conceivable that some of the females buried with boxes were whom Markus (1990, 33) termed "semi-or paganised Christians", who, uncertain of the new faith needed reassurance and the physical presence expressed in both pagan and Christian symbols on boxes.

The Type l boxes were included in the grave assemblages of young female children (Appendix A), Didcot Grave 12, aged 3-5 years (Boyle et al 1995, 216), Marina Drive Grave E1 /E2, aged 8 years (Mathews 1962, 31, fig. 4), Marina Drive Grave E3, aged 8 years (ibid. 32, fig. 3) these were well furnished. By comparison the grave of a very young child or baby at Updown Eastry Grave 76:34 (Welch et al 2008, fig. 23) contained only a knife and box. This could indicate the importance of the box, perhaps belonging to the infant's mother and buried with her child not a symbolic gesture, but a final gift intended to act as a 'passport' into a Christian afterlife? That they were intended for display is demonstrated not only by their decorations but gilding evident on boxes from Marina Drive Grave B3 /B4 and Kempston Grave 46 and Grave 71. In some communities’ boxes do not appear to be unusual or scarce objects, thirteen cemeteries (Table 1) include more than one box or box components.

Five were recovered from seventy-one graves in a Bronze Age barrow and ring ditch reused as an early medieval cemetery at Uncleby. The excavator, Cannon Greenwell (1820-1918) failed or was unable to determine the sex of some burials, as a consequence it is not possible to express a ratio of boxes to female burials, however they would appear to have been a common artefact among the small community buried there. Geake (1997, 58) considered that boxes may have been worn as part of the chatelaine complex, this is supported by their position in relation to some skeletal remains. However, the nature of boxes in that they are fragile, and their lids are inherently insecure makes it unlikely they were not worn on an everyday basic. It is possible they were worn only on special (holy?) days and festive occasions. Hills (2016, 55) makes a compelling argument that they were displayed in a special place of importance "perhaps a private shrine".

At some burials they were placed in bags or purses (e g. Bidford-on-Avon Grave 100, Burwell Grave 121, Harford Farm Grave 18), or inside a wooden box or chest (e g. Lechlade Grave 14, Prittlewell, Sibertswold Grave 60, Uncleby Grave 1). Not a deliberate action to hide them from view at the time of burial, but an indication they were personal and intimate possession, artefacts of importance, placed there, as in life, for safe keeping.

Of the eight Type ll boxes Stand Low now lost, St. Mary's undecorated, six have religious significance, defined by Christian iconography. Additionally, that from Cuxton Grave 306 has an incontrovertible biblical scene of the crucifixion site, Golgotha, this is convincing evidence of its use as a reliquary. Further, Gibson (2015, 8-9) argued that the myth or legend portrayed on the lid top and base of the Burwell Grave 42 box could be perceived as a biblical event Revelation (Mark 12: 4-17) expressed in a pagan setting and should viewed as a paradox and the imagery, Christian imagery? Additional indicators relating to Christian beliefs can be seen on the North Leigh box with an expanded terminal cross incised on the replacement lid top. Gibson (1993, 51), (Figures 15,16) demonstrated that the box could have been altered to give the box a Christian identity, a saltire had also been scratched on to the flange.

The Bucklands Grave 107 with a quincunx on lid top and body base further strengthens an argument that these boxes are Christian artefacts and had a function within that religion. The cross with forked terminals on the Sibertswold box is similar to the cross on step design on contempory coinage (Gannon 2009, fig. 5.3) and jewellery (ibid. fig. 5); this appears to imitate in geometric form the expanded terminal cross. It is possible to speculate that the individually designed and higher skill level expressed in every Type ll boxes may indicate that the women buried with them had a special religious status within their community?

Type lll boxes continue to be an enigma, the reason they have been included in this publication relates to the Cuxton Grave 306 box. Like the Type ll box from the same burial it has secondary faintly incised scene that records a biblical event, evidence that both boxes have a definite Christian connection and functioned as devotional objects. The boxes from Harford Farm, Little Wilbraham and Prittlewell are devoid of Christian iconography that from Kingston Down Grave 222 undecorated. It is possible that the superior neck closing stoppers on the Cuxton and Harford Farm boxes may have acted as ampoule to hold oil or water? A feature common to the boxes which may relate to their function is they have a chain fixing arrangement, to what if any purpose is unknown? The box from the Prittlewell the only box of any type from a male burial, placed inside a wooden box with other mundane artefacts with the exception of a silver spoon only adds to the difficulty in how to define Type lll boxes? They were not originally intended to be used as relic boxes, they are secular artefacts, their purpose remains elusive.

Discussion "What are they?"

Dating evidence relating to the deposition of boxes to the second half of the seventh century possibly early eighth is secure. The boxes appeared and disappeared within a c50 - 70-year period, less if Bayliss and Hines (2013, xii) are correct that regular burials with grave goods ceased two decades or more before the end of the seventh century. This time span coincided with the consolidation of the Christian religion and an increase in conversion by the ruling elite (ibid 548-554), (Yorke 2003, 242-269). Boxes were widely distributed across Anglo-Saxon England; however, it is may be no coincidence that two important centres of Christianity had large concentrations the Kingdoms of Kent with twelve, Northumbria eleven. Further a very high percentage carry that most recognisable Christian identifier, the cross. Reused components were respected, evidenced by the cruciform decorated pendants from Ilam and Marina Drive Grave E3.

That the continuing use of familiar pagan symbols is an indication these were not abstract, random decorative displays; for in communities well versed in pagan customs and practices they act as a cultural conduit linking the past to the new Christian religion. It is possible that by the mid seventh century these had been adopted and incorporated into Christian iconography. Types l and ll boxes have in the past been generally referred to as secular artefacts work, thread or needle boxes, these terms are incorrect. This becomes apparent on close physical inspection of boxes. The thin sheet metal tubular shape of Type l boxes easily distorts, if they were ever used as household secular artefacts, striations on the metal resulting from the slide fit method of constant opening and closing the boxes would have been apparent. Other than the Aldborough box these are absent on those examined by the author. That so many display iconic Christian symbols, undermines attempts to argue for a non-Christian use. In respect of the five cruciform decorated Type ll boxes four (Burwell Grave 42, Cuxton, Dover Bucklands and Sibertswold) carry a cross on both lid top and body base, that from North Leigh lid top only. Further support is evidenced on the box from Cuxton with the indisputable biblical scenes portrayed, and hidden crosses serves only strengthens the argument that they had a Christian function.

There is now sufficient evidence that Types l and ll boxes even those found without cruciform decoration were made for a specific purpose associated with the Christian religion. They should now be considered as Christian reliquaries and described and referenced as such, thus validating Hills conclusions. At this time uniquely, Cuxton Grave 306 Type lll example only demonstrates the box's secondary use, as a reliquary and the biblical decoration a declaration of its owner’s religious beliefs. Finally, the importance of all relic boxes other than their Christian identity lies not only in their function but in the different and sometimes unusual iconography, for these represent early examples of Anglo-Saxon folk art expressed on copper-alloy metal artefacts.