Secular Art or Sacred Symbols ?

BOX TYPE I COMPONENTS AND METAL FRAGMENTS OF BOXES

Decorative Features

Of the forty-one Types 1 boxes, Stanlake, Uncleby Graves 30 and 31 (Smith 1912, 151) and Yatesbury (Merewether 1851, 87-102) are no longer extant and their full decorative details unrecorded. Those from Painsthorpe Wold Barrow 4 Grave 6a and Marina Drive Grave B3/B4 are undecorated; Aldborough, Ascotunder-Wychwood and Hurdlow have incised motifs. The outstanding feature on the remaining are the repousse decorated display schemes incorporated into their manufacture. This demonstrate that individual signs, symbols and decorations were not spontaneous artistic inspirations conceived during or after the construction of the boxes but were predetermined, applied to individual components prior to final assembly.

Interpretation of the decorative schemes of Type l boxes are complex and divides opinion, they are viewed either as artistic displays on secular artefacts or they represent Christian symbolism; if the latter is correct the boxes would have religious significance. Since the publication of Faussett's Inventorium Sepulchrale in which editor Roach Smith in a footnote (Faussett 1856, 58) relating to the Kingston Down Grave 96 box opined " The box itself appears to have been intended for pins, needles and such small implements used for female attire". This statement would initially appear to have some support. Walton Rogers (2007, 40-41) termed the Harford Farm Type lll box a "needle case". Further the incomplete box found in SFB N4 at Dover Painted House with 189 loom weights and three spindle-whorls could be considered to have a similar association. Excavators and researchers (e g. Mathews, 1962, Philp 1973, Bayliss and Hines, 2015) term them, often with caveats, 'work or thread boxes' on account that some (Table 3) contained textile, pins and thread that could be associated with sewing repair kits. Others (e g. Ager 1989, Hawkes and Grainger 2006, Welch et al 2008, French 2011, Hills 2011) argue that the boxes should be seen as amulet boxes or Christian reliquaries and their contents viewed as brandea. In most cases the patterns, signs and symbols on boxes are defined by conclusions expressed above.

Body and lid ring

When decorated the sheet metal used to manufacture the body and lid ring of boxes are distinctive feature on the boxes. Patterns created fall into various design styles. Ten boxes, Dover Painted House, Finglesham Grave 8 (Hawkes and Grainger, 2006, 38-39), Harford Farm Grave 18 (Penn 2000, 18, fig. 88), Hawnby (Denny 1859-1868, 488-502) (Plate 1), Kempston Graves 46 and 71 (Fitch 1864, 269-299), Lechlade Grave14 (Boyle et al 2011, 58, fig. 5.42), Tidworth (Wessex Archaeology, blog 2016), Uncleby Grave 29 (Smith 1912, 151), Verulamium Grave 21 and the metal fragment from Wolfhamcote display twin parallel linear dotted lines of conjoined chevrons meeting on a centre line(s) to form a conjoined chevron, cross saltires and a diamond shaped pattern (Figure 23a). Hawnby and Wolverton Grave 2005 have a single conjoined chevron zone forming a zigzag pattern on the lid ring, when lid is fitted to the box assembly decorated with an identical arrangement the design becomes like those above. The fragments from Hambleton Moor displays a single row of conjoined chevrons, Caerwent two, Stroud one. Both patterns are evident on pottery dateable to the 5th and 6th centuries. In single linear zones of conjoined chevrons (Myres 1977, Vol. 2) (e g. Girton 229, Lackford 929, Sancton 2330, Snape 2420) on twin linear zones meeting on a centre line or lines (e g. Bagginton 2454, Caister-By-Norwich 1649, Elkington 632, Chamberlains Barn 390). Hills (1977, 1981) illustrates both forms of linear chevron motifs on pottery and urns from Spong Hill. Single linear chevron zones (e g. 1776, 1867, 2175, 1867), twin rows (ibid motif SG 4, fig. 104) (e g. 1730, 2067, 2242, 2610).

Three boxes display incised patterning, Ascot-under-Wychwood box has a complex incised Salin Style ll zoomorphic motif, the Aldborough body is undecorated, although the base appears to show an unfinished scratched cross, Hurdlow has a series of random scratched geometric shapes applied to the body. Ashmolean Museum, Polhill Grave 43 and Verulamium Grave 21 have repousse applied sinuous decoration which replicates features from Salin Style ll. The remaining decorated boxes are patterned with repetitive repousse geometric schemes expressed in dotted horizontal, vertical, and diagonal lines, chevrons, crosses, saltires, circles and raised bosses. Four boxes Bidford-on-Avon, Grave 100 (Humphreys et al, 1923), Castledyke Grave 183 (Drinkall and Foreman 1998, 90, fig. 104), Garton Green ll (Mortimer 1905, 246-247) and Uncleby Grave 1 have individual geometric arrangements. The box from Cransley (Baker 1881-1883, 85-95), is recorded as "being slightly ornamented with crosses".

Twelve boxes, Arncliffe, Burwell Grave 121 (Lethbridge 1927, 116-125), Castledyke Graves l and ll (Drinkall and Foreman 1998, fig.121), Didcot Grave 12 (Boyle et al 1995, 216-217), Kingston Down Grave 96, Marina Drive Grave E1/E2 (Mathews 1962, 31), Uncleby Grave 3, Updown Graves 76:34 and 89:45 (Welch et al 2008, 24-25, fig. 48, 64), Westfield Farm Grave 2 (Lucy et al 2009) and Wolverton Grave 2168 (PAS Bucks-337D73) display an uncomplicated design of linear rows of dots around their periphery. This feature replicates in repousse the indented line and dotted schemes to be seen on large numbers of earlier pottery. The conjoined chevron, cross saltire and diamond pattern on the body of ten boxes and fragment from Wolfhamcote, and the chevrons marked on three metal fragments, together with the twelve boxes (above) are distinctive and widespread earlier Anglo-Saxon motifs. The pattern is not confined as a decorative element on Type l boxes. It is part of a design on a piece of leather recorded from a "girdle or strap" at Beakesbourne Grave 30 (Faussett 1856, fig.1, 152), a similar crudely applied repousse design has been applied to the silver back under-plate of the Finglesham Grave 95 buckle (Hawkes and Grainger 2006) (Figure 23d). In a later now unambiguous Christian context, the pattern is illustrated adjacent to Saint Mathews portrait in 'The Book of Kells' (de Hamel 2016, 116). In respect of Type 1 body decorations the conjoined chevron, cross saltire and diamond pattern should not be considered as artistic inspiration of the seventh century.

This decoration represents not only a continuation of an existing art-style but a visible physical symbol that alludes to the beliefs, customs of pagan Anglo-Saxon people. Of the thirty-two repousse decorated Type l boxes and the fragment from Wolfhamcote eleven share this motif. It is possible that by the seventh century the pattern had been adopted as a Christian symbol and connects spiritually and culturally with the past and acted as a talisman to balance the appearance of the cross as a Christian icon?

Figure 23

[a] Illustration of design concept cross saltire and diamond pattern [b] Pottery examples after Myres, J 1977 Bagginton (Warwickshire), Chamberlain's Barn (Bedfordshire), Chevron example Sancton (Yorkshire).[c] Dover Painted House body decoration . [d] Finglesham (Kent) Grave 95 Buckle back plate after

Hawke and Grainger 2006. [b] Pottery examples after Myres, J 1977. [b1] Bagginton (Warwickshire), [b2] Chamberlains Barn (Bedfordshire), [b3] Chevron example Sancton (Yorkshire). [c] Dover Painted House body decorated after Philip. B 2003, [d] Finglesham (Kent) Grave 95 buckkle back plate after Hawke,

S and Grainger, H 2006.

LID TOP, BODY BASE AND THEIR REUSE AS PENDANTS AT ILAM AND MARINA DRIVE

Of the forty-one Type l boxes details of the lid tops and body bases, four are unknown; two are undecorated. Others, Bidford Grave 100, Didcot Grave 12, Kempston Graves 46 and 71, Marina Drive Grave B3/B4, Verulamium Grave 10 (Ager 1989, 232, fig.79.2) are incomplete missing lid tops and/or body bases. Aldborough appears to have an unfinished cruciform pattern scratched on the base. Of the remaining twenty-nine and the two copper-alloy components reused as pendants from Ilam and Marina Drive twenty (Table 3) display cruciform motifs either on their lid top or body base (Figure 24), of these eleven have them on both, four lid top only, five body base only. Fruitiger (1991, 49) defines the cross as "the signs of signs" such is its versatility and use across the broad spectrum of art, religion, science, and mathematics. The cross has a long history as a decorative symbol and widely used in pre-history and Roman periods. During the six and seventh century the cross became an icon of the new faith, Christianity, and were visually displayed by clergy and converts to proclaim their religious beliefs and practices. The cross sign on boxes has and will continue to be the subject of debate. Faussett (1856, 39) "The crosses mentioned ... plainly show the owner was a Christian", Ager (1989, 222) ". . . that these designs are Christian in intent or at least are a sign of Christian influence ", Philp (2003, 197) " . . . often bore overtly Christian symbolism", Welch (2008, 37) " . . . a deliberate Christian motif " and Hills (2011, 18) " . . . are not accidental inclusions in a geometrical pattern ". The design of the cruciform symbols on the lid tops and body bases of Type l boxes and two components can be placed into three recognisable arrangements. Arncliffe, Cransley, Dover Painted House, Garton Green ll, Kingston Down Grave 96, Polhill Grave 43, Uncleby Graves 1 and 3, Updown Grave 76:34 and Westfield together with the re-used lid top or body base possibly from Marina Drive Grave E3 have well defined cross motifs expressed in small closely spaced dots. These replicate in repousse those detailed in manuscripts, coinage and jewellery and considered to have a Christian association and reflect the views expressed above. Three boxes, Finglesham Grave 8, Uncleby Grave 29, and Wolverton Grave 2168 and the lid top or body base from Ilam reused as a pendant display an eight- rayed star/sun burst motif. A similar design is stamped on pottery from Spong Hill, and identified by Hills (1981, fig. 128) as Class llla, from Mucking (Hirst & Clark 2009, fig. 130), Stamp A5a. This stamp is referred to as a 'rosette' or 'marigold' and recognised by Myres (1977, Vol. 2); it is a feature on cups, bowls, beakers, and urns (e g. Girton 179, Heworth 85, Howletts 452, Saltburn 132). Notwithstanding the pagan history of the rayed star/sun burst Gannon (below) argued that by the mid seventh century the use of this symbol had a Christian association.

Boxes from Ashmolean, Castledyke Graves l, ll and 183, Hawnby and Verulamium Grave 21 display decorative schemes that revolve around a quincunx. This arrangement takes the form of four raised bosses spaced to shape a square or rectangle with another placed centrally to form a cross. The quincunx has no diversity of appearance, when additional artistic themes are added (e g. Verulamium Grave 21) they are secondary and integrate around the cruciform shapes formed by the five raised bosses. This is a very ancient symbol that embraces pagan and Christian worlds. The earliest use of the quincunx known to the author is to be seen on the heads of rhomboid headed copper-alloy dress pins of the Northern Carpathian Middle Bronze Age, this cultural period is dated c1450-1250 BC. There is evidence to suggest that the quincunx acted as a protective or mystical pre-Christian devise and is a focus on copper-alloy doors of 8th Century BC Villanovan hut urns and on shields and armour of the same period (Chamay 1993, fig. 9, 48 and 50). It can be seen, possibly as a cult signifier on the clothing of the 7th century BC cast bronze figurine in orante (Plate 4) from Imst Austria (pers. corr. Dr Zemmer-Plank). As a decorative style it is incorporated in the designs on an early 6th century BC bronze enameled openwork disc from Cuperly, Marne (Megaw & Megaw 1989, fig. 60) and a bronze flask from Durrnberg bei Hallien (ibid, pl. 129). Further evidence and examples of the resilience of this symbol can be seen on artefacts from Roman Gaul, Britain and Scandinavia; Belt Buckle (Leeds 1933, pl. V), Rings (Kendrick 1938, fig. 12a) and late 5th century cruciform brooches (Hines 1984, fig. 1.1 and 2.10b). The signs most common pagan early medieval usage is demonstrated on the insular copper-alloy disc brooches dateable to late 5th century (Dickinson 1979, 39-54). Further examples now representing Christian iconography can be seen on a silver scutiform pendant from Chamberlains Barn (Hyslop 1963, fig. 17), the jewel formation on the Staffordshire Hoard processional cross (Fern, Dickinson and Webster 2019, fig. 2.74), Fuller Brooch (Webster,2012, fig.115) and the Ormside Bowl (Fern and Speake 2014. fig. 93).

The most impressive aspect of the quincunx either as a cult, religious or ornamental design is evident on the lid top and body base of the box from Hawnby, this replicates the central design on a repousse decorated bronze diadem (Plate 5) from Vergina Greece dated to Greek Iron Age 1100-800BC (Andronikos 1964). The principal design on the diadem and box is identical to those on gold, composite and plated disc brooches (e.g. Kingston Down Grave 205, Milton North Fields (Avent 1975, Class 4.2 and 4.3) and on a gold filigree and jewelled disc pendant from Lechlade Butlers Field Grave 95/1 (Boyle et al 2011, fig.5.74).

Plate 4

7th century BC Bronze Figurine 8cm height Imst Austria

Plate 5

Late Iron Age Bronze Diadem centre piece from Vergina Greece

TYPE I CONCLUSION

The evidence is overwhelming that many patterns, symbols, and decorations on Type I boxes have their genesis in earlier pagan cultures. It is impossible to ascertain whether they were ever intended to act as abstract ornamentation or had some symbolic significance. By the middle of the seventh century a Christian God and his religion were asserting authority and in a largely illiterate and pagan society the people were undergoing a fundamental challenge to their beliefs and practices. These identifiable pagan decorations, now in a Christian context would have been a reassuring link with the past and acting as an apotropaic devise protecting both box and contents. It is possible that some of the earlier cruciform decoration styles had by the mid seventh century been adopted to suit Christian iconography. The Dover Painted House body decoration is an example of conjoined chevron, cross saltire diamond shaped pattern combined with a Christian cross on both lid and base. This cross, like others (above), replicates the cruciform iconography on contemporary coinage, jewellery and manuscripts considered to be Christian and implies that the box had a Christian significance. The conjoined chevron, diamond shaped arrangement on the underside of the Finglesham Grave 95 buckle (Figure 23d) suggests that a re-appraisal of the buckle should be undertaken. For it could be viewed as having religious dualism with both pagan and Christian association. The initial appearance of the buckle demonstrates implicit pagan imagery, by contrast the hidden back plate has a crude punch dot pattern of conjoined chevron, cross saltire and diamonds similar to those on the boxes (above). This poorly applied, haphazard pattern indicates it is not original, it lacks artistic detail and precision workmanship evident in all other areas of the buckle. This hidden decoration possibly Christian was intended for personal and private contemplation.

The interpretation of the repousse decoration and motifs on the lid tops and body bases is complicated and ambiguous. Six boxes are missing either their lid tops or body bases, six are missing both, details on three are unknown, it is possible that some may have been cruciform decorated, like those reused as pendants from Ilam and Marina Drive? Notwithstanding this observation, twenty-five boxes the two pendants (above) and the Wolfhamcote fragment are cruciform decorated these indicate a Christian connection. The rayed sun/starburst motif on three boxes, and the pendant from Ilam is evident on Anglo-Saxon coinage. Gannon (2003, 165-166, fig. 5.11) terms a similar motif with pelleted ends a "marigold" with a cross on the obverse found on tremissis, and argues it became ". . . simply as a variation on a cross". Further evidence of the motifs transfer as a Christian symbol is its use in manuscripts (e g. The Vespian Psalter, The Book of Kells). Notwithstanding the reference to the pagan background associated with the decorations on boxes there is now enough evidence to support an argument that the ten boxes and the Wolfhamcote fragment all with the conjoined motifs of chevron, diamond pattern had by the mid-seventh century been adopted to represent Christian symbols. This is supported in that five of these (Table 3) also display a conventional cross. Further, the re-use of components as pendants and the fragment from Wolfhamcote indicates that incomplete and unrecorded boxes could also have been cruciform decorated and are under-represented in Table 3.

BOX TYPE II

Decorative Features

With the exception of the undecorated St. Mary's Grave 4202 box and the lost Stand Low box the other six display individual artistic schemes, symbols and cruciform decorations. The North Leigh box in addition to its unusual visual appearance is distinguished by the composite nature of the decor. The lid top is engraved with an equal armed cross with expanded terminals, similar to cruciform pendants from Ixworth, Walton and the composite garnet brooch from Boss Hall Grave 93. In addition, a cross saltire scratched on one side of the flange a further indication of the religious nature of the box decorations The unusual repousee 'block' body decoration is similar to that on the Verulamium Grave 10 Type l box to suggest contact between the communities. Although the body on the Dover Bucklands Grave 107 box (Plate 2) is undecorated it has a balanced appearance with three bands of wire around the periphery, two serve as a manufacturing feature to locate and fit lid top and body base the third positioned centrally to give the box additional strength and aesthetic appeal. Both lid top and body base carry a quincunx expressed by five raised bosses. Elsewhere the author opined that the Sibertswold Grave 60 example (Faussett 1856, pl. XIIl, 8) with pivoting flange (part now lost) and unique locking and hinge arrangement can be identified as a work of manufacturing ingenuity and precision. The body decor with two rows of repetitive punch dot step patterns said by Werner to be characteristic of Frankish metal objects of the seventh century (Meaney 1981,186). Both lid and base display a Greek cross with the arms terminating in angular forked ends Figure (24e). It is noticeable that the pattern is incomplete on Faussett's original sketch. Despite now presumed lost we have a brief description of the Standlow example (Plate 3) by Thomas Bateman (1821-1861) and a water colour painting Relics of a Primeval Life by Llewellyn Jewitt (1816-1886). Recovered in a very poor condition only details of the pivoting flange, lid hinge and a small area of the repousee decorated body are recorded. The wrought or cast suspension hinged flange in the shape of a snake or serpents head demonstrates artistic ability and technical knowledge and indicates the maker was familiar with Salin Style ll.

Bateman was so impressed with the workmanship of the lid hinge to comment it "would not disgrace a Birmingham artisan of the day". Recently (information from Faye Minter) a badly damaged Type ll box incised with Style ll body decoration and a Christian motif on the flange has been found by field walking in the Burwell village locality.

The significance of the unique box from Cuxton Grave 306 cannot be overstated, found fragmented and reconstructed as an illustration with great skill. The body, repousse decorated has a cross saltire position adjacent to where the flange was originally attached, indicates that this symbol was pre-conceived. The importance of the box lies in the faintly incised gospel event applied to the flange and box after the box was constructed. These graffito scenes and the repousse leaf like cross with hidden crosses displayed on the body base, together with further religious scenes on the Type lll box from the same grave indicates beyond doubt the female in Grave 306 was a devotee of the Christian religion, both boxes attest to her faith. The Burwell Grave 42 box the most highly decorated of all types of boxes. The author argued (Gibson 2015) that this could have been converted from a Type l into its present form. The use of metal dies to impress the Salin Style ll lid ring and body decorations is an indication that permission and loan of the dies came from a higher authority, this is further reinforced by the Salin Style ll predatory birds’ heads displayed either side of the flange. The lid top scene with an unusual waisted cross is quite unique in seventh century art displaying what could possibly represent the earliest portrayal of the dragon fight from the Beowulf poem? The artist who carved the wooden or bone dies to decorate the lid top would have been aware or made aware of the poem’s Christian significance.

TYPE II CONCLUSION

All Type ll boxes were individually designed, artistically unique and visually attractive. The use of pivoting cast or wrought flange and leaf hinge indicates a degree of mechanical knowledge available only to the most skilled and talented metal workers of the period. This suggests their owners may have had a socially prominent position within their community? These features, when considered together with the cruciform symbols displayed on five extant Type ll boxes, the imagery on the Burwell Village box demonstrates a Christian association. When combined with the explicit biblical scene on the Cuxton box and the possibility that the overtly pagan iconography on the Burwell Grave 42 box may allude to a biblical event there is now convincing evidence that Type ll boxes had a Christian function and that their owners were Christian.

BOX TYPE III

Decorative Features

Of the five Types lll boxes, four Cuxton Grave 306, Harford Farm Grave 18, Little Wilbraham and Prittlewell boxes were decorated. That from Cuxton Grave 306 has four zones of incised lines around its periphery equally spaced over the body. The box is further distinguished by crudely incised Christian symbols applied by/ or for its owner after manufacture. This an indication that the importance and use of the box revolved around the secondary applied scenes. Like the Type ll from the same grave it had a function connected to the Christian religion. Hartford Farm has a simple artistic ring and dot design over the body, Little Wilbraham by a series of parallel incised lines located at the top and bottom of the body.

A reconstruction of the Prittlewell example (Blackmore 2019, 374-376, fig.286) suggests that its decoration consisted of incised oblique and conjoined chevrons.

TYPE III CONCLUSION

The term conclusion in respect of Type lll boxes is in itself something of a misnomer. The Little Wilbraham and Cuxton Grave 306 examples are well designed and manufactured to a high standard, evidenced by sheet metal forming to small diameters, conical shaping and the use of lathe grooving apparent on the Cuxton example. That from Harford Farm Grave 18 with three equi-spaced exterior supporting metal ribs on the body combined with an appealing ring and dot decoration again demonstrates skilled metal work and artistic application, this, and examples from Cuxton and Little Wilbraham could be considered to be East Mediterranean imports? By contrast the boxes from Kingston Down Grave 222 and Prittlewell are simplistic in design and uncomplicated, so much so, as to suggest they are an insular development. The theatrical staged ' Princely ' burial at Prittlewell together with the grave assemblage including a Type lll box clearly represents symbols of elitism, power, and wealth. However, the contents of a highly decorated wooden chest deposited with the burial appears personal and modest. The graffito incised silver spoon found adjacent to the Type lll box is considered "... to be an eating utensil... and not for liturgical use" (Blackmore et al 2019, 164) and would appear unconnected to the box.

Until additional evidence is available Type lll boxes should be considered as having an unknown secular function; unless, like the Cuxton box there is evidence that can link them to Christianity.