Chapter One

Chapter One: Historical Influences on the Development of Minimalism within Sacred Interiors

In order to delve into the realm of minimalism and to explore the direction it has taken in contemporary sacred interiors, there must first be an investigation to analyse the different interpretations of minimalism throughout the centuries. This chapter will explore different aspects of the Christian church and how minimalism can be seen to have its roots in these. The first part of the chapter will analyse monasticism and significant monastic figures to draw parallels between this notion and minimalism to substantiate how this historic tradition has influenced the interpretation of minimalism within contemporary sacred interiors. This will lead into the framework for part two, which discusses Iconoclasm and how this movement has had a substantial impact in the rebuke of religious symbols within sacred interiors, whilst uncovering evidential ties to the development of minimalism in contemporary sacred interiors. Part three of this chapter investigates the bifurcation between aestheticism and asceticism, and how the principles of these opposing notions can be seen within minimalism. This chapter will demonstrate that minimalism has always been a continual aspect of the church in different forms since its beginnings, which has ultimately influenced the development of minimalism within contemporary sacred interiors.

Monasticism

This first section will look at the history of monasticism to illustrate how this key movement of the church had a compelling influence in the aesthetic of minimalism, which has been translated into contemporary sacred interiors. Monasticism is the practice of surrendering materialistic pursuits in the secular world, in order to devote life entirely to Christian worship (New World Encyclopedia, 2008). The word itself derives from the Greek word, ‘monos’ meaning ‘alone’, and is evident throughout several different religions, including Buddhism, Hinduism, Judaism (Britannica 2019). However, monasticism has been most influential through Christianity, therefore in order to achieve a thorough comprehension of how monastic traditions can be seen within minimalism, this religion will be the sole focus of this discussion (New World Encyclopedia 2008). Whilst the concept of Christian monasticism and monastic actions have been present for centuries, there has been an inherent inability to establish the origin of this tradition. Moreover, ethnologist Anita Goswami recognised that whilst there is extreme uncertainty with the origins of Christian monasticism, she noted Saint Anthony the Great (251AD356AD), Saint Basil the Great (330AD-379AD) and Paul of Thebes (227AD-342AD), as being upon the first monks to embark on a monastic life (Goswami 2006: 1331). Goswami went on to detail the first known recording of monasticism, which was in Egypt during the 3rd or 4th century AD (Goswami 2006: 1330). During this time, it was known and recorded that Saint Anthony the Great had travelled and found comfort in Pispir in Egypt, a mountain located within the desert by the Nile, otherwise known

today as Deir al-Maymun, Egypt (Bolman & Godeau 2002: 10). Living a monastic life as a hermit required extremely high levels of self-discipline as it required one to live in complete isolation, whilst also fasting and being completely obedient to a religious leader (Goswami, 2006: 1329). The monks that embarked on this lifestyle lived in a high degree of bodily discomfort in order to achieve a stronger connection with God and achieve a form of spiritual or personal enlightenment (Goswami, 2006: 1329). The monks also avoided marriage and secluded themselves from family and ‘seductive lures of the world’ (Harmless, 2004: 02). Through the devotion of such a practice, it may be deduced that Saint Anthony the Great’s decision to live a monastic life was able to ‘provide a place where the inhabitant can regain inner peace by the absence of any distractive element’ (Verhetsel & Pombo 2013: 35). This notion was explained by architectural theorists Verhetsel and Pombo, to describe the intention of living as a minimalist, which demonstrates how living a monastic life and minimalism can be equated together.

A superficial study may view monasticism and minimalism to be unrelated and isolated concepts, however an in-depth assessment to compare monasticism and minimalism, reveal the two concepts to have parallels. However, when considering the similarities between monasticism and minimalism, the main aspect of disparity remains in minimalism’s lack of religious influence (Thelle, 2011: 68). The origin of monasticism developed with the intention to sacrifice luxuries of common life, which led to the renunciation of sacred architecture as the monks viewed churches as being grand and luxurious, which was seen as a distraction from the intention of creating a deeper spiritual connection (Goswami, 2006: 1329). This can be seen to have similarities to minimalism as this has been translated into a lifestyle that serves to visually please through the art of reduction (Stevanovic, 2011: 21). This emphasises how parallels of monasticism and minimalism can be drawn together to reinstate how minimalism can be seen as an interpretation of monastic traditions, and therefore how monasticism has influenced the contemporary development of minimalism within sacred interiors. The next section will discuss and provide a historical framework of iconoclasm, which will lead into how this movement can be seen to have influenced the evolution of minimalism within sacred interiors.

Iconoclasm

The social belief of ‘iconoclasm’ came into existence during the Byzantine empire during 726AD as Christian icons and images containing human figurations were interpreted as idols by a sector of society. This ultimately led to the intentional destruction of religious icons as it was believed to be against biblical scriptures. Iconoclasm originates from the two Greek derivates of “eikon”, meaning icon and “klastes”, meaning breaker, and had originated with the intention to eradicate religious icons, statues, paintings or any other physical entity which presents to have religious significance or spiritual power. However, it must be noted that iconoclasm was an uprising against the act of worshipping these religious

icons, rather than an attack on the act of worshipping itself. This belief has been traced back to Christian biblical scriptures in the Ten Commandments in the Old Testament, which recounts;

You shall have no other gods before Me You shall not make for yourself a carved image – any likeness of anything that is in heaven above, or that is in the earth beneath, or that is in the water under the earth (Exodus 20:3-4 New King James Version).

Whilst the origin of this uprising is tied to the Bible, the development of iconoclasm can be traced back to the Protestant Reformation (1517-1648) and Counter-Reformation as a result of the clash between Roman Catholic and Protestant political and religious ideologies (Bradshaw, 1983). German monk, Martin Luther (1483-1546), was a significant figure during this time as he demanded the restructure of the Roman Catholic Church after witnessing evidence of political corruption through the selling of indulgences by Pope Leo X (1475-1521), to fund the construction of the St Peter’s Basilica (Bradshaw, 1983), which led to the Reformation. The Reformation that resulted from Luther’s uprising, aimed to redefine doctrines of the church to emphasise that following God’s word would lead to spiritual eternity, as opposed to the purchase of these indulgences and the worship of idols (Bradshaw, 1983). Iconoclasm was seen during this time of Luther’s uprising as a rebuke against the idolisation of physical religious symbols, as this was seen as worshipping a ‘carved image’ and against biblical scriptures, which ultimately furthered the division between Roman Catholic and Protestant ideologies and led to the partition and birth of these two denominations (Wolffe, 2013: 91). After this uprising, surrounding countries such as Germany, Netherlands and England had started to break away from the Catholic church and became predominantly Protestant. Riots in these countries began to break out which led to the destruction of religious symbols, in support of the Reformation and led to the rise of iconoclasm.

St. Martin’s Cathedral, a Protestant church in Utrecht, Netherlands, is a particularly pertinent example as it clearly displays an example of Iconoclasm, as evident in figure 1.01, as a result of the Reformation. The destruction in this church was initiated by highly respected figures such as ministers by declaring that idolising these images went against biblical scriptures and against God’s word. This illustrates how the opposing ideologies between Roman Catholic and Protestant churches led to the different aesthetic adaptations within these two denominations. During this partition, Roman Catholic churches adopted a highly aesthetic and decorative approach which utilised religious symbols as an approach of worship within the church, whereas Protestant churches adopted a more minimal approach, and denied the use of any religious symbols when worshipping, which establishes Protestant churches of this time as iconoclastic (Wolffe, 2013: 91). The omission of ornamentation within Protestant churches as well the clear articulation of Protestant churches as being iconoclastic, substantiates how minimalism has

developed as a product of iconoclasm and emphasises how this historical influence has contributed to the evolution of minimalism within contemporary sacred interiors. The next section will further detail aspects of aestheticism and asceticism to emphasise how these opposing interpretations can also be seen to have influenced the development of minimalism within contemporary church architecture.

Figure 1.01. Image showing an example of iconoclasm in the St Martin’s Cathedral, 1566, Henry van Vianen, Utrecht, Netherlands, Hillary Kim, 2015

Aestheticism & asceticism

Aestheticism and asceticism are opposing ideologies, which have significantly influenced the development of church architecture for centuries. Both philosophies stemmed from identical intentions from the Reformation but differ in their conception and interpretation.

Aestheticism can be defined as ‘a devotion to beauty, and to beauty primarily as found in the arts and in whatever is attractive in the world around us’ (Johnson 1969: 01). The concept of aestheticism is most prevalently seen through the implementation of luxurious material items in sacred interiors, which is a feature commonly seen in Roman Catholic churches (Johnson, 1969: 01). Gold is commonly integrated into these sacred interiors to symbolise and reference many passages in the Christian bible. Firstly, it aims to establish a sense of power and create an ethereal atmosphere to acknowledge the presence of a higher force (Johnson, 1969: 03). Gold has also been commonly referenced in biblical scriptures to symbolise the golden and pure nature of the Christian paradise as the ‘use of gold and treasures in the church context further allowed individuals to unburden themselves of wealth and so

become spiritually rich’ (Janes, 1998: 165), which alludes to the gain of spiritual wealth when in the presence of Christ. Therefore, the implementation of gold in sacred interiors serves to establish aestheticism as a movement that existed to glorify and replicate the temple of God whilst stimulating

the senses to create a heightened sense of physicality and connectivity between Christ and His worshippers in the church.

The Cathedral of Toledo, a Roman Catholic church in Spain (1493), has been positioned as highly influential in the aestheticism era, during the 1860s, by architectural historian Charles Knight (Knight, 1840: 492). Theologist Amy Beauchamp recognised that ‘church designs that appear blasé, or unconcerned with interior elements may portray no sincerity of reverence to an almighty God’ (Beauchamp, 2008: 08), emphasising that the intention of aestheticism isto contribute value to worship. The gold that floods the interior of the Cathedral, as seen in figure 1.02, has been recognised as a significant element that has contributed to the Cathedral being renowned as one of ‘the greatest and most magnificent of Gothic temples’ (Knight, 1840: 492). Knight alluded to this phenomenon as he described ‘the lofty and majestic aisles, the massive and far-stretching columns of a temple like this, seem almost to shadow forth the imperishable nature of the religion whose sanctuary they adorn and uphold’ (Knight, 1840: 494). This Cathedral displays aspects of the Catholic church as a product of the Reformation, as the approach of the Roman Catholics was to integrate high levels of ornamentation and detailing to enrich levels of astonishment and awe from the beholders (Knight, 1840: 493).

Figure 1.02. Interior of Toledo Cathedral showing the gold detailing, 1493, Petrus Petri, Toledo, Spain, Tom Bartel, 2018

In contrast to this, asceticism consists of practices of restraint and obedience that are voluntarily undertaken in order to achieve a state of self-actualisation(Wilson, 2015: 01). This philosophy is known to have originated from biblical scriptures which details that ‘there is no creature hidden from His sight, but all things are naked and open to the eyes of Him to whom we must give account’ (Hebrews 4:13 New King James Version). Beauchamp recognised and critiqued this ideology by declaring ‘extremely ornate church interiors, to some, may “display” its grandeur as they worship Christ, yet Christ himself was born in a stable’ (Beauchamp, 2008: 8), emphasising that the intention of this ideology is to reduce the materialistic relationship that excessive detailing has ironically introduced within sacred interiors.

The St John’s Church, the largest Protestant church in Dusseldorf, Germany (1881) can be seen to encompass traits of ‘quietness, sobriety and harmony of mind, spirit and nature’,(Verhetsel and Pombo, 2013: 30) which Verhetsel and Pombo described as minimalist elements, whilst simultaneously upholding the Romanesque Revival style of architecture. Figure 1.03 shows a marriage between Romanesque Revival style architecture and the implementation of minimalist elements which alludes to an ascetic influence. As this church was built during the time this architectural style was in reign, it is still characterised by the traditional wide arches, and thick columns, which defines this style. However, the high levels of constraint in the material palette and the omission of ornamentation and detailing illustrate this church as encompassing minimalist traits. Whilst minimalism had not been established during this period in time, similarities between the two can be drawn, which emphasises how historical aspects such as influences from the Reformation and the impact this had on Protestant churches, has influenced the interpretation of minimalism within contemporary sacred interiors.

Figure 1.03. Interior of St John’s Church, Dusseldorf, Germany showing the minimalistic interior

Upon reflecting on the first chapter of this dissertation, a framework outlining the historical influence of Monasticism, Iconoclasm as well as Aestheticism and Asceticism has been established, effectively demonstrating how this historical context introduced and synthesised such parallels to minimalism. Devising this versatile, yet mandatory framework to communicate the influence that historical factors have had on the development of minimalism, will be further substantiated in the upcoming chapters. An understanding of these historical influences was fundamental as it will provide valuable context for the further notions that will be explored in the upcoming chapter. The following chapter will provide an in-depth discussion of the development of minimalism within contemporary sacred interiors, which will be substantiated by precedent studies following in chapter three.