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Ivanna I. Parfanovich, Andrii Ya. Parfanovich, Vitalii G. Panok, Larysa V. Zdanevych and Liudmila I. Romanovska De Colonial Agitations University The Quest for Afrocentric Pedagogy

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Teachers’ Instructional Components of

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VOLUME 19 NUMBER 4 April 2020 Table of Contents Addressing Domestic Abuse and Violence via a Non Formal Environment Seen as a Pedagogical Tool at University 1

Quang Hong Pham and Nam Danh Nguyen the Viewpoint of Teaching Staff: An Applied at the University of Petra

Maram Fouad Abu Al Nadi and Dina Mohamed Said Qarashay Warm up Rehearsal in Elementary School Chorus in South Korea Hong German Nursing Personnel

Study

Education

Bunmi Isaiah Omodan and Bekithemba the Teacher System in Vietnam

via Advanced Training Projects ..............78

Formation

Classrooms:

Factors Influencing the Sustainability of Quality Performance from

The Effectiveness of Using Three Dimensional Visualization Tools to Improve Students’ Understanding of Medicinal Chemistry and Advanced Drug Design Concepts.......................................................................................170 Heba ِAbdel Halim Probing the Differences Caused by Cognitive Variables on LET Performance: An Embedded Mixed Method Study 188 Michael B. Cahapay Cognitive Domain Performance for Non Laboratory Embedded and Laboratory Embedded Course ..................206 Rohaya Alias, Noraida Mohd Saim, Nur Asmaliza Mohd Noor and Siti Hawa Rosli A Correspondence Analysis of Fifty Five Japanese Historical First to Fifth Year English as a Foreign Language Textbooks 223 Tomoo Asai, Ryohei Honda, Kiyomi Watanabe and Toshiaki Ozasa The Place of Creativity in EFL Omani Syllabus: A Content Analysis of Grade 12 Students’ and Teachers’ Books 248 Mariam Said Al Jabri, Fawzia Al Seyabi, Salma Al Humaidi and Abdulhamid Hasan An Analysis of Higher Order Thinking Skills (HOTS) in the Learning of Economics 268 Ari Saptono, Suparno Suparno, Agus Wibowo, Eeng Ahman, Ismiyati Ismiyati and Deni Sukayugi Correcting Misconceptions in Fractions Using Interactive Technological Learning Activities 291 Mohammad Ahmad Alkhateeb Experimental and Research Verification of the Methodology of Forming the High School Students’ Artistic Taste for the Vocal Heritage (Late XIX Early XX Century) 309 Yuliia V. Merezhko, Dmytro A. Lievit, Oksana P. Petrykova, Svitlana V. Gmyrina and Mariia S. Kasianchuk Islamic Spirituality, Resilience and Achievement Motivation of Yemeni Refugee Students: A Proposed Conceptual Framework 322 Manal Ali Ahmed, Sahabuddin Hashim and Nik Rosila Nik Yaacob Creative Teaching Strategy to Reduce Bullying in Schools...........................................................................................343 Siti Irene Astuti Dwiningrum, Norwaliza Abdul Wahab and Haryanto Haryanto Preferential Admission Policies for Ethnic Minority Students in Yunnan: Help or Hindrance 356 Dongyuan Deng, Seepho Sirinthorn and Andrew Lian

Larysa V. Zdanevych

Addressing Domestic Abuse and Violence via a Non-Formal Environment Seen as a Pedagogical Tool at University

Department of Pre School Pedagogy, Psychology and Professional Methods, Khmelnytskyi Humanitarian Pedagogical Academy, Khmelnytskyi, Ukraine

Liudmila I. Romanovska

Vitalii G. Panok

Department of Social work and Pedagogics, Khmelnytskyi National University, Khmelnytskyi, Ukraine

Ukrainian Scientific Methodological Center of Applied Psychology and Social Work, National Academy of Educational Sciences of Ukraine, Kyiv, Ukraine

National Pedagogical University, Ternopil, Ukraine

Andrii Ya. Parfanovich Department of Social Pedagogy and Social Work, Ternopil Volodymyr Hnatiuk National Pedagogical University, Ternopil, Ukraine

Abstract. The purpose of the study was to identify how family abuse and violence could be addressed via a non formal educational environment seen as a pedagogical tool at university. The study utilised an exploratory case study design. Quantitative and qualitative data were drawn from observations of sampled students’ performance in the programme entitled “Legal and Psychological Domains of Domestic Abuse and Violence” and through the interview. The Attitudes towards Domestic Violence Questionnaire (ADV), the quiz entitled “Dimensions and dynamics of family violence” was administered to measure the impact of the domestic abuse and violence on the students’ awareness of legal and psychological consequences. IBM SPSS Statistics software was used to process the above data. MS Office Excel Software was used to consolidated and process the data drawn from the interview. The study showed that non formal university settings have the potential to enrich pedagogic tools for addressing domestic abuse and violence. The prevention intervention had a positive impact on students’ awareness of legal and psychological aspects of domestic abuse and violence, students’ perceptions of committing abusive and/or violent actions by men and

Ivanna I. Parfanovich

Department of Social Pedagogy and Social Work, Ternopil Volodymyr Hnatiuk

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. women in family settings. It was validated by measurements, observations, and students’ feedbacks. The experiment raised some implications like attracting experts, raising funds, finding sufficient evidence, and cases to fill the programme content. Further research is needed in developing methodology and instruments of evaluation of the effectiveness of such intervention programmes.

Keywords: university education; pedagogic tools of non formal settings; educational intervention programme; domestic abuse and violence

1.1. Literature review

Domestic abuse and violence have been a social, legal, and psychological (psychiatric) problem for many generations (Barnett, Miller Perrin & Perrin, 2010; Ghafournia, 2017; Odenbring, Johansson, Lunneblad & Hammarén, 2015).

According to the annualpolice reports, in Ukraine, the figures forthe issue related cases are increasing by approximately 3% a year (111 cases in 2017, 115 cases in 2018, and 121 cases in 2019) (ZIK, 2020). This suggests that current measures do not resolve the issue and additional targeted preventive interventions are required (Stanley, Ellis, Farrelly, Hollinghurst & Downe, 2015). University student youth seems to be a reasonable target audience because they are classified as exposed current or former victims of domestic or peer abuse and violence (Odenbring et al., 2015) and their experience can be used to change their own beliefs and behaviour. Moreover, educational interventions are becoming standard pedagogic tools that are mostly aimed at the legal and psychological dimensions of the issue (Lloyd, 2018). They are widely used in both institutional and community settings and have proven to be effective to deal with young individuals’ life crisis and to prepare the latter for ‘violence free relationships’ in the future (Adelman, Rosenberg & Hobart, 2016; Gabriel et al., 2018; Heaven Oakland, n./d.; Owen, Antle & Quirk, 2017).

The literature review found that the issue has been a widely discussed and multifaceted legal, psychological, medical and scientific (educational dimension) problem for over the last decades (Crowther Dowey, Gillespie & Hopkins, 2016; Parkinson & Rogers, 2019). The targeted domestic abuse prevention education programmes are run either at secondary schools (World Health Organization, 2019) or by public organisations (European Union, n./d.). They are aimed at cultivating a new culture of interpersonal relationships at schools and raise public awareness of domestic abuse and violence (Lloyd, 2018; Wagner, Jones, Tsaroucha & Cumbers, 2019; McKibbin & Humphreys, 2020). There are still debates in the literature concerning whether the domestic abuse and violence prevention education interventions should be based on a gendered approach (Stanley, Ellis & Bell, 2011; Fenton & Mott, 2017). As it was found, those programmes are delivered in conventional educational settings and using conventional pedagogical tools. For example, the “Safe to Learn” initiative intends to train children’s life skills through the organised activities ‘to shape their attitudes and norms’ at schools (World Health Organization, 2019). The Master’s degree course entitled “Abuse and gender violence: an interdisciplinary vision” also used

1. Introduction

2. Materials and methods

purpose of the study was to identify how family abuse and violence could be addressed via a non formal educational environment seen as a pedagogical tool at university.

3. What were the involved students’ perceptions of the project delivery format?

The study found few resources on intervention programmes to have been run in non formal settings at university and formally evaluated which created the gap for the Therefore,research.the

1. How did the prevention programme entitled “Legal and Psychological Domains of Domestic Abuse and Violence” impact on students’ awareness of legal and psychological aspects of domestic abuse and violence?

conventional university approach to engage students to explore the issue from different perspectives (“Master’s course in gender violence”, 2015). The specialised training and certification programmes for the professionals working in the field of domestic violence prevention and elimination are also delivered conventionally (Stover & Lent, 2014; Domestic Violence Resource Centre Victoria, However,n./d.). this approach might seem to be quite tactless in some delicate situations that are better tackled in a non determined environment in the community like atmosphere (Goldman, Assaraf & Shaharabani, 2013).

The study utilised an exploratory single-case study design based on one group pre test and post test data and was conducted at Volodymyr Vynnychenko Central Ukrainian State Pedagogical University. Quantitative and qualitative data were drawn from observations of sampled students’ performance in the randomised experiment and through interviews with them. The Attitudes towards Domestic Violence Questionnaire (ADV) designed by Fox and Gadd (2012) was used to explore changes in students’ perceptions of men’s and women’s behaviour in situations of conflicts. The quiz entitled “Dimensions and dynamics of family violence” (AVERT Family Violence, 2010) (the legal domain of the issue) was administered to measure the impact of the programme entitled “Legal and Psychological Domains of Domestic Abuse and Violence” on the students’ awareness of legal and psychological consequences of the domestic abuse and violence. The variables for the study were students’ awareness of legal and psychological aspects of domestic abuse and violence, students’ gender related perception of committing abusive and/or violent actions by men and women in family settings.

The study sought to address the research questions below:

2. How did the prevention programme entitled “Legal and Psychological Domains of Domestic Abuse and Violence” impact on students’ gender related perception of committing abusive and/or violent actions by men and women in family settings?

Figure 1: “Legal and Psychological Domains of Domestic Abuse and Violence” programme design

The topics for the sessions were related to forms of domestic abuse and violence, the ways to recognise them, legal punishments for committing them, effects of domestic abuse on a young person, victimisation and barriers to leaving, means and ways of dealing with conﬂicts, risks and causes for the commitment of family violence and abuse, etc (see the topics outlined in Table 1). The format for the Mock Talk Show was adapted from The Oprah Winfrey TV Show© and the cases for the ‘shows’ were borrowed from the La Strada Ukraine (n./d.). This is the NGO that actively promotes information and provides training on prevention and social assistance, and is active in the improvement of national legislation on human trafficking, sexual exploitation of children, violence, discrimination and human rights in Ukraine.

The prevention programme entitled “Legal and Psychological Domains of Domestic Abuse and Violence” was designed to train the students in dealing with conflicts and to raise students’ awareness of legal aspects of the issue (see the structure of the programme visualised in Fig. 1). The training was followed by Mock Talk Shows aimed at analysing real cases on the issues of domestic violence and abuse. Ten sessions were delivered once in two weeks throughout the period from September to the end of December of 2019 by expert practitioners and Mock Talk Shows were held by the research team members supported by invited practitioners who delivered the classes. They were domestic violence lawyers, domestic violence counsellors (psychologists and psychiatrists), and domestic violence social workers working in the field for more than ten years.

2.1. The programme

“Legal and DomesticPsychologicalDomainsofAbuse and Violence” MockShowsTalk Legalclassescounselling Conflictologybasicsclasses Case studies

2 8

7 Effects of domestic abuse on a young person: gender issues. Victimisation and barriers to leaving: gender issues. Mock Talk Show. 2

Quiz entitled “Strategies for Coping with Unhealthy Family Behaviour” (Study.com, n./d.)

5 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Table 1: The outline of the topics distributed by session and hours dedicated to each topic session# Topic Hours 1 Forms of domestic abuse and violence. How to recognise them. 2 2 Legal punishments for committing them. Analysing cases. 2 3 Mock Talk Show. 2 4 Legal counselling basics. Building up mutual trust. Case study. Simulations. 2 5 Ethical issues of legal counselling on family violence and abuse. Written communication. Persuasion techniques. 2 6 Risks and causes for the commitment of family violence and abuse. 2

9 How to deal with abuse based conﬂicts in a family. Analysing cases.

2 10 Mock Talk Show. 2 “Safe Families Club” as a non formal learning environment was set up to run the experiment. The project was advertised to potential participants using presentations, posters, and announcements at some lectures. The objective of this was to involve volunteers who were sensitive to the issue of domestic abuse and violence and agreed to further assist the experts who ran educational prevention interventions at three schools located in Kropyvnytskyi Town.

2.2. Sampling Simple random sampling was used to hire volunteers for the study. Forty three students in their second, third, and fourth years, majoring in Psychology, Law, and Journalism of Volodymyr Vynnychenko Central Ukrainian State Pedagogical University were encouraged to apply for participation in the training programme. The primary rationale for selecting those majors was the fact that the topic of domestic abuse and violence was related to the students’ specialism. They were supposed to write a motivation letter which was used to shortlist 30 students for the interview. It was conducted by a panel of two psychology experts in the field of domestic violence and abuse. It included the questions as follows: 1) What do you see as triggers of violence and abuse in families? 2) If you were your father, how would you react to some misbehaviours of yours in the classroom? 3) Describe the worst argument you had with someone from your family and how you coped with it, etc. The selection criteria were non violent thinking, non proneness to aggressive dominance, or gender humiliation, being a non vulnerable person. As the study utilised one group design, twenty one students (13 females aged between 19 and 22 and 8 males aged between 19 and 21) were sampled for the intervention. They were considered mutually homogeneous as they had gone through the above selection procedure. At this stage, the pre treatment measurements, including the Attitudes towards Domestic Violence

MS Office Excel Software was used to consolidated and process the data drawn from the interview.

The questionnaire on attitudes towards domestic violence proved to be an effective tool that can be used to assess the effectiveness of domestic abuse prevention programmes (Fox, Gadd & Sim, 2015). At the pre test stage, it aimed at exploring students’ experience of domestic violence and abuse as victims, perpetrators and as witnesses.

2.3. Major research related ethical issues Before the experiment, written informed consent was obtained from the sampled students to address the confidentiality of their personal information (Cacciattolo, 2015; Akaranga & Makau, 2016). The “primum non nocere” [“first, do no harm”] principle was followed at every stage of the study to avoid or minimise any deliberate or potential harm. The sampled students were treated as non vulnerable (Drew, Hardman & Hosp, 2008) for a reason being that they lived on campus but not with their families.

2.4. Instruments

Additionally, the questionnaire for interviewing sampled students was used to obtain qualitative data. It comprised five open ended questions which were as 1)follows:Howdid the programme influence your beliefs?

2) What were your gains from this programme?

4) What were the problems you faced or challenged as a participant and assistant in the project?

Questionnaire (ADV) and a quiz entitled “Family Violence & Abuse” (ClickLaw WikiBooks, n./d.) were administered.

The study used such quantitative tools as observation reports, evaluation sheets, student attendance records, the Questionnaire on Attitudes towards Domestic Violence (ADV) (Fox & Gadd, 2012) and quizzes entitled “Family Violence & Abuse” (ClickLaw WikiBooks, n./d.) and “Dimensions and dynamics of family violence” (AVERT Family Violence, 2010). To ensure the reliability of the observation reports, behavioural code description was developed and three assessors were hired to take records. Data were simultaneously collected by all assessors on each separate session. Kappa Online Calculator (Statistics Solution, n./d.) was used to assesses the inter rater reliability of three raters drawn from the observation reports, evaluation sheets, student attendance records. The kappa coefficient was 0.74 which was substantial and proved that the measurements were reliable.

5) What do you suggest improving so that the programme addressed those problems?

IBM SPSS Statistics software was used to process the above data.

3) Did you appreciate the non formal format of the pedagogical engagement?

The change in perceptions of committing abusive and/or violent actions by men and women in family settings also took place after the intervention (see Table 3).

Before

The repeated measurements of the students’ awareness of legal and psychological aspects of domestic abuse and violence (see Table 2), students’ gender related perception of committing abusive and/or violent actions by men and women in family settings proved the relationship between participation of the students in the prevention programme and the changes to have occurred in the variables.

Table 3: Change in approval of abusive and/or violent actions by men and women in the family to have taken place due to the intervention based on the ADV questionnaire (12 item version), item total correlations (ITC), before and after the intervention questionof# Intervention After Intervention �� responsesof approval,% ITC �� responsesof approval,% ITC 1 20 83 .637 17 31 .560 2 16 39 .641 19 21 .591 3 21 47 .608 20 12 .598 4 13 56 .557 21 18 .512

Table 2: Relation between the participation of the students in the programme and their awareness of family abuse expressed as proportions of correct/incorrect answers in quizzes before and after the intervention, in % �� Before Intervention After Intervention ��“Family Violence & Abuse” Quiz “Dimensions and dynamics of family violence” Quiz �� =21 IA CA IA CA 1953% 47% 33% 67% Note: IA incorrect answers; CA correct answers. As can be seen, the proportion of the correct answers increased by 20% which indicated the programme boosted students’ knowledge related to the issue.

The results that were obtained at pre test and post test stages through the questionnaire on attitudes towards domestic violence and compared at the post test stage showed a decrease in victimisation (before the intervention: ��10891 = 4.02;��=0.41; p < .001 VS after the intervention ��09214 =3.79;��=0.37;��<.001) and perpetration (before the intervention: ��1.1062 = 13.31; �� = 0.04; �� < .001 VS after the intervention: ��09932 =11.79;��=0.33;��< .001) characteristics in the sampled students. It suggested that the educational environment raised students’ self confidence in dealing with violent actions towards them.

The prevention programme entitled “Legal and Psychological Domains of Domestic Abuse and Violence” and “Safe Families Club” have appeared to be the most significant result of this research which brought a number of benefits to the sampled students.

The figures in Table 3 illustrated a marked decrease in the approval of abusive and violent deeds of partners in family settings. The observation reports of the research team members and evaluation sheets also proved that the students suggested two primary justifiable reasons for abuse or violence from both sides (from men or women): who attacked or hurt first and who cheated first. Moreover, females are easier than males to forgive their partners either abuse or violence or cheating in their family relationships. Seven out of eight sampled male students tended to justify a violent or abusive response in the situations in which women were drunk or drugged or they humiliated/offended males in some way (especially publicly), they were angry and shouted at males.

Table 4: Students’ pre test and post test measurement results in the knowledge of core aspects of domestic abuse and violence and their skills and abilities to deal with them, expressed as mean values obtained from measurements before and after the intervention N KCLA KCPA SA Cronbac h’s alpha SD t p valueB A B A B A n=21 57.87 74.11 48.58 69.13 43.21 69.11 (>0.7830.7) 721 0.73 0.38 Note: B Before; A After; KCLA ‒ knowledge of core legal aspects; KCPA knowledge of core psychological aspects; SA ‒ skills and abilities to deal with the issues.

8 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. 5 20 35 .656 14 11 .523 6 18 51 .643 18 17 .511 7 19 63 .669 17 22 .533 8 15 78 .778 15 32 .611 9 21 74 .634 20 29 .602 10 21 66 .671 20 24 .594 11 17 41 .665 18 18 .601 12 19 52 .751 21 22 .627 Note: The questions are laid out in the order they appear on the questionnaire. ITC Item total correlation

Question 1. How did the programme influence your beliefs? Seventeen respondents reported a radical change in their attitudes to some domestic abusive and violent behaviours. Four participants were still convinced that women’s behaviour was the key trigger of a conflict in a family.

The above suggests that the sampled students experienced a statistically significant change (of approximately 16%) in awareness of legal and psychological aspects of domestic violence and abuse and improved their skills of dealing with them.

The figures in Table 4 reveal the shift in sampled students’ knowledge of core legal and psychological aspects of domestic abuse and violence and their skills and abilities to deal with them before and after the intervention.

3.1. Results of Semi-structured Interview (EG students, ��=��, �� = ��)

Question 2. What were your gains from this programme? Twelve people reported that they learned how to control their behaviour when the conflict situation

4. Discussion This study has been the first attempt in Ukraine to evaluate the effectiveness of using prevention programme entitled “Legal and Psychological Domains of Domestic Abuse and Violence” delivered through a non formal environment at university and how this programme influenced students’ gender related perceptions of committing abusive and/or violent actions by men and women in family settings. Additionally, it aimed at exploring students’ perceptions of the project delivery format. It was found that the students’ awareness of legal and psychological aspects of domestic abuse and violence increased by about 20%, the approval of abusive and violent deeds of partners in family settings decrease by approximatelysubstantially, the students’ skills of dealing with domestic violence and abuse and improved by about 16%. The results that were obtained at pre test and post test stages through the questionnaire on attitudes towards domestic violence and compared at the post test stage showed a decrease in victimisation and perpetration characteristics in the sampled students, which indicated that the educational environment raised students’ self confidence in dealing with violent actions towards them. The above results addressed the questions of this study and complied with literature highlighting best prevention practices in coping with domestic abuse and violence (European Institute for Gender Equality, 2015; Katz & McGuire, 2018; Pisani Altafim & Martins Linhares, 2016). The findings, which were in line with previous studies (Institute of Medicine and National Research Council, 1998), from the study proved that the quality of educational prevention intervention improved when conducted jointly by a practitioner from the issue field and an educator. This is due to the fact (Grimmer, 2016) that young people are sensitive to issues like trust, betrayal, love, friendship, and respect the experts’ opinions, trust them more than their relatives or friends.

emerged. Seven people confessed that training sessions developed their self confidence when dealing with people causing trouble. One student reported progress in communication with ‘difficult’ people. One participant found the programme useful for their relationships.

Question 3. Did you appreciate the non formal format of the pedagogical engagement? Eleven people found the format to be optimal for this very issue. Eight people stated it was OK for them. Two participants stated that the format did not fit their learning style.

Question 4. What were the problems you faced or challenged as a participant and assistant in the project? Two respondents reported they were overloaded with information. Two participants stated that the format did not fit their learning style.

Question 5. What do you suggest improving so that the programme addressed those problems? Nineteen students suggested training them in NLP and debating before the intervention. The students’ responses to the interview questions imply that students were generally positive about the format of the project and appreciated the outcomes.

The results of the study might be challenged because of the number of sampled students, the duration of the experiment, and instrumentation used to obtain statistical data. Moreover, the study did not assess the actual behaviour of the respondents but only their attitudes towards domestic violence and abuse. The results of the research only rely on one group of sampled students. And one can argue that there is no alternative explanation of the results

The study goes in line with Fox, Hale & Gadd (2014) stating that the concerns related with domestic abuse and violence in young people should be anticipated in the student tailored education programmes in the class and out of class activities at school and university. This was also found in the study that non formal university settings and the age of the students were favourable prerequisites for addressing domestic abuse and violence. This study is also consistent with the findings of Roy, Lindsay & Dallaire, (2013) whose research demonstrated the importance of establishing cooperation with the specialist facilitators from external agencies to support teachers in the educational interventions of this kind.

The study showed that the non formal university settings have the potential to enrich pedagogic tools for addressing domestic abuse and violence. The prevention intervention organised in the way presented had a positive impact on students’ awareness of legal and psychological aspects of domestic abuse and violence, students’ perceptions of committing abusive and/or violent actions by men and women in family settings. It was validated by measurements, observations, and students’ feedbacks. The pre test and post test results proved that the project to have been delivered through the non formal educational environment had a positive outcome in terms of a reduction of victimisation and perpetration characteristics in involved students and an increase in students’ self confidence in tackling violent actions towards them in both family and educational environment.

The experiment provides a new insight into the prevention educational project management that can be delivered non formally and with the involvement of the expert facilitators from the external institutions.

4.1. Limitations of the study

The results obtained directly and indirectly from the research implied that the issue is still gender stereotyped and young people need extensive training in establishing and maintaining relationships with representatives of the opposite gender. The programmes of such kind should be incorporated into the university curriculum as an optional or elective course. Furthermore, both teachers’ and involved experts’ knowledge of students’ experiences and learning preferences are a prerequisite for success of this intervention.

5. Conclusion

The reason forthis is thathigh rates of abuse and violence, to have been performed to and by young people, are found (see the Introduction section). The study contributed to the pedagogic domain of dealing with the issue of family abuse and violence by exploring non formal university settings.

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Towards De-Colonial Agitations in University Classrooms: The Quest for Afrocentric Pedagogy

Bunmi Isaiah Omodan and Bekithemba Dube University of the Free State Republic of South Africa

Abstract. This study empirically conceptualised and rationalised decoloniality as a way to bridge the vacuumed of Americentric classroom hegemony in an attempt to reposition classroom with Afrocentricism as a dominant practice in Universities. “Ubuntugogy” as a transformational deviation from the Americentric teaching and learning is adopted as a theoretical framework. The study is situated in the transformative paradigm because its focus is to propose “ubuntugogy” as a way to deconstruct Eurocentric hegemony in university classrooms. Critical Emancipatory Research CER as an epistemological movement that is channelled towards emancipation and freedom from ideological enslavement is used as research design, and the participants consist of 10 people, 5 actively experienced lecturers, and 5 students were selected in the QwaQwa campus of the University of the Free State. Free attitude interview was used to collect data from the participant and the data collected were analysed using Thomas and Harden’s three steps of thematic analysis. The study found out that the curriculum and the perpendicular of language and cultural diversities, and colonization of mind and irresistible western classroom system are the significant challenges of implementing “ubuntugogy” in the classroom. The study subsequently proposed curriculum adjustment to accommodate trans languaging and cultural diversities, and inculcation of self worth and self esteem to respond to the western irresistibility in the system with the conclusion that Afrocentric classroom may be one dimensional and thus needs to be redirected to speak to the issues of globalization

Keywords: university classrooms; decoloniality; ubuntugogy; afrocentricism; modernity

1. Introduction 21st century classroom activities is characterised with the leftover of coloniality otherwise acknowledged as modernity. Though the spate of modernity sounds progressively inevitable to the echelon of school and schooling, most especially in the global south, its trajectories have become a compulsory devil to the factorisation and production of indigenous knowledge. In our argument, these

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may not wholly take away the beauty of educational advancement and national productivity, but the sociality, socialisation, discoverability and ingenious constructivism are wallowing in the abyss of oblivion. This is supported by Musitha and Mafukata (2018) and Omodan (2019), that the South Africa education system still battling with the consequentiality of the Bantu education. This lacuna is connected to the Eurocentric classroom mapping in our schools. In these observations, no level of education in South Africa is exempted. This may be the reason why Rodney (2012) proposed that “Africa should develop its model of development” to jettison the modernised coloniality and euro centrism in schools.

In this article, we are joining our proposition with the assumptions of Lebeloane (2018) that the curriculum deserves to be reconstructed to pave ways for the implementers (Teachers/Lectures) who are the major classroom practitioners (Omodan, Ekundayo & Omodan, 2018). That is, the curriculum must be reconstructed to accommodate ethics and ethos of inclusivity, internalization of indigenous knowledge, disengagement of the indignity of language, indiscriminate sociality, and social justice. By ensuring these postulations, the content knowledge that encompasses self determined knowledge construction, historically inclined ways of idealizing, pragmatic realities as means of knowing will be determined by the environmental and epistemological realities within learners’ conferment. However, the classroom on its own is not abstract, and it does not exist alone without the students, teachers/lecturers and above all, the instinct of actualizing students’ achievement and school productivity. This means that human beings are the classroom and to which classroom is set to affect, therefore, to erase the mirage of discourse from the deoloniality, the minds and the mindset of the subjects must be decolonized Decolonising the mindset is a confirmation to the fact that Eurocentric and Americentric classroom is not only from the intensity of the coloniality (Mignolo, 2011; Ndlovu Gatsheni, 2015) but the inability of the colonised to discover the endemic of natural thinking, idealizing and “doing”. Hence, the idea of deconstruction of students and teachers/lecturers’ mind cannot be disconnected from the classroom decoloniality. Though the curriculum is the guiding principles cum policies for teachers/lecturers and students, but the mindset to bring it to reality is fundamental to individual perspective of the socio ecological realities of the classroom. From this, the quest to define and redefine own experience beyond the idea of the long standing coloniality becomes activated. This, as described by Ngũgĩ (1986) as the politics and politicking of language in African literature, is a constructive role in cultural transition, historical reorientation, and love for social identity, which in our argument is called Africanism. From this narrative, one could conclude that the epistemologically “dismembered” ideas as a result of Euro/Americentric pedagogies could be re launched.

2. The place of Curriculum in Afrocentric Pedagogy

The school’s curriculum itself has been conceptualized from multidisciplinary dimensions to mean what and how, when, and why the education system wants its students to learn an arranged content planned for them in schools. Though arguments exist that curriculum could be planned and thought, most fundamentally could be taught as live (Lebeloane, 2017). This rationale behind curriculum being taught as live, in our view, is to avail the students’ enablement to be able to critique the way and process of implementation, which is one of the beauties of decoloniality and “ubuntugogy”. In order to ensure unhindered decolonization in university classrooms, the idea of Le Grange (2017) about the various forms of the curriculum cannot be underrated. He deconstructs curriculum in the classroom into two, which are explicit, hidden or null. The explicit curriculum according to Lebeloane (2017) is a deliberately planned learning content that exposes learners to the exigencies of themselves and their environment, ranging from the past, present and the future. This kind of curriculum according to Le Grange (2017) provides learners with skills to critique, question and ameliorate issues by way of critical thinking. Some of the materials or tools used in the type of curriculum are expert presentations, textbooks, and readers among others. In our argument, it appears that this kind of curriculum could enable learners to individually construct knowledge by the virtue of what he thinks is best because it does allow the student to ask questions to how and why. On the other hand, the hidden curriculum is the one that indoctrinates the practitioners, which include students, teachers, lecturers, among others into the dominant culture and values of the colonisers (Le Grange, 2017; Lebeloane, 2017). This we think is the fact that the content and the freedom to critique and ask questions are not made known or taught in schools. In the quest to decolonize the practical space, one could start to ask questions such as

In order to ensure Afrocentricism in the space of Africa education and most especially in classroom ecology, a concerted effort is needed to consistently propel our education documents such as curriculum and other policies that bother more on educational development. A redoubled effort in propelling the idea of Africanising our curricular in South Africa and elsewhere in Africa needs a serious study of the idea of Apartheid and if we have completely de linked ourselves from its rationality. This is what is needed to be able to delink our epistemological praxis from the westerners. This idea of epistemological disconnection according to Odora Hoppers and Matiwana (2017) will ensure a perfectly deconstructed Eurocentric way of doing. This according to him is because South African and other African countries still produce knowledge in line with the mirage of modernity. This is to say that the curriculum status quo must be interrogated to establish what appeases the current way of generating knowledge and give credence to ingenious knowledge as a practical concept. This according to Luckett (2016) may not be achieved except if we start questioning the temerity of who decides what counts, what knowledge is valid, and to whom should take the lead, among others. This was supported by Joseph (2017), that in order to dis expand the colonial archive, the knowledge and the historical development relating to curriculum must be deconstructed.

Our encounter with many lecturers and students on the trajectories of classroom decoloniality makes me conclude that the mind of the lecturers is somewhat stuck to the implementation of foreign ways of doing, at the expense of cultural and local inclination. Our encounter with students, most especially those studying science related courses, showed that many contents in the classroom are completely strange and unable to link them to any concrete and practical realities around them. Among many observations, universities in South Africa, most especially those located in the rural ecology, are far from opening the space for local and or indigenous

3. Situating the Problems as lack of Africanised Pedagogy in the Universities

5Wh; why, when, what, who, and how. Even the colonization of the mindset may not be far from the hidden curriculum that is ideally Eurocentric.

In order to challenge the Eurocentric or Americentric classroom “way of doing”, the contributions of university education in Africa cannot be underrated. This level of education is the universal community of scholars. This is assumed to contain various pieces of knowledge. It is where the face of a nation, to some extent, is the light to the darkness as created by the coloniality. The problem of this study, therefore, rests on the fact that observations and experiences showed that universities even other levels of education had neglected the aesthetic of indigenous knowledge (Senanayake, 2006; Kaya & Seleti, 2013). This is to say that, the foreign way of doing has been accepted “hook line and sinker,” not minding the locality of the differentiation in the environmental fragmentation, cultural relativism, and the ecological prowess of all the stakeholders both lectures and students are the order of the day. Even the organogram and administrative functionality of the universities is not an exemption. Though this article is only addressing the teaching and learning by defacing the long standing Eurocentric classroom mapping and replacing it with pedagogy that is fitted to accommodate the use of local knowledge in the process of knowledge construction. This is argued to mean Afrocentric Pedagogy.

However, it is observed that the “natural way of doing”, which could mean “indigenous way of doing” is perceived to have been taken away the hegemony of sense of belonging on the part of university teachers and students. This problem could be linked to the national and university curriculum that arrested the Afrocentric classroom constructivism instead of converging with the personal and social needs of curriculum implementers (Odora Hoppers, 2001). This may have hindered the teachers and students’ social dimension of knowledge construction by interpreting the issues below the value and cultural lenses and awareness, making it looks like our own way of doing are below the standard (Van Wyk, 2002). In line with this argument, though knowledge is linked to interest and power domination (Badat, 1997) which is peculiar to current university pedagogy the dominance of the long standing coloniality in the system. This according to Avis (1996) has regarded knowledge production as hegemonic practices that propagated the rise in poverty, power dominance and social breakdown in general productivity. Besides, our observation also shows that the mindset of teachers, students, and other stakeholder are Eurocentric.

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. knowledge productions. Even, the instructional materials that are used as aids to learning are not exemplifying or relating to known knowledge. Classrooms in the observed universities have been conducted from the “unknown to unknown” as against “known to unknown” practice. This study is however determined to empirically conceptualise and rationalise decoloniality as a way to bridge the vacuumed of Americentric classroom hegemony.

4. Theoretical Framework: “Ubuntugogy” as an Approach

This study is grounded in the concept of “ubuntugogy” which in our view is Afrocentric pedagogy that is rooted in Africanism called “Ubuntu”. Ubuntugogy was propounded in 2005 and argued by Bangura to the best hidden pedagogy, which was branded by the qualities of culturalism, environmentalism, and Afrocentricism (Ganyi & Owan, 2016). However, “Ubuntugogy” metamorphosed from the philosophy of “Ubuntu”; Ubuntu, etymologically emanated from Xhosa and Zulu languages (Samkange & Samkange: 1980) which means Humanity and or Humanness (Omodan & Tsoetsi 2019). This is to say that Ubuntu could be referred to as the quality of being human and humane (Tworeck et al., 2015). These were conceptualised as “a person is a person through others” (Khomba, 2011). From the above, ubuntugogy could be said to mean an Africanised way of teaching and learning. This was conceptualised by Bangura (2017) as an “art and science of teaching and learning that is dominated by humanity and love towards others”. From the above, we can make bold to argue along with Ganyi and Owan (2016) that “ubuntugogy” is a transformational deviation from the Amenricentric teaching and learning otherwise called “pedagogy.”

Ubuntugogy is, however, a system of teaching and learning that is centered on the utilisation of indigenous and Africanised teaching and learning aids in the classroom where culturalism and environmentalism take the lead (Bangura, 2015) in the teaching and learning input, process and output. This could also be referred to as Afrocentric pedagogy. This theory is relevant in this study because it propels the utilisation and galvanization of culturally and environmentally inclined teaching aids, material and practice to dominate the process of knowledge construction in the classroom. This will enable learners and the teachers and in case of the university system, the students and the lecturers to get along. This could manifest quick knowledge and assimilation because African people are confirmed to crush on the process that enables employment of indigenous spices to discourse. Such an atmosphere enables the lecturers to dispense knowledge from the known to unknown. That is, when classroom content is dispensed and simplified to the students using local examples and materials, it will open their reasoning and be able to link the concept from environmentalism thereby enhance their assimilation. In other to be able to achieve this and inject it into the reality of the university classrooms, the following research question and aim guided the study.

Free attitude interview was used to collect data from the participant; this method of data generation is considered appropriate because it enables the participants to discuss the issue as it appears to them. Free attitude interview is regarded as a conversation that uncovers real thoughts about a particular phenomenon (Creswell et al., 2016), and it helps the researcher to understand people, their sociality, and the nature of the problem they live with (Mahoko, Omodan & Tsotetsi, 2019). The data collected was analysed using three steps of

• The study probed into the possible solution to the challenges with more focus on the implementation of “ubuntugogy”.

The question of “how to concretize Afrocentric classroom practices to decolonize the euro centric classroom hegemony” piloted the study. In order to do justices to this empirical discourse, the inconsistencies in the university classrooms and the failure of its system to accommodate Afrocentric constructivism will be explored.

6. Objectives of the Study

This is situated in the transformative paradigm because its focus is to propose ubuntugogy as a way to deconstruct Eurocentric hegemony in university classrooms. Besides, the ontology and epistemic stance informing the study is concerned with the social and historical nature in correlation to the classroom reality (Chilisa, 2013). Critical Emancipatory Research (CER) is adopted as a research design for this study, and this is adopted to enable researcher to understand and respond to the issue of classroom sociality and interrogate social justices in the curriculum implementation. In the argument of Dube (2016) and Ngwenyama (1992), CER is a break away ideology from Frankfurt school which is centered towards reformation. In a similar perspective, CER is an epistemological movement that is channeled towards emancipation and freedom from ideological enslavement (Dube & Hlalele, 2018). That is, this choice of design exposes the participant to the systematic social and ideological enslavement eroded in Eurocentric pedagogy. CER is, therefore, appropriate to stand as a foundation for this research process because it stands as anti injustices; it promotes emancipation and encourages freedom in the research process for transformation. The research participants comprise of five university students, and five lecturers in the Qwaqwa campus of the university of the Free State, South Africa, totaling ten participants, who are active in classroom activities, the selected student were fourth year and postgraduate honour students who are assumed to be much experienced in university pedagogy. The selected lecturers are those with at least four years’ experience in the system with active classroom experience.

Based on the research question and aims of the study, the following research objectives paved the way to unravel the problem of Afrocentricism in university classrooms;

• The study investigated the challenges associated with the implementation of Afrocentric Classroom pedagogy.

5. Research Question and Aim of the Study

7. Methodology

Sub themes under objective one that was analysed based on themes from the raw data are; curriculum and the perpendicular of language and cultural diversities, and colonization of mind and irresistible western classroom system. These were derived from the participants’ statements and triangulated with literature. For stressless reading, the Lecturers were represented as LT while students were represented as ST in the analysis below;

The results from this study were informed by the implementation of the methodological stance as stated above, the principle of CER as research design was fully followed and the data generated through the interview were coded, schematised and analysed based on the objectives of the study. The objectives were to explore the challenges associated with the implementation of the Afrocentric teaching learning system in the University classroom and to provide possible solutions to the challenges to establish the need for Africanism in the classroom.

analysis prescribed by (Thomas & Harden, 2008), these steps according to them involve coding text, developing descriptive themes, and generating analytical meaning from the coded text. This becomes relevant to this study because it enables the researcher to arrange the data according to the objectives of the study. This further ensures the readers a coherence and cohesion of understanding of the research and its findings.

Delinking, separating, and or distancing learners from Eurocentric pedagogy in university classrooms could not be done in isolation if at all it is going to see the light of the day. This is because no system of teaching and learning exist without curriculum or policy backup, not only which, the language of teaching and learning is also essential in classroom activities, management, and knowledge production. This in line with the fact that curriculum and other policy document is needed to delink epistemological praxis that could ensure a complete disconnection of eurocentric knowledge construct (Odora Hoppers & Matiwana, 2017) from educational practitioners and replace it with Africentric way of doing and thinking. This is the ideal that is expected in the reality of this discourse but the reverse is the case in the system as the participants' statements seem to contradict. See the statements below;

LT2: “Inadequacy of indigenous instructors in schools has made all of us accept foreign classroom culture as the best and it remains like that”

LT3: “Lack of resources relevant to the curriculum/shortage of textual resources to refer to... Lessons that could incorporate Indigenous Knowledge could be time consuming”

8. Results and Findings

9.1 Curriculum and the Perpendicular of Language and Cultural diversities

9. The challenges associated with the implementation of Afrocentric Classroom pedagogy

The use or not of this indigenized teaching and learning at times is not the sole problem of the lecturer. According to the participants' statements, it bothers more on the issue of diversities in South African classrooms. See the following statements; LT5: “Since a classroom consists of diversity, another challenge would be, to know which IK from which cultures would be more relevant in a diverse ST1:classroom...”“Afrocentric education/ curriculum is one dimensional and does may not speak to the issues of the global context and therefore in an ever evolving world where the education system seeks to produce 21st century and global citizens, Afrocentric curricula may be irrelevant as it only speaks to the history of one people”.

The statement from LT1 lament that even there are approval ways with which the classroom could be decolonised in the way of using “ubuntugogy”, there are limited lecturers who can understand and implement the niti gritty of such idea. These scenarios according to him have practically made the people more westernized to the extent that it may be difficult to retrace the hegemony of Eurocentric in African classroom mostly in universities. Lack of human capital such as lecturer to implement indigenous knowledge across the classes is the only contributing factor to the challenges, but lack and shortage of locally inclined materials and school resources according to the statement of LT3 is not helping the mater. His idea could mean that the use of indigenous teaching aids may exist but are not enough to ensure consistent use of indigenized teaching aids all the time. The last statement of the LT3 also confirmed that the use of indigenized teaching aids is not time friendly. To think of it, the intention is to say that the use will not allow the lecturer to quickly address the needed issues in classroom as and when due. This is not practically far from the fact that the curriculum and/or the policy book that is piloting the university education in South Africa is either silent or inactive about the incorporation of local content.

In the statement of LT5, one could confirm that the trajectory of classroom diversities in South Africa, that is, that classroom consists of people from different cultures that come with different socio political economic and cultural backgrounds. In this case, it may be difficult for a lecturer to choose which indigenous artefact or history and ways of going is better employed. Besides, the lecturer may even not be familiar with more than one of two cultural and environmental backgrounds. Therefore, such a teacher does not have a choice than to use generally accepted teaching practices in the classroom. This is not far from the analysis of ST1, who stressed that the Afrocentric curriculum is one dimensional too and does not accommodate diversities of people that can support the best global practice. This according to her is irrelevant. Moreover, our understanding is because Afrocentric pedagogy may not accommodate the people’s choice, most notably in the university system, where people from various countries converge in the search for knowledge. However, the issue of diversity that comes with language differences surface and because more problematic to the implementation of indigenous knowledge. This is confirmed by the responses below;

This challenge is not new in the education system, and it is perceived that the system is inclined with the western way of doing that is uneasy to be dismantled based on its long standing practices of modernity. This idea is not too far from what has dominated the mind of the lecturers and the students. This according to Van Wyk (2002) have hindered the socially constructed knowledge and interpretation of values and culturalism because the westernized mindset of the practitioners portraits the Africanised way of doing as below standards. This is

9.2 Colonisation of Mind and Irresistible Western Classroom System

The statement from LT2 gives a severe concern about the possibility of having one language as Africans, which is practically in our view not achievement anytime soon. Even in a country, there are many languages, South Africa, for example, has up to 12 different languages that come with their peculiarities, etc. This is in line with the argument of Ngũgĩ (1986) which states that there are politics and politicking of language in African literature that clamoured for social identity. This idea is not in isolation as the ST3 confirmed that it is challenging to believe in the African way of life as a result of the unstable political system that has characterized the continent. Maybe this statement is coming as a result of politics that has been involving in the formulation and implementation of policies and even curriculum. This trust diversion may not be the focus of this study, but it gives meaning to the reason why many implementers may not even trust the people in power for curriculum and policy formulations. He further stressed that African pedagogy needs a very long way to go. From the above, it is evidenced that curriculum and university education policies are not very kin in the inculcation of Africanized way of practices in the classroom and that the Language in the place of diversities is a significant challenge in the classroom that is diverse like South Africa. This finding is supported by Joseph (2017), that the only way to ensure indignity as against the colonial archive, the knowledge and the historical development relating to curriculum must be deconstructed. From the above analysis, it is therefore found out that the Africanised factors are not yet in the curriculum, and the perpendicular of Language and Cultural diversities is confirmed to be a challenge to the implementation of Africanised knowledge production in the classroom. This finding also goes in consonance with the agitation of Lebeloane (2018) that the curriculum deserves to be reconstructed to pave ways for the implementers. This is practically what the agitation for decoloniality through ubuntugogy is preaching. That is, to ensure the possibilities of Ubuntugogy as a way of decoloniality, the curriculum and languaging will not be an extraneous variable in the process. Because decoloniality and ubuntugogy according to Ganyi and Owan (2016, p. 35) is transformational teaching and learning which could make teaching and learning process more acceptably productive to students.

ST3: “It is difficult to even begin believing in African ways of life in this political era, most especially in the classroom. So, in other words, African pedagogy still needs a lot of development for curriculum purposes”

LT2 “Considering the place of African languages in the in a Eurocentric society. Can they coexist or does it have to be either one of the languages”

From the above analysis, it seems that it may not be easy to completely decolonised classroom for the purpose of re establishing “ubuntugogy”. The reason for this may not be restricted only to the fact that practitioners have been systematically colonised from the aspect of knowledge construction. But another fact emerging from the field is that almost all the practitioners are western trained. See the statements below; LT2: “it is going to be a challenge to decolonise the African classrooms because most of the teachers, as well as the children, are raised in a modern L4:way”“Influx of foreign teachers/lecturers who do not have indigenous knowledge of teaching into the schools”.

ST4: “beside the classroom, even there is no much written work that is in the African context”

evident in the fact that knowledge is linked to interest and power domination (Badat, 1997), which is the dominance of the long standing coloniality in the universities. This has gone a long way to congest the mindset of the people to believing that only acceptable ways of doing are the westernized and anything short of that is targeted uncivilized. This does not only exist in our observations and literature but also in the participants' statements as illustrated below;

LT1: “Inferiority complex is the case, lectures and parents alike believe that using indigenous languages in the classroom setting will rubbish their personalities, hence their continuous insistence on the use of foreign ST4:languages”“Western knowledge has reduced African knowledge into fiction and ridiculed it to something that is unorthodox”

From these statements, one could confirm that there is decolonization of life, thinking and doing. The statement of LT1, confirmed that there is an inferiority complex among the lecturers and the parents. This is evidence according to him that parent is not confident in the locally way of doing things thereby will find it difficult to enroll their children in such schools. Furthermore, there is a feeling that using indigenous language or classroom practice is proof that such may be tagged as rubbish and thereby affecting their social personalities. Because of this, they prefer to engrain themselves in the assumed civilized (westernized) ways. This complex as examined above according to ST4 confirms that western knowledge as reduced African knowledge to nothing and making it look like a fiction that is wallowing in the illusion of reality. This is not palatable but in reality, that is what is playing to the gallery. That is why the perceptions of people are that the British schools that operate within the British curriculum are better than the national curriculum ones. This challenge according to ST4 is not only peculiar to this perceived systematic marginalization but also in the world of records. The ST4 stresses that there is not much written that is done in the African context. This may not be that there is no writing that is done is such context but could be that many such have imbibed the westernized content to prove their worth.

Sub themes under objective two that were analysed based on themes from the raw data are; curriculum adjustment to accommodate trans languaging and cultural diversities, and inculcation of self worth and self esteem to respond to the irresistibility.

10. Solutions to the challenges of Afrocentric Classroom Pedagogy

The argument here is that the challenge regarding the implementation of Africanised classroom pedagogy is facing so many extraneous problems such as the fact that many teachers are trained in a westernized manner and as well as students, most of them grown up where there were little or no experience about local and indigenous knowledge. This may not go well even in the ideal and the discourse is coming to reality. This bothers more on the law of realism that says what cannot be seen may not be real. The finding is, therefore, that the mindset and the way of doing of the people in the system are already indebted to colonization and wiliness to promote the persistence coloniality exists among them. On the other hand, western pedagogy and its practices, according to this study, were found to be irresistible, though these findings may not be absolutely defined the mind and the interest of this research location. I, therefore, argue in line with Avis (1996) that production of knowledge in the classroom has been swept under the carpet of Eurocentric practices that have propagated in power dominance and social breakdown in general productivities. This is confirming the true state of Ubuntugogy in universities as opined by Owan (2016) that the best of “ubuntugogy” is still hidden because it was branded with the beauties of culturalism, environmentalism, and Afrocentricism.

Based on the above challenges as emanated from the participants alongside the analytical interpretations, one could confirm that the curriculum needs to be readjusted to accommodate the issue of cultural diversities, language differences in order to be able to respond well to the issue and agitations classroom Africanisation. This may not be achievable in isolation, that is, the practical involvement of leaders, most notably, those in the affairs of higher education should ensure that all these agitations are incorporated; this in our argument may equip the practitioners with necessary weapons to deal with the deficiencies and any hidden trajectories of “Ubuntugogy”. This call is not only based on our argument, but on the participants’ statements also justified the need. See below; LT3: “Need to identify an Authority saddled with the power to implement the proposed education policy or create one if there exists none for effective implementation of the policy”. From this, one could say all eyes are on the leaders, the curriculum planners, the policymakers to gear up and propound all inclusive law that will inculcate the spirit of multilingualism that could enhance the learning and the use of multiple languages by the teachers and even the learners. This is pertinent because it is deduced that diversity in terms of language and culture may not allow the

10.1 Curriculum and or Policy Readjustment to Accommodate Languages and Cultural Diversities

10.2 Inculcation of Self Worth and Self Esteem to respond to irresistibility Self worth and self esteem are one of the factors that strengthen students, teachers, lecturers, and other practitioners, according to Jan et al., (2015) enhance their skills, develop them both mentally and physically. The wellness and ability of the stakeholder as mentioned above are essential in what and how the school operates and implementation of academic plans are done (Omodan, Ekundayo & Bamikole, 2018). Self confidence and self esteem have been found by researchers to be essential in the performance of lecturers and the students (Kususanto, Ismail & Jamil, 2010; Mbuva, 2016). Going by these, the recommendation of the practitioners’ self efficacy that could promote self belief and worth among them is not out of place. This is also mentioned in the participants' statement as a means to make bold to defend one history and dimensions of culture, see below; ST1: Practitioners who are knowledgeable in that area of expertise must come forth and Africanism as a narrative and the true history behind it because there are too many accounts of our history.

ST3: “we need a position to appreciate African languages then we will move into incorporating the African knowledge into the curriculum.”

L3: “we need to adopt a far reaching indigenous language that is sufficient, flexible and trans ethnically acceptable to operationalize the policy”.

LT1: Teachers/lecturers and parents alike should see indigenous languages as keys to all round improvement and should learn from countries like China, Japan, Germany. These statements are coming as a perceived result of lack of self worth, esteem, and efficacy coupled with boldness to display and define oneself to the people. This does not only bother on the lecturers and or students, but Africanism must also be defined and popularised with a carefully defined history that makes unity in diversity. The boldness to defend oneself among many olds also

actualization of Africanised classrooms in the university system. The below statements are also justifying the need though in slightly different manners;

In line with the above, the formulation of inclusive curriculum/policies on education will only survive if it is adapted with “a far reaching indigenous language that is sufficient, flexible and trans ethnically acceptable to operationalize the policy”. This position will enhance the appreciation of African cultures, language and ways of doing. From this analysis, it is hereby found out that curriculum and or policy readjustment to accommodate languages and cultural diversities is essential, this is not an idea that is in isolation, this is in support of the call by Lebeloane (2017) that there is a need for a deliberately planned curriculum content that will expose students to themselves and the environment by exposing the historical linkage of issues to the present and the future. This is also supporting the conclusion of Grange (2017) that various forms of the curriculum cannot be underrated when it comes to educational transformation.

11. Conclusion In conclusion, as findings would have it that the challenges of the Afrocentric classroom operation in universities are inabilities of the curriculum to incorporate the principles of Ubuntugogy, and the perpendicular of language and cultural diversities. Another challenge is the colonisation of mind and irresistible western hegemony in the classroom. All these were found to be essential if the agitation will be sustained. Along these, the solutions were provided which includes, the quest that curriculum should be readjusted to accommodate trans languaging and cultural diversities. Not only that, all the practitioners are also enjoyed to be endowed with entire self worth and self esteem needed to respond to the irresistibility of modernity in classrooms. However, the need for mass orientation that focuses on socio psychological decolonisation of students and lecturers against the Eurocentric influences of modernity towards broad and legitimate acceptance of the proposed Afrocentric pedagogy policy in teaching through the production of indigenous knowledge in the University system. Therefore, Afrocentric education/curriculum may be one dimensional and thus needs to be redirected to speak to the issues of globalization; this will enhance the concept to operate within the ever evolving world where the education system seeks to produce 21st century and global citizens. References Avis, J. (1996). Knowledge and nationhood: education, politics and work. London: Casse ll. Badat, S. (1997). Educational politics in the transition period. In: P Kallaway, G Kruss, G Donn & A Fataar (eds). Education after apartheid: South African education intransition. Cape Town: UCT Press. Bangura, A. K. (2015) Yoruba Gurus and the Idea of Ubuntugogy. In: Toyin Falola and African Epistemologies. Palgrave Macmillan, New York Chilisa, B. (2013). Indigenous Research Methodologies. Thousand Oaks: Sage. Creswell,https://doi.org/10.4102/aej.v1i1.44.J.W.,Ebersohn,L.,Eloff,I.,Ferreira, R., Ivankova, N. V., Jansen, J. D., & Dube, B. (2016). A socio religious hybridity strategy to respond to the problems of

accounts for why LT1 admonished that parents and lecturers should see indigeneity as a way of life, as a means for growth and development. The reasons why LT1 referred to countries such as China, Japan, and Germany are because those countries are examples of countries where indignity and traditional ways of doing dominates. Moreover, this has helped them rise among the countries of the world. It is, therefore, found out that inculcation of self worth and self esteem to respond to the irresistibility of western ways of doing could be one of the solutions that could enhance the implementation of Africanised ways of doing. This is supported by the finding of Jan, et al. (2015) that building more on the teachers’ and students' self esteem is a panacea of productivities and performance. This could also be linked to the fact that when there is boldness and self belief, to challenge the hegemony of any kind in the classroom will be activated and any forms of oppression, whether systematic, physical or hidden, will be challenged. This is because self esteem is essential in the performing abilities of lecturers and the students (Mbuva, 2016).

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27 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. religious studies in Zimbabwe (Ph.D Thesis). Faculty of Education, University of The Free State, South Africa Dube, B., & Hlalele, D. (2018). Engaging in critical emancipatory research as an alternative to mitigate school violence in South Africa. Education Research for Social Change, 7(2), 74 86. https://doi.org/10.17159/2221 4070/2018/v7i2a5 Ganyi, F. M., & Owan, J. I. (2016). Impact of Transculturalism and Globalization on the Concepts of Oral Literature and “Ubuntugogy” as Educational Paradigms for African Liberation and Development in the 21st Century. English Language, Literature & Culture, 1(3), 30 39. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ellc.20160103.13

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Teachers' Passion in Rural Secondary School: An Asset based Approach. (16 23). International Conference on Social Science and Economics. Johannesburg, South Africa on 25th 26th July 2019. Mbuva, J. (2016). Exploring Teachers’ Self Esteem and Its Effects on Teaching, Students’ Learning and Self Esteem. Journal of Higher Education Theory and Practice, 16(5), 59 68. Mignolo, W. (2011). The Darker Side of Western Modernity: Global Futures, Decolonial Options. Durham: Duke UP. https://doi.org/10.1215/9780822394501 Musitha, M. E., & Mafukata, M. A., (2018), ‘Crisis of decolonising education: Curriculum implementation in Limpopo Province of South Africa’. Africa’s Public Service Delivery and Performance Review, 6(1), a179. https:// doi.org/10.4102/apsdpr. NdlovuV6i1.179Gatsheni, S. J., (2015), ‘Decoloniality as the future of Africa’. History Compass, 13(10), 485 496. https://doi.org/10.1111/hic3.12264

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28 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Omodan, T. C., & Tsotetsi, C. T. (2019). Framing Ubuntu Philosophy to Reconstruct Principals’ Behaviour and Teachers’ effectiveness in Secondary Schools Journal of Education Research and Rural Community Development, 1(1), 25 45. Rodney, W., (2012), How Europe underdeveloped Africa Pambazuka, Dakar. Samkange,https://doi.org/10.2307/20048265S.J.T.,&Amkange,T.M.(1980)

Corresponding author’s e mail: danhnam.nguyen@tnue.edu.vn

1. Introduction In the trend of globalization, teachers must work in a multicultural, multi ethnic, multi religious, multinational, and multi lingual environment. This trend requires teachers must not only meet the national professional standards but also towards the international professional standards to be able to adapt to this

Restructuring the Teacher Education System in Vietnam Quang Hong Pham Thai Nguyen University, Thai Nguyen, 250000, Vietnam Nam Danh Nguyen* Thai Nguyen University of Education, Thai Nguyen, 250000, Vietnam

29 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 4, pp. 29 43, April https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.4.32020

Keywords: restructuring; teacher education; teacher education system; teacher training; educational university; Vietnam

Abstract. This paper presents international experiences and the real situation of the teacher education system in Vietnam. This research has also shown some challenges that teacher education institutions would face within the context of radical and comprehensive education renovation. Based on analyzing the teacher education system and teacher education management, the paper presents some viewpoints and principles for restructuring teacher education as well as draws lessons for Vietnam in renovating the teacher education model. Then, the paper proposes the new teacher education model and reorganized the teacher education system, in which the research determines some key educational universities and their “satellites” educational universities and colleges at localities across the country. The paper also suggests a solution for establishing the connection between key educational universities and their satellites among the system so that it could meet the requirements of the labor market and society. These suggestions help educational universities and colleges to reorganize their functions and missions of training future teachers. The research also makes a contribution to change the policies for teachers and teacher education in Vietnam.

International studies have shown that teacher education programs in many countries have gradually developed from low ranked teacher training institutions to comprehensive universities. In Vietnam, the educational colleges trained preschool, elementary school teachers, and educational universities trained high school teachers. These institutions are being upgraded into multidisciplinary universities to meet the growing needs for high quality teachers. Besides, educational schools and teacher training colleges integrated into universities, and non teacher universities are allowed to involve in teacher preparation (Quang, 2013; Binh, 2013; Hieu, Nam, 2019). Reconstruction of teacher education programs aims at establishing a new teacher education model at universities where a college of education collaborates with other academic colleges to educate prospective teachers. The system formed by teacher training colleges and local educational universities that respectively trained prospective teachers for preschools, elementary schools, and secondary schools. In Vietnam, teacher training colleges and educational universities were public, managed by, the model of the central planning economy. The resources, recruitment of faculty and enrolment of students, approaches of teacher education, and allocation of graduates were all decided and controlled by the Ministry of Education and Training The objective of this study is to investigate the real situation in the teacher education system in some countries in the world and to evaluate the system in Vietnam. After that, the study draws lessons for teacher education and suggestions for restructuring the teacher education system in Vietnam that

Vietnam has faced with an urgent need for industrialization and modernization in the context of a socialist oriented market economy and global integration. The government has been implementing a radical and comprehensive renovation in education and training. In particular, the general education program in the year 2018 has crucial changes from educational objectives, learning content, methods to evaluation methods, implementation conditions, and management systems. Therefore, it is very necessary to renovate the teacher education system to train a new model of teachers that satisfies the educational renovation (Binh, 2013; Quang, 2013). The search for teacher training models suitable for the new context which is conducted with a series of workshops on teacher education Moreover, the Ministry of Education and Training has developed teacher standards, school standards, and requested educational universities to renew training programs, program, and institution accreditation. In this circumstance, the paper studies the experiences of successful institutions in the world in teacher education. It draws lessons for Vietnamese higher education for determining the direction in modernizing teacher training models.

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. working environment. That is also the challenge to train global citizens to adapt to the world labor market (Quang, 2013; Binh, 2013; Ayesha, 2018). Therefore, the impact of international integration trends on the professional standards of teachers is a matter of concern in the process of teacher training. Furthermore, the teacher labor market in the globalization trend is broad, open, and flexible. Hence, if the teacher does not meet the requirements of international standards, there is a risk of being unemployed (Sang, 2011; Quang, 2013; Michael, 2018) Consequently, teacher training or educational universities must train teachers who have the competencies to adapt to the international working environment.

Netherlands, the Ministry of Education and the Education Inspectorate are responsible for state management of teacher training. The Ministry provides guidelines, regulations, and guidelines to implement the requirements for enrollment admission, output standards, and the content of teacher training programs. In the United Kingdom, the Department of Teacher Training, the Department of Education and Skills, the Education Standards and Teaching Council are responsible for training and issuing certificates for teachers (Sun, 2004; Cheryl, 2016) Besides, these institutions are also responsible for

The traditional teacher education system transformed into a new direction. Teacher education programs did not solely retain in educational colleges and universities; instead, more and more comprehensive colleges involved in preparing teachers (Christie, Drew, 2017; James, 2018). The expansion of teacher education programs into comprehensive colleges and universities is the most radical change in the institutional structure of teacher education in the world. But this kind of change has a limited impact on the teacher education system as the majority of teachers who are still trained in teacher education colleges and universities in Vietnam. Therefore, locating teacher education programs in comprehensive universities will be the long run goal for the reform of teacher education (Sang, 2011; Quang, 2013) In many countries, teacher education follows the market mechanism, according to the needs of the labor market. However, because of the unique nature of each country, there are differences in the role and intervention of the government in the teacher education system (Susan, 2015; Saba et al., 2020) There is still centralized management of teacher education systems such as South Korea, Singapore, France, Netherlands, England, China, Japan, Hong Kong, etc. The Ministry of Education manages almost all aspects of the teacher education process and diplomas or certificates for teachers (Vidovich, 2008; Adele, 2009; Cheryl, 2016) In South Korea, the main task of training teachers is from the universities of education and the faculties of education in comprehensive universities. In the past, too constricted regulations and deep government intervention prevented the Korean education system from meeting the educational needs of the people. Therefore, South Korea has reformed its education system towards a market based approach (Lee, 2000). In Singapore, the top down management model is applied uniformly in education. The Ministry of Education jointly researches the problem of identifying human resource training needs for society and the development trend of industries serving the requirements of economic development, the Ministry of Manpower, and the Economic Development Council, and then make recommendations to the universities. Therefore, education policies effectively integrated with economic systems and human resource training orientations (Cheryl, 2016; Oon Seng, Woon Chia & Ee Ling, In2017)the

Teacher education management

2.1

developing and issuing regulations on training and certification for teachers, including a set of standards for testing teacher training programs, requirements for early enrollment, input and output criteria, the content of teacher certification exams, and teacher training programs.

In China, the teacher education system consists of 141 educational or “normal” schools, including 37 educational universities. There are three types of independent teacher training, namely: teacher education school, educational school (including teacher training school), and vocational technical schools

Teacher education schools divided into educational universities, educational institutes (colleges), and high schools. The educational schools divided into senior national executive education institutes, provincial educational institutes, regional city level education institutes, district teacher training schools. Besides, China has several multidisciplinary universities that also participate in teacher training. The management of teacher training is in the form of a limited right system, which means that the central government decides the development of the teacher training system. Under state leadership, education authorities at all levels directly manage the respective teacher training schools in the areas of human resources, finance, and facilities (Paine, Fang & Wilson, 2006). Currently, the Ministry of Education retains control of a small number of schools (less than 5% of the total number of universities and colleges), most of which are heavily financially invested with the intention to become “world class university”. Other universities are financially funded and directly under provincial or municipal governments or special zones. Generally, Chinese teacher training characterized by an independent orientation training model, organized and managed by the State. The local government directly manages and supervises the direction of educational organization, the structure of training majors and subjects, personnel, enrollment, program content, financial allocation, etc. This article helps the autonomy of educational schools increased significantly. Besides, the Chinese government encourages comprehensive universities and technical universities of good quality to participate in training primary and secondary teachers. The advantage of comprehensive universities in general in teacher training is to provide schools with excellent students, after being trained in pedagogical skills for one to two years to become teachers (Paine, Fang & Wilson, 2006; Zhu, Han, 2006; Oon Seng, Woon Chia & Ee Ling, 2017).

Some countries have made full autonomy to higher education institutions in training teachers such as the United States, Germany, Australia, Finland, etc. Recruitment, training, and fostering teachers in many countries based on the standardization principle, in which the most crucial standard is the teacher career standard. Moreover, professional standards for teachers are issued and managed by the government. Countries like the United States, Germany, and Australia, these standards are assigned to the states to regulate Educational schools determine the content of the training program, but it must be assessed and accredited by an independent national body or state inspection committee. Therefore, universities, regardless of whether they are public or private, have autonomy. The states authorize professional associations to develop professional standards for teachers and oversee training schools according to the approved standards. Thus, the United States, Germany, and Australia have a socio

33 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. economy operating on the principles of a market economy, law, democracy, and multiculturalism (Sun, 2004; Paul, 2015; Cheryl, 2016; Christie, Drew, 2017)

In Australia, until before the late 1980s, the Australian post secondary education system consisted of two sub systems: a group of higher education institutions and a group of colleges, including technical and educational colleges. However, since the early 1980s, there have been many factors that require the integration of colleges into universities. Specifically, the demand for teacher training has been saturated, which makes it difficult for educational colleges to recruit students. State budget spreads over many inefficient schools. Many colleges are small in size that do not create conditions for faculty members to improve their teaching and applied research capacity. In 1988, the Australian government proposed a new policy (White Paper) to restructure the higher education system.

The scheme identifies the merger requirement to reduce the number of universities and colleges but increases the training scale of facilities. Educational colleges forced to merge or convert into universities to strengthen management and investment efficiency (Paul, 2015; Susan, 2015).

In the United States, the national center for education statistics tasked with making teacher demand forecasts. Some states also research and apply their forecasting model. The model predicts the total number of new teachers that need to be recruited based on the time series because teachers retired gradually year by year and other reasons, as well as the increase of students enrolling. The model uses the national center's educational statistics data from school surveys, social human resource surveys, and other sources. In New Zealand, the teacher replacement demand forecast focuses on understanding the factors that affect the estimates of the number of teachers for the new school year to meet the needs of schools (Paul, 2015; Cheryl, 2016; John, Mary, 2016). These factors include the rate of transfer of students to the next level of education, the demand for teachers, policy changes, the ratio of teachers/students, the teacher’s class time, and the age of the teacher.

2.2 Restructuring the teacher education system

In China, the first teacher training facility established in 1897, which is Nanyang Gongxe Public School in Shanghai, later Jiaotong University. Next was Jinshi Daxuetang in 1898, then the Beijing University. In 1904, the first public educational school was established. In the early stage, the Chinese educational model is similar to the Japanese educational model from enrollment, program content, training time and objectives. After that, the Chinese teacher training system shifted to the French model. The training facilities are divided into two levels, medium, and high quality, aiming to train primary and secondary teachers. These schools later turned into educational schools. By 1920, there was a significant change in modern Chinese society. The teacher training system was learning from the Western model, especially the United States. In 1922, the public school system changed to a six three three model similar to that of the United States (six years of elementary school, three years of junior high school, and three years of high school). The training of teachers is also diverse with more models such as educational schools, specialized teacher training schools, educational colleges and educational universities with the goal of training teachers at the different levels of school (Paine, Fang & Wilson, 2006; Robyn et

34 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. al., 2017). At present, China has about 120 universities and colleges with teacher training programs, including six key educational universities, 32 provincial educational universities, educational faculties of interdisciplinary universities, and other educational colleges. Key educational universities are identified based on the tradition of research training, the quality of training, and the distribution of six regions of China without any specific set of standards. These key educational universities receive investment and budget support from the Ministry of Education, and other educational universities only receive support from the provinces or localities according to different levels. The function of the key educational universities is to focus on training masters and doctors with minimal training of bachelor. These universities are also different from the provincial educational universities that focus on bachelor training In summary, there are five approaches to changing the institutional structure of teacher education that have emerged in China. The first approach is that selective teacher training or “normal” universities are changing from institutes preparing teachers to comprehensive universities. Some national selective educational universities transformed into comprehensive universities by expanding the scope of their programs, such as establishing law programs and schools of business. Some colleges combine to form a new educational university. The second approach is that municipal educational schools, two or three year teacher colleges, institutes of education, and teacher training schools incorporated into four year teacher colleges. Thirdly, some educational schools, two or three year teacher colleges, institutes of education, teacher training schools, and vocational colleges combined to become three year comprehensive colleges. Fourthly, some teacher colleges incorporate other kinds of colleges to become universities. The last approach is to establish four year colleges by merging local and provincial four year teacher colleges, two or three year teacher colleges, and institutes of education (Sun, 2004; Zhu, Han, 2006) In France, institutions of higher education and teacher training are subject to the state and organizational administration of the Ministry of Education (manages high school levels) and the Ministry of Higher Education & Research (manages faculty, teacher, and research training). In 1989, France transformed teacher training from a network of educational universities to teacher training institutes. By 2008, these institutes transformed into faculties of teacher training at universities. However, universities are not allowed to recruit and pay salaries for their teachers and staff. Thus, the over centralized management of the state, leading to the lack of autonomy of training institutions, is one of the main characteristics of the French education system (Cheryl, 2016; Eija, Raimo, 2017; Rita, 2019).

In Australia, it has also experienced a boom in teacher training facilities in the first half of the twentieth century in the context of a series of public high schools, the demand for high school teachers increased. In 1970, the government established and invested in teacher training colleges, creating a two level teacher training system: colleges and universities. The differences between teacher training colleges and universities are: firstly, college lecturers have lower salaries and do fewer scientific research; secondly, the teacher training program in colleges towards the nature of vocational training; thirdly, colleges train only preschool and primary teachers. By 1988, to improve the quality of teacher

4. Research results 4.1 The teacher education system in Vietnam This study has conducted a survey and analysis of data in the last five years of more than 20 teacher education institutions across the country to assess the status of system restructuring, which focuses on analyzing distribution, organization, resources, scale, and quality of these universities of education in

3. Research methods To investigate the real situation of the teacher education system in Vietnam, a survey was conducted in more than 20 universities and colleges of education from December 2018 to December 2019 A questionnaire designed to examine the restructuring of the teacher education institution system in the context of radical and comprehensive education renovation. Additionally, more than 20 workshops and academic forums also organized to collect lecturers’ and specialists’ ideas about some measures to reorganize the teacher education system at some localities. In depth interviews with 60 educational experts also recorded and analyzed to evaluate the training competency of teacher education institutions. As a result, some recommendations in this study based on these experts’ points of view. The study also examined international experiences from developed countries to suggest a teacher education model for Vietnam as well as the solutions for restructuring the teacher education system for the whole country.

35 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. training, the Ministry of Labor, Education & Training had made significant decisions on Australian higher education, directly impacting teacher training. Some teacher training colleges have evolved into teacher training universities, with the training period increasing from three years to four years (Paul, 2015). A part of lecturers at educational colleges is moving to work at educational universities. With this reform, teachers’ training costs at educational schools partly funded by student tuition fees and a large portion of government funding. Teacher students are preferential with tuition policy, and the time to pay is after graduation, going to work. In 2006, teacher training programs extensively accredited across Australia, the results of which were the basis for the Australian government to invest its budget. The Australian government focuses on attracting excellent graduates to follow the teacher education path with additional time of training. The Ministry of Education takes responsibility for developing national standards for teachers, enrolling teacher students, and improving the quality of data on teacher human resources. In 2011, Australia promulgated a set of professional standards for teachers applicable to teachers nationwide. Since 2012, teacher training programs have focused more on pedagogical practice for students, with internships lasting from 12 to 20 weeks. At the same time, the Government supports educational universities to develop their expertise in teaching pedagogical practice. All Australian teacher training colleges have educational experts who guide teachers in secondary schools (Adele, 2009; Paul, 2015; Jean, Anja & Clare, 2019).

Moreover, quality assurance conditions, training capacity, and scientific research capacity of educational universities are still limited. Professional qualifications of lecturers have not yet met the requirements of training and renovating general education and training Teaching and scientific research are the two main tasks of lecturers who are parallel and mutually related. The percentage of lecturers with doctoral degrees in many educational universities is not high, especially the universities with small training scale. Most professors, associate professors, and doctors concentrated in educational universities in big cities like Hanoi National University of Education (55.9% of lecturers with a doctorate), Hue University of Education (49.6% of lecturers with a doctorate), Thai Nguyen University of Education (48.5% of lecturers with a doctorate). The educational

Also, the opening of many pedagogical training disciplines still relies on the available competencies and experience. In some universities, there are faculties of training that coincide with the critical training tasks of other educational universities that wasting investment resources In particular, there is no connection between educational universities and localities. In other words, there is no link chain of supply and demand for teachers which leads to an excess or partial shortage of teachers. This is one of the emerging issues in recent years that dramatically affects the quality of education in many localities and causes pressing public opinion. Although the educational universities have increasingly focused on the quality of training the training program is not consistent, the output standards have not oriented towards developing students’ competencies, not yet closely linked with professional standards teacher requirements. Many students do not find suitable jobs after their graduation, even there is a shortage of local teachers. This fact makes the society, especially students and parents concerned, in many localities the lack of pedagogical enrollment sources and the failure to attract good pupils at schools who are suitable for studying in the teacher education program

These institutions are distributed in all regions and localities (Lu, Anh, Van, 2019) Each province has at least one pedagogy school, primarily concentrated in some big cities like Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City In the period from the late 1990s to the early 2000s, the scale of teacher training institutions was expanded mainly based on establishing faculties of education in multidisciplinary universities, and many educational colleges were upgraded to comprehensive universities but maintaining teacher training program. Consequently, the system of teacher training is too widely distributed, resources scattered, and many educational universities are small in size and low in quality. Most educational universities are entirely independent in teacher training tasks, weak connectivity in the system, no sharing of resources to improve the quality and effectiveness of teacher training for the whole industry.

The training functions of many teacher training institutions are overlapping because there is no specific assignment of tasks for each university in the system.

There are 114 teacher education institutions, including educational universities, educational colleges, faculties of education in comprehensive universities, and 40 multi disciplinary vocational training schools for training preschool teachers.

All of the educational institutions in Vietnam are public. Therefore, the revenue of these institutions mainly based on the tuition subsidies provided by the state per student, so the ability to develop and mobilize off budget financial resources is limited. Although nearly all educational universities have expanded into training fields other than teacher training (multidisciplinary), funding is still primarily based on the state budget. In recent years, the scale of the practice of educational universities and colleges has decreased due to saturated teacher training demand, resulting in low investment and economic efficiency. As such, it is necessary to rearrange the network of educational institutions to focus resources, increase investment in physical and financial facilities to promote effectiveness for the whole system. The scientific research capacity of most educational universities and colleges is weak, failing to meet the requirements of teacher training and education science development. Currently, the new educational universities focus on the task of short term training and retraining, not paying adequate attention to scientific research. There is no educational university with a robust research group to strengthen research capacity in educational science, develop general education programs, and consult policy mechanisms for implementing new public education at schools.

37 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. colleges in some localities lack qualified lecturers; the percentage of lecturers with doctoral degrees is only more than 4.0%. It expected that by 2022 these universities will reach the rate of lecturers with a doctorate of 60%. With favorable conditions for highly qualified staff, some educational universities may focus on investing in building high quality training programs. In many educational universities, equipment for teaching and learning is too outdated or has exploited for a long time, so it does not meet the requirements of applying modern technology in education, especially in the context of the fourth industrial revolution. Some educational colleges upgrade to universities or switch to multidisciplinary training in the condition that they have not invested in teaching facilities.

When the socio economic transition from a centralized mechanism, subsidy to a market mechanism with macro regulation, teacher education universities must also have corresponding changes, the higher education system must undertake the training of human resources not only for the State but also for many other economic sectors. Training in order based human resources, most training products need to be highly adaptable to the labor market. Training human resources for general education is also in the general trend of higher education. If teacher training conducted according to the ordering mechanism, teacher students after graduation will have to be assigned to work. Therefore, it can see that the teacher training sector must adapt to the development of a market economy. However, the scale of teacher training is unique because it will change after a certain period due to reasons such as retired teachers, changes in population size, renovation of education, and training with teacher policies. Therefore, forecasting research on the need for training human resources for learning is an urgent requirement to restructure the network of educational Theuniversitieseducation sector lacks predictive capacity in the supply and demand of human resources to meet the needs of the labor market. Educational universities

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. (especially local ones) enroll mainly on their training capacity but do not base on the human resource needs of education, locality, and general integration conditions. The increase of the training scale in some universities leads to the difference between supply and demand teachers. Consequently, the students are unable to find jobs after graduation. This situation also causes anxiety for parents and students as well as has not attracted good candidates for admission to educational universities as expected. Moreover, the lack of control of teacher student enrollment at some educational universities leads to a waste of state budget allocations. As a result, tuition compensation in teacher training institutions such as Hanoi National University of Education, Ho Chi Minh City Pedagogical University, has a minimal investment. If teachers trained in a closed model, it is necessary to set up the order mechanism of the State, local needs, or other stakeholders. However, the current recruitment of teachers in localities is undertaken by the Department of Interior Office according to the current regulations on decentralization. At the same time, the Department of Education and Training is the unit that manages and employs teachers. Therefore, choosing the method of training teachers according to the ordering mechanism should consider adjusting policies at a macro level. Besides, local education management agencies and teacher training institutions have not been proactive in forecasting the industry’s labor supply and demand to suit the population size, population distribution, characteristics of geography, economy society of the region. The subsidy of teacher education tuition subsidies per student has led universities to try to increase training targets to increase financial resources according to their training capacity leading to the phenomenon of a partial shortage of teachers in some subjects. Therefore, it is necessary to create mechanisms to enhance the autonomy and accountability of educational universities, helping teacher training institutions to promote their dynamism, creativity, innovation, and autonomy. For that reason, the teacher training institutions system should be restructured based on the needs of the labor market through the choices of learners and society.

4.2 Viewpoints and principles for restructuring teacher education system

Based on the analysis of limitations and inadequacies of the teacher education system and the educational experts’ opinion, this study proposes some viewpoints for restructuring the teacher education system. Firstly, restructuring of the teacher education system should base on quality standards and quality assurance conditions. It creates the classification and mechanism of healthy competition on quality among teacher education institutions, administration innovation, training capacity building, and policies on teacher training. The training must be associated with the needs of teachers in each locality and the requirements of the curriculum. Secondly, overcoming the overlap, inefficiencies of the current teacher education system; ensuring autonomy and accountability, especially accountability for training quality; maximizing the available resources of each institution to form a practical teacher education network; investing on setting up some key educational universities with the role of leading the system; and transforming some other educational universities and colleges into “satellites” of the key educational universities in regions. Thirdly, the implementation of arrangement needs an appropriate, inherited, and feasible roadmap, so that teacher education institutions have enough time to reorganize

Thirdly, restructuring the teacher education system should take into account the context of basic and comprehensive renovation in education and training, the meaning of international integration, the new trend in the world in teacher education, and the change in personality model of future teachers. To successfully implement the new general education program requires educational universities to restructure, renovate curriculum and training models following the national qualification framework and Association of Southeast Asian Nations qualification framework. Some researches have shown that educational universities tend to become multidisciplinary universities and educational colleges upgrade into comprehensive universities (John, Mary, 2016; Christie, Drew, 2017; Michael, 2018). The need for the number of teachers is no longer urgent, even redundant. Still, the professional quality requirements of the teachers are critical to meet the global integration and general education renovation as well. Therefore, the system needs to ensure the interconnection among key educational universities, multidisciplinary universities, and educational colleges at localities. Fourthly, the teacher training model needs to meet the requirement of using the teacher force of society, paying attention to the “market areas” factor, the attractiveness and the spread of key educational universities. Besides, ensuring the requirements of teacher training according to practical needs to serve private schools, international schools in the country,

themselves. Restructuring should also pay attention to the distribution of educational universities by geographical space to ensure regional factors, suitable to population size, socio economic development of the region, and each locality. Finally, the State should play a central management role in the field of teacher education, promote socialization, mobilize and effectively use all resources invested in education; strengthen interconnection between the educational universities and the labor market in the training process; enhancing the responsibilities of supervision of the Ministry of Education and Training.

Based on those basic viewpoints, this study proposes some principles for restructuring teacher education system. Firstly, the restructuring must be based on a set of educational university regulations, creating conditions for ensuring the quality of education and improving the efficiency of the global education system. The Ministry of Education and Training needs to develop a set of educational university standards, and then evaluate the training capacity according to these standards to identify key or “satellite” teacher education institutions. It is necessary to determine the functions and roles of the key educational universities and their satellites in the system. The key educational universities must play a leading role in the system, improving the effectiveness and quality of teacher education throughout the country. Secondly, restructuring of educational universities must take into account geopolitical, socio economic, and regional factors. The consideration of geopolitical factors aimed at stimulating the steady development among regions, creating favorable conditions not only in the teacher training process but also teachers’ continuous professional development It is crucial to develop the key teacher education institutions in big cities as well as to distribute teacher education institutions in regions, especially in the mountainous and remote areas. This distribution creates favorable conditions for students and recruit teachers for localities.

From analyzing the above challenges, this study draws lessons for restructuring teacher education system in Vietnam. The Ministry of Education and Training has centralized management of teacher training, but it needs to give more autonomy to educational universities. The Ministry only manages at the macro level like issuing educational policies, professional standards for teachers, teacher education program standards, output standards, and program accreditation standards. It should establish some key educational universities under the direct management of the Ministry of Education and Training, allowing them to conduct multidisciplinary training and also allowing comprehensive universities to open a new teacher education program The government focuses on investing resources for key educational universities to train high quality teachers and meet international teacher education standards. It is also necessary to maintain teacher education institutions in localities, especially in regions with typical cultural characteristics and areas of ethnic minorities. However, it needs to merge teacher education institutions in the same location, allowing teachers to be trained at provincial colleges (to train local preschool teachers and to be continuing education centers for fostering local teachers and educational managers) The key educational universities take the responsibility to train high quality teachers and foster core teachers and

from which it is necessary to orient the supply of teachers for the regional and global labor market.

4.3 Lessons for restructuring teacher education system

Over the past decade, many notable positive changes have occurred in teacher education systems in many countries around the world. In Vietnam, there are following challenges that teacher education system would face with: (i) a diverse society in the process of stable economic development; (ii) the relationship between government, society, and teacher education institutions; changes in the governance role of government; significant differences between the quality of teachers in urban and rural areas; (iii) inheritance or innovation in teacher education change in which educational universities tend to be multidisciplinary and research oriented; (iv) the reform of teacher education influenced by the globalization and the context of international teaching staff.

There are several educational universities and colleges that are psychologically waiting for a change in the State’s investment and remedy policies for teacher education but are not ready to renew themselves. Hence, restructuring the teacher education system help overcome the dispersion, spreading, and duplication of functions of the current system, linking training with user needs, focusing on quality and efficiency of the training process, ensuring inheritance, feasibility, promoting self control and accountability of educational universities.

However, this study would not present a detailed solution for reorganizing the teacher education system as well as social impact after restructuring. To implement this task, the government should encourage educational universities or colleges to voluntarily merge or join by the law to focus resources, improve the quality and effectiveness of training. Educational universities and colleges that overlap in terms of their functions in the same locality must have a roadmap to merge into one teacher education institution or change into local educational service centers.

In some developed countries, the educational universities built, and the organizational structure is in comprehensive universities. In Vietnam, most localities have teacher education institutions from colleges to universities. Therefore, the higher education master plan and data on human resource needs for the industry will help key educational universities and colleges at the localities to determine the training scale. Also, it is necessary to develop an orientation to enhance the efficiency of investment, improve the quality of graduates, and propose practical teacher training and fostering solutions to make the network of educational universities effective and sustainable. On the one hand, it is also crucial to establish some key educational universities to concentrate investment resources to enhance the quality of teaching staff at schools On the other hand, it acts as a focal point to connect “satellites” educational universities/colleges in localities to perform the tasks of fostering teachers and educational managers. In general, firstly, it should strengthen the network of teacher education institutions based on stratification by level, type of training, and socio economic characteristics of each region Secondly, it should decentralize the management of teacher education institutions to promote autonomy, creativity, and self responsibility in teacher training. Thirdly, it is necessary to support scientific research projects, especially educational sciences in educational universities Fourthly, the investment in facilities for educational universities must be associated with capacity training for staff and lecturers of these institutions to limit wasteful expenditure. Smart classroom/lab models can invest efficiently, but performance is also an issue that needs to address. Fifthly, to restructure a network of teacher education bases on a socialist oriented market economy, that is, both ensure the autonomy of educational universities and ensure uniformity in administration. In other words, restructuring the teacher education system must be combined with renovating university administration and enhancing training capacity on teacher education Acknowledgments

This paper supported by a research grant from the National Educational Science Program code KHGD/16 20 with the study “Research on restructuring the network of teacher training institutions in Vietnam to 2025, vision to 2035”.

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. educational managers at the localities. Finally, it should build close relationships between educational universities and their satellites, schools, and society in teacher training and fostering, educational scientific research, and providing educational services for the community. To build this relationship, it is necessary to clearly determine the functions and roles of key universities and universities, colleges at the localities. Specifically, the key education universities must focus on high quality teachers and post graduate training. Satellites universities and colleges must focus on developing bachelor programs, training and re training teachers for localities.

5. Conclusions

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43 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Paul, R. W. (2015). The teacher workforce in Australia: Supply, demand, and data issues. Australia Council for Educational Research, Policy Insights, 2, Melbourne. Prakash, C. J. (2014). The need for restructuring teacher education programs in India: An essence for globalization. International Letters of Social and Humanistic Sciences, 34, 21 28. Quang, H. P. (2013). Developing teacher training curriculum: Theory and practice. Thai Nguyen University Publishing House. Rita, B. F. (2019). Teacher education and teacher development. Springer. DOI:10.1007/978 3 030 11066 6_16 Robyn, B., Kathryn, G., Mellita, J., & Josephine, R. (2017). Reflective theory and practice in teacher education. 17, Springer. DOI:10.1007/978 981 10 3431 2 Saba, Q., Manal, H., Elham, G. M., Intisar, G., Nasser, A. D., & Xiangyun, D. (2020). The impact of teacher preparation programs on professional teaching competencies Female novice teachers’ perspectives. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, 19(1), 118 135. DOI:10.26803/ijlter.19.1.7 Sang, Q. P. (2011). Research on building the predictive model to develop tertiary education in Vietnam. Research Project at Ministerial Level, code: B20078 37 31TĐ, The Vietnam National Institute of Educational Sciences. Sun, Y., & Zhao, M. (2004). Teacher professional development schools: Exploration, experience, and learning. Research in Teacher Education, 1, 52 65. Susan, E. E. J. (2015). Leadership for change in teacher education. SensePublishers. DOI:10.1007/978 94 6209 932 6 Vidovich, L. (2008). Research assessment in Singaporean higher education: Changing educational accountabilities in the context of globalization. International Education Journal, Comparative Perspectives, 9(1), 37 46. Zhu, X., & Han, X. (2006). Reconstruction of the teacher education system in China. International Education Journal, 7(1), 66 73.

The development of education in general and higher education, in particular, has become a necessity for writers, intellectuals and educators in the Arab world since the educational process did not achieve the desired objectives in keeping up with the scientific, technical, and informational developments. By establishing and developing specialized bodies or councils for academic accreditation and quality assurance, many Arab countries have strived for reforms in the higher education for the proper educational and academic standards that serve the community and the academic institution itself by (Taha, Taha & Dalimi, 2015). However, a profound and radical changes in all aspects of society in connecting higher education with the needs and concerns of the community is required A reconsideration of the function of the universities, providing the appropriate outputs to the labor market and the adoption of a knowledge based economy is also required. Therefore, the development of personal skills and capabilities is a must (Mohammed, Jassim, Jbouri, Abdurahman & Abdalrazzaq, 2015).

44 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 4, pp. 44 61, April https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.4.20204

Abstract. This objective of this study is to identify the factors which influence the sustainability of the quality performance at Petra University from the faculty members’ points of view. The participants were the teaching staff from the University of Petra. Out of 283 staff, 103 members took part in this study. A questionnaire consisting of 34 items was developed. The results showed that governance, educational programs, job satisfaction, and job performance were significant factors for the sustainability of quality performances at the University of Petra. The results also revealed that there is a meaningful relationship between sustainable factors and gender, while no significant differences could be attributed to academic rank or college type. Thus, these factors were recommended tobe enhanced and developed based onqualitystandards.

Maram Fouad Abu Al-Nadi and Dina Mohamed Said Qarashay University of Petra Amman, Jordan

Factors Influencing the Sustainability of Quality Performance from the Viewpoint of Teaching Staff: An Applied Study at the University of Petra

Keywords: quality sustainability; job performance; faculty members; University of Petra 1. Introduction

The application of quality systems is essential in enhancing the current practices in the higher education institutions. It is also important to develop strategies and plans, take actions to fill the gaps, and optimize the possibilities for better performances (Al Kasr, 2018). Quality of education reflects the ability of the educational institution to perform and prepare graduates capable of meeting the needs of the society and that of labor market (Mohammed, 2012). The University of Petra (UoP) is a Jordanian university that plays a distinctive role in the preparation of cadres who are qualified for the achievement of comprehensive development of staff skills, knowledge enrichment and application of knowledge.

The goals of the quality assurance system in higher education institutions are as follows (Raqqad, 2014; Olimat, 2015; Al Ameen, 2017): with the increase of higher education institutions, the government stressed that the quality of education to ensure that its outcomes meet the needs of the labor market must be controlled; accountability and transparency must be upheld in order to ensure that institutions of higher education are consistent with the general policy orientations of the state and current practices must be improved by conducting self evaluation that helps decision makers to develop strategies and plans towards better performance.

The University of Petra is active in developing communication with its surrounding community, participating in regional and international scientific and cultural events in order to boost scientific research in various fields. Creating job opportunities, practicing its social responsibility, offering diverse educational programs, and updating its curriculum to align with the latest teaching methods and scientific research, are some of its other important objectives (University of Petra, Currently,2019).the world is witnessing a lot of competition in quality performance with focus on social opportunities and potential. A quality performance is an important process for management that necessitates planning and developing, and it need to be aligned with the needs and capabilities of the organisation Quality objectives for higher education was summarised by Martin (2017).

The concept of university governance has recently emerged to reflect the real crisis of the institutions of higher education, where some universities develop its executive authority or make decisions in isolation from students and staff members’ interest. That reinforces the culture of the reluctance of participation, weakens the development of the university and the academic institution and scientific orientations. Due to the lack of transparency and management accountability mechanisms, the education process as a whole can be negatively affected. Accordingly, the government aims at bringing all parties to their responsibilities, which ultimately, it is hoped, will reflect in better performances from students, faculty members, administrative staff and other university staff (Halawah & Taha, 2011)

Quality objectives in higher education

Governance

Sustainability of quality performance in higher education institutions

This refers to the degree to which employee's tasks are to be fulfilled. Often, there is confusion and overlap between performance and effort, as the latter relates to the energy expended by the employee while performing a mission. In contrast, production is measured based on results, as emphasized by Abu Sharkh (2010) and Al Froukh (2011). The organization can only compete if high performance is one of its most essential characteristics. This performance stems from the outcome of the individual performances in the organization as a whole.

The sustainability of quality in the performance of universities is one of the main pillars of a good education and one which is required to promote active learning that complies with the rapid technical, scientific, and cognitive evolution all over the globe. Hence, this study aims at revealing the factors which influence the sustainability of the quality performance of The University of Petra from the viewpoint of its teaching staff. The potential factors are shown in Figure 1.

This study aims at answering the following questions: Question 1: What are the factors influencing the sustainability of the quality performance of the University of Petra from the viewpoint of its faculty members?

Problem statement

Academic programs are a set of mechanisms used to achieve knowledge, skills, and services provided by the university within a limited period. However, a collection of factors to achieving quality performance sustainability in the educational programs are: measurable and specific objectives of the academic programs, effectiveness of the curriculum, effectiveness of teaching and learning methods and the effectiveness of administrative mechanisms (Association of Arab Universities, 2015).

Job satisfaction

Many factors contribute to job satisfaction and these can be categorised into three groups (Ahmed, 2011): individual factors, organizational factors and environmental factors. Individual factors include the capacity of the personnel, their motivation, age, experience and scientific qualifications. Organizational factors are related to the organization type, work field, quality, and responsibilities of employees and the relationship among staff, colleagues, and supervisors Environmental factors include the work environment, society's perception, employee appreciation of his/her own role and the his/her degree of integration in the workplace. Job performance

Academic programs

Questions of the study

Question 2: Are there any significant differences at the (α ≤ 0.05) level which influences the sustainability of quality performance of the University of Petra from the viewpoint of its faculty members owing to gender, academic rank, and college type?

The significance of this study lies in the information and ideas associated with the quality of performance of Jordanian universities, which will contribute to the promoting of Jordanian higher education. The study results may benefit the Ministry of Higher Education with its accreditation programs, Presidents of Jordanian universities by improving the conditions of the institutional environment and researchers by providing a theoretical framework and a deeper insight into the factors which influence the sustainability of quality in Jordanian universities. Definitions Quality is a systematic process of class screening that leads to ensure excellent from educational institutions (or academic programs), meets regional and international standards so that the institutions can continuously improve its performance (Al Khatib & Al Khatib, 2010). Sustainability of quality is recognized by the researcher as continuing quality, persistence, survival, and fulfilment through all the operations of the foundation. Job performance is the academic and administrative duties entrusted by the faculty members following the regulations and the instructions of the university (Sarairah, 2011).

Demographicdata

Figure 1. Factors influencing the sustainability of quality performance

Limitations of the study

The research was to the faculty members of the University of Petra in the 2017/2018 academic year. Factors influencing the sustainability of quality performance JobJobPerformanceSatisfactionAcademicGovernancePrograms

Importance of the study

2. Literature review

The study of Olkiewicz (2018) aimed at showing that improving quality through foresight could be a tool for shaping efficiency in the organization, which in turn might also be a way of strategic management and development of different aspects of the organization. The results showed that the application of foresight identifies organizational, administrative, and social changes that affect innovation (including the diversification of technological processes and automation), production dynamics, sales, and quality in the organization. The results also showed that “quality insight " can become a trend that includes the main strength to improve quality, competitiveness, productivity, and efficiency in the development of the organization. Wei and Baocun (2018) studied the government led university education assessment system in China which improved the quality of colleges and universities. They noted that China had conducted five rounds of evaluation since the 1990s and gradually developed a "five in one" evaluation system. The results showed that there were some problems in terms of diversity of evaluation subjects, dominance of government administration, lack of uniformity of the system, arbitrary application of evaluation, poor feedback channels for evaluation of results, and difficulty to achieve improvements. The study recommended that there should be exerted effort to increase the enthusiasm of colleges. Universities, however, should be promoted by strengthening their role of evaluation. In addition to enhancing evaluation laws, improving feedback channels, and allowing independent evaluation to be held substantially improves the quality of higher education. A study by Tadesse, Manathunga and Gillies (2018) was aimed at identifying mechanisms to assess the quality of higher education but it was limited to compliance and accountability. It worked on studying the perceptions of a group of stakeholders on the quality of teaching and learning, evaluation, and review of experiences in higher education in Ethiopia. The results showed that current quality improvement efforts are fragmented and geared towards quality assurance rather than more general and permanent improvements. It also showed that most of the quality, evaluation concerns, and audit practices only led to more than mere preparation and execution of official reports in a very random manner. The study recommended an effective internal system, formative evaluation, and

Al Nukari and Al Tarawneh (2018) investigated the degree to which Jordanian universities achieve quality assurance standards from the deans of the faculties and academic department heads’ point of view. 59 deans and 161 department heads took part in the study. They were chosen intentionally from three national and three private universities in Jordan. The findings showed that the degree to which Jordanian universities achieve quality assurance standards was high. According to the job title variable, there were significant differences at (α ≤ 0.05) in the estimates of faculty deans and department heads of the degree to which Jordanian universities achieve quality assurance standards. Provision of material and moral support from deans and department heads can have a significant impact to which quality are met in Jordanian universities.

A study by Badrakhan (2013) was aimed at assessing the extent of the application of quality standards, and quality assurance at the Amman National University in Jordan and to reveal the impact of the college and experience variables in the estimates of teaching staff members. The results showed that quality standards and quality assurance at the Amman National University was high But it also showed a lack of impact on the experience and college variables in the opinions of faculty members and the adoption of inadequate incentive measures.

Theimprovementsmainobjective

support for those working in the sector as a critical tool to implement quality

A study by Tarabulsieh (2011) was aimed at identifying the availability, the application of the areas of self evaluation and quality standards in the Syrian higher education and scientific research institutions, based on views of a representative sample of faculty members and postgraduate students at Syrian government universities. The results showed that a low level of application of the self-evaluation areas and quality standards by faculty members and students

An accreditation and quality control model for higher educational institutions in the Arab World was proposed by Al Khatib & Al Khatib (2010). It was hoped that his model would contribute to improve the performances of universities, align their outputs with the requirements of the labor market and meets the needs of sustainable development plans. The results showed a very high degree of consensus among the members of the research sample (university presidents and their deputies, specialists in accreditation and quality control, members of the accreditation and quality control bodies, etc)

of Belash et al. (2015) was to evaluate quality assurance of educational programs according to the task (act, check, do, and plan), by monitoring the satisfaction of stakeholders with the results of education. One of the main findings of the study is that higher education institutions can adopt a methodology to monitor the satisfaction of students, graduates, and stakeholders as a mechanism to ensure the quality of academic programs.

A study by Bouzian (2010) illustrated the advantages and disadvantages of applying total quality management in learning. The most important focus of the study was to support quality management, establish its own culture, organise continuous training for staff and delegation of authority. The study also stated that one of the obstacles is the lack of compatibility between the organizational cultures prevailing in educational institutions with quality management concerning the organizational cultural dimensions such as leadership structures, the need for continuous improvements and creativity.

A descriptive approach is the most appropriate method for this research.

The sample of the study consisted of 103 faculty members who were randomly selected from the population (Sekaran & Bougie, 2016) but were then categorized by gender, academic rank and college type. Table 1 shows the distribution of the sample population according to these demographic variables

The community of this research consists of all the faculty members at the University of Petra, which numbered 283, according to the official statistics issued by the Department of Higher Education for the year 2017/2018.

Academic Rank Assistant Professor 64 Associate Professor 24 Professor 15 Type of college Humanities 62 Applied Sciences 41 Total 103 Study scale

Population of the study

Based on the literature review, the researchers have set a questionnaire with 34 items to measure the factors influencing the sustainability of quality performance for the staff members, using the Likert scale (very high, high, medium, low, very low).

The questionnaire has been presented to ten arbitrators in the same specialization to confirm the tool used in terms of construction integrity and clarity of language. The comments of the arbitrators were then taken into consideration to improve the questionnaire.

Reliability

The research instrument was reviewed in two different languages, English and Arabic, by academics. Thus, the researchers guarantee the validity of this tool.

Table 1: The distribution of the study sample Variables Levels No. Gender Male 59 Female 44

3. Methodology

Sample of the study

Validity of scales

To assess the authenticity of the measurement scale and to evaluate the questionnaire internal consistency, a Cronbach Alpha value was calculated. The value for each area is provided in Table 2.

Questionnaire authority

Table 2: Internal consistency factors for each tool area Study variables Based on the research objectives and questions, the study variables were: gender (male and female), academic rank (assistant professor, associate professor, and professor), college type (humanities and applied sciences). Statistical tool

The data collected from the questionnaires were analyzed using SPSS v22, along with the following: the number of times a repeating event occurs per unit of time (frequency), measures of central tendency, extraction of arithmetic mean and standard deviation, T tests to determine the significance and differences between the independent variables and Cronbach Alpha to verify the stability of the coefficient for internal consistency. The 5 grade Likert scale for respondents’ scores was used as the following: very weak (1.00 to 1.80), weak (1.81 2.60), medium (2.61 3.40), high (3.41 4.20) and very high (4.21 5.00)

Table 3. Arithmetic means and standard deviations of the factors influencing the sustainability of quality performance of the University of Petra Rank Area Mean Standard deviation Degree 1 Governance 4.54 .53 Very high 2 Academic Programs 4.41 .51 Very high 3 Job satisfaction 4.39 .72 Very high 4 Job Performance 4.30 .73 Very high Scale as a whole 4.42 .52 Very high No. Area Rank of paragraphs Cronbach’s Alpha 1 Governance 9 .89 2 Academic programs 14 .90 Job satisfaction 5 .89 4 Job performance 6 .88 Total 34 .96

4. Results Question 1: What are the factors influencing the sustainability of the quality performance of the University of Petra according to staff opinion? To answer this question arithmetic means and standard deviations for factors influencing the sustainability of quality performance of the University of Petra, were calculated. The results reveal that governance was ranked first with an average of 4.54 and a standard deviation of 0.53, followed by academic programs with an average of 4.41 and a standard deviation of 0.51. In contrast, job satisfaction ranked third with an average of 4.39 and a standard deviation of 0.72. However, the fourth place was occupied by job performance with an average of 4.30 and a standard deviation of 0.73, as shown in Table 3.

5 The

The

Governance Arithmetic means and standard deviations were used to determine the impact on governance on the quality performance sustainability at the University of Petra. results demonstrate that item 1, which states that "work on issuing regulations, instructions and policies", ranked first with an average of 4.74 and a standard deviation of 0.52. Item 5 which states that "the existence of the governance councils and defining their tasks and responsibilities" ranked second with an average of 4.70 and a standard deviation of 0.58. Item 9 which states that "the existence of procedures for awarding, penalties and follow up of grievances" ranked last with an average of 4.35 and a standard deviation of 0.83. However, the mean for this domain as a whole was 4.54 and the standard deviation was 0.53, which equals a "very high" rating, as shown in Table 4.

6 Existence

9 Existence

The

Table 4: Mean and standard deviations of the study sample estimates of the impact of governance on quality sustainability in the performance of the University of Petra No. Paragraphs Mean dStandardeviation Rank Degree Working on the promulgation of regulations, instructions, and policies. 4.74 .52 1 Very high existence of the governing councils and the definition of their tasks and responsibilities. 4.70 .58 2 Very high Work on evaluation, review, and development. 4.60 .65 3 Very high Working on documentation and publishing. 4.59 .66 4 Very high Application of transparency in the implementation of all the work of the enterprise. 4.53 .78 5 Very high of performance appraisal and accountability procedures. 4.53 .75 5 Very high Adoption of organizational structures and mechanisms for their construction and review. 4.42 .86 6 Very high Existence of justice and equal opportunity procedures. 4.40 .87 7 Very high of procedures for granting incentives, sentencing, and follow up of grievances. 4.35 .83 8 Very high area as a whole 4.54 .53 Very high

Academic programs

Table 5: Mean and standard deviations of the study sample on the impact of academic programs on the durability of quality in the performance of University of Petra No. Paragraphs Mean deviationStandard Rank Degree 15 Clarity and complementarity of study plans for the programs. 4.72 .49 1 Veryhigh Establishment, development, and discontinuation of academic programs. 4.55 .70 2 Veryhigh

11 The existence of policies and procedures for student transition and equivalency of courses. 4.48 .64 3 Veryhigh An adequate number of teachers with appropriate qualifications and disciplines for programs and levels. 4.48 .77 3 Veryhigh

The researchers attribute this finding to the fact that the University of Petra depends on governance for the sustainability of is quality. It takes organizational and administrative structures that correspond with its mission and objectives to develop operational plans, regulations, instructions, and policies, as well as defining the tasks and responsibilities and actions to assess performance and accountability. All these are within the framework of equal opportunities and justice for all employees of the university. Nevertheless, specific procedures for awarding incentives or penalizing through transparency exist

This result is in contrast with the findings of Tadesse, Manathunga and Gillies (2018), who showed that quality improvement efforts are separated, and most of the quality and evaluation concerns and administration practices lead only to the preparation and execution of randomly placed official reports. However, the results are in agreement with Bouzian (2010), who showed that the most critical focus of research is to support quality management, establish a culture of continuous training in individuals and to delegate authority. Our results are also in agreement with Al Nukari and Al Tarawneh (2018).

Arithmetic means and standard deviations were calculated to determine the impact of educational programs on the sustainability of quality at the University of Petra. The results show that item 15, which states that "clearness of the study plans for the programs offered” , has ranked first with an average of 4.72 and a standard deviation of 0.49. Item 10, which states that “foundation, development, and cessation of academic programs” , ranked second with an average of 4.55 and a standard deviation of 0.70. Item 1), which states that “an interactive relationship between faculty members and staff of database and library” ranked last with an average of 4.17 and a standard deviation of 0.94. However, the mean for this domain as a whole was 4.41 and the standard deviation was 0.51, which equals a "high" rating, as shown in the Table 5

54 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. No. Paragraphs Mean deviationStandard Rank Degree 16 The harmony between the applications presented with the university vision, mission, and goals. 4.47 .65 4 Veryhigh 21 The existence of policies and procedures for evaluating student performance. 4.44 .79 5 Veryhigh 19 Providing the necessary educational resources for academic programs. 4.42 .79 6 Veryhigh 22 Policy and procedures for the performance appraisal of faculty members are available. 4.40 .73 7 Veryhigh 14 Working on the publication of expected learning outcomes for all academic programs offered. 4.40 .83 7 Veryhigh 20 Commitment to the time allotted for the plans presented. 4.38 .76 8 Veryhigh 12 Continuous improvement of teaching and learning processes. 4.31 .85 9 Veryhigh 17 The existence of academic guidance programs for students. 4.31 .83 9 Veryhigh 23 Learning outcomes align with labor market requirements. 4.25 .97 10 Veryhigh 13 An interactive relationship between faculty members and staff of databases. 4.17 .94 11 High The area as a whole 4.41 .51 Veryhigh The researchers attribute this ‘very high’ result for the quality of academic programs at Petra University due to the clarity of vision in these programs, the knowledge of resource persons, the presence of learning outcomes, measurable skills, and that the objectives of these programs are international known. The continuous educational development for faculty members through participation in research, training in the latest scientific education and keeping up with the recent advancements in the different fields of specialization has also helped the University of Petra achieved this ‘very high’ result. It should also be noted that there is constant communication between faculty members and technical & administrative staff. Moreover, there is a fluid communication between faculty members and students, with an integrated information system being to evaluate the work of faculty members so that they can improve their performances

The results show that items 27 and 24, which respectively states that "the participation of faculty members in the process evaluation of educational outcomes" and "the staff member's sense of job security at the university", have together occupied the first place with a common average of 4.46 but with standard deviations of 0.85 and 0.88, respectively Item 26, which states that “the participation of faculty member in decision making concerning education and learning policies", has ranked in the second place with an average of 4.38 and a standard deviation of 0.81. Item 25, which states that “the faculty member is supported when exposed to an administrative problem” , ranked last with an average of 4.31 and a standard deviation of 0.88. However, the mean for this area as a whole was 4.41 and the standard deviation was 0.51, which equals a "very high" assessment rating, as shown in Table 6.

Arithmetic means and standard deviations were calculated to determine the impact of job satisfaction on the sustainability of quality at the University of Petra

The faculty member received support when exposed to an administrative problem. 4.31 .88 4 Veryhigh The area as a whole 4.39 .72 Veryhigh

C. Job satisfaction

The participation of a member of the teaching staff to make decisions to develop education and learning policies. 4.38 .81 2 Veryhigh

The staff member's sense of job security at the university. 4.46 .88 1 Veryhigh

The satisfaction of the teaching staff about the services provided (appointment, training, scholarship, attendance at conferences, etc). 4.35 .92 3 Veryhigh

This result agrees with Belash et al. (2015), who showed that higher education institutions can adopt a methodology to measure the satisfaction of undergraduates, graduates and other stakeholders in order to ensure the quality of academic programs. The added value approach confirms the validity of the graduate satisfaction for the education they are receiving.

Table 6: Mean and standard deviation for the sample estimates of the impact of functional satisfaction on quality sustainability at the University of Petra No. Paragraph Mean dStandardeviation Rank Degree

Involvement of faculty members in the process evaluation of educational outcomes. 4.46 .85 1 Veryhigh

The views of the teaching staff on the job satisfaction were in the ‘very high’ category, which confirms that the working environment and the organizational climate at the university are very comfortable, and that their job provides them with an appropriate social status. The researchers also attribute this result to the fact that the improvement of the work environment had a vital role in increasing the employee’s loyalty with their organizations. When faculty members work in an appropriate and comfortable work environment, they will provide the organization with all their energies they can. The positive work environment, such as the freedom in making decisions, participation in the evaluation processes, clarity of responsibilities, appropriate rules and regulations, and organizational support contribute to raising the level of efficiency of the scholars and increasing job satisfaction, which automatically increase productivity. The University of Petra also encourages opportunities for professional development, and self development, which can guarantee job security. However, our results are not in agreement with Bouzian (2010), as his results showed that one of the most critical constraints towards quality practices is the inadequacy of the organizational culture at the educational institutions. And this is to the following obstructions: the centralization of decision making, staff weakness and inability in the field of quality management, inadequate quality of the educational service offered to students to meet their expectations and needs, the lack of association between the university and the relevant sectors of the labor market, and the resistance to change by specific employees or whole departments.

Job performance Arithmetic means and standard deviations were calculated to determine the impact of job performance on the sustainability of quality at the University of Petra. The results showed that item 29, which states that "the commitment of faculty members to the areas of continuous improvement” , ranked first with an average of 4.50 and a standard deviation of 0.74. Item 30, which states that "the presence of open channels of communication between different administrative levels” , ranked second with an average of 4.36 and a standard deviation of 0.84. Item 33, which states that "the university adopts reference of comparisons to measure job performance", ranked last with an average of 4.18 and a standard deviation of 1.06. Thus, the mean on this domain as a whole was 4.30 and the standard deviation was 0. 73, which equals a "very high" rating, as shown in Table 7. The researchers attribute this ‘very high’ result for the job performance variable to the constant improvements that are done in this area at the University of Petra. The results have also shown that the more the university improvements increase, the more the job performance increase. Hence, universities should work on an ongoing growth in their staff. Also, the application of quality management and its role in improving the performance of employees will help in the employment of the concept of quality assurance system. These results are in agreement with the study done by Badrakhan (2013), in which the application of quality standards and quality assurance at Amman National University came first. Badrakhan (2013) study focused on the need to adopt adequate incentive systems for workers in order to increase their productivity.

A multivariate analysis of variance was used to measure the demographic variables of gender, academic rank, and college type. Table 8 shows the relevant statistics for each of the demographic variable.

There were no significant differences at level (α ≤ 0.05) between the study groups in the factors influencing the sustainability of quality performance of the University of Petra attributed to the academic rank variable and all areas of the tool. There were also significant differences at level (α ≤ 0.05) between study groups in the factors influencing the sustainability of quality in the performance of the University of Petra attributed to the variable of the college type and all areas of the However,tool.the study revealed that there were significant differences at the level (α ≤ 0.05) between the study groups averages in the factors influencing the sustainability of quality performance of the University of Petra and all areas of the tool in favor of females. The detailed results are provided in Table 9.

57 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Table 7: Mean and standard deviations for the study sample estimates of the impact of job performance on the sustainability of quality at the University of Petra No. Paragraph Mean dStandardeviation Rank Degree 29 The commitment of faculty members to the areas of improvement.continuous 4.50 .74 1 Veryhigh 30 The presence of open channels of communication between different administrative levels. 4.36 .84 2 Veryhigh 32 The university adopts standards for the measurement of job performance. 4.32 .94 3 Veryhigh 31 Faculty members benefit from feedback in continuous improvement processes. 4.21 .98 4 Veryhigh 34 Participation of faculty in follow up committees for the development of quality assurance management. 4.19 .93 5 High 33 Observance by the University of benchmarking for the measurement of functional performance. 4.18 1.06 6 High

Question 2: Are there significant differences at the level of significance (α ≤ 0.05) in the factors influencing the sustainability of quality performance of the University of Petra according to faculty staff due to the variables (gender, academic rank, and college type)?

The area as a whole 4.30 .73 Veryhigh

58 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Table 8: Results of multivariate analysis of variance for sample estimates of factors influencing the sustainability of quality in the performance the University of Petra Variables Areas Sum squaresof Freedom Degrees Mean squaresof F Ratio lSigevel vHotelingGenderalue = .805 Governance 1.832 1 1.832 6.955 .010* Academic Programs 1.206 1 1.206 4.682 .033* Job satisfaction 2.522 1 2.522 5.174 .025* Job Performance 3.716 1 3.716 7.484 .007* WilksrAcademicankvalue = .909 Governance .741 2 .370 1.406 .250 Academic Programs .070 2 .035 .136 .873 Job satisfaction 2.991 2 1.495 3.068 .051 Job Performance 1.229 2 .614 1.237 .295 College vHotelingtypealue=.037 Governance .256 1 .256 .972 .327 Academic Programs .188 1 .188 .728 .396 Job satisfaction .002 1 .002 .004 .950 Job Performance .715 1 .715 1.440 .233 Error Governance 25.814 98 .263 Academic Programs 25.249 98 .258 Job satisfaction 47.759 98 .487 Job Performance 48.658 98 .497 * Statistical significance level (α ≤ 0.05) Table 9: Mean and standard deviation of sample estimates in all areas depending on the differences in gender Area Gender No. Mean Standard deviation Governance Male 59 4.44 .59 Female 44 4.68 .41 Academic Programs Male 59 4.32 .51 Female 44 4.53 .50 Job satisfaction Male 59 4.28 .77 Female 44 4.53 .62 Job Performance Male 59 4.15 .80 Female 44 4.49 .58 The researchers attributed the existence of the statistically significant difference assigned to the gender variable in favor of females due to the fact that females are more eager to maintain quality standards, and more interested in the continuous development, quality sustainability and the upgrading of their job performances. The researchers also attributed the absence of significant differences in the level

5. Conclusions and Recommendations

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. of academic rank and the type of college to the administrative burdens that are too often assigned to faculty members despite the fact that they are too often overloaded with teaching and research activities. Some tasks are allocated according to their academic rank (Professor, Associate Professor, Assistant Professor) while many other tasks have to be completed by all of them, irrespective of their rank. These results are in agreement with those of Badrakhan (2013), who also showed the lack of impact of college type on quality standards and quality assurance at the Amman National University from. Furthermore, the function of faculty members is very specific regardless of the type of college they work in. This explains the lack of impact of ‘college type’ as a factor in the maintenance of quality in the above universities.

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The response of the sample members to the factors influencing the quality sustainability of the performance of Petra University has been "very high". And that the area of governance was ranked first for the other areas mentioned in the study. And that there are statistically significant differences for the study variables, namely the type of college and the sex in favor of females. Further to these findings, this paper presents a set of recommendations that shall contribute to the identification of factors influencing the sustainability of quality performance of the University ofPetra. Since the responses of the faculty members to the factors influencing the sustainability of quality performance at the University of Petra were “very high” , we recommend the following: researchers shall take care of these factors and work on developing them regularly based on the quality standards and their usage at universities along with other factors, the development of a rewarding system for excellence in teaching & research and/or distinctive performances in administrative duties or other university related matters, the adoption of a fair and measurable evaluation system which can integrate the various processes of the university and the adoption of transparent and accountable standards in all administrative and technical duties at the university.

60 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Al Khatib, A., & Al Khatib, R. (2010). Accreditation and Quality Control in Arab Universities (first edition). Jordan, Irbid: Modern book Science. Al Nukari, E., M., & Al Tarawneh, E, Y. (2018). The Degree to which Jordanian Universities Achieve Quality Assurance Standards from the Dean of the Faculties and Academic Department Heads’ Point of View. Dirasat Journal, Educational Science, 45(3). AssociationofArabUniversities(2015).

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. The Forum of Universities of Eastern Algeria. Algeria. Halawah, J., & Taha, N. (2011). Reality of Governorship at the University of Jerusalem”. University of Jerusalem, Institute of Sustainable Development, House of Developmental Science, Jerusalem, Palestine. Martin, M S. (2017). Assurance Qualité Externe Dans L'enseignement Supérieure: Les Options UNESCO, Paris. Retrieved from Mohammed,https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000152045_freD.M.(2012).

The Quality of Continuing Higher Education Institutions and the Challenges of Knowledge. 2nd Arab International Conference for Higher Education Quality Assurance, Cairo University, Egypt. Mohammed, S. (2015). A Proposal Vision for Quality Assurance of the Egyptian Higher Education in the Light of Strategic Management Approach. The Arab Journal for the Quality Assurance of University Education, 8(19), 85 133. Mohammed, T., Jassim, F., Jbouri, B., Abdurahman, M., & Abdalrazzaq, Z. (2015,1st of march). An Analytical Study of the Role of the Higher Leadership in the University of Technology in Applying the Standards and Requirements of Total Quality Management in Higher Education. 5th Arab Higher Education Quality Assurance Conference, Sharjah University, United Arab Emirates. Retrieved on 20/11/2018, from: http://zu.edu.jo/EN/NewsForm/NewsDetails.aspx?id=1413 Olimat, S. (2015). Quality and academic accreditationatJordanianuniversities. Paper presented at the Seventh Annual conference: The Impact of quality and accreditation in education, Casablanca: Morocco. Retrieved Olkiewicz,http://events.aroqa.org/uploads/newsImage/file/proceedings2015_(9).pdffromM.(2018).QualityImprovementthroughForesightMethodologyasaDirectiontoIncreasetheEffectivenessofanOrganization. Contemporary Economics, 12(1), 69 80. Raqqad, S. (2014). Application of the Quality Assurance System in Algerian Higher Education Institution (Thesis submitted for a PhD in Economic Sciences) Sateef University, Algeria. Retrieved from http://www.univ setif.dz/Tdoctorat/2015/SEG/regad%20saliha.pdf

61 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Sarairah, K. (2011). The job performance of the faculty members in the official Jordanian universities from the point of view of the department heads. Damascus University Journal, 27(1), 601 652. Sekaran, U., & Bougie, R. (2016). Research Methods for Business: A Skill Building Approach (7th Edition). Retrieved from https://www.academia.edu/36294585/Research Methods For Business A Skill Building Approach 7th_edition.pdf

Tadesse, T., Manathunga, C., & Gillies, R. (2018). Making sense of quality teaching and learning in higher education in Ethiopia: Unfolding existing realities for future promises. Journal of University Teaching & Learning Practice, 15(1), 1 20. Taha, H., Taha, A., & Dalimi, A. (2015, 1st of March). Comprehensive quality and scientific research in Arab higher education institutions. Paper presented in the 5th International Arab Conference on Quality Assurance in Higher Education, Sharjah University, United Arab Emirates. Tarabulsieh, S. M. (2011). Quality Management of Educational and Research Services in Higher EducationInstitutions (1st edition). Arab SocietyPublishingand distribution Office. University of Petra (2019, December 16). About University of Petra. (Website) Retrieved from https://www.uop.edu.jo/En/Pages/default.aspx

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In general music education, singing and playing instruments are necessary, but

Keywords: warm up rehearsal; warm up techniques; warm up components; elementary school chorus; school choir instruction

1. Introduction In Korea, most students, including primary school students, are exposed to popular music too much, which may not be helpful for them, in terms of music educational development. Most experienced music teachers and conductors agree with that point. It is believed that phenomena focusing only on popular music does not form a healthy music culture. For the primary school students, should experience as many areas of music as possible. Music education at school should be the driving force for the development of this balanced music culture.

Abstract. The preliminary purpose of the study is to find out the instructional components of choral warm up rehearsal for teachers in Korean elementary school. For the study, Focused Group Interview Method was used, and the participants were eleven Korean primary school teachers who have had school chorus conducting or instructing.

62 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 4, pp. 62 77, April https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.4.20205

This survey shows that the teachers in primary schools who have experienced instructing a school chorus do not feel satisfied with warm up techniques in their rehearsal. The reason why the teachers are not happy or confident about warm up routine was various, but mostly they are supposed to teach all subjects, including school chorus. They have not enough time to prepare or practice for warm up contents. They feel something to be equipped with proper skills of the warm up in the rehearsal to help their students sing in more enjoyable ways in school chorus. Through the study, it suggests that the regional education office must provide a proper and practical training course to the teachers who are scheduled to lead a school chorus. Besides, it suggests that several elements to consider for establishing a warm up model and its necessary skills, which can be applied and improve musical aptitude for students who participate in the school chorus.

Teachers’ Instructional Components of Warm-up Rehearsal in Elementary School Chorus in South Korea Seungyoun Hong Gwangju National University of Education Seoul, Korea

2. The values of choral activity Jordon (1999) states that music is the binding stuff of community and the community nourished by music, and tells that music is the vehicle by which souls individually examined and explored speak to the world at large. Jordon believed that a choir or an orchestra are all composed of all of us, that gives a

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. they are not enough for students’ musical aptitude development. School chorus, in terms of music education, is one of the best ways to learn and experience the beauty of harmony (Hong, 2013). School chorus with general music education can provide an opportunity to accelerate the development of musical aptitude.

Sight singing skills through participating the choral music programs can be taught, and the teaching of music reading becomes a more central part of choral music education (Norris, 2004). Gordon (2007) states that for musical aptitude development kids must be exposed to any type of music and genres and be taught both informal and formal ways. Abeles, Hoffer and Klotman (1994) emphasize that music should be introduced students in anytime but avoiding from binding students in a strict manner. Along with Germany and Australia, many countries gain great success without the formal style of a music concert. It implies that various forms and measures in school music, including chorus, should be applied. Each piece of chorus music has different chords and harmonization and using it in a school chorus is valuable. Despite many studies on the positive educational effects and social roles of choral activities, unfortunately, the school chorus activities and the number of the students have been decreased. It was the background of the survey. The question of the study was what the problem of diminishing the school chorus activities might be. In order to find out the general reasons for declining the choral activities in schools, especially in South Korea, the related books and papers were subject to search. And the participants of the survey were interviewed with F.G.I. (Focused Group Interview) Method. The findings are that there were several fundamental causes for the reduction of choral activities in FocusingKorea.

on the matter, researcher was very interested in the warm up components and techniques, that the teachers in the school chorus frequently use. The researcher finds that the teacher’s warm up techniques affect the students’ attitude toward the rehearsal time or chorus activity. It was the warm up techniques in rehearsal that the teachers are worried about, which means the teachers are not fully ready to lead their school chorus. Through the findings, the researcher tries to provide several suggestions for school chorus teachers and educational administrator, in terms of warm up components. Thus, the questions of the study are mainly two; one is what the main components of the warm up rehearsal should be, which directly apply to the elementary school chorus in Korea. The other one is what the main reasons to hinder the teachers having time to prepare the warm up rehearsal.

powerful and compelling voice that speaks through beauty. In light of this, elementary school choir can be the beginning of the community to nourish with the beauty of music, especially harmony made by the human voice.

The chorus allows students develop sociality. The chorus creates a sense of solidarity and solidarity with each other and acts as a decisive element in the school life class (Chang, 2015).

The elementary school choir provides students many invisible merits in and out of the school level curriculum. Through the choir activities, communicative competency is one of the benefits. Harmony in the choir helps students to feel more refined and grow into a more stable and harmonious person (Hong, 2017).

Teaching and conducting in elementary school chorus is an exhilarating and inspiring experience However, a teacher needs to be well equipped in many ways (Swears, 1984).

The elementary school choir provides the best opportunity for students at their childhood time to develop their singing ability. Students can recognize their singing skills without feeling competing or failing in a large group, and they think that they belong to a group and eager there (Kim, 2018).

A study of Bell (2004) shows that the community choir singers (adult amateur singers) had a public school choral experience from elementary school (40~60%) to high school (59~82%) musical programs as young students in the United States. Unlike adult chorus, teaching singing elementary school chorus requires the teachers (or conductors) to prepare not only in musical elements but in educational and developmental psychology ways (Lee, 2014; Hargreaves, 1986).

Furthermore, the attention and concentration participating in the chorus influence other learning (Yoon, 2012). They experience beauty through the melody and lyrics of the chorus, which leads to the formation of musical emotions. Choral experiences generally help to develop necessary music skills (Beckers & Oezdemir, 2010). Students in a school choir become responsible for the school community and even understand the values and culture of their own. The competency that school choir children can achieve in the process is the cultural community competency. This meaningful experience will lead the students to a lifetime of music. They also recognize the aesthetic value of music through various forms of a chorus to experience the joy of expression and to develop musical talent.

Because of expressing and singing in collaboration as a member of the whole rather than individual expressions in the form of the chorus, students learn the relationship with the whole through choral activities, which helps students develop sociality and learn more about themselves (Roinson & Winold, 2000).

Through choral activities, students develop a sense of harmony, improve aesthetics, creativity, and responsibility, reduce stress, and purify and stabilize their emotions to form a harmonious personality (Parker, 2010). Choral activities have a positive effect on the development of musical emotions by providing

There are numerous ways of warm up procedures in choral rehearsals, according to the individual conductor's intention. Warm up in teachers' instruction Hale (2018), the conductor of the Dixie State University Chamber Singers, demonstrates the choral warm up exercise in several ways. His warm up consists of 3 parts and starts with relaxation, posture, and breath. Next, he continues making sounds related to vowel shape and range. Finally, he ends with balance, blend, intonation, and vowel shape. Leach (2014), professor of music and music education at the Pennsylvania State University divided his choral warm up exercises into nine parts; 1. Physical and breathing exercises; 2. Speech to a song; 3. Song 1 descending; 4. Song 2 ascending; 5. Diction warm up; 6. Part singing; 7. Range extension; 8. Four part; 9. Choral warm down. Pedde (2011), conductor of the Indianapolis Children's Choir shows a good example of the warm-up just before the concert begins. He has the students sing using 5 note descending passages with "hee ee ee ee ee", "Ooh", "Ah" and a physical motion imitating the direction of the vowel. He also uses ascending and descending rapid 5 note pattern on "doo bee" and "hee ho, hee e e e e" using several half step scales with a physical motion for each scale. Part singing follows, and it starts with chord I (do, mi, so), and as the conductor directs the part with his finger, the part pointed sings half note up or half note down which makes the choir keep their part.

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. students with beautiful chords, impressive melodies, and accurate lyrics. Choral activities, including performance on the stage, help them feel beautiful before their audience perceives their beauty (Trousdale & Willis, 2010). Choral activities help students develop essential musical areas by allowing them to more accurately grasp pitch, vocal fluctuations, and harmonies than in instrumental ensemble or piano performance (Mursell & Glenn, 1995).

Leck (2014), director and conductor of Aloha Children's Choir Festival, demonstrates rehearsal warm up starts with a physical motion making "chee" sound in several different styles. He has the students sing using 5 note descending passages with "Ooh oo oo oo oo", "Hee", "Ah” and a physical motion imitating the direction of the vowel. Based on "do do do do do mi so mi do" scale, students sing it with neutral vowel sound like "yah ha ha, yah ha ha, ya ha ha ha ha" moving to the right and left or turning around.

3. Various warm up in choral activities

Lana (2016), founder and artistic director of Cincinnati Children's Choir, starts choral warm up with physical preparation, stretching and aligning the physical body for singing. Vocal preparation is the next step for choral warm up, echoing siren sound warming up the head voice, chest voice and middle voice. After vocal preparation, vowel unification exercise is followed using 5 note descending passages with a pure vowel sound. She adds a physical motion to imitate and reinforce the shape and direction of the vowel. The next step for warm up exercise is vocal agility and upper range, using ascending and

Jordan (2012), professor and director of Westminster Conducting Institute and co director of Choral Institute at Oxford, emphasizes that choral singing especially getting energizing sound could get through 17 physical gestures; 1. up and over gesture with the heel of hand on the forehead; 2. pointing gesture; 3. finger toss into forehead; 4. forward spin; 5. breath kneading gesture; 6. body tip; 7. breath anchor and space umbrella; 8. finger twirl over the head; 9. hand dab for energy; 10. hand smoothing gesture; 11. congealing sound mixing gesture; 12. linguine pull gesture; 13. upward cheekbone brush; 14. toss open leg lift; 15. sound rolling gesture (for piano and pianissimo dynamics); 16. consonant wisp gesture; and 17. upward toss for sound weight reduction. Jordon (1993) also suggested that preparing and marking the score and breathing with and for the singers are essential for rehearsal, providing warm up planning template for a conductor to prepare for it. His warm up procedure follows; 1. works to rehears; 2. relaxation activity; 3. establish six points of balance; 4. body mapping for inhalation and exhalation; 5. body mapping reinforcement phrases to be used to support above activity; 6. resonance exercise; 7. legato exercise; 8. legato exercise with a leap; 9. range extension; 10. alignment and breath reinforcement phrases for use in range extension exercise; and 11. choral ensemble warmup(Jordon, 2005). Kim (2018) suggests 16 warm up scales for teachers who instruct elementary school chorus in Korea. Her case study undertakes that three excellent choral instructors who have more than 15 year experience in the teaching school chorus and got awarded for their achievement as schoolteachers. Chang (2015) develops a 24 hour choral class program and divides it into six sequences; being familiar with choral music through listening training, vocalization with body movement, singing a chorus in music textbooks in various ways, an extension of choral repertoire in daily lives, and performance in chorus style. Kim (2017) introduces a useful and practical rehearsal method using an application for smartphone, called “TeamPl”, which is provided only for primary school teachers and students in Korea. She designs this for elementary school chorus practice tool. Her choir divided into three groups, uses the application for log on, participation, vocalization practice, and the rate of mission completion. Students upload their recorded practising files and pictures on the web through the application so that teacher can notify and see what they are doing. Using this method, the researcher was quite satisfied with the result. It was reported that the method was a way for students to be more active and autonomous in participation and capable of mastering the score work and reduce the rate of absence. Although there are many warm up rehearsal methods for choirs in previous

descending rapid 5 note pattern on "doo bee". The lower range follows, and it is 3 note (do re mi) based descending exercise that helps transition from head to chest voice. Along with the exercises, Lana uses Zinga Zah song with motion and interval training. Finally, the director has students sing part singing using solfege and major scale.

4.1. Study design

This study was carried out as a personal research project called music education issues in elementary schools in South Korea. The data for this research were collected with F.G.I. (focused group interview) Methods.

studies, there is no certain way of warm up components for elementary school chorus, which can directly apply to the elementary choral situation in Korea. The previous studies show that body moving with vocalization is a very effective way for the elementary school chorus. The participants of the survey responded that they had not used the method when they lead their school chorus. Data and methods

The questionnaire for the interview was designed into two parts; 1. The interviewees’ school chorus experience, their main components of the warm up rehearsal, and their choral rehearsal procedure in a whole. 2. Multiple choice questions, leading questions and yes or no items are not used. The interviewees’ recognition degree toward warm up techniques for the school chorus. One interpretive question (students’ reactions to the teacher’s warm up), one directive questions (preparing time for warm up rehearsal) and one hypothetical question (anything to share, in terms of main content compositions of the warm up and elementary school chorus) are used for the interview.

The interviewees were graduate students in the department of music education, Gwangju National University of Education. The responders were elementary school teachers and experienced school chorus instructors as well.

The schoolteachers(n=11) were asked about their experience of instructing school chorus, attitude toward warm up rehearsal, their warm up preparation, students’ reactions to the teacher’s warm up, the amount of time for warm up, and main content composition of the teacher’s warm up.

From the fourth question to the sixth one, they were to respond their attitudes on an applied five point Likert scale in three different ways; first, (1= absolutely necessary, 5= waste of time), second, (1= very well prepared, 5= hardly prepared), third, (1= very positively, 5= very negatively). The last question, main content composition of the teacher’s warm up and anything about elementary school chorus, was open to answering.

On the questionnaire, the first question was how many years you have in school chorus instruction(it did not question if you have any experience in teaching elementary school chorus, because the interviewees who were the graduate in the researcher’s class already known as they have the experience). The second question was what you think of the attitude toward warm up rehearsal. The third question was how you prepare for the warm up in each rehearsal. The fourth question was what the students' reactions to the teacher’s warm up. The fifth question was that how long you spend time for warm up in each rehearsal. The sixth question was what the main content composition of your warm up in each rehearsal.

6 What was your students' reactions to your warm up contents or techniques? ① very positive, ② positive, ③ average, ④ negative, ⑤ very negative

3 What was your choral warm up rehearsal procedure? (for example; stages divided for whole rehearsal) part. 2.

5 How much did you put your energy into the preparation of warm up in rehearsal? ① well prepared, ② prepared, ③ average, ④ not much prepared, ⑤ hardly prepared

4.2. Data collection and analysis

The data for the study were collected with F.G.I. Methods. The researcher arranged to have each interview with the elementary school teachers who have an experience instructing or conducting school chorus, including children’s choir in Gwangju Metropolitan City, South Korea. Gathering the data as possible as the interview was undertaken. Each meeting took 20 to 30 minutes to question and listen to the teachers. For the interviewees as teachers, the interviews took place between August and December 2018 and January 2019. The researcher interviewed and queried individually. Out of the 11 interviewees, five teachers have some experience of instructing and conducting elementary school chorus under five years, while six teachers more than six year experience. Out of them, two teachers still involve with a school choir; nine teachers are not. Eight teachers were graduated from elementary music education while three teachers graduated from other primary training.

What was your attitude toward the importance of warm up in rehearsal? ① absolutely necessary, ② necessary, ③ average, ④ not necessary, ⑤ waste of time

8 Do you have anything to share, in terms of the elementary school chorus, especially warm up techniques and rehearsals?

How many years of experience conducting or instructing elementary school chorus? ① under five years, ② more than six years

Table 1: The questionnaire used for the survey Part 1.

2 What were your main components of the warm up rehearsal? (for example; stretching, singing some scales)

7 How much time did you use for warm up in your rehearsal? ① under 5 minutes, ② 5 to 9 minutes, ③ more than 10 minutes

Figure 1: Teachers’ attitude toward the importance of warm up in rehearsal

Besides, teachers tell that managing school chorus is not an easy job because of the other many jobs to do in school. From establishing school choir in March every year is a big task for teachers and arranging practice time with students is also another troublesome. They say that making a practice time for their choir is about 3 to 9 hours a week. Sometimes they have to schedule for practice after school or even on Saturdays. Elementary school teachers in Korea are to teach at least 7 hours a day, which is very tough in terms of preparing for all subjects in the school curriculum. It is understandable to prepare warm up techniques or contents in each rehearsal for the teachers in that situation is not an easy job at all. instructing school chorus experience teachers'backgroundundergraduate under five years 5 music education 8 more than six years 6 non music education 3 sum 11 sum 11

Table 2: The participants of the survey Results 5.1. Results

Teachers’ mind set toward warm up practice in choral rehearsal is shown as the below <figure 1>. It shows that teachers believe warm up is not a waste of time but a necessary process in the choral rehearsal. Seven teachers respond that warm up is necessary or absolute procedure for chorus preparation.

Figure 2: Teachers’ preparation of warm-up in rehearsal

Figure 3: Students’ reactions to the teachers’ warm-ups

Interestingly the reflection of the students, as we see in <figure 3>, who participate in a choral rehearsal with their teachers is not good enough for the teachers’ expectation. There is no ‘very negative reaction’ of the students toward the warm up time with their teachers and ‘very positive reaction’ as well. Only

As we already see in <figure 1>, it tells that the teachers' attitude toward the importance of warm up in rehearsal is apparent. They feel that warm up is a necessary process in each rehearsal, but they are not entirely confident about the technique. Even though they think that they need to equip with warm up techniques, they do not put much time on warm up preparation here.

In <figure 2>, seven teachers believe that warm up is necessary as early mentioned. And here none of them is hardly prepared nor very well prepared in terms of warm up rehearsal. Out of them, only seven teachers answer that they tend to develop for warm up contents and its orders.

None of the responders is in “well prepared” with warm up technique; in the meantime, seven teachers are trying to prepare the warm up materials for their choir and rehearsal. Also, when the teachers prepare the warm up materials, they usually focus on the contents thinking about vowel sound practice with several scales. Interestingly they did not use any physical motions when their students sing for warm up scales.

Figure 4: The amount of time for warm up

four teachers see that their students are ‘positive reaction’ toward the warm up time. It seems that the students who have experienced their teachers’ warm up technique tend to be reluctant to join in the warm up process.

In the <figure 4>, all teachers in the survey use warm up time within 10 minutes, which is short amount of time. While seven teachers spend under 5 minutes for their warm up rehearsal, four teachers answer that they spend more than 5, but less than 10 minutes. Again, teachers did not use any physical motions in their warm up time, especially vowel and consonant, using scale practice. They use only one or two vowel(s) or consonant(s) singing scales, which is very Withmonotonous.thequestion of having anything to share, in terms of the elementary school chorus, especially warm up techniques and rehearsals, the response of the teachers was various. The warm up stage and rehearsal procedure they use, however, were so similar that it could be categorized into two parts in warm up and into three parts in rehearsal procedure. As we see in <Table 3> all teachers, both the under five year experienced teachers and more than six year experience ones answer that their warm up is consist of mainly two things; body warm up and scale singing. For the body warm up, teachers have their students stretch out to relax their necks, shoulders, and legs. Right after body warm up, teachers have the students sing some scales using 3 to 8 musical notes, half or whole tone upward and downward steps, which is fundamental. Besides, they plan from 15 to 30 week course for school chorus and have 1 or 2 performance(s) in school festival or for some special occasion.

Warm up stages Main content composition of warm up in a choral rehearsal

Table 3: Main components of the teacher’s warm up in rehearsal

Table 4: The teachers' general choral warm up rehearsal procedure

Each Rehearsal Stage 1 ⇒ Stage 2 ⇒ Stage 3 Warm up practicePart Whole part practice

Stage 1 To have students stretch, relaxing Stage 2 To have students sing some 3 note to 8 note scales (half or whole tone)

One teacher, however, who has three year experience of instructing elementary school choir specifies his warm up procedure that his warm up takes about 10 minutes talking about whether to open students’ mind, stretching a little bit, and vocalizing with vowels like ‘eeh’, ‘e’, ‘ah’, ‘oh’, and ‘oo’. After that, he has students sing in harmony for balancing and blending with tonic, dominant and subdominant chords. The six year experienced teacher explains her warm up procedure that her warm up takes about 10 minutes greeting with each other and warming up with body stretching, posture, breathing, expression, and thrills on diction. A female and 3 year experienced teacher describes her experience with the rehearsal, especially warm up timetable. She had two times a day; morning at 8 to 8:40, afternoon at 12 to 12:30. Her warm up usually takes less than 10 minutes and begins warm up with greeting hi five and welcoming her students, in which she checks her students’ condition. Right after that, she has the students stretch their body, focusing on body centralized. After finishing it, breathing and vocalization are following, checking her students singing with the diaphragm. The rest of the responders did not explain what they have experienced in detail.

Generally, the teachers of the study have warm ups in their choral practice in the first stage of each rehearsal. And the teachers’ warm ups consist of basically two things; 1. body stretching and relaxing, 2. singing some scales using pure vowels and consonants. Two teachers answer that choral warm up is the same with rehearsal, which is a misunderstanding. The nine teachers can distinguish the difference between rehearsal and warm up. Choral rehearsal is a practice for performance on a stage in a required or desired occasion. In each rehearsal, there is a warm up procedure.

Another thing to consider to focus on practising with the children is to think about organizing things, such as the practice room, to tune the piano, to prepare the scores, and to ensure that the conductor and the teacher adhere to the timeliness, the unnecessary jokes, the environmental matter, the psychological matter and the mood. It is sweet, and even if it is not a good practice room, you can reduce distractions by paying attention to what is said above before practice.

2. School chorus activities, especially in elementary schools, are decreasing. The cause of the problem is on the side of teachers or the side of students.

3. The amount of time for warm up in elementary school chorus needs to be considered. Through the survey, teachers put their time less than 10 minutes for their warm up procedure. The warm up technique, however, was not obvious for the attendants. They did not use anybody movements when their school choir members are singing or vocalizing in vowels or some scales in upwards and downwards.

All answer that they have three general stages for each rehearsal. They have three steps to follow rehearsal that warming up in the first stage, part practice in the next stage, and whole part practice in the last stage. After less than 10 minute rehearsal, they have students practice in each and whole parts in a conventional way.

Although the elementary choir regarded as no special choral, you can expect the results of good practice when you prepare to be rehearsing carefully considering the psychological characteristics of children and their feelings. The performances are very helpful in improving self esteem and increasing creativity and expression as well.

Children's choirs are much less focused than adult choirs, so careful preparation is needed, such as the speed and height of the conductor's speaking, moderation of unnecessary movements by the conductor, and language distinction. Always in front of the child, the conductor must realize that it is a mirror to the children.

4. Through the survey, it is clear that teachers' warm up components are not enough to stimulate their students to follow the warm up procedure with willingness. The assignment of the conductors of the elementary school choir is to create warm up components and skills.

5. A limitation of the study was that the number of the participants was too

5.2. Discussion 1. Through this survey, we could see that preparing warm up techniques or contents in each rehearsal for the teachers is not easy to do. The main reason for it is that teaching all subjects, as elementary school teachers, makes them put preparing warm up techniques or contents aside and even reluctant to instructing or conducting school choir.

Students in a school choir tend to be reluctant to follow the instructions if their teacher is not ready enough for the rehearsal. They need to be continuously stimulated during the whole rehearsal procedure and practising time. The participants of the survey answered, and they seemed to agree with that point.

One of them was that the scope of the events is reduced due to the abolition of choral competitions. Also, there is no incentive or inducement for teachers to lead a school chorus. It was hard for teachers to establish school chorus recruiting the members and getting supports from the principle of their school. But mostly, teachers are not fully ready to lead and conduct their school chorus.

6. Conclusion In order to find out the general reasons for declining the choral activities in a school, especially in South Korea, the related books and papers were subject to search. And the participants of the survey were interviewed with F.G.I. (Focused Group Interview) Method. The findings are that there were several fundamental causes for the reduction of choral activities in Korea. After the outcome of the survey, the research tries to suggest make up the problem, declining the choral activities in a primary school in Korea.

As early mentioned, students in choir, especially in elementary school, need to be continuously stimulated during the whole rehearsal section. Otherwise, they are reluctant to follow the instructions of their teacher or conductor. Repeating for just part song practice or same pattern of warm up cannot give them any musical inspiration. That would affect students unmotivated and even hindrance for the whole ensemble rehearsal. There is no absolute way of the warm up procedure. This study would not try to find the complete form of warm up practise either. This study, however, shows that teachers who have experienced instructing a school chorus in Korea do not feel confident about warm up techniques in their rehearsal. Although the teachers are aware of being needy to equip the leading and instructing warm up rehearsal skills for their choir, they tend to be reluctant to prepare the contents of the warm up.

The students’ reflection of their teachers’ warm up techniques or contents is not good enough and even unwilling to join their warm up process within 10 minutes. Through the study, the teachers notice that warm up time does not affect much on students’ attitude toward the chorus. Even less than 5 minute warm up students cannot pay attention if a teacher’s warm up technique or its contents is poor.

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. small and that the results of the research come from only a part of South Korea. So, it is difficult to generalize the results to any school chorus in any places around the world.

Focusing on the matter, I was very interested in the warm up components and techniques, that the teachers in the school chorus normally use. The researcher finds that the teacher’s warm up techniques affect the students’ attitude toward the rehearsal time or chorus activity. It was the warm up techniques in rehearsal that the teachers are worried about, which means the teachers are not fully ready to lead their school chorus.

Many music teachers and educators in Korea are worried that students are too much exposed to popular music, which is not proper material to enhance students’ musical aptitude or musical development. It is expected that more students join school chorus activity and enjoy their beauty. A school must provide students to experience harmonization and art of singing together. At this point, the teacher’s role as a choral conductor is significant. Through increasing teacher’s ability to instruct school chorus, students in the choir can taste real delight and beauty of harmony in music and school life.

6. Regional education office music establishes a choral score bank or archive for elementary school chorus is required so that teachers can easily access and find suitable chorus piece for preparation. It can be an effective way for primary school chorus to spread out and more active.

4. Any pieces of music for performance should be thoroughly studied and ready to start with students. When the teacher begins with a repertoire for his or her choir, the collection must be various at least four different styles in time or moods. Most of all, the level of the repertoire must be suitable for his or her choir. Not too much natural or difficult to read music and sing in range.

1. Teacher as a choral director should fully be aware of vocalization mechanism. The principle of voice production is fundamental and essential to any conductor of the chorus. Mainly three parts of the body are related to making a sound; respiratory part, phonation part, and resonance part.

2. Teacher as a choral director should acquire children’s vocal timbre characters. Children’s vocal quality is different from adults’ one. Before young students facing or experiencing the voice changing, the teacher can help the students find the most beautiful and unique timbre of their sound through proper vocalization.

Based on the study, the components of the elementary choir warm up should be considered as follows; 1. warm up should improve students’ musical aptitude, 2. warm up should provoke fun and exciting, 3. warm up should support in music educational ways, 4. warm up should help the choir make balancing and blending sound. 5. warm up should help students explore their sound, the neighbour’s music, their own space and neighbour’s space.

Through the findings, the researcher tries to provide several suggestions and implications for school chorus teachers and educational administrator, in terms of warm-up components.

3. The length of warm up time is less important than the contents. The teacher should prepare warm up techniques for students who are quickly losing their interest in the singing practice to focus on the teacher’s instruction and the whole rehearsal time.

5. Regional education office must provide a complementary or remedy education for teachers who wants to lead school chorus, which is needed and urgent for successful choral instruction.

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Halyna Oleskova Khmelnytskyi National Univesity Khmelnytskyi, Ukraine https://orcid.org/0000 0003 2011 8068

Abstract. This paper describes the advanced training projects to develop the intercultural competence of German nursing personnel. There are many German projects, which promote the development of intercultural competence and other professional competences of doctors and nursing personnel Within this paper, the authors analyzed the following projects: “Migrants in Geriatric Nursing” (MigA project), “German Professional Language in the Geriatric Nursing” (FaDA Projekt), “Intercultural Open Nursing Service AWO in Ulm”, “Interprofessional and intercultural activities in the area of medicine, nursing and social services” (IPIKA project), IPIKA Plus project, “MIG COMM EU Multilingual Intercultural Business Communication for Europe” (MIG COMM EU project), “Intercultural Medical Communication in Europe” (IMED KOMM EU project). The authors have paid much attention to the significance of the concept of intercultural competence in nursing care. Besides, the article highlights the issue of the increase in the number of people with a migrant background in Germany This study also provides another perspective on the advanced training projects for intercultural competence development of German nursing personnel

Keywords: advanced training projects; culturally sensitive care; intercultural competence; migrant background; German nursing personnel

78 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 4, pp. 78 93, April https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.4.20206 Intercultural Competence Development of German Nursing Personnel via Advanced Training Projects Natalya Bidyuk Khmelnytskyi National Univesity Khmelnytskyi, Ukraine http://orcid.org/0000 0002 6607 8228

Vitaliy Tretko Khmelnytskyi National Univesity Khmelnytskyi, https://orcid.org/0000Ukraine00033608 1378

2. Literature Review

The proper understanding of the intercultural competence development of German nursing personnel is impossible without a comprehensive overview of the notion of the concepts of intercultural nursing, intercultural competence, cross cultural nursing, cross cultural competence, transcultural nursing as well as transcultural competence in nursing care. While researching we have taken into account various scientific resources. Scholars should select manuscripts that are to be involved in the theoretical framework of the study extremely carefully since its success depends on the originality and authenticity of these chosen ones. We have considered the works of many outstanding scholars, mostly German, as they were first to cover the problems of intercultural competence and its development in nursing personnel. Thus, theoretical framework of our study is based on works by scholars such as Behrens (2011) (fundamental considerations in the intercultural opening in healthcare), Domenig (2001, 2007) (transcultural nursing and transcultural competence), Flechsig (2000) (transcultural learning), Friebe and Zalucki (2003) (intercultural education in nursing), Habermann and Stagge (2015) (people with a migrant background in professional nursing), Hellige and Michaelis (2005) (culture sensitive care in geriatric nursing), Hundenborn, Heuel, Zwicker Pelzer, Fendi, Kühn Hempe, Mausolf and Scholl (2018) (approaches to cultural sensitivity in healthcare,

1. Introduction Nowadays, humanity faces new challenges due to globalization processes. One of the issues that need a decent solution is the migration issue. The reasons that make people leave their own homes and seek better luck in another country may be different, but one thing remains common: these people have to adapt in the new environment, and the society in which they must react in a certain way to such changes. This problem has not passed over Germany too. According to the Federal Statistical Office (Statistische Bundesamt), the number of people with a migrant background in Germany increased by 4.4 percent in 2018 compared to last year and amounted to 19.3 million. A person is considered in Germany to have a migrant background if she personally or her parents were not born with a German nationality. Currently, about a quarter of the population of Germany (23.6 percent) has a migrant background (Welt Digitale Zeitung, 2018) According to the new “German Nursing Professions Act” (“Pflegeberufegesetz” vom 17.07.2017) of 17 July 2017, part II, article 1, §5, “the training of skilled nursing professionals promotes the development of the necessary professional and personal competences for independent, comprehensive and process oriented care for people of all ages in acute and permanent inpatient and outpatient settings, as well as basic methodical, social, intercultural, communicative and educational competences, including the abilities of knowledge transfer and self reflection. Meanwhile, lifelong learning is a process of professional growth of a person understood, as a signaficant continuous personal and professional development recognized” (Bundesgesetzblatt, 2017; Pflegeberufegesetz, 2017). The purpose of the study is to provide a general overview of advanced projects, which are used to develop the intercultural competence of nursing personnel in Germany. The sense and significance of the concept of intercultural competence in nursing care we are going to reveal here.

competence oriented, science based and multi professional education, advanced and further training), Ilkilic (2017) (the phenomenon of intercultural competence as a key qualification), Kiel (1996) (transcultural competence), Oldenburger (2010) (intercultural team & culture sensitive care in geriatric nursing), Orque (1983) (approach to the theory of nursing), Plunkte (2017) (some aspects of communication with patients from other cultures) Reinhardt (2009) (intercultural competence in nursing), Rommelspacher (2005) (transcultural advice in nursing), Uzarewicz (2001, 2002) (foundations of professional transcultural nursing), Visser (2002), Welk (2017) & Zanier (2016) (some aspects of culturally sensitive care, process of forming cultural sensitivity in healthcare), von Bose & Terpstra (2012) (caring for muslim patients).

Professional training of nursing personnel in Germany promotes the acquisition of the necessary competences, but nowadays, the possession of intercultural competence is vital. Intercultural competence in nursing and its implementation in education is multifaceted and includes social, ethnological, political, and pedagogical aspects (Reinhardt & Sahmel, 2009, p. 136). We agree that “intercultural competence is the ability to act effectively and properly in intercultural situations; and certain views, emotional aspects, intercultural knowledge, special skills, and general reflexive competence contribute to intercultural competence development” (Bertelsmann & Fondazione, 2008). Intercultural competence is not considered to be isolated from professional requirements, and therefore it cannot be narrowed to the skills of interaction and communication. In terms of intercultural competence requirements to a person are defined in a professional context by the demands of professional practice (Reinhardt & Sahmel, 2009, p. 144). As part of the health professionals training, the concept of “intercultural competence” should be understood as skills and abilities that help to overcome potential conflicts and facilitate understanding of their origin in an intercultural context, thus providing an orientation of action based on ethics and needs (Ilkilic, 2017). Aspects of intercultural competence are readiness: firstly, to accept people of different regimes, behavior, ways of communication; secondly, to reflect on their own feelings, models of thinking and reactions; thirdly, to be open to foreign cultural models; fourthly, to be interested in other cultures or cultural imprints; fifthly, to be aware and, possibly, to acquire language knowledge; sixthly, adapt to the peculiarities of communication; seventhly, to the interaction of I You (orientation towards personality and lack of restrictions on religion, culture or nation); eighthly, to focus on constructive mental devices (the concept of “Double Victory”); ninthly, to cooperate and coordinate conflicts of interests and needs and compromise. In the area of nursing, there are two concepts (cultural sensitivity and culturally sensitive care) in connection with intercultural competence. The idea of cultural sensitivity relates to the ability to be sensitive to perception, thinking, behavior, and communication with people from other cultural environments. Several authors, such as G. Hundenborn, G. Heuel, R. Zwicker Pelzer, S. Fendi, C. Kühn Hempe, K. Mausolf, H. Scholl paid attention to cultural sensitivity at their module handbook, dedicated to the project “Cultural sensitivity in healthcare”. Now, cultural sensitivity includes

sensitive care aims at ensuring that the person in need of nursing care can live according to the individual values, cultural and religious characteristics, and needs despite restrictive conditions (e.g., home care and nursing personnel with different cultural backgrounds, etc.). It responds to the individual needs of patients, and not only the ability to cure and treat him or her, like everyone else. Therefore, culturally sensitive care also means an individual or subject oriented care. It sees the patient primarily not only a person in need of nursing care but an individual in his lifeworld (every health worker also wants to be perceived and appreciated as a person, not just as an employee of the institution). It is based on nursing intercourse every time, again on the current situation and needs of the patient. Nursing personnel introduces themselves to interaction as a person. It reflects and respects its borders and accepts the opponent. Implementation of such nursing care is impossible without the intercultural communication of patients and medical personnel (Berufs Ausbildungs Zentrum e.V. Selbelang, 2019). Plunkte (2017) thinks that culturally sensitive care can be achieved if the subject of intercultural competence is increasingly implemented in education and training. “To develop culturally sensitive patient care change and development processes are required at several levels, and must involve all parties concerned” (Plunkte, 2017). The work “People with a migrant background in professional nursing” of Habermann and Stagge (2015), mentioned that “nowadays the attraction of people with a migrant background to professional nursing practice in Germany became already a reality” and it will be even more significant in the future because of the recruitment efforts of professional nursing personnel from abroad (Habermann & Stagge, 2015, p. 15). The concept of the intercultural opening is transferred to the medical care facilities and illustrated using the example of Bad Oeynhausen Clinic in the work “Intercultural opening in healthcare. Overview strategy practice” by Behrens (2011). With the help of a qualitative research approach, the concrete implementation of the concept in Bad Oeynhausen is examined. Besides, the concepts of the migrant background and the culturally sensitive projects are mentioned in this work (Behrens, 2011).

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. the following skills: firstly, the reflection of their personal cultural reflections in thinking, feelings, and actions; secondly, the adoption of other cultural influences on behavior as equivalent to their models of life; thirdly, obtaining knowledge about possible forms of thinking, emotional reactions, and behavior of people from other cultures;fourthly, the attempt of empathy in the ways of thinking, feeling and actions of people with different cultural backgrounds; fifthly, the filtration of similarity/community, as well as contradictions and differences, in order to develop the starting points for a common strategy of action (Berufs Ausbildungs Zentrum e.V. Selbelang, 2019; Hundenborn et al., Culturally2018).

There are many German projects, which promote the development of intercultural competence and other professional competences of doctors and nursing personnel such as “Migrants in Geriatric Nursing”, “German Professional Language in the Geriatric Nursing”, “Intercultural Open Nursing Service AWO in Ulm”, “Interprofessional and intercultural activities in the area of medicine, nursing and social services”, “IPIKA Plus project” , “MIG COMM EU Multilingual Intercultural Business Communication for Europe”, “Intercultural Medical Communication in Europe”, etc.

3. Methodology

4. Findings and Discussion

In the chapter “Intercultural competence in nursing” in the book of Reinhardt and Sahmel (2009), “Promote nursing competences” gives prominent coverage to the issue of intercultural competence of nursing personnel. The author points out that “considering the group of foreigners, such terms as migrants, immigrants, settlers, resettlers or refugees are clearly differentiated.” The EU’s internal migrants are citizens of the European Union enjoying exclusive rights as EU citizens. Spouses and family members of third country nationals are spouses, children, and possibly also other family members who, under certain conditions, can enter or join the family unions. Refugees and asylum seekers have a right to asylum in Germany under Article 16a of the Basic Law. Contractual seasonal workers and other temporary migrant workers from non EU countries are workers recruited from abroad and work temporarily in Germany. International students travel to Germany to study at the university (Reinhardt & Sahmel, 2009, pp. 137 138).

First of all, a scientific literature review on the problem under study was used in the research. We processed the accumulated data via the methods of analysis and synthesis, hermeneutic interpretation and searching, deduction and induction, individualization, generalization, systematization, and presented our findings within the scope of this paper. Moreover, we have conducted a theoretical analysis of data contained in the scientific sources.

In the research “Intercultural competence as a key qualification for healthcare professionals” of Ilkilic (2017), defines the intercultural competence of healthcare professionals in Germany and reveals its significance nowadays. It consists of intercultural communication, general knowledge about different cultures, avoiding stereotypes, and tolerance. Medical education in Germany concentrates on treating patients with specific diseases. The fact that these patients might have a different cultural background is rarely discussed, although intercultural misunderstandings can influence the outcome of health interventions considerably. Such an amount and heterogeneity of groups arriving in Germany require a competent and individual approach to nursing care. The question of how to set up a culturally sensitive and needs based medical care for people with a migrant background includes many aspects, including the implementation of relevant education, training and continuing education of healthcare professionals (Ilkilic, 2017, p. 24)

Let us consider in more detail the project, “Migrants in Geriatric Nursing” (Migrantinnen und Migranten in der Altenpflege). The duration of this project was from November 2004 to October 2006. Jürgensen (2015) in her Master’s thesis “Language support for foreign nurses: Design elements for course design in nursing education” revealed that “because of the relatively high proportion of foreign nursing personnel working in the area of geriatric nursing”, more than ten years ago it was decided to create qualification programs to improve language proficiency. Thus, in North Rhine Westphalia and Bavaria, for example, which has a relatively high share of foreign nursing personnel, two well documented projects were carried out, in which nursing personnel with a migration background increased its qualifications In the MigA project, the German Institute for Adult Education first identified the need for qualifications and, in particular, the need for language support of migrants working in 97 permanent and 16 ambulatory institutions in North Rhine Westphalia. In order to be able to develop an address oriented and activity oriented program, both management institutions and participants were asked about their language needs. Course modules were designed in such a way that actual content and authentic conversational situations were related to their use of words, linguistic intentions, and their context”. The content of the four core modules content was based on the requirements of the “Social Long Term Care Insurance Act” (“Pflegeversicherungsgesetz” vom 26.05.1994), quality standards and current discourses of nursing science and gerontology. Modules “Communicating with residents, collecting information”, “Planning and Caring”, “Nursing Documentation and Nursing Personnel Report”, and “Discussion of a Clinical Case in a Multicultural Nursing Team” consisted of four hours during four training sessions. At the end of each refresher course, lists of relevant words and grammar rules were made, interviews were analyzed using interviews, and linguistic reflections were practiced. The modules are comprehensively presented in the guide “Migrants in Geriatric Nursing”, along with educational materials and methodological guidelines (Jürgensen, 2015, pp. 37 38).

Our attention deserves consideration of the project, “German Professional Language in the Geriatric Nursing” (Fachsprache Deutsch in der Altenpflege) as an example of specialized German language courses for geriatric nursing personnel with a migrant background who worked in stationary charitable institutions AWO (Arbeiterwohlfahrt). The duration of the project was from May 2011 to April 2014. It contained eight training modules of 100 hours. The modules were developed on the basis of the assessment of language needs in

Friebe (2006) described this project, notes in his work “Migrants in geriatric nursing” that “the concept of linguistic and intercultural support for immigrant carers with a migrant background should take into account numerous levels of learning and action” . “Therefore, the comprehensive qualifications’ concept contains at least three elements: firstly, individual educational activities (self studying with media, German as a foreign language), on the job training (support through placement supervision, educational tandems, discussion), in house learning (addressee specific and intercultural advanced training)” (Friebe, 2006, p. 55).

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. inpatient geriatric care. Besides, they were thematically related to the tasks and fields of activity in the area of geriatric nursing, namely: production and work processes, multicultural personnel, nursing and support of residents in everyday life, nursing care and help in treatment, cooperation with relatives, cooperation with external actors, quality assurance, self service (AWO Bundesverband e.V., Just2014).as in the MigA project, language requirements were determined in advance. It was based on the various interaction settings in the nursing practice and took a “multi perspective needs analysis” before. The learners’ individual linguistic needs were stemmed from their expectations and motives, from which they participated in the educational activity. It also focused on personal study habits and subjectively perceived deficits. As a result, the AWO was able to establish that nurses have to cope with highly complex linguistic requirements in their daily work with different participants. Communication in nursing thus takes place firstly, with various communication partners; secondly, on different levels of relationship; thirdly, in different technical languages or codes; fourthly, on different communication channels; fifthly, at different language levels. On this basis, the AWO has developed the above mentioned modules that correspond to eight professional areas of nursing, e.g., “Nursing care for residents” or “Cooperation with external actors”. Nurses act in these areas of action from various professional roles, e.g., as a member of the team, as a reference person for residents or as responsible for quality assurance. Depending on their role and function, they are entrusted with different tasks that require appropriate communicative and intercultural skills. To this end, the AWO has developed a matrix in which the professional situation with the role of the employee and his tasks as well as the required competences, are depicted (Jürgensen, 2015, pp. 38 Let39).us

turn our attention to a more detailed model project, “Intercultural Open Nursing Service AWO in Ulm” (Interkulturell geöffneter Pflegedienst der AWO in Ulm). Currently, 26 percent of all residents of Ulm over 65 have a migration background. The target group of the intercultural open outpatient nursing service is senior immigrants from different social groups. The purpose of this project was to open an existing outpatient nursing service for representatives of diverse cultures in 2014 and 2015. For intercultural open nursing services, it is essential that their employees have professional intercultural competences. It was necessary to take various measures to ensure that the nursing personnel became an intercultural competence team. In the question “What is professional intercultural competence, or what does it do?”, the project participants were guided by Benner’s novice to expert competence model (Figure 1), according to which nursing personnel professionally grows through its professional activities from beginners to nursing experts (Pflegeexperten). Within the framework of this project, was considered the issue of qualification improvement of nursing personnel to obtain professional intercultural competence (Fortbildungen zur Erlangung von Interkultureller Handlungskompetenz) (Figure 2)

Figure 2: Intercultural competence development of German nursing personnel

Based on this, were developed a unique series of advanced training courses at the Steering Committee, and appropriate teachers were selected. The series of advanced training courses consisted of eight modules: introduction the basis of intercultural care, language + intercultural communication (overcoming linguistic barriers), religion Islam for care, body care in a cultural context, rituals in different cultures, types of dementia in people with a migration origin, conflict resolution in intercultural care, terminal care and attitude towards dying and death in an intercultural context.

An eight module advanced training program (modulares Fortbildungsprogramm) was created in November 2014 to develop the professional intercultural competence of outpatient nursing personnel. The concept of this program was developed jointly with the nursing team. In particular, the nursing personnel was headed by a lecturer on culturally sensitive geriatric nursing who united wishes, ideas, and problems in an intercultural context. These topics included: general migration issues; conflict resolution as well as possible solutions in a multicultural team; photos of older people in different cultures; the emergence of biases and discrimination; culturally sensitive care; culturally sensitive attitude to dying and death.

Each module lasted from 1.5 up to a maximum of 3 hours. The modules were independent of each other and could be visited separately. However, the goal of the project was to ensure that every nurse employee attends all modules. Nursing personnel was allowed to participate in a language course to withstand the possible language barriers between nursing personnel and patients with a migrant background. The nursing personnel developed their intercultural competences by attending other advanced training and specialized conferences in parallel with the internal series of training. Nursing personnel always had access to modern specialized literature for the development of professional intercultural competence. For this reason, the literature on intercultural care (cross cultural care, transcultural care) was acquired and was available to nursing personnel. On the other hand, a collection of magazines and newspaper materials as well as scripts of a series of training sessions were collected during the project. Nursing personnel could always access this.

Consider the following project the IPIKA project, “Interprofessional and intercultural activities in the area of medicine, nursing, and social services” (Interprofessionelles und Interkulturelles Arbeiten in Medizin, Pflege und Sozialdienst). It is important to emphasize that due to migration, the flow of refugees, and demographic changes, the number of patients with a migrant background in German clinics is steadily increasing. Therefore, Charité University Hospital Berlin committed itself to provide medical care in its three central locations in Berlin. It offered a low threshold for access to medical care and treatment for many immigrants and refugee patients. Thus, there was a great need for medical personnel to develop intercultural competences to ensure the quality of medical care. The IPIKA project aims to develop the intercultural, and inter professional capabilities of doctors, nursing personnel, and social workers. During its implementation, with the support of the Robert Bosch Foundation, within the framework of the “Operation Team” in Charité University Hospital Berlin (Charité Universitätsmedizin), during 2016 2017, a series of training was developed and conducted, which consisted of five modules. One of the main directions was the care of chronically ill and polymorbid patients. As a partner of this project, along with Charité University Hospital Berlin, namely Charite gynecological clinic, the integrated oncology center, Charité nursing sector, Charité international cooperation department, and Charité Health Academy was Alice Salomon University of Applied Sciences Berlin (ASH Berlin, 2019; Charité, 2019)

The nursing team consisted of workers with different backgrounds, and therefore it could be called “colorful”

. Besides, it had extensive experience of its biographical migrant origin. To develop the intercultural team professionally supervision and concomitant counseling were offered in various cases. It should be noted that various measures developed the intercultural competence of German nursing personnel. The methodical triad of purposeful training, team support, and constant access to specialized literature were helpful. In addition to the formation of culturally sensitive knowledge and intercultural competence among workers, it is also necessary to develop the language skills of the appropriate multi ethnic nursing personnel via additional language training (AWO Bundesverband e.V. Württemberg, 2013).

We found out that the IPIKA advanced training program consisted of five modules (75 topics) with the following content: the relationship between migration and health, socio cultural factors; intercultural sensitization in the professional sphere: intercultural background knowledge about chronic diseases, the role of physicians patients relatives; bypassing language barriers, working with translators (language and cultural mediators); conflict resolution and de escalation in the clinic (in intercultural conditions); improvement of inter professional cooperation and inter professional communication; self reflection and change of perspective. Doctors, nursing personnel, social workers, teachers, and clinical linguists from various departments and clinics in Charité attended a series of training. The IPIKA advanced training program (Fortbildungscurriculum) was of high practical importance: in particular, cultural sensitive and interprofessional activities were practiced on the basis of prototypical clinical situations and procedures, using simulated patients (Simulationspatient) and working with professional translators. In addition, experts working in the area of counseling and care of patients with migrant backgrounds and refugee patients within and outside Charité university hospital Berlin were involved in the modules. Participants also developed proposals for improving the care of immigrant patients in their immediate working environment, for example, by translating information about patients into several different languages, using icons, creating an intranet platform for all Charité personnel members on intercultural issues, and improving college qualifications (Charité, 2019).

Let us now turn to the IPIKA Plus project (duration of project: 2018 2019) The current IPIKA Plus project aims to institutionalize the content of training courses at the universities of Charité University Hospital Berlin and Alice Salomon University of Applied Sciences Berlin. Thus, the advanced training program for the development of cross cultural and inter professional competences for the hospital personnel is offered at Charité Health Academy. Next, the IPIKA Plus project also carries out intercultural training and training of trainers (Interkulturelle Fortbildungen und Train the Trainer Einheiten) in the area of integration management (Integrationmanagement) in the nursing sector of Charité. In addition, Alice Salomon University of Applied Sciences Berlin develops a professional certification course (berufsbegleitender Zertifikatskurs) that will be available to representatives of various medical professions from the Winter Semester of the 2019/20 academic year at the Center for Advanced Training (Zentrum für Weiterbildung) at Alice Salomon University of Applied Sciences Berlin (Charité, 2019). We should not ignore in our study the EU-funded project LEONARDO, “MIGCOMM EU Multilingual Intercultural Business Communication for Europe” (MIG KOMM EU Mehrsprachige interkulturelle Geschäftskommunikation für Europa) The main result of this project was the Blended Learning Courses for business communication in German, Estonian, Latvian, Lithuanian, Romanian, Slovak, Slovenian, Czech, and Hungarian languages (EU Projekt MIG KOMM, 2019).

Among them, there are Blended Learning Courses for medical professionals, “Blended learning Course Medical Communication” (Blended learning Kurs Medizinische Kommunikation), which can be found on the educational web portal IMED KOMM EU. It consists of German courses for communication with patients (die Deutschen Sprachkurse zur Patientenkommunikation), foreign doctors (Deutsch für ausländische Ärztinnen und Ärzte), and nursing personnel (Deutsch für ausländische Gesundheits und Krankenpflegerinnen / pfleger)

Additional and more in depth information for teachers and students can be found in the special glossaries/guides on medical language (online-reference books, dictionaries, glossaries; books on intercultural communication, etc.)” (IMED KOMM EU, 2019). By studying the issue of nursing education in the context of culture, certain theoretical studies on this topic and discussion cannot be overlooked. For example, as the first nurse theoretician, Leininger (1998) presented work on nursing theory, which integrated specific aspects of culture. In 1978, she published her second book, “Transcultural Nursing: Concepts, Theories, and Practices”, in which she described the basic notions and proximity of nursing and anthropology. In theoretical assumptions, Leininger (1998) has two main concepts. On the one hand, the concept of caring for a person who divides her into general and professional care, and which varies according to culture. On the other hand, theoretically, the phenomenon of culture is significant, putting forward the traditional anthropological concept of Leininger’s students Andrews and Boyle, who developed the theory and the concepts of transcultural nursing, have a different approach. Instead of the concept of culture, they put interaction in the center of their work (Domenig, 2001, p. 145; Reinhardt & Sahmel, 2009, pp. 146 147) Orque (1983) offers another approach to the theory of nursing. In this theory, two groups, an ethnic group or an ethnic minority and a dominant group, which has authority and power in society, are in contrast. Culture includes such areas as eating habits, linguistic and communication processes, family processes, interactive processes within the social group, art, religion, history, value

These Blended Learning Courses are behind the photos of the main page of the web portal. “The EU funded IMED KOMM EU project” (Intercultural Medical Communication in Europe) was produced under the leadership of the IIK Institute for Intercultural Communication Inc. (Ansbach, Berlin, Jena, Erfurt) within the framework of the LEONARDO ITP program of the European Commission, with partners from Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Hungary, and Slovakia. The main products of the project are five modern, interconnected Web portals and teacher’s guides in German, Bulgarian, Hungarian, Slovak, and Czech, with practical modules that provide complex exercises for medical communication for doctors on the one hand and nurses on the other hand both online and offline. Later there were added exercises concerning the medical aspects of modern tourism. The modules of the courses are enhanced by private tests, podcasts/videocasts, blogs as well as links, all of which are freely accessible on the web portal. Examples of tests can be accessed by clicking the ECL button. These tests can be taken at any of our partner institutions.

The basic knowledge required for the interaction between nursing personnel and migrants relates to less experience pertaining to culture and general concepts. Domenig (2001) explains what topics or ideas she considers necessary, which we should understand as general concepts in nursing. These concepts include the concept of personality and socially oriented society, ethnomedical concept, socio cultural ideas of health and disease, knowledge of the background of migration, knowledge of the living conditions of migrants, the connection between migration and health, accessibility and barriers to health systems, knowledge of communication and manner of expression. In addition to the knowledge gained at the cognitive level, Domenig (2001) includes the experience of nursing personnel involved with migrants. As the third element of interaction, Domenig (2001) calls empathy and understanding. The focus of intercultural learning is the understanding of foreigners. It means that we should understand, accept, and respond to foreign cultures and behaviors of people from other countries. The focus of intercultural learning is the understanding of foreigners. The aim is to understand, accept and react appropriately to foreign cultural orientations and the behavior of people from other countries (Flechsig, 2000, p. 4; Reinhardt & Sahmel, 2009, p. 154)

orientations, attitudes to health, and healthy habits. For Orque (1983), the interaction between patients and their carers or nursing personnel plays a central role. Only then you can take into account the individuality of the patient and determine the specific benefits offered (Reinhardt & Sahmel, 2009, p. 148; Visser & de Jong, 2002, p. 103). Also, Domenig (2001) believes in his work “Professional transcultural nursing: Handbook for teaching and practice in nursing and obstetrics” that transcultural competence focuses on the interaction between nursing personnel and migrants, not culture. In essence, for them, “transcultural competence consists of the transcultural ability to interact in a migratory context” (Domenig, 2001, p. 148; Reinhardt & Sahmel, 2009, p. 149).

There are three different levels to be taken into account when gaining transcultural competence. The first level is focusing on specific situations or contexts of care. The second level is an action that is important since the nursing personnel works independently in everyday practice, decides, and bears responsibility. The third level is the theoretical foundation of nursing interventions in a medical institution in accordance with the cultural sensitivity of individuals (Reinhardt & Sahmel, 2009, p. 154; Uzarevich, 2001, p.6) von Bose and Terpstra (2012), in their practical book for care and communication “Caring for Muslim patients”, asserted that “according to E. Kiel, transcultural competences consist of a general readiness for communication and interaction. Transcultural competences are independent key qualifications, consisting of four areas of competence: professional, social, personal, activity as well as related individual competences” (von Bose & Terpstra, 2012, p. 16). According to Kiel (1996), transcultural competence is a fundamental skill necessary for life, work and learning in a globalized world. Ability to behave in cross-cultural situations in such a way that representatives of different cultures can openly interact and present their national culture, while each person tries to understand the positions of another. This also applies to situations of intercultural nursing,

6. References ASH Berlin (2019). Alice Salomon Hochschule für Sozialarbeit und Sozialpädagogik Berlin. [Alice Salomon University of Applied Sciences]. Retrieved from https://www.ash berlin.eu/qisserver/rds?state=user&type=0

AWO Bundesverband e V. (2014). “Pflege ist Kommunikation“ Dokumentation der Abschlusstagung des ESF Projektes “FaDA“ Fachsprache Deutsch in der Altenpflege am 03.04.2014 in Berlin [“Nursing is communication” Documentation of the final conference of the ESF project “FaDA” German for geriatric nursing on 03.04.2014 in Berlin]. Retrieved from Abschlusstagung_vom_3.4.2014.pdfhttp://fada.awo.org/uploads/media/Bericht_zur_FaDA

which is the main requirement of successful intercultural relations. A fundamental cultural sensitization is required to initiate the individual development of intercultural competence. After this sensitization, one should develop the capacity for cultural analysis. Cultural and analytical skills provide an interpretative basis for those who are interested in the true understanding of cultural aspects to understand their cultural activities and, therefore, to understand the actions of representatives of other cultures. They also allow you to harmonize a wide variety of experiences. An essential feature of the model of transcultural competence is a deep reflection of their own culture as a basis for understanding foreign cultures (Kiel, 1996).

Demographic changes and global migration processes have sharply put before the German nursing personnel the problem of its intercultural competence. Intercultural competence covers the concepts of multicultural, intercultural, international education, and is an important area of nursing personnel training In the area of nursing, there are two concepts (cultural sensitivity and culturally sensitive care) in connection with intercultural competence. In the professional activity, German nursing personnel grows from beginners to nursing experts and, accordingly, its intercultural competence is developing. Currently, the development of the intercultural competence of nursing personnel is being performed in Germany through the organization of various projects and courses. They improve the interpersonal interaction at the intersection of cultures, increase the ability to work in a team, to tolerate cultural differences, to resolve intercultural conflicts and to apply intercultural knowledge in medical practice. These projects also promote the development and display of intellectual interest in other cultures, formation of intercultural literacy and intercultural interaction, the ability to tolerate relations with representatives of other cultures. Consequently, we can conclude that these advanced training projects, blended learning courses, on the job training, intercultural group training, studies of the native German personnels of both ethnic and migration backgrounds facilitate the development of its intercultural competence The German experience in applying advanced training projects to develop the intercultural competence of nursing personnel can be interesting and valuable for use in other countries.

AWO Bundesverband e.V. Württemberg. (2013). Abschlussbericht Modellprojekt: Interkulturell geöffneter Pflegedienst der AWO in Ulm [Final report Model project: Interculturally opened nursing service of the AWO in Ulm]. Retrieved from https://sozialministerium.baden sm/intern/downloads/Downloads_Pflege/Innowuerttemberg.de/fileadmin/redaktion/mprogrammPflege.

5. Conclusions

Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin (2019). IPIKA: Geschäftsstelle interkulturelle Kompetenzen im Berliner Gesundheitswesen [IPIKA: Office for intercultural competences in the Berlin healthcare system] Retrieved from https://interkulturelle kompetenz.charite.de/projekte/ipika/ Domenig, D. (2001). Einführung in die transkulturelle Pflege [Introduction to transcultural nursing] In D. Domenig (Ed.). Professionelle transkulturelle Pflege: Handbuch für Lehre und Praxis in Pflege und Geburtshilfe. [Professional transcultural nursing: Handbook for teaching and practice in nursing and obstetrics] (pp.148). Bern, Schweiz: Hans Huber Verlag. Domenig, D. (2007). Transkulturelle Kompetenz: Lehrbuch für Pflege , Gesundheits undSozialberufe [Transcultural competence: Textbook for nursing, health and social professions]. Bern, Schweiz: Hans Huber Verlag. EU Projekt MIG KOMM. (2019). Mehrsprachige interkulturelle Geschäftskommunikation für Europa [Multilingual intercultural business communication for Europe]. Retrieved from http://www.mig komm.eu/.

Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin. (2019). IPIKA interprofessionelles und interkulturelles Arbeiten in Medizin, Pflege und Sozialdienst: Geschäftsstelle interkulturelle Kompetenzen im Berliner Gesundheitswesen [IPIKA interprofessional and intercultural work in medicine, nursing and social services: Office for intercultural competences in the Berlin healthcare system]. Retrieved from s_arbeiten_in_medizin_pflege_und_sozialdienst/kompetenz.charite.de/netzwerk/ipika_interprofessionelles_und_interkulturellehttps://interkulturelle

anderen gefördeten Projekte. Kultursensible Pflege interkulturelle kompetenz [Retention of skilled labor in the area of nursing and other supported projects. Culture sensitive nursing interkulturellekompetenz]. Retrieved from https://kultursensiblepflege de/interkulturelle kompetenz html Bundesgesetzblatt. (2017). Gesetz zur Reform der Pflegeberufe (Pflegeberufereformgesetz PflBRefG) [German nursing professions act] Retrieved 1.pdf%27%5D__1549966472264mpTo=bgbl117s2581.pdf#__bgbl__%2F%2F*%5B%40attr_id%3D%27bgbl117s258https://www.bgbl.de/xaver/bgbl/start.xav?startbk=Bundesanzeiger_BGBl&jufrom.

Bertelsmann, S., & Fondazione, C. (2008). Interkulturelle Kompetenz Die Schlüsselkompetenz im 21. Jahrhundert? [Intercultural competence the key competence in the 21st century?]. Retrieved ownloads/xcms_bst_dms_30236_30237_2.pdfhttps://www.bertelsmannstiftung.de/fileadmin/files/BSt/Presse/imported/dfrom Berufs Ausbildungs Zentrum e.V. Selbelang. (2019). Fachkräftesicherung im Pflegebereich und zu

91 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Behrens, B. (2011). Interkulturelle Öffnung im Gesundheitswesen. Überblick Strategie Praxis [Intercultural opening in healthcare.Overview strategy practice.]. In R. Leiprecht, I. Petersen,W. Schulz Kaempf (Eds.), Schriftenreihe des Interdisziplinären Zentrums für Bildung undKommunikation in Migrationsprozessen (IBKM) an der Carl von Ossietzky UniversitätOldenburg. Oldenburg, Deutschland: BIS Verlag. Retrieved from https://d nb.info/1013082893/34.

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Friebe, J. (2006). Migrantinnen und Migranten in der Altenpflege. Bestandsaufnahme, Personalgewinnungund Qualifizierung in Nordrhein Westfalen: Eine Handreichung für Bildungund Praxis in der Altenpflege [Migrants in geriatric nursing. Inventory, recruitment and qualification in North Rhine Westphalia: A guide for education and practice in geriatric nursing] (pp 55). Bonn, Deutschland: Deutsches Institut für Erwachsenenbildung. Retrieved from https://www.die bonn.de/esprid/dokumente/doc 2006/friebe06_01.pdf. Friebe, J., & Zalucki, M. (Eds.). (2003) Interkulturelle Bildung in der Pflege. [Intercultural education in nursing]. Bielefeld, Deutschland: W BertelsmannVerlag Retrieved from https://www die bonn de/esprid/dokumente/doc 2003/friebe03_01.pdf

Flechsig, K. (2000). Transkulturelles Lernen. Internes Arbeitspapier [Transcultural learning. Internal working paper] (pp 4). Retrieved from http://wwwuser.gwdg.de/~kflechs/iikdiaps2 00.htm

Interkulturelle Kompetenz als Schlu%CC%88sselqualifikation fu%CC%88r Gesundheitsberufe.pdf IMED KOMM EU. (2019).Willkommen auf der Seite zum EU IT Projekt IMED KOMM. [Welcome to the page of the EU IT project IMED KOMM]. Retrieved from: http://www.imed komm.eu/. IMED KOMM EU.(2019). Project description. Retrieved from http://www.imed Jürgensen,komm.eu/node/3A.(2015).Sprachförderung für ausländische Pflegekräfte:Konstruktionselemente für eine Lehrgangsgestaltung in der Pflegebildung [Language support for foreign nurses: Design elements for course design in nursing education] (Master’s Thesis). Katholische Hochschule Nordrhein Westfalen, Abteilung Köln Retrieved from https://kidoks.bsz bw.de/frontdoor/index/index/docId/993 Hundenborn, G., Heuel, G., Zwicker Pelzer, R., Fendi, S., Kühn Hempe, C., Mausolf, K., & Scholl, H. (2018). Kultursensibilität im Gesundheitswesen: Modulhandbuch für eine kompetenzorientierte, wissenschaftsbasierte und multiprofessionelle Aus , Fort und Weiterbildung in der therapeutischen und pflegerischen Gesundheitsberufen [Cultural sensitivity in healthcare: Module handbook for a competence oriented, science based and multi professional education, advanced and further training in the therapeutic and nursing healthcare professionals]. Katholische Hochschule Nordrhein Westfalen. Retrieved _kultursensibilitaet_im_gesundheitswesen.pdfhttps://www.mags.nrw/sites/default/files/asset/document/modulhandbuchfrom.

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Oldenburger, J. (2010). Pflegekräfte mit Migrationshintergrund im interkulturellen Team als Ressourse für eine erfolgreiche kultursensible Altenpflege [Nurses with a migration background in an intercultural team as a resource for successful, culture sensitive care for the elderly]. Hamburg, Deutschland: Diplomica Verlag Plunkte, S. (2017). Kommunikation mit Patienten aus anderen Kulturen: Soziokulturelle Herausforderungen in der Erstversorgung [Communication with patients from other cultures: Socio cultural challenges in primary nursing]. Monatschrift Kinderheilkunde, 165(1), 29 37. Berlin/Heidelberg, Deutschland: Springer Verlag. Retrieved from https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00112 0169 9

Reinhardt, A. (2009). Interkulturelle Kompetenz in der Pflege. [Intercultural competence in nursing]. In K. Sahmel (Ed.), Pflegerische Kompetenzen fördern [Promote nursing competences] (pp. 136 154). Stuttgart, Deutschland: W. Kohlhammer Verlag. Rommelspacher, B. (2005). Transkulturelle Beratung in der Pflege. [Transcultural advice in nursing]. Retrieved from http://dg pflegewissenschaft.de/wp content/uploads/2017/06/PG 4 2005 Rommelsbacher.pdf. Uzarewicz, C. (2001). Gleitwort. In D. Domenig (Ed.). Professionelle transkulturelle Pflege: Handbuch für Lehre und Praxis in Pflege und Geburtshilfe [Professional transcultural nursing: Handbook for teaching and practice in nursing and midwifery] (pp. 6). Bern, Schweiz: Hans Huber Verlag. Uzarewicz, C. (2002). Sensibilisierung für die Bedeutung von Kultur und Migration in der Altenpflege. Kurzbeschreibung [Sensitization of the importance of culture and migration in elderly care. Brief description]. Bonn, Deutschland: Deutsches Institut für Erwachsenenbildung. Retrieved from https://www.die bonn.de/esprid/dokumente/doc 2002/uzarewicz02_01.pdf. Visser, M., & de Jong, A. (2002). Interkulturelle Pflege [Intercultural nursing]. In D. Emmrich (Ed.), Kultursenitiv pflegen: Wege zu einer interkulturellen Pflegepraxis [Culturally sensitive nursing: Ways to an intercultural nursing practice] (pp. 103). München/Jena, Deutschland: Urban & Fischer Verlag. Von Bose, A., & Terpstra, J. (2012). Modelle der transkulturellen und kultursensiblen Pflege [Models of transcultural and culturally sensitive nursing]. In A. von Bose, J. Terpstra (Ed.). Muslimische Patienten pflegen: Praxisbuch für Betreuung und Kommunikation. [Caring for muslim patients: Practical book for care and communication] (pp. 11 19). Berlin: Springer Verlag. https://doi.org/10.1007/978 3 642 24925 9_2. Welk, I. (2017). Kultursensible Pflege [Culture sensitivecare]. CNE Schwerpunkt Multikulturelles Teamim OP, 7(4), 158 159. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/317867671_Kultursensible Pfl ege Welt Digitale Zeitung. (2018) Zahl der Menschen mit Migrationshintergrund steigt deutlich auf 19,3 Millionen [Number of people with a migrant background rises significantly to 19.3 million]. Retrieved from https://www.welt.de/politik/deutschland/article180338680/Zahl der Menschen mit Migrationshintergrund steigt deutlich auf 19 3 Millionen.html Zanier, G. (2016). Kultursensible Pflege ist ein wechselseitiger Lernprozess [Culture sensitive care is a mutual learning process]. Neue Caritas. Retrieved from https://www.caritas.de/neue caritas/heftarchiv/jahrgang2016/artikel/kultursensible pflege ist ein wechselseitiger lernprozess

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94 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 4, pp. 94 109, April 2020 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.4.7

Antonio Silva Sprock Universidad Central de Venezuela Caracas, Venezuela Klinge Orlando Villalba Condori Universidad Nacional de San Agustín de Arequipa Arequipa, Perú

Abstract. PeruEduca is an educational platform implemented by the Ministry of Education of Perú for providing free resources for teaching at different educational levels This research presents the analysis of the use of PeruEduca in the teaching learning process. This study began with a survey carried out with two groups of teachers belonging to the regions of Moquegua and Arequipa, using the criteria of mandatory Educational Quality Examination of the Ministry of Education, which is applied annually. The teachers are graduates of the master’s degree course in the management of virtual learning environments offered by the Catholic University of Santa María. The analysis was carried out considering two aspects: digital competencies and the teaching learning process The results of this survey indicate that students from the Moquegua region are having better performances in their learning than students of the Arequipa region. This difference could be attributed to the extensive use of digital resources from the PeruEduca platform in the teaching learning process Thus, teachers must be sensitized at the local level to reflect on their pedagogical practices and incorporate methodological strategies in which they can use virtual environments in the development of their learning sessions.

Comparative Study on the Use of the Educational Resources of PeruEduca by Teachers from Arequipa and Moquegua

Keywords: educational resources; open resources; virtual learning environment; PeruEduca; Arequipa; Moquegua

Anyela Bejarano, Steve Pareja and Marco Córdova Universidad Católica de Santa María Arequipa, Perú Teresa Ramos Quispe UniversidadArequipa,ContinentalPerú

The education system of Peru needs to be reviewed because children can no longer be educated in the same way as they have always been. It is necessary to understand that the traditional forms of education have been a direct consequence of the industrial revolution and, consequently demanded a certain type of organization following the industrialized society in which division of labor, specialization and mass production are the main driving factors However, we are now already in the 21st century and we are living in the so called information society or knowledge society, which has seen some notable changes in the educational and cultural transmission processes. In this sense, it is necessary to train students so that they can contribute to present society However, there is a feeling that with the current educational system, the students are being prepared for a society of the past. In the new social space, there are no scenarios specifically designed for education, or if there are, these are very few. This is one of the tasks that must be done immediately, although it is not the only one (Echevarría, 2000). New technologies, warns Silva (2011), are giving way to the emergence of new educational scenarios; meanwhile, traditional spaces are undergoing profound transformation and restructuring processes, hand in hand with the advent of virtual learning and communication environments (Arencibia, 2020). These virtual learning environments (VLE) emerge as particularly ideal scenarios for training, coaching, practice, and capacity building in the educational field. However, it is necessary to take into account the difference in the effective use of resources, the digital tools that teachers and students consider in the educational process, according to the different pedagogical and didactic models in which these environments are framed (Monereo & Badia, 2013). Along the same lines, Fernández and Vázquez (2017) explain three gaps that have prevented the total massification of new technologies. Firstly, there is the primary gap related to access (cost of equipment), which has prevented many schools from acquiring new equipment. The second refers to the user that allows, in theory, adequate management of these technologies, but which is not fully realized. Finally, the third is which separates schools from society. The first gap is almost overcome, mainly because acquisition costs have been considerably reduced. The second persists even though many of today's users live connected to the network or use it from their homes, schools, or workplaces

The third is the most serious of all since it involves two large institutions that have always had a reciprocal relationship throughout history, i.e., schools and Theresociety.are

1. Introduction

different proposals on what the profile of the 21st century teacher should look like. In this regard, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) published a document called the ICT Competency Standards for Teachers (UNESCO, 2008) which was intended to be a guide for teacher training institutions, to contribute to the creation or revision of their training programs. For its part, the European Commission states that digital competence implies the critical and safe use of Information Technologies

Within the Good Teaching Performance Framework, the Ministry of Education of Peru establishes that all teachers who carry out their pedagogical practice in Regular Basic Education (initial, primary and secondary levels) must develop teaching skills to achieve the results specified in performance 8 and 23, which refers to the use of technology and which allows them to recreate innovative methodologies to promote the development of a digital culture that will make it possible for students to learn more appropriate contentn in a better way (Ministerio de Educación, 2012). Facing the uncontrollable changes that society presents and the influence that technological means have on the mind, culture, and education of students, it becomes urgent to rethink pedagogical practices and the choice of these. A separate analysis is required on the theme of strategies and resources used to develop digital competencies, since they are the entire set of elements, tools, or procedures that teachers use, or can use, as support, complement, or help in their teaching tasks (Díaz, 1994). This concept highlights the usefulness of this "set of elements" that complements the teaching task (Salinas, 2011) On the other hand, Corrales and Sierras (2002) define academic means and resources as the set of elements or instruments that aim to help trainers in their teaching task and also to facilitate students in the achievement of learning objectives. These resources are made up of all the digital strategies which are offered for free for non commercial use by teachers and students for teaching, learning, and research (Miravalles, 2012). However, Open Educational Resources (OER) are either in the public domain or have been published under an intellectual property license that allows them to be used, adapted and distributed free of charge, that is, anyone can consult them, reuse them and create new materials (Velázquez et al., 2014). This is how educational portals arise as tools to help teachers, since they simplify planning, facilitate the selection and publication of content and familiarize students with the tools and information management in the new media, which drives the teaching and learning process (Gros & Contreras, 2006). Educational portals appear as part of the interest of governments in extending their educational policies and bringing together the educational community in the same virtual space (Romero, 2010). Educational portals then become the gateway to a large amount of information and content that is strictly pedagogical, and that teachers and students can use without restriction. Such educational platforms can be regarded as an ecosystem for teaching and learning (Frango et al., 2013; Frango, Ochoa, Silva, Notargiacomo & Hernández, 2011).

Bedriñana (2005) defines an educational portal as any webspace that offers multiple services to the members of the educational community (teachers, students, managers, and families), such as information, data search tools,

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. for work, leisure, and communication. To achieve this, it must rely on necessary ICT skills such as the use of computers to retrieve, assess, store, produce, present and exchange information, and to communicate and participate in collaborative networks over the Internet (European Union, 2006).

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. academic resources, tools for interpersonal communication, training, advice, entertainment, etc. In addition to being able to freely use it, it is important that the teacher can find resources suitable to his intention (Maldonado & Pérez, 2018; Villalba Condori et al, 2019; Yadav & Berges, 2019; Pérez).

PeruEduca's closest precedents are the EDURED programs, which aimed to guarantee the connection of different urban schools to the network. Also outstanding is INFOESCUELA, a program aimed at developing activities in the field of robotics at the primary education level, which reached 400 public schools in 17 cities of the country. The third program was a pilot initiative in distance education approved in 1998 and launched only in 2000, whose purpose was to improve the coverage of primary education in rural areas, contribute to the universalization of the supply of quality basic education at the national level and expand the number of secondary schools in the rural and border areas (Balarin, 2013). Each of these programs was created during the government of Alberto Fujimori and they managed to improve the conditions and opportunities for the use of ICTs and the Internet. After many years, the government of Alejandro Toledo created the Huascarán program, which consisted of the inclusion of ICTs in public educational institutions through the Pedagogical Innovation Classroom (AIP Aula de Innovación Pedagógica). Its general objective was to expand the quality and coverage of education through the use of ICTs and promote higher levels of decentralization, democratization, and equity. Iit also covered the pre school, primary and secondary levels in urban and rural areas of Peru, benefiting 2,527,045 students and 48,267 teachers (Ascarza, 2003).

2. Educational Portals

There are nineteen educational portals in the Latin American Network of Educational Portals (RELPE) Eight of them require prior registration to access the resources. This is the case of PeruEduca, TiCrupive (Paraguay), Educa Panama, Educatrachos (Honduras), Educar Chile, Colombia Aprende, Portal do Profesor and Educar (Argentina). However, the remaining eleven portals do not require registration and these are Mundo Escolar (Venezuela), Uruguay Educa, Educando (Dominican Republic), Nicaragua Educa, the Secretaría de Educación Pública SEP (Mexico), the Portal Educativo del Ministerio de Educación de Guatemala, Mi Portal (El Salvador), Educar (Ecuador), Cuba Educa, Educatico (Costa Rica) and Educa Bolivia. Another essential regional portal is the Latin American Federation of Learning Object Repositories (LAFLOR). This federation brings together more than 50,000 educational materials in Spanish, Portuguese and English. Another such portal is the World Federation of Repositories of Learning Objects (GLOBE) (Velázquez et al., 2014).

The Huascarán project operated until the end of the Toledo Government, and in 2007 its functions were absorbed by the General Directorate of Educational Technologies (DIGETE), created during the government of Alan García (DS. No. 16 2007 ED). By 2016, as a result of a restructuring of the Ministry of Education (MINEDU), DIGETE became the Directorate of Technological Innovation in

The results of a 2013 survey (INEGI, 2013) confirmed that the 53% of educational institutions were using in PeruEduca and that it had a total of 513,987 users (373,383 teachers and 140,604 students). Currently, PeruEduca has progressively increased its pedagogical support for teachers and students Through PeruEduca, users can find articles, forums, videoconferencing facilities, educational games, texts, simulators, computer graphics, audio resources, video resources, images and stories, which can be downloaded for free and used pedagogically in the classroom with students for better learning.

The objective of this instrument was to measure the degree of ‘Use of the PeruEduca’ platform by teachers and students from Arequipa and Moquegua (two regions from Peru) This variable was further subdivided into two dimensions: teaching skills and pedagogical practices The survey instrument is provided in Appendix 1. It is essential to point out that this instrument was first validated by a group of teachers (who were not part of the survey participants) before it went through another validation process by five experts. Some corrections were made after this process Furthermore, the mean of the Aitken's validity factor was found to be 0.896 for these two dimensions. There was also a high degree of consistency among the different experts. For Cronbach's Alpha, the tool was reliable, since the coefficient is a value close to 1 (0.840 < 1). Values higher than 0.7 normally indicate that the instrument is reliable

The present research has a quantitative nature, of a similar descriptive type, and to carry it out, quantitative techniques were applied that allowed the selection and comparative analysis of data provided by the teachers from the 3.0

3.3 Study design and data collection

This section describes the instruments, the study design, the data collection and the sample used in this study 3.1 Population

This research was carried out at the Graduate School of the Catholic University of Santa María which, with teachers who had graduated from the master’s in management of Virtual Learning Environments program This university is located in the region of Arequipa in Peru. A total of 1,400 teachers were available to participate in this study. Five hundred of them were teachers from the Program Master 3.0 Scholarship for Arequipa teachers and 900 were teachers from the 600 Scholarship program for Moquegua teachers 3.2 Instruments

3. Methodology

Education (DITE). PeruEduca was born as a portal in 2001 as part of the Huascarán Project, and in 2004, it became a full member of the Latin American Network of Educational Portals (RELPE). In 2011, it was rebranded as a digital learning system, after a total re engineering. By 2015, PeruEduca had 715,000 registered users, of which 430,000 were teachers, and 200,000 were students. Likewise, 18 million visits were registered and through its virtual classrooms, 242 courses were held, serving more than 280,000 users.

The sample for this study was 238 teachers which was divided into two groups: 165 teachers from Arequipa from the 3.0 Scholarship program, and 73 teachers from Moquegua from the 600 Scholarship program.

Table 1: Clustering variable Use of PeruEduca Statistic Use of PeruEduca Mann Whitney U 5182.500 Significance (2 tails) 0.086 According to the significance (0.086>0.05), the ‘Use of PeruEduca’ in both regions (Arequipa and Moquegua) is similar Table 2: Comparison of medians Statistic Arequipa use Moquegua use N 165 73 Median 74.00 81.00

4. Results

The results were analysed using the SPSS statistical package, with which the value of the statistic and the p value of contrast probability were calculated. We used the Kolgomorov Smirnov test with Lilliefors' correction to verify if the data were typically distributed. According to the analysis of normality and comparing the levels of significance (the p values), it can be seen that in the digital competences of teachers, there are parametric behaviors (p value is 0.200>0.005); therefore, it is homogeneous. In the other two cases, i.e., Teaching Practice and Use of PeruEduca, non parametric behaviors are found, since their p values are very low; in this case, Teaching Practice (0.000<0.005) and Use of PeruEduca (0.006<0.005). Once the normality test was performed, the criteria for the validation of the proposed hypotheses were determined As the normalization of the ‘Use of PeruEduca’ and ‘Pedagogical Practice’ dimensions were rejected, it was decided to apply non parametric tests where the tests are done on the median of the distribution The Mann Whitney U test was used, which allowed the application of these criteria for two independent samples. This test is the non parametric version of the Student "T" test, which is an appropriate one to apply to the ‘Use of PeruEduca’ and P’edagogical Practice’ dimensions. Table 1 shows the results of the analysis of the variables grouped under the ‘Use of PeruEduca’, while Table 2 shows a comparison of the medians.

3.4 Sample

Scholarship program from Arequipa and 600 Scholarship program from Moquegua. Teachers' e mails were used to send them the survey link, which consisted of a form developed with the e survey software (http://www.e encuesta.com). Once all the relevant data were gathered, they were tabulated for analysis and interpretation.

Levene

differenceMeans differenceStandarderror Confidence95% interval of LowerdifferencetheHigher competenceDigital deviationsEqualassumed 2 84 0.093 0.85 236 0.39 1 23 1 45 4 08 1 62 Equal variances not assumed 0.80 120 40 0.25 1 23 1 54 4 27 1 81

Table

100 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Because it is non parametric, the medians are compared. In Arequipa, this value is located is smaller because in this city the teachers do not yet recurrently use the platform either for their pedagogical practice or to develop their teaching skills while in Moquegua the results show a normal level of use. This is because these teachers have benefited from training in Information Technologies, as well as a process of intervention by the regional government of Moquegua. This has allowed teachers to take advantage of virtual resources and insert them in their pedagogical practice. Thus, they are better able to develop their teaching skills using educational platforms platform which the government has implemented for them. Table 3 shows the results of the analysis of the variables grouped under Pedagogical Practice (PP) Table 3: Clustering variable - Pedagogical Practice Statistic Pedagogical Practice Mann Whitney U 4947 000 Significance (2 tails) 0.028 Depending on the significance, the value is less than 0.05 (0.028<0.05). Therefore, the use of PeruEduca for pedagogical practice is different in the regions of Arequipa and Moquegua. The comparison of medians can be seen in Table 4. In Arequipa, the median is smaller than Moquegua Table 4: Comparison of medians Statistic Arequipa Practice Moquegua Practice N 165 73 Median 50 0000 55 0000 Next, the homoscedasticity of the sample has been verified using the Levene's test. This test indicates that the variances are equal. Therefore, the t value for equal variances are chosen. It can be seen from Table 5 that the digital competences are similar (0.93>0.05) for the teachers of both regions. 5: Independent sample testing test test for (2 tailed)

equality of means F Sig. t Df Sig.

5. Discussion The importance of an educational portal does not lie in the number of registered users but the quality of access, that is to say, how long users stay on the platform, how much resources they view/download, whether they publish content or propose improvements for student learning (RELPE, 2013). At this point, it is essential to note that all the portals that make up the Latin American Network of Educational Portals (RELPE) offer a large number of educational resources in various formats and allow the downloading of these resources without any restrictions. Teachers use these resources as a means to facilitate communication and access to information and to help in their teaching practice. However, these online educational portals are not a panacea and an all inclusive solution in themselves as it is often seen that they do not encourage in depth learning as many students tend to remain passive and receptive only Currently, the way in which educational resources are provided in these platforms does not allow for new ways of interacting with information, but rather persists in responsive and traditional behaviors. Improving pedagogical practices and making good use of these resources require developing educational strategies to acquire multiple skills, managing life long learning, designing meaningful learning experiences, and using ICT reflectively and critically.

In this sense, the vast majority of teachers in both programs (3.0 Scholarship and 600 Scholarship) have shown skills to search, download or save the appropriate resources (videos, audios, simulators, computer graphics, learning objects, texts, animations, educational games, etc.) that they find in PeruEduca. This is known as content healing. Due to the enormous amount of resources that are available today on the Internet, it is necessary for teachers to have these set of skills However, this is not sufficient to affirm that the levels of digital competencies of teachers in both regions are ideal, since taking as a reference what UNESCO has proposed we can say that teachers in both programs are more at the Level of Integration, that is, teachers are making use of ICTs for the transmission and storage of information (Martí, 2003). This means that teachers can use ICT services, but they only do so only for reference or to show content in their learning sessions. Still, they do not modify or contextualize this content to their reality. Most of them are still not generating any new content. Thus, the present investigation concludes that the use of educational resources in PeruEduca in the Digital Competences dimension is similar for the teachers from both regions

5.1 Digital Competences Regarding the dimension related to Digital Competences in Teachers, UNESCO defines digital competencies as a spectrum of competencies that facilitate the use of digital devices, communication applications, and networks to access, and better manage information. From a pedagogical point of view, UNESCO classifies these competencies at three levels, from the simplest to the most complex: Level of Integration, Level of Reorientation and Level of Evolution. In this regard, UNESCO (2016) points out that these competencies enable the creation and exchange of digital content, communication, and collaboration, as well as problem solving for productive and creative development in life, work, and social activities in general.

5.2 Participation of teachers

Digital competencies are a set of skills, functions, and abilities necessary for the use of information and communication technologies and are evidenced in the strategic mastery of five major capacities associated with the different dimensions of digital competency: access, adoption, adaptation, appropriation, and innovation (Díaz and Picón, 2016) Teachers in both programs have only reached the first two capacities (access and adoption) since they do not experience any difficulty in accessing and adopting these resources in their daily activities. However, when it comes to using these supports in their pedagogical work through modifying, contextualizing or creating new resources, they find it very difficult to do so. Digital competencies in teachers seek to enrich their pedagogical work and contribute to student learning as long as they are used strategically and creatively Thus, teachers must have an adequate level of knowledge and an excellent attitude towards the adoption of new technologies.

6. Conclusions

A majority of teachers have participated in virtual courses on the PeruEduca platform. However, they have very little experience with the various synchronous and asynchronous communication services (forums, blogs, chats, wikis, groups, educational communities) which are available on the platform

5.3 Pedagogical practice dimension

The teaching work is analyzed to see whether it has the capacity to support meaningful learning and the integral development of students. This can be done through the creation of exercises and activities which are full of meaning for those who participate in them. The recognition of disciplinary or environmental problems, the generation of experiences that promote particular relations with the identified problems, the promotion of reflection and critical thinking and the integral assessment of learning are also important elements of good pedagogical practices. Thus, in both programs, the tendency is to use these resources regularly (audios, simulators, computer graphics, learning objects, animations, educational games, etc.) with a few exceptions, such as, the videos and texts of the Ministry of Education (MED). Consequently, these results confirm that teachers in both programs are at the Integration Level, that is, they use ICT as a tool to optimize content presentation, communication, and information transmission. The use of educational resources in PeruEduca in the practical pedagogical dimension was found to be different for teachers from both regions

The digital competencies and pedagogical practice of teachers in two different regions in Peru were analysed through a survey on the way they use the PeruEduca educational platform We found that Moquegua teacher make more frequent use of the educational resources in PeruEduca than Arequipa teachers Educational portals such as PeruEduca are not in themselves a guarantee of improvement in student learning. Instead, they should be seen as tools whose potential has not yet been fully exploited. Teachers must be sensitized at the local level to reflect on their pedagogical practices and incorporate methodological strategies in which they can use virtual environments in their learning sessions. Finally, more dissemination must be made at the level of educational institutions to inform them about the resources that available on PeruEduca so that teachers and students can use it to its full extent.

7. References Arencibia, Y., Cawanga, I., Deco, C., Bender, C., Avello Martínez, R., & Villalba Condori, K. (2020). Developing computational thinking with a module of solved problems Computer Applications in Engineering Education, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1002/cae.22214

Ascarza, A. (2003). Las nuevas tecnologías de información y comunicación (NTIC) en el diseño de proyectos nacionales para la modernización de la educación iberoamericana: bases para el programa Huascarán [The new information and communication technologies (NTIC) in the design of national projects for the modernization of Ibero American education: bases for the Huascarán program. Management in the third millennium] Gestión en el tercer milenio, 5(10), 13 17. Balarín, M. (2013). ICT policies in Latin American education systems: Case of Peru. Buenos Aires: UNICEF. Bedriñana, A. (2005). Técnicas e indicadores para la evaluación de portales educativos en Internet [Techniques and indicators for the evaluation of educational portals on the Internet]. Gestión en el Tercer Milenio, 7(14), 81 87. Corrales, M., & Sierras, M. (2002). Design of educational resources and resources. Málaga: Antequera. Díaz, H., & Picón, C. (2016). Teaching management in Peru. Critical challenges and possibilities of response Lima: Fundación telefónica. Díaz, J. (1994). Resources and teaching materials in physical education. Barcelona: INDE Echeverría, J. (2000). Educación y tecnologías telemáticas [Education and telematic technologies] Revista Iberoamericana de Educación, 24, 17 36. Fernández, M., & Vázquez, S. (2017). The long and complex march of the clip to the click: school and teachers in the new digital environment. Barcelona, Ariel: Fundación Telefónica. Frango Silveira, I., Ochoa, X., Silva Sprock, A., Notargiacomo, P., & Hernández, Y. (2011). Towards New Computational Architectures for Mass Collaborative Open Educational Resources. International Journal of Digital Information and Wireless Communications (IJDIWC), 1(2), 489 503 Frango Silveira, I., Ochoa, X., Cuadros Vargas, A., Pérez Casas, A., Casali, A., Ortega, A., Silva Sprock, A., Henrique Alves, C., Deco, C., Cuadros Vargas, E., Knihs, E , Parra, G., Muñoz Arteaga, J., Gomes dos Santos, J., Broisin, J., Omar, N., Motz, R., Rodés, V., & Hernández, Y. (2013). A Digital Ecosystem for the Collaborative Production of Open Textbooks: The LATIn. Methodology. Journal of Information Technology Education: Research (JITE: Research), 12, 225 249. Gros, B., & Contreras, D. (2006). La alfabetización digital y el desarrollo de competencias ciudadanas [Digital literacy and the development of citizen skills] Revista Iberoamericana de educación, 42, 103 125. Martí, E. (2003). Representing the world externally: child acquisition of external systems of representation. Madrid: Machado. Ministerio de Educación (2012). Framework of good teaching performance Lima: MINEDU. Miravalles, M. P. T. (2012). Recursos Educativos en Abierto: evolución y modelos [Open Educational Resources: evolution and models]. Foro de Educación, 10(14), 191 205. Monereo, C., & Badia, A. (2013). Aprendizaje estratégico y tecnologías de la información y la comunicación: Una revisión crítica [Strategic Learning and Information and Communication Technologies: A Critical Review]. TESI, 14(2), 15 41. Pérez Álvarez, R., Maldonado Mahauad, J., & Pérez Sanagustín, M. (2018) Tools to Support Self Regulated Learning in Online Environments: Literature Review. In: Pammer Schindler V., Pérez Sanagustín M., Drachsler H., Elferink R., Scheffel M. (eds) Lifelong Technology Enhanced Learning. EC TEL 2018. Lecture Notes in

(2011). Entornos virtuales de aprendizaje en la escuela: tipos, modelo didáctico y rol del docente [Virtual learning environments at school: types, didactic model and role of the teacher]. Retrieved from: http://eduteka.icesi.edu.co/gp/upload/Educaci%C3%B3n%20EVA.pdf

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Red Latinoamericana Portales Educativos RELPE. (2013). La nueva agenda de los portales educativos de América Latina: Casos de Argentina, Chile y Perú [The new agenda of educational portals in Latin America: Cases of Argentina, Chile and Peru]. Retrieved from Romero,de80F05257E3600http://www2.congreso.gob.pe/sicr/cendocbib/con4_uibd.nsf/F65CA50893757782557/$FILE/15LanuevaagendadelosportaleseducativosAm%C3%A9ricalatinacasosdeArgentinaChileyPer%C3%BA.pdfD.(2010).ExperienciaenlaproducciónyofertadecontenidoseducativosdigitalesenMedellín,Colombia.ElcasodelportaleducativodeMedellínDigital[ExperienceintheproductionandsupplyofdigitaleducationalcontentinMedellín,Colombia.ThecaseoftheMedellínDigitaleducationalportal]. Salinas, M. I. Silva, J. (2011). Design and moderation of Virtual Learning Environments Barcelona: Editorial UOC. Sistema Nacional de Información Estadística y Geográfica INEGI (2013). Encuesta sobre Tecnologías de la información y las comunicaciones [Information and Communication Technologies Survey]. Retrieved from: Organizaciónhttps://www.inegi.org.mx/programas/entic/2013/delasNacionesUnidasparalaEducación, la Ciencia y Cultura UNESCO. (2008). ICT competency standards for teachers. London: UNESCO. Organización de las Naciones Unidas para la Educación, la Ciencia y Cultura UNESCO (2016) Competences and Standards from the Pedagogical Dimension Cali: VelázquezUNESCO.Amador, C., Álvarez Rodríguez, F., Muñoz Arteaga, J., Cardona Salas, J., Silva Sprock, A., Hernández, Y., & Cechinel, C. (2014). Un Estudio de la Satisfacción Obtenida con el Uso de Objetos de Aprendizaje [A Study of Satisfaction Obtained with the Use of Learning Objects], IX Latin American Conference on Learning Objects and Technologies for Learning (LACLO2014), Universidad Nacional de Colombia. Manizales, Colombia. Villalba Condori, K., Deco, C., Oliva Córdova, L. Castro Cuba Sayco, S., Bender, C., & Silva Sprock, A. (2019). A Methodology to Assign Educational Resources with Metadata Based on the Purpose of Learning, 2019 XIV Latin American Conference on Learning Technologies (LACLO), San Jose Del Cabo, Mexico, 2019, pp. 221 225. https://doi.org/10.1109/LACLO49268.2019.00045

104 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Computer Science, vol. 11082. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978 3 319 98572 5_2 European Union (2006). Recommendation of the european parliament and of the council Retrieved from: https://eur lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2006:394:0010:0018:en:PDF

Yadav, A., Berges, M. (2019). Computer Science Pedagogical Content Knowledge: Characterizing Teacher Performance, ACM Transactions on Computing Education, 19(3). https://doi.org/10.1145/3303770

105 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Appendix 1 SURVEY USE OF PERUVIAN EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES The following survey has been prepared for research purposes, so please answer truthfully, as the information we wish to obtain is very important for a large study that will benefit teachers. The survey is anonymous and we guarantee absolute confidentiality in the processing and dissemination of the results. Thank you very much for your collaboration. Universidad Católica de Santa María Graduate School I. GENERAL DATA 1. Region a. Arequipa b. Moquegua 2. Sex a. Male b. Female 3. Age a. Less than 25 years old b. Between 25 and 30 years c. Between 31 and 35 years old d. Between 36 and 40 years old e. Between 41 and 45 years old f. Between 46 and 50 years old g. Between 51 and 55 years old h. Between 56 and 60 years old i. More than 61 years old 4. EBR level a. Initial b. Primary c. Secondary 5. UGEL a. UGEL North b. UGEL South c. UGEL La Unión d. UGEL Castilla e. UGEL Camaná f. UGEL Caravelí g. UGEL Condesuyos

106 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. h. UGEL Islay i. UGEL Caylloma j. UGEL La Joya k. UGEL General Sanchez Cerro l. UGEL Mariscal Nieto m. UGEL Ilo 6. Scope of your EI a. Urban b. Rural 7. Time of service a. Less than 5 years b. From 5 to 10 years c. From 11 to 15 years old d. From 16 to 20 years old e. More than 20 years f. Nothing 8. Area of expertise a. Initial b. Primary c. Communication d. Mathematics e. CTA f. ER g. EF h. EPT i. Art and culture j. Social Sciences k. Others 9. Teacher's Scale a. I b. II c. III d. IV e. V f. VI 10. Employment status a. Named b. Hired 11. Scholarship Promotion a. First promotion Scholarship 600 (entry 2015) b. Second promotion Scholarship 600 (entry 2016) c. First promotion Scholarship 3.0 (entry 2016) d. Second promotion Scholarship 3.0 (entry 2017)

107 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. II. ON THE USE OF THE PERUVIAN PLATFORM 12. DO YOU KNOW THE PERUVIAN PLATFORM? a. Yes b. No 13. ARE YOU REGISTERED IN PERUVIAN? a. Yes b. No 14. HOW OFTEN DO YOU ACCESS PERUEDUCA? a. Once or twice a week b. Internally c. Every day d. Never 15. Indicate on the scale how often you perform the following actions (where 0 is none, and 5 is very often) 15A. DO YOU KNOW HOW TO SEARCH FOR THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES THAT PERUEDUCA OFFERS? 0 1 2 3 4 5 15B. DO YOU EASILY FIND RESOURCES TO WORK IN YOUR AREA OR LEVEL? 0 1 2 3 4 5 16. HOW OFTEN DO YOU USE THESE PERUVIAN SERVICES AND RESOURCES?No. Service/Resource 0 1 2 3 4 5 16A Animations 16B Audios 16C Fascicles 16D Infographics 16E Games 16F Books 16G Modules 16H Learning Objects

108 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. 16I Stories 16J Simulators 16K Recommended sites 16L Software 16M Videos 16N MED texts 17. Indicate on the scale how often you perform the following actions (where 0 is none, and 5 is very often) 17A. DO YOU PROMOTE THE USE OF THESE RESOURCES AND SERVICES WITH YOUR STUDENTS? 0 1 2 3 4 5 17B. HAVE THE RESOURCES AND SERVICES PERUEDUCA OFFERS HELPED YOU IN YOUR PEDAGOGICAL WORK? 0 1 2 3 4 5 17C. DO YOU STORE IN AN ORGANIZED WAY THE PERUVIAN RESOURCES YOU ARE INTERESTED IN IN YOUR COMPUTER? 0 1 2 3 4 5 17D. DO YOU PLAN YOUR LEARNING SESSION TAKING INTO ACCOUNT THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES DOWNLOADED FROM PERUVIAN THAT YOU STORED ON YOUR COMPUTER? 0 1 2 3 4 5 17E. HAVE YOU PARTICIPATED IN ANY COURSE PROMOTED BY PERUEDUCA? 0 1 2 3 4 5 17F. DO YOU USE PERUEDUCA'S BLOG TO PUBLISH YOUR EXPERIENCES IN THE CLASSROOM? 0 1 2 3 4 5

109 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. 17G. HAVE YOU CREATED OR PARTICIPATED IN A FORUM IN PERUEDUCA? 0 1 2 3 4 5 17H. HAVE YOU CREATED OR PARTICIPATED IN A GROUP IN PERU? 0 1 2 3 4 5 17I. DO YOU PARTICIPATE IN ANY PERUVIAN VIRTUAL COMMUNITY? 0 1 2 3 4 5 17J. WOULD YOU RECOMMEND THE USE OF PERUEDUCA TO YOUR COLLEAGUES? 0 1 2 3 4 5

Keywords: digital leadership; higher education; behavioral data analysis; transformational leadership; outcome leadership

Leadership Types and Digital Leadership in Higher Education: Behavioural Data Analysis from University of Patras in Greece

110 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 4, pp. 110 129, April https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.4.20208

Hera Antonopoulou, Constantinos Halkiopoulos, Olympia Barlou and Grigorios N. Beligiannis University of Patras Patras, Greece

1. Introduction 1.1 Literature review of leadership Leadership and its exercise have run and occupied every organized human society. But the science of management is systematic and organized and made its appearance in the early twentieth century, focusing primarily on area of Business Administration. Gradually this scientific space it was embedded, grafted and developed, taking advantage of the synergy and other sciences such as

Abstract. The effective leadership of digital transformation in higher education has become an emerging issue that is needed to also integrate the board of directors in University departments. The main purpose of the study is to investigate the leading skills of heads of university departments analyzing their point of view in the digital leadership, to analyze the leadership types that they adopt and the associations with leadership outcome and also to describe profoundly the views of participants as far as the basic components of leadership types such as transformational and transactional. For the implementation of the present study, 28 heads of departments from University of Patras participated replying the Multi factor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) and data were collected and then analyzed using SPSS statistical software. The findings of the study among others, indicate that the leadership outcome has a strong positive correlation with transformational leadership and a large negative correlation with passive to avoid leadership, it was confirmed that the higher degree of transformational leadership implies greater efficiency and satisfaction for workers, and the high degree of transformational leadership co exists with the great degree of implementation of digital leadership.

During the decade of ’70 and specifically in 1978, Burns theory discriminates leadership in two principal types: transactional and transformational leadership. More specifically, Burns (1978) identified the transactional leader as one who recognizes the needs of his subordinates and tries to continue to fulfill them, provided that their performance is worthwhile for rewarding.

leadership includes four dimensions: Contingent reward leadership, active management by exception, passive management by exception and avoidant (laissez faire) leadership (Bass, 1985).

The transactional leader seeks to maintain the stability of the organization, constantly striving to achieve set goals, despite promoting change (Bryant, 2003; Lussier & Achua, 2004). The means used to implement them is to use them fees and penalties, mainly in the form of financial exchanges (Barnett, 2003; Gellis, 2001). Bass & Bass (2008) consider that these rewards can be either psychological (e.g. positive feedback, praise and applause), or tangible (e.g. promotion, salary increase / Furthermore,bonus).transactional

a. Contingent reward leadership: Leader provides various types of rewards to its affiliates, in order to fulfill their contractual obligations. Partners offer “in return” their good services and their commitment to achieving the determined goals of the organization. According to Bass (1997), business leaders clarify expectations, exchange for promises and pay for support in their work, they reach mutually acceptable agreements, they negotiate resources, they exchange help with effort and provide applause in return for the successful attempt. From this perspective, this is a constructive one transaction (Bass & Bass, 2008).

b. Active Management by exception: The leader who uses that particular style of administration, monitor the performance of its subordinates and take corrective action when this deviates from expectations (Bass & Bass, 2008).

Psychology and Sociology, creating several 'branches', one of which is the field of Education Leadership Management. Many theorists (Cuban, 1988), define that the term of leadership means the influence on the actions of others when trying to achieve desired goals. The role of leadership is to achieve innovation in the way the organization operates, the transformation of existing structures and processes taking place within it, as well as the effort to change the working culture and behavior of its employees (Fullan, 2002). On the contrary, management in an organization looks forward to the implementation and maintenance of existing structures and their optimal operation within the frameworks specified. Another theorist (Bennis, 1990), quite rightly points out that “the manager does things right while the leader does the right things “. In addition, it is mentioned in philosophy terms that "Leadership is like beauty: it's hard to define, but you understand it immediately when you meet it" 1.2 Types of leadership (transactional vs transformational)

d. Avoidant leadership: Following this particular style of administration, these leaders simply avoid leadership responsibilities. It is considered the most ineffective form into the extent that some may not even regard it as a form of transaction leadership (Judge & Piccolo, 2004).

Although, contingent reward leadership can have positive impact on the performance of employees, active, passive and avoidant leadership tend to have a negative impact the above indicators, especially, when the leader passively expects problems to arise (Waldman, Atwater & Bass, 1992).

The transformational leader is the one who together with his associates is involved to outrun the personal interests, motivating them to go beyond the benefit of the organization. Transformational leaders focus on higher needs, such as appreciation, the recognition and self actualization as defined by classification of Maslow's human needs (1943). Inspire their partners through the interest they show for them, their mental stamina, their tendency to take risks and their constant commitment to achieving the goals. They don't complain either believe in continuous improvement. They try to design and implement significant changes in goals, strategy, structures and activities of the organization while trying to satisfy and the needs of their partners (Balvant, 2016).

Additionally, they try to make use of them their previous successes, building a climate of trust and confidence in the organization. Transformational Leadership is characterized as the most active and effective form of leadership (Bass & Avolio, 1994), as it provides fans a sense of purpose and mission, improves self awareness and suggests a vision (Lowe et al., 1996). Also, the Transformational Leader's behavior is positively correlated with his effectiveness and increased team performance (Judge & Piccolo, 2004; Lowe et al., 1996). Research still shows that partners Transformational leaders tend to feel more satisfied and more productive than transactional partners (Carless et al, 2000). Also, according to Bass (1985), the leadership of the great historical figures over time, it was transformational, not Burnstransactional.(1978) considered the concepts of transactional and transformational leadership as the opposite ends of the same dimension, the leader or the transactional, either as a transformer. In contrast, Bass and his colleagues (Avolio, Bass & Jung, 1999; Bass, 1985) regarded the two above forms of leadership as complementary to each other, and the leader as capable of displaying evidence

The transactional leadership model often leads to no desirable results because employees tend to be lacking interest in doing their work which is beyond them narrow limits on their employment contract, or the formal limits of their (Bryant,employment2003).

c. Passive Management by exception: The difference of this particular style of administration from the previous one, it is the time for the leader to solve the problems (Howell & Avolio, 1993). In Active Exception Management the leader acts before problem become serious, while in Passive Exception Management, action on the part of the leader manifests itself when it has already emerged (Judge & Piccolo, 2004).

In conclusion, research based on Multifactorial Multi factor Leadership Questionnaire (Avolio & Bass, 2004), have shown that employees who give their leaders a high rating on the transformation components, they rate them at the same time as extremely effective, in contrast to those who score highly on the transactional components and are considered less effective (Bass, 1985; Avolio & Bass, 1988)

According to the latest empirical data of Eurobarometer survey, digital technology has been proven as being beneficial in economy because has offered privileges in people’s everyday lives and businesses. In addition, digital technologies, in the last years, have modified information, value and management and incite organizations, except for businesses but also education settings to transform their work processes and adopt radical and innovative changes in their structure and function (Cortellazzo, Bruni & Zampieri, 2019). Digital leadership in education refers to the integration of a portfolio of technologies, tools and instruments like: Internet of Things (IoT), e platforms (webinars) social media, Artificial Intelligence, Big Data, Machine Learning. Higher education is without doubt a type of organization that can be promoted by digitalization not only with the integration of new technologies but also by the transformation of traditional

1.3 Leadership outcome

1.4 Literature review of digital leadership

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. and behaviors from both of these forms of leadership (Bass, 1998). These researchers promote a unified theory according to which Transformational leadership is seen as an extension of transactional as the relationship between leader and subordinate evolves (Howell & Avolio, 1992; Howell & Hall Merenda, 1999). The key to this transformation is the positive and constructive feedback from the leader. Acceptance by the fact that his fans' efforts are appreciated, encourages them the latter to seek further investment and deepening in their relationships with the leader. This, in turn, results in a gradual evolution between them of a transactional relationship, in a relationship governed by trust and honesty, two crucial components of a close partnership (Northouse, 2016).

The leadership style in an organization (transformational/transactional) is related with the success of the team as a whole. One of the most important tools measuring success is the MLQ (Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire). The three elements that make up the outcome of leadership are the following: a) The degree of motivation according to which rater consider that their leader is motivating them (Extra effort), b) The effectiveness with which they perceive their leader to interact at the various organizational levels (Effectiveness), c) the degree of satisfaction they derive from the leader's working methods (Satisfaction with the Leadership). (Avolio & Bass, 2004). Extra effort motivates others to do more of themselves they thought they would and incites others to succeed and increases also the desire for others to strive harder. (Avolio & Bass, 2004). The effectiveness has to do with the leader and with the questions that poses to himself for feedback about degree of representation of his team in higher organizational levels, the level of satisfaction of work needs and also about the leading of an effective team. The satisfaction with the leadership associates with the use of appropriate methods of leading and with the collaboration with others (Avolio & Bass, 2004).

1.5 Research Questions Research cases can be summarized as follows:

1.6 Research Scope

• Does the leadership style relate to the knowledge and application of specific e skills?

• Which leadership style prevails?

• Does the direction of the School (Theoretical Applied Other) relate to the presence of digital leaders?

If Members of the Senate in Higher Education who have the Digital Leader (e Skills) profile, follow a specific type of Leadership. Figure 1: Conceptual Model of the Research Project

114 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. workplaces into digital workplaces. Under the previous perspective of digitalization, job requirements need to be profoundly transformed and as a result leaders ought to be highly aware of all demanding challenges from investing in upskilled employees and deeply know how to motivate and inspire them till the knowledge to break conventional leadership from task oriented to project oriented leading. Digital leadership can be beneficial for educational settings and it is a crucial parameter that is necessary to be promoted among educational leaders in higher education (Antonopoulou, et al., 2019) and in particular among heads of university departments which is the main purpose of the present study.

• Are the style and leadership outcome differentiated according to the leader's gender and years of service in administrative position?

2. Methods

A questionnaire with closed ended questions, consisting of three parts, will be used to collect the survey data. The first part contains questions related to the demographic data of the sample, such as gender, age, years of service in a university position, category of subject, class (theoretical, applied, etc.).

The measurement and evaluation of the above nine leading factors, such as and the outcome of leadership is made by appropriately matching utilizing 45 total questions that make up the MLQ (5X Short). Respondents were asked to rate the extent to which they exhibited specific behaviors, on a Likert type scale from 1 (Not at all) to 5 (Almost always) by answering 45 questions. Digital leadership was similarly measured, using 5 related questions. For each respondent, the average of the answers for each leadership style is calculated and an individual

The method to be followed for collecting data is to fill in an anonymous questionnaire. This is a method that is considered to be the most appropriate for collecting data about opinions, attitudes, beliefs and values. The data to be collected will be quantified, statistically analyzed and deduced from the analysis of conclusions, which are generalizable in larger population groups. The anonymity of responses may contribute to the honesty of the subjects' responses (Cohen, et al., 2008, Vambuka, 2007).

2.2 Sample

2.1 Data Collection

The performance of the questionnaire to members of the Senate (N=28) will be implemented through a unique completion link through Google's Google Form application. The information to be collected will be coded and analyzed using a statistical program, namely the SPSS program. The comparison of demographic descriptive data will be done either by spreading analysis or by Pearson's Χ2 analysis. The correlation between the variables will be done with regression analysis.

2.3 Data Collection Tool

As a measure of the leadership style of the a fore mentioned executives, the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire was used Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) and more specifically the MLQ Form (Form 5X Short) developed by Bass and Avolio (2004). That particular one formula, MLQ (5X Short), according to Avolio & Bass (2004), is structured from 45 questions, of which 36 explore the 9 leadership components included in Full Range Leadership (FRL) (4 questions / leaderboard), namely: i. Transformational (5 Leadership Ingredients) ii. Transactional (Contingent Reward & Management by Exception Active) (2 Lead Components) iii. Passive Avoiding Leadership (Management by Exception Passive & Avoidant/Laissez Faire Leadership) (2 Leadership Ingredients) Also, the remaining 9 questions of this scale explore the leadership outcomes: a) Extra effort (3 questions) b) Effectiveness (4 questions) c) Satisfaction with the leadership (2 questions)

The responses of the survey participants were appropriately coded appropriately and entered into a database where they were processed and analyzed using specifically SPSS v.22. Statistical questionnaires were classified into categorical and ordinal variables. Different descriptive and inductive statistical methods of statistical analysis were applied to each category of variables. Specifically, descriptive methods were applied to the categorical variables (demographic characteristics, digital skills), such as Frequency Percentage Tables, Percentage Charts and Pie Charts, and more inductive methods such as X2 test to investigate possible relationship between two categorical variables. Descriptive methods such as minimum value, maximum value, mean value, standard deviation, mean bars and in addition inductive methods were used for non parametric variables (leadership style, leadership outcome, number of digital skills). comparison of the means of two independent samples), Kruskal Wallis (to compare the means of three or more independent samples) and the Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test (to compare the means of two related samples).

The possible correlation between the various ordinal variables was investigated through the Pearson linear correlation coefficient. Also, the possible dependence between the various layout variables was investigated through simple linear regression. Reliability of the different scales of questions regarding leadership types and leadership outcome was measured with the Cronbach's alpha reliability index. Indicator values above 0.7 (or above 0.6 according to various researchers) show satisfactory reliability. For all hypothesis tests of statistical tests, correlations and linear regressions, a significance level of α = 0.05 was used.

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. average score can range from 1 5. The higher the score, the more the respondent exercises that particular leadership style. ICT trends are expected to affect the demand for more specialized digital skills and skills related to Digital Leadership over the next decade. The key question now is whether technological advances impact the digital skills of a Digital Leader (Shafer, 2016). The selection of the most important trends was based on the following criteria (Lighton, 2018; Jenkins & Andenoro, 2016; Bolden et al., 2008): a) Mobility, b) Cloud Computing, c) Big Data Analysis, d) Social Media Technologies, e) Internet of Things, f) Customer Experience, g) IT Security

2.4 Measures and Data Analysis

3. Results

The majority of the participants are males (75.0%), while ¼ are females (25.0%). As members of the Senate, 42.9% of respondents belong to the age group of 60+ years and 39.3% are 51 60 years. However, there is also a 17.9% share in the 41 50 age group. Sample members have many years of service in higher education, with 75.0% serving more than 20 years. Also, 53.6% have been in management positions for more than 9 years. Finally, most participants came from the Natural and Applied Sciences Direction (67.9%) and 28.6% came from the Humanities and Social Sciences Direction

117 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Table 1: Demographic characteristics (Ν=28) Frequency(N) Percentage(%) SEX Male 21 75,0 Female 7 25,0 AGE 41 50 5 17,9 51 60 11 39,3 >60 12 42,9 YEARS EDUCATIONSERVICEOFINHIGHER 6-10 1 3,6 11-20 6 21,4 >20 21 75,0 YEARS ADMINISTRATIVESERVICEOFINPOSITION 0 3 6 21,4 4 6 4 14,3 7 9 3 10,7 >9 15 53,6 SUBJECT FIELD Humanities and Social Sciences Direction 8 28,6 Natural and Applied Sciences Direction 19 67,9 Other 1 3,6 Figure 2: Demographic Characteristics (Ν=28) 0 50 100 Male Female 75 25% SEX 500 41-50 51-60 >60 17.9 39.3 42.9 % AGE 64%10 1121%2075%>20 YEARS IN HIGHER EDUCATION 0 3 21% 4 6 14% 7 9 11% >9 54% YEARS INPOSITIONADMINISTRATIVE 100500 28.6 67.9 3.6% SUBJECT FIELD

118 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. 3.1 Leadership Types Overview Reliability of all scales is satisfactory as Cronbach's alpha ranges from 0.530 (in the case of passive leadership) to 0.849 (in the case of leadership outcome). Particularly in the case of digital leadership, Cronbach's alpha stands at 0.819. This fact allows to consider that the 5 questions that measure this particular leadership style belong to the same conceptual unit and can be represented by a new variable as the average of these 5 questions. Table 2: Examined variables Ν Min Max Mean SD Cronbach’s Alpha Transformational leadership 28 3,45 4,85 4,05 0,329 0,697 Transactional leadership 28 3,14 5,00 3,89 0,521 0,712* Passive to avoid leadership 28 1,00 3,20 1,60 0,563 0,530** Outcome leadership 28 3,11 5,00 4,01 0,522 0,849 Digital leadership 28 2,00 5,00 3,92 0,789 0,819 * Excluded question 1 which was found to be negatively correlated with the other questions for this style **LeadershipExcluded were questions 3, 28 and 33 that were not related to the other questions for this particular leadership style Respondents (table 3) have a high degree of transformational leadership (Mean 4.05) and Transactional leadership (Mean 3.89) with a slightly lower frequency. The difference in the degree of performance of these two (2) leadership types is not statistically significant (p> 0.05). On the contrary, participants avoid practicing passive avoiding leadership (Mean 1.60). In fact, this style is practiced to a lesser degree than transformational and transactional leadership (p <0.05). Table 3: Differences between leadership types MEAN SD Test valueP Transformational leadership 4,05 0,329 SignedWilkoxonRanksTest 0,054 Transactional leadership 3,89 0,521 Transformational leadership 4,05 0,329 SignedWilkoxonRanksTest 0,000** Passive to avoid leadership 1,60 0,563 Transactional leadership 3,89 0,521 SignedWilkoxonRanksTest 0,000** Passive to avoid leadership 1,60 0,563 Mean 4.01 in leadership outcome shows great effectiveness and satisfaction with the leadership style followed, while respondents appear to be heavily practicing digital leadership (Mean 3.92).

119 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. 3.2 Demographic based leadership types In order to determine if demographic characteristics influence statistically significant leadership style, non parametric Mann Whitney and Kruskal Wallis tests were performed (table 4). Table 4: Leadership style per Sex Leadership style SEX MEAN SD Test P-value Transformationalleadership Male 4,11 0,344 Mann Whitney 0,031* Female 3,86 0,195 Transactionalleadership Male 4,04 0,468 Mann Whitney 0,004** Female 3,43 0,404 Passive to leadershipavoid Male 1,61 0,611 Mann Whitney 0,756 Female 1,57 0,423 Outcome leadership Male 4,15 0,522 Mann Whitney 0,004** Female 3,60 0,247 Digital leadership Male 4,17 0,643 Mann Whitney 0,007** Female 3,17 0,743 Initially, gender influences the degree to which each member of the senate involved in the research develops each leadership style. Male respondents reported significantly higher transformational leadership (p <0.05), transactional leadership (p <0.05) and digital leadership (p <0.05) than women. Also, male participants were statistically significantly more satisfied with the outcome of leadership followed (p <0.05). Table 5: Leadership types per Age Leadership types AGE MEAN SD Test P value Transformationalleadership 41 50 3,81 0,222 Kruskal Wallis 0,12951-60 4,06 0,218 >60 4,14 0,411 Transactionalleadership 41-50 3,60 0,341 Kruskal Wallis 0,22051-60 3,79 0,488 >60 4,10 0,559 Passive to leadershipavoid 41-50 1,84 0,654 Kruskal Wallis 0,30051 60 1,49 0,677 >60 1,60 0,409

120 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Outcome leadership 41 50 3,93 0,186 Kruskal Wallis 0,78451-60 3,88 0,383 >60 4,17 0,690 Digital leadership 41 50 4,16 1,23 Kruskal Wallis 0,44751-60 3,84 0,612 >60 3,90 0,779 Table 6: Leadership types per Years of Service in Higher Education Leadership types Years Serviceof MEAN SD Test P value Transformationalleadership <20 3,89 0,245 Mann Whitney 0,113 >20 4,11 0,339 Transactionalleadership <20 3,76 0,427 Mann Whitney 0,640 >20 3,93 0,553 Passive to leadershipavoid <20 1,66 0,629 Mann Whitney 0,917 >20 1,58 0,555 Outcome leadership <20 3,87 0,244 Mann Whitney 0,640 >20 4,06 0,584 Digital leadership <20 4,11 1,006 Mann Whitney 0,249 >20 3,86 0,722 Table 7: Leadership style per Years of Service in Administrative position Leadership types Years Serviceof MEAN SD Test P value Transformationalleadership <=6 3,93 0,232 Mann Whitney 0,160 7+ 4,12 0,360 Transactionalleadership <=6 3,74 0,314 Mann Whitney 0,332 7+ 3,97 0,599 Passive to leadershipavoid <=6 1,52 0,559 Mann Whitney 0,436 7+ 1,64 0,576 Outcome leadership <=6 3,97 0,189 Mann Whitney 0,796 7+ 4,04 0,642 Digital leadership <=6 4,18 0,846 Mann Whitney 0,099 7+ 3,78 0,742

121 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Table 8: Leadership style per Years of Service in Object Direction Leadership types Object Direction MEAN SD Test P-value Transformationalleadership Humanities and Social Sciences Direction 4,00 0,280 WhitneyMann 0,856Natural and Applied Sciences Direction 4,09 0,352 Transactionalleadership Humanities and Social Sciences Direction 3,73 0,290 WhitneyMann 0,389Natural and Applied Sciences Direction 3,94 0,597 Passive to leadershipavoid Humanities and Social Sciences Direction 1,60 0,828 WhitneyMann 0,389Natural and Applied Sciences Direction 1,59 0,454 leadershipOutcome Humanities and Social Sciences Direction 3,92 0,277 WhitneyMann 0,696Natural and Applied Sciences Direction 4,06 0,608 leadershipDigital Humanities and Social Sciences Direction 4,15 0,707 WhitneyMann 0,418Natural and Applied Sciences Direction 3,93 0,716 Based on the above tables, leadership types per Age (table 5), leadership types per Years of Service inHigherEducation (table 6), leadership style perYears of Service in Administrative (table 7), leadership style per Years of Service in Object Direction (table 8), they do not seem to affect the degree to which the various leadership styles are performed. 3.3 Leadership outcome The possible relationship of different leadership types with leadership outcomes is investigated using the Pearson correlation coefficient. Table 9: Correlation Outcome leadership vs Leadership style Transformationalleadership Transactionalleadership Passive to leadershipavoid R1 R1 R1 Leadership Outcome 0,631** 0,548** 0,028 1 Coefficient correlation Pearson * Correlation is statistically significant at level 0,05 ** Correlation is statistically significant at level 0,01 Leadership outcome showed a significant positive and statistically significant correlation with transformational leadership (R = 0.631) and transactional leadership (R = 0.548) at α = 0.01. This means that a great degree of practicing these leadership types coexists with the effectiveness and satisfaction of exercising leadership. On the contrary, the correlation between leadership outcome and

* Influence is statistically significant at level 0,05 ** Influence is statistically significant at level 0,01 As it is obvious, transformational leadership has a positive and statistically significant (p = 0.000 <0.05) impact on leadership outcomes, that is, the greater the application of that leadership style the greater the effectiveness and satisfaction of employees. Indeed, this independent variable interprets a relatively large proportion of the leadership outcome variability (R2 = 0.399). Leadership outcome was statistically significantly dependent on transactional leadership (p = 0.003 <0.05). The more leaders exhibit this leadership style, the greater the effectiveness and satisfaction shown. This independent variable accounts for 30.0% of the leadership outcome variability (R2 = 0.300). As for passive leadership, this does not seem to have a statistically significant impact on leadership outcomes.

DependentVariable RegressionParametersofSimpleLinear Transformationalleadership Transactionalleadership Passive leadershipavoidto leadershipOutcome Coefficient β 1,003 0,549 0,026 p value 0,000** 0,003** 0,888 R2 0,399 0,300 0,001

The possible relationship of different leadership types with digital leadership is investigated using the Pearson correlation coefficient (table 11)

3.4 Association of digital leadership with leadership types

Table 10: Outcome leadership according to Leadership style (Simple Linear Regression)

R1 R1 R1 R1 leadershipDigital 0,090 0,069 0,087 0,459* 1 Coefficient correlation Pearson * Association is statistically important at level 0,05

122 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. passive to avoid leadership is negligible. The emergence of statistically significant correlations lays the groundwork for the application of simple linear regression in order to see if there is a particular dependence of the leadership outcome on each leadership style individually. The multiple regression solution was not preferred due to the strong correlations between the independent variables. In the following regressions, leadership outcome is defined as a dependent variable and each leadership style as an independent variable. The relevant table 10 shows the basic parameters β, R2 and p value.

Table 11: Association of Digital Leadership with Leadership Style Transformationalleadership Transactionalleadership Passive leadershipavoidto leadershipOutcome

123 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Digital leadership showed a significant positive and statistically significant correlation with leadership outcome (r = 0.459) at α = 0.05 level. This means that a high degree of effectiveness and satisfaction coexists with a high degree of implementation of digital leadership. The existence of a statistically significant correlation enables us to apply simple linear regression to see if there is a specific dependence on digital leadership for each leadership style. In the following regressions digital leadership is defined as a dependent variable and each leadership style as an independent variable. The relevant table shows the basic parameters β, R2 and p value. Table 12: Dependence of Digital Leadership on Leadership Style DependentVariable ParametersofSimpleLinearRegression Transformationalleadership Transactionalleadership Passive leadershipavoidto leadershipOutcome leadershipDigital Coefficient β 0,217 0,104 0,121 0,694 p value 0,647 0,729 0,661 0,014* R2 0,008 0,005 0,008 0,211 * Influence is statistically significant at a level 0,05 According to Table 12, leadership outcomes had a positive and statistically significant (p = 0.014 <0.05) digital leadership, that is, the greater the effectiveness and satisfaction of practicing leadership, the greater the degree of digital leadership. Indeed, this independent variable interprets a significant percentage of digital leadership volatility (R2 = 0.211). Regarding transformational, transactional and passive leadership, these do not seem to have a statistically significant impact on the degree of digital leadership. 3.5 Required digital skills Subsequently, the research participants were asked to list the digital characteristics that they could exploit and consider it more necessary for a leader. Respondents were able to state more than one choice. Table 13: Digital skills for a leader ΣΥΧΝΟΤΗΤΑ (N) ΠΟΣΟΣΤΟ (%) CharacteristicsDigital Social Media 17 60,7 Cloud Computing 17 60,7 Mobile App 15 53,6 Web Development and Tools 12 42,9 Big Data 10 35,7 ERP Systems 8 28,6 Security Skills 5 17,9 Digital Architecture 2 7,1 Complex Business Systems 1 3,6

124 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. The widespread digital skills of Social Media, Cloud Computing and Mobile App are also the ones that received the majority of responses (60.7%, 60.7% and 53.6% respectively). However, a significant proportion of respondents can take advantage of Web Development and Tools (42.9%) and Big Data applications (35.7%). Digital architectures and Complex Business Systems are exploited by few respondents. Figure 3: Digital skills that can be considered as necessary for a leader To determine if demographic characteristics had a statistically significant effect on the declared digital skills, an X2 test was performed. The table 14 shows only the statistically significant differences. Table 14: Mobile App per Demographic Characteristics CharacteristicsDemographic % Test P value AGE 41 50 100,0 Χ2 0,002**51-60 72,7 >60 16,7 YEARS OF SERVICE IN HIGHER EDUCATION <20 100,0 Χ2 0,004** >20 38,1 YEARS OF SERVICE ADMINISTRATIVEINPOSITION <=6 90,0 Χ2 0,004** 7+ 33,3 3.6 7.1 17.9 28.6 35.7 42.9 53.6 60.7 60.7 0 20 40 60 80 Complex Business Systems DigitalSecurityArchitectureSkillsERPSystems Big Data Web Development and CloudSocialMobileToolsAppMediaComputing Digital skills for a leader

125 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Based on Table 14, we find that the higher the age of respondents and the longer their years of service in higher education and administration, the less likely they are to exploit and consider Mobile App significant (p <0.05). It is also noted that ERP Systems were only reported by Natural and Applied Sciences Direction participants, Digital Architectures only by Natural and Applied Sciences Direction women over 60, and Security Skills by male only. Alternatively, the number of digital skills stated by research participants that can be exploited and considered important for a leader was examined. Table 15: Number of digital skills Ν Min Max MEAN SD Number of digital skills 28 1 6 3,11 1,524 On average, respondents reported about 3 of the 9 existing skills. There were participants who stated only one (1) but also participants who stated up to six (6) No respondent stated more than 6 skills In order to determine if demographic characteristics had a statistically significant effect on the number of declared digital skills, non parametric Mann Whitney statistical tests were performed. Table 16: Number of digital skills per demographic feature Number of Skills SD Test valueP SEX Male 3,05 1,532 WhitneyMann 0,756 Female 3,29 1,604 AGE 41 50 3,20 1,643 WhitneyMann 0,99351 60 3,09 1,640 >60 3,08 1,505 YEARS EDUCATIONSERVICEOFINHIGHER <20 3,14 1,345 WhitneyMann 0,917 >20 3,10 1,609 YEARS ADMINISTRATIVESERVICEOFINPOSITION <=6 3,40 1,578 WhitneyMann 0,464 7+ 2,94 1,514 SUBJECT FIELD Humanities and Social Sciences Direction 3,13 1,642 WhitneyMann 0,979Natural and Applied Sciences Direction 3,16 1,537 Based on Table 16, it appears that demographic characteristics did not affect the number of digital skills reported by respondents.

126 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Subsequently, the relationship of different leadership types with the number of declared digital skills was investigated. Table 17: Number of Digital Skills associated with Leadership Style Transformationalleadership Transactionalleadership Passive leadershiavoidtop leadershipOutcome leadershipDigital R1 R1 R1 R1 R1 Number of Digital Skills 0,296 0,398* 0,009 0,162 0,352 1 Coefficient correlation Pearson * Association is significant in statistic level p <0,05 Based on Table 17, there was a statistically significant negative correlation between the number of declared digital skills with transactional leadership (R = 0.398). That is, a high degree of transactional leadership practice coexists with a low number of declared digital skills. Finally, the variable of the number of digital skills was recoded to show the percentages of respondents who stated few or many skills Table 18: Number of digital skills useful for a leader ΣΥΧΝΟΤΗΤΑ (N) ΠΟΣΟΣΤΟ (%) Number of SkillsDigital Low (1-3) 17 60,7 Intermediate (4 6) 11 39,3 3/5 of the respondents stated that a small numberof digital skills can be exploited, and they think they are more needed for a leader. Table 19: Levels of Digital Leadership Skills LeadershipDigitalLevels SD Test P-value Number of Digital Skills Low (1-4) 3,72 0,837 WhitneyMann 0,091 Intermediate (4 6) 4,24 0,619 Respondents with an average number of declared digital skills show a higher degree of digital leadership (Mean = 4.24) than those who reported a low number (Mean = 3.72). However, this difference is not statistically significant (p = 0.091> 0.05).

Complementary to the MLQ tool used as a data collection tool in the present research work is a tool that has been used incessantly over the last 28 years to evaluate and categorize educational organization leaders regarding their effectiveness index (Bass & Avolio, 2004). The results of the present study are in line with previous studies conducted in a variety of educational settings and report, inter alia, that transformational leadership components are positively correlated with the effectiveness and satisfaction of their existing leaders.

5. Conclusion In summary, we find that the issue of digital leadership in educational settings is particularly interesting and essential because its proper practice has beneficial effects on all aspects of the functioning of an educational organization. The present research could potentially provide a further reason for the scientific community to engage other researchers in Greece with the field of integrating digital culture into higher education educational leadership issues.

Limitations The study has some limitations. The sample of the study is quite small due to the fact that the Senate of the Higher Education Institutions consists of a limited number of members. In addition, there was a considerable difficulty in direct contact with the members of the Senate in order to participate in the research, due to the heavy workload and obligations of the Institutions. In this phase, the

Therefore, and in the light of the foregoing, the consolidation of educational leadership in structures, mindsets and situations of the past without incorporating the characteristics of digital leadership does not promote higher education and the work of the human resources that lead it. Educators need to be vigilant, striving, up to date on new technologies and capabilities of digital tools, participating in quality training / retraining programs to graduallyintegrate them into educational leadership. Similarly, the central leadership mechanism requires to give motivation, a substantial reward for excellent professors, and the launch of meaningful assessment processes if the current situation is really a priority.

4. Discussion In conclusion, the results of the present study identified gender as a key factor in practicing any leadership style. Specifically, male participants have Transformational Leadership, Transactional Leadership, and Digital Leadership to a statistically significantly higher extent than female participants. Also, male participants appeared to be more satisfied with the outcome of the leadership they followed. Leadership outcome has a significant positive and statistically significant relationship with transformational leadership as well as transactional leadership. This means that a great degree of practicing these leadership types coexists with the effectiveness and satisfaction of exercising leadership. Finally, digital leadership positively correlates with leadership outcomes. This means that effectiveness and satisfaction with leadership practice coexist with the high degree of implementation of digital leadership. Leadership outcomes have a positive impact on Digital Leadership, as the greater the effectiveness and satisfaction of practicing leadership, the greater the degree of Digital Leadership.

researchers' direct communication with the members of the Senate was activated, via personal interviews, in order to complete the present research study.

Antonopoulou, H., Halkiopoulos, C., Barlou, O., & Beligiannis, G. (2019). Transition from Educational Leadership to e Leadership: A Data Analysis Report from TEI of Western Greece International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research 18(9), 238 255. https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.18.9.13

6. References

The study highlighted the specific characteristics of the leadership style of the members of the Senate of the University of Patras. Due to the limitation of the small sample, the generalization of conclusions is a matter for further investigation. In the next period, samples are expected to be evaluated by other Universities in order to collect extended sample that could yield statistically significant results, which may contribute to the generalization of the conclusions regarding the thematic field of digital leadership in Higher Education.

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Special Thanks to the Members of the Senate of the University of Patras for the contribution in the implementation of the current research project.

Recommendations

Acknowledgments

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13/5/2020 Leadership in Higher Education https://docs.google.com/forms/d/1yxzqRI51QHXSZ-uOeQ0ewnglrgL7CAPe_bXrnAOr1FI/edit 1/20 Demographics: 1. Mark only one oval. FMaleemale 2. Mark only one oval. >543<3014015016060 LeadershipinHigherEducation This questionnaire (Multi leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) from Bass and Avolio (1995)) is anonymous and is addressed to Department Presidents / Deans / Vice Deans of Academic TFoundations.heanswersare completely confidential and the resulting information will only be used for research purposes. It does not take more than 10 minutes to complete Thank you in advance for your cooperation * Required Gender:* Agegroup:*

13/5/2020 Leadership in Higher Education https://docs.google.com/forms/d/1yxzqRI51QHXSZ-uOeQ0ewnglrgL7CAPe_bXrnAOr1FI/edit 2/20 3. Mark only one oval. 0 5 6 10 11 20 >20 4. Mark only one oval. 0 3 4 6 7 9 >9 5. Mark only one oval. TOther:heoretical Direction Positive Direction Leadership Questionnaire This questionnaire is designed to help you describe your leadership style as you perceive it Please answer all items on the questionnaire by circling the appropriate response on the rating scale from 0 to 4 the format is given below Towhatextentdoyouexhibitthefollowingbehavior: The word "other" means Colleagues of the Academic Foundation YearsofServiceinHigherEducation:* YearsofServiceinManagementPosition:* YourAcademicFieldbelongs:*

13/5/2020 Leadership in Higher Education https://docs.google.com/forms/d/1yxzqRI51QHXSZ-uOeQ0ewnglrgL7CAPe_bXrnAOr1FI/edit 3/20 6. Mark only one oval. Not at all Once in a while ffsometimesairlyoftenrequentlyif not always 7. Mark only one oval. Not at all Once in a while ffsometimesairlyoftenrequentlyif not always 8. Mark only one oval. Not at all Once in a while ffsometimesairlyoftenrequentlyif not always 1.Iprovideotherswithassistanceinexchangefortheirefforts* 2.Ire examinecriticalassumptionstoquestionswhethertheyareappropriate* 3.Ifailtointerfereuntilproblemsbecomeserious*

13/5/2020 Leadership in Higher Education https://docs.google.com/forms/d/1yxzqRI51QHXSZ-uOeQ0ewnglrgL7CAPe_bXrnAOr1FI/edit 4/20 9. Mark only one oval. Not at all Once in a while ffsometimesairlyoftenrequentlyif not always 10. Mark only one oval. Not at all Once in a while ffsometimesairlyoftenrequentlyif not always 11. Mark only one oval. Not at all Once in a while ffsometimesairlyoftenrequentlyif not always 4.Ifocusattentiononirregularities,mistakes,exceptionsanddeviations* 5.Iavoidgettinginvolvedwhenimportantissuesarise* 6.Italkaboutmymostimportantvaluesandbeliefs*

13/5/2020 Leadership in Higher Education https://docs.google.com/forms/d/1yxzqRI51QHXSZ-uOeQ0ewnglrgL7CAPe_bXrnAOr1FI/edit 5/20 12. Mark only one oval. Not at all Once in a while ffsometimesairlyoftenrequentlyif not always 13. Mark only one oval. Not at all Once in a while ffsometimesairlyoftenrequentlyif not always 14. Mark only one oval. Not at all Once in a while ffsometimesairlyoftenrequentlyif not always 7.Iamabsentwhenneeded* 8.Iseekdifferingperspectiveswhensolvingproblems* 9.Italkoptimisticallyaboutthefuture*

13/5/2020 Leadership in Higher Education https://docs.google.com/forms/d/1yxzqRI51QHXSZ-uOeQ0ewnglrgL7CAPe_bXrnAOr1FI/edit 6/20 15. Mark only one oval. Not at all Once in a while ffsometimesairlyoftenrequentlyif not always 16. Mark only one oval. Not at all Once in a while ffsometimesairlyoftenrequentlyif not always 17. Mark only one oval. Not at all Once in a while ffsometimesairlyoftenrequentlyif not always 10.Iinstillprideinothersforbeingassociatedwithme* 11.Idiscussinspecifictermswhoisresponsibleforachievingperformancetargets * 12.Iwaitforthingstogowrongbeforetakenaction*

13/5/2020 Leadership in Higher Education https://docs.google.com/forms/d/1yxzqRI51QHXSZ-uOeQ0ewnglrgL7CAPe_bXrnAOr1FI/edit 7/20 18. Mark only one oval. Not at all Once in a while ffsometimesairlyoftenrequentlyif not always 19. Mark only one oval. Not at all Once in a while ffsometimesairlyoftenrequentlyif not always 20. Mark only one oval. Not at all Once in a while ffsometimesairlyoftenrequentlyif not always 13.Italkenthusiasticallyaboutwhatneedstobeaccomplished* 14.Ispecifytheimportanceofhavingastrongsenseofpurpose* 15.Ispendtimeteachingandcoaching*

13/5/2020 Leadership in Higher Education https://docs.google.com/forms/d/1yxzqRI51QHXSZ-uOeQ0ewnglrgL7CAPe_bXrnAOr1FI/edit 8/20 21. Mark only one oval. Not at all Once in a while ffsometimesairlyoftenrequentlyif not always 22. Mark only one oval. Not at all Once in a while ffsometimesairlyoftenrequentlyif not always 23. Mark only one oval. Not at all Once in a while ffsometimesairlyoftenrequentlyif not always 16.Imakeclearwhatonecanexpecttoreceivewhenperformancegoalsare achieved* 17.IshowthatIamafirmbelieverin“Ifitisn’tbroke,don’tfixit”* 18.Igobeyondself interestforthegoodofthegroup*

13/5/2020 Leadership in Higher Education https://docs.google.com/forms/d/1yxzqRI51QHXSZ-uOeQ0ewnglrgL7CAPe_bXrnAOr1FI/edit 9/20 24. Mark only one oval. Not at all Once in a while ffsometimesairlyoftenrequentlyif not always 25. Mark only one oval. Not at all Once in a while ffsometimesairlyoftenrequentlyif not always 26. Mark only one oval. Not at all Once in a while ffsometimesairlyoftenrequentlyif not always 19.Itreatothersasindividualsratherthanjustasamemberofagroup* 20.IdemonstratethatproblemsmustbecomechronicbeforeItakeaction* 21.Iactinwaysthatbuildothers’respectforme*

13/5/2020 Leadership in Higher Education https://docs.google.com/forms/d/1yxzqRI51QHXSZ-uOeQ0ewnglrgL7CAPe_bXrnAOr1FI/edit 10/20 27. Mark only one oval. Not at all Once in a while ffsometimesairlyoftenrequentlyif not always 28. Mark only one oval. Not at all Once in a while ffsometimesairlyoftenrequentlyif not always 29. Mark only one oval. Not at all Once in a while ffsometimesairlyoftenrequentlyif not always 22.Iconcentratemyfullintentionondealingwithmistakes,complaints,and failures* 23.Iconsiderthemoralandethicalconsequencesofdecisions* 24.Ikeeptracksofallmistakes*

13/5/2020 Leadership in Higher Education https://docs.google.com/forms/d/1yxzqRI51QHXSZ-uOeQ0ewnglrgL7CAPe_bXrnAOr1FI/edit 11/20 30. Mark only one oval. Not at all Once in a while ffsometimesairlyoftenrequentlyif not always 31. Mark only one oval. Not at all Once in a while ffsometimesairlyoftenrequentlyif not always 32. Mark only one oval. Not at all Once in a while ffsometimesairlyoftenrequentlyif not always 25.Idisplayasenseofpowerandconfidence* 26.Iarticulateacompellingversionofthefuture* 27.Idirectmyattentiontowardfailurestomeetstandards*

13/5/2020 Leadership in Higher Education https://docs.google.com/forms/d/1yxzqRI51QHXSZ-uOeQ0ewnglrgL7CAPe_bXrnAOr1FI/edit 12/20 33. Mark only one oval. Not at all Once in a while ffsometimesairlyoftenrequentlyif not always 34. Mark only one oval. Not at all Once in a while ffsometimesairlyoftenrequentlyif not always 35. Mark only one oval. Not at all Once in a while ffsometimesairlyoftenrequentlyif not always 28.Iavoidmakingdecisions* 29.Iconsideranindividualashavingdifferentneeds,abilities,andaspirationsfrom others* 30.Igetotherstolookatproblemsfrommanydifferentangles*

13/5/2020 Leadership in Higher Education https://docs.google.com/forms/d/1yxzqRI51QHXSZ-uOeQ0ewnglrgL7CAPe_bXrnAOr1FI/edit 13/20 36. Mark only one oval. Not at all Once in a while ffsometimesairlyoftenrequentlyif not always 37. Mark only one oval. Not at all Once in a while ffsometimesairlyoftenrequentlyif not always 38. Mark only one oval. Not at all Once in a while ffsometimesairlyoftenrequentlyif not always 31.Ihelpotherstodeveloptheirstrengths* 32.Isuggestnewwaysoflookingathowtocompleteassignments* 33.Idelayrespondingtourgentquestions*

13/5/2020 Leadership in Higher Education https://docs.google.com/forms/d/1yxzqRI51QHXSZ-uOeQ0ewnglrgL7CAPe_bXrnAOr1FI/edit 14/20 39. Mark only one oval. Not at all Once in a while ffsometimesairlyoftenrequentlyif not always 40. Mark only one oval. Not at all Once in a while ffsometimesairlyoftenrequentlyif not always 41. Mark only one oval. Not at all Once in a while ffsometimesairlyoftenrequentlyif not always 34.Iemphasizetheimportanceofhavingacollectivesenseofmission* 35.Iexpresssatisfactionwhenothersmeetexpectations* 36 Iexpressconfidencethatgoalswillbeachieved*

13/5/2020 Leadership in Higher Education https://docs.google.com/forms/d/1yxzqRI51QHXSZ-uOeQ0ewnglrgL7CAPe_bXrnAOr1FI/edit 15/20 42. Mark only one oval. Not at all Once in a while ffsometimesairlyoftenrequentlyif not always 43. Mark only one oval. Not at all Once in a while ffsometimesairlyoftenrequentlyif not always 44. Mark only one oval. Not at all Once in a while ffsometimesairlyoftenrequentlyif not always 37.Iameffectiveinmeetingothers’job-relatedneeds* 38.Iusemethodsofleadershipthataresatisfying* 39.Igetotherstodomorethantheyexpectedtodo*

13/5/2020 Leadership in Higher Education https://docs.google.com/forms/d/1yxzqRI51QHXSZ-uOeQ0ewnglrgL7CAPe_bXrnAOr1FI/edit 16/20 45. Mark only one oval. Not at all Once in a while ffsometimesairlyoftenrequentlyif not always 46. Mark only one oval. Not at all Once in a while ffsometimesairlyoftenrequentlyif not always 47. Mark only one oval. Not at all Once in a while ffsometimesairlyoftenrequentlyif not always 40.Iameffectiveinrepresentingotherstohigherauthority* 41.Iworkwithothersinasatisfactoryway* 42 Iheightenothers’desiretosucceed*

13/5/2020 Leadership in Higher Education https://docs.google.com/forms/d/1yxzqRI51QHXSZ-uOeQ0ewnglrgL7CAPe_bXrnAOr1FI/edit 17/20 48. Mark only one oval. Not at all Once in a while ffsometimesairlyoftenrequentlyif not always 49. Mark only one oval. Not at all Once in a while ffsometimesairlyoftenrequentlyif not always 50. Mark only one oval. Not at all Once in a while ffsometimesairlyoftenrequentlyif not always 43.Iameffectiveinmeetingorganizationalrequirements* 44.Iincreaseothers’willingnesstotryharder* 45.Ileadagroupthatiseffective*

13/5/2020 Leadership in Higher Education https://docs.google.com/forms/d/1yxzqRI51QHXSZ-uOeQ0ewnglrgL7CAPe_bXrnAOr1FI/edit 18/20 51. Mark only one oval. Not at all Once in a while ffsometimesairlyoftenrequentlyif not always 52. Mark only one oval. Not at all Once in a while ffsometimesairlyoftenrequentlyif not always 53. Mark only one oval. Not at all Once in a while ffsometimesairlyoftenrequentlyif not always 46.IcantakeadvantageoftheopportunitiesofferedbyICT,especiallytheInternet 4*7.Icanensuremoreefficientperformanceofdifferenttypesofdigital organization(ERP,e-Protocol,CRM)* 48.Icanidentify,researchandexploitopportunitiesfornewwaysofconducting educationalprocesses(ege learning,videoconferences,webinars)*

13/5/2020 Leadership in Higher Education https://docs.google.com/forms/d/1yxzqRI51QHXSZ-uOeQ0ewnglrgL7CAPe_bXrnAOr1FI/edit 19/20 54. Mark only one oval. Not at all Once in a while ffsometimesairlyoftenrequentlyif not always 55. Mark only one oval. Not at all Once in a while ffsometimesairlyoftenrequentlyif not always 49.Icancreateresearch-educationalpartnershipswithcorrespondingstructures abroad,takingadvantageoftheopportunitiesprovidedbytheEuropeanUnion* 50.Icanmanageinnovativeideasandinventions(egpatents)byleveragingICT developments*

13/5/2020 Leadership in Higher Education https://docs.google.com/forms/d/1yxzqRI51QHXSZ-uOeQ0ewnglrgL7CAPe_bXrnAOr1FI/edit 20/20 56. Check all that apply. Big Data Cloud Computing Mobile App Complex Business Systems Web Development and Tools Digital Architecture Security Skills ERP Systems Social Media This content is neither created nor endorsed by Google. 51.Whichofthefollowingdigitalskillscanyoutakeadvantageofandconsider themessentialforaLeader:* Forms

130 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 4, pp. 130 149, April https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.4.20209

Uliana M. Oliinyk

Formation of Lifelong Learning Competences in the Process of Professional Training of Future Lawyers

Donetsk Law Institute of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Ukraine (Kryvyi Rih) Kryvyi Rih, Ukraine Tetiana A. Denysova International University “MITSO” Gomel, Belarus

Khmelnytsky University of Management and Law named after Leonid Yuzkov Khmelnytsky, Ukraine

Abstract. The purpose of this study was to design and experimentally test the effectiveness of a model for the formation of lifelong learning competencies in future lawyers in higher educational institutions. The study presents the author’s vision of the structure of lifelong learning competencies for lawyers identifies pedagogical conditions for the formation of lifelong learning competencies for lawyers. It is proved that the efficiency of formation of lifelong learning competences of future lawyers is considerably increased, provided that the basic types of active teaching methods and the latest information and computer technologies are used in the process of professional training. It is established that the most important pedagogical conditions for effective formation of lifelong learning competences are pedagogically driven motivation of future specialists in the field of the right to formation and development of lifelong learning competences; introduction of methods that promote the formation and development of lifelong learning competences into the process of professional training; formation of professional qualities in future lawyers on the basis of conscious perception of the system of

Uliana Z. Koruts Ternopil National Economic University Ternopil, Ukraine Valerii P. Petkov Alfred Nobel University Dnipro, Ukraine Ehor S. Nazymko

1. Introduction

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. universal and professional values. The authors argue that an effective link between employers and higher educational institutions is needed to collect and analyse structural and functional changes in professional activity. Establishing and maintaining such a link will enable higher educational institutions to respond more effectively to changes in the labour market requirements and to ensure a high level of training for their graduates

1.1. Literature Review

Keywords: competence approach; lifelong learning competences; structure of competences; competence formation model; active teaching methods

The determining characteristics of the current stage of development of the world educational space is that it is considered as a single organism, where separate educational systems are combined based on the manifestation of general global tendencies, while preserving national and linguistic differences, with traditions of cultural heritage being the ground. That is why nowadays, theorists and educators increasingly refer to international experience as a source of ideas for improving national educational policies in their search for effective ways of providing quality training for specialists in different areas. The term “lifelong learning” is undoubtedly one of the most commonly used terms in discussing problems of today’s education and training. The very idea of lifelong learning as a tool for human capital development emerged in the second half of the last century (Becker, 1962). Although this educational approach was immediately criticized (Preston, 1999), the idea was actively discussed at various discussion sites, detailed and developed (Hager, 1998). The understanding of career development as “an evolution of the employee’s consistent work experience over a period of time” is gradually being established in the world (Brown et al., 2010).

Since the end of the last century, EU Member States have aimed to develop the most competitive and dynamic common economy. In line with this objective, it was decided to strengthen cooperation in the field of initial professional training by supporting the widespread adoption of continuing professional education, and the European Qualifications Framework for lifelong learning was subsequently developed a (European Commission, 2008). Since then, the term “lifelong learning” does not leave the pages of scientific journals, varying slightly depending on the author’s accentuation and focus lifelong learning (Jakobi, 2009), lifewide learning/lifewide education (Jackson, 2012), lifelong education/lifelong learning (Barros, 2012), lifelong learning/adult education (Nemeth, 2015), etc. Lifelong learning has now become a key element in the determination of the European Union’s strategies for building a developed knowledge based society.

Research on a wide rangeof lifelong learning/education issues is being conducted worldwide (Zaitseva, 2009; Ng’asike, 2019; Zhou, 2019). Continuing education is seen as a priority factor, target and special value in the context of analysing the problems and prospectsof human development(Gouthro, 2017). Current research

The aggregate scientific and theoretical achievements of Ukrainian scholars on the problems of reforming the national system of professional training of specialists in the context of changing the paradigm of “lifelong education” is extremely impressive: at the beginning of the century they developed the issues of bringing the higher education system of Ukraine in line with world standards (Zhuravsky

Bringing the national higher education system in line with world standards requires the establishment of effective quality lifelong learning systems and the use of a competent approach to determine the quality of professional training of a graduate of higher educational institutions. Professional development oriented education and a competence based approach to determining the quality of professional training of a graduate of a higher educational institution are currently the most effective means of bringing national higher education systems into line with world standards in the context of creating effective national lifelong learning systems (Merkulova, 2007; Isaienko & Ilyina, 2011). In Ukrainian scientific and pedagogical thought, as well as in the world, readiness to implement the principles of continuing education is a mandatory criterion for assessing the quality of training (Holford, Hodge, Milana, Waller & Webb, 2018) and the level of professional development (MacFarlane, 2019).

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. shows that continuing education concerns not only the deepening and expansion of general education, professional competence, but also culture, education, the system of values and worldviews (Lee, 2019). The introduction of continuing education is a civilizational challenge to some extent. However, this process is successful if it is organizationally supported by a system of state and public institutions (Knight, 2018).

Our study found that at the current stage of development of the higher education system in Ukraine, the global requirements for the level of professional training and personality of the specialist are urged, which in turn determines the peculiarities of the formation of the personality structure of the student as a future specialist. In order to bring the national higher education system in line with world standards, reforms are needed, aimed at overcoming the highly specialized direction of the learning process, developing the personality of the specialist, creating effective systems for quality education throughout life and applying a competent approach to determining the quality of professional training of HEI’s graduate. In Ukraine, current leading educational trends and ideas for the effective development of human potential are reflected in the Law of Ukraine on Higher Education (Legislation of Ukraine, 2014) and in a number of government documents (Karpenko, 2015). While elaborating the problem of ensuring the quality of professional training of specialists in higher educational institutions, Ukrainian scholars agree that it is not enough to consider quality education only as a complex of knowledge, skills and abilities at the present stage of higher education development (Ziazun, 2001).

Conceptual search ranged from “the graduate’s desire for self realization in life” (Gershunsky, 1998) to “self awareness, moral health, education, active civic position” (Potashnik, 2000). However, fuzziness of terms and the complexity of their measurement have hindered their use as indicators of the quality of future specialists’ training in higher educational institutions.

1.2. Research Objective

The high quality of professional training in the field of law is organically linked to the implementation of the principles and approaches of continuing education and a competent approach to the evaluation of the results of professional training in higher educational institutions. Given the paucity of theoretical and lack of practice oriented research on the problem identified, the objective of this study is to design and experimentally test the efficiency of a model for the formation of lifelong learning competences in future lawyers in higher educational institutions. To achieve this objectives, the following tasks were set: analyze the joint declarations adopted, the resolutions of the EU countries on the definition of key competences, and clarify the content and structure of lifelong learning competences of lawyers; distinguish pedagogical conditions of formation of lifelong learning competences, determine pedagogical technologies, methods and techniques effective for the formation of these competences for specialists in the field of law; - design a model for the formation of lifelong learning competences in future lawyers in higher educational institutions and test its effectiveness experimentally.

2. Research methodology

Continuity of learning in modern conditions appears as the principle of learning, the quality of the educational process and as a condition of personality formation (Billett, 2018). The key competences for lifelong learning, as outlined in the program (European Communities, 2007) and revised in the next recommendation (European Commission, 2018), are the basis for the reforms of the system of professional training of specialists in the European educational space. These competencies include: native language communication competence; foreign languages communication competence; digital competences; mathematical

Interesting ideas on the introduction of a competence based approach are suggested by researchers of ways of solving acute problems of professional training of modern educators (Khutorskoy, 2011), specialists in the medical field (Groenwold & Knol, 2013), specialists in the field of engineering (Isaienko, 2007), physical education (Dereka, 2018), etc. At the present stage of development of Ukrainian higher legal education there is a need to develop theoretically sound, practically significant and convincing conceptual approaches to the organization of the system of continuing education for specialists in the field of law. Although there have been interesting studies on the implementation of the principles of continuing education in the training of lawyers (Babacan & Babacan, 2018) over the past few years, theoretical and practical issues of ensuring an integrated system of continuing education and the application of a competency approach in the process of professional training of future lawyers remain insufficiently explored. At present, the conceptual vision of modern legal education in Ukraine is demonstrated by the recently drafted Legal Education Reform Concept (LigaZakon, 2019).

According to the research design, an analysis of philosophical, psychological pedagogical and legal sources was carried out at the first stage (March May 2019) to establish the existing scientific approaches to the consideration of the concept of “lifelong learning competences” (Webb, Holford, Hodge, Milana & Waller, Scientific2017)

The study was carried out by several stages, each stage aimed at fulfilling the relevant tasks; the analysis of interim results was conducted after the completion of the tasks of each of the stages; the overall results were verified using statistical methods of data processing at the final stage of the study.

The hypothesis of our study is based on the assumption that the use of pedagogical technologies, methods and techniques identified in the study in accordance with the specific pedagogical conditions in the process of professional training, will contribute to the formation and development of lifelong learning competences in future lawyers.

work on the peculiarities of the process of formation of lifelong learning competences, their subordination and the relationship with the formation and development of constituents of student personality structures have made important theoretical provisions for our study (Rybakina, 2018; Shin & Jun, 2019).

The work of Soares and Dias (2019) reaffirmed our understanding of the required changes in the content component of educational and professional programs implemented in higher educational institutions in the context of delivering the required learning outcomes. We extrapolated the provisions on the need to distinguish and study technological (Gough, 2017), motivational/value (Ilgaz & Eskici, 2018) and communicative (Akmanova, Kurzaeva & Kopylova, 2019) components in the professional training of specialists of different specialities to the process of professional training of lawyers, given the lack of such studies on law students. At the next stage (June September 2019), the authors formed a vision of the structure of lifelong learning competencies for lawyers (based on the review of publications on changes in the labour market, the structure of “skills” of a

competence and basic competences in science and technology; learning competence; social and civic competences; competencies of initiative and entrepreneurship; competences in cultural awareness and ways of expression (European Communities, 2007). Based on the analysis of the EU documents in the field of education and science, scientific publications representing the views of world experts, scholars and practicing educators, the theoretical and methodological foundations of the research and the author’s vision of the structure of lifelong learning competences of lawyers are formulated In our study, we consider these key competencies as basic components for determining the structure of lifelong learning competences. The understanding that changes in professional structure, market needs, demands and/or wishes of employers have a huge impact on the structure and essence of lifelong learning competencies is equally important to us (Regmi, 2015; Kim & Lee, 2020). Statement that the period of higher professional education is a period of formation of basic lifelong learning competences does not raise objections (Sachsenmeier, 1978).

2.1. Research design

resultsrequestsrequirementsGeneralizedandofemployers(formulatedbytheauthorsbasedontheoftheinterview)

Table 1: Comparing employers’ general requirements, key lifelong learning competences and the author’s vision of the lifelong learning competencies structure for lawyers

Generalized wishes and requirements of employers and supervisors of field and pregraduation practices can be represented in several directions: 1) deep theoretical knowledge and practical skills of their application; 2) conscious perception of the system of universal and professional values; 3) professional and personal qualities (responsibility, initiative, ability to work in a team, aspiration for self development, etc.). A comparison of the generalized wishes and requirements of employers and supervisors of field and pregraduation practices, key lifelong learning competences and the author’s vision of the lifelong learning competency structure for law professionals is presented in Table 1.

knowledgetheoreticalandpracticalskillsfortheirapplication

Annex to the Proposal for a RecommendationCouncil on Key Competences for Lifelong Learning Commission,(European2018)

Structure of lifelong learning competences for lawyers (author’s vision) deep literacy competence communicative competences (ability to communicate effectively in national, native and foreign languages) languages competence digital competence information competences (computer skills; ability to master the latest technologies)information mathematical competence and competence in science, technology and engineering cognitive competences (logical, abstract and critical thinking; ability to analyse, synthesize, compare) initiative; ability to work in a responsibilityteam; entrepreneurshipcompetence organizational and activity competences (ability to rationally distribute tasks, plan time and activity; ability to find and choose effective ways of fulfilling tasks) conscious perception of the system of human and professional values civic competence competencies of self development and self realization cultural awareness and expression competence aspiration for developmentself personal, social and learning competence

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. competitive specialist, the analysis of the requests and requirements of employers and supervisors of field and pregraduation practices as regards skills, qualities and level of professional training of future graduates of the universities of law) (Rappel, 2017; Boyadjieva, 2017). A total of 127 teachers, supervisors of field and pregraduation practices and employers were interviewed to fulfil the tasks of the study.

The next stage in the study was a pedagogical experiment conducted according to the traditional steps for this type of research: summative assessment (September 2019), realization of the formative assessment (September 2019 February 2020), final assessment (February 2020). At the final stage of the study, an analysis, comparison of the obtained results and verification of their validity were carried out with the use of the Student’s test.

At the same stage of the study, pedagogical conditions for the formation of lifelong learning competencies were identified pedagogically driven motivation of future lawyers to form and develop lifelong learning competencies; introduction of methods that promote the formation and development of lifelong learning competences into the process of professional training; formation of professional qualities on the basis of conscious perception of the system of universal and professional values in future lawyers. The study identifies pedagogical technologies, methods and techniques that are effective in the formation of these competencies, namely the main varieties of active learning methods methods of modelling the features of professional activity during study (business games and business simulations, project method, case study method with the preparation of individual or “team” reporting presentations), a method of step by step designing the process of fulfilling “production” tasks, a method of “algorithmizing” the decision making process and using the latest information and computer technologies in education. The authors of the study designed a model forthe formationof lifelong learning competencies forlawyers, determined the criteria (motivational and axiological, content, organizational and technological, communicative) and levels (basic, secondary, sufficient, high) of the level of development of the said competences. An experimental model of the formation of lifelong learning competences in the process of professional training of future lawyers is schematically presented in Figure 1.

At the different stages of the study, a total of 276 students of the 2nd year of the first (bachelor) level of education, Speciality 081 “Law” of the Chernihiv National University of Technology, Kherson Institute of the Economics and Law and the Academy of Labour, Social Relations and Tourism (Kyiv) were involved. A valid sample online calculator was used to generate the sample. For the Preconditions

•communicative competences

•pedagogically driven motivation of future lawyers to form and develop lifelong learning competencies;

Objective

•formation of professional qualifications on the basis of a conscious perception of the system of human and professional values of future technologiesPedagogical and methods

• method of step by step design of the process of fulfilment of "production" tasks;

•structural and functional changes in professional activity in the labour market

•formation of lifelong learning competences in future lawyers

•methods of modelling the peculiarities of professional activity during training (business games and business simulations, project method, case study method with preparation of individual and / or "team" reporting presentations);

•use of the latest information and computer technologies in education Results

•introduction of methods that promote the formation and development of lifelong learning competences into the process of professional training;

Structure of competencies

Pedagogicalconditions

• method of "algorithmization" of decision making process;

•information competencies

•requirements and requests of employers regarding the level and quality of professional training of future specialists

•cognitive competence •organizational and activity competences

•competencies of self development and self realization

Figure 1: An experimental model for the formation of lifelong learning competences in the future professional training of lawyers

2.2. Formation of research sample

•the level of development of lifelong learning competences (determined by criteria and levels of development)

Communicativecompetences competenciesInformation competenciesCognitive Organizationalandactivitycompetences Competencies of development/selfselfrealization medium sufficient high basic medium sufficient high basic medium sufficient high basic medium sufficient high basic medium sufficient high 32 36 27 5 5 36 50 9 27 32 32 9 28 45 18 9 45 27 19 9 CG 32 45 18 5 5 32 54 9 32 36 27 5 28 36 27 9 54 32 9 5

Lifelong learning competencies and levels of their development (%)

The results of the summative assessment carried out in the experimental and control groups are presented in Table 2.

Table 2: Comparison of initial levels of lifelong learning competences (summative assessment)

basic

Comparison of the results of summative assessment in the experimental and control groups shows their similarity prior to the pedagogical experiment. The largest number of students in both groups showed the average level of communicative competencies, the second largest group of students with the basic level of this indicator, the third and fourth groups students with sufficient and high level of communicative competencies, respectively. The two tailed p value for communicative competences equals 0.6453. By conventional criteria, this difference between the experimental and control groups is considered to be not statistically significant. We find a similar picture regarding the levels of organizational and activity competences. The two tailed p value for organizational and activity competences equals 0 5483. By conventional criteria, this difference between the experimental and control groups is considered to be not statistically significant. More than half of the students in both groups showed a sufficient level of the development of information competencies, and more than a third showed a medium level of the development of the said competences. The share of students in the experimental and control groups with a high level of the development of information competency was 9%, with a basic of 5% in each group. The two tailed p value for information competences equals 0.5689. By conventional criteria, this difference between the experimental and controlgroups is considered to be not statistically significant. The largest number of students in

abovementioned population of respondents (276), the size of a valid sample is 44 persons, which was taken into account in the formation of experimental (EG) and control (СG) groups. The experimental (EG) and control (CG) groups included 22 persons each. The comparative analysis was carried out within the existing academic groups, the students of the experimental and control groups studied according to typical programs. In the control group, lectures, seminars and practical classes were conducted according to typical methods, and in the experimental group with the use of active teaching methods according to the peculiarities of training courses.

The pattern of self development and self realization competencies in both groups is quite similar: approximately half of the students showed a basic level (45% in the EC and 54% in the CG), about a third of the students had a medium level (27% in the EC and 32% in the CG), sufficient level was found in 19% of the students in the experimental group and 9% in the control group; the high level was found in less than 10% of students in both groups. The two tailed p value for competencies of self development/self realization equals 0.4457. By conventional criteria, this difference between the experimental and control groups is considered to be not statistically significant.

Quantitative methods, such as evaluating and analysing test results of the students from both groups, questionnaires for students and teachers were used to achieve the research objective. STATA Software (n./d.) was used to analyse the quantitative data.

The data on the levels of the development of communicative competences were obtained through testing: Assessment of Communication Organizational Skills (Fetiskin, Kozlov & Manuilov, 2012). The levels of the development of information competencies were determined by means of a survey: Studying the State of the Development of ICCs in Students (Feshchuk, 2009). Data on the level of the development of cognitive competencies in future lawyers were obtained through tests developed by the authors to determine the level of knowledge of students in special subjects. The questionnaire: Study of Different Types of Organizational Culture of R. Harrison (Lutens, 1999) was used to measure the level of the development of organizational and activity competencies. Data on the levels of students’ self development and self realization competencies were determined with the use of the questionnaires of Zeer (2010).

2.3. Tools for collecting and processing statistics

Approximately one third of students demonstrated a basic level of cognitive competences (27% in EG and 32% in CG). The share of students with high levels of cognitive competence was less than 10%. The two tailed p value for cognitive competences equals 0.7903. By conventional criteria, this difference between the experimental and control groups is considered to be not statistically significant.

both groups showed a medium level of cognitive competencies (32% in the experimental group and 36% in the control group). A sufficient level of the development of cognitive competencies prior to the pedagogical experiment was established in 32% of the experimental group and 27% of the control group.

Comparison of indicators of the summative and formative stages of the pedagogical experiment shows that positive changes occurred in all lifelong learning competences in the students of both the experimental and control groups.

140 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. 3. Results Following the pedagogical experiment, the final assessments were performed according to the diagnostics described above. Their results are presented in Table 3. Table 3: Levels of the development of lifelong learning competences (after conducting the pedagogical experiment) Lifelong learning competencies and levels of their development (%) Communicativecompetences competenciesInformation competenciesCognitive Organizationalandactivitycompetences selfdevelopment/Competenciesofselfrealization basic medium sufficient high basic medium sufficient high basic medium sufficient high basic medium sufficient high basic medium sufficient high EG 9 32 32 27 23 45 32 9 14 59 18 9 32 45 14 27 36 23 14 CG 5 45 27 23 5 18 59 18 18 45 36 9 18 45 32 5 41 36 14 9

The most noticeable changes are in the indicators of the levels of the development of cognitive competences in the experimental group. A share of students with a basic level decreased to 9% (while in the control group to 18%); with a medium level decreased to 14% (while in the control group the indicator increased by 9% to 45%); with a sufficient level increased to 59% (in the control group only to 36%); the proportion of students with high level of the development of cognitive competence in the experimental group increased twice (18%) and in the control group increased by 4%. The two tailed p value for cognitive competences equals 0.0245. By conventional criteria, this difference between the experimental and control groups is considered to be statistically significant.

The dynamics of positive changes in the levels of the development of communicative competences in the experimental and control groups are somewhat similar, although the indicators of the experimental group are better: after the pedagogical experiment, 9% of the students in the experimental group and 5% of the students in the control group showed the basic level; the proportion of students with a medium level of competence in the experimental group decreased by 4% (did not change in CG). The number of students with a sufficient level of communicative competences in both groups increased by less than 10%, but students with a high level of communicative competence in both groups increased by almost 20%. The two tailed p value for communicative competences equals 0.0234. By conventional criteria, this difference between the experimental and control groups is considered to be statistically significant.

The analysis of changes in indicators of the levels of development of information competencies revealed a rather interesting picture. In the control group, the main “shifts” affected only the indicator of the average level of development of these competences (it decreased by 14%). The indicator of the sufficient level increased

4. Discussion After the final assessments, which generally confirmed the hypothesis of our study, we would like to make some comparison of the expected and obtained results of the conducted pedagogical experiment. Figure 2 shows a graphical comparison of the results of the formative and post experimental stages of the study.

Statisticalanalysisoftheresultsofthe

pedagogical experimentusing the Student’s test gave the value texperim = 3.081 at the value of tcrit = 2.0211. Thus, the active teaching methods used in the experimental group during the pedagogical experiment have shown greater effectiveness in the formation of lifelong learning competencies in lawyers.

The dynamics of changes in the levels of self development and self realization competencies in the experimental and control groups are similar: the basic level indicators lost 18% in the experimental and 14% in the control groups; medium, sufficient and high levels increased in the experimental group by 9%, 4% and 5%, respectively, and in the control group by 4%, 5% and 4%, respectively. The two tailed p value for competenciesofself development/self realization equals 0.0149. By conventional criteria, this difference between the experimental and controlgroups is considered to be statistically significant.

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. by 5%, of the high level increased by 9%, and of basic level remained unchanged. At the same time, we observe the following dynamics in the experimental group: the basic level decreased by 5%, the medium level decreased by 13%, the sufficient level decreased by 5%, and the high level indicator increased by 23%. The two tailed p value for information competences equals 0.0392. By conventional criteria, this difference between the experimental and control groups is considered to be statistically significant. Regarding the high level of the development of organizational and activity competencies after the pedagogical experiment, the indicators of the basic and medium levels decreased (by 18% and 13%, respectively), and the indicators of sufficient and high levels increased (by 23% and 5%, respectively) in the experimental group. In the control group, the picture is slightly different: the basic level indicator lost 9%, the medium and sufficient levels increased (by 9% and 4%, respectively), and the high level decreased by 4%. The two tailed p value for organizational and activity competences equals 0.0354. By conventional criteria, this difference between the experimental and control groups is considered to be statistically significant.

Afteranalysing the dataobtained and discussing it with the lecturers participating in the experiment, we can express our belief that the development of students’

Figure 2: Dynamics of changes in levels of the development of cognitive competences in EG and CG students

As expected, the most noticeable shifts are recorded in the levels of the development of cognitive competence of future lawyers (Saccomanno, 2017) However, it should be noted that for a small period of pedagogical experiment, it is extremely difficult to develop the ability to analyse, synthesize, compare, or think logically, abstractly and critically in all students without exception. We can rather talk about effective improving of previously learned skills, or laying the foundations for further revealing cognitive competencies in future lawyers (Babacan & Babacan, 2018). This statement is also supported by the fact that there were 9% of students with the lowest (basic) level of the development of cognitive competence after pedagogical experiment in the experimental group, and with high level of the development of cognitive competence only 18% (9% before the pedagogical experiment).

EG (after the experiment) CG (before the experiment) CG (after the experiment) 10

Figure 3: Dynamics of changes in levels of the development of communicative competences in EG and CG students

100 20 7060504030

50403020

The positive changes in the levels of the development of communication competence in students of the experimental group were less impressive than we expected basing our expectations on modern studies (Homolová & Vašašová, 2019). Their dynamics in shown in Figure 3.

basic medium sufficient high EG (before the experiment) EG (after the experiment) CG (before the experiment) CG (after the experiment)

basic medium sufficient high EG (before the experiment)

143 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. ability to communicate in the state and foreign languages requires more academic hours than stipulated in the curricula of the speciality. In addition, the indirect negative impact on the development of communicative competences (in particular, the ability to communicate effectively in the state language) also shows a lack of compliance with the legislation on the state language in higher educational institutions and other institutions (places of field and pregraduation Thepractices).dynamics of changes in the level of the development of information competences generally coincided with our expectations (see Figure 4).

basic medium sufficient high EG (before the experiment) EG (after the experiment) CG (before the experiment) CG (after the experiment) basic medium sufficient high EG (before the experiment) EG (after the experiment) CG (before the experiment) CG (after the experiment)

Figure 5: Dynamics of changes in levels of the development of organizational and activity competences in EG and CG students 30 605040

50403020100

Figure 4: Dynamics of changes in levels of the development of informational competences in EG and CG students However, the continuous improvement of information technologies, the emergence of new products and opportunities will require future lawyers to constantly improve their information competencies in order to maintain their developed level. This statement is no less significant in terms of the formation and development of organizational and activity competencies in future lawyers, despite the expected significant changes in the levels of their development in students of the experimental group. The dynamics of changes in the levels of organizational and activity competencies are clearly illustrated in Figure 5

20100

An experimental model of the formation of lifelong learning competences in students confirmed the importance of the pedagogical conditions identified in the study. However, the pedagogically driven motivation of future lawyers to form and develop their lifelong learning competencies has proven to be both extremely important and extremely effective “lever” of activization of the students’ position as regards the development of their lifelong learning competencies.

Figure 6: Dynamics of changes in levels of the development of self-development/selfrealization competences in EG and CG students

basic medium sufficient high EG (before the experiment) EG (after the experiment) CG (before the experiment) CG (after the experiment)

The greatest difficulty at the stage of preparation of pedagogical study was that there is a lack of convenient and proven effective methods of revealing changes in the requirements/requests of employers not only in the legal sphere, but also in other economic sectors. Moreover, feedback between higher educational institutions and institutions employing graduates is either currently ineffective or in need of adjustment or renewal. We believe that establishing links between employers and HEIs, developing similar methods of collecting such information

In our opinion, the competencies of self development and self realization are the most important in the structure of lifelong learning competences. It is this component of lifelong learning competencies that needs particular attention of researchers and high school educators (Smith, 2018) The dynamics of changes in the levels of self development/self realization competences are clearly demonstrated in Figure 6.

6050403020100

The changes in the indicators of the levels of self development and self realization competences recorded in the students of the experimental group at the final stage of our study are not very striking at first glance: more than half of the students showed the basic or medium level of the development of these competences (although the indicators of the experimental group significantly outperform those of the control group). We believe that the real “manifestation” of this structural component of lifelong learning competences is somewhat delayed, since it is at this stage of professional training of future lawyers (the first semester of the second year of the educational and professional program) that the competences of self development and self realization are formed in students. In addition, the limiting factors of this studystated above should also be considered in the analysis of the results achieved.

The pedagogical conditions for the development of lifelong learning competences are distinguished; pedagogical technologies, methods and techniques effective for the development of these competences are determined; the model of the development of lifelong learning competences in a field of law is designed. Based on the analysis of the data obtained before and after the pedagogical experiment, the hypothesis was confirmed that the effectiveness of the formation of lifelong learning competences of future lawyers significantly increases provided the application of the main varieties of active teaching methods in the professional training process, namely methods of modelling the peculiarities of professional activity during training (business games and business simulations, project method, case study method with preparation of individual or “team” reporting presentations), the method of step by step fulfilment of “production” tasks, the

As one can see, the application of the experimental model of the development of lifelong learning competences of future lawyers has the greatest positive influence on the formation and development of cognitive, informational, organizational activity competences and competences of self development and self realization in students. In order to achieve higher levels of the development of communicative competence, further research is needed to identify ways to more effectively influence the process of forming and developing this structural component of lifelong learning competences. Diagnostics of measuring the levels of the development of individual structural components of lifelong learning competences also requires further research and development. An effective link between employers and higher educational institutions is also needed to collect (or exchange) and promptly analyse structural and functional changes in professional activity and changes in the labour market requirements for the professional characteristics (competencies) of the required specialists. Establishing and maintaining such a connection will enable higher educational institutions to respond more effectively to such changes and to ensure a high level of professional training for their graduates.

It should be acknowledged that the main limiting factor in this study is the short time period of the pedagogical experiment (one academic semester). In addition, we have identified a lack of developed diagnostic techniques for the study of lifelong learning competencies, as well as prompt and effective ways to obtain information from employers about changing labour market needs.

7. Conclusions

6. Limitations

5. Suggestions / Recommendations

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. and processing it, broad introducing the analysis of such information into the practice of higher educational institutions would allow HEIs to “tune” their educational and professional programs, improve the quality of future professional training and, ultimately, ensure the high competitiveness of their graduates. Finding effective approaches, methodologies, conducting systemic surveys and analysing them now requires the support and coordinated efforts of government agencies, HEIs and potential employers.

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AppendixQuestionnaire1 for Teachers, Supervisors of Internship and Externship and Employers of Lawyers Please answer some questions 1. Please specify the current needs of the legal market for the training of specialists in the field of law. 2. What should be the ideal law school graduate? Offer a list of personal and professional qualities. 3. Evaluate on the proposed scale, what, in your opinion, are the chances of law graduates to get the necessary work immediately after graduation (3 points the highest chances, 0 points the lowest):321 0 4. We kindly ask you to evaluate the importance of the proposed components of the culture of professional communication of specialists in the field of law in future practical professional activities on a three point scale, taking into account the degree of necessity of their use in solving professional problems: 3 “extremely necessary in the legal activity” 2 “desirable in the legal activity”, 1 “will not spoil legal activity”, 0 “a lawyer does not need it”. Knowledge Rating psychological characteristics of an individual and the team 0 1 2 3 factors of efficiency and optimization of professional communication 0 1 2 3 other possible ways (ways) of resolving conflict situations in professional activity of a lawyer; 0 1 2 3 other the concept of etiquette, its role in professional communication, features of the etiquette of a lawyer, its basic rules and functions 0 1 2 3 other Skills and Abilities Rating Information skills find information 0 1 2 3 other identify the main point in the message 0 1 2 3 other find arguments 0 1 2 3 other formulate questions and answers 0 1 2 3 other draw conclusions 0 1 2 3 other express clearly and competently 0 1 2 3 other control voice 0 1 2 3 other use non verbal means of communication 0 1 2 3 other Perceptual skills assess one’s own condition at the time of communication 0 1 2 3 other catch the interlocutor’s mood 0 1 2 3 other anticipate the partner’s appropriate response 0 1 2 3 other determine how conditions (time, place) promote or hinder communication 0 1 2 3 other restrain emotions 0 1 2 3 other

5. We kindly ask you to evaluate the level of professional legal knowledge, skills of young specialists with experience in the legal field of up to 3 years on a three-point scale. 3 “perfectly” 2 “sufficient level”, 1 “weak level”, 0 “do not know”. Interactive skills establish contact with the interlocutor 0 1 2 3 other maintain contact during communication 0 1 2 3 other convince the interlocutor 0 1 2 3 other formulate orders 0 1 2 3 other subject the position of the interlocutor to argumentative criticism 0 1 2 3 other organize a group solution to the problem 0 1 2 3 other General legal skills knowledge of the rules of law 0 1 2 3 other operate with legal terminology 0 1 2 3 other know the basics of public speaking 0 1 2 3 other draw up procedural documents 0 1 2 3 other Specialized legal skills knowledge of forms of documents (depending on the type of legal activity) 0 1 2 3 other enclosing the necessary content in the wording 0 1 2 3 other make accents depending on the position 0 1 2 3 other knowledge of medical, accounting, technical, economic terminology 0 1 2 3 other ability to speak abstractly 0 1 2 3 other ability to express oneself clearly, in essence 0 1 2 3 other knowledge of procedures (court hearings, forms of concluding agreements, conducting investigative work, examinations) 0 1 2 3 other Knowledge Rating psychological characteristics of an individual and the team 0 1 2 3 other factors of efficiency and optimization of professional communication 0 1 2 3 other possible ways (ways) of resolving conflict situations in professional activity of a lawyer; 0 1 2 3 other the concept of etiquette, its role in professional communication, features of the etiquette of a lawyer, its basic rules and functions 0 1 2 3 other Skills and abilities Rating Information skills find information 0 1 2 3 other identify the main point in the message 0 1 2 3 other find arguments 0 1 2 3 other formulate questions and answers 0 1 2 3 other draw conclusions 0 1 2 3 other express clearly and competently 0 1 2 3 other control voice 0 1 2 3 other use non verbal means of communication 0 1 2 3 other

Thank you for participating! Perceptual skills assess one’s own condition at the time of communication 0 1 2 3 other catch the interlocutor’s mood 0 1 2 3 other anticipate the partner’s appropriate response 0 1 2 3 other determine how conditions (time, place) promote or hinder communication 0 1 2 3 other restrain emotions 0 1 2 3 other Interactive skills establish contact with the interlocutor 0 1 2 3 other maintain contact during communication 0 1 2 3 other convince the interlocutor 0 1 2 3 other formulate orders 0 1 2 3 other subject the position of the interlocutor to argumentative criticism 0 1 2 3 other organize a group solution to the problem 0 1 2 3 other General legal skills knowledge of the rules of law 0 1 2 3 other operate with legal terminology 0 1 2 3 other know the basics of public speaking 0 1 2 3 other draw up procedural documents 0 1 2 3 other Specialized legal skills knowledge of forms of documents (depending on the type of legal activity) 0 1 2 3 other enclosing the necessary content in the wording 0 1 2 3 other make accents depending on the position 0 1 2 3 other knowledge of medical, accounting, technical, economic terminology 0 1 2 3 other ability to speak abstractly 0 1 2 3 other ability to express oneself clearly, in essence 0 1 2 3 other knowledge of procedures (court hearings, forms of concluding agreements, conducting investigative work, examinations) 0 1 2 3 other Skills Rating Psychological rapid diagnosis of personality traits of citizens; 0 1 2 3 other Effective communication; 0 1 2 3 other Resolving conflict situations that arise in professional activities; 0 1 2 3 other Evaluation of one’s actions and the actions of others in terms of ethics and morality 0 1 2 3 other Behaviour in the team and communication with citizens in accordance with the rules of etiquette; 0 1 2 3 other Psychological (legitimate) influence on an individual. 0 1 2 3 other

Dishari Chattaraj Indiana University Bloomington,

Keywords: comprehension skills; foreign language teaching; higher education; listening skills; listening strategies 1. Introduction Mastering a language has always been about mastering the four key skills i.e. Listening, Speaking, Reading and Writing (Burns & Siegel, 2017). Though Listening forms the basis of acquisition of further skills in the domain of language acquisition and/or learning, not much focus has been paid to the teaching of this skill in the domain of either Second or Foreign language learning and teaching. While there have been language teaching approaches like Silent Way which provided learners a stipulated period of time just to observe and absorb linguistic inputs without the stress of producing any output (Gattegno, 2010), and the Total USA Christ (Deemed to be University), Bangalore, India

Strategies for Facilitating Listening Skills among Foreign Language Learners in US Universities

Abstract. Developing from the thesis that understanding is the key to any and all meaningful conversation/s, this study focuses on the facilitation of listening skills among foreign language learners. It is conducted with the objective to find out the most effective ways in which an instructor can enable the development of listening skills among the learners of a foreign language. This paper reports the findings of an empirical study which followed a cross sectional research design and employed a survey method to elicit the data. Twenty seven Foreign Language Instructors/ Associate Instructors teaching around thirteen different foreign languages across sixteen different universities in the United States of America participated and reported to a survey on effective pre listening, listening, and post listening tasks, activities, and strategies which they found to be the most powerful in their respective classrooms. Thirteen of the Seventeen strategies and or/ tasks which were provided in the Strategies for Facilitating Listening (SFL) questionnaire were rated to be highly effective in the facilitation of the development of listening skills among the learners. The paper after discussing the efficacies of the strategies and tasks at hand ends by analyzing the pedagogical implications of the findings.

150 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 4, pp. 150 169, April https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.4.202010

iii) What are the most popular strategies/activities/tasks for the development of listening skills?

i) Are Foreign Language Instructors across institutes of higher education in the United States of America using pre listening, listening, and post listening tasks/activities/strategies to facilitate the development of listening skills among the learners?

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Physical Response (TPR) that focused on explaining and communicating in a strictly non verbal way using just gestures and physical movements (Astutik & Megawati, 2019), they lack popularity and significance in the field of language teaching. There exists an alternative method of language teaching known as Comprehension Approach grounded in the theories of language acquisition and learning propounded by Krashen (2004) and Asher (2000) both of whom wanted to teach the second language in the model of the first language. However, this approach definitely did not enjoy the popularitywhich Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) enjoys in the field in the contemporary language teaching and learning contexts; while CLT is widely implemented in classes and represented in literature (Richards, 2005), the same can’t be said about the Comprehension WithApproach.thefocus on communication and production, listening and comprehension have definitely not taken a lead in language classes. One of the main reason why listening is not a favorite skill to teach is because it is non tangible and not directly assessable/measurable; the other quasi psychological justification to not teach listening in the foreign language classroom is the idea learners acquire the skill in their first language without much fuss, and given this logic, the foreign language learners are bound to pick up the skill sooner or later (Field, 2008). The interpretive skill of listening, though important in its own right, has also been considered by researchers and language instructors as a passive skill (Johnson, 2008; Vandergrigt, 2011). It has always been treated as a subsidiary to spoken skills and the main motivation behind teaching listening skill was not to improve understanding and comprehension but to improve pronunciation in the target language (Vandergrift, 2011). However, the interpretive skill of listening not only provides the structure or base for the growth and development of performance oriented interpersonal and presentational skills but it also enhances the linguistic competence in the learners. Thus, it is important not only to focus on the linguistic product or output but on the process in which acquisition of listening skill takes place (Vandergrift & Goh, 2009).

This study, thus, is a shift from the recent studies in product oriented language teaching approach which focus only on communicative tasks and performances. The main objective of the study is to document and analyze the effective strategies and tasks that facilitate the growth and development of listening skills among the learners of multiple foreign languages. The study specifically reports the findings of an empirical study in which 27 Foreign Language Instructors/ Associate Instructors across 16 different universities in the United States of America participated. The study seeks to answer the following research questions:

ii) Is there a balance in the use of these?

Understanding and Comprehending Listening Rost (1991) points out that understanding and comprehension is a multi layered task and he makes reference to the Relevance Theory postulated by Sperber and Wilson, (1982, 1986) which conceives communication to be a collaborative process that involves the process of ostension i.e. the production of signals by a speaker and inference i.e. the contextualization of signals by a hearer. Rost further elaborates that both the acts of locution and illocution are important in order to infer and construct meaning in order to meaningfully conduct the act of perlocution by the interlocutor. He then discusses how it is significant to train the learners in ways in which they not only understand the denotative meaning of a word or a phrase but have a clear idea of the connotative meaning as well.

iv) Is there a possibility of implementing the Comprehension Approach to teaching by adding the dimension of interpretive listening to it?

2. Literature Review

There a significant body of research has been conducted to understand the cognitive and psycholinguistic aspects of listening (Clark & Clark, 1977; Demyankon, 1983). However, research in the field of teaching or facilitating listening skills among the learners in a language classroom is only a handful. This section on literature review is thus divided into three parts. The first part provides a comprehensive and brief overview of the few significant and popular psycholinguistic models of listening. The second part provides an overview of studies conducted specifically in the domain of teaching or facilitating listening skills among the learners in a language classroom, more specifically in foreign language classrooms. The third and last part of this section briefly discusses the Foreign Language teaching scenario in institutes of higher education across the United States of America.

Though listening comprehension according to Vandergrift (1999) plays a key role in facilitating language learning, Nunan (2002) points out that for long, listening skill has been ignored by language teachers. In fact, listening skills have so far been overlooked as compared to reading, writing and speaking skills in the domain of language teaching and learning (Mendelson, 2000; Vandergrift & Goh, 2012). Listening skill became a focus area of study only in the 1960s when the focus of language teaching shifted to the development of oral skills (Nunan, 2002). It further gained importance in the ’80s after Krashen developed his theory of Input Hypothesis and was reinforced by Ashers’ (1988) Total Physical Approach method of language teaching. Gary (1975) observes that if attention is given to listening comprehension at the early stages of language learning/teaching, it provides advantages of four kinds i.e. cognitive, efficiency, utility and affective. This in turn holistically provides a comprehensive understanding of the target language for the learner thereby making the experience of foreign language learning meaningful and fulfilling.

The testing hypothesis for the study is: The Foreign Language instructors will have a balanced approach in employing pre listening, listening, and, post listening strategies while teaching listening skills to Foreign Language learners.

3. As the act of identification of constituents is carried on, the language processor uses it to construct underlying propositions, thereby incessantly constructing a hierarchical representation of propositions.

The model, though structured, has been criticized for not considering the fact that a listener always involves in a conversation with a purpose and often the purpose is not ideal i.e. the interlocutor doesn’t listen with the intention to comprehend what the speaker is saying. Another model, given by Clark and Clark (1977), is rooted in cognitive linguistics, based on empirical evidence, this model is credited with the ability to provide a comprehensive psychological description for verbal understanding. The stages of this model are provided below:

Listening is often perceived to be a simple task; however, literature shows that in order to be an efficient listener one needs to have a deep knowledge of not only the language but also the culture otherwise the process of meaning making becomes highly restrictive and shallow. Demyankov (1983) proposed a model of understanding which comprised six stages. Acquisition of the linguistic framework of the target language, construction and verification of hypothetical interpretations ofwhat isheard, decipheringthespeaker’s intentions,assimilation of the spoken message, coordination of the speakers’ and the listener’s motivation to participate in the conversation, and, discernment of the tone of the message.

2. An attempt is made on the part of the language processor to organize the phonological representation into constituents, identifying their content and function.

1. The hearer receives the raw speech and retains its phonological representation in their working memory.

4. After having identified the proposition for a constituent, they retain them in working memory and at one point purge memory of the phonological representation. As a result of this, the language processor forgets the exact word and retains just the meaning. This model is criticized because it conceives the hearer/ interlocutor to be a language processor thereby dissociating her/him from the context of the speech i.e. the interactive context and denying the transactional nature of human communication and rendering it a mechanized connotation better suited for the purpose of machine learning and communication. The idea that emerges out of all the cognitive and psycholinguistic models of listening is that it is a complex process that requires a multilayered understanding of language and culture. One becomes an efficient interlocutor only by being a part of the linguistic community and culture; a formal classroom set up thus becomes highly limiting in this context. However limiting it is, a significantly large number of learners across the United States of America and the world learn foreign languages within the formal classroom set ups and it is in such a scenario that the findings of the current study become extremely important as it provides insights into the effective ways of facilitating the faculty of listening among foreign language learners in a typically restricted formal set up.

Listening in the Language Classroom Brown (2006) while discussing the hacks of teaching effective listening skills points out that building on learners’ prior knowledge is a key factor which leads to success among the learners as “Prior knowledge is organized in schemata (the plural form of schema): abstract, generalized mental representations of our experience that are available to help us understand new experiences.” (pp 37).

Graham (2017) reports a study where 78% of the foreign language instructors in England agreed upon reminding learners previously learned vocabulary items which relates to the new topic. Other important strategies that promote effective listening skills among learners according to Brown (2006) are first, systematic presentation of main ideas i.e. the learners should have a clear idea of what they are learning if the learning objective is clearly stated and the keywords highlighted, the learners will learn better and faster. Secondly, the learners must be encouraged to look for details and thirdly they must be encouraged to make inferences by listening between the lines. Brown (2006) also suggests that integrating authentic materials in teaching like videos and interviews enhances the motivation and interest of the learners and makes them listen closely to the audio visual material. He concludes his paper with the assertion that an effective listening exercise will incorporate both open and close ended tasks and should be followed by exercises and tasks in the domain of speaking thereby providing a context for recycling and reusing the lexical/syntactic structures learned during the listening session. What Brown (2006) is pointing over here is that the interpretive task should be followed by activities in the domain of interpersonal and/or presentational modes thereby providing the students a range of arenas to practice what they have learned; a similar thread of thoughts also originates in Nation (2009) that focuses on the reciprocal skills of listening and speaking skills in foreign and second language learning contexts which are understood to be interconnected skills that compliment each other in the present context of language learning (Newton, 2016). Field (2008) provides a format for a listening lesson for teaching English as a Second Language. However, the model he provides can be replicated to teach any language and hence deserves a mention in this section. The model proposed by Field (2008) is definitely comprehensive and combined with task based activities and incorporation of authentic materials would lead to an effective lesson in the foreign language classroom using the Comprehension Approach to language teaching. However, Field (2008) points out that efforts must be made so that the lesson doesn’t turn highly teacher centric or an isolating endeavor and the learner should be provided limited input and provided time to process the information.

The lesson should be process oriented and not product oriented which means emphasis should be given to pre listening and listening tasks as much as post listening tasks. Sendag et al. (2018) while mentioning the importance of repetition in teaching listening skills also mention the effort must be made to limit the content and provide the learners with extracurricular listening activities. It is also important to note here that it is a popular strategy to focus more on socially motivated contexts while planning listening activities than just on the linguistic aspects of the target language (Brown, 1998).

Foreign Language Teaching in the US Higher Education System In an increasingly neoliberal world, where mobility is highly fluid, Foreign Language Teaching gained impetus and prominence mostly in the first decade of the 21st century in the context of higher education in the United States of America.

While the United States of America has a prominent history of teaching Foreign Languages (FL) since the early 1960s, globalization and 9/11 attacks furthered the need for teaching FL in the higher education institutes as there was a general consensus among scholars and administrators that there is a need to understand other cultures and languages (Yankelovich, 2005). In a study conducted in 2006 by the Modern Language Association (MLA), 2654 institutions of higher education across the states reported having enrolments for languages other than English (Furnam et al. 2007). The study grouped the languages into two groups on the basis of the number of enrolments i.e. Most Commonly Taught Languages and Less Commonly Taught Languages. While the Most Commonly Taught Languages list includes 14 languages, the Less Commonly Taught Languages list includes as many as 204 languages. The report also notes that a growing trend is

Rost (2011) mentions that there exist six different types of listening practices; they are Intensive (focus on phonology, syntax, lexis), Selective (focus on main ideas, pre set tasks). Interactive (focus on becoming active listener, attempt to clarify meaning or form), Extensive (focusing on listening continuously, managing large amount of listening input), Responsive (focus on learner response to input), Autonomous (focus on learner management of progress, navigation, task selection, etc.). After a comprehensive analysis of literature on listening instruction, Rost concluded that balanced listening instruction should include all these six types of practices. Incorporation of all these practices would require the instructors to design tasks and implement strategies. Along with tasks and strategies, the literature is also replete with the importance of providing scaffolding materials to make the process of listening more effective (Ahmadi & Rozati, Vandergrift2017).has most extensively worked on strategy use in the domain of listening. Vandergrift (1999) devises a performance checklist for pre listening, listening and post listening tasks. The questionnaire consists of 8 questions (yes/no) each in the pre and post listening checklist groups and 6 questions in the listening comprehension group; also there are 4 open ended questions in the checklist. Graham (2006) also conducted a study on the perceptions held regarding listening comprehension by 595 English students learning French aged 16 18 years. Providing feedback, discussing task discrepancies, and setting future goals of learning fall under the domain of post listening. These are in fact effective language teaching strategies in general (Vattøy & Smith, 2019), but so far, there has been no study in the domain of teaching listening that throws light on these strategies. Contemporary studies in the domain of listening mostly focus on the learners and their abilities to develop the faculty of listening (Kok, 2018) and not much emphasis is put on the facilitation of the skill in a formal setup and this is exactly where the findings of the present study become important. However, before reporting the findings of the study, the subsequent paragraphs focus on the Foreign Language Teaching scenario in the United States of America which is where the present study is situated.

A similar study was conducted by the MLA in 2016 (Looney & Lusin, 2019) in which 2547 institutions of higher education participated and a total of 15 Most Commonly Taught Languages and 310 Less Commonly Taught Languages were reported to be taught. Thus, clearly, an exponential growth in the number of Foreign Languages offered by higher educational institutes across the USA can be noticed in a period of the last ten years.

The gap that emerges from the analysis of literature so far is that though the need for teaching Foreign Languages is well established, there is a discrepancy between the theory and practice when it comes to research in the domain of Listening Skill as can be seen in the first two sections of literature review. Listening is a teacher oriented activity and in the present paradigm of teaching that completely focuses on the learners, none of the studies so far could be located that directly address the instructors’ perception of the use of various listening tasks and/or strategies in a Foreign Language teaching context as the one the present study deals with. All the works that discuss the aspect of teaching listening, as can be seen in the second section of literature review, are mostly reflective research, unlike the present study which reports the findings of an empirical study about best practices in facilitating listening faculty among the learners.

The gap in Literature

3. Methodology Research Design

The Modern Language Association released a memorandum based on the aforementioned report in 2006 on their website urging universities across the states to make Foreign Language learning compulsory across undergraduate, graduate and Ph.D. programs. They also emphasized that the teaching of FL should be situated in cultural, historical, geographic and cross cultural frames incorporating transcultural and translingual reflection at every level of learning and teaching. Students and faculty exchange in the context of FL learning is also vehemently advocated for in the document. Support in the domain of instructors is provided by The United States Department of State’s Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs by funding the Fulbright Foreign Language Teaching Assistantship (FLTA) Program in which native speakers in multiple languages across 50 different countries obtain a chance to bring their native speaker competence to institutes of higher education across the United States of America as they join these institutes for one academic year as an instructor or associate instructor. Thus, it can be seen that there is increasing recognition for the need of teaching Foreign Languages across higher educational institutes in the United States of America and, it is furthered by associations such as the MLA and the American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages (ACTFL).

The study at hand follows a cross sectional research design; the cross sectional approach is a very popular approach in language teaching learning studies as it is an economical way to obtain information in a short period of time (Phakiti, 2015). It is a quantitative study based on primary data that employed a survey methodology to collect the data. The data for the study was elicited by means of

The research instrument was circulated among foreign language instructors/ associate instructors across different 16 universities that among many other universities in the United States of America hosts Fulbright Foreign Language Teaching Assistants (FLTA) (Indiana University Bloomington, University of Utah, Yale University, University of Michigan, Central State University Ohio, Wake Forest University, University of Kansas, University of Arkansas, Northern Illinois University, Webster University, University of Texas at Austin, University of Louisville, New York University, Gardner Webb University, Agnes Scott College, and, University of Texas at San Antonio). The instructors/associate instructors were all native speakers of the languages they were teaching and were part of a Fulbright Foreign Language Teaching Assistantship (FLTA) program in the academic year 2019 2020, an academic community of which the researcher was also a part. They were personally approached by the researcher through email and requested to complete the questionnaire. The languages which were taught by these instructors were Arabic, Bangla, Bahasa Indonesia, Burmese, French, Finnish, Hindi, Kazakh, Spanish, Swahili, Thai, Turkish, and, Urdu.

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. a questionnaire (Appendix 1) named Strategies for Facilitating Listening (SFL) which was designed for this study. The SFL consisted 17 items (6 pre listening, 4 listening, 7 post listening) and is highly reliable as a data eliciting instrument as it generated a value of 0.89 in Cronbach’s Alpha test.

4. Results

This section is subdivided into three sub sections. The first subsection deals with pre listening instruction, the second subsection deals with listening instruction, and the third subsectiondeals with post listeninginstruction related activities and strategies. Table 1. Pre listening Instruction Strategies Mean SD I provide my learners with audio visual content by native speakers on the new topic 3.4 1.08 I orally revise what I have taught in the previous class before introducing a new topic 4 1.07 I provide an oral list of questions relating to the topic before I start teaching it 3.51 1.34 I provide a written list of questions relating to the topic before I start teaching it 3.22 1 I provide an oral list of vocabulary items before I start teaching a new topic 3.59 1.5 I provide a written list of vocabulary items before I start teaching a new topic 3.89 1.25 Average 3.6 0.86

Note. This table provides information on the mean and standard deviation on the use of pre listening strategies by foreign language instructors.

Setting and Participants

As the table shows, the most frequently reported pre listening strategy is the strategy of revision which also has a comparatively lower SD value. Providing a list of vocabulary items before introducing a new topic is also reported to be a frequently used strategy and this provides the learners with clarity and better comprehension as once the instruction on listening starts, they know exactly what to look for. Providing an oral list of questions is also marked to be a strategy used frequently; however, the strategy of providing a written list is not popular. However, the high SD of the former strategy points to the fact that it is not an unanimously popular pre listening strategy. The question of providing audio visual content, however, did not generate a response that was expected and it also has a comparatively lower SD indicating that it is generally unpopular among instructors. Audio visual aids are deemed to be highly useful in the context of teaching a foreign language and the instructors did not respond to it with absolute enthusiasm. Overall, the instructors have reported using the pre listening strategies frequently and the responses are also not varied as is indicated by a low SD, thereby, confirming that this stage is very important for the advancement into and the progress of the next two stages.

Table 2. Listening Instruction Strategies Mean SD I repeat the listening exercise at least 3 times before I provide any kind of assignment 3.55 1 I encourage the learners to demonstrate new words physically before they actually speak it out loud 3.18 1.7 I make the learners repeat new sounds/ words after I finish reading the text in class 3.92 0.95

I provide the learners with the group/ pair activities to practice the new sounds/ words 4.51 0.8 Average 3.79 0.72

Note. This table provides information on the mean and standard deviation on the use of listening strategies by foreign language instructors.

The table above shows that the instructors have overall reported using three of the four listening instruction related strategies quite frequently. The most frequently used strategy was providing the learners with group/pair activities to practice the new sounds/words. This strategy is actually an integrative strategy that combines the interpretive mode with interpersonal mode. The low SD in the response also points out that it is a unanimously popular strategy in teaching listening skill. Repetition is crucial when it comes to teaching new sounds/words and no wonder both the strategies related to repetition generated a positive response. The only strategy which was reported to be used less frequently is the use of gestures to convey new words. Though it is an efficient strategy for teaching listening, this strategy can be really time consuming and that could be one of the reasons why it is not popular among the instructors. However, it is interesting to note that this strategy generated the most diverse response among the

I provide the learners with exercises like information gap, true/false, multiple choice etc. after I complete teaching the piece on listening 3.7 0.95

I discuss the discrepancies I notice during the tasks immediately after the task is over 3.92 0.95

I discuss/ set future learning goals with regards to the mode of listening as we complete the episode/ lesson on listening 3.96 1.12 Average 3.88 0.69

I provide my learners with scaffolding materials (cheat sheet etc.) for the tasks/assignments 3.48 1.31

I provide the learners with a listening comprehension exercise once the teaching and practicing session is over 4 0.9

respondents as the high SD indicates thereby establishing the fact that there are some instructors who exhaustively use this strategy.

I provide the learners with role playing or task oriented/ problem solving activities after I complete teaching the piece on listening 4.22 0.75

Note. This table provides information on the mean and standard deviation on the use of post listening strategies by foreign language instructors. This section on post listening which had seven questions endeavors to find out the most frequently used assessment strategies instructors implement in order to understand the comprehension of their learners as well as make the teaching more interactive. As the table shows, the practice of providing a listening comprehension exercise immediately after the lesson is a very frequently used practice and both have SDs in similar range. What is interesting here is to note that providing learners with a reading comprehension exercise is also a popular approach and this approach can be taken if the language has a script the learners are already familiar with. The tasks of role play/problem solving activities are more popular compared to info gap and true false exercises to measure learners’ listening skills. The strategy of providing scaffolding materials is not popular among the instructors. Discussing the discrepancies immediately after the task and setting future learning goals are also popular strategies as has been reported by the instructors. However the task of discussing discrepancies show a lower SD as compared to the otherstrategy thereby indicating thatit is more popularamong the instructors. The strategy on scaffolding has yielded a lower response though it has a higher SD which shows that it is used frequently by some of the instructors. Overall, the instructors thus have reported using the post listening tasks/ strategies highly frequently.

Table 3. Post Listening Instruction Strategies Mean SD

I provide the learners with a reading comprehension exercise once the teaching and practicing session is over 3.88 1

104.8571 3.883598 0.478865 ANOVA Source Variationof

Table

97.33333 3.604938 0.74818 Column 2

The study which focuses on pre listening, listening and post listening tasks show that on an average the instructors reported using all the three categories of listening strategies i.e. pre listening (m=3.6), listening (m=3.79), and, post listening (m=3.88) frequently. The table produced above, from the ANOVA test conducted to understand whether there is a statistically significant difference between the three categories, shows that there isn’t any statistically significant difference (p=0.3). Thus, it can be said that the instructors are providing a balanced instruction when it comes to imparting listening skills thus proving the testing hypothesis of the study to be true.

Other strategies which the instructors reported to be useful for facilitating the development of listening skills as a part of the open ended question in this survey in the domain of Listening were providing built in helps for difficult words in the audio that help learners save time and move on to the listening task without breaking the flow and pace of comprehension, providing audio textbooks; and in the domain of Post listening were organizing conversation tables and cultural festivals to provide an environment as would be found in the target linguistic community, incorporating artistic expression by encouraging the students to draw/doodle their responses after a listening activity instead of speaking. 4. Single Factor 27 27 27 SS MS 46.62981

SUMMARY Groups Count Sum Average Variance Column 1

Anova:

5. Discussions The popularity of the pre listening strategy of revision (m=4) is in sync with the literature discussed (Brown, 2006) above which asserts that it is always better to build on existing knowledge. The contrast in responses between the strategies of providing an oral list (m=3.51) and a written list (m=3.22) shows that while teaching listening, the instructors prefer providing an oral list of questions which in turn enhances the amount of input in the target lesson. This activity also

Note. This table provides information on the ANOVA test result for pre listening, listening, and, post listening strategies enlisted in the SFL questionnaire.

F P value F crit BetweenGroups 1.097016 2 0.548508 0.939622 0.395153 3.113792 GroupsWithin 45.5328 78 0.583754 Total

102.5 3.796296 0.524217 Column 3

6. Conclusion This study shows the instructors of Foreign Languages across multiple universities in the United States of America have a balanced approach for imparting listening skills to the learners. Besides successfully documenting and

initiates the learners to think and question what they are learning thereby making them aware as learners. This finding is in alignment with the Comprehension Approach by Krashen (2004) which emphasizes on comprehensible oral input.

Though audi visual aids have been noted in literature to be effective in enhancing interpretive skills by exposing the learners to the target culture and language (Brown, 2006), the comparatively lower response of the same among the respondents of this study (m=3.4) provides the need to initiate further enquiry. However, it is not justified to draw a conclusion about the same without knowing how much content is available on the internet in the target language.

It has been seen in the literature that listening instruction has the potential to become highly teacher centric and isolating (Field, 2008); the enormous popularity of the strategy of providing the learners with group/pair activities (m=4.51) proves that the instructors actually focus on making the learning experience highly engaging for the learners. The popularity of both the strategies of repetition is in alignment with the literature (Sendag et al., 2018) and points out the importance of memory skills in the domain of foreign language learning. The strategy of demonstrating words physically before speaking it aloud is inspired by the TPR approach (Asher, 2008). This strategy with a low mean (m=3.18) and high SD (1.7) provides confusing responses that seek further investigation. Literature shows that an effective lesson in listening instruction is always followed by a range of open/close ended activities that provides instances for recycling or reusing the structural/lexical items learned in the process (Field, 2008) and the overall high frequency reported for the use of post listening strategies is indicative of that (m=3.88). However, the popularity of providing reading comprehension exercises after providing training in listening (m=3.88) raises questions about the way instructors map assignments with skills taught. The popularity of both the methods of the assessment i.e. listening comprehension (m=4) and reading comprehension show that the instructors are not differentiating between the two interpretive approaches of listening and reading but how successful the approach of testing a skill different from the one that has been taught deserves further investigations. Further, the popularity of socially motivated role play and task oriented problem solving activities (m=4.22) over linguistically oriented information gap and multiple choice questions (m=3.7) show that the findings of the study are in alignment with the literature (Brown, 1998). The low use of scaffolding strategy (m=3.48) which otherwise is a very popular strategy in teaching listening and comprehension skills (Ahmadi & Rozati, 2017) seeks further enquiry. The popularity of both the strategies of discussing discrepancies and gaining feedback on listening tasks (m=3.92), and, setting future goals (m=3.96) shows that these strategies are useful for teaching listening skills, just as they are for teaching any of the language skills (Vattøy & Smith, 2019).

analyzing the effective strategies and tasks that facilitate the growth and development of listening skills among the learners of multiple foreign languages, the study raises questions about whether there is a scope to apply the Comprehension Approach to language teaching. Though further investigations are required in the area to understand how much time is spent to teach the interpretive mode of communication under the present approach which is highly driven by the act or the production of communication rather than the process of the same, the findings of the study provides an impetus for the initiation of the practice of Comprehension Approach for the facilitation of listening skills among foreign language learners. Though there has not been a rich body of research in the field of listening instruction and strategies because of the contemporary paradigm in language learning which is highly conversation oriented, the study at hand shows that foreign language instructors across the country are actively involved in the teaching of the skill. The Comprehension Approach to language teaching, which is chiefly centered around providing an impetus for the development of listeningskills, was highly criticized fornot involving the learners and making them non participant individuals whose goal is to just comprehend and not respond in any way. In spite of its limitation, it is an effective approach as it provides importance to comprehension which is the base forthe development of the rest of the linguistic skills in a language. By incorporating the interactive aspect to listening and combining the interpersonal and presentational modes to this interpretive mode of teaching, the overall practice of teaching a foreign language would attain completion. In fact, Comprehension Approach could operate along the sides of the Communication Approach to enable the learners to attain a holistic competence in the field of foreign language learning.

The findings of this study provides impetus to Foreign Language instructors across the United States of America with a set of effective strategies that can be applied to facilitate the development of Listening Skills among the learners. The findings of this study is, in fact, useful for Foreign Language instructors from across the globe who are teaching adult learners the language outside the linguistic community where it is actually spoken. Foreign Language instructors can use the findings of this study to make their lessons pertaining to listening skills more impactful by integrating the interactive listening approach. Further, the findings of the study could be used by teacher trainers who conduct various orientation programs and provide instructors with strategy training for enhancing the quality of teaching.

7. Practical Implications, Research Limitations and Future Projections

The present study covers a range of Foreign Languages across language families as well as a number of universities, however, the number of participants are not high. Moreover, the reporting of strategy by a survey method has its own limitations and this limitation can be overcome by coupling the survey with observation and interview method. A longitudinal approach can be taken to understand how instructors apply listening strategies differently to suit the needs of their learners. Research interventions are also required to categorize and understand teaching strategies and tasks that have the potential to make listening interpretive. Further, the findings of the study throws light on how certain

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Phakiti, A. (2015). (pp. 22 26). SEAMEO Regional Language Centre. Rost, M. (1991). Listening action New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Rost, M. (2011). Teaching and Researching Listening. United Kingdom: Longman. https://doi.org/10.1111/ijal.12003

1. Mark only one oval. Never 1 2 3 4 5 Always 2. Mark only one oval. Never 1 2 3 4 5 Always 3. Mark only one oval. Never 1 2 3 4 5 Always StrategiesforFacilitatingListening(SFL) Questionnaire All the questions are mandatory. There are no right or wrong answers to the questions. Choose the option that describes your teaching style the best. * Required Iprovidemylearnerswithaudio-visualcontentbynativespeakersonthenew topicbeforeIintroduceitinclass* IorallyrevisewhatIhavetaughtinthepreviousclassbeforeintroducinganew topic* IprovideanorallistofquestionsrelatingtothetopicbeforeIstartteachingit* 165

4. Mark only one oval. Never 1 2 3 4 5 Always 5. Mark only one oval. Never 1 2 3 4 5 Always 6. Mark only one oval. Never 1 2 3 4 5 Always 7. Mark only one oval. Never 1 2 3 4 5 Always IprovideawrittenlistofquestionsrelatingtothetopicbeforeIstartteachingit* IprovideanorallistofvocabularyitemsbeforeIstartteachinganewtopic* IprovideawrittenlistofvocabularyitemsbeforeIstartteachinganewtopic* Irepeatthelisteningexerciseatleast3timesbeforeIprovideanykindof assignment* 166

8. Mark only one oval. Never 1 2 3 4 5 Always 9. Mark only one oval. Never 1 2 3 4 5 Always 10. Mark only one oval. Never 1 2 3 4 5 Always 11. Mark only one oval. Never 1 2 3 4 5 Always Iencouragethelearnerstodemonstratenewwordsphysicallybeforethey actuallyspeakitoutloud* Imakethelearnersrepeatnewsounds/wordsafterIfinishreadingthetextin class* Iprovidethelearnerswiththegroup/pairactivitiestopracticethenewsounds/ words* Iprovidethelearnerswithalisteningcomprehensionexerciseoncetheteaching andpracticingsessionisover* 167

12. Mark only one oval. Never 1 2 3 4 5 Always 13. Mark only one oval. Never 1 2 3 4 5 Always 14. Mark only one oval. Never 1 2 3 4 5 Always 15. Mark only one oval. Never 1 2 3 4 5 Always Iprovidethelearnerswithareadingcomprehensionexerciseoncetheteaching andpracticingsessionisover* Iprovidemylearnerswithscaffoldingmaterials(cheatsheetetc.)forthe tasks/assignments* Iprovidethelearnerswithexerciseslikeinformation-gap,true/false,multiplechoiceetc.afterIcompleteteachingthepieceonlistening* Iprovidethelearnerswithrole-playingortask-oriented/problem-solving activitiesafterIcompleteteachingthepieceonlistening* 168

16. Mark only one oval. Never 1 2 3 4 5 Always 17. Mark only one oval. Never 1 2 3 4 5 Always 18. This content is neither created nor endorsed by Google. IdiscussthediscrepanciesInoticeduringthetasksimmediatelyafterthetaskis over* Idiscuss/setfuturelearninggoalswithregardstothemodeoflisteningaswe completetheepisode/lessononlistening* Kindlymentionanyotherstrategiesyoufoundtobetypicallyusefulfor promoting/facilitatinglisteningskillsinthelanguageyouteachamongthe learners Forms 169

The Effectiveness of Using Three Dimensional Visualization Tools to Improve Students’ Understanding of Medicinal Chemistry and Advanced Drug Design Concepts

170 International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 4, pp. 170 187, April https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.4.120201

Abstract. Computer technology is an integral part of modern research. Most undergraduate pharmacy students are not aware of the use of these techniques in the drug design process. Understanding drug target interactions plays a vital role in the drug design process, however, teaching the molecular basis of drug action is one of the major challenges we face in medicinal chemistry courses. The increase in the availability of three dimensional macromolecule crystal structures and computer visualizationsoftware have provided better toolsto studythe drugseffect at the molecular level. This study evaluates the effectiveness of using three dimensional macromolecule visualization tools in medicinal chemistry lectures on the students understanding of the molecular basis of drug action and drug design concepts. The different examples presented in this work are part of the teaching material that were developed to suite the learning objectives of the course. In addition, the “macromolecular drug targets assignment” was introduced to the course in order to allow the students to have practical experience using the new in silico techniques Two hundred seventy students were surveyed over the past five years, the result showed that the new teaching tools have increased students’ interest in medicinal chemistry and allowed them to develop better understanding of the effect of structural modification on compounds’ activity and structure activity relationship. In addition, it gave them an insight into the advanced methods used in drug design.

Keywords: three dimensional visualization; macromolecular crystal structure; medicinal chemistry; drug design; drug target interactions

Heba Abdel Halim Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences, University of Petra, Amman, Jordan http://orcid.org/0000 0002 1619 1740

1. Introduction A plethora of three dimensional (3D) models of biological macromolecules bound to natural substrates, and/or drugs have been elucidated, and are available for download from the RCSB protein data bank (PDB) (Berman et al., 2000) In

171 addition, the increase in computer processing power has dramatically improved and allowed for the development of many advanced drug discovery software and hence, an increase in the use of computer aided drug design (CADD) techniques has been observed over the past years (Ferreira, Dos Santos, Oliva, & Andricopulo, 2015). The availability of genomic, proteomic, and structural information of macromolecular drug targets has established the role of rational drug design techniques in the identification, and development of novel compounds (Yu & MacKerell, 2017) Medicinal chemistry is a core course in the pharmacy degree curricula around the world that focus on teaching a group of therapeutic agents with the focus on their chemistry, chemical structure requirements, mechanism of action, potency, selectivity, and structure activity relationship. Understanding the drug action at the molecular level is essential in deciding the optimum therapeutic approach for any clinical case (Fernandes, 2017). The binding of any drug to its target is highly dependent, not only on the drug’s chemistry, but also on its 3D structure. In order for a drug to be active, its functional groups and the 3D shape should complement the site of action (Satyanarayanajois & Hill, 2011) The affinity and the type of interactions between the drug and the target would determine the effect and activity of this drug, any modification of the drug’s 3D structure that result in an increase in its affinity and binding is expected to improve activity (Copeland, Pompliano, & Meek, 2006; Satyanarayanajois, 2010) Teaching the molecular aspects of drug target interactions is not an easy task especially to undergraduate pharmacy students, and is considered one of the major challenges of teaching medicinal chemistry (Tavares et al., 2017) Students’ usually do not correlate the importance of the interactions at the molecular level to the therapeutic effect of the drug (Venkataraman, 2009). Visualizing the drug bound to its active site and correlating its specific binding interactions to activity has been previously shown to improve students learning experience (Kurup & Sakharkar, 2019; Tavares et al., 2017)

Studying the different types of drug target interactions is necessary for understanding the biological effect of the drugs and is becoming increasingly important in the drug design process. (Günther, Boto, Contreras Garcia, Piquemal, & Tierny, 2014) 3D Visualization is the essential tool required to study these systems The visual inspection of different macromolecular systems is now more accessible than ever with the availability of a wide range of advanced software tools (Olson, 2018). The different software platforms and the increased computer power have allowed the scientists to visualize, study, understand complex structures (Chavent et al., 2011) Drug design is becoming an increasingly important aspect of medicinal chemistry (Anderson, 2012) Taking advantage of the available information and the functionalities imbedded in different software more (CADD) techniques has been

1.1. 3D Visualizations of Macromolecular Systems

The recent improvements in experimental macromolecular structure determination provided increased information available about structural biology, which resulted in an increment accumulation of information about drug and/or natural substrates binding sites, and protein function (O'Donoghue et al., 2010)

β lactam Antibiotics

Peptidoglycan layer in the bacterial cell wall is essential for cell survival under normal conditions. The enzyme involved in peptidoglycan synthesis is penicillin binding protein (PBP). This enzyme catalyzes the final stages of bacterial cell wall biosynthesis to preserve cell integrity. β lactam antibiotics function by inhibiting

2.2. Active-learning Examples

3D visualization tools have been shown to improve students’ learning in medicinal chemistry (Ferk, Vrtacnik, Blejec, & Gril, 2003; Hayes, 2014) By moving from the traditional methods of teaching the molecular basis of drug action using two dimensional (2D) structure activity relationship (SAR), students were getting better understanding of the drug effect and the influence of any changes in the chemical structure on activity, and hence, on the therapeutic outcome.

The work described herein focus on the use of 3D visualization in teaching the medicinal chemistry course. The improvement in teaching methods started by the use of the 3D software only to show the students the ligand bound within its binding site. Further improvements in the course has seen an increase in information extracted from the 3D protein structure to include: protein structure and function, binding site features, ligand 3D shape, ligand target interactions, and functional groups of the ligand and target.

3D visualization software was introduced as a teaching tool in the medicinal chemistry course lectures. The main aim of this newly adapted method is to increase students understanding of the molecular basis of drug action, and hence acquiring a better correlation between drugs’ chemistry, and the therapeutic outcome.

The following active learning examples are extracted from medicinal chemistry course teaching tools. The “discovery studio visualizer software”(Dassault Systèmes BIOVIA) was used to prepare structures downloaded from the protein data bank PDB (Berman et al., 2000), to suite the learning objective for each topic.

2. Methods

• The nature of the ligand target complex

• Intermolecular interactions, and/or

• SAR principles

172 used in the search of new drugs (Ferreira et al., 2015). Many software that exhibit imperative tools are available and used in the different phases of drug design process. A license is required to use the full functionalities of molecular modeling software; however, many software developers have a visualization interface freely available for academic use. Moreover, the new generation of students have increased affinity for technology that should be considered when developing new teaching methods

• The molecular basis of drug action

Depending on the type of information available in the macromolecule file, it was used to understand and predict:

2.1. 3D Visualization Teaching Tools

Figure 2: Mechanism of action of β lactam antibiotics. Cloxacillin binding to the penicillin binding protein (PBP) active site Acyl D Ala D Ala Penicillin PBPCloxacillin

173 PBP that result in the inhibition of peptidoglycan synthesis leading to cell rupture and bacterial death (Nicola, Tomberg, Pratt, Nicholas, & Davies, 2010) For a compound to bind to any active site, the functional groups and chemistry of this compound should complement those of the active site. Furthermore, the size of the molecule is controlled by the available volume of this binding site. Β lactam antibiotics are structural analogues of the D Ala D Ala moiety present on peptidoglycan precursors. The PBP active site accommodates both substrates, Figure 1 is shown to students and they are asked to find similarities and differences between the two structures, most students would recognize the resemblances in the 3D shape in general, and the presence of carboxylic acid groups, and amide bonds (lactam ring in the antibiotic). This would establish the similarities that should be observed between the natural substrate and drug in general, β lactam antibiotics in this example.

A serine residue in the PBP binding site is responsible for the enzyme’s activity, this residue undergoes nucleophilic attack on the carbonyl carbon of the β lactam ring or of the penultimate D Ala of the pentapeptide substrate to form a covalent acylenzyme complex (Figure 2) (Beadle, Nicholas, & Shoichet, 2001) The bicyclic system ring system is very stained which result in the high susceptibility of the ring’s carbonyl group to nucleophilic attack. The relief of this strain after enzymatic β lactam bond cleavage result in covalent bond formation and the opening of the β lactam ring (Figure 2) (Lemke & Williams, 2007) The acylenzyme complex formed is structurally different from the hydrolysis intermediate and the enzyme’s active site becomes unavailable to react with its peptide substrate, blocking further catalytic activity.

Figure 1: Structural similarity between Acyl-D-Ala-D-Ala and penicillin

PBP

Figure 3. 3D crystal structure of cloxacillin in the PBP binding site (PDB code: 3MZD,(Nicola et al., 2010)). A) Cloxacillin interactions showing the covalent bond with Ser44, and electrostatic interactions with Arg248. B) 2D binding interactions. Not all interactions are shown, and hydrogens were removed for simplicity

Mineralocorticoid receptor (MR) is a steroid hormone regulated receptor found in the distal nephron of the kidney, colon, and many tissues, including the brain and heart. MR regulates fluid and electrolyte (primarily sodium and potassium B Electrostatic Interaction Covalent Bond π-π A Ser44Arg248

Mineralocorticoid Receptor Agonists and Antagonists

174 The 2D mechanism of action shown in Figure 2 is confirmed by studying the 3D structure of cloxacillin bound to PBP from Escherichia coli (Figure 3, PDB code: 3MZD (Nicola et al., 2010)). The binding interactions are shown to the students, an electrostatic interaction is observed between the carboxylic acid group and a basic amino acid (Arg248) in the PBP active site (Kishida et al., 2006; Nicola et al., 2010). This interaction will place the β lactam ring in a position optimum for the nucleophilic attack by the serine residue (Ser44) resulting in covalent bond formation and ring opening. From the interactions formed in the PBP binding site, students can conclude the essential groups for the SAR of β lactam antibiotics: a free carboxylic acid residue, intact β lactam ring, optimum distance between the carboxylic group and the ring, and acylamino side chain.

175 ions) levels in the body and have a large influence on blood pressure.(Hasui et al., 2011) Aldosterone (Aldo, Figure 4), the primary natural ligand for MR, is reported to be synthesized in the heart, and blood vessels. Elevated levels of aldosterone are associated with the development of congestive heart failure, renal dysfunction, and hypertension (Vecchio, Procaccio, Viganò, & Cusi, 2007). MR antagonists, such as spironolactone (Figure 4) show antihypertensive effects in patients with essential hypertension and can be used in heart failure therapy (Pitt et al., 2003; Struthers, Krum, & Williams, 2008)

Figure 5: The superimposition of mineralocorticoid receptors in complex with aldosterone in line ribbon (PDB code: 2aa2,(Bledsoe et al., 2005)) and spironolactone in solid ribbon (PDB code: 2ab2,(Bledsoe et al., 2005)). The two ligands are bound in the same binding site; structures of the ligands are shown in CPK Aldosterone Spironolactone

Figure 4: Chemical structures of aldosterone and spironolactone Upon Aldo binding to the MR structural changes occurs in the receptor leading to its activation, a correct positioning of the agonist within the binding site is essential for activity. Conversely, once MR antagonists bind to the same binding site they would prevent MR from adopting the active conformation thus inhibiting the receptor (Bledsoe et al., 2005). In this lecture students are shown Figure 5 for the superimposition of MR in complex with Aldo (PDB code: 2AA2,(Bledsoe et al., 2005)) and spironolactone (PDB code: 2AB2,(Bledsoe et al., 2005)). The differences between the agonist and antagonist bound receptor (i.e. active and inactive receptor) forms are explained and related to their different therapeutic effects.

176 To further explore the difference in the chemistry of the two compounds that would make such difference in the conformation of the receptor, Aldo and spironolactone binding within the MR binding site were studied. The role of the C3 keto group in the binding of Aldo, and other steroids, within the receptor binding site have been established (Kauppi et al., 2003). Spironolactone is characterized by a C17 γ lactone ring which is characteristic to MR antagonist and, in contrast to Aldo, spironolactone has C7 thioester group. Mutation studies showed that the amino acid methionine (Met852) plays an important in MR activation, interaction of unsubstituted C7 in the MR agonists with Met852 is essential for the receptor to accommodate the agonist, and to acquire its active state. On the other hand, the steric hindrance of the C7 substation in competitive MR antagonists prevents the receptor from reaching the active form thus result in receptor inhibition (Fagart, Seguin, Pinon, & Rafestin Oblin, 2005). Figure 6 shows the binding positions of Aldo and spironolactone in the MR active site with respect to Met852. Accordingly, students develop better understanding of the chemistry of MR antagonists from the interactions observed at the molecular.

Figure 6: The ligand binding within mineralocorticoid receptor active site showing the amino acid methionine 852 (Met852). A) Aldosterone (PDB code: 2aa2,(Bledsoe et al., 2005)), and B) spironolactone (PDB code: 2ab2,(Bledsoe et al., 2005)) Cisplatin Cisplatin, cis diamminedichloroplatinum (II), is achemotherapeutic drug used for the treatment of different human cancers including bladder, head and neck, lung, ovarian, and testicular cancers (Dasari & Tchounwou, 2014). Cisplatin crosslinks with the DNA purine bases, thus interfering with the DNA repair mechanism resulting in DNA damage leading to apoptosis of cancer cells. Cisplatin, and other organoplatinum anticancer agents on the market, are platinum (PtII) complexes with square planar geometry (Figure 7). The net charge A B Met852Met852

Figure 8: The 3D structure of cisplatin bound to DNA strand preventing H bond formation between the two DNA strands (PDB code: 1ckt,(Ohndorf et al., 1999))

Figure 7: Activation of cisplatin and cross linking of the active form with DNA strand. Nucleophilic attack of N7 of the DNA guanine base on positively charged platinum and the formation of covalent bonds

The two ammine (N7) groups bind irreversibly to the Pt atom and the DNA bases become fixed to the compound in its cis configuration (Figure 8). Once bound to the DNA strand it blocks the H bond interactions between the DNA strands and therefore hinders the repair mechanism resulting in cell death (Ohndorf, Rould, He, Pabo, & Lippard, 1999)

2 2 DNA Cisplati

The students gain better understanding of the need for cisplatin activation to the positively charged molecule that can be readily attacked by nucleophilic DNA bases (Figure 7). The orientation of the organometallic compound requires the cis isomer to be able to bind to the DNA strand in the right orientation (Figure 8).

Cisplatin Cross linked DNA Cisplatin diaquo form (Active)

177 of the organometallic complex is zero despite the Pt electron deficiency due to the electron donating effect of chloride. For cisplatin to interact with DNA, the electron donating chlorides are displaced through nucleophilic attack by cellular water to generate the active hydrated form with a net positive charge that makes it susceptible to nucleophilic attack by DNA bases (Figure 7).

H Bond Pt DNA DNA

Figure 9: The interaction of: A) etoposide, in human topoisomerase (TopIIB) DNA complex (PDB code: 3QX3,(Wu et al., 2011)), and B) ciprofloxacin in the DNA gyrase binding site (PDB code:5BTC,(Blower et al., 2016)). Ligands are shown in CPK A B

178

Topoisomerase Inhibitors

Topoisomerases are enzymes that control the degree of DNA supercoiling. These enzymes can be found in all cell types, and are essential for cell survival (Bates & Maxwell, 2005). Topoisomerases relax the supercoiled DNA strands during DNA replication and transcription to RNA. Due to their important mechanism ofaction, topoisomerases are key drug targets both for antibacterial and anticancer chemotherapy (Pommier, Leo, Zhang, & Marchand, 2010). There are two types of topoisomerases: topoisomerase I (TopI) that cuts and religates a single DNA strand, and topoisomerase II (TopII) that catalyze the cleavage of double stranded DNA (Bates & Maxwell, 2005) Anticancer drugs target different topoisomerase subtypes; for example camptothecins act on the eukaryotic TopIB topoisomerases (Venditto & Simanek, 2010), while human TopIIA are the targets of etoposide, anthracyclines (doxorubicin, daunorubicin), and mitoxantrone (Hevener, Verstak, Lutat, Riggsbee, & Mooney, 2018) On the other hand, TopII, DNA gyrase, and topoisomerase IV, are found in all bacteria and are the targets of quinolone antibiotics. Humans TopIIA, an analogous enzyme to DNA gyrase, does not bind quinolones at normal antibiotic concentration and thus maintain the selectivity to bacteria over host cells (Drlica & Zhao, 1997) All topoisomerase enzyme inhibitors stabilize the topoisomerase DNA complexes and hinder DNA religation step, leaving damaged DNA strands that are unable to replicate and, thus trigger cell death. The students are shown the interaction of the anticancer drug, etoposide, in human topoisomerase (TopIIB) in complex with DNA (PDB code: 3QX3,(Wu et al., 2011), Figure 9A), and of the antibacterial, ciprofloxacin, in the DNA gyrase binding site (PDB code: 5BTC,(Blower, Williamson, Kerns, & Berger, 2016), Figure 9B). Students develop better understanding of the molecular mechanism of topoisomerase inhibition as they observe the chemotherapeutic agents interacting with the DNA and the enzyme, and blocking the DNA strand.

Training sessions on the use of PDB and the software were held, students were offered a one to one help on how to deal with any problem in their work. Copies of the “discovery studio visualizer, 2017 R2”(Dassault Systèmes BIOVIA) software were installed in the all computers in the pharmacy building computer laboratory, and the software has been made available for students to download to their personal computers. Each student group was asked to select a target, of their interest, from the PDB. At the end of the course, students are expected to report a complete description of the bonds formed between the drug and the binding site amino acid residues, the changes on the structure that are expected to affect activity, and to determine SAR from the bound drug conformation.

Survey statements were designed to assess the student feedback after the incorporation of the 3D visualization software as part of the teaching methods of medicinal chemistry course, in addition to evaluating their perspective on their experience using the software.

The “macromolecular drug targets assignment” was added to the course in order to allow the students to have practical experience using new in silico techniques. The use of advanced software can be troublesome even for postgraduate students and researchers. With the introduction of the assignment to the course, we were faced with the challenge of training large numbers of students on using the 3D interface especially since students were not exposed to the use of modelling software. As a result, a comprehensive step by step manual (Appendix 1, can be used after the permission of the author) was made available to students that included an introduction into the PDB, and the 3D visualization software, as well as to figures showing all the steps required for use of the software effectively.

2.4. Survey

Computer aided drug design (CADD) techniques have played a major role in the development and optimization of novel bioactive compounds over the last three decades. CADD methods includes: ligand docking, molecular modeling, structure based drug design, virtual screening, quantitative structure activity relationship (QSAR), and computational chemistry.

Although in medicinal chemistry, CADD are now considered routine approaches, there are still deficiency in teaching these fundamental concepts to undergraduate pharmacy students (Carvalho, Borges, & Bernardes, 2005). The dramatic increase in the number of biological macromolecular crystal structures elucidated and deposited in the PDB (Berman et al., 2000) has facilitated the CADD process.

179 2.3. Macromolecular Drug Targets Assignment

There were 23 statements, as listed in Table 1, that evaluated students in a three point Likert scale using ‘agree’ to ‘disagree’ where answer ‘3’ was considered

The survey was developed based upon initial positive feedback from many students’ in the lectures to measure the level of the effect of using the new tools. In addition, we aimed at measuring students’ experience in using the 3D software, it was not surprising that in the training sessions most of the students showed some discomfort and some showed their discontent. This was expected, as it was their first exposure to a very new and even no easy subject.

180 neutral. Since no previous studies were reported on the topic, the questionnaire has been developed based on perceptions of students throughout the course, and the help given to students in their assignments. At the end of the course and after presenting their assignments, students completed the survey anonymously. All medicinal chemistry students at the end of six semesters after implementing the new tools were asked to fill in the questionnaire. Students had full freedman to refuse to participate in the study, and no incentives were offered to them. However, students were encouraged, and some were inspired, by the fact that finding of this survey will be taken seriously and, in the future, will help improve the medicinal chemistry course.

The course improved your critical thinking and problem solving skills 176 (65.2%) 39 (14.4%) 55 (20.4%)

2.5. Student Performance Students’ performance was measured using students’ marks in the different assessments, such as quizzes and exams; end of semester course evaluation questioner; and the course intended learning outcomes (ILOs) achievement. Marks for the questions covering topics where 3D examples were used were compared to the marks of questions of the lectures that only depended on conventional 2D SAR explanation.

The following questions are about the medicinal chemistry course: The layout of the course is suitable 183 (67.7%) 24 (9.0%) 63 (23.3%)

The course increases your ability to identify functional groups important for drug activity 260 (96.3%) 3 (1.1%) 7 (2.6%)

The knowledge gained from this course will be help me relate the chemistry of the drug to its pharmacological effect 263 (97.4%) 6 (2.2%) 1 (0.4%)

Table 1: Results of Medicinal Chemistry Course Evaluation Survey Question Student Response: N: 270 (%) Agree Neutral Disagree

The examples covered in the lectures were relevant to other courses in the Pharmacy curriculum 264 (97.8%) 6 (2.2%) 0 (0.0%) The course helped you understand some concepts covered in other courses in the Pharmacy degree curriculum 201 (74.4%) 8 (3.0%) 61 (22.6%)

The average number of students in the medicinal chemistry course is 130 student per semester. From a total of around 780 students, the questionnaire was answered by 270 students. A sample size of 258 was needed to find sense in our study at a confidence level of 95% with a margin of error of 5%. The sample was diverse, as students responding to the survey were with a range of GPAs.

The course increased your interest in medicinal chemistry 92 (34.1%) 130 (48.1%) 48 (17.8%)

The following questions are about using the 3D visualization software in the assignment: It was easy to learn how to use the 3D software 43 (15.9%) 80 (29.6%) 147 (54.4%)

The training on using the software was a good start to using the software 269 (99.6%) 1 (0.4%) 0 (0.0%) The one to one help from the lecturer was helpful in facing issues of using the software. 167 (61.9%) 103 (38.1%) 0 (0.0%) Having the software installed in the Pharmacy computer Lab./ home computer improved your 3D software use experience 262 (97.0%) 8 (3.0%) 0 (0.0%)

3D visualization, where appropriate, should be integrated in other courses in the Pharmacy curriculum 263 (97.4%) 0 (0.0%) 7 (2.6%)

Some of the students verbally expressed their increased interest in the topic and some are now considering the topics of medicinal chemistry and drug design for their future postgraduate studies. One of our best achievements was the unanimous answer that the course has increased the students’ ability to identify functional groups important for drug activity. During the lectures, when asked about the importance of any functional group, students answered that it is important for activity and “it should be there”. The different examples stressed that any essential functional groups present in the

3D visualization should be integrated in other medicinal chemistry courses 255 (94.4%) 10 (3.7%) 5 (1.9%)

The use of 3D software has helped you better understand the structural elements of macromolecules 198 (73.3%) 20 (7.4%) 52 (19.2%) The use of 3D software has helped you better understand the drug target interactions within the binding site 253 (93.7%) 2 (0.8%) 15 (5.6%) The use of 3D software has helped you better understand SAR of drugs 240 (88.9%) 8 (3.0%) 22 (8.1%) You enjoyed using 3D visualization software 97 (35.9%) 122 (45.2%) 51 (18.9%) You feel that you are now familiar with the developments of drug design techniques 244 (90.3%) 0 (0.0%) 26 (9.6%)

At the end of the assignment your viewpoint about using the 3D software was more positive than at the begging 203 (75.2%) 16 (5.9%) 51 (18.9%) 3. Results

181

The following questions are about the 3D tools used in the lectures: Before I took this course, I knew about RCSB PDB protein database 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 270 (100%) Before I took this course, I saw a protein 3D structure 3 (1.1%) 0 (0.0%) 267 (98.9%) Before I took this course, I knew that computer software are used in the drug discovery process 7 (2.6%) 0 (0.0%) 263 (97.4%)

The results of the survey, Table 1, showed that more than half the students were satisfied with the course layout. The new methods appeared to increase the popularity of the medicinal chemistry course for some students, although the majority were neutral in this regard.

According to students’ responses, 65% found that the course improved their critical thinking and problem solving skills. However, other more detailed tools may be used in the future to measure the effect of the new changes on students’

4. Discussion One of the major challenges facing medicinal chemistry lecturers is to find a suitable teaching method to make the understanding of molecular aspects of drug target interactions easier to undergraduate pharmacy students (Tavares et al., 2017). The incorporation of new teaching tools to medicinal chemistry courses have been shown to increase the students understanding, and interest in the course (Kurup & Sakharkar, 2019) Using computational techniques to visualize 3D structures has been found successful in helping students understand the basics of macromolecules structure

182 drug is important for the drug action and any changes in the drug structure would have a great impact on its activity.

The main aim of the macromolecular drug targets assignment” was to allow students to have practical experience in using new in silico techniques. The difficulty students faced using the software was expected especially that this was the first time they are using any drug design tool. Although most students did not enjoy using the software, it helped most of them to better understand the drug target interactions within the binding site and SAR of drugs, and improved their view of the assignment once completed. Adding to the survey results students’ performance was shown to improve progressively in each semester. More correct answers were observed in questions of the 3D explained topics. In general, as more examples were added to the course material, we observed an increase in the overall students’ marks in the different assessments. An improvement was also reported in the end of semester course evaluation questioner; and the course intended learning outcomes (ILOs) achievement values.

Theabilities.majority

of students found that medicinal chemistry was helpful while studying other pharmacy courses. For a student to be able to relate information of the chemical structure to the drug action was one of the driving forces to improve the course teaching methods. Most students, prior to this course, had no familiarity with RCSB PDB protein database nor the availability of 3D tools and their utility in the drug design process. For most of them, it was the first time they have seen a protein 3D structure and were able to relate it to the information they studied in the biochemistry courses. Later in the course, they started to relate different concepts they learned in medicinal chemistry to the pharmacology courses. This have influenced them to want to have 3D visualization integrated in other medicinal chemistry and pharmacy courses As expected, most students did not find it easy to use the software. However, the training, one to one help offered, and availability of the software on university computer labs and on their personal computers have improved their experience.

In general, as more examples were added to the course material, we observed an increase in the students’ marks in the different in class activities, such as quizzes

183 and function (Abreu, Carvalho, Rabelo, & Castro, 2019). Furthermore, the transition to use 3D models and visualization tools to study these structures was fundamental to increase the students understanding of drug target interactions (Cooper & Oliver Hoyo, 2017)

The development of the methods used in teaching medicinal chemistry is becoming necessary, now more than ever In the examples presented in this work, the molecular basis of drug action was introduced to students. The functional groups and the 3D requirements for binding any drug within its target active site were clearly detected by the students while discussing the bound conformation of the drug in the 3D interface. The different types of bonds formed between the drug and the binding amino acids were discussed. The changes of drug affinity, as reflected by the type of bonds formed, was made clearer to them. Students were able to identify the drug’s functional group types and their position required for activity. The effect of the differences in strength between reversible and irreversible bonds to drug activity, side effects, and duration of action was experienced firsthand by students. The comparison between the majority of drugs in the market, that are involved in the weaker reversible interactions, to those of drugs with covalent bonds confirmed what students observed in the 3D structure.

Adding to the survey results students’ performance was shown to improve progressively in each semester. As expected students performance was better when answering questions covering topics where 3D examples were presented.

The incorporation of laboratory experiments that aimed at teaching students the basic techniques of drug design has been found to increase the students’ awareness of the roles of pharmacists in the drug design process.(Szarecka & Dobson, 2019; Tantillo et al., 2019)

By comparing the structural features of agonists and antagonists and the effects observed in the overall 3D conformation of the receptor, students were able to differentiate the different SAR parameters required for the agonists and antagonists action at the molecular and effect levels. As we moved from traditional teaching and with the start of using the 3D visualization software, many students were overwhelmed by the experience, and most importantly, they were surprised to know of the availability of such technology.

The survey distributed at the end of the course has helped to obtain the students insight and perspective on the newly used teaching methods and the assignment. The success of using these newer methods had created a more interactive classroom environment. Most of the student, if not all, were interested in visualizing and discussing the 3D structure presented to them. A very positive response was reported, as well as an increase in marks of the students and in different course assessments As expected most students found it hard to learn to use the software, but most agreed that the training offered was a good start. The one to one help was offered to all students, however, in all six semesters, not all students would seek such help. Students views about the assignment were generally positive once they became familiar with the fundamental tool of drug design process.

184 and exams; end of semester course evaluation questioner; and achievement of the course intended learning outcomes (ILOs). Using 3D protein visualization tools in lectures has improved students understanding of medicinal chemistry and other pharmacy curriculum topics. In addition, many students indicated that they want more advanced tools to be used in different courses in the pharmacy curriculum.

The medicinal chemistry course is usually perceived as difficult, hard to comprehend, and clinically irrelevant to pharmacy students. With the new tools, students gained a better understanding of the molecular basis of drug action and were able to understand, rather than just memorize, the SAR. In addition, the assignment has helped to integrate their chemistry knowledge to the other Pharmacy curriculum topics. In addition, some students showed increased in CADD.

The Permission Note has been received to use any material in the manuscript such as figures etc. which is not original content.

Conflict of Interest: The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest. The article is the authors' original work, has not received prior publication and is not under consideration for publication elsewhere. Research involving Human participants, but the ethical standards are followed.

6. Compliances with the Ethical Standards

7. Acknowledgments

The author wishes to thank the developers for the free software that was described in this work. In addition, the author thanks all the scientists who put their time and effort on the identification, purification, and crystallization of macromolecules deposited to the Protein Data Bank, without whom this work and our efforts to improve the students’ learning experience would be impossible.

5. Conclusion

The use of 3D visualization tools in teaching undergraduate medicinal chemistry has been shown to be a very valuable tool. A large positive outcome in students’ understanding of the subject has been reported. Although the free interface of “Discovery Studio Visualizer” software lacked any advanced modelling tools, it was sufficient to reach our teaching objective. However, many online tools are freely available for use, and can be used for teaching and/or research. It comes as no surprise that most students faced some difficulties when they started using the software, especially that they were not previously exposed to 3D macromolecular structures nor to any visualization tool

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Medicinal Chemistry Assignment Macromolecular Drug Targets

Dr. Heba Abdel-Halim Faculty of Pharmacy and of Petra

Medical Sciences University

In recent times dramatic advances have been made in the structural characterization of both ligands and macromolecules and the structure of their complex. Experimental techniques such as nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy and x ray crystallography have been developed to the point that determination of structures of complex biomolecules can be determined often in a matter of weeks. Additionally increases in computational power have allowed the development of powerful software capable of both developing model structures of macromolecular receptors and the graphical display of these structures on computer terminals. To facilitate the distribution of structural information regarding biopolymers international data bases have been developed to provide structure coordinate files for free download via the internet. The largest of these is the Protein Data Bank (PDB) that is operated through a number of mirror sites worldwide. The growth in structural information is exemplified by the growth in the number of structures deposited in the PDB with the first structure deposited in 1976 and by July 2019 greater than 154015 biological macromolecular structures are currently available for download.3

Macromolecular Drug Targets Assignment

Introduction The maintenance of lifelargely depends on the appropriate functioning ofa range of macromolecular biopolymersthat includes structural proteins, enzymes, receptor proteinsand nucleicacids(DNAand RNA). These biomolecules particularly playanimportant rolein the transfer of information between and within cells (signal transduction) that is essential for the coordinated functioning of the whole organism. A general mechanism for signal transduction involves the binding of a small molecule (ligand) to a macromolecular partner (receptor). This binding triggers a change in the 3 dimensional (3D) shape (conformation) of the receptor that leads to a specific biological effect. Examples of this type of system include the interaction of a hormone with its receptor and antigens with T cell receptors. The binding interaction between a ligand and its receptor is required to form a tight and specific association in order for the induced biological effect to be controlled effectively. As these conditions require the receptor and ligand to be able to specifically recognize each other, the whole process of ligand binding to a receptor is termed “molecular recognition” 1

2 Medicinal Chemistry

Generally, when a ligand binds to its receptor no chemical bonds are formed and the binding is described as being non covalent in nature. The strength and specificity of the interaction then depends on theaccumulation ofa large number of weak interactions such as hydrogen bonds, van der Waals and charge charge attractions. The strength of these interactions depends on the structural complementarity existing between the ligand and its binding site. The original structural binding model for this interaction was proposed by Fischer in the latter part of the 19th century and described the ligand as a key being inserted into the macromolecular lock. This model for the interaction of a ligand and its receptor is still applicable today with the added refinement that both the ligand and the macromolecule are flexible in nature and so have some ability to mold to the structural features of thebinding partner. Thistype ofinteractionistermed “induced fit”andisthecurrently most accepted model for the interaction of a ligand and its receptor 2

Ligand (natural substrates or drug molecules) binding by macromolecules are critical both to the healthy functioning of the human body and the therapeutic and toxic effects of drugs. The principles that control ligand binding by biological receptors are known as molecular recognition and depend critically on general complementarity in shape and chemical properties such as charge between the small molecule and the ligand binding site on the macromolecule 2 Research Project

II. Discussion should include figures showing all interactions of ligand. Student should not copy material from reference sources including web sites and journal articles without proper referencing.

Thisresearch project will use3D visualization softwareto examinethe structureofa macromolecular receptor molecule and the interaction of this receptor with specific ligand, which may be a natural compound or drug molecule. Your results will be submitted in the forms:

Macromolecular Biopolymer Structure

1. Figure file sent by email.

Software Used:  Discovery Studio Visualizer, 2017 R2.4 Software is installed in all Faculty of Pharmacy computer lab and a copy is available for students to install to their personal computers

Ligand Binding

Macromolecular biopolymers fall primarily into 3 categories; proteins, nucleic acids or carbohydrates. Like all polymers each of these molecules consists of a long sequence of covalently linked monomeric units. For proteins these monomeric units are amino acids while for DNA and RNA they are nucleotide base units and for carbohydrates the monomers are sugars. For each biopolymer the monomeric units are linked together by specific covalent bonds: in proteins these are the peptide bonds and the full protein is also known as a polypeptide chain. This leads to the first structural characterization of biopolymers known as their primary structure. Primary structure is the linear sequence of monomeric units that make up the biopolymer thus for a protein the primary structure is the specific sequence of amino acids that constitute the polypeptide chain. Generally the primary sequence for the biopolymer is determined by sequential chemical degradation of the molecule followed by chemical analysis to identify the removed monomeric unit. So for a protein this constitutes sequential hydrolysis of the peptide bonds along the protein chain and chemical analysis to identify which of the 20 naturally occurring amino acids has been removed. Biopolymers on the other hand have various energetic forces that result in the molecules adopting an overall specific 3D shape (tertiary structure). These shapes are generally made up from collections of what is known as secondary structural elements including α helices and β sheets. A number of ways to depict the secondary structure elements exist when visualizing the protein structure.1

Macromolecules

I. Introduction: the implications of the macromolecule in health and/or disease states and the effect of the ligand binding on the protein

2. PosterPoster:should be written in a scientific language and includes:

4 Assignment Guide Visualization of receptor alone and in complex with the ligand molecule to examine overall structural features of the receptor, specific structural basis for interaction between the receptor and the bound molecule. 1. Search and select protein structure: 1.1 Visit the webpage: www.rcsb.org 1.2 Search for target. 1.3 Select target and click to open webpage.

5 2. Target page: 2.1 Visit the target webpage. 2.2 Download the target file.

Different small molecules and ligands crystalized within the different protein binding sites are listed on the webpage:

6 3. Small ligands information

7 4. Open the *.pdb file using DS Visualizer 2.0 (Accelrys ®): 4.1 On the left panel you can select amino acids, water or ligand: Use “Ctrl” and H to show the left panel. 4.2 Similar ligand codes found on this list and on the webpage. 4.3 Protein or ligand can be selected by left mouse click. Use “Ctrl” to select more than one entry. Selected items will be highlighted in yellow.

8 5. Working with the protein structure: 5.1 Display Style: change display preferences and background 5.2 T rotate and move the protein molecule. 6. Receptor ligand interactions: 6.1 Add hydrogens to the Protein and Ligand

9 6.2 Select the ligand form the left panel. 6.3 Define the ligand by clicking Define Ligand. 6.4 Show the ligand interactions from Show 2D Diagram. 32 1

10 6.5 Record residue names and numbers involved in interactions with the receptor: 7. Reporting the results: Reported results should include: a) Amino acids involved in ligand binding b) Figures for the ligand interactions c) Figures can be saved as images: 8. Poster: 8.1 Assignment poster should be: a) written in a scientific language b) follow the format of a journal article: Introduction, Results, Discussion, Conclusion, and References. c) discussion should include figures for the secondary structural elements of the studied protein, and the different ligand interactions d) proper referencing of information, diagrams, and figures.

2. Metz, G.; Ottleben, H.; Vetter, D., Protein Ligand Interactions: FromMolecular Recognition to Drug Design. 2005; Vol. 19.

3. Berman, H. M.; Westbrook, J.; Feng, Z.; Gilliland, G.; Bhat, T. N.; Weissig, H.; Shindyalov, I. N.; Bourne, P. E., The Protein Data Bank. Nucleic Acids Res 2000, 28, 235 242. Dassault Systèmes BIOVIA, BIOVIA Discovery Studio Visualizer. Release 2017 R2, San Diego: Dassault Systèmes, 2017.

References: 1. Harvey, R. A. P. D., Lippincott Illustrated reviews: Biochemistry. Fifthedition.Philadelphia : Wolters Kluwer Health, : 2011.

Michael B. Cahapay College of Education, Mindanao State University, Fatima, General Santos City, South Cotabato, Philippines http://orcid.org/0000 0002 0588 0022

The expectation of a high passing rate in the teacher licensure examination intends to ensure a base of competence for public protection (Pitter, Lanham, & McGalliard 1997). It also holds teacher education institutions accountable for their programs (Knowles, Plake, Robinson, & Mitchell, 2001). Thus, success in the teacher licensure examination serves two purposes. It does not only indicate that the person holding the license possesses the entry capacity to perform the

188 ©2020 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 4, pp. 188 205, April https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.4.120202

1. Introduction

Abstract. The purpose of this study is to probe the differences caused by selected cognitive variables such as entrance test scores (ETS) and grade point average (GPA) on the performance of the graduates in the Licensure Examination for Teachers (LET). It entailed a causal comparative embedded mixed method research design. The study followed a cohort of 42 purposively sampled graduates of Bachelor of Elementary Education (BEEd), College of Education (CoEd), Mindanao State University (MSU), General Santos City (GSC) Descriptive statistics and inferential statistics were used to determine the differences in the LET performance when grouped according to arbitrary categories of the cognitive variables. A presentation of case narratives and thematic analysis was further used to explore the significant differences. The result disclosed that the ETS of the graduates grouped as passed and conditional cause a significant difference in the LET performance. It further uncovered that the GPA of the graduates grouped as high, average, and low causes a significant difference in the LET performance

Probing the Differences Caused by Cognitive Variables on LET Performance: An Embedded Mixed Method Study

Keywords: entrance test scores; grade point average; Licensure Examination for Teachers; embedded mixed method

The qualitative probes revealed themes such as access to review materials, metacognitive strategies, motivational experiences, and efficacy to succeed. These themes provide explanatory context to the differences in the performance of the graduates in the LET. The implications are further discussed in the study.

Tperformance.hepresentinquiry

The Republic Act No. 7836, also known as the Philippine Teachers Professionalization Act of 1994, mandated the promotion, development, professionalization, supervision, and regulation of the practice of teaching in the Philippines. Recognizing the significant role of the teachers in the process of building solid foundations of the nation through education, a primary provision of the said law is the conduct of the LET It is a measure to ensure the quality of the teachers and teacher education institutions in the entire country. Thus, teacher education graduates are required to pass the licensure examination before they can be allowed to practice as professional teachers in the field.

A vast body of recent scholarly works (e.g. Hegman, Roscoe, & Statler, 2015; Bennett, Bormann, Lovan, & Cobb, 2016; Rabanal, 2016; Cameron, MacKeigan, Mitsakakis, & Pugsley, 2017; Huhn & Parrott, 2017; Labastilla, 2017; Meiners & Rush, 2017; Bellen, Abela, R., & Truya, 2018; Havrilla, Zbegner, & Victor, 2018; Kume & Horbacewicz, 2018; Wolden, 2018) has continued the tradition of determining the predictive power of different cognitive variables on the licensure examination performance of the graduates. However, a closer look at these studies reveals a scarcity of effort that attempts to further probe the differences caused by the cognitive variables on the licensure examination

retrospectively suggests that, when looking at the LET performance of the graduates, it is important not only to determine the differences caused by selected cognitive variables such as ETS and GPA. It should be underscored that performance as a human construct is a combination of an array of confounding systems and interactions accumulated through time. Drawing upon the notions of ecological systems (Bronfenbrenner, 1979), this

A cumulative record of the national passing rates in the LET elementary level released by the Commission on Higher Education, however, indicates an erratic trend over the past few years. The national passing rate was documented at 31.18% in 2013. The figure went higher at 35.74% in 2014. However, it did not drastically improve in the following years with 31.36% in 2015, 30.18% in 2016, and 26.33% in 2017 respectively. This trend suggests that a large majority of elementary teacher education institutions in the country produce a considerable number of graduates who are not qualified to practice in the field after Thisgraduation.matter appears to be unique in the BEEd, CoEd, MSU, GSC. The passing rates for its first time takers were recorded as follow: 75.91% in 2013; 71.14% in 2014; 68.35% in 2015; 69.51% in 2016; and 78.98% in 2017. While these numbers signify a performance that is above the national passing rate, the department administration voiced concern about the annual cohort of graduates below the passing rate This cohort can be traced back to some disadvantaged students admitted to the program (J. Pantao, personal communication, October 24, 2017).

Though differences in the cognitive abilities seem to be the meat of the department discussions on this issue, there appear to be other covert perspectives that need to be illuminated.

1. What differences in the LET performance of the passed and conditional groups are caused by the ETS?

3. What themes emerge when the differences in the LET performance are placed in a broader explanatory context?

study attempts to address an essential need to explore the themes that contextually underpin the differences in the licensure examination performance of the graduates Thus, the general purpose of this study is to probe the differences caused by selected cognitive variables on the LET performance of BEEd graduates. It specifically answered the following questions:

2. Literature Review

The ecological systems theory pioneered by Bronfenbrenner (1979) explores the biological, emotional, social, and cultural aspects that influence human development It calls for the attention of scholars on the process of human development as being fashioned by the interaction between the individuals and their environment. This theory posits that interactions, institutions, and systems have a profound impact on the development of people.

2. What differences in the LET performance of the low, average, and high groups are caused by the GPA?

The ecological systems have been likewise used over the years to study human behavior and performance (e.g. Darling, 2007; Tzeng & Gau, 2012; Culpepper & Killion, 2016; Rojas Drummond, 2016; Walker, 2016; Eriksson, Ghazinour, & Hammarstrom, 2018). The theory has encouraged valid studies in contextual variations Thus, it can be redefined in this research to determine the differences caused by selected cognitive variables and explain the unique themes that underlie the performance of the graduates.

There is plentiful evidence that proves how admission policies and school outcomes play a role in the success in the licensure examinations. A review of relevant researches conducted mostly in the domain of health sciences (Cook, Engelhard, Landry, & McCallum, 2015; Gresham, Thompson, Luedtke Hoffman, & Tietze, 2015; Gullo, McCarthy, Shapiro, & Miller, 2015; Kidder, 2015; Moniyung, 2015; Ingrassia, 2016; Bayliss, Thomas, & Eifert-Mangine, 2017; Huhn & Parrott, 2017; Kaddoura, Flint, Van Dyke, Yang, & Chiang, 2017; Meiners & Rush, 2017; Pelton, 2017; Robi, 2017; Havrilla et al, 2018; Kume & Horbacewicz, 2018; Wolden, 2018; Oducado, Cendana, & Belo Delariarte, 2019) reports how linear combinations of different cognitive outcomes predict the performance of students in various licensure examinations Furthermore, works particularly in the field of teacher education in the Philippines is likewise replete with predictive validity analyses (Pachejo & Allaga, 2013; Gerundio & Balagtas, 2014; Hena, Ballado, Dalucapas, Ubane, & Basierto, 2014; Tarun, Gerardo, & Tanguilig, 2014; Esmeralda & Espinosa, 2015; Quiambao, Baking, Buenviaje, Nuqui, & Cruz, 2015; Visco, 2015; Mayuga, 2016; Rabanal, 2016; Rudio, 2016; Dagdag, Sarmiento, Ibale, 2017; Dato on, Ungui, Lepon, & Del Rosario, 2017; Labastilla, 2017; Solis-Foronda, 2017; Nool, Ladia,

3. Method 3.1 Research design

This research followed the cohort of students who enrolled and graduated from the BEEd Department, CoEd, MSU, GSC. There are two specific considerations for selecting the participants. First, they must have taken the system admission examination and entered the program in 2012. Second, they must have graduated from the program by completing all the course requirements to eventually take the LET in 2016. Themes when differences in LET performance are placed in broader explanatory context ETS and GPA PerformanceLET

The present work employs an embedded mixed method research design, in which the embedded nature occurs at the design level. A supportive set of information in this design is provided to a primary set of information within a larger research design (Creswell & Clark, 2011) For example, within the main correlation framework, the researcher may supplement a narrative strand. There are initially two known models under this design: correlation and experimental. The present study is essentially built on these embedded design models but innovated a causal comparative design. This main quantitative framework is embedded with qualitative information gathered through interviews. This innovation is found to meet the general purpose of this inquiry.

Interpretation Based on the Quantitative andResultsQualitative

The present research is related to most of the reviewed studies. It builds on the relationship between a set of independent cognitive variables and the licensure examination performance of the students. However, it is also different in a significant manner. Gaining insights both from the problem in the practice and the notions of ecological systems, this study extends the discourse to investigate the unique themes that probe the differences in the licensure examination performance of the graduates. This aspect has not been well explored in most researches dealing with the causal power of the different cognitive variables on the licensure examination performance of the graduates

3.2 Study sample

Figure 1: The embedded mixed method design of the study

The data for this inquiry were gathered from different sources. First, the quantitative data were accessed from secondary sources upon permission. The ETS were retrieved through the online admission database while the GPA was requested from the college secretary The ETS deals with four types of tests: aptitude, math, language, and science. The GPA is based on the weighted mean of grades from general and professional education courses. On the other hand, the certified LET ratings were obtained individually from the participants. With these quantitative data, the researcher assembled a master list that included the ETS, GPA, and LET ratings of the participants. Moreover, the qualitative data of this paper were collected from structured interviews with selected participants. The researcher prepared an interview guide that contained common procedures and key questions to ensure each participant experience a consistent interview design. The questions specifically intended to navigate the experiences of each participant related to ETS, GPA, and LET rating The said questions were evaluated by two colleagues of the researcher and three former students with similar characteristics as the target participants. It was done to ensure the appropriateness of the questions.

3.6 Data collection

3.4 Data sources

The researcher followed two main stages of data collection corresponding to the two sets of data types needed for this study. These stages reflect the embedded

The study was conducted in the context of the BEEd Department, an academic unit that grants a degree for prospective elementary school teachers in the field. It is under the CoEd of MSU located at Fatima, GSC, South Cotabato, Philippines. It recently gained attention for garnering most of the top places in the LET including the first and second places (Estabillo, 2019).

The population is the best sample for the study which consists of one 134 (100%) officially graduated students However, only 102 (76.12%) of them positively responded to participate With this initial number at hand, only 42 (31.34%) were purposefully selected to be included in the final pool of the study sample. The selection was made by matching student characteristics to equally distribute them into the groups required in this research Moreover, from this final pool, the participants for the interview were selected by the researcher based on their exceptional cases that can help explain the differences observed. Four graduates were originally selected with the following combination of cases: conditional ETS and passed LET; conditional ETS and failed LET; passed ETS and passed LET; passed ETS and failed LET.

Following the ethical considerations in conducting a study, the participation of the graduates in this work was initially sought. A formal letter was sent to them online. It articulated the general purpose of the research, the importance of their voluntary participation, and data that it will entail It was also stressed that confidentiality will be maintained throughout the process.

3.3 Research context

3.5 Ethical considerations

nature of the mixed method design innovated specifically for the attainment of the purpose of this inquiry

Finally, the researcher conducted a thematic analysis. The qualitative data were examined to discover the contextual insights of the participants about the differences caused by ETS and GPA on the LET performance. The utterances were analyzed, then grouped into categories and themes to explain the differences uncovered in the causal comparative framework. The theme is the main product of this data analysis technique (Green et al., 2007).

4. Results 4.1 Differences in LET performance caused by ETS

On the other hand, ANOVA was performed to answer the difference caused by the GPA of graduates grouped into low, average, and high. Tukey test further provided for the identification of the specific differences between the groups All tests were done at 0.05 level of significance. Selected narrative cases were also presented to expound the differences caused by the GPA. The descriptive statistics provided the mean and standard deviation for each category All the tests were performed using SPSS version 17.

3.7 Data analysis

This study first sought to find out the differences in the LET performance when the graduates are grouped according to their ETS as passed and conditional. The results are shown in Table 1.

After the interview tool has been prepared, the researcher arranged schedules with the identified participants for separate interviews. Each interview lasted on average between thirty minutes and one hour. The utterances of each participant were recorded in a master transcript The data were coded, analyzed, and interpreted. Then, the qualitative results were structured to explain the differences uncovered initially in the causal comparative framework.

A series of preliminary tests were performed to assess the normality and homogeneity of the data. This initial process helped the researcher determine the most suitable statistical tests to apply. Since the groups showed normal distributions and homogeneous variances, the parametric tests were found to be Theappropriate.ttestfor independent samples was used to determine the difference caused by the ETS of the graduates grouped into passed and conditional categories. The test was done at 0.05 level of significance. Furthermore, the researcher carefully selected and presented interesting narrative cases of the graduates to confirm the difference caused by the ETS

First, the researcher asked permission from the appropriate authorities and offices to obtain the ETS and GPA of the participants. When all the needed information has been furnished, the researcher organized them. Then, the data were computed, analyzed, and interpreted. The quantitative results were used as bases for framing the focus questions in the second stage

The results of the independent samples t test show that the means of LET performance are significantly different between the graduates whose ETS is passed (M = 80.17, SD = 3.01) and conditional (M = 76.17, SD = 3.21); t (40) = 4.18, p = 0.00. It can be inferred from the results that, on average, graduates with passed ETS performed better in LET than graduates with conditional ETS.

On the other hand, Participant 2 got conditional ETS but interestingly passed the LET with higher rating compared to others who got passed ETS. Participant 2 narrated that: “Taking the LET is different from taking the entrance test. I got a low score during the entrance test because I was not able to review due to being busy having different activities way back in our high school days.

On the other hand, takers in the LET are given ample time of review and even the CoEd helped through the provision of review materials” (Participant 2).

194 ©2020 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Table 1: LET performance by ETS LET ETS 95% CI DifferenceMeanfor t p df Passed Conditional M SD n M SD n 4.02 4.18 0.00* 40 80.17 3.01 21 76.15 3.21 21

Confirming these quantitative findings with the qualitative probes, however, results seem to tell otherwise. The narrative case of Participant 1 who got passed ETS and obtained high LET performance is presented. He reasoned out that: “My MSU entrance test score, which is a product of my high school education, did not fully contribute to my LET performance. Even though the topics in high school and the entrance test were also taught in college, however, remembering the concepts will not help that much. You need to have a good understanding of the concept to come up with the best answer in LET” (Participant 1) For Participant 1, his ETS is a product of good education during his high school years. He further cited that his high school experiences prepared him to remember concepts which are also the skill tested in the entrance test. However, he made a distinction between the skills tested in the entrance test and the LET, saying that the entrance test entails remembering while LET needs understanding. He elaborated that taking the LET requires training in understanding concepts to be able to correctly answer the problems. Therefore, for him, ETS and his high school education by extension did not directly contribute to his LET performance

Based on the statements of Participant 2, ETS is not an indication of LET performance. His low score in the entrance test, as he enlightened, was caused by a lack of preparation before the entrance test, which subsequently resulted in him obtaining conditional ETS. It can be implied that his ETS is not a reflection

Probing these quantitative findings to the qualitative findings, results complement each other. For example, Participant 1 stated about GPA that:

Table

4.2 Differences in LET performance caused by GPA

The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. of his real performance at that time and he could have gained passed ETS. He claimed that by the time he would take the LET, he had enough time to prepare through review. It is interesting to note that he performed in the LET with a higher score compared to most of those who got passed ETS

Lastly, Participant 3 got conditional ETS and obtained low LET performance. She told in the interview that: “No, because in the LET, my mindset is already different from the admission examination that I took. I got low scores on my admission examination because at that time when I took it, our family had a big problem and it affected my concentration. But now I already have the confidence that I can pass the LET with faith” (Participant 3) As can be discerned from the statements of Participant 3, she does not relate her low ETS to her eventual low LET performance. When she took the entrance test, she cited personal reasons such as family problems that affected her concentration, which resulted in her low ETS This implies that her ETS does not reflect her ability to perform well in the LET. Although she got a low score in the LET, she claimed to have later gained knowledge to perform well.

This study also sought to find out the differences in the LET performance when the graduates are grouped according to their GPA as high, average, and low categories The results are shown in Table 2. 2: LET performance by GPA LET GPA Tukey Comparisons Categories M SD n p High Average High 80.72 2.28 11 .006*Average 78.15 4.00 17 .126 Low 76.15 3.04 14 .004* .228 A one way ANOVA was conducted to compare the significant difference in the first time LET performance of graduates grouped according to high, average, and low GPA categories. The results showed that there is a significant difference in the LET performance of the graduates for the three categories (p = 0.006). Tukey test further indicated that the LET performance mean score for graduates with high GPA (M = 80.72, SD = 2.28) was significantly different from the students with low GPA (M = 76.15, SD = 3.04), p = 0.004. On the other hand, the LET performance of the graduates with average GPA (M = 78.15, SD = 4.00) was not significantly different from graduates with high GPA, p = .126, and graduates with low GPA, p = .228.

2 likewise supported the result that GPA made a difference He detailed his context that: “The main factor that helped me or challenged me to obtain a good GPA and to pass all of my subjects during my college years in MSU is that my other siblings are all MSU graduates and all of them are professionals. It challenged me in a way that I should also graduate. I cannot find a great school to which I only pay 3000 pesos in a semester. I might as well give justice to what I pay and have a good GPA. Yes, GPA made a difference in my performance in the LET” (Participant 2). For Participant 2, GPA is an indicator of passing the LET. Looking further into the driving force of his good GPA in college, it can be revealed that indirect family pressure prompted him to academically achieve higher and eventually pass the LET. He said that his siblings are all graduates of the same state university where he was also studying and all of them have become professionals. These forms of expectations challenged him in a way that he saw the expectation to graduate also from the same university and become a licensed professional teacher.

Participant 1 described that the GPA and its contributory factors helped him pass the LET. These contributory factors are mostly the ways he was trained during his college years. He cited these factors as being urged by his professors to study well, motivated to read beyond what is shown, asked critical questions that he does not have an idea, and critical in analyzing given situations. These factors helped him answer the questions in the LET, which according to him, required a deep understanding and critical thinking about given actual teaching Participantsituations.

“My GPA reflects the way our professors urged us to study, asked us baffling questions, and motivated us to be very critical in every information or situation given. They taught us to learn things independently which helped me in the LET because most of the questions in the LET would measure your decision making in the real scenario or the actual classroom” (Participant 1).

Moreover, Participant 3 shared a very personal case. She recounted experiences related to GPA by saying that: “I believe that my GPA, a reflection of my 5 years of studying at MSU, is enough for me to pass the LET. One of the reasons that inspired me to strive for a good GPA is that I wanted to show to people who underestimated me that I can graduate in the university. I admit that since when I was a child, I used to be asthmatic. The people in my surrounding knows my past situation well, which is the reason why they underestimated me when I entered university. They said that I cannot graduate because of my situation, that I chose a school that does not fit me because the buildings are scattered. It is very hot, very dusty, plus the fact that my father died. People judged me easily and it hurt a lot.

This study ultimately intended to probe the themes that explain the differences in the LET performance of the graduates when placed in a broader context. The results are shown in Table 3.

Aside from the learning, you need to have the confidence in yourself that you can indeed conquer the examination Confidence that one can pass examinationthe Efficacy to succeed

Reviewer from the college as a resource material Access to materialsreview

Table 3: Themes when differences in LET performance are explained Codes Categories Themes Even the CoEd helped through the provision of review materials, especially in the professional education courses.

But then I did not care what the people said I continued my dream to graduate with a degree” (Participant 3).

I decided to myself that I will use those people who looked me down as a motivation to strive hard, to achieve all the dreams in my life. Inspiration from undesirable external experiences

4.3 Themes when differences in LET performance are explained

Participant 3 believed that her GPA is a factor that helped her in the LET. But exploring deeper into her motivation, she disclosed that her desire to prove her worth to other people inspired her to study well in college and pass the LET. She expressed that many people underestimated her capabilities to finish college because she used to be frail and people thought she will not survive given the university environment. However, she used those experiences as inspiration to reach her ultimate dream to graduate from college and pass the licensure examination.

Some of the questions in the LET are very familiar to me because some of them are in the reviewers that I read Reviewers familiarizetowith the types of questions I read the different reviewers as much as I could and then I answered their test questions. Reviewers as sources of test contents and questions I just made sure that I have a deeper understanding of the concepts in education and did not memorize everything. Awareness of relevant thinking skill for the examination strategiesMetacognitive

Positive pressure from indirect experiencefamilys experiencesMotivational

The only thing that I relied on was the lessons that were taught particularly those topics in the teaching profession. Selection appropriateof contents for review I check it myself if I got a high or low score and see to it that I give time to study the mistakes that I made. Internal monitoring of own performance in the test My other siblings are all MSU graduates and all of them are professionals. It challenged me in a way that I should also graduate.

5. Discussion

Thematic analysis was used to analyze the utterances of the participants. This process involved the generation of codes, categories, and themes. The following themes emerged from the analysis:

The initial quantitative result of this study is not surprising. It supports the general notion about the influence of the ETS on the board examination performance. For example, the results of the research of Moniyung (2015) demonstrated that a point increase in ETS increases the odds of being successful in the nursing licensure examination by almost five times. When it comes to the field of teacher education, the result of this paper also coincides with the results of Dagdag et al. (2017) which accounted for a medium influence of ETS on the general education and professional education components of the LET.

Amidst the extensive discourse in other numerous quantitative studies, however, the contextual reasons for the differences in the licensure examination performance of the students based on ETS have not been well explored. It is

Theme 3: Motivational experiences. An interesting theme as revealed by the participants is their personal motivational experiences which they used as inspiration to succeed in the LET. The participants mentioned personal experiences such as unspoken pressure brought by family achievement and personal struggle against the negative perceptions of other people around. What made these experiences more interesting is the fact that they used the circumstances as positive motivations to succeed in their studies and the LET.

Theme 1: Access to review materials. The graduates have access to different review materials including the one developed by their department. Other reviewers were from review centers and stores. These review materials helped them become exposed to different types of questions that are like the ones in the LET. The reviewers also usually have practice tests. It assisted the participants in honing their skills in taking the test.

I always set in my mind that I must pass the licensure examination for me to become an officially certified teacher. Conditioning of the mind to pass the examination

Theme 2: Metacognitive strategies. Some thinking strategies were used by the participants to train their minds in answering LET questions. They prepared their mind by familiarizing with the kind of questions asked in the LET which required application rather than just knowledge. They were also selective with the type of topics for focus in the review. They monitored their test performance. They took mock tests by themselves, checked where they went wrong and studied it to improve

Theme 4: Efficacy to succeed. The graduates also expressed a form of efficacy to succeed, a strong conviction in themselves that they will pass the LET. They cited that aside from what they have learned, they conditioned their minds that they should succeed to reach their goals They developed a kind of confidence in themselves, claiming optimistically that they will pass the LET.

particularly interesting that, in the qualitative probes of this study, ETS did not consistently appear to be a contributor to the LET performance A participant articulated this dissociation between ETS and LET by saying that ETS and LET are different. He expounded that ETS measures stock knowledge while LET mostly requires the application of knowledge in educational situations. This way, ETS did not influence his LET performance. Feeley, Williams, and Wise (2005) critiqued the validity of some admission tests in predicting the future performance of the students. They pointed out that some of the admission tests do not measure higher thinking abilities such as application of knowledge which is usually tested in licensure examinations.

Finally, this study significantly proposes evidence about the themes that contextually explain the differences caused by ETS and GPA on the LET performance. The participants conveyed unique themes such as access to review materials, metacognitive strategies, motivational experiences, and efficacy to succeed. These themes emulate the nature of human performance as a result of diverse systems, interactions, and factors in the environment.

The other participants justified that they have matured in the process such that ETS was not significant by the time they took the LET. The concept of maturation is a learning process characterized by an increase of competencies. It enables a person to perform something that he or she cannot previously perform (Thakker, 2019) Thus, based on the premise of the participants, maturation has control in the possibility that ETS has no causal role in the LET performance of the Moreoverparticipants.,theresult of this study when it comes to the influence of GPA on the LET performance is consistent with the trends found in the previous studies Hence, for instance, Bayliss et al. (2017) determined the GPA to be the greatest predictor of the first pass rate on the national physical therapy examination. This result is also not new in the field of teacher education. Labastilla (2017) uncovered a substantial relationship between GPA and the ratings of the students in the professional education component in the LET.

On the other hand, qualitative studies are still to be desired with regards to the association between the GPA and success in licensure examinations The qualitative result of the present inquiry offered interesting narratives of GPA as a predictor variable that is more than just a number. The participants disclosed that GPA reflects the different experiences that shaped their motivations to earn a good GPA and perform in the LET. These experiences consist of the practices of their professors, expectations of their families, and behaviors of other individuals in the environment. Such qualitative result elucidated by the participants appears to be captured in the psychological construct known as motivational climate Based on the early works of Ames (1992), the motivational climate is a social situation in which significant others like teachers, coaches, and parents facilitate motivational achievement. It occurs through the expectations, values, and behaviors demonstrated to the students (Weigand, Carr, Petherick, & Taylor, 2001) This construct precisely mirrors the premises indicated by the participants.

6. Conclusion

This study was guided by its general purpose. It attempted to probe the differences caused by selected cognitive variables such as ETS and GPA on the LET performance of the graduates. It was disclosed that the ETS of the graduates grouped as passed and conditional cause a significant difference in the LET performance. However, this quantitative result did not appear to be corroborated in the qualitative result. The participants clarified that ETS and LET are two different tests measuring different knowledge types and levels They must have also matured in between ETS and LET such that ETS did not define their performance by the time they took the LET.

This current research offers an alternative interest to the readers regarding the absolute validity of ETS as a predictor of LET performance. The result of this study drew different quantitative and qualitative outcomes. It can be maintained that ETS is still an essential admission criterion. However, it should be underscored that comprehensive screening approaches require two or more valid instruments Some emerging tools recommended in education are teaching aptitude tests and multiple mini interviews. These instruments qualitatively appraise students in other important aspects that may be predictive of future performance in the licensure examination Moreover, this study revealed that the GPA of the graduates grouped as high, average, and low causes a significant difference in the LET performance. The GPA further proved to be more than just a number. It is mediated by the motivational climate that forms an important factor in the LET performance of the graduates The participants indicated that the practices of their professors, expectations of their families, and behaviors of other individuals shape their motivation to obtain a good GPA and ultimately pass the LET.

This scholarly work allows educators to make informed decisions when dealing with students concerning their GPA and future LET performance. The result provides a set of tentative notions that map students in terms of their GPA, a variable that is found to be sensitive to motivational climate. There is a need to prospectively validate this convoluted result to be able to develop a comprehensive and responsive intervention program that will improve the performance trajectory of the students in the future licensure examination.

The basic notions of ecological systems (Bronfenbrenner, 1979) can be used to reinforce the themes that underpin the differences in the LET performance of the graduates. The ecological systems theory deals with the biological, emotional, social, and cultural aspects of the environment. It conceives that human interactions, institutions, and systems have a profound impact on the development of a person. The themes illustrate the graduates as part of their selves, families, and institutions. Their interactions with other people, connections with institutions in education, and their relationships with the entire system provided them the resources, strategies, and experiences. These all contributed to their LET performance.

There are also restrictions encountered in this study. It was principally conducted in a single research venue The selected cognitive variables were the ETS and GPA only Though the tests of normality and homogeneity were satisfied, the sample was still relatively dismal. The conduct especially of the qualitative portion was constrained by the fact that it only included three cases from the original four cases that represent the maximum variation of possible cases that can be included. Hence, the conclusions drawn in this study should be carefully applied with consideration to the current context

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This innovation paper provides a wider and newer insight about the covert aspects that underpin the differences in the performance of the graduates in the LET The result reveals themes that are not typically given attention in the tradition of largely quantitative works. Thus, the qualitative aspect of the study is proposed to be replicated as an extension of the typically statistical analysis of the relationship between the cognitive variables and licensure examination performance of the graduates

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Keywords: assessment; cognitive domain; descriptive statistic; students’ marks; students’ performance

206 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 4, pp. 206 222, April https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.4.120203 Cognitive Domain Performance for NonLaboratory Embedded and Laboratory Embedded Course Rohaya Alias1, Noraida Mohd Saim2 , Nur Asmaliza Mohd Noor3 and Siti Hawa Rosli4 Faculty of Civil Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA Pahang 26400 Bandar Tun Razak Jengka, Pahang, Malaysia 1https://orcid.org/0000 0002 2129 2677 2https://orcid.org/0000 0002 1600 7720 3https://orcid.org/0000 0001 7185 1628 4https://orcid.org/0000 0002 2955 9778

Abstract. This paper describes the students’ performance in terms of the cognitive domain for non laboratory embedded courses and laboratory embedded courses. The study sample consisted of the students enrolled inthe non laboratory embedded courses(Hydraulics and SoilMechanics) and laboratory embedded courses (Basic Hydraulics and Basic Soil Mechanics) for Diploma in Civil Engineering programme. The cognitive assessment based on the level of cognitive of Bloom's Taxonomy which composes of knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. Methods of cognitive assessment for non laboratory embedded courses differ from laboratory embedded courses. The cognitive assessment for non laboratory embedded courses comes from 60% of the final exam, 30% of the test, and 10% of the assignment. Meanwhile, the cognitive assessment for laboratory embedded course is only through 60% of the final exam. The other evaluations for this course are 30% of practical tests (psychomotor domain) and 10% of laboratory observation (affective domain). Since the assessment methods are different, thisstudy wascarried outtoevaluate the students'performance on the cognitive domain for both courses. The percentage of students’ marks in the coursework and final exam were analysed using a descriptive statistic to measure the students’ performance. The results revealed that the students who through non laboratory embedded courses scored a good result in final examination compared to laboratory embedded courses. Hence, the findings of this study might help educators identifying the reliable and effective assessment method to improve the achievement of learning outcomes.

1. Introduction Education management in Malaysia has evolved progressively to achieve Malaysia’s aspiration to be a developed country. Due to the rapid and sustainable transformation of the education system by 2025, the Education Blueprint has been designed by the government to provide a comprehensive plan (MOE, 2013).

is an essential element in any educational process. The definition of assessment in education consists of the methods and procedures required by the instructor to measure and evaluate the developmental stages of student learning as well as achievement of skills (Glossary of Education Reform, 2015). The assessment is a dynamic and multi faceted process with variable aims (Anaf & Yamin, 2014). The knowledge and skills that students have acquired from the learning session can be evaluated (Vergis & Hardy, 2009). According to Brown et al. (2013), the assessment can determine what students think is important and how they spend their time and effort in reviewing and studying. Suskie (2004) argues that assessment can prove measurable student learning outcomes and provisioning an adequate measure of learning to reach these results. Also, the implementation of well-organized methods of assessment with complete analysis can provide the evidence to determine the requirement for learning. Moreover, assessment is necessary to plan further steps for the improvement of teaching and learning.

However, the education system has been criticized by the industries due to the low performance of graduates and unable to apply the knowledge and skill learned into the job task (Muniapan, 2007).

The assessments of engineering students in Malaysia are based on the learning outcome achievement as stated in the Engineering Technology Accreditation

Currently, there are various assessment methods for courses developed and implemented in higher education to produce more graduates who meet the market demand. The assessment methods are one of the elements that can impact the students' academic performance. However, the results of research that measures their impact on performance are inconclusive (Sacristán Díaz et al., Assessment2016).

1.1. Engineering Courses in Malaysia University

Evaluation on the way of the teaching process is widely conducted in higher educations as this approachable to contribute to the researchers to identify the factors that undermine the learning process. Numerous factors are influencing the learning process starts with students' expectation, teaching material such as course material, method of teaching, instructor/lecturers' competency and the environment of the class (Cho & Cho, 2017). All these factors contribute significantly to the performance of students either in the school or higher institution. Hence, it is very important to conduct students' evaluation to provide important and useful information thus this will help to improve teaching quality among the educators/lecturers. Findings from the students' evaluation may help the instructors/ lecturers and university to improvise their weakness according to the comments given by students (Cho & Baek, 2019).

Bloom's taxonomy is a different set of targets and abilities that educators use to achieve learning objectives. Chung (1994), Lewy & Bathory (1994) and Postlethwaite (1994) agreed to stated that the Bloom's taxonomy of the cognitive domain is one of the basic systems for categorizing the aims of educational, curriculum, and it also uses for test preparation around the world. The cognitive domain acquires processes and utilizes the knowledge, focuses on intellectual skills, and it is more to thinking domain. This domain is the core domain in the learning system. The level involved in this domain is knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation (Bloom, 1956). The development of a curriculum that increases the level of cognitive skills may encourage the academic performance and long term success of the students (Finn et al., 2014).

Council (ETAC) 2019 Manual that requires diploma graduates to satisfy the minimum academic and practical requirement in enabling them to register as an engineering technician/ inspector. Therefore, the university has aligned all the subjects according to the stated requirement by ETAC (BEM, 2019). The design of the assessment was according to the Bloom Taxonomy, which comprises of 3 domains; cognitive (C), psychomotor (P) and affective (A) within the specific criteria and standards. However, these tasks are quite challenging as they have to align to achieve meaningful learning experience (Shelena et al., 2017 & University of New South Wales, 2017).

The cognitive domain can be delivered through lecture using online or face to face method. The measurement of this domain achievement was by exams, tests, assignments and quizzes. The cognitive domain is simple to assess compared with psychomotor and affective domains. The psychomotor domain depicts physical and kinesthetic skills. The level of progressive behaviour defines it from monitoring to mastery of physical skills. Commonly, the development of psychomotor skills is in the laboratory setting, and by carrying out practical tests would measure those skills. Furthermore, the affective domains are related to feelings or emotions (attitude) throughout the learning experience. It expressed through views, opinions or beliefs (Smith & Ragan, 1999). Group project, competition, report and presentation are kind of assessments to measure the attainment of the affective domains. According to Bednar & Levie (1993), actions and behaviours can reflect a person's attitude. Course Outcome (COs) is a target learning and teaching process for the courses. The COs highlighted the outcomes that students should able to understand throughout the semester. Normally, students' ability will be evaluated based on the listed COs at the end of the semester. According to Gowrishankar et al. (2014), good performance students can be produced by educators through incorporating all domains of cognitive, psychomotor and affective into the course, especially for courses offered in higher education such as universities. Students who passed that course should gain all the knowledge and achieved the designated COs. Thus, it is essential to conduct the assessment on the COs to see the results (Kasilingam et al., Meanwhile,2014).

the programme outcomes is a students' expectation and their performance upon graduation. Generally, the students' performance related to the

PO8: Students should understand their role and should adhere the professional ethics as a civil technician.

PO12: Students should be able to have the skill to participate in independent learning and able to engage with the latest information or techniques in civil engineering. This 12 POs divided into the cognitive, psychomotor and affective domain. PO1, PO2 and PO3 can be classified under the cognitive domain as they are used to measure the knowledge and problem solving, which closely related to the cognitive. Meanwhile, the psychomotor domain contributed through PO4 and PO5, which related to the skills and practices used by the students to solve the given problem. Moreover, PO6, PO7, PO8, PO9, PO10, PO11 and PO12 are related to the affective domain because these POs related to the students' attitude and feelings.

PO5: Students should able to use the appropriate modern techniques, resources and information technology to solve the specific engineering problem.

PO3: Students should occupy with the design of the solution for a specific problem by considering the health and safety, environment and social aspect.

PO4: Students should able to know how to conduct the investigation using the catalogues, standard test and measurement on given problems.

PO6: Students should able to know about the safety, legal and social. Thus, this can help to solve a specific problem related to the application of civil engineering.

PO1: Students should have fundamental knowledge related to science and mathematics.

PO9: Students should have the skill to act efficaciously as an individual and as a member of a team.

As required by BEM through ETAC Manual 2019, there are 12 Programme Outcomes (POs) need to be delivered to the student upon their graduation(BEM, 2019). The 12 Programme Outcomes are as follows;

PO7: Students should have knowledge and understanding of the environment and sustainability. Thus, this to help them to solve any given problem that related to the environment and societal.

PO10: Students should able to have effective communication skill; thus, this leads them to communicate on the given problem, give and receive the instruction when involved with the engineering project.

PO11: Students should have an understanding of how to manage the engineering project and finance and able to manage projects in various disciplinary. They should able to have the skill as a technical team or as a leader in the assigned project.

PO2: Students should be able to analyse the specific problem related to the application of engineering.

1.3. Description of Course Hydraulics (ECW241) This course covers the application of the energy equation on in compressible pipe flow, analysis of pipe network and the design of the open channel based on uniform flow condition. Also, this course included the application of specific energy concept and momentum equation forthe analysis of non uniform flow and analysis of pump operation and performance. This course addresses the programme outcome which related to the fundamental and application solution and problem solving using well defined engineering problem.

Soil Mechanics (ECG243) Soil Mechanics deal with the basic principles of soil that related to the concept of effective stress, the process of consolidation and soil shear strength behaviour. The topic of physical properties and classification of soil, the flow of water through soil, shear strength, and soil compaction and consolidation are discussed in this course as well. This course addresses the programme outcome related to the fundamental and application solution in a well defined engineering problem.

1.2. Literature Review

Basic Hydraulic (ECW321) The Hydraulic Engineering explains fluid behaviour such as steady incompressible flow in a pipe, flow uniformly and non uniformly in an open channel and types of machinery such as turbine and pump. This course addresses the programme outcome which related to the fundamental and application solution, problem solving using well defined engineering problem, conducting

According to Ajumunisha Ali Begam & Tholappan (2018), overall assessment incorporating all learning domains for each course is essential to produce skilled and knowledgeable graduates of any higher education programme. Since there were two different cohorts with two different nature of courses (embedded and non embedded course) involved for Diploma of Civil Engineering programme, it is a good chance to make the comparison on the cognitive domain between the embedded and non embedded courses. Thus, the study aims to evaluate the students’ performance in terms of the cognitive domain for non laboratory embedded courses and laboratory embedded courses. The initial drive was to validate which type, of course, perform well in term of the cognitive domain. Besides, findings from this paper can be part of continual quality assessment for faculty level for better improvement in the future.

Many of existing papers discussed on students’ performance according to the domains (cognitive, psychomotor or affective) (Gregory, 2019; Anaf & Yamin, 2014; Tam, 2014; Martone & Sereci, 2009) but only a little discussed on the embedded course (Schuijers et al., 2013). The discussion on the embedded course by Schuijers et al. (2013) on the effectiveness of separating the theoretical part and practical part in physiology courses. Hairuddin et al. (2018) state that embedded courses greatly influence the achievement of culinary arts students. The results of his study have found that the students cannot achieve good performance if they only show cooking skills, but lack in terms of cognitive level. To achieve good performance, the ability to think, understand and apply must also be given.

Table 1: Assessment method for courses under Group 1 and Group 2 Group Course Method of Assessment Domain 1 (Nonembeddedlaboratorycourses) Hydraulic(ECW241) 60% of Final exam 30% of Test 10% of Assignment CCCSoil(ECG243)Mechanics 2 (Laboratoryembeddedcourses) Basic(ECW321)Hydraulic 60% of Final exam 30% of Practical tests 10% of Laboratory observation ACPBasic Soil (ECG303)Mechanics

Basic Soil Mechanics (ECG303) This course deals with the basic principles of soil mechanics. It covers topics on physical properties and classification of soil, shear strength, the flow of water through soil, soil compaction and consolidation. Besides, this course also provides exposure to students on procedures of standard laboratory for soil tests. This course addresses the programme outcome which related to the fundamental and application solution, problem solving of a well defined engineering problem, conducting the standard laboratory test for soil engineering and having knowledge on the safety issues with accordance the engineering technician practices.

211 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. the standard laboratory test for soil engineering and having knowledge on the safety issues with accordance the engineering technician practices.

1.4. Assessment Method

According to the different cohort, there are two different types of assessment known as non laboratory courses embedded in the main course (Group 1) and laboratory courses embedded in the main course (Group 2). The contact hour for the course under Group 1 is 4 hours which comprises of 3 hours lecture and 1 hour tutorial while as the contact hour for the course under Group 2 is 5 hours which includes lecture (2 hours), tutorial (1 hour), and laboratory activities (2 hours). The courses under Group 1 are Hydraulic (ECW241), and Soil Mechanics (ECG243), and the assessment comes from 60% of the final exam (cognitive domain) and 40% of the coursework. The coursework assessments divided into 30% of the test (cognitive domain) and 10% of assignment (cognitive domain).

Meanwhile, the courses under Group 2 are Basic Hydraulic (ECW321) and Basic Soil Mechanics (ECG303) where the assessment contributed through 60% of the final exam (cognitive domain) and 40% of the coursework. The assessment of coursework consists of 30% of practical tests (psychomotor domain) and 10% of laboratory observation (affective domain). The summary of the assessment methods for all the courses shown in Table 1.

Since the methods of assessment and approach are different between the courses of Group 1 and Group 2, therefore this study presents the students’ performance on the cognitive domain for all courses of both groups.

C6 Evaluation 1 30 45 45 65 10 25 2 20

20 35 3 10 25 45 55 30 45

iv. What is the students' perception of teaching and learning for all the courses in the non-embedded course and embedded course?

Year C1 Knowledge ComprehensionC2 C3 Application C4 Analysis C5

Meanwhile, the cognitive level among these courses should follow the allocation that already specified through the table of difficulties (Table 2). The cognitive level has divided into three segments which are low level comprises of knowledge (C1) and comprehension (C2), intermediate level consists of application (C3) and analysis (C4), and higher level comprises of synthesis (C5) and evaluation (C6).

Research questions can be summarized as follows; i. What is the trend of students’ performance for the different courses in the non embedded course and embedded course?

iii. Is there any significant difference in the performance between the non embedded course and embedded course?

Table 2:

The courses of Group 1 and Group 2 have designed for second year of Diploma in Civil Engineering programme, Universiti Teknologi MARA. The study has conducted for TWO (2) different cohort of students which was in June 2017 for Group 1 (G1) and in June 2016 for Group 2 (G2) to achieve the objectives of the study. These cohorts are taught by the same lecturer, which were four (4), instructors/lecturers, for ECG243 and ECG 303 and 3 instructors/lecturers for ECW241 and ECW321.

ii. What is the failure rate of students in the non embedded course and embedded course?

2. Research Method

The assessments of courses mentioned in this paper have designed following the table of difficulties. The allocation marks for assessment involved such as assignment, tests and final examination. Cognitive Level and Percentage Level of Difficulty (%) Synthesis 35 40 60

A total of 275 students of ECW241, 336 students of ECW321, 375 students of ECG243 and 406 students of ECG303 are the sample in this study and the selection of these students according to the total number of students who registered of these courses. The enrolment of these courses was subjected to the students must pass the pre requisite courses thus, indicated only students who take these courses for the first time are involved in this study. The students' results were obtained from

1.5. Research Questions

Table 4: The total number of students enrolled in courses under Group 1 and Group 2 Group Course Male Percentage (%) Female Percentage (%) Total Group 1 ECW241 140 50.91 135 49.09 275 ECG243 202 53.87 173 46.13 375 Group 2 ECW321 157 46.73 179 53.27 336 ECG303 204 50.25 202 49.75 406

213 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. the Academic Affairs Division (Examination Unit) and as such, were assumed to be valid and reliable. The collected students' results were analysed to evaluate the students' performance, and the analysis is made based on the overall achievement comprising the percentage (%) of marks obtained for the courses. Descriptive statistical analysis of the data involving simple frequency counts of the score has applied for each performance results. Also, the significant test using t test method has carried out to evaluate whether any significant difference of the achievement for non embedded and embedded courses. Besides, the comparison of the result between gender also conducted to identify the difference of performance between male and female students. At the end of the semester, students' evaluation survey has been conducted to gauge the students' perception of these courses which related to the learning activities and overall perception on the subjects and the results have been rate according to the Table 3. Table 3: A rating system for students’ perception Students’ evaluation Rating 3.60 4.00 Excellent 3.20 3.59 Very good 2.80 3.19 Good 2.40 2.79 Average Below 2.40 Weak 3. Result and Discussion Samples of the study Table 4 shows the details of the samples in this study. All the students enrolled in those courses was selected in this study to produce a precise analysis of overall performance. Around 50% 54% of the students were male students enrolled in ECW241, ECG243 and ECG303, while 53.27% of female students dominated the course of ECW321. Hence, the distribution of the enrollment between male and female seem to balance for all the courses.

120100806040200 A+ A

ECW241 ECW321 80706050403020100 A+

D E F studentsofNumber Grade ECG243

D+ D E F studentsofNumber

Figure 2: Students’ performance on the cognitive domain for ECG243 and ECG303

Figure 1: Students’ performance on the cognitive domain for ECW241 and ECW321

Figure 3 summarized the percentage of failure for all the courses in Group 1 and Group 2 that show the distribution of failure grade which are C , D+, D, E and F. The trend clearly show that the cognitive assessment of non embedded courses (G1) contributed a low percentage of failure which are less than 8%. Compared A- B+ B B- C+ CGrade A A- B+ B B- C+ C C- D+ ECG303

Students’ Performance on the Cognitive Domain

From both figures, the findings indicated that the students who enrolled in non embedded courses score higher results forcognitive domain compare the students who enrolled in the embedded courses.

Figure 1 indicates the students’ performance on the cognitive domain for the course ECW241 and ECW321 according to the grade obtained. The results indicated, 81.8% of students for ECW241 had passed this course with the minimum grade was C, meanwhile, as for ECW321, around 13.7% from the 336 total number of students had passed this course with the minimum of the grade was C as well. Furthermore, Figure 2 displays the students’ performance for the course of ECG243 and ECG303. The results show that 80.5% of students passed ECG243 compare to ECG303, which only 58.6% of students had passed the course.

(%)Percentage

Figure 3: Percentage of failure on the cognitive domain for Group 1 and Group 2 courses

Table 5 shows the descriptive analysis for ECW241, ECW321, ECG243 and ECG303. The median for ECW241 and ECW321 are 54.5 and 38.5, respectively. While the descriptive analysis for ECG243 and ECG303 also shows that the median and standard deviation for both courses differ slightly. Based on the overall standard deviation, maximum and minimum, it indicates that the marks attained vary widely around the mean for all the courses. The t test also confirmed that the achievement of ECG243 and ECG303 differ significantly with the p value less than 0.05. A similar t test finding between ECW241 and ECW321 showing the significant difference with the p value is 0.018 (also less than 0.05).

Table 5: Descriptive analysis marks attained by the students CourseCode Total Students Mean Median DeviationStandard Maximum Minimum t test (p value) ECW241 275 54.50 54.00 10.14 92.35 27.00 0.018 ECW321 336 37.51 38.50 10.98 68.00 0 50 10 D E F Grade ECG243 ECG303ECW321ECW241(G1)(G1)(G2)(G2)

3530252015 C- D+

The main contributing factor of such finding for non embedded courses is that students have already experienced other cognitive assessments such as test and assignment in their continuous coursework evaluation. Therefore, these assessments indirectly enhance their understanding and performance of cognitive assessment in the final exam. Compared to the embedded courses, the cognitive domain assessment solely depended on the final examination. Thus, only a small number of students able to cope with it and score good results during the final exam. Therefore, this way indirectly able to segregate a good and focus student who always consistently try to understand and study with the students who did not. However, this result slightly differences with the study conducted by Antoni et al. (2019) where the finding indicated students who enrolled embedded subjects score higher mark in final exam compared to students who did not.

From these findings show, the female students score better achievement in the cognitive domain compared to the male students. The factors that contribute to this finding due to female students are more hardworking in doing exercise and more focus during the class compared to the male students. The study conducted by Jones et al. (2013) on the first year university students found that female students were more to get better results in engineering and math courses to compare than the male student. These finding also supported by Burns & Bracey (2001); Clark, Oakley & Adam (2006) were found that the female students' achievement was prominent than the male student in some of the school success. However, these findings might contradict with the study conducted by Joscha & Thomas (2012), where boys did as well or better than girls in mathematics.

ECG243 375 57.10 57.83 13.57 87.54 14.05 1.6x10 5 ECG303 406 52.65 53.00 15.11 86.50 4.50

From this finding, it shows the students who sit for ECW241 and ECG243 demonstrated an excellent achievement on the cognitive level compared to the students who sit for ECW321 and ECG303. The reason behind this, the students who sit for ECW241 and ECG243 had experienced the cognitive level from coursework assessment until final exam stage compared to the students who sit for ECW321 and ECG303 who just go through the cognitive level in the final exam stage. The training attained by ECW241 and ECG243 students had contributed to the excellent achievement grades compared to ECW321 and ECG303.

Students’ Performance on the Cognitive Domain based on Gender Figure 4 and 5 show the performance of students for both courses; ECW241 and ECW321 based on gender. The result indicated that 37.4% (103/275) of male students for ECW241 who had passed this course. Meanwhile, 44.7% (123/275) of female students had passed. As for ECW321, 2.98% (10/336) of male students and 10.71% (36/336) of female students had passed this course. Moreover, Figure 6 and 7 also show the students’ performance based on gender for ECG243 and ECG303. From the chart, it exposes that 41.8% of male students and 38.7% of female students had passed the ECG243 course. Meanwhile, 36.5% of female students and 22.2% of male students had passed the ECG303 course.

217 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Figure 4: Students’ performance for ECW241 based on gender Figure 5: Students’ performance for ECW321 based on gender Figure 6: Students’ performance for ECG243 based on gender 6050403020100 A+ A A- B+ B B- C+ C C- D+ D E F studentsofNumber ECW241GradeMale Female 6050403020100 A+ A A- B+ B B- C+ C C- D+ D E F studentsofNumber ECW321GradeMale Female 454035302520151050 A+ A A- B+ B B- C+ C C- D+ D E F studentsofNumber ECG243GradeMALE FEMALE

Figure 7: Students’ performance for ECG303 based on gender

Students’ Perception Despite students’ assessment, Gregory (2019) also highlighted the teaching and learning activities importance to influence the students’ performance. Table 6 displays the students’ overall perception of the course and the learning that they involved during the process of teaching and learning. The results show all courses attained very good remark with the score around 3.29 until 3.43 and it indicates that they have undergone the same process in the teaching and learning activities. These findings significantly showed, even though the approaches and methods of teaching were similar, still it depends on the ability of the students to cope with the assessments and nature of the course either embedded or non embedded. Nevertheless, the instructor/lecturer need to encourage students to do more exercises to enhance their understanding of these courses. Therefore, to achieve a good grade and increase the performance of the cognitive domain, especially in embedded courses, concerted efforts between instructor/lecturer and students should be further enhanced.

Table 6: Students’ perception of the ECW241, ECW321, ECG243 and ECG303 Subject Items Score Remarks ECW241 The overall perception of the subject 3.33 Very good Learning activity 3.29 ECW321 The overall perception of the subject 3.31 Very good Learning activity 3.33 ECG243 The overall perception of the subject 3.43 Very good Learning activity 3.43 ECG303 The overall perception of the subject 3.38 Very good Learning activity 3.34 A A- B+ B B- C+ C C- D+ D E F

4035302520151050 A+

studentsofNumber ECG303GradeMALE FEMALE

This study only focuses on two courses for non laboratory embedded courses and two courses for laboratory embedded courses. Thus, it does not represent the whole courses of non laboratory embedded and laboratory embedded course for Diploma in Civil Engineering programme. Based on the limitation of this study, it strongly advised increasing the number of other courses for data analysis. This study was also limited to the courses for Diploma in Civil Engineering programme.

From this study, there is evidence that the students’ performance on the cognitive domain for non laboratory course embedded was better than laboratory course embedded. However, there is a need for further research. Future research may i.address:Focus on factors that influence students' performance on the cognitive domain better for non laboratory course embedded compare with laboratory course embedded.

4. Conclusion This study indicates that the students’ performance on the cognitive domain for non laboratory course embedded (Group 1) better than laboratory course embedded (Group 2). Simultaneously, the percentage of students with good grades (A+, A and A ) in the final examination forcourses under Group 1 is higher than Group 2. Additionally, the proportion passing for courses under Group 1 in the final exam is also higher than courses under Group 2. Based on descriptive analysis, it shows Group 1 demonstrated an excellent achievement on the cognitive level compared to the Group 2 meanwhile the t test also confirmed that the achievement of Group 1 and Group 2 differ significantly with the p value < 0.05. To summarize the findings, the assessment method plays a prominent role in the education process as it affects the students' performance. The implemented assessment method of coursework using a test (cognitive domain) and assignment (cognitive domain) for courses under Group 1 was found more appropriate to improve the students’ performance in the final exam. The reason is, the students have an understanding of the steps to respond to the final exam questions based on the test or assignment questions. In contrast to courses under Group 2, which is the assessment method of coursework using practical tests (psychomotor domain) and laboratory observation (affective domain). The laboratory is more than just gaining knowledge. It is about doing and learning through experiences. Therefore, to improve students achievement in the cognitive domain for laboratory embedded courses, the current assessment method can be revised. Perhaps, the test also could be included in the coursework assessment. The study also revealed that the female students score better accomplishment in the cognitive domain contrasted with the male students. Hence a few improvements must make to increase the male student awareness about the importance of the academic performance of the cognitive domain. In conclusion, the findings of this study can serve as a reference to help educators identifying the most reliable and advantageous assessment method regarding the educational process.

5. Limitation and Recommendation

Chung, B. M. (1994). The taxonomy in the republic of Korea. In Anderson, L. W., and Sosiak, L. A (Eds), Bloom’s taxonomy: A forty year retrospective, Ninety third yearbook of the national society for the study of education (pp. 363 173). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Finn, A. S., Kraft, M. A., West, M. R., Leonard, J. A., Bish, C. E., Martin, R. E., Sheridan, M. A., Gabrieli, C. F. O., & Gabrieli, J. D. E. (2014). Cognitive skills, student achievement test and schools. Psychological Science, 25(3), 736 744. https://doi.org/ 10.1177/0956797613516008

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Gowrishankar, K., Mritha, R., & Elanchezian, C. (2014). Assessment of learning domains to improve student’s learning in higher education. Journal of Young Pharmacists, 6(4), 27 33.

Anaf, Y. S., & Yamin, S. B. (2014). Difference and similarity of continuous assessment in Malaysian and Nigerian universities. Journal Education Practice, 5(1), 73 82. Antoni, P., Fermin, S. C., Nuria, S., & David, L. (2019). Cooperative learning and embedded active learning methodologies for improving students’ motivation and academic results. International Journal of Engineering Education, 35(6A), 1 8. Barkley, A. (2006). The determinants of college student performance: The role of the assessment method. Paper presented at the WAEA annual meeting, Alaska, USA. Bednar, A., & Levie, W. H. (1993). Attitude change principles. In M. Fleming & W. H. Levie (Eds.), Instructional message design: Principles from the behavioural and cognitive sciences (pp. 283 304). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications. Bloom, B. S. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives: The classification of educational goals Handbook 1: Cognitive domain New York: Longman. Board of Engineer Malaysia (BEM) (2019).EngineeringTechnologyAccreditation Council Manual 2019. Retrieved from: http://bem.org.my/engineering technology accreditation council Brown, G.A.,Bull,J.,&Pendlebury,M.(2013).

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ii. To investigate in depth the effective teaching and learning approaches based on gender by interviewing the students. iii. To design a guideline on how to develop an effective cognitive learning process.

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Jones, B., Ruff, C., & Parett, M. (2013). The impact of engineering identification and stereotypes on undergraduate women’s achievement and persistence in engineering. Social Psychology of Education, 16(3), 471 493. Joscha, L., & Thomas, A. D. (2012). School context and the gender gap in educational achievement. American Sociological Review, 77(3), 463 485. Kasilingan,https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122412440802G.,Ramalingam,M.,&Chinnavan,E.(2014).

Assessing the learning domain to improve student's learning in higher education. Journal of Young Pharmacist, 6(4), 27 33 Lewy, A., & Bathory, Z. (1994) The taxonomy of educational objectives and continental Europe, the Mediterranean, and the Middle East. In Anderson, L. W., and Sosiak, L. A (Eds), Bloom’s taxonomy: A forty year retrospective, ninety third yearbook of the national society for the study of education(pp. 146 163). Chicago: Universityof ChicagoPress. MOE. (2013). Malaysia Education Blueprint 2013 2025, Preschool to post secondary education. Retrieved Muniapan,malaysiahttps://www.moe.gov.my/menumedia/mediacetak/penerbitan/dasar/1207from:educationblueprint20132025/fileB.(2007).

for measuring psychomotor and affective learning domain Pertanika Journal Social Science & Humanities, 25(S), 101 108. Smith, P., & Ragan, T. J. (1999). Instructional design. New York: John Wiley & Sons.

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Hairuddin, H., Abdul Wafi, A. R., Noorazman, A. S., Siti Noor Fazelah, M. N., & Adibah Aishah, M. S. (2018). The effectiveness of cognitive and psychomotor domain of culinary art students’ performance after internship in private colleges MATEC Web of Conferences 150 (05021), 1 4. Hassan,https://doi.org/10.1051/matecconf/201815005021O.A.B.(2011).Learningtheoriesandassessment of methodologies an engineering educational perspective. European Journal of Engineering Education, 36(4), 327 339. https://doi.org/10.1080/03043797.2011.591486

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Part A: Overall perception of the course

Strobel, J., Morris, C. W., Klingler, L., Pan, R. C., Dyehouse, M., & Weber, N. (2011). Engineering as a caring and empathetic discipline: Conceptualizations and comparisons Proceedings of the Research in Engineering Education Symposium 2011 Madrid. Suskie, L (2004). Assessing student learning Bolton, MA: Anker. The Glossary of Education Reform (2015). Assessment Retrieved from: Universityhttps://www.edglossary.org/assessment/ofNewSouthWales.(2017,April18).

1) The lecturer/instructor actively encourage the students' involvement in the learning process.

Using assessment rubrics. Retrieved from: https://teaching.unsw.edu.au/printpdf/546

Vergis, A., & Hardy, K. (2009). Principles of assessment: A primer for medical educators in the clinical years. International Journal of Medical Education, 1(1), 1 9 https://doi.org/10.5580/2720

2) The content of this course is relevant to the field of my study

2) The lecturer/instructor know how to deliver the lecture/ knowledge in an interesting way

Appendix 1 Survey questions for students’ perception

3) The lecture/instructor help students to grasp the knowledge and understanding of the content of the course

3) The method of assessments has enhanced my ability to study Part B: Teaching and Learning Activities

1) This course has increased my knowledge related to the field of my study

Abstract. The present paper aims to quantitatively analyze the features of fifty five Japanese historical English as a Foreign Language textbooks, Books 1 5, by using a correspondence analysis, focusing on their homogeneities / differences, and to compare the results with those of the correspondence analyses of the Book 1, Book 3 and Book 5 textbooks The following were the obtained results. First, the correspondence analysis results proved capable of differentiating the features of the fifty five historical textbooks In particular, the bipolar map indicated that the two dimensions, difficult (+) vs. easy ( ) (Dim 1) axis and artificial (+) vs. natural sounding ( ) (Dim 2) axis contributed to differentiating their inter relationships. Second, their inter relationship was explained 80.4 percent by the seven dimensions, i.e., (1) difficult/easy texts (Dim 1), (2) artificial /natural sounding discourse (Dim 2), (3) dialogue /passage based textbooks (Dim 3), (4) teacher /non teacher dominance (Dim 4), (5) strictly / loosely controlled (Dim 5), (6) redundant/concise (Dim 6) and (7) connected/disconnected (Dim 7). Third, the differences of the fifty five Books 1 5 textbooks were explained by the same dimensions as those of the Book 3 and Book 1 results up to the seventh dimension. The results of the present correspondence analysis were graphically represented by two methods, coordinate (bipolar) representation and dendrogram. Concerning the theoretical implications and practical use of the present study, it was proved that CA is a powerful tool for the quantitative analysis and evaluation of EFL textbooks and that difficulty vs. easiness and artificial sounding vs. natural sounding are useful viewpoints for EFL teachers and educators in describing and grasping EFL textbooks.

223 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 4, pp. 223 247, April https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.4.120204 A Correspondence Analysis of Fifty Five Japanese Historical First-to Fifth-Year English as a Foreign Language Textbooks Tomoo Asai1 , Ryohei Honda2 and Kiyomi Watanabe3 Fukuyama Heisei University Fukuyama, Japan 1https://orcid.org/0000 0003 2627 2883 2https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7488-2403 3https://orcid.org/0000 0002 6520 8115 Toshiaki Ozasa Hiroshima University (Professor Emeritus) Higashi Hiroshima, Japan https://orcid.org/0000 0002 5358 2660

Keywords: correspondence analysis; Englishasa foreignlanguage; historical textbooks; coordinate representation; dendrogram

1. Introduction Following several qualitative and quantitative analyses of Japanese historical English as a foreign language (Henceforth EFL) textbooks such as Ozasa (2003), Ozasa 2005) and Ozasa & Erikawa (Eds.) (2004), the correspondence analysis (Henceforth CA) of their corpora started in Japan with Sakamoto, Watanabe, and Ozasa (2017), which, computing a CA using seven historical and current textbooks, identified four explaining dimensions, i.e., (1) natural vs. drill centered (Dim 1), (2) concise vs redundant (Dim 2), (3) difficult vs. easy (Dim 3) and (4) monologue vs. multilogue (Dim 4). Watanabe, Asai, and Ozasa (2017) also computed the same type of CA based textual analysis, using seven historical or current EFL textbooks, identifying four explaining categories, i.e., (1) easy vs. difficult (Dim 1), (2) story vs. collection (Dim 2), concise vs. redundant (Dim 3) and (4) monologue vs. multilogue (Dim 4). Both of the two studies (Sakamoto et al.,2017, Watanabe., 2017) concluded that CA was a useful tool for interpreting and diagnosing the features of the EFL textbooks. In Honda, Watanabe and Ozasa (2017), the same type of CA based multivariate analysis was computed using ten historical or current Book 1 EFL textbooks, identifying five explaining dimensions, i.e., (1) difficult vs. easy (Dim 1), (2) drill centered vs. natural (Dim 2), (3) multi viewpoints vs. single viewpoint (Dim 3) and (4) redundant vs. concise (Dim 4) The results also revealed that the bipolar map comprised of the two major dimensions successfully classified the ten textbooks into four groups and that it was only Dim 1 or difficult vs. easy texts that differentiated the two major groups. Ozasa, Kawamura, Umamoto and Matsuoka (2018) also computed a CA based textual analysis of five Japanese historical or current EFL textbooks, with the same aim as in the above analyses. The results of this multivariate analysis identified four explaining dimensions, i.e., (1) natural vs. drill centered (Dim 1), (2) easy vs. difficult (Dim 2), (3) focused vs. unfocused (Dim 3) and (4) varied vs. single practice (Dim 4). These findings were displayed 100 percent by a four dimension based radar gram and 64.1 percent by a bipolar coordinate representation, which was comprisedof a horizontal axis and avertical Hondaaxis.,

Asai, Watanabe and Ozasa (2018) computed the same type of CA based multivariate analysis of eighteen Japanese historical or current Book 1 EFL textbook corpora under the same scheme as in the above CAs. The interpretation of this textual analysis result identified seven explaining dimensions, i.e., (1) difficult vs. easy (Dim 1), (2) natural vs. artificial sounding (Dim 2), (3) passage vs. dialogue based (Dim 3), (4) teacher dominance vs. non teacher dominance (Dim 4), (5) strictly vs. loosely controlled (Dim 5), (6) concise vs. redundant (Dim 6) and (7) connected vs. disconnected (Dim 7). Asai, Honda, Watanabe and Ozasa (2019) computed the same type of multivariate analysis of categorical data, using seventeen Japanese Book 3 EFL textbook corpora, both historical and current, with the same aim as in the above analyses. The interpretation of this textual analysis result successfully identified seven explaining dimensions, i.e., (1) difficult vs. easy (Dim 1), (2) natural vs. artificial sounding (Dim 2), (3) dialogue vs. passage based (Dim 3), (4) teacher dominance vs. non teacher dominance (Dim 4), (5) strictly vs. loosely controlled (Dim 5), (6) redundant vs. concise (Dim 6) and (7) connected vs. disconnected (Dim 7). In

Table 1: Dimensions of 3 CAs (Honda et al., 2019) This could also suggest that this approach, i.e., CA based multivariate textual analysis, could be applied in principle to the interpretation and classification of

Following Asai et al. (2019), Honda, Asai, Watanabe and Ozasa (2019) also computed the same type of CA under the same scheme as the above ones, using twelve historical and one current EFL textbooks, with an aim to identify features/categories that differentiate the textbooks in focus and to compare the differentiators among the Book 1, Book 3 and Book 5 results. This analysis identified four dimensions: speech oriented vs. exposition oriented discourse (Dim 1), easy vs. difficult texts (Dim 2), variety rich vs. variety poor (Dim 3), and teacher assistance vs. non teacher assistance (Dim 4). Based on their own CA findings as these, Honda et al. (2019) compared the differentiating categories among the results of the Book 1, Book 3 and Book 5 CAs, as in the following tables (Table 1) (Honda et al., 2019). This comparison revealed several interesting points regarding the holistic approach to the CA based multivariate analysis of all of the Japanese historical EFL textbooks covering all of the volumes (years) of the books. It was found that the nature of the dimensions identified proved to be very similar or basically the same among the three solutions, i.e., the Book 1, Book 3 and Book 5 solution, which means that the results of the three independently conducted CAs yielded almost the same results, i.e., almost the same dimensions in almost the same order.

particular, it was interesting to note that the features of the seventeen Book 3 textbooks were explained by the same dimensions of the Book 1 result up to Dim 7. It was also reported that the interrelationships of the seventeen variants were successfully explained by the two graphic representations of the analysis results, i.e., the bipolar coordinate representation and the CA based dendrogram based on all of the sixteen dimensions

the other volumes (years) such as Book 2 and Book 4, and that their resultant dimensions could be explained by the same set of categories/features as those of the Book 1, Book 3 and Book 5 CAs, as graphically represented in Table 2

The present CA, motivated by the above hypothesis and considerations, aims to statistically classify relatively large corpora of fifty five Japanese historical Book 1 to 5 EFL textbooks from a broader perspective. Through this multivariate textual analysis, educators and/or teachers interested in EFL teaching would have chances to understand the key concepts that affects English language teaching in the textbooks and classrooms in and outside Japan, and make good use of them in their classroom practice.

“Clearly, this was not an ideal solution as it had been expected since all of the textbooks, Book 1, Book 3, and Book 5 could not be interpreted and classified from one set of perspectives. To solve this problem, new attempts have to be made to develop a new method, technique or model for the CA with a large corpus” (Honda et al., 2019, p. 97)

In practical terms, however, the use of these identified dimensions could not be so operational in the classifications of the Book 2 or Book 4 EFL textbooks as in those of the Book 1, Book 3 and Book 5 textbooks since there were no values of these textbooks available in terms of these dimensions. Furthermore, even the data of the Book 1, Book 3 and Book 5 textbooks would be limited in use for their classification and quantitative comparison since their statistic data were obtained through the independent computation using different sets of textbook data.

The basic hypothesis in the present CA, based on these considerations concerning the results of the previous analyses, is that present fifty five historical EFL textbooks could be explained and classified by one set of seven categories/features and that the seven categories would be the same as those identified in the CAs of the Book 1, Book 3 and Book 5 textbooks.

Dim Book-1 Book-2 Book-3 Book-4 Book-5 1 difficult/easy difficult/easy difficult/easy difficult/easy orientedspeech/exposition2 soundingnatural-/artificial- soundingnatural-/artificial- soundingnatural-/artificial- soundingnatural-/artificial- easy/difficult 3 basedpassage-/dialogue- basedpassage-/dialogue- baseddialogue/passage- baseddialogue/passage- rich/variety-poorvariety4 dominance/nonteachertd dominance/nonteachertd dominance/nonteachertd dominance/nonteachertd assistance/nonteacherta 5 controlledstrictly/loosely controlledstrictly/loosely controlledstrictly/loosely- controlledstrictly/loosely6 concise/redundant concise/redundant eredundant/concis redundant/concise 7 disconnectedconnected/ disconnectedconnected/ disconnectedconnected/ disconnectedconnected/

Table 2: Theoretical framework of the present CA

2. Aim

(5) New Jack and Betty: English Step by Step, 1 3 (K. Hagiwara, M. Inamura & K. Takezawa, 1951, Kairyudo, 1 3Vols) (Henceforth Jack&Betty 1 to 3)). New High School English: Step by Step, 1 2 (K. Hagiwara, M. Inamura & K. Takezawa, 1953, Kairyudo, 3 Vols.) (Henceforth Jack&Betty 4 to 5.)

(3) New English Drill Books, 1 5 (Kenjiro Kumamoto, 1907, Kaiseikan, 5 Vols.) (Henceforth Drill 1 to 5.)

(1) How similar / different in contents are the fifty five Japanese historical EFL textbooks (Books 1 5) to / from each other?

(3) How similar / different are the solution of the fifty five Japanese first to fifth year EFL textbooks to / from those of their first , third and fifth year textbooks?

(2) What kinds of dimensions explain the homogeneities / differences among the fifty five textbooks?

(4) The Globe Readers, 1 5(Yoshisaburo Okakura, 1907, Dainippon Tosho, 5 Vols. (Henceforth Globe 1 to 5.)

(7) Girls’ Pacific Readers, 1 5 (Torajiro Sawamura, 1939, Kairyudo, 5 Vol.) (Henceforth Pacific 1 to 5 )

The textbooks used in the present CA were eleven sets of historical EFL textbooks, totalling fifty five volumes, published during the period from 1867 to 1953. The following are the titles and bibliographical data of the fifty five textbooks, which are primarily based on Ozasa and Erikawa (Eds ) (2004). For more detailed information on the authors and characteristic features of these textbooks, refer to Ozasa and Erikawa (Eds.) (2004) and Honda et al. (2018).

The present CA is primarily concerned with and focused on what kinds of criteria explain the homogeneity / differences among the fifty five textbooks and on how they are related to the dimensions identified in the previous results of the Book 1, Book 3 and Book 5 CA, in terms of the nature of their features

(1) Standard Choice Readers, 1 5 (Shobido Editorial, 1902, Shobido, 5 Vols.) (Henceforth Choice 1 to 5.)

(2) English Readers: The High School Series, 1 5 (Education Department, Japan [W. Dening], 1887 88, Education Department Publishing, Japan, 6 Vols.) (Henceforth Dening 1 to 5.)

The present paper aims to quantitatively describe the features of fifty five Japanese historical EFL textbooks (eleven sets comprised of five volumes, i.e., Book 1, Book 2, Book 3, Book 4 and Book 5 textbooks) and to statistically classify them based on their differences described in the results of the CA computed.

The following three research questions (RQs) were set in the present analysis:

(6）New National Readers, 1 5 (C. J. Barnes, 1883 84, A. S. Barnes & Co., 5 Vols.） (Henceforth National 1 to 5.)

(8) The Standard English Readers, 1 5 (H. E. Palmer, 1927, Institute for Research in English Teaching, Japan, 5 Vols.） (Henceforth Standard(p) 1 to 5.)

(11) Sanders’ Union Readers, 1 5 (Charles Walton Sanders, 1861 67, Ivison, Blakeman, Taylor & Co., 5 Vols.) (Henceforth Union 1 to 5.)

First, a contingency table consisting of the fifty five textbooks (row) and the frequency of their most frequently used 100 words (column) was prepared as a basic datum for the present CA. This is strictly a word frequency table for each textbook, which was made using a vocabulary processing tool. In this cross tabulation table the most frequent 100 words (only content words and function words counted) were picked up from the frequency list and their frequency values were placed for each of the textbooks. Then, using the this categorical datum of the cross tabulation table, a CA, a type of multivariate analysis, was computed by using College Analysis, a statistics tool developed by M Fukui.

(9) The Standard English Readers, 1 5 (Tsuneta Takehara, 1932, Taishukan, 5 Vols.) (Henceforth Standard(t) 1 to 5.)

The present study employed a one way CA model with fifty five categorical variants, in order to explore the interrelationships of the Japanese historical Book 1 to 5 EFL textbooks and their explaining criteria.

(10) Girls’ New Taisho Readers, 1 5 (Umeko Tsuda & Kenjiro Kumamoto, 1916, Tokyo Kaiseikan, 5 Vols.) (Henceforth Taisho 1 to 5.)

It has also to be noted concerning the selection of the textbooks for the present CA that the two textbooks used in the previous ones, i.e., Seisoku 1 to 5 and Sunshine 1 to 5 were excluded from the present corpora. This judgment was based on the experience in the CA of the seventeen historical textbooks (Asai et al., 2019), which resulted in an extremely skewed distribution, making its interpretation difficult, due to the extremely strong negative influence of Seisoku 3. Sunshine 1 to 5 were also excluded from the CA corpora since these current textbooks were essentially different in nature from the other historical textbooks. This decision was also made by the present researchers’ wish to reduce the number of the variants as much as possible.

3. Method

In computing the present CA and interpreting its results, some of the ideas and techniques used and/or described in the following books and papers were consulted for reference where they were deemed relevant to the purpose of the present analysis. They were: Beh and Lombardo (2014), Clausen (1998), Fukui (2011), Fukui and Watanabe (2019a), Fukui and Watanabe (2019b), Greenacre (2017), Greenacre (2010), Tabata (2005), Takahashi (2018), Tono (2000), Uenish

Among the above eleven sets, (5) Jack&Betty 4 to 5 needs some supplementary explanation. In (5), there were no Books 4 nor 5 of New Jack and Betty available, since it was a junior high school textbook consisting of three volumes only, Book 1, Book 2 and Book 3 To solve this problem, newly added as the replacements or supplements of New Jack and Betty, 4 and 5 were New High School English: Step by Step, 1 and 2, two senior high school textbook volumes, which were authored by the same authors and published by the same publisher as those of New Jack and Betty series, (abbreviated as Jack&Betty 4 & 5)

229 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. (2018), Van de Geer (1993), Watanabe and Fukui (2018a) and Watanabe and Fukui (2018b) (Honda, et al., 2019) 4. Results and discussion Table 3 shows the basic statistics of the present CA, i.e., the eigenvalues, correlation coefficients, contribution rates and cumulative contribution rates of the analysis. As the contribution rates indicate i, the fifty five categorical variants (textbooks) were explained 46.9% by Dim 1, 12.0% by Dim 2, 6.00% by Dim 3, 5.00% by Dim 4, 4.10% by Dim 5, 3.60% by Dim 6 and 2.90% by Dim 7, the cumulative contribution rate being 80.40% on Dim 7. This means that Dim 1 is the most powerful discriminator that explains almost half of the features identified and that the seven Dims should be considered in the interpretation of the present results. Table 3: Basic CA Data, 55 Textbooks (Books 1 5) Dim1 Dim2 Dim3 Dim4 Dim5 Dim6 Eigenvalue 0.102 0.026 0.013 0.011 0.009 0.008 Correlation 0.32 0.162 0.115 0.104 0.095 0.088 Contributionrate 0.469 0.12 0.06 0.05 0.041 0.036 Cumulative contribution rate 0.469 0.589 0.649 0.699 0.739 0.775 Dim7 Dim8 Dim9 Dim10 Dim11 Dim12 Eigenvalue 0.006 0.005 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.003 Correlation 0.08 0.073 0.066 0.062 0.06 0.056 Contributionrate 0.029 0.025 0.02 0.018 0.016 0.014 Cumulative contribution rate 0.804 0.829 0.848 0.866 0.882 0.897 Dim13 Dim14 Dim15 Dim16 Dim17 Dim18 Eigenvalue 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.001 Correlation 0.049 0.048 0.044 0.043 0.039 0.036 Contributionrate 0.011 0.01 0.009 0.008 0.007 0.006 Cumulative contribution rate 0.908 0.918 0.927 0.935 0.942 0.948 Dim19 Dim20 Dim21 Dim22 Dim23 Dim24 Eigenvalue 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 Correlation 0.032 0.03 0.03 0.029 0.028 0.026 Contributionrate 0.005 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.003 Cumulative contribution rate 0.953 0.957 0.961 0.965 0.968 0.971 Dim25 Dim26 Dim27 Dim28 Dim29 Dim30 Eigenvalue 0.001 0.001 0.001 0 0 0 Correlation 0.025 0.024 0.022 0.021 0.021 0.019 Contributionrate 0.003 0.003 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 Cumulative contribution rate 0.974 0.977 0.979 0.981 0.983 0.985 Dim31 Dim32 Dim33 Dim34 Dim35 Dim36 Eigenvalue 0 0 0 0 0 0 Correlation 0.019 0.018 0.017 0.016 0.015 0.015 Contributionrate 0.002 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 Cumulative contribution rate 0.986 0.988 0.989 0.99 0.991 0.992 Dim37 Dim38 Dim39 dim40 Dim41 Dim42 Eigenvalue 0 0 0 0 0 0 Correlation 0.015 0.014 0.013 0.012 0.011 0.011 Contributionrate 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 Cumulative contribution rate 0.993 0.994 0.995 0.996 0.996 0.997 Dim43 Dim44 Dim45 Dim46 Dim47 Dim48 Eigenvalue 0 0 0 0 0 0 Correlation 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.009 0.008 0.009 Contributionrate 0 0 0 0 0 0 Cumulative contribution rate 0.997 0.998 0.998 0.999 0.999 0.999 Dim49 Dim50 Dim51 Dim52 Dim53 Dim54 Eigenvalue 0 0 0 0 0 0 Correlation 0.008 0.007 0.006 0.004 0 0 Contributionrate 0 0 0 0 0 0 Cumulative contribution rate 1 1 1 1 1 1

For example, when the following two pieces taken from the two contrasting textbooks, Dening 5 (the most difficult) and Jack&Betty 1 (the easiest), are compared, it is obvious that Dening 5 uses more difficult vocabulary and grammar in the texts and so its readability is contrastively high, while Jack&Betty 1 favors easier vocabulary and grammar, making its readability lower. For this reason, the Dim 1 was termed difficult (+) vs. easy texts ( ), just as in the Book 1 (Honda et al., 2018) and Book 3 (Asai et al., 2019) results. The contribution rate of Dim 1 was 0.469, covering the 46.9% of the whole contribution. To verify the accuracy of this CA estimation, the readability of the fifty five textbooks was actually measured using a readability measuring tool developed specifically for the Japanese educational context, Ozasa Fukui Year Level, Ver. 3.5nhnc1 61 and the results were compared with the present CA results. The 1 The development of Ozasa Fukui Year Level, Ver. 3.5nhnc1 6 was financially supported by the Grant in aid for Scientific Research (KAKENHI), Japan Society for the Promotion Dim1 Dim1 Dim1 Dim1 Dening-5 1.26 Pacific-5 0.717 Standard(t)-2 0.263 Taisho-2 -0.878 National-5 1.053 Globe-3 0.713 Pacific-4 0.244 Standard(t)-1 -1.016 Globe-5 1.023 Dening-1 0.712 National-3 0.214 Globe-1 -1.398 Choice-5 0.998 Standard(t)-4 0.697 National-4 0.214 National-1 -1.413 Union-5 0.949 Standard(p)-5 0.692 Taisho-4 0.168 Choice-1 -1.573 Standard(p)-2 0.908 Jack&Betty-5 0.674 Jack&Betty-3 0.009 Standard(p)-1 -1.722 Dening-3 0.857 Drill-5 0.664 Pacific-3 -0.009 Taisho-1 -2.225 Union-4 0.849 Taisho-5 0.63 Taisho-3 -0.009 Drill-1 -2.312 Choice-4 0.819 Drill-4 0.572 Choice-2 -0.034 Pacific-1 -2.374 Dening-4 0.81 Standard(p)-4 0.562 National-2 -0.131 Jack&Betty-1 -2.411 Dening-2 0.807 Jack&Betty-4 0.497 Pacific-2 -0.363 Standard(t)-5 0.799 Choice-3 0.396 Union-1 -0.388 Globe-4 0.774 Union-3 0.363 Jack&Betty-2 -0.589 Standard(t)-3 0.74 Union-2 0.345 Drill-2 -0.794 Standard(p)-3 0.722 Drill-3 0.341 Globe-2 -0.794

Table 4 shows the values of the fifty five textbooks on Dim 1. As it is clear in Table 4, on Dim 1, the value is the highest for Dening 5 (1.26), the second highest for National 5 (1.053) and the third highest for Globe 5 (1.023), while it is the lowest for Jack&Betty 1 ( 2.411), the second lowest for Pacific 1 ( 2.374) and the third lowest for Drill 1 ( 2.312). In decreasing order, the fifty five textbooks were: Dening 5 > National 5 > Globe 5 > Choice 5 > Union 5 > Standard(p) 2 > Dening 3 > Union 4 > Choice 4 > Dening 4 ….. Taisho 2 > Standard(t) 1 > Globe 1 > National 1 >Choice 1 > Standard(p) 1 > Taisho 1 > Drill 1 > Pacific 1 > Jack&Betty 1. The difference of the values among the fifty five textbooks on Dim 1 could best be explained by the category of difficult (+) vs. easy ( ) texts. As it is clear in the following examples, in Dening 5 (the highest) and National 5 (the second highest) and the other high scoring ones, all the texts sound difficult. In contrast, in Jack&Betty 1 (the lowest), Pacific 1 (the second lowest) and the other low scoring ones, the texts sound all easy Table 4: Values on Dim 1

Words: number of words in a sentence Syllables: number of syllables in a word WordDiff: difficulty of a word IdiomDiff: difficulty of an idiom In this system, WordDiff was defined as the year of a textbook in which a particular word appeared for the first time and IdiomDiff as the year of a textbook in which a particular idiom appeared for the first time. Its prediction rate (r^2) proved to be .8912, which the present authors believe was a satisfactorily high validity value. (Ozasa, Watanabe, & Fukui, 2016, p. 392; Ozasa et al., 2016, p. 392; Honda, et al., 2018; Asai, et al., 2019; Honda et al., 2019).

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. function equation (NewDiff) of Ozasa Fukui Year Level, Ver. 3.5nhnc1 6 was as follows, where Words stands for number of words in a sentence, Syllables number of syllables in a word, WordDiff difficulty of a word, and IdiomDiff difficulty of an idiom, and its prediction rate turned out to be .8912 (Ozasa, Watanabe, & Fukui, 2016, p. NewDiff392).=5.2565*exp( 19.1656*0.4398^Diff) + 1 Diff=0.0924*Words+0.5862*Syllables+1.8296*WordDiff+0.0615*IdiomDiff(r^2=0.8912) 0.3073 (r^2 = 0.4986)

Table 5 shows the readability values of the fifty five textbooks as measured by Ozasa Fukui Year Level, Ver. 3.5nhnc1 6. In order to measure the degree of correspondence between the two kinds of values, a rank correlation coefficient (Spearman's ρ) was computed between the Dim 1 estimation and the Ozasa Fukui Year Level measurement. The correlation coefficient computed proved to be 0.878 (p< .005), a satisfactorily high correlation. This means that the computed correlation was as high as the same kind of coefficient in the CA with the eighteen Book 1 textbooks, .804 (p<.001) (Honda et al., 2018) of Science (JSPS), 2007 9, Basic Research (C)(1)19520535. Its program copy right is registered in Japan. It is open for access for free on the net.

-2.568 Standard(t)-4 0.835 Dening-3 0.306

Table 5: Readability Measured by OFYL I could be argued that the indirect estimation of the present CA of the fifty five corpora are accurate enough to satisfy the goal of the present study (Honda et al., 2017; Honda et al., 2018; Asai et al., 2019; Honda et al., 2019) This level of accuracy could be generalized to the estimations of the other six Dims (Dims 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7) This estimation could also be reinforced by the fact that the top five of the most difficult textbooks were all Book 5 textbooks, i.e., textbooks for the fifth year students, while the top five of the easiest textbooks were all Book 1 textbooks, i.e., textbooks for the first year students. For this reason, Dim 1 was termed difficult (+) vs. easy ( ) texts, just as in the Book 1 CA results (Honda et al., 2018), the Book 3 CA results (Asai et al., 2019) and the Book 5 CA results (Honda et al., 2019). The contribution rate of Dim 1 was 0.469, covering the 46.9%, almost half of the whole contribution.

-2.793 Dening-5 0.696 Jack&Betty-5 0.193

-0.46 Globe-5 0.666 Pacific-5 0.139

Drill-3 -0.649 Union-4 0.584 Pacific-4

Drill-5 6.41 Globe-2 4.00 Taisho-1 3.04 Dening-4 7.21 Union-2 6.40 Jack&Betty-4 3.99 Pacific-1 2.52 Dening-2 7.10 Standard(p)-4 6.39 National-2 3.98 Drill-1 1.91 Union-1 6.99 Choice-3 6.04 Taisho-3 3.91 Jack&Betty-1 1.58 Dening-3 6.94 Standard(p)-3 5.95 Pacific-2 3.89 Standard(t)-5 6.89 Globe-4 5.92 Jack&Betty-3 3.75 Union-3 6.71 Jack&Betty-5 5.91 Drill-3 3.69 Globe-3 6.63 Standard(t)-3 5.91 Taisho-2 3.51 Globe-5 6.63 Pacific-4 5.86 Drill-2 3.40 Dim2 Dim2 Dim2 Dim2 Pacific-1 1.885 National-5 0.553 Taisho-5 0.02 National-3 -0.934 Standard(p)-1 1.717 Globe-3 0.53 Drill-2 -0.105 National-4 -0.934 Taisho-1 1.558 Standard(t)-3 0.448 Globe-2 -0.105 Jack&Betty-2 -1.015 Jack&Betty-1 1.413 Globe-4 0.44 Jack&Betty-3 -0.203 Union-3 -1.104 Standard(p)-5 1.391 Globe-1 0.435 Taisho-4 -0.302 Choice-2 -1.176 Drill-1 1.294 Dening-2 0.431 Drill-4 -0.316

-0.57 Standard(p)-3 0.664 Dening-1 0.116

-1.33 Standard(p)-4 1.197 Standard(p)-2 0.416 Standard(t)-1 -0.323

-0.642 Dening-4 0.599

Table 6: Values on Dim 2 OFYL OFYL OFYL OFYL Union-5 8.05 Dening-1 6.62 Drill-4 5.45 National-1 3.39 Pacific-5 7.69 National-4 6.61 National-3 5.32 Choice-1 3.33 Dening-5 7.62 Standard(p)-5 6.56 Choice-2 5.31 Globe-1 3.26 Choice-5 7.49 Standard(t)-4 6.51 Taisho-4 5.3 Jack&Betty-2 3.21 Choice-4 7.44 Standard(p)-2 6.50 Pacific-3 5.03 Standard(t)-1 3.16 Union-4 7.41 Taisho-5 6.42 Standard(t)-2 4.42 Standard(p)-1 3.12 National-5 7.39 Union-2 Union-1 Jack&Betty-4 -0.391 Choice-1 Choice-3 -0.41 National-1 Pacific-2 Pacific-3 Taisho-2 Choice-4 0.085 0.042 Taisho-3

-1.46 Union-5 1.177 Drill-5 0.377 Standard(t)-2 -0.351 National-2 -1.638 Standard(t)-5 0.946 Choice-5 0.361

-0.702

233 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. On Dim 2, as it is clear in Table 6, the value was the highest for Pacific 1 (1.885) and the second highest for Standard(p) 1 (1.717) , while it is the lowest for National 1 ( 2.793) and the second lowest for Choice 1 ( 2.568), Taisho 5 being around the zero point. In decreasing order, the fifty five textbooks were: Pacific 1 > Standard(p) 1 > Taisho 1 > Jack&Betty 1 > Standard(p) 5 > Drill 1 > Standard(p) 4 > Union 5 > Standard(t) 5 > Standard(t) 4 > ….. > National 3 > National 4 > Jack&Betty 2 > Union 3 > Choice 2 > Union 2 > Union 1 > National 2 > Choice 1 > National 1

were: Choice 1 > National 1 > Standard(p) 1 > Globe 1 > Union 5 > Taisho 1 > Standard(p) 5 > Standard(p) 4 > Globe 5 > Globe 4 > ….. > Jack&Betty 4 > Dening 3 > Drill 3 > Union 3 > Drill 2 > Globe 2 > Jack&Betty 1 > Jack&Betty 3 > Jack&Betty 2 > Drill 1 Table 7: Values on Dim 3 Dim3 Dim3 Dim3 Dim3 Choice-1 2.059 Standard(t)-3 0.463 Dening-5 -0.101 Jack&Betty-4 -0.642 National-1 2.032 Standard(t)-4 0.409 Drill-5 -0.166 Dening-3 -0.69 Standard(p)-1 1.895 Union-4 0.393 Dening-4 -0.201 Drill-3 -0.691 Globe-1 1.882 Standard(p)-3 0.336 Choice-2 -0.306 Union-3 -0.72 Union-5 1.365 Union-1 0.242 National-2 -0.321 Drill-2 -1.061 Taisho-1 1.291 Pacific-1 0.24 Dening-2 -0.402 Globe-2 -1.061 Standard(p)-5 0.877 Pacific-2 0.201 Choice-3 -0.428 Jack&Betty-1 -1.062 Standard(p)-4 0.869 Choice-5 0.117 Jack&Betty-5 -0.443 Jack&Betty-3 -1.162 Globe-5 0.775 Taisho-2 0.086 Taisho-3 -0.466 Jack&Betty-2 -2.006 Globe-4 0.718 Taisho-5 0.069 Dening-1 -0.487 Drill-1 -3.835 Standard(t)-1 0.707 Standard(p)-2 0.048 Union-2 -0.489 Standard(t)-5 0.653 Pacific-5 -0.033 National-3 -0.499 Pacific-4 0.545 Standard(t)-2 -0.036 National-4 -0.499 Globe-3 0.538 Choice-4 -0.059 Drill-4 -0.525 National-5 0.503 Taisho-4 -0.092 Pacific-3 -0.634

The differences of the fifty five textbooks on Dim 2 could best be explained by the category of artificial sounding (+) vs. natural sounding ( ) discourse. As it is clear in the following examples, in Pacific 1 (the highest) and Standard(p) 1 (the second highest), and the other high scoring ones, the texts tended to sound more artificial in the sense that they observe the ‘pattern drill first’ principle, while National 1 and the other low scoring ones observe the ‘free communication first’ principle as a basic strategy for the textbook organization, seldom using narrative styles or dialogues in or related to the core pieces Mention must be made concerning the definition of ‘artificial /natural sounding’ on Dim 2. In the higher scoring Book 4 or Book 5 textbooks such as Standard(p) 5 (the fifth highest), Standard(p) 4 (seventh highest) Union 5 (the eighth highest), Standard(t) 5 (the ninth highest), Standard(t) 4 (the tenth highest), the artificial sounding should be interpreted as “exposition oriented texts” meaning few narratives with direct speech quotations inserted and/or the passages followed or preceded by the dialogues connected to the core piece, while its antonym, natural sounding as “speech oriented” meaning more narratives used with direct speech quotations inserted and/or the passages followed or preceded by the related dialogues (Honda et al., 2019). Table 7 shows the values of the fifty five textbooks on Dim 3. On Dim 3, the value was the highest for Choice 1 (2.059), the second highest for National 1 (2.032), while it is the lowest for Drill 1 ( 3.835) and the second lowest for Jack&Betty 2 ( 2.006). decreasing order, the fifty five textbooks

Table 8: Values on Dim 4 Dim4 Dim4 Dim4 Dim4 Choice-1 2.584 Dening-3 0.47 Drill-4 0.009 Pacific-1 -0.992 National-1 2.326 Standard(t)-4 0.458 Drill-3 -0.087 Choice-2 -1.061 Drill-1 2.258 Standard(p)-3 0.455 Globe-3 -0.121 National-3 -1.071 Union-5 1.033 Dening-2 0.45 Taisho-5 -0.128 National-4 -1.071 Union-1 0.992 Globe-5 0.449 Standard(t)-2 -0.152 Taisho-4 -1.099 Jack&Betty-1 0.828 Drill-2 0.385 Jack&Betty-2 -0.153 Union-3 -1.15 Dening-5 0.781 Globe-2 0.385 Taisho-2 -0.201 Taisho-3 -1.231 Standard(t)-5 0.735 Standard(t)-3 0.35 Choice-3 -0.231 Taisho-1 -1.278 Dening-4 0.7 Dening-1 0.213 Standard(t)-1 -0.469 Pacific-2 -1.633 Standard(p)-5 0.7 Choice-4 0.191 Jack&Betty-3 -0.526 Globe-1 -3.067 Union-4 0.687 Standard(p)-1 0.184 Pacific-5 -0.783 Standard(p)-4 0.683 Globe-4 0.098 Pacific-4 -0.788 Drill-5 0.565 Standard(p)-2 0.072 National-2 -0.902 National-5 0.535 Jack&Betty-5 0.065 Union-2 -0.931 Choice-5 0.505 Jack&Betty-4 0.022 Pacific-3 -0.977

The differences of these fifty five textbooks on Dim 3 could best be explained by the category of dialogue based (+) vs. passage based ( ) textbooks. As it is clear in the following examples, Choice 1 (the highest), National 1 (the second highest), Standard(p) 1 (the third highest) and the other high scoring ones favor dialogues more frequently throughout their lessons. On the contrary, Drill 1 (the lowest), Jack&Betty 2 (the second lowest), Jack&Betty 3 (the third lowest) and the other low scoring ones favor expository passages more frequently throughout their texts, without exceptions. For example, Choice 1 and National 1, the two most high scoring ones, prefer and adopt dialogue based discourses, while Drill 1 and Jack&Betty 2, the two most low scoring ones, prefer and adopt passage based discourses. The extract from Drill 1 below does look like a dialogue between Teacher and Pupil, but closely examined, it is essentially a Teacher’s ‘teacher talk,’ in which Teacher controls hundred per cent of the discourse. For this reason it could and should be categorized as a kind of expository passage, not a conversation in the true sense of the word It is interesting to note that dialogue based, higher year textbooks such as Union 5 (the fifth highest), Standard (p) 5 (the seventh highest) and others are rich in variety in the sense that in their lessons the main bodies (core expository passages) are usually preceded by the introductory questions, dialogues, or hints and/or followed by the post reading comments, proverbs, related poems or dialogues on the passages (Honda et al., 2019). For example, in Union 5, the first unit consists of main bodies (two expository passages), i.e., “Achievements and Dignity of Labor” and “Power of the Hand,” and they are followed by the two poems related to thecontents of the main expository passages, i.e., “There’s Work Enough to Do” and “Fields for Labor.” This variety in style or linguistic activity seems to be intended to help the learners understand and discuss the contents of the topics dealt with in the core pieces On the contrary, lower year textbooks generally value expository passages, only carrying them, nothing else (Honda et al, 2019) It has to be noted in this respect that the feature of Dim 3, dialogue based (+) vs. passage based ( ) textbooks has to be interpreted from a broader perspective including the category of “variety rich vs. variety poor ” The contribution rate of the third dimension was 0.06, covering only the 6% of the whole contribution.

On Dim 4, as it is clear in Table 8, the value is the highest for Choice 1 (2.584), the second highest for National 1 (2.326) and the third highest for Drill 1 (2.258), while it is the lowest for Globe 1 ( 3.067), the second lowest for Pacific 2 ( 1.633) and the third lowest for Taisho 1 ( 1.278), the other textbooks being between them. In decreasing order, the thirteen textbooks were: Choice 1 > National 1 > Drill 1 > Union 5 > Union 1 > Jack&Betty 1 > Dening 5 > Standard(t) 5 > Dening 4 >

The differences of these fifty five textbooks on Dim 4 could best be explained by the category of teacher dominance (+) vs. non teacher dominance ( ). As it is clear in the following examples cited from Choice 1 (the highest), not a few texts are comprised of dialogs in which a teacher (superior) dominates pupils (inferiors) in the linguistic activity, while in Globe 1 (the lowest) and other low scoring textbooks there were few such features observed in the texts. For this reason, the Dim 4 was termed teacher dominance vs. non teacher dominance, just as in the Book 1 and Book 3 results (Honda et al., 2018, Asai et al., 2019). The contribution rate of Dim 4 was 0.05, covering only the 5% of the whole contribution. It has to be noted in this respect that in the Book 5 interpretation, Dim 4 was termed teacher assistance vs. non teacher assistance, which was closely related to but slightly different from the names of Dim 4 in the Book 1 and Book 3 interpretations, i.e., teacher dominance (+) vs. non teacher dominance (Honda et al., 2018; Asai et al., 2019). For this reason, the feature of Dim 4, dominance (+) vs. non teacher dominance ( ) should be interpreted from a broader perspective including the category of teacher assistance vs. non teacher assistance Table 9: Values on Dim 5 On Dim 5, as it is clear in Table 9, the value is the highest for Drill 1 (3.482), the second highest for Taisho 1 (1.446), and the lowest for Jack&Retty 1 ( 3.201) and the second lowest for Pacific 1 ( 3.193), the others coming in between them. In decreasing order, the fifty five textbooks were: Drill 1 > Taisho 1 > Globe 1 > Pacific 3 > Pacific 2 > Standard(p) 1 > Standard(p) 4 > Pacific 4 > Union 5 > Dim5 Dim5 Dim5 Dim5 Drill-1 3.482 Jack&Betty-3 0.34 Choice-3 0.064 Choice-1 -0.383 Taisho-1 1.446 Standard(t)-5 0.335 Jack&Betty-2 0.017 Union-2 -0.384 Globe-1 1.305 Globe-3 0.3 National-1 -0.01 Union-3 -0.734 Pacific-3

1.126 Union-1 0.297 Choice-4 -0.045 Dening-4 -0.94 Pacific-2 0.946 Jack&Betty-5 0.249 Choice-2 -0.067 Dening-5 -1.054 Standard(p)-1 0.859 Union-4 0.212 Taisho-2 -0.074 Dening-2 -1.214 Standard(p)-4 0.7 Globe-5 0.211 Standard(t)-2 -0.105 Dening-1 -1.23 Pacific-4 0.62 Standard(t)-1 0.189 Standard(t)-3 -0.136 Dening-3 -1.464 Union-5 0.612 Choice-5 0.178 Taisho-3 -0.182 Pacific-1 -3.193 Standard(p)-3 0.558 Standard(p)-2 0.145 Drill-2 -0.215 Jack&Betty-1 -3.201 Globe-4 0.524 National-3 0.095 Globe-2 -0.215 National-5 0.523 National-4 0.095 Taisho-5 -0.265 Standard(p)-5 0.439 Taisho-4 0.091 Drill-3 -0.269 Jack&Betty-4 0.401 National-2 0.081 Pacific-5 -0.312 Standard(t)-4 0.383 Drill-5 0.079 Drill-4 -0.367

Standard(p) 5 > > Pacific 1 > Choice 2 > National 3 > National 4 > Taisho 4 > Union 3 > Taisho 3 > Taisho 1 > Pacific 2 > Globe 1

The difference of the fifty five textbooks on Dim 5 could best be explained by the category of strictly controlled (+) vs. loosely controlled ( ) texts. In Drill 1 (the highest), Taisho 1 (the second highest), Globe 1 (the third highest) and the other high scoring ones, linguistic items were strictly selected or controlled from the teaches’ (superiors’) viewpoint, while in Jack&Betty 1 (the lowest), Pacific 1 (the second lowest), Dening 3 (the third lowest) and the other low scoring ones, this kind of linguistic control was not generally observed, with more freedom given for natural communicative activity. In other words, Drill 1 and the others observe the principle of grammar and vocabulary control as a basic strategy for EFL textbook organization, while Jack&Betty 1 and the others value the principle of natural communicative activity. For this reason, Dim 5 was termed strictly controlled vs. loosely controlled texts, just as in the Book 1 results (Honda et al., 2018) and the Book 3 results (Asai et al., 2019) Thus, in the present CA, the name, feature and axis of Dim 5 were basically the same as those of the results of the Book 1 and Book 3 CAs. The contribution rate of Dim 5 was 0.041, covering only 4.1% of the whole contribution.

Table 10: Values on Dim 6 On Dim 6, as it is clear in Table 10, the value is the highest for Taisho 1 (2.116), the second highest for Union 1 (1.777), the third highest for Pacific 1 (1.692), and the lowest for Globe 1 ( 4.102) and the second lowest for Jack&Betty 2 ( 1.836), the others coming in between them. In decreasing order, the fifty five textbooks were: Taisho 1 > Union 1 > Pacific 1 > Union 2 > Pacific 2 > Union 4 > Taisho 3 > Union 5 > National 3 > National 4 > ….. > Drill 3 > Globe 4 > Dening 2 > Standard(p) 2 > Dening 1 > Dening 3 > Drill 2 > Globe 2 > Jack&Betty 2 > Globe 1. The difference of the fifty five textbooks on Dim 6 could best be explained by the category of redundant (+) vs. concise ( ) texts; in Taisho 1 (the highest) and other high scoring ones, a considerably large parts of the texts tend to be

Standard(p) 3 > …..> Choice 1 > Union 2 > Union 3 > Dening 4 > Dening 5 > Dening > Dening 1 > Dening 3 > Pacific 1 > Jack&Betty 1

long and Dim6 Dim6 Dim6 Dim6 Taisho-1 2.116 Drill-1 0.573 Standard(p)-1 -0.122 Drill-3 -0.574 Union-1 1.777 Taisho-2 0.475 Standard(p)-4 -0.124 Globe-4 -0.584 Pacific-1 1.692 Pacific-5 0.44 Choice-1 -0.134 Dening-2 -0.672 Union-2 1.686 Jack&Betty-5 0.284 Standard(t)-4 -0.147 Standard(p)-2 -0.766 Pacific-2 0.958 National-2 0.21 Dening-5 -0.158 Dening-1 -0.77 Union-4 0.953 Choice-3 0.109 Drill-5 -0.216 Dening-3 -0.925 Taisho-3 0.933 Choice-2 0.1 Pacific-3 -0.262 Drill-2 -1.666 Union-5 0.923 Jack&Betty-3 0.083 Standard(t)-3 -0.262 Globe-2 -1.666 National-3 0.882 Globe-5 0.057 Standard(p)-3 -0.326 Jack&Betty-2 -1.836 National-4 0.882 Standard(p)-5 0.018 Jack&Betty-4 -0.351 Globe-1 -4.102 Taisho-5 0.843 Choice-5 -0.02 National-1 -0.433 Union-3 0.818 Standard(t)-5 -0.026 Dening-4 -0.494 National-5 0.692 Choice-4 -0.046 Jack&Betty-1 -0.496 Pacific-4 0.666 Globe-3 -0.057 Standard(t)-1 -0.507 Taisho-4 0.601 Standard(t)-2 -0.087 Drill-4 -0.57

The difference of the fifty five textbooks on Dim 7 could best be explained by the category of connected (+) vs. disconnected ( ) contents. In Pacific 3 (the highest), Pacific 2 (the second highest), Jack&Betty 2(the third highest) and the other high scoring ones, contents of the passages in the lessons semantically and contextually especially in Pacific 3(the highest), Pacific 2(the second highest), Jack&Betty 2(the third highest) and the others, their main characters and their families consistently appear throughout the while in Dening 3 (the second lowest), Taisho 1 (the third highest) and the other low scoring ones, Dim7 Dim7 Dim7 Dim7 Pacific-3 1.999 Standard(p)-4 0.637 Choice-2 -0.063 Dening-4 -1.066 Pacific-2 1.886 Standard(p)-5 0.481 Standard(t)-5 -0.101 Dening-1 -1.094 Jack&Betty-2 1.826 Standard(p)-1 0.419 National-1 -0.2 Union-3 -1.207 Pacific-4 1.683 Union-4 0.386 Drill-3 -0.222 Dening-2 -1.274 Jack&Betty-1 1.55 Globe-3 0.358 Choice-4 -0.281 Union-2 -1.328 Jack&Betty-4 1.187 Standard(t)-1 0.33 Drill-5 -0.306 Dening-5 -1.425 Globe-4 1.137 National-3 0.305 Drill-4 -0.387 Drill-1 -1.645 Union-5 1.105 National-4 0.305 Choice-1 -0.476 Taisho-1 -1.762 Drill-2 0.97 Choice-5 0.3 Taisho-3 -0.484 Dening-3 -1.783 Globe-2 0.97 National-2 0.29 Jack&Betty-5 -0.596 Globe-1 -2.191 National-5 0.932 Standard(t)-2 0.254 Pacific-5 -0.635

volume,

are

Table 11: Values on Dim 7 On Dim 7, as it is clear in Table 11, the value is the highest for Pacific 3 (1.999), the second highest for Pacific 2 (1.886), the third highest for Jack&Betty 2 (1.826), and the lowest for Globe 1 ( 2.191), the second lowest for Dening 3 ( 1.783), the third lowest for Taisho 1 ( 1.762) and the others coming in between them. In decreasing order, the fifty five textbooks were: Pacific 3 > Pacific 2 > Jack&Betty 2 > Pacific 4 > Jack&Betty 1 > Jack&Betty 4 > Globe 4 > Union 5 > Drill 2 > Globe 2 > ….. > Dening 4 > Dening 1 > Union 3 > Dening 2 > Union 2 > Dening 5 > Drill 1 > Taisho 1 > Dening 3 > Globe 1.

the

except

connected;

Jack&Betty-3 0.847 Pacific-1 0.2 Choice-3 -0.77 Globe-5 0.822 Standard(p)-3 0.182 Taisho-5 -0.817 Standard(t)-3 0.733 Taisho-4 0.115 Union-1 -0.925 Taisho-2 0.674 Standard(t)-4 0.099 Standard(p)-2 -0.982

redundant in the sense that the dialogues and expository passages are interwoven with other related drill based repetitive activities such as grammar, structure, Japanese into English translation, spelling, etc. or some of the discourses are longer and somewhat desultory, while in Globe 1 (the lowest) and other low scoring textbooks the passages and dialogues were generally brief and concise without tedious drill like activities For this reason, Dim 6 was termed redundant vs. concise texts, just as in the Book 1 and Book 3 results (Honda et al., 2018; Asai et al., 2019). It has to be noted in this respect that the name, feature and axis of Dim 6 were basically the same as the results of the Book 1 CA and of the Book 3 CA except for the location of the plus minus poles in the present CA and the Book 1 CA. The contribution rate of Dim 6 was 0.036, covering only 3.6% of the whole contribution.

The contribution rate of Dim 7 was 0.029, covering only 2.9% of the whole

Itcontribution.hastobeadmitted

for Globe 1 (the lowest), the contents are not connected in any way. (It has to be noted that Globe 1 (the lowest) has to be treated as an exception since its contents are semantically and contextually connected throughout the volume.) For this reason, the Dim 7 was termed connected vs. disconnected contents, just as in the Book 1 CA (Honda et al., 2018) and the Book 3 CA solutions (Asai et al., 2019).

Because these Dims are the two most predominant ones among the seven Dims identified, covering almost 60% of the whole contribution rates, they can be regarded as the major Dims representing the present major CA results. This bipolar visualization seems to reveal several interesting facts concerning the features of each of the fifty five textbooks and their mutual inter relationships.

The texts of these textbooks were judged to be neutral in readability or difficulty and natural sounding daily life based dialogues rather than artificially polished expository passages. This judgment could also be supported by the fact that they were mostly textbooks written for the lower level students such as the second year or third year students.

First, there were a large number of textbooks clustered around the area characterized by ‘neutral texts (around zero point)’ on the difficult/easy axis (the x axis) and ‘natural sounding texts (minus pole) on the naturalness/artificialness axis (the y axis).’ This cluster, termed ‘natural sounding cluster’ or ‘Cluster A,’ was comprised of the following twenty two textbooks, mostly second and third year textbooks. Drill 2, Globe 2, Jack&Betty 3, Taisho 4, Drill 4, Standard(t) 1, Standard(t) 2, Jack&Betty 4, Choice 3, Pacific 2, Pacific 3, Taisho 2, Drill 3, Taisho 3, National 3, National 4, Jack&Betty 2, Union 3, Choice 2, Union 2, Union 1, National 2

that the naming and characterization of the Dims in the present CA turned to be a difficult job as it had been expected. This was because the present CA had to analyze an extremely large corpus comprised of fifty five textbooks in total, covering five years (1st to 5th year) and eleven kinds This might have been the main reason that made the dimension naming difficult.

The bipolar CA map in Figure 1 visualizes the 58.9% of the spatial inter relationships identified among the fifty five categorical variants in focus, in which the x axis (horizontal axis) represents Dim 1 (difficult (+) vs. easy ( ) texts) and the y axis (vertical axis) Dim2 (artificial sounding (+) vs. natural sounding ( ) discourse).

Dening 5, National 5, Globe 5, Choice 5, Union 5, Standard(p) 2, Dening 3, Union 4, Choice 4, Dening 4, Dening 2, Standard(t) 5, Globe 4, Standard(t) 3, Standard(p) 3, Pacific 5, Globe 3, Dening 1, Standard(t) 4, Standard(p) 5, Jack&Betty 5, Drill 5, Taisho 5, Pacific 4

The texts of these textbooks were judged to be both difficult and artificial in the sense that they are artificially polished expository passages rather than natural sounding daily life like dialogues. This judgment could also be supported by the fact that they are mostly textbooks written for the fifth year or fourth year

Figure 1: CA Map of 55 Textbooks

X axis (Dim 1): difficult (+) vs. easy ( ) texts (46.9%)

Y axis (Dim 2): artificial sounding (+) vs. natural sounding discourse ( ) (12.0%)

Second, there were also a large number of textbooks clustered around the area characterized by difficult texts (plus on the x axis) and artificial sounding texts (plus on the y axis). This cluster, termed ‘difficult and artificial sounding’ or ‘Cluster B,’ was comprised of the following twenty four textbooks, mostly fourth and fifth year textbooks.

Pacific 1, Standard(p) 1, Taisho 1, Jack&Betty 1, Drill 1, Globe 1, Choice 1 National 1

These easy textbooks could further be divided into two classes, (1) easy and artificial sounding ones (Cluster C 1) and (2) easy and natural sounding ones (Cluster C 2), depending upon their locations on the y pole or the artificial / natural sounding pole. As it is clear in Figure 1, the Cluster C 1 textbooks, i.e., Pacific 1, Standard(p) 1, Taisho 1, Jack&Betty 1, Drill 1 and Globe 1, could be characterized as the textbooks which valued repetitive, drill based language activities more than natural communication. On the contrary, the Cluster C 2 textbooks, Choice 1 and National 1 could be characterized as the textbooks which valued natural sounding expressions more than artificial, repetitive, drill based Anactivities.interesting fact to be noted in this respect is that National 1, a textbook authored by a U. S. author for U. S. primary school grade 1 learners, published in U. S. A., and imported to Japan to be used in Japanese middle schools, was at the same level in readability as the textbooks authored by Japanese authors for Japanese middle school first year learners. Probably this might be one of the reasons that National 1 was popular among Japanese EFL teachers and learners in the pre war days in Japan Clearly, it was both Dim 1, i.e., x axis, named ‘difficult vs. easy texts’ and Dim 2, i.e., y axis, named ‘artificial sounding vs. natural sounding discourse’ that differentiated this large number of textbooks from among each other. This will prove that both of the two axes, both the x axis and the y axis, are equally efficient and powerful differentiators of these EFL textbooks in focus.

Third, there were a rather small number of textbooks clustered around the area characterized by easy in readability (located around the minus area of the x (difficult/easy) pole). This cluster, termed ‘easy’ or ‘Cluster C,’ was comprised of the following eight textbooks, all of them being first year textbooks.

Among these twenty textbooks, seventeen ones were identical with those from among Cluster A above, which suggests that the two Dims, i.e., difficulty/easiness (Dim 1) and artificial /natural sounding (Dim 2), were the most influential on their categorization and classification. Group B, which corresponds to Cluster B above, was comprised of the twenty nine textbooks.

Choice 3, Drill 4, Drill 3, Jack&Betty 4, Standard(t) 2, Choice 4, Drill 5, Taisho 5, Jack&Betty 5, Pacific 5, Dening 1, Dening 2, Dening 3, Dening 4, Dening 5, Choice 5, National 5, Union 4, Union 5, Globe 3, Globe 5,

(For further explanation of dendrogram see Asai et al., 2019, p. 42.)

It is true that the bipolar map based on the two selected major axes can display the major features of the fifty five textbooks graphically but naturally it cannot depict all of their features detected in the present CA. As the cumulative contribution rates show in Table 3, the bipolar map comprised of the two axes can only display 58.9% of the whole features, leaving the rest (41.1%) untouched. To solve this problem, an attempt was made to display the whole features of their differences, using cluster analysis (Ward method) and dendrogram (Figure 2).

Figure 2: Dendrogram by Ward Method (100%)

Choice 1, National 1, Choice 2, Nationa 2, National 3, Nationa 4, Union 2, Union 3, Jack&Betty 3, Pacific 3, Pacific 2, Pacific 4, Taisho 4, Taisho 3, Drill 2, Globe 2, Jack&Betty 2, Standard(t) 1, Taisho 2, Union 1

Figure 2 graphically describes the differences of the fifty five textbooks based on the values of the fifty four Dims identified. As it is shown in Figure 2, there were three groups formed in the dendrogram, Group A, B and C Group A, which corresponds to Cluster A above, was comprised of the following twenty textbooks.

Drill 1, Globe 1, Standard(p) 1, Taisho 1, Jack&Betty 1, Pacific 1

As for the recommendations to be derived from the present study results, the following are to be pointed out.

All of these six textbooks were identical with those from among Cluster C above , which also suggests that the two axes, i.e., difficulty/easiness (Dim 1) and artificial /natural sounding (Dim 2), were the most influential on their categorization and Itclassification.hastobenoted that all of these Dendrogram classifications were based on the judgment of the fifty four Dims identified (the seven named Dims and the forty seven unnamed ones) Also, Group A and Group B were combined together to form a larger Group AB, and further, Group AB and Group C were further combined to form a larger group, Group ABC.

• Among them, practitioners can focus on (1) difficult / easy texts since it is the most powerful factor that discriminates the features of English (EFL) textbooks.

Among these twenty nine textbooks, twenty three ones were identical with those from among Cluster B above, which also suggests that the two Dims, i.e., difficulty/easiness (Dim 1) and artificial /natural sounding (Dim 2), were the most influential on their categorization and classification.

5. Conclusion, recommendations, limitations and future research

If teachers can analyze or evaluate the textbooks used in the classroom from such viewpoints, they will be able to help their learners’ learning and evaluate it from the light of qualitative aspect of the textbooks Concerning limitations of the present CA, the following points are to be made.

• If it is necessary to grasp the fairly comprehensive picture of English (EFL) textbooks, practitioners can focus on the two viewpoints, the most powerful and the second most powerful viewpoints, i.e., (1) difficult / easy texts and (2) artificial / natural sounding discourse.

It was proved in the present study that CA can handle quite a large amount of textual corpus, discriminating such a large number of EFL textbooks and clarifying the viewpoints necessary for this work. This means that CA is a useful statistic tool for the textual analyses in the language related areas.

Standard(t) 3, Globe 4, Standard(p) 2, Standard(p) 3, Standard(p) 4, Standard(p) 5, Standard(t) 4, Standard(t) 5

• In analyzing and evaluating English (EFL) textbooks, practitioners can make good use of the seven viewpoints, i.e., (1) difficult / easy texts, (2) artificial / natural sounding discourse, (3) dialogue / passage based textbooks, (4) teacher / non teacher dominance, (5) strictly / loosely controlled, (6) redundant / concise and (7) connected / disconnected.

Group C, which corresponds to Cluster C above, more specifically, Custer C 1, was comprised of the following six textbooks, all of them being first year textbooks.

6. References Asai, T , Honda, R., Watanabe, K., & Ozasa, T. (2019). A Correspondence analysis of seventeen Japanese historical third year English as a foreign language textbooks. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, 18(4), 102 134. doi:10.26803/ijlter.18 4 2 Beh, E. J., & Lombardo, R. (2014). Correspondence analysis: Theory, practice and new strategies. Chichester, West Sussex: Jon Wiley & Sons. Clausen, S. E. (1998). Applied correspondence analysis: An introduction. California: Sage Publications. Fukui, M. (2011). Shakai sisutemu bunseki notameno togouka puroguramu 14: Koresupondensu bunseki, suryoka IIIrui [Multi purpose program for social system analysis 14: Correspondence analysis, quantification method type III]. Keiei Kenkyu (Fukuyama Heisei Daigaku Keiei Gakubu Kiyo) [Bulletin of Faculty of Business Administration, Fukuyama Heisei University], March 7, 2011, 85 97.

Second, the present CA results have nothing to say on the relationship (homogeneities / differences) of the fifty five historical EFL textbooks to the currently used ones, since there were no current EFL textbooks included as categorical variants in the present CA, due to a lack of capacity for the analysis. It has to be admitted that this is a serious weakness of the present research model. To solve this problem, there must be chances to conduct a new CA, using both historical and current EFL textbooks as categorical variants, in order to probe into their mutual relationships. Finally, it must be admitted and emphasized that the results of these quantitative analyses including the present CA could and should be double checked by the qualitative analyses of the same samples used. The qualitative confirmation of the validity of a quantitative analysis (or vice versa) is essential in academic pursuit. This should be the main theme in the next study.

Fukui, M., & Watanabe, K. (2019a). Tekisuto CR bunnseki no gosuu chouseihou to tango no sentaku: Senyou puroguramu no kaihatu [Number adjustment and selection of words for textual analyses with correspondence analysis: Development of a special program]. ICTATLL, Japan Workshop, Prompt report, March 13, 2019, 1 8.

First, as stated earlier, although the differences of the Books 1 5 textbooks were explained by the same Dims as those of the Book 1 and Book 3 results up to Dim 7, there were two exceptions noted in the analysis (Honda et al. (2019). The Dim 3 of the Book 5 CA was termed variety rich vs. variety poor, which was different from those of the Book 1, Book 3 (Honda et al. (2019) and the present CA. Also, The Dim 4 of the Book 5 CA was termed teacher assistance vs. non teacher assistance, while those of Book 1, Book 3 and the present CA were teacher dominance vs. non teacher dominance (Honda et al. (2019). It has to be admitted that although the results of the four CAs were almost the same on the whole, there were some inconsistencies or irregularities observed on minor points. These facts suggest the limitations of the present CA and a need of further make up study, specifically a need of qualitative studies of these EFL textbooks.

Fukui, M., & Watanabe, K. (2019b). Koresupondensu bunseki o mochiita eibun tekisuto bunrui niokeru gosuchoseiho to tango no sentakukijun [Method of word count adjustment and word selection criteria for English text classification using correspondence analysis]. Keiei Kenkyu (Fukuyama Heisei Daigaku Keiei Gakubu

Kiyo) [Bulletin of Faculty of Business Administration, Fukuyama Heisei University], March 15, 2019, 63 78. Greenacre, M. (2010). Correspondence analysis of raw data. Ecology, 91(4), 958 963.

Honda, R., Asai, T., Watanabe, K., & Ozasa, T. (2018). A correspondence analysis of seventeen Japanese historical English as a foreign language textbooks. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, 17(11), 102 134.

doi:10.26803/ijlter.17.11.8

doi:10.1890/09 0239.1 Greenacre, M. (2017). Correspondence analysis in practice, 3rd ed. (Chapman & Hall/CRC Interdisciplinary statistics). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.

doi:10.26803/ijlter.18.12 6

Honda, R., Watanabe, K., & Ozasa, T. (2017). A correspondence analysis of nine Japanese historical English as a foreign language textbooks. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, 16(10), 100 113. doi:10.26803/ijlter.16.10.8

Research report of the Grant in aid for Scientific Research (KAKENHI), Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS), 2000 2002, Basic Research (C) (1) 12680269. Ozasa, T. (2005). Meiji, Taisho, Showa shoki no eigo kyokasho no keiryouteki bunseki [A quantitative analysis of Japanese historical EFL textbooks published in the Meiji Era (1868 1912), the Taisho Era (1912 1926) and the early Showa Era (1926 1945)].

Honda, R., Asai, T., Watanabe, K., & Ozasa, T. (2019). A correspondence analysis of twelve Japanese historical fifth year English as a foreign language textbooks. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, 18(12), 79 100.

Research report for the Grant in aid for Scientific Research (KAKENHI), Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS), 2003 2004, Basic Research (C) (1) 15520358. Ozasa, T., & Erikawa, H. (Eds.). (2004). Eigo Kyokasho no Rekishiteki Kenkyu [A Historical Study of [Japanese] English Textbooks]. Tokyo: Jiyusha. Ozasa, T., Watanabe, K., & Fukui, M. (2016). Development of a readability index attuned to the new English course of study of Japan (4): Development of Ozasa Fukui Year Level, Ver. 3.5nhnc1 6. Conference Proceedings, ICSSB (International Conference on Social Sciences and Business), Tokyo, Japan, August 25 27, 2016, pp. 385 394. Ozasa, T., Kawamura, K., Umamoto, T., & Matsuoka, H. (2018). 1900 1908nen shuppan no shogakko eigo kyokasho 4shu to genko chugakko kyokasho no taiobunseki [Correspondence analysis of four Japanese primary school EFL textbooks published during 1900 1908 and a current junior high school textbook]. Journal of ICTATLL (ICT in the Analysis, Teaching and Learning of Languages), Japan, 57 68. Sakamoto, M., Watanabe, K., & Ozasa, T. (2017). A Correspondence analysis of five Japanese historical English as a foreign language textbooks. Conference Proceedings of ICSSB (International Conference on Social Science and Business), Okinawa, Japan, July 25 27, 2017, pp. 132 144. Tabata, T. (2005). Profiling stylistic variations in Dickens and Smollett through correspondence analysis of low frequency words. Proceedings of the International Conference on Humanities Computing and Digital Scholarship, 17th Joint International Conference, University of Victoria, June 15 18, 2005, pp. 224 226.

Ozasa, T. (2003). Meiji, Taisho, Showa shoki no eigo kyokasho no keiryouteki bunseki [A quantitative analysis of Japanese historical EFL textbooks published in the Meiji Era (1868 1912), the Taisho Era (1912 1926) and the Early Showa Era (1926 1945)].

Uenishi, K. (2018). Correspondence analysis of teaching materials and potential relationships between the materials and student awareness. Proceedings of ICEPL (International Conference on Education, Psychology, and Learning), Tokyo, Japan, July 30 August 1, 2018, pp. 158 171.

Van de Geer, J. P. (1993). Multivariate analysis of categorical data: Data applications. Newbury Park, California: Sage Publications. Watanabe, K., Asai, T., & Ozasa, T. (2017). A correspondence analysis of five Japanese historical English as a foreign language textbooks. Conference Proceedings, ICEPL (International Conference on Education, Psychology, and Learning), Sapporo, Japan, August 23 25, 2017, pp. 61 73. Watanabe, K., & Fukui, M. (2018a). Quantitative analysis of initial stage English textbooks in Asia in comparison with textbooks in Japan. Conference Proceedings of 2018 International Symposium on Teaching, Education, and Learning, Summer Session, August 22 24, 2018, Waseda University, Tokyo, pp. 373 386. Watanabe, K., & Fukui, M. (2018b). Quantitative analysis of initial stage English textbooks in Asia in comparison with textbooks in Japan. Conference Proceedings of 2018 International Symposium on Teaching, Education, and Learning, Winter Session, Okinawa, Japan, January 23 25, 2018, pp. 117 130. Appendix 1 Two contrasting textbooks in the values in Dim 1(difficult(+) vs. easy ( ) texts)

HIRATSUKA ETCHU NO KAMI, a daring man, who feared nothing, while wandering about the country as a knight errant, was urged by messengers from IEYASU to enter his service. “IEYASU is stingy,” he replied; “although he uses polite language to his subordinates, the emoluments he bestows are very scanty.” (Dening 5, 2nd passage (The most difficult))

You are a girl. You are Betty Smith. You are a boy. You are Jack Jones. Are you Betty? Yes, I am Betty. Are you a schoolgirl? Yes, I am a schoolgirl. Are you a teacher? No, I am not a teacher. Are you Tom? No, I am not Tom. Are you Jack? Yes, I am Jack. Are you a schoolboy? Yes, I am a schoolboy. (Jack&Betty 1, Unit 1, Lesson 2 (The easiest))

Takanashi, T. (2018). A quantitative descriptive analysis of Japanese EFL learners’ inability to select the correct English articles. JACET (Japan Association of College English Teachers) Chugoku Shikoku Chapter Research Bulletin, 15, pp. 1 17. Tono, Y. (2000). A Corpus based analysis of interlanguage development: Analysing part of speech tag sequences of EFL learner corpora. In B. Lewandowska Tomaszczyk, & P. J. Melia (Eds.), Proceedings of PALC’ 99: Practical Applications in Language Corpora, University of Lodz, Poland, April 15 18, 1999, pp. 323 340.

246 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Appendix 2 Two contrasting textbooks in the values in Dim 2(artificial sounding(+) vs. natural sounding( ) texts) You have a book. Have you a book? Yes, I have. You have a pencil. Have you a pencil? Yes, I have. You have a card. Have you a card? Yes, I have. (Pacific 1, Lesson 3 (The most artificial sounding) This is a big rat. Can the dog get the rat? The dog can get the rat. (National 1, Lesson 3 (The most natural sounding) Appendix 3 Two contrasting textbooks in the values in Dim 3(dialogue based(+) vs. passage based( ) Thistexts)is a boy and his dog. Can the boy and his dog run fast? Yes. See them run. He cannot run as fast as his dog. Run, boy, run! (Choice 1, Lesson 12 (12/53 Lessons) (The most dialogue based)) JackP:T:P:T:T:Isthisacaporahat?P:Itisahat.Isthismyhat?Yes,itisyourhat.Isthisyourhat?No,itisnotmyhat.Itisyourhat.(Drill1,Lesson9(9/39Lessons)(Themostpassagebased))andBettyarepupilsofthe2Aclass.Mr.Johnsonistheirteacher. Thereis alargeblackboardintheirclassroom. Thereisateacher'sdeskinfrontofthe blackboard. Thirtyfivepupils'desksandchairsareintheroom. Inonecornerof theroomthereisabookcase. Andnearthewindowstherearesomeflowerpots. Thereisacageinthehalljustoutsidetheclassroom. Somelittlebirdsareinthe cage. Thereareseventeenboysandeighteengirlsintheclass. Theyalwayshelp theirteacher.(Jack&Betty2, Lesson2(2/24Lessons) (Themostpassagebased))

Appendix 4 Two contrasting textbooks in the values in Dim 4(dominance(+) vs. non teacher dominance( ) texts) See the big hen. See the fat pig. See the big fat hen. See the big fat pig. Do you see the big hen? Yes, I see the big hen. Do you see the fat pig? Yes, I see the fat pig? The big hen and the fat pig run. Run, boy, run! (Choice 1, Lesson 4 (4/53 Lessons) (The most teacher dominated))

A dog. I have a dog. His name is Tom. He is an old dog. I play with Tom. Tome plays with me. Tom and I play together. (Globe 1, Lesson 4 (4/24 Lessons) (The least teacher dominated))

Corresponding author: Fawzia Al Seyab, Email: fawzia@squ.edu.om

Keywords: creativity thinking skills; teaching strategies; Torrance Incubation Model; textbook analysis; Oman 1. Introduction The significant role of creativity as a higher level thinking skill in promoting the quality of education is undeniable. Previous studies have proven that studying creativity is considered a “necessity” in today’s world since it is regarded as one

Abstract. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the presence of creativity thinking skills (fluency, flexibility, originality, and elaboration) and creativity teaching strategies in post basic English as a Foreign Language (EFL) textbooks in Oman. The content analysis method was used to analyze grade 12 EFL textbooks and Teachers’ books. The researchers developed two coding books. The first coding book aimed to identify the creativity thinking skills present in the textbooks, and the other book coded the creativity teaching strategies prescribed in the Teachers’ Books. The results showed that activities in post basic EFL textbooks do not provide enough support for creativity thinking skills as only about 20% of grade 12 textbook activities included creativity thinking skills partially or fully. The findings also showed that out of the four types of creativity skills, verbal fluency was the highest. The results also indicated that the prescribed creativity teaching strategies are not very common in the EFL Teachers’ Books. The study makes some recommendations for curriculum developers.

248 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 4, pp. 248 267, April https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.4.152020 The Place of Creativity in EFL Omani Syllabus: A Content Analysis of Grade 12 Students’ and Teachers’ Books Maryam Said Al-Jabri Ministry of Education, Oman https://orcid.org/0000 0003 4553 4623 Fawzia Al Seyabi1*, Salma Al Humaidi2 and Abdulhamid Hasan3 Sultan Qaboos University Al Khoudh, Muscat 123, Oman 1https://orcid.org/0000 0002 1763 3467 2https://orcid.org/0000 0001 8579 7749 3https://orcid.org/0000 0003 4443 2342

Although teaching creative thinking may not seem possible to many, research in psychology has proven that creativity is a skill that can be taught (Downing, 1997; Torrance, 1963). Torrance (1963) has emphasized that schools should consider shifting their goals from teaching students how to learn into teaching them how to think (p. 4). The Torrance Incubation Model (TIM) for creative learning and teaching was developed by Paul Torrance to work as a model and guide for content design and creativity instruction (Murdock & Keller Mathers, 2002 b). It consists of three stages that correspond to the before, during and after stages. Murdock and Keller Mathers (2002 b) suggested that the TIM can be used to teach creativity independently or within the specified content of any subject, including language teaching (p. 2). Creativity is one of the important 21st century learning skills, and it is a long life skill that contributes to improving the quality of education at different facets (Richards, 2013). These are mainly relevant to the “four Ps” that help toward shaping the creative personality: the Person, the Product, the Process, and the Place (Vogel, 2014). These four aspects of creativity are reflected in various approaches. For instance, in the humanist approach, creativity develops the personality of the students through enhancing their abilities to express themselves. For this purpose, teaching creativity requires providing safe environments in which students can explore and build up their knowledge. In so doing, the students’ basic needs of security, motivation, and self actualization in Maslow’s theory of needs are fulfilled (Craft, 2001). The cognitive approach also views creativity as a combination of thinking skills that are directed to solve problems (Alhajri, 2013). This approach perceives creativity as a process that leads to the novelty of knowledge (Cropley, 1999).

2. What type of creativity teaching strategies are prescribed in post basic EFL Teachers’ Books?

Considering there is a gap in terms of studies that have approached creativity in the EFL context in Oman, content analysis of the EFL textbooks is considered as a starting point for future research on creativity as a 21st century skill. The results of the study will hopefully help to identify the weaknesses as well as the strengths of post basic EFL textbooks in terms of integrating creativity thinking skills.

Moreover, the study could provide suggestions for developing post basic EFL textbooks in the light of the findings of the research. Identifying the present types

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved of the factors that contribute to the progress of any civilization (Hennessey & Amabile, 2010). Thereupon, creativity has been identified as a cornerstone in curriculum design and education development (Fatt, 2000). In particular, creative thinking activities should be present in textbooks as they play a significant role in guiding the teaching learning processes.

1. What type of creativity thinking skills are present in post basic EFL textbooks?

This study attempts to investigate the integration of creativity thinking skills and strategies at higher school grades in Oman through a content analysis of the English as a Foreign Language (EFL) curriculum of grade 12. The study will seek to answer the following questions:

Treffinger, Young, Selby, and Shepardson (2002) have declared that there isn’t a single definition of creativity that is approved worldwide. Therefore, describing creativity has been a hard mission for most scholars attempting to explain what creativity is and isn’t (Boden, 1994), and its entire meaning is generally accepted as difficult to articulate in words. Perhaps the most favored definition of creativity is the one suggested by the National Advisory Committee on Creativity, Culture, and Education (NACCCE, 1999), which views creativity as an “imaginative activity fashioned to produce outcomes that are both original and of value.”

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved of creativity thinking skills and teaching strategies could lead to more diversified inclusion of these skills and strategies in future curriculum development.

2.1 Enhancing Creativity in Education

One common belief that surrounded the concept of creativity is that it is an inherited potential that only gifted people possess; however, this belief has started to diminish since the early twentieth century (Lin,2011). Several studies have shed light on the effectiveness of deliberate creativity training. For example, Scott, Leritz, and Mumford’s study (2004) found that creativity training has a significant positive effect on learners’ creativity abilities from different age groups. Also, Fleith, Westberg, and Renzulli (2002) studied the impact of creativity training on students’ divergent thinking and found positive results. Likewise, Gurak Ozdemir (2016) and Barker (2019) indicated that training teachers on creativity has a positive influence on enhancing their learners’ creative abilities. Also, a case study conducted by Sehic (2017) concluded that students’ creativity skills could be improved through language teaching and vice versa. The communicative method is one of the educational approaches that can incorporate creativity training in foreign language teaching. The situational learning tasks used in communicative classrooms activate students’ imagination and lead them eventually to think creatively (Otto, 1998; Richards, 2013). At the local level, it is clearly stated in the English Language Curriculum Framework (ELCF) (2010, p. 9) that the curriculum developers in the Oman Ministry of

2. Literature Review

According to Shaheen (2010), this definition is applicable to the educational field in the sense that it gives room to all students to be creative. Since the 1950s, research on creativity had thrived, starting when Guildford urged researchers to shift their attention to the skill of creativity and enrich it with more empirical studies (Craft, 2001; Jaušovec & Jaušovec, 2011; Sternberg, 2006; El Koumy, 2019). Guildford (1987) blamed psychologists for neglecting this field as he found very few papers that attempted to explore creativity. Consequently, a large group of scholars has endeavored to delve deeper into this field and form theories to make it more understandable, useful, and measurable. Moreover, the call for fostering creativity in education came from the world of economics after realizing the big influence of creativity in driving commerce and solving business problems (Ford & Gioia, 2000). Also, the demand in the labor market on employees with creative visions has increased. Accordingly, embedding creativity in education has become a requirement to fulfill the job market’s needs (World Bank, 2012).

2.3 Creativity Teaching Strategies: Torrance Incubation Model for Creative Learning and Teaching

Education implemented the communicative approach in designing the textbooks. The communicative approach requires integrating different types of tasks that trigger higher order thinking skills. According to the ELCF (2010, p. 29), the current textbooks of the post basic stage used in Oman are rich with activities that prompt critical thinking and research skills, laying the groundwork for creative thinking to occur. However, recent studies suggest that critical thinking skills are poorly fostered in the current EFL curriculum. One recent study done by Al Rajaibi (2017) concluded that there are few critical thinking skills present in the reading passages of post basic EFL textbooks employed in Oman.

It is difficult to imagine teaching that promotes creativity without the teaching methods themselves being creative (Sahlberg, 2009). The literature affirms that teaching creativity requires creative teaching (Sahlberg, 2009; Annarella, 1999; Richards, 2013). In other words, learners may not develop creative thinking skills if it is not encouraged by the school curriculum (Richards, 2013, p. 14). On the contrary, students may lose their interest in being creative as a result of traditional teaching Torrancestrategiescombined creativity teaching strategies in one model to guide practitioners in teaching creativity thinking skills. This model consists of three

Studying the creative personality and the creative thinking processes have facilitated the process of understanding creativity and developed a perspective on how to enhance it in education. According to Torrance (1963), creative people are those who can sense problems in contexts, have smooth flows of ideas, and are flexible to change. They also are producers of new or unexpected answers, can see beyond the obvious, can analyze and synthesize, and do not adhere to the “right answer” or “the right way” philosophy (p. 94 97). Later, more researchers have mentioned further descriptions of creativity abilities like brainstorming and imagination (Davis, 1989). In 1998, Torrance finalized the creativity thinking skills set in his book “Making the Creative Leap Beyond” , which includes 18 skills that contribute to developing students’ creative thinking abilities (Murdock & Keller Mathers, 2002 a). Torrance considered them as the essential skills that are developed through the Torrance Incubation Model (TIM) for creative learning and teaching (p. 9). Through utilizing these skill sets, teaching creativity becomes possible by specifying the targeted creativity thinking skills to be integrated into any type of discipline (Torrance, 1995). Among all of these skills, most studies that have attempted to measure creativity focused only on the four skills that Torrance considered in developing the Torrance Test for Creative Thinking (TTCT): fluency, flexibility, originality and elaboration (Sriwongchai, 2015; Plucker, Runco, Lim, 2006; Czarniecki, 2009; Vidal, 2005; Puryear, Kettler & Rinn, 2017; Sarikhani, Salari & Mansouri, 2016) These skills are tested through figural and verbal forms in the TTCT as they serve as indicators of intellectual and emotional creativity potentials (Wechsler, 2006). Therefore, this might indicate that these four skills are the most important creativity thinking skills among the ones listed in the TCSS.

2.2 Creative Thinking Abilities

The post basic stage of public education in Oman includes two grades, 11 and 12. As the activities and the cognitive load are cumulative throughout these two levels, grade 12 contains the highest density of activities and thinking skills.

3.1 Research design

3.2 Sampling

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved stages for each lesson; every stage involves some strategies that can be used in combination with other strategies or separately (Murdock & Keller Mathers, 2002 b). The order of these stages corresponds to the before, during and after model, but with a focus on creativity abilities (Murdock & Keller Mathers, 2002 b). The following figure in Torrance and Safetr’s book (1990, p.8) “The Incubation Model of Teaching: Getting beyond the Aha! “ illustrates the TIM strategies

Figure 1: The Torrance Incubation Model (TIM) for Creative Learning and Teaching According to Torrance and Safter (1990, p.12), the TIM is “a three stage model of instruction which may be used as a guide in planning courses, planning lessons, developing instructional materials, and in making instruction more effective”.

To investigate the presence of creativity in education, the curriculum as a significant element of the educational environment needs to be studied to ensure that it supports creativity and creative thinking effectively. Thus, the present study used the curriculum content analysis method The content analyzed is that of the English language textbooksandteachers’ books of grade12 in Omani public schools (of both first and second semesters). The focus of the study is directed at creativity thinking skills and creativity teaching strategies that boost creative thinking. Accordingly, students’ textbooks represent the documents for the content analysis of the creativity thinking skills, and teachers’ guidebooks represent the documents for the content analysis of the creativity teaching strategies.

3. Methodology

Commonly present Strategies or skills present in equal to or more than 50% of lessons. Present but not common Strategies or skills present in equal to or more than 33% but less than 50% of lessons. presentInsufficiently Strategies or skills present in less than 33% of lessons.

Two instruments were developed by the researchers to collect data for this study. These instruments are Creativity Thinking Skills Coding Book and Creativity Teaching Strategies Coding Book. The creativity thinking skills coding book includes the primary skills listed in the Torrance Creativity Skills Set (TCSS): fluency or producing alternatives, flexibility or Look at it another way, originality and elaboration (Torrance & Safter, 1990). These four skills are measured in figural and verbal categories according to the same classification of creativity thinking skills in the TTCT. As for the creativity teaching strategies, another coding book was developed through listing the three main stages (heightening anticipation, deepening expectation and extending the learning) of the Torrance Incubation Model for creative learning and teaching along with all the types of teaching strategies available in each stage. This coding book is used to identify the kinds of creativity strategies included in grade 12 lessons, as prescribed in the Teachers’ Books of semesters A and B. Both the validity of the instrument and reliability of analysis were established. A panel of nine instructors from Sultan Qaboos University and three Ministry of Education trainers and senior teachers validatedthe instruments with a few minor suggestions on the layout of the coding books. Also, inter rater reliability and intra rater reliability tests were developed before the actual analysis process.

Frequency level Amount of occurrence

Moreover, it is the exit level from which students continue their education at the tertiary level or go directly into the job market. Consequently, grade 12 EFL textbooks are the most appropriate to represent post basic EFL textbooks of public schools. The sample includes all the activities and lessons in grade 12 students’ textbooks, for both semester A and semester B. The analysis of the teaching strategies also includes all the strategies mentioned in the Teachers’ books.

3.4 Analysis procedures To investigate the presence of creativity thinking skills and strategies in the content selected, the data has been analyzed based on the frequency of occurrence in each prescribed lesson in the textbooks. The frequencies are divided into three levels: commonly present, present but not common and insufficiently present. According to the scale from Man’s study (2006, p. 10), the frequencies of occurrences are measured as shown in Table 1 Table 1: Scale of Measuring Frequencies of Occurrences

3.3 Instrumentation

Table 2: The Commonality of Presence among Types of Creativity Thinking Skills in Grade 12

4.1.1 Types of Creativity Thinking Skills in the different units of grade 12 textbooks At the unit level, all the 20 lessons in each semester were coded, and frequencies and percentages of each creativity skill were measured, as illustrated in Table 2. The correspondent level of presence for each type of skill is also demonstrated in the table.

Table 2 shows very little frequency of occurrences for the majority of creativity thinking skills. Figural creativity thinking skills are almost not present in both semesters. There is only one figural originality activity in workbook A (MOE, 2016c, p. 33). Among verbal creativity thinking skills, fluency has scored the most considerable frequency of occurrences in 32 lessons out of 40 in total, which indicates that verbal fluency is commonly present in the activities of grade 12

254 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved 4. Results 4.1 Types of Creativity Thinking Skills in Grade 12 EFL Textbooks To answer the first research question about the types of creativity thinking skills present in each lesson in grade 12 EFL textbooks, the coding of content data was performed at the unit level and the activity level.

skillsCreativity Semester A Presence Semester B Presence Total Presence F P F P F P Fluency Figural 0 0% Not present 0 0% Not present 0 0% Not present Verbal 15 75% presentCommonly 17 85% presentCommonly 32 80% presentCommonly Flexibility Figural 0 0% Not present 0 0% Not present 0 0% Not present Verbal 1 5% Not present 3 15% Not present 4 10% Not present Originality Figural 1 5% Not present 0 0% Not present 1 2.5% Not present Verbal 4 20% Not present 5 25% Not present 9 22.5% Not present Elaboration Figural 0 0% Not present 0 0% Not present 0 0% Not present Verbal 2 10% Not present 8 40% present but not common 10 25% Not present Total 23 14.37% Not present 33 20.62% Not present 56 17.5% Not present

Thetextbooks.occurrences of the remaining verbal creativity thinking skills range from 4 to 10 lessons out of 40 lessons in total. “Elaboration” occurred in 25% of the lessons; however, this amount shows that the skill of elaboration is not present according to the formula of analysis employed in this study. The next less frequent verbal creativity thinking skill is originality, which occurred in 22.5% of the 40 lessons, and that also indicates that this creativity skill is not present in grade 12 textbook activities. The least present verbal creativity skill is flexibility, which occurred in only four lessons in both semesters and registered a very low score of 10%. Although the percentages of most of the coded creativity thinking skills are very low, it is worthwhile to note that some lessons included more than one creativity skill, while others included only one creativity skill or none. In general, the total

255 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved percentage of the presence of creativity thinking skills in the different units of grade 12 textbooks is 17.5%. Thus, it can be concluded that students are not exposed to enough creativity thinking skills in EFL post basic curriculum. 4.1.2 The Level of Integration of Creativity Activities in Language Skills Based Activities To gain more insights about the inclusion of creativity thinking skills in grade 12 textbooks, all language skills based activities were coded and measured in terms of their levels of creativity thinking skills integration. These levels are (1) standalone creativity activities, (2) partial creativity activities, and (3) activities that do not include creativity thinking skills. According to the language skills based categorization of the units, the following table illustrates in detail the total number of textbook activities in each unit included in grade 12 textbooks for the two semesters. Total 3 in the table presents the total number of activities for each language skills based group of units. Total 4 shows the total number of activities for each theme in every semester. Table 3: Number of Activities in Each Unit and Theme Units/Lessons in Each Theme Number of textbook activities Semester A Themes Semester B Themes Unit skillLanguage/area 1 2 3 4 Total 1 1 2 3 4 Total 2 Total 3 1 Reading 11 11 11 12 45 10 11 11 13 45 90 2 Grammar 10 9 9 9 37 10 10 8 10 38 75 3 Vocabulary 8 8 8 8 32 10 8 10 9 37 69 4 Listening & speaking 9 8 8 8 33 9 9 10 10 38 71 5 Writing 8 9 10 9 36 9 9 9 11 38 74 Total 4 46 45 46 46 183 48 47 48 53 196 379 Table 3 displays the frequencies and percentages of occurrences of creativity thinking skills in each language skills based activity. This table highlights the level of inclusion of creativity skills in each language skill set of units in each semester separately. Moreover, Total 3 presents the total levels of creativity thinking skills inclusion in each language skill set of units in both semesters. Total 4, on the other hand, shows the total levels of inclusion of creativity thinking skills in each semester for all language skills based activities.

256 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Table 4: Level of Integration of Creativity Thinking Skills in Grade 12 A & B Textbooks Language Skills-based Activities Unit. skillsLanguage Levels of integration Semester A Semester B Total 1 InclusionNo Partial AStandlone InclusionNo Partial aloneStand inclusionNo inclusionPartial Stand alone F P F P F P F P F P F P F P F P F P 1 Reading 40 88.9% 3 6.7% 2 4.4% 39 86.7% 0 0% 6 13.3% 79 87.9% 3 3.3% 8 8.8% 2 Grammar 29 78.4% 4 10.8% 4 10.8% 32 84.2% 1 2.6% 5 13.2% 61 81.3% 5 6.7% 9 12% 3 Vocabulary 27 84.4% 3 9.4% 2 6.3% 26 70.3% 3 8.1% 8 21.6% 53 76.8% 6 8.7% 10 14.5% 4 Listening & Speaking 22 66.7% 3 9.1% 8 24.2% 29 76.3% 4 10.5% 5 13.2% 51 71.8% 7 9.9% 13 18.3% 5 Writing 29 80.6% 3 8.3% 4 11.1% 30 78.9% 3 7.9% 5 13.2% 59 79.7% 6 8.1% 9 12.2% Total 2 147 80.3% 16 8.7% 20 11% 156 79.6% 11 5.6% 29 14.8% 303 79.9% 27 7.1% 49 13%

To answer the second research question, the teaching strategies in the teachers’ books were coded according to the guidebook designed based on the Torrance Incubation Model for creative teaching and learning. Table 5 demonstrates the frequencies and percentages of creativity teaching strategies that exist in grade 12 teachers’ books along with the presence of each one of them. Totals 1 to 3 show the commonality of creativity teaching strategies for each stage in each semester while Totals 4 and 5 show the total commonality of presence in each semester and for all language skills.

Figure 2: Levels of Integration of Creativity Thinking Skills in Grade 12 Textbook Activities

4.2 Types of Creativity Teaching Strategies in Grade 12 EFL Teachers’ Books

Table 4 above shows that listening and speaking skills received the highest inclusion of creativity thinking skills, with 9.9% of partial inclusion and 18.3% of standalone creativity activities. Vocabulary skills also included 8.7% partial integration of creativity thinking skills and 14.5% of standalone creativity activities. The next lowest percentage is scored by writing with 8.1% of partial inclusion and 12.2% of standalone creativity activities. Grammar scored slightly lower percentages than writing, with 6.7% of partial inclusion and 12% of standalone creativity activities. Reading scored the lowest percentage of inclusion of creativity thinking skills with only 3.3% of partial inclusion and 8.8% of standalone creativity activities. Generally, in all language skills based activities, creativity thinking skills are not included in 79.9% of these activities, which is a very high percentage compared to the percentage of the activities with full or partial inclusion of creativity thinking skills together. This means that only about 20% of textbooks activities included creativity thinking skills partially or fully. The following bar graph illustrates the level of integration of creativity skills in language skills based activities of grade 12 textbooks.

258 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Table 5: The Commonality of Use among Types of Creativity Teaching Strategies in Grade 12 A & B Teachers’ Books. TIM Strategies Semester A Commonality of Presence Semester B Commonality of presence Total 5 Commonality of PresenceF P F P F P Stage Heightening1: Anticipation Create desire to know 12 60% Commonly present 15 75% Commonly present 27 67.5% Commonly present Heightening anticipation 10 50% Commonly present 2 10% Not present 12 30% Not present Get attention 12 60% Commonly present 9 45% Uncommonly present 21 52% Commonly present Arouse curiosity 12 60% Commonly present 15 75% Commonly present 27 67.5% Commonly present Tickle the imagination 5 25% Not present 0 0% Not present 5 12.5% Not present Give purpose and motive. 11 55% Commonly present 17 85% Commonly present 28 70% Commonly present Total 1 62 52% Commonly present 58 48% Uncommonly present 120 50% Commonly present Stage Deepening2: Expectations Digging deeper 17 85% Commonly present 18 90% Commonly present 35 62.5% Commonly present Looking twice 10 50% Commonly present 9 45% Uncommonly present 19 47.5% Uncommonly present Listening for smells 8 40% Uncommonly present 5 25% Not present 13 32.5% Not present Crossing out mistakes 11 55% Commonly present 9 45% Uncommonly present 20 50% Commonly present Cutting holes 7 35% Uncommonly present 13 65% Commonly present 20 50% Commonly present Cutting corners 6 30% Not present 8 40% Uncommonly present 14 35% Uncommonly present Getting in deep water 10 50% Commonly present 10 50% Commonly present 20 50% Commonly present Getting out of locked drs. 4 20% Not present 7 35% Uncommonly present 11 27.5% Not present Total 2 73 46% Uncommonly present 79 49% Uncommonly present 152 48% Uncommonly present Stage 3: Keep it Going Having a ball 4 20% Not present 4 20% Not present 8 20% Not present Singing in one’s own key 6 30% Not present 3 15% Not present 9 22.5% Not present Building sandcastles 12 60% Commonly present 15 75% Commonly present 27 67.5% Commonly present Plugging in the sun 3 15% Not present 7 35% Uncommonly present 10 25% Not present Shaking hands 2 10% Not present 2 10% Not present 4 10% Not present Total 3 27 27% Not present 31 31% Not present 58 29% Not present Total 4 162 42% Uncommonly present 168 44% Uncommonly present 330 43% Uncommonly present

Figural creativity thinking skills are not present in post basic EFL textbooks. Among all the 379 activities in the EFL textbooks of grade 12 for both semesters, only one activity included figural creativity thinking skills. This result indicates that figural creativity thinking skills are ignored at the post basic level. This omission can be justified since the focus of language teaching is usually directed at verbal efficiency. Dău Gaşpar (2013) has put this assumption under examination and concluded that high school students function better at figural tasks than verbal ones. This result emphasizes the importance of including figural creativity activities in EFL textbooks at this stage.

According to the results of this study, the presence of creativity thinking skills in post basic EFL textbooks activities is minimal. Fewer than 20% of the prescribed lessons included creativity skills, and almost 20% of language skills-based activities included creativity skills. This finding is expected since it aligns with the results of previous studies that also sought to evaluate the presence of creativity thinking skills in textbooks activities.

5.1 Creativity thinking skills in students’ textbooks

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved Table 5 indicates that the frequency of occurrences of creativity teaching strategies varies in different stages. The total percentages of stage 1 show that it includes four commonly present creativity teaching strategies which are: Create the desire to know, Get attention, Arouse curiosity, and Give purpose and motivation. There are two other “not present” creativity teaching strategies in stage 1, which are: Heightening anticipation and Tickle the imagination. The total percentage indicates that creativity teaching strategies for stage 1 of the Torrance Incubation Model are commonly present in grade 12 prescribed lesson

Appendix A presents examples of some creativity teaching strategies from grade 12 teachers’ books A and B. Discussion

Theplans.variation is wider concerning the creativity teaching strategies in stage 2 with four commonly present strategies: Digging deeper, Crossing out mistakes, Cutting holes to see through, and Getting in deep water. There are a few uncommonly present creativity teaching strategies, which are: Looking twice and Cutting corners. Besides, two more strategies are not present: Listening for smells and Getting out of locked doors. The overall percentage of the second stage shows that creativity teaching strategies for this stage are uncommonly present in grade 12 prescribed lesson plans. As for the creativity teaching strategies in stage 3, the table shows a very low frequency of occurrences for most of them except for one strategy, which is Building sandcastles. The rest of the strategies scored lower percentages than 33%, which means that they are not present in the prescribed lesson plans. In total, creativity teaching strategies in stage 3 are not present based on the previously mentioned scale. Generally, creativity teaching strategies scored 43% for both semesters in total, which confirms that these strategies are present in grade 12 teachers’ books, but they are not common.

Baleghizadeh and Dargahi (2016), for instance, have analyzed six international ESL textbooks and found that only two of these textbooks included more than 50% of creative activities while the rest have scored very low percentages of creativity skills inclusion.

Moreover, a study by Chan and Chan (2007) in Hong Kong to explore the relationship

Language skills based activities in the post basic EFL textbooks do not offer enough support for improving creativity skills. As shown in Table 5, all the language skills based activities included small percentages of creativity skills in partial or full integration. Although the highest percentage was scored by listening and speaking skills based activities, which comprised 28.2% of creativity

An experimental study conducted by Ghazanfari (2011) confirmed that students who practice mental visualization of the texts before, during and after reading tasks perform better than learners who are not exposed to this strategy.

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved between Chinese high school students’ drawing abilities and their creativity abilities found that these two variables are positively correlated. Also, according to Hummel (1988), one of the significant characteristics of textbooks that encourage self directed learning is to stimulate creativity through drawing and crafting tasks. Moreover, figural creativity has a positive influence on learners’ reading comprehension and recall abilities.

Verbal fluency is commonly present in post basic EFL textbooks. Verbal fluency is the only commonly present creativity skill in the textbooks analyzed, which is not surprising since these textbooks are designed based on the communicative approach, as mentioned earlier. One of the primary purposes of communicative language teaching or CLT is to provide learners with as many opportunities to develop verbal fluency (Gatbonton & Segalowitz, 1988; Renukadevi, 2016). CLT is one of the most effective approaches that can enhance learners’ verbal fluency because of the communicative teaching techniques, such as games and roleplays that are practiced in communicative classrooms. Oral fluency is also mentioned as an independent objective in the framework of the English language curriculum at the post-basic level (ELCS, 2010, p. This25).

finding aligns with other studies that have attempted to analyze language textbooks for creativity skills. Alhawamda and Bani Issa (2013), for example, analyzed Arabic language textbooks for grade six and found that verbal fluency is the most common among the other four creativity skills. Also, Alfara (2010) analyzed activities in Arabic textbooks of grade four and reached a similar result. However, the ideas or solutions required by the verbal fluency activities in grade 12 EFL textbooks are limited to a certain number in many cases, which is at odds with the essential meaning of fluency: to unleash ideas and let them flow freely. Moreover, most of these activities are explained in detail with numerous examples; consequently, this can also lead to putting students’ ideas in a specific, narrow framework and limiting their range of thought. A similar result was also found by Halaq (2017) when analyzing Arabic textbooks at the primary stage of basic education. Verbal flexibility, verbal originality, and verbal elaboration are not present in post basic EFL textbooks.

The results of the study show few frequencies for these three skills, verbal flexibility, verbal originality, and verbal elaboration in grade 12 EFL textbooks in both semesters. It can be assumed that the inclusion of this amount of creativity activities is spontaneous as part of the activities that are designed to encourage higher order thinking and research skills that are listed among the objectives of post basic grades in the ELCF (ELCS, 2010, p. 25). Similar studies have also found that the presence of these skills is weak in language teaching textbooks (Alhawamda & Bani Issa, 2013; Alfara, 2010).

Vocabulary activities fell into the second highest percentage level, with 23.2% of creativity skills. These activities generally included tasks like listing relevant words, guessing meaning from context, or making sentences or short stories from given words. The objectives related to improving learners’ vocabulary put stress on the importance of exposing them to a wide range of texts and high frequency words through recycling familiar words and constructing sentences based on them (ELCS, 2010). Some researchers like Seddigh and Shokrpour (2013) and Nosratinia and Zaker (2015) have attempted to identify the relationship between creativity and vocabulary learning strategies and found that these two variables are significantly and positively correlated. Besides, Hajilou, Yazdani, and Shokrpour (2012) have concluded that creativity is not only correlated positively with productive vocabulary knowledge, but there is also a positive correlation between creativity and receptive knowledge of vocabulary. However, the finding of the current study indicates that creativity skills are ignored in planning for vocabulary activities in post basic EFL textbooks. Writing activities also scored a low percentage of creativity thinking skills inclusion, although this language skill is generally linked to creativity in what is called “creative writing.” This assumption is prevalent because of the productive nature of writing and its direct relationship with imagination and mental visualization (Sharples, 2002, p. 8). This relationship is clarified by Lambirth, Grainger, and Goouch (2005) when they stated that “a creative activity is goal-oriented and the creative act of writing self-evidently involves making; making connections, making meaning, composing and communicating” (p.13).

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved skills in total, this percentage fell under the “not commonly present level.” Besides, this percentage represents the inclusion of creativity skills for activities of two language skills, unlike the other percentages of the other language skills based activities. Another reason for that could be the emphasis on developing oral fluency in the curriculum objectives (ELCS, 2010, p. 25).

Nevertheless, the objective related to writing skills in the ELCF highlights the importance of the process of “writing with a balance between fluency based and accuracy based tasks.” The ELCF also mentions other specific objectives which focus on types of texts that students can produce using higher order thinking skills (ELCS, 2010). Therefore, it can be concluded that these few writing activities are designed as part of the general orientation of the communicative approach but not for enhancing creativity thinking skills.

It is no surprise that grammar and reading activities score lowest in terms of creativity skills, with less than 20% of inclusion. Grammar as a language skill is generally considered by many teachers and students to be rigid (Nagaratnam & Al Mekhlafi, 2012), which contradicts with the free and flexible nature of creativity. The ELCF mentions briefly that grammar should be taught inductively and deductively in a balanced manner (p. 25); however, there isn’t much explanation or detail about how grammar is expected to be taught at this stage. As for reading, the ELCF includes some details about the types of genres of the texts and the kinds of reading strategies that students should practice.

This also indicates that the slight inclusion of creativity thinking skills in language skills based activities is unstructured. Alkiyumi (2010) has also noted that grade 10 curricula, which is immediately preceding the post basic stage, do not include tasks or strategies that activate creative thinking.

Stage 3: Creativity teaching strategies are not present in post basic EFL Teachers’ Books. According to Table 5 in the results section, strategies of the third stage in the TIM are not present in the analyzed textbooks. Building sandcastles is the only commonly present strategy among the five strategies, which also aligns with Man’s study (2006), who found it as the only commonly used strategy in the participants’ lesson plans. This strategy includes using the content as a basis for searching for ideal solutions, which also, according to Snyder and Snyder (2008), is related to critical thinking skills. One of the strategies of the third stage is shaking hands with tomorrow, which is mainly related to linking the content of the subject to the learners’ vocational or educational future (Torrance & Safter, 1990). Surprisingly, this strategy scored the lowest percentage of presence despite the claim that the activities of the EFL textbooks of grade 12 are designed to prepare students for their future careers (Ministry of Education, 2016a, p. xii).

Stage 1: Creativity teaching strategies are commonly present in post basic EFL Teachers’ Books.

Creativity teaching strategies in post basic EFL Teachers’ Books

Stage 2: Creativity teaching strategies are present but not common in post basic EFL Teachers’ Books.

6. Conclusion The study aimed to explore the present situation of creativity in Omani post basic EFL textbooks by investigating the presence of four primary creativity thinking skills: fluency, flexibility, originality, and elaboration at figural and verbal categories. Besides, the study investigated the presence of a set of creativity teaching strategies from the TIM by analyzing the prescribed teaching strategies.

The results of the current study reveal a common presence of creativity teaching strategies of the first stage of the TIM in post basic EFL Teachers’ Books. This can be attributed to the sequence and structure of activities, which include lead in elements that help learners to be motivated and engaged in the content of the lessons. As noticed by the researchers, the lead in elements exist as independent introductory activities and within the beginnings of some activities as well, which correspond to the warm up stage of Torrance’s model: Heightening Anticipation (Torrance & Safter, 1990). Warm up activities, according to Torrance, are those that help learners link the new content to something meaningful to them and increase their interests to know more about the topic. Similarly, the ELCF mentions that the “affective factor” is taken into consideration with motivating activities that draw learners’ personal experiences into the learning processes (p. 11). Therefore, this mutual perspective explains why strategies in the first stage of TIM are commonly present in the analyzed EFL textbooks.

The strategies prescribed in the second stage are present, but they are not common in grade 12 prescribed lesson plans as the results suggest. The most commonly present strategy in this stage is digging deeper, which aligns with Man’s study (2006), who also found it as a widely used strategy by teachers who used TIM spontaneously in their lesson plans. This strategy includes searching for more in-depth information, synthesizing, diverging, and evaluating skills (Torrance & Safter, 1990), which are types of critical thinking skills (Snyder & Snyder, 2008). Hence, the communicative skills based activities of the post basic EFL curriculum are designed to foster critical thinking skills and searching skills (ELCS, 2010).

Some useful recommendations can be considered for future reform to consolidate creativity in EFL teaching in the post basic stage. The Oman Ministry of Education can refer to the results of the recent studies which have focused on the presence of critical thinking skills and creativity thinking skills in the current EFL curriculum and consider them in its future reform of textbooks. There also seems to be a need to initiate more workshops for teachers on creativity thinking skills and teaching strategies. As for curriculum developers, they can include creativity skills in the EFL textbook activities following a well planned vision for fostering creative thinking in the post basic stage It is also highly recommended to diversify the creativity skills in each lesson across the curriculum with a variety of creativity teaching strategies. This seems to be necessary if there is a sincere attempt to promote creativity as a long life skill that contributes to improving not only the quality of education but also the quality of life that awaits our future generations.

The method used in collecting data was content analysis design, which was carried out through reviewing the recently edited versions of students’ textbooks and Teachers’ Books produced by the MOE. Two coding books were developed and used by the researchers to collect data from the mentioned documents, and reliability of analysis and validity of instruments were ensured.

The results of the study showed a fragile presence of creativity thinking skills in the analyzed language skills based activities. However, the analysis revealed that creativity teaching strategies are present in the prescribed teaching strategies for post basic EFL activities, but they are not common.

Alhajri, S. (2013). Developing a pedagogical model to enhance and assess creativity in Omani graphic design education (Doctoral dissertation, Loughborough University, London, UK). Retrieved from https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/2134/12357

7. Recommendations

Alhawamda, M., & Bani Issa, M. (2013). Creative Reading Skills in Grade Six Arabic Textbooks (in Arabic). Journal of Islamic University of Educational and Psychological Studies, 3(21), 377 401.

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goingitKeep3:Stage

Vogel, T. (2014). Breakthrough thinking: A guide to creative thinking and idea generation. Georgetown, Ontario: HOW Books.

Organize students into pairs. One students is ‘Student A’. The other students is ‘Student B’. Students read the scenarios and then role play the situations (MOE, 2017a, p. 76).

Having a ball This fun activity reviews some of the key vocabulary in Units 1 3 of the themes… To make the activity more challenging, ask more advanced students to see if they can complete the crossword without looking back through the units (MOE, 2017a, p. 13)

Create desire to know Ask students questions like: Do you think that news and the media are interesting? Give your reasons. Why is it important to follow the news?(MOE, 2017a, p.2) anticipationHeightening Ask students questions like: What kind of career(s) are you interested in? What attracts you to this kind of career (job)? (MOE, 2017a, p.26) Give purpose and motive. In groups, students read the letter and decide what advice they would give to the writer (MOE, 2017a, p. 27)

267 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved Trefﬁnger, D., Young, G., Shelby, E., & Shepardson, C. (2002). Assessing creativity: A guide for educators. Storrs, CT: The National Research Center on the Gifted and Talented. Vidal, R. V. V. (2005). Creativity for operational researchers. Investigacao Operacional, 25(1), 1 24. Retrieved from http://www.scielo.mec.pt/pdf/iop/v25n1/v25n1a01.pdf

Cutting holes to throughsee Students complete the gapfill activity. Tell them that before trying to fill in the gaps, they should read the whole text first in order to get the gist of it ((MOE, 2017a, p. 28).

Building and castles Students choose one headline in Course book, page 7, activity 4 and write a short story to go with that headline. To help them, they should use the vocabulary they have predicted for that story (MOE, 2017a, p. 12).

Ask students to read the information about reading, then discuss the three questions in groups, eliciting feedback so that students can share their ideas with the whole class. Encourage them to share their solutions to improve their reading speed (MOE, 2016a, p. 28)

Appendix A

Heightening1:Stage anticipation

expectationDeepening2:Stage

Listening for smells

DeeperDigging

Singing in one’s own key Students work with a partner and practice making up sentences about themselves using past perfect (MOE, 2016a, p. 32)

Examples of Some Creativity Teaching Strategies from Grade 12 Prescribed Teaching Strategies. Stage strategiesTIM Examples

Abstract. This study aims to understand the influence of self concept, family environment, and learning environment on higher order thinking skills (HOTS) of high school students in the Economics subject. The education landscape in the information age is rapidly changing, and all students are expected to develop their higher order thinking skills to prepare themselves for the future. This study uses both a qualitative and quantitative approach. Eighty seven students took part in this survey. The survey measured self concept, family environment, and learning environment through multiple choice questions to measure aspects of higher order thinking skills. A multi factor direct effect test model was used to determine the influence of each variable. Based on hypothesis testing, we found that self concept, family environment, and learning environment have a positive influence on students' HOTS. Thus, in order to improve the higher order thinking skills in students, it is imperative to improve self concept, create a right family environment, and a pleasant school environment that is conducive for learning

268 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 4, pp. 268 290, April https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.4.202016 An Analysis of Higher Order Thinking Skills (HOTS) in the Learning of Economics Ari Saptono1 , Suparno Suparno2* and Agus Wibowo3 Universitas Negeri Jakarta Jakarta, Indonesia 1https://orcid.org/0000 0002 4182 2284 2https://orcid.org/0000 0002 5518 0489 3https://orcid.org/0000 0003 0051 1743 Eeng Ahman Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia Bandung, https://orcid.org/0000Indonesia00022606 5449 Ismiyati Ismiyati Universitas Negeri Semarang Semarang, https://orcid.org/0000Indonesia00024706 1340 Deni Sukayugi Universitas Negeri Jakarta Jakarta, https://orcid.org/0000Indonesia0001 7066 4361

Keywords: higher order thinking skills; economics; learning; self concept; family environment; high school competencies

1. Introduction

Global competition in the 21st century is increasingly fierce, and this requires human resources to have the ability to think at a higher level. However, support for internal and external conditions is needed to improve higher order thinking skills (HOTS) in students and learners in general (Tajudin, 2016). As the world moves into a new era of education with industry 4.0, the megatrend of education is the main issue of future learning (Kaur & Arledge, 2019), including economics learning (Malik & Janowska, 2018).

Indonesia is a developing country with a very high population. The young generation is the hope of the nation, and they were expected to achieve the highest level of education developments in the 21st century demand that young people be able to compete in an increasingly stringent global economy. The education system is faced with new challenges in how to make the appropriate changes so that students acquire modern and relevant knowledge and skills, Educational goals in the 21st century must foster problem solving skills, critical thinking (Turiman et al., 2012; Erdoğan, 2019), and higher order thinking skills which students need to adapt to the rapidly changing information age (Darling Hammond et al., 2020; Ball & Garton, 2005; Greenspan et al., 2001).

The world megatrends are currently experiencing rapid development that demands corresponding changes in education, industry, and even social culture. Global megatrends are changing the environment, how we live, and the economy (Hajkowicz, Cook & Littleboy, 2012). A megatrend is a global transformative force that determines the world of the future with its broad impact on business, society, economy, culture, and personal life (Malik & Janowska, 2018). In this era, new technologies emerge such as artificial intelligence and mechanization that replace human work, skills and job requirements change (Aulbur & Bigghe, 2016). Based on the phenomena, education and learning need to experience fundamentally structured changes in order to foster the true potential and curiosity that students need to continue learning according to the demands of the times (Afrianto, 2018; Hussin, Learning2018).isabout packaging the environment for better learning (Bandura, 1971), using the right media (Moreno, 1999), shaping personality (Bandura & Walters, 1963), fostering new entrepreneurial behavior (Collins, Witkiewitz & Larimer, 2011). The 4th industrial revolution is a significant advancement in technology that integrates the physical, digital, and biological world, which fundamentally changes the way people work. In Industry 4.0, equipment, machinery, sensors, and people were designed to communicate with each other by using internet technology known as the ‘Internet of Things.’ Learning shapes students' competency and entrepreneurial skills (Suparno & Saptono, 2018), develops character (Suparno, 2018a), and digital competencies through the use of innovative media such as ebooks and online based resources (Suparno, 2018b).

Furthermore, industry 4.0 marks the emergence of supercomputers and Artificial Intelligence. In this condition, we can predict that robots or artificial intelligence operate many jobs. However, it is also likely that many new jobs will emerge. The

2. Literature Review

Higher Order Thinking Skills (HOTS) HOTS shows one's ability to think more broadly to find new challenges and find answers to problems (Retnawati et al., 2018; Smith & Szymanski, 2013). The ability to think at a higher level requires someone to apply new information or prior knowledge and manipulate information to reach possible answers in new situations (Heong et al, 2011). High level thinking is a thought process that requires students to manipulate information and ideas in certain ways that give them new understanding (Novirin, 2014). Higher order thinking skills (HOTS) is the ability and expertise to find answers or achieve goals through various forms of thought processes. Students need to learn and practice this ability to get answers, make decisions, and solve problems (King, Goodson & Rohani, 1998). High level thinking is an activity that challenges students to interpret, analyze or manipulate information. Students are required to first process any new information that can produce knowledge and may provide a solution to a problem. Anderson and Krathwohl (2015) has revised the Bloom's Taxonomy to include elements of HOTS They believe that the process of creation is the highest

The progress and development of education is a factor in the success of a nation. The development of education in Indonesia is still low when viewed from the National Development Index data. Indonesia must be able to improve the quality of education, as this reflects the quality of the nation. Quality education represents the quality of graduates in an educational institution. The quality of graduates is determined by knowledge and skills that high competitiveness in the global community. To be able to compete in the global market, higher order thinking skills are needed to support the quality of graduates (Wilson, 2000).

challenge in education is how to prepare human resources can operate much artificial intelligence and not order by machines. Schools, through teachers as the frontline in education, are required to be able to improve the quality of human resources by preparing students to adapt to changes in the environment very quickly. In this case, we can make improvements to our education by changing the learning methods. Teachers must expect to take up the challenge and lead the learning process to equip students with 21st century skills. For example, our teachers using digital technologies to create a more active, independent, creative and innovative learning process.

The purpose of economics education is to develop aspects of knowledge, understanding, attitudes, values, and skills in students. Acquiring the right skills has become an essential element in economics learning. In today's modern society, children must master thinking skills. Teachers need to teach their students to learn to think (Jhonson, 2010). Higher order thinking skills have been widely studied (Hidayati, 2017). However, only a small amount of research specifically focuses on each subject and level of education. Through this study, students, parents, teachers, policymakers, and the general public can get some insight into the development of higher order thinking skills in students and their current thinking abilities.

Learning Environment

in the thinking abilities of learners. There is a strong relationship between the professional components of teachers such as educational qualifications, designation, teaching experience, research experience, training and exposure workshops with teaching strategies for higher order thinking skills has been found that 'appointment', 'teaching experience' and 'educational qualifications' significantly contribute to the strategy of teaching higher thinking skills (Kusuma, Rosidin & Suyatna, 2017; Dungsungnoen, 2016; Vijayaratnam, 2012; Patrick & Ryan, 2007). The implication in this research is that the school prepares good learning facilities, the teacher conducts learning conductively, for parents to encourage, guide students at home and improve self concept in developing thinking skills

Family Environment

A family is a small social group that generally consists of a father, a mother, and one or more children who have a fixed relationship and are usually based on blood ties, marriage, or adoption (Ahmadi, 2007). The family has a huge influence on the success of students. The functions carried out by the family include education, socialization, protection, bonding, religion, recreation, and affection (Adamovič, 2015) To optimize the personality and abilities of children, parents must foster an educational atmosphere within the family. The educative atmosphere starts from the womb (Suwarno, 2008). Parents have the responsibility to create a conductive pattern of life and maintain good social relations with other family members and others The family environment is considered a foundation for each dimension of student development as well as the elements which influence student learning and thinking skills (Jackson, 2003; Wade, 2004; Campbell & Gilmore, 2007).

The school is a very important place for students to interact with their peers (Muñoz Hurtado, 2018) and to learn from the teachers (Moore et al., 2018). Schools teach the right way of thinking and educate behavior change. The ability to think and behave in the long term direction becomes a learning experience and habit. Student knowledge in the school environment is strongly influenced by teacher learning strategies. The school is the stage for learning (Dwiyanti, 2017). The function of the school is not much different from the function of the family

Self-Concept

An idea of self consists of beliefs, judgments, and views of the individual against himself is known as the concept of self. The self concept is the overall perception a person has of himself (Slameto, 2003). Self concept is significantly influenced by the judgment of others, peers, and one's behavior (Sampthirao, 2016). The environment greatly influences oneself to grow and develop in learning and knowledge. Therefore, the concept of self can be considered as an impression and personal view that a person has of himself and influences someone in interacting with others and the environment. The concept of self as a social product is formed through a process of internalization and organization of psychological experiences. These psychological experiences are the result of an individual's exploration of his physical environment and the reflection he receives from most people in his environment (Slameto, 2003).

This study uses the Single Equation Structural Model which is analyzed by multiple regression analysis, whereby the relationship between several independent variables and one dependent variable is explained. The aim is to predict the value of the dependent variable based on the known independent variable values and to explain the effect of each independent variable on the dependent variable (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2019). According to Ho (2014), a minimum number of 20 observations for each independent variable is required to derive meaningful conclusions.

This study uses a quantitative approach with descriptive methods. Qualitative research is also used in this study because it can explore and understand the meaning of individuals or groups in developing HOTS. This study uses a multi factor analysis directly, to determine the factors forming HOTS in high school.

272 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. environment. The implementation of educational learning processes in schools is intended to achieve educational goals. Learning is carried out by the teacher with strategies, models, methods, techniques, media and other evaluation tools. The learning environment in schools is an academic environment that develops knowledge, experience, and learning skills. However, thinking skills also need to be taught so that students can develop 21st century competences by acquiring the right skills and abilities. A good infrastructure, conducive classrooms, supportive peers, innovative and open teachers with democratic learning are the demands of a good school climate. School environments that affect student learning processes will have a major impact on students' thinking abilities. A conducive school environment can be created by teachers when they are able to motivate their students to learn through good teaching strategies and rewards. Thus, we hypothesise that self concept, family environment, and learning environment influence the acquisition of higher order thinking skills in students, as shown in Figure 1. H1: There is a positive influence of self concept towards higher order thinking H2:skills.There is a positive influence of the family environment towards higher order thinking skills H3: There is influence positive learning environment towards higher order thinking skills.

H1 H2 H3

Figure 1. The Proposed Model 3. Research Methods

4. Results and Discussion

The population in this study were Social Studies students of grade XI in a High school in Jakarta, Indonesia. There were 111 students following social studies classes but only 87 were selected to take part in the survey. The sampling technique used in this study uses a proportional random sampling technique because the characteristics of the population are homogeneous. The survey questionnaire consisted of 38 statements and 15 multiple choice questions. The questionnaire was used to measure aspects of self concept, family environment, and learning environment related to students' higher order thinking skills. The multiple choice test in this study was used to measure students' higher order thinking skills in economics learning. The questions were on taxation in economics development and the policies of international trade. These basic competencies are usually taught in schools.

The validity of the questionnaire was testing using the Pearson test and the reliability test was tested using the Cronbach Alpha. A hypothesis prerequisite test was also performed. A value less than 0.005 using the Lilliefors test showed that the questionnaire passed the normality test. To determine the direct effect between variables, a linearity test, and correlation coefficients are calculated together with variance analysis. Data was processed and analyzed using SPSS.

In this study, we took a learning class as a teacher's assistant in the school. The questionnaire was distributed proportionally at random sampling to 3 classes of social studies with 30 questionnaires per class. We use this method according to characteristics of the population that are homogeneous with learning objectives and economics learning material. We give the respondents economics learning and Higher-Order Thinking Skills practice questions for each lesson. Furthermore, the respondents must complete one basic competency, the Higher Order Thinking Skills formative test, for 90 minutes in class. Lastly, we give the openly questionnaire with the freedom to fill in for self concept variables, family environment, and learning environment. The prerequisite tests used in this study include the normality test, multicollinearity test, and the heteroskedasticity test. The next step was to perform hypothesis testing, which consists of simultaneous hypothesis testing and partial hypotheses. The F test is performed to determine the extent to which the independent variables can explain the dependent variable. The t test is done to determine the significance of the partial effect that each independent variable has on the dependent variable. To determine the contribution of independent variables and the dependent variable, it is also necessary to compute the coefficient of determination (R2). The results are shown in Table 1.

274 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Table 1: Indicator Variables, Reliability and Percentage of Data Variable Indicator ReliabilityTest PercentageData HOTS Analyze 0.92 36.9 Evaluate 34.2 Create 28.9 Self concept Self assessment in overcoming problems 0 85 25.8 Optimistic 23.6 Assessment of roles 25.4 Individual assessment of yourself 25.1 environmentFamily Parental education background 0.96 13.2 Socio economic situation 12.1 Education in the family 12.2 Involve children in giving reasons for their choices and actions 12 Give freedom to children to express their views in their way 12,5 Loosen controls that reduce a child's self confidence 13.5 Inspire perseverance 12.6 Provide creative atmosphere 12.3 Learning Learning Process that supports HOTS 0.88 34.1 environment Provide Intrinsic Motivation to students 34.4 Giving awards to HOTS learning process 31.6 To improve students' higher order thinking skills, students should start by loving themselves and developing positive thoughts that will encourage them to stay optimistic, brave, and to never give up in the face of risks and challenges. Our way of thinking controls our attitudes, actions, and lives. Encouragement from parents can provide motivation and encourage children's interest in thinking. Parents also need to pay more attention to the learning facilities that their children have at home. They also need to develop a positive attitude to improve the higher order thinking skills of their children.

X1: Self concept, X2: Family environment, X3: Learning environment Based on the test results, it is evident that self concept, family environment, and learning environment significantly influence the ability to think at a higher level. This means that all hypotheses put forward in this study can be accepted. H1, H2, and H3 are significant with a count of 2 872, 2 319, and 2 394, respectively, as shown in Table 2. Table 2 also shows that the multiple linear regression equation is Y = 0.914 + 0.784X1 + 0.323X2 + 0.655X3. The coefficient value of self concept (X1) is 0.784 and is positive. The significance value (0.05) for the self concept variable (X1) shows that students are able to think at a high level The t value of the self concept variable is 2 872. The t table value that has been sought and determined is 1.96. The equation to find the value of two way test t table is t table = (α / 2; df), with a 95% confidence level, with the value of α = 5% or 0.05. df = degree of freedom is determined by the formula: n k, where n = number of samples and k = number of variables (independent & dependent). There are 87 samples and 4 research variables. So we can conclude that the value of df is 87 4 = 83. Based on the distribution of the value of t Table, a value of 1,992 is obtained. This shows that the compensation variable is greater than the t table value (2 872 ≥ 1.96). So, it can be concluded that H1 is accepted. The concept of self becomes the foundation for someone who will later form a self image. The introduction, understanding and evaluation of oneself is a very influential capital for students to achieve their expected learning achievements (Effendi, 2004). People with high self concept can set higher aspirations than people with low self concept. They

275 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Table 2: Multiple Regression Test Results Statistics Y = Higher Order Thinking Skills C 0.914 X1 0.784 X2 0.323 X3 0.655 t (X1) 0.005 * (2.872) ** t (X2) 0.023 * (2 319) ** t (X3) 0.019 * (2.394) ) ** F 28.279*** R> 0.505 *** 2.71, **> 1.96 *> 0.05, C: Constants

276 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. may be more willing to survive in the face of initial failures and tend to do more effort to paralyze feelings of incompetence and self doubt. The significance value (0.023) for the family environment variable (X2) shows that students are able to think at a high level. The t value of the family environment variable is 2.319. This shows that the compensation variable is greater than the t table value (2,319 ≥ 1.96). So it can be concluded that H2 is accepted. The family environment is related to high order thinking skills Children's creativity needs to be encouraged by the family, and the parents need to be wiser in control otherwise it will reduce the children’s confidence in dealing with problems (Keshta & Seif, 2013). The condition of the family environment will encourage children's interest in thinking critically, thus developing the relevant higher order thinking skills. Family characteristic also influences HOTS indirectly through psychology (Sungu, 2015). The significance value (0.019) for the learning environment variable (X3) shows that the students are able to think at a high level. The t value of the learning environment variable is 2.394. This shows that the compensation variable is greater than the t table (2.394 ≥ 1.96). So, it can be concluded that H3 is accepted. The R value of 0.771 indicates that the influence of self concept, family environment, and learning environment on students' higher order thinking skills is strong. The determinant coefficient (R2 = 0.505) shows that about 50.5% of higher order thinking skills are influenced by the concept of self, family environment and learning environment, and about 49.5% are influenced by other variables that are not described in this study. Table 3: Mean Scores of Students’ HOTS data No Indicator Item Score Total Score Mean Percentage 1 Analyze 109521 5575796369 341 68.2 36.9% 2 Evaluate 1211843 7033597381 316 63.2 34.2% 3 Create 15141376 2673745638 267 53 4 28.9% Table 3 shows the total scores for the 15 MCQs on Economics which were attempted by 90 students The best score of 81 was obtained for question 3 which was about the reporting of incoming tax payments. This shows that question 81 was the easier question and that perhaps students find this topic very interesting

277 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. to learn. Students also scored very well on questions 1, 4, 5, 9, 12, 13 and 14. The lowest score of 26 was obtained for question 15 which was about exports, imports and trade balance. This shows that question 15 was by far the most difficult question and that most students have difficulties with understanding the trade balance concept. Students also had much difficulties with questions 6 and 11 where the scores were less than the mean. The overall mean score for the class was 61.6. The mean score for analysis skills was highest while the mean score for creativity skills was lowest. However, the ability of students in HOTS for Economics is still below the national minimum required level of 75. Table 4: Mean Scores of Self concept data No Indicator Item Score Total Score Mean Percentage 1 Self assessment in problemsovercoming 21 312321 633 316.5 25.82% 2 Optimism 543 297275298 870 290 23.67% 3 Assessment of roles 76 323300 623 311.5 25.41% 4 assessmentIndividual of yourself 1098 316289318 923 307.7 25.10% On a maximum scale of 450 points, the overall mean score for the self concept variable was 304.9. The differences between the four indicators are not significant although from Table 4, we can see that the mean score for ‘Optimism’ was the lowest. Thus, necessary actions must be undertaken at the school level to increase the degree of optimism in their students. This includes the confidence in the ability to do a task, solving economics problems and increasing their ability to understand the materials taught. Table 5: Mean Scores of Family Environment data No Indicator Item Score Total Score Mean Percentage 1 Parental backgroundeducation 21 322348 670 335 13.20% 2 Socio situationeconomic 43 305307 612 306 12.06% 3 Education in the family 8765 283297340315 1235 308.8 12.17% 4 Involve children in giving reasons for their choices and actions 109 310300 610 305 12.03%

278 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. 5 Give freedom to children to express their views in their way 1211 299334 633 316.5 12.47% 6 Loosen controls that reduce a child's confidenceself 1413 333338 671 335.5 13.22% 7 perseveranceInspire 1615 339297 636 318 12.53% 8 Provide a atmospherecreative 1817 326299 625 312.5 12.32% On a maximum scale of 450 points, the overall mean score for the family environment variable was 316.2 However, differences between the eight indicators are not significant. Nevertheless, the mean scores were highest for indicators 1 and 6 and they were lowest for indicators 2 and 4. Families need to involve children's opinions in family activities, example by asking children to give reasons for their choices and actions. This will favour the development of a conducive family environment, as it will stimulate student's growth in HOTS. It is also essential to involve children in decision making in the family in order to develop their freedom to think critically during their teenage years Table 6: Mean Scores of Learning Environment data No Indicator Item Score Total Score Mean Percentage 1 supportspLearningrocessthatHOTS 343332313029 271307303276278289 1724 287.3 34.05% 2 Provide intrinsic motivation to students 3633 293287 580 290 34.37% 3 Giving awards to learningHOTSprocess 3837 250283 533 266.5 31.58% On a maximum scale of 450 points, the overall mean score for the learning environment variable was 283.7. The mean scores for indicators 1 and 2 were above the global average while it was less for indicator 3. Thus, providing an adequate infrastructure and learning facilities give students comfort in their learning activities. Feedback from teachers is an essential component of the learning process. Feedback is deemed to be even more helpful for students with weaker academic abilities. The need to appreciate the work of teachers and that of students in an essential ingredient that must be encouraged in order to make the inclusion of HOTS activities a success in the school environment.

This study aims to understand the influence of self concept, family environment, and learning environment on higher order thinking skills (HOTS) of high school students in the Economics subject. The education landscape in the information age is rapidly changing, and all students expect to develop their higher order thinking skills in order to prepare themselves for the future of learning. Based on the results of this study, we can conclude that self concept, family environment, and learning environment influence students' higher order thinking skills in the learning of Economics. Based on regression coefficients, we can also say that self concept has the highest influence but closely followed by the learning environment. The family environment had the least influence on HOTS and the learning of issues related to Economics. We can also conclude that schools must provide intrinsic motivation to students and must also value the teaching and learning of thinking skills. This can be achieved by rewarding teachers and students appropriately Schools must create ecosystems that nurture, support, and respect thinking skills. Schools must also provide training programs for teachers on how to teach thinking skills so that they can apply it in the learning process in their classrooms. Further studies still need to be carried out to find the other factors which affect higher-order thinking skills. This study can also be replicated in other schools and other regions and with a larger sample so that comparisons can be made.

The highest score was achieved in family environment (70.3%), followed closely by self concept (67.8%), while learning environment had the lowest score, which was much less than 300 (63.0%) on a scale of 450. These results show that, in general, most children believe that they a good family environment, irrespective of their socio economic status. Most students also valued themselves well. The school learning environment required the most improvement. The lack of appropriate learning facilities was the main reason for this poor score. It is believed that the above three factors can contributed to the enhancement of HOTS skills in students. The mean score, in terms of percentages, in the MCQ Economics test was 68.4% while the overall mean score for the three variables combined is 67.7% Thus, there is a very high correlation between these two values Nevertheless, further studies are required to confirm any possible causal effects.

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5. Conclusion & Recommendations

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283 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Appendix 1 QUESTIONNAIRE No. Statement Agree.............Disagree A Self Concept 1 If I find it difficult to work on Economics problems, I will still try to solve them myself. 5 4 3 2 1 2 If I get a low marks in Economics, then I will study hard. 5 4 3 2 1 3 Each time the test takes place, I am sure of the answers I am working on. 5 4 3 2 1 4 I will not do Economics work if I do not understand the material taught by the teacher 5 4 3 2 1 5 I can always do Economics problems well. 5 4 3 2 1 6 I will examine myself where my weakness lies by discussing questions related to Economics. 5 4 3 2 1 7 I feel that I can take the Economics test without help from others 5 4 3 2 1 8 I feel that Economics is a subject that I am good at 5 4 3 2 1 9 I feel the dumbest in class so I feel unable to study Economics. 5 4 3 2 1 10 I have difficulty doing Economics tests, which require the ability to understand the questions given. 5 4 3 2 1 B Family Environment 11 My parents want their children to be highly educated 5 4 3 2 1 12 of my parents stressed the importance of education 5 4 3 2 1 13 My parents bought textbooks and other learning needs 5 4 3 2 1 14 My parents always prioritize spending on my education 5 4 3 2 1 15 Parents give rules for study time and playtime at home 5 4 3 2 1 16 My parents provide my learning facilities to support me in improving thinking skills, such as laptops/computers, calculators, books, writing alt, etc. 5 4 3 2 1 17 Parents always give encouragement and enthusiasm for learning 5 4 3 2 1 18 Homework provided by the teacher is always checked first by parents at home 5 4 3 2 1

284 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. 19 My parents never asked me about my difficulties while studying and doing homework. 5 4 3 2 1 20 Parents give me free time to consult about education. 5 4 3 2 1 21 My parents support education according to my interests and talents. 5 4 3 2 1 22 I often disagree with my parents 5 4 3 2 1 23 My parents tend to be careless if I make mistakes 5 4 3 2 1 24 My parents give me the freedom to do any activity 5 4 3 2 1 25 My parents always condition me not to play with friends at certain times 5 4 3 2 1 26 I was taught by parents to be an independent person 5 4 3 2 1 27 My parents ask about my learning activities at school. 5 4 3 2 1 28 My parents took the time to take me for a walk or recreation. 5 4 3 2 1 C Learning Environment 29 I have difficulty understanding the lesson with new teacher teaching techniques. 5 4 3 2 1 30 I am bored with the method used by the teacher who teaches 5 4 3 2 1 31 Teachers always give assignments to students to find solutions to overcome problems related to the Economics subject 5 4 3 2 1 32 The the teacher always asks students for opinions or responses on issues related to Economics materials. 5 4 3 2 1 33 Schools provide adequate and complete facilities and infrastructure to support teaching and learning activities in schools 5 4 3 2 1 34 The facilities in the class are complete so the atmosphere is comfortable when teaching and learning activities 5 4 3 2 1 35 The teacher allows students to choose the type of test expected 5 4 3 2 1 36 The teacher gives a response or comment on the results of student work 5 4 3 2 1 37 The teacher adds points to each student who answers questions during the learning process. 5 4 3 2 1 38 The teacher gives prizes in the form of items to students who can answer questions. 5 4 3 2 1

285 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Appendix 2 D. Higher- Order Thinking Skills (HOTS) in Economics learning 1. A taxpayer has: Land area of 2,000 m2 with a selling price of Rp 300,000 / m2 The fence along the 200 height of 2 m with a selling price of 100,000 / m2 Building area of 1,500 m2. If the building value is not subject to tax of Rp. 12,000,000.00, if the PBB P2 tariff is 0.1% and the amount of PBB P2 to be paid is Rp 1,378,000.00, then the selling price of the building is: a. Rp 2.000,00/m2 b. Rp 3.000,00/m2 c. Rp 5.000,00/m2 d. Rp 8.000,00/m2 e. Rp 9.000,00/m2 2. Taxable income Rates: 1 0 s / d Rp 25,000,000 5% 2 USD 25,000,000 up to 50,000,000 10% 3. Rp 50,000,000 up to 100,000,000 15% 4. Rp 100,000,000 up to 200,000,000 25% 5 Rp 200,000,000 up to 35% No Income Taxable: Taxpayer Rp. 13,200,000. The wife does not work Rp. 1,200,000. Child (Maximum 3 children) @ Rp. 1,200,000. Mr. Ahmad, a private bank employee, has income after deducting the position fund and insurance contribution in the amount of Rp. 56,000,000. a year. He has a wife who does not work with 2 children. Based on the data above, the amount of Income tax owed by Mr. Ahmad is: a. Rp 8.400.000. b. Rp 6.600.000. c. Rp 5.600.000. d. Rp 4.400.000. e. Rp 2.670.000. 3. Mr. Bagaskoro is an Indonesian citizen who has income from Indonesia, every year actively paying taxes to the government. Mr. Bagaskoro in paying taxes and reporting income taxes entrusted to third parties is a tax collection system … a. Official assessment system b. Withholding system c. Multimatic system d. Economics official system e. Rental official system

Provisions: the sale value of taxable objects IDR 8,000. 000,00. The amount of land and building tax owed by Mrs. Yane is: a. Rp. 314,000.00 b. Rp. 322,000.00 c. Rp. 349,000.00 d. Rp. 353,000.00 e. Rp. 361,000.00 5. Mrs. Vero is an entrepreneur engaged in the catering business. He has a land area of 300 m2 with a selling value of Rp 500,000 / m2. Building an area of 200 m2 with a selling value of Rp 700,000 / m2. 100 m2 luxury garden with a selling value of IDR 200,000 / m2 and a luxurious fence of 100 meters in length with a height of 1.5 m with a selling value of IDR 200,000 / m2. Selling Value of Non Taxable Tax Objects Rp 10,000,000.00. Then the building tax payable by Mrs. Vero if the property tax P2 tariff is 0.1%: a. Rp. 320,000.00 b. Rp. 325,000.00 c. Rp. 330,000.00 d. Rp. 335,000.00 e. Rp. 340,000.00

Based on the table above, the conclusion about the correct exchange rate of goods is: a. Korea has a specialty of cloth and has an absolute advantage of 3 meters of fabric b. Korea has a specialty of fabric and has a comparative advantage of 3 meters of fabric c. Indonesia has a specialty of cloth and has a comparative advantage of 0.75 TV units d. Indonesia has a TV specialization and has a comparative advantage of 3 meters of fabric e. Korea has a TV specialty and has an absolute advantage of 3 meters of cloth.

4. Ms. Yane is an entrepreneur engaged in catering business having wealth in the form of: ▪ the land area of 400 m2 with a selling price of Rp 400,000.00/m2 ▪ of 250 m2 house with a selling value of Rp 650,000.00/m2 ▪ 150 m2 luxury park with a selling value of IDR 150,000.00/m2 ▪ Luxury fence length 50m, height 1.60m with a selling price of IDR 200,000.00/m2

6. Hypothetical data: Country Cloth / month TV/month Indonesia 80 meters 20 units Korea 40 meters 40 units

5. In the fourth quarter of 2018, the service balance in Internacional payments experienced a US $ 1,200,000 fee based on the data above which could cause the value of US $ to rise or the value of the rupiah down is: a. 1 and 3 b. 3 and 4 c. 4 and 5 d. 2 and 5 e. 3 and 5 9. Hilary, An American tourist visiting Indonesia with the US $ 8,350. For purposes while in Indonesia, he exchanged his money with the rupiah. The prevailing exchange rate at the time was; Purchase exchange rate of Rp13,300.00 per 1 US $; Selling rate of Rp13,450.00 per 1 US $. While in Indonesia he spent as much as Rp62,820,000.00 When he returned to his country Hilary returned to exchanging his rupiah for US dollars. The prevailing exchange rate at that time is: Purchase exchange rate Rp 13,350.00 per 1 US $ rate Rp 13,500.00 per 1 US $ Selling exchange. Then the total dollar received by Hilary was: a. US $ 3,356.96 b. US $ 3,465.96 c. US $ 3,572.96 d. US $ 3,672.96 e. US $ 3,772,96

7. Increasing prices in the market resulting in decreased demand for goods and this has an impact on the company's sales decline, in this case, the marketing manager made several breakthroughs including giving disco n, ease of credit terms, payment periods, availability of goods and increasing marketing channels to consumers, the steps taken by marketing managers are the marketing mix strategy steps... a. price and place b. product and place c. targeting and price d. positioning and promotion e. positioning and promotion Consider the following statements: 1. In the first quarter of 2018, Indonesia has the value of exports of goods and services amounted to $ 2.8 million while the value of imports amounted to US $ 1,800,000 US

2. In Quarter II in 2018 Indonesia had a value of US $ 3,200,000 in exports of goods and services while the import value of US $ 4,650,000

3. In the third quarter of 2018, foreign capital flows into Indonesia both for short and long term investments amounted to $ 70,000,000 US while to repay debt and interest on foreign loans amounting to the US $ 56,450,000

4. At the end of January 2019, the flow of non binding foreign aid for victims of the earthquake and tsunami in NAD and North Sumatra amounted to the US $ 24,000,000

288 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. 10. The following table shows the selling rate and buying rate of the currencies of three countries Currency Buying rate Selling rate USD USD 13100.00 USD13200.00 SGD USD 9702.00 USD 9803.00 AUD USD. 9,955.00 Rp 10,061.00 Mr. Ahmad plans to visit three countries, namely Singapore, Australia, and America, he needs as much as USD 2,500, SGD 3,000, and AUD 4,500. The amount of rupiah he needed to get the three currencies were: a. Rp. 106,653,500.00 b. Rp. 106,853,500.00 c. Rp. 107,683,500.00 d. Rp. 108,853,500.00 e. Rp. 109,653,500.00 11. Balance of Payment (US) $ billion. Description 2017 2018 Imports Exports Imports Exports TradeOilBalanceandGas Oil Not oil and gas 139,068.038,327.0 152,925.017,891.0 134,109.040,365,0 149,960.017,889.0 Balance 6,579.0 6,625.0 Balance of Services 33,444 , 0 23113.0 33990.0 22,562,0 Balance 10331.0 11428.0 Current Account 190.411,0208.464,0193.929,0 210.839,0 Balance 16910.0 18053.0 Balance Capital and Financial Account 30068.0 54964.0 39,629.0 62,360.0 Balance 24,896.0 22,731.0 Based on the table above, the impact that will occur is: a. balance of payments in 2017 experienced a deficit of US $ 7,986 and in 2018 a deficit of US $ 4,678 billion so that the country's debt increased b. balance of payments in 2017 experienced a surplus of US $ 7,986 so that savings increased and in 2018 a deficit of US $ 4,678 billion so that the state debt becomes increased c. balance of payments in 2017 experienced a deficit of US $ 7,986 so that the state debt increased and in 2018 there was a surplus of US $ 4,678 billion so that the state savings were increased d. balance of payments in 2017 had a surplus of US $ 7,986 so the state savings increased and in 2018 there was a surplus of US $ 4,678 billion so that state savings increased e. balance of payments in 2017 experienced a greater deficit than in 2018 so that state savings increased

Based on the article above, why would a balance of payments deficit cause the rupiah exchange rate to weaken against foreign currencies?

b. the occurrence of a balance of payments deficit causes demand for foreign money to increase, this will cause the value of the rupiah to decline.

c. the occurrence of a balance of payments deficit causes demand for foreign money to increase, this will cause the value of the rupiah to rise.

289 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. 12. Veronika departed from Jakarta on December 25, 2019, to take a vacation to the United States for 2 weeks Three days before leaving, he exchanged his money in the amount of Rp. 24,000,000.00 in US dollars. During his vacation, he spent the US $ 1,800. December 2014 January 2015 Date Currency Selling Buy Date Currency Selling Buy 20 US $ 12.956,00 11.956,00 6 US $ 12.721,00 12.595,00 22 US $ 12.497,00 12.373,00 7 US $ 12.796,00 12.668,00 23 US $ 12.518,00 12.394,00 8 US $ 12.795,00 12.667,00 24 US $ 12.529,00 12.405,00 9 US $ 12.703,00 12.577,00 After arriving in Jakarta, he immediately exchanged all of his money back into rupiah. How many rupiahs did Veronika receive? a. Rp 1,525,366.82 b. Rp 1,525,466.82 c. Rp 1,525,566.82 d. Rp 1,525,666.82 e. Rp 1,525,866.82 13. Read the article below and then answer the questions

a. the occurrence of a balance of payments deficit causes demand for foreign money to decline, this will cause the value of the rupiah to decline.

An increase in the current account deficit will affect the rupiah The current account deficit increase in the current account deficit (CAD) in the second quarter of 2018 of 8 billion US dollars or 3.0 percent of GDP is higher than the previous quarter of 5.7 billion US dollars or 2, 2 percent of GDP. Widening the current account deficit will affect the rupiah exchange rate to weaken against foreign currencies. The next impact is a decrease in investor confidence that will erode direct investment growth in 2018. (Economist Indef: Bima Yudhistira) To overcome this, import controls must be carried out, in addition to increasing export performance through trade missions and various fiscal stimulation and increasing tourism foreign exchange (Seconds Finance, August 2018).

d. the balance of payments deficit causes the demand for the rupiah to increase so that inflation can cause a e. deficit in the balance of payments causes the demand for foreign currency to decline so that the results of Indonesian exports increase.

d. then it will automatically increase foreign exchange reserves so that it affects the condition of the national economy because it increases economic growth.

e. then it will automatically reduce foreign exchange reserves so that it affects the condition of the national economy because it increases state debt.

a. With an increase in exports and a decline in imports, resulting in a reduction in the supply of domestic goods, which will lead to scarcity.

a. then it will automatically reduce foreign exchange reserves so that it affects the condition of the national economy because it inhibits economic growth.

14. Based on the article above, with the policies that have been carried out by the government it turns out that the budget deficit has not been resolved, what impact will this have on the country's economic condition?

c. then it will automatically increase foreign exchange reserves so that it affects the condition of the national economy because it inhibits economic growth.

15. In the last two years in the trade balance of the State "X", the total exports were smaller than the total imports, in this case, the trade balance experienced a deficit, to overcome this the government adopted a devaluation policy which resulted in the exchange rate of the domestic currency has decreased against foreign currencies, with the expectation of this policy will increase the value of exports and decrease the value of imports which will improve the economy. In your opinion, the impact of the devaluation policy undertaken by the government on the trade balance that will improve the economy:

c. With this policy, the prices of imported goods become very high when valued in the domestic currency and the goods that we export abroad are declining in value if the importer currency is not the domestic currency

d. With this policy there will be an increase in exports and a decline in imports, it is hoped that domestic companies can develop, as a result, will be able to absorb energy unemployed work.

b. then it will automatically reduce foreign exchange reserves so that it affects the condition of the national economy because it increases economic growth

b. With this policy, imports can be reduced, the goods that we export abroad become depreciated if the importer's currency is not the domestic currency.

e. With the devaluation policy, there will be a decrease in the domestic currency so that the prices of exported goods will be very high, while the prices of imported goods will fall.

Abstract. This study aimed to diagnose the misconceptions of the fractions subject with the fourth graders and identifying the effect of using interactive activities to correct the misconceptions that the students experience in the fractions subject. The researcher applied the quantitative method and the quasi experimental design for the one group pre test/post test design. This includes conducting a pre test that aimed at diagnosing the misconceptions in the fractions. The possibility of correcting misconceptions was tested using interactive technological activities. The study sample consisted of 85 fourth graders in Jordan. The results revealed a pool of misconceptions in the fractions subjects. Two of the most common misconceptions comprised 88.3% and 80% of the misconceptions, respectively. The first one was subtracting non equivalent fractions through subtracting the two numerators by considering this as the result of the final numerator and subtracting the two non equivalent denominators taking the output as the result of the denominator The second misconception was adding a fraction to an integer by adding the integer to the numerator of the fraction by considering it as a numerator of the result, and keeping the denominator of the fraction asitis, which represents the denominator of the finalresult. Furthermore, the results showed an increase in the mean from 4.15 in the pretest to 8.9 in the post test. This is a strong indicator that the use of the interactive learning activities that were created helped to correct the misconceptions in the learning of fractions.

Correcting Misconceptions in Fractions Using Interactive Technological Learning Activities

291 ©2020 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 4, pp. 291 308, April https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.4.172020

Keywords: ADDIE model; interactive technological activities; misconceptions in fractions

1. Introduction Students, worldwide, suffer from difficulties in fraction learning, because it is one of the difficult subjects the students face throughout their basic and secondary stages (Bailey, Hoard, Nugent & Geary, 2012; Bruce & Ross, 2009; Chen, Pan, Sung & Chang, 2013; Pal, 2014). This is ascribed to that the facts that the students learned about the integers do not apply to the fractions (Lortie Forgues, Tian & Siegler, 2015(. For example, adding the integers does not apply to adding the

Mohammad Ahmad Alkhateeb Hashemite University Zarqa, https://orcid.org/0000Jordan0003

2289 7982

fractions; multiplication of the fractions does not always lead to a result that is more than the number multiplied by; and, division processes do not produce a result that is less than the number divided by.

According to this theory, the interaction between the prior knowledge of the learner and the new ideas is termed "adaptation", which includes two processes: assimilation and accommodation. The learner carries out the assimilation process by integrating the new knowledge with prior knowledge that exists in his conceptual structure. On the other hand, the accommodation process includes acquiring information that is new and different from the learner's conceptual structure. This requires amending the nature of the student's structures to deal with the new information (Lazića, Abramovichb, Mrđaa & Romanoc, 2017).

At this point, the learner carries out simple changes on the concepts in his conceptual structure and performs the assimilation process without the need to perform the accommodation process. Learning depends on linking from the prior knowledge the learner owns, which may help (or hinder) the understanding process. It could consist of incorrect prior knowledge called misconceptions, which cause an inability to understand the new concepts. This could be due to many reasons, such as the learner's inability to link what is already present to what is new, misinterpreting the new concepts to match the prior knowledge; or due to the lack of prior knowledge about the concept. In these cases, the learner will resort to sticking to his previous conceptualizations in the light of his conceptual framework (Namkung, Fuchs & Koziol, 2018).

According to the National Council of EducationalResearch and Training (NCERT, 2008), the difficulties in learning the fractions may be due to several reasons. For instance, the students' use of prior knowledge about the integers when they learn the fractions, and the tendency of the schoolbooks and teachers to teach the fractions and operations on them in a manner that has no effect on the student in real life. Therefore, the students feel the need for the fractions in the math lesson only. These and other obstacles hinder their understanding of the fractions concept and the related operations.

The constructivism theory emphasized the importance of the context in teaching, the importance of revealing the prior knowledge of the learner, and the active interaction between the learning and the teaching content. In this concern, the learner organizes what he learned in cognitive structures that consist of units of interrelated ideas called the conceptual structures. These structures represent valuable mental tools stored in the memory, which could be retrieved and made use of (Emma, Geller; Son & Stigler, 2018).

Posner, Strike, Hewson and Gertzog (1983) indicated, in their theory on the conceptual change, that if the student can solve the problems he faces in the light of the conceptual framework, he has will not feel the need for changing this framework, even if this framework does not solve specific problems successfully.

The conceptual change begins with the assumption that students, in specific occasions, build the alternative misconceptions about the phenomena based on the lived experience, and that these concepts stand firmly against the striking contrast with the accepted scientific theories that explain these phenomena (Liljedahl, 2011). For example, students deal with the regular fractions as if they

The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. were integers when they add a fraction to another. They add the two numerators of the fractions and take the addition output as the final result of the new numerator. Also, they add the two denominators and take the addition output as the final result of the new denominator (Chen & Wang, 2016).

ADDIE model includes successive steps where each step feeds the one next to it. During the analysis stage, the learning outputs and current knowledge the learner possesses are defined. The gaps between the learning outputs and the students' current knowledge are also defined. Finally, the misconceptions are detected to enable the learner to achieve the educational goals and correct understanding. Thereafter, the design, development, application, and evaluations are performed after defining the goals and placing them in a clear manner (Pepin, Choppin, Ruthven & Sinclair, 2017; Wang & Hsu, 2009). In this regard, Yilmaz, Özdemi, and Yasar, (2018) conducted a study aimed at identifying the misconceptions in the fractions of fourth graders and amending these conceptions through digital stories. The study was conducted on 25 students in Turkey, which showedthat the teaching applications designed by digital stories eliminated the errors and misconceptions in the fractions with a vast majority of the students. Most of the students realized the entire definitions of the fractions and were able to perform the mathematical operations on them. The study further showed that most of these students expressed positive views about the use of the digital stories in the lessons, and found that these stories are enjoyable, educational, and constructive.

Posner, Strike, Hewson, and Gertzog (1982) see that the student should be quite satisfied with the new concepts he learns, to create an intellectual (cognitive) "conflict" between the current concepts that include the misconceptions and the new concepts. The misconceptions are firmly change resistant because they are not independent of the cognitive structure of the learners. The main objective lies in creating an intellectual (cognitive) conflict to make the learner un contented with concepts he currently holds. Therefore, he may accept new concepts that are reasonable, brighter, and more productive in finding solutions to the problems he Amidfaces.

the search for effective strategies to remedy such misconceptions, the analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation (ADDIE) model appeared. This model provides the necessary steps to design effective technological programs, which may help in establishing a learner centered approach instead of the teacher centered approach (Cheung & Slavin, 2013; Stoyle & Morris, 2017). The approach depends on the constructivism theory principles, through designing technological activities that act on assisting the learner to build meanings within his/her cognitive structure, and through acquiring experiences that enable him/her to link the new information to the prior knowledge to form the correct concept with him/her. Consequently, interactive technological activities become more applicable and meaningful (Reinhold, Hoch, Werner, Richter Gebert & Reiss, 2020; Ross & Catherine & Bruce, 2009).

Ross, Catherine, and Bruce (2009) developed educational programs consisting of a set of activities that dealt with several concepts in fractions, such as representations of the simple fractions and equivalent fractions, comparison of the

fractions, and expressing the unreal fractions as a fractional number. The activities provided an interactive environment for the students that included a pool of pictures that link the fractions with daily life, such as the use of the pizza and cake pictures to represent the fractions. They also included successive steps of animations. The study found that using electronic activities contributed to the improvement of the students' achievement. The students indicated, during the interview, the researchers conducted, that the activities provided them an interactive learning environment, which enabled them to have control over the speed of their learning and progress in the activities, through using the arrows to move forward and backward and to the main menu, which contains a list of all the names of the activities.

Accordingly, the significance of this study is highlighted as an aspired benefit in providing a remedial strategy to the misconceptions in the fraction subject with the students. The significance also lies in the scarcity of the studies that integrate the conceptual change theory with the electronic activities in correcting the misconceptions in the fractions. The results further contribute to curricula development and shed light on the misconceptions of the students during the learning process. In this regard, the researcher hopes to adopt the interactive technological activities method, as it provides a systematic solution to the students' misconceptions. It could also benefit stakeholders who are involved in developing the math curriculum, who can also add methods and strategies specialized in correcting the misconceptions in the math curricula.

The researcher applied the quantitative method and the quasi experimental design for the one group pre test/post test design. This includes conducting a pre test for the one group that aims at diagnosing the misconceptions among the students in the fraction's topic. After that, the possibility of correcting these misconceptions is tested using interactive technological activities, which were constructed in the light of the constructivist theory and Posner Model to change

Many studies tackled the issue of the students' misconceptions in the fractions. Students are still suffering from difficulty in learning the fractions and the different mathematical operations on them. For instance, studies of Alkhateeb (2019); Aksoy and Yazlik (2017); Duzenli Gokalp and Sharma (2010); Hoch, Reinhold, Werner, Richter Gebert and Reiss (2018); Reinhold, Hoch, Werner, Richter Gebert and Reiss (2020); Schumacher and Malone (2017); and Trivena, Ningsih and Jupri (2017).

Based on the foregoing, the study aims to achieve two main objectives. First, diagnosing the misconceptions of the fractions subject with the fourth graders; and second, identifying the effect of using interactive technological activities to correct the misconceptions that the students experience in the fractions subject.

Therefore, the study seeks to answer the following questions:

2. Methodology

1. What are the misconceptions the fourth graders hold about the fractions

2.subject?Whatare the effects of using interactive technological activitiesin correcting the misconceptions of the fourth graders in the fractions subject?

Three weeks after the students completed the study of the fraction's topic, the diagnostic pre test was conducted. No revision was done before the diagnostic pre test, and students were not informed beforehand that they will undertake the exam. The students worked individually and were not allowed to consult the teacher (in this case, the researcher), or their classmates during the exam.

The researcher obtained the necessary approvals of the concerned parties to conduct the study, with a commitment of the researcher that the data collected will be solely for the purposes of the research, not to be used for any personal purposes or leased to any other party. The participants have informed the details and goals of the study, and the researcher respected the right of the participants to withdraw.

Students in 3rd 5th grades continue refining their understanding of the computational operations on the fractions and developing computation algorithms using the fractions. Students study the fractions topic in four units in the fourth grade. Also, they are introduced to the primary concepts of fractions in the first, second, and third grades.

The test consisted of ten questionsthat measure ten errors, whichcould be present with the fourth graders in the fractions subject, which were defined as per their existence in the educational literature. The most frequent errors of the students were chosen (Alkhateeb, 2019; Allen, 2007; Aksoy & Yazlik, 2017; Bruce & Ross, 2009; Chang, 2013; Cramer, Wyberg, & Leavitt, 2008; Ghani, &, Maat, 2018; Schumacher& Malone, 2017; Siegler, Fazio, Bailey & Zhou, 2013; Trivena, Ningsih & Jupri, 2017). The questionsvaried throughoutthe regular fractions, comparison, and the addition and subtraction operations on them. Each question was given one score for the correct answering and zero for the wrong. The questions were presented in a way that shows the errors through the students' answers. For instance, when the students were asked: find the result of the subtraction in the following 3 6 1 3 = and write the result in the rectangle: If the answer was 2 3, we know that the student has the misconception, as he subtracted two un equivalent fractions by subtracting the two numerators and putting the output as the numerator of the subtraction process. Then he subtracted the two denominators putting the output as a denominator of the result.

The study consisted of a randomly chosen sample of 85 fourth graders in Zarqa (Jordan) governorate in the academic year 2019 2020, who are taught the Jordanian curriculum, which is in line with NTCM (2000) standards. The Jordanian ministry of education adopts the math books issued by Collins in the United Kingdom (https://collins.co.uk).

3. Study Instruments 1) Diagnostic test

The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. the concepts. Then, the same test is repeated in the post measurement after using the interactive technological activities in teaching the fractions topic, to identify their effects in correcting these misconceptions Study Population

The test was presented to 6 reviewers to show their views on the clarity degree of the test question, and whether any of them is to be rephrased. In the light of their

Posner's Model for conceptual Change General Model for Education Design Evaluation Stage: Measuring the effects of Education

comments, specific questions were amended. The researcher applied the test retest procedures and realized the test reliability. The test was applied to an exploratory sample and was reapplied two weeks later, where the resulting Pearson Correlation Coefficient was 0.87

Figure 1: General Model of the Interactive Technological Activities Design Insufficiency of the current concepts

Ten interactive technological activities were designed, which aim to treat the ten misconceptions already mentioned in the fraction's topic. The activities were designed in the light of the two model frameworks, namely the general model to design teaching (ADDIE Model), and Posner Model for conceptual change. The activities were designed within the intellectual (cognitive) conflict strategy by working within the visualization that a contradiction must be created in the student and his misconceptions must be destabilized, be replaced by the correct concepts. As for the general model for teaching design, the activities were designed within the following stages:

2) Interactive technological activities

struggle Development Stage: Translating what was taught into actual educational materials. Designing Stage: Describing the approaches pertinent to how to implement the teaching learning

theoffering(wrongonstudent,IntellectualStruggle:Facingthecreatingdissatisfactionthemisconceptionheownsansweronthequestion),feedback,whichisinbeginningoftheintellectual

The Electronic MisconceptionActivitiesProduce Misinterpretation of new concepts to match prior knowledge

Analysisprocess Stage: Defining the problem, its origin, the possible solutions and content analysis. Defining the gap between the learning outputs and the current students' knowledge and definingthemisconceptions.

Introducing the correct concept Application Stage: Actual education Knowledge Rebuilding: Thinking of how far the students accepted the new concepts, because they were persuaded about the misconceptions.

Data Gathering Procedures: Step 1: Applying the pre test on the pupils of a school in Zarqa City, to identify the percentage of errors in the fractions topic before the use of technological activities.

Step 2: The researchers taught the pupils the fractions topic using technological activities over 15 lessons. Here below are examples of specific technological activities in the study: Comparison of two fractions having the same numerator: in the beginning, the activity consists of a multiple choice question. The student is asked to compare the fractions 1 5 and 1 2 by selecting the signs ( ), as shown in Figure 2. If he answers that 1 2 < 1 5 , the screen will tell that the answer is incorrect, and then an arrow is shown to him to move to the next. Figure 2: Homepage of the electronic activity

Then the activity displays the incorrect answer of the student in a pictorial manner, as the activity is programmed in a way that enables achieving the theoretical framework of the study. In this regard, Posner, Strike, Hweson and Gertzog (1982) see that for a successful conceptual change process to happen, students must feel dissatisfied about their current concepts, which results in an incorrect answer so that the intellectual conflict will start, as shown in Figure 2.

The validity of the technological activities was verified by presenting them to the reviewers, whose remarks and comments about the nature of the activities, their contents, and the design mechanism were taken into account. Then, the activities were applied to an exploratory sample to find out how convenient the activities are for the students, how easy they are, and how to navigate through the activity's screens. The activitieswere given to the same exploratory sample two weeks later, and the two experiments were compared to know how close the students' performance in using them was.

Figure 3: Pictorial comparison that shows the student his incorrect answer to start the intellectual conflict

Figure 3 contains the continuity of the intellectual conflict process, but in a manner closer to the student's reality and his daily life. The student is again asked to compare the fractions 1 2 and 1 5 , and with a representation of two fractions appearing through using the pizza example.

Following the intellectual conflict process and student's destabilization in his answer, the activity moves to the next stage. This stage includes illustrative steps to provide the student's correct knowledge, in which if he sees reasonability and clarity, we can achieve the conceptual change with him. The activity also provides the correct scientificknowledge about how to change the non equivalentfractions into two equivalent fractions by finding the least common multiple between the two denominators and then making them similar. Furthermore, the activity includes clarification of the rule the schoolbook deals with, namely: when comparing two fractions with the same numerators, then the fraction with higher denominator is less than the other. It is a quick way that enables the students to answer correctly on comparing two fractions in which numeratorsare the same.Then,the activityasks the studentto compare once more the two fractions 1 2 and 1 5 to find out whetherthe student achieved the objective of

Figure 4: Continuation of the intellectual conflict process

This study aimed to identify the misconceptions held by students of the fourth grade in the fractions topic. It also aimed to study the effect of using interactive technological activities to correct misconceptions among students, where activities were designed in the light of constructivist theory, Posner's Model, and ADDIE Model.

1) Misconceptions of the fourth graders about fractions

4. Statistical Results

Step 3: The post test was applied after teaching the fractions using the technological activities, which included questions aiming at revealing the extent of the treatment of the error in the fraction's topic, which were found in the pre test. The researcher changed the order of the questions and the numbers used in the exam items, to ensure that the students did not learn the answers by the heart by repeating the same questions.

The misconceptions of the fourth graders on fractions were evaluated and identified through a diagnostic pre test. The results showed a difference in the percentage of errors the students hold, which were as per the following details. The highest percentage (88.2%) was for Misconception Ten: subtracting non equivalent fractions through subtracting the two numerators and subtracting the two denominators, such as 3 8 2 5 = 1 3 Misconception Six comprised 80%, which was about adding a fraction to an integer by adding the integer to the fraction, keeping the denominator of the fraction as is, such as 5+ 2 3 = 7 3 . Misconception Eight comprised 74.1%, which was about adding two un equivalent fractions and adding the two denominators, such as 5 7 + 3 2 = 8 9 . Misconception Three accounted for 63.5%, which was about the comparison of two fractions having the same numerator by comparing the two denominators together, such as 1 2 < 1 3 because of 3>2 MisconceptionSeven amounted 56.5%, whichwas about adding two fractions with equivalent denominators as well as adding two un equivalent numerators, such as 2 7 + 5 7 = 7 14 . Misconception Nine comprised 52.9% and was about subtracting two fractions with equivalent denominators and un equivalent numerators, by subtracting the two numerators and the two denominators, such as 5 8 2 8 = 3 0 . Misconception Four formed 47.1% and was about the comparison of two un equivalent fractions by ignoring the numerator, using the property that "the fraction with higher denominator is the smaller", which applies only on fractions with the same numerator, such as 1 3 > 4 5 because of 5>3 Misconception One amounted to 29.4% and was about writing a fraction that

The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. the activity, or he will repeat the same error. If the student answers correctly, feedback will be presented to him/her, which represents sounds and shapes to encourage him. On the other hand, if the answer was incorrect, the activity will automatically come back to allow the student to start the discovery navigation again until the error is corrected.

6 Adding a fraction to an integer by adding the integer to the numerator of the fraction as a numerator of the answer, and then taking the denominator of the fraction as a denominator of the answer. 68 80%

4 Comparing two un equivalent fractions ignoring the numerator, and using the property that the fraction with the bigger denominator is the smaller. 40 47.1%

3 Comparison of two fractions having the same numerator by comparing the two denominators together. 54 63.5%

2 Writing a fraction that represents the shaded part of the shape without taking care of whether the parts are equal in the shape 28 21.2%

1 Writing a fraction representing the ratio of the shaded part to the un shaded, not the ratio of the part to the whole. 25 29.4%

Table 1 Students' Misconceptions and their Percentages No. Misconception misconceptionholdingStudentsthe PercentageMisconception

5 Comparing a fraction with a fractional number by comparing the two fractions while ignoring the integer. 22 27.2%

300 ©2020 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. represents the ratio of the shaded part to the un shaded, not to the whole shape. Misconception Five comprised 27.1% and was about comparing a fraction with a fractionalnumberby comparing the two fractionswhileignoringthe integer, such as 11 5 < 4 . Finally, Misconception Two got the lowest percentage (21.2%) which was about writing a fraction that represents the shaded part of the shape not taking into consideration the unequal portions in the shape. Table 1 shows the misconceptions and their percentages among the students.

7 Adding two fractions (with un equivalent numerators and equivalent denominators) by adding the two numerators as the numerator of the answer as well as adding the two denominators as a denominator of the answer. 65.5% Adding two un equivalent fractions by adding the two numerators as a numerator of the answer and adding the two denominators as the denominator of the answer. 63 74.1% 9 Subtracting two equivalent fractions by subtracting the two numerators as the output of the numerator, as well as subtracting the two denominators in the same way. 45 52.9%

10 Subtracting two un equivalent fractions by subtracting the two numerators as the output of the numerator, as well as subtracting the two denominators in the same way. 88.2%

2) Effect of using interactive technological activities in correcting the fourth graders misconceptions on fractions

3 Comparison of two fractions having the same numerator by comparing the two denominators together. 5 5.9%

Table 2. Students Misconception Percentage after exposure to interactive technological activities as measured by a post test No. Misconception misconceptionholdingStudentsthe PercentageMisconception

2 Writing a fraction that represents the shaded part of the shape without taking care of whether the parts are equal in the shape 3 3.5%

1 Writing a fraction representing the ratio of the shaded part to the un shaded, not the ratio of the part to the whole. 0 0

5 Comparing a fraction with a fractional number by comparing the two fractions while ignoring the integer. 4 4.7%

Table 2 illustrates the misconceptionsof the students as we're in the post test after the use of technological activities, as well as their existence percentage.

The diagnostic post test was conducted and the percentage of the correct answers of the ten items of the test on the defined misconceptions was found. The mean of the students' grades was calculated and then compared with their grade mean in the pre test, to find out the amount of the conceptual change with the students.

4 Comparing two un equivalent fractions ignoring the numerator, and using the property that the fraction with the bigger denominator is the smaller. 6 7.1%

7 Adding two fractions (with un equivalent numerators and equivalent denominators) by adding the two numerators as the numerator of the answer as well as adding the two denominators as a denominator of the answer 4 4.7% Adding two un equivalent fractions by adding the two numerators as a numerator of the answer and adding the two denominators as the denominator of the answer. 7.1% 9 Subtracting two equivalent fractions by subtracting the two numerators as the output of the numerator, aswell assubtracting the two denominators in the same way. 8.2% Subtracting two un equivalent fractions by subtracting the two numerators as the output of the numerator, aswell assubtracting the two denominators in the same way. 10.6%

Misconception One: Writing a fraction that represents the ratio of the shaded part to the non shaded, not to the whole shape. The concept was present with 29.4% of the students before applying the interactive activities. After applying these activities, all the students managed to answer this question correctly, and the misconception did not appear in the post test. This is attributed to that the technological activity introduced the concept of the fraction and its divisions (numeratorand denominator) in a detailed mannerusingillustrative pictures. The activity further provided detailed steps on how to write the fraction that represents the shaded part and feedback for the student once he answers. If the answer is incorrect, the activity provides an interactive, illustrative explanation, which contributed in explaining the concept and creating a conceptual change with all the students.

Table 2 above depicts the change of students’ conceptions about fractions after exposing them to the interactive technological activities. Below are the misconceptions of students in the subject matter (Listed in Table 1) on fractions, and the extent of the change that students achieved.

Misconception Three: Comparing two fractions that have the same numerator by comparing the two denominators together. This conception was found with 63.5% of the students, but it dropped to 5.9% only when the interactive activities were applied. The persistence of the misconception with few students is ascribed to the fact that the conceptual change is sometimes faced with rejection by the students. They adhere to their current misconceptions because they have difficulty in unifying the denominators and finding the least common multiple, which could be linked to the existence of problems among the students in multiplying the numbers.

Misconception Four: Comparing un equivalent fractions while ignoring the numerator and using the property of the fraction, which is "the fraction with higher denominator is smaller than the other". This misconception was present with 47.1% of the students and fell to 4.7% only after the application of the interactive activities. The students used a wrong comparison strategy and compared the two un equivalent fractions using the strategy for comparing two fractions having the same numerator. They misused the strategy and considered the fraction with a higher denominator smaller than the other. The activity provided a group of pictorial representations and life examples to bring the

Misconception Two: Writing a fraction that represents the shaded part of the shape without attention to whether the parts inside the shape are equal, which was present with 21.2% of the students. But, when the interactive activities were applied, it was present with 3.5% of the students only. Most of the students realized the concept of the integer (1) through the interactive activity, and how to divide it into equal parts so that the total of the parts expresses the denominator of the fraction, and the shaded parts represent the numerator. The researcher noted, through the students' answers, the possibility of falling in the error of considering the non shaded part in the shape as the denominator of the fraction. In this case, when they are asked to choose the shape in which the shaded part is equal to 2 5 , they tended to choose the pie chart with 3 shaded segments.

concept close to the students. Then the activity dealt with the strategies to convert the two un equivalent fractions and then comparing them

Misconception Eight: Adding two un equivalent fractions by adding the two numerators and considering the output as the numerator of the answer, and adding the two denominators as a denominator of the answer, which was held by 74.1% of the students, and dropped to 7.1% after applying the interactive activities. The considerable change rate is ascribed to the reliance of the eighth activity on facing the student with his incorrect answer by the pictorial representation, students asking one the other, and clarifying the fact that when we add two amounts, the resulting amount is bigger than any of the two.

Misconception Six: Adding a fraction and an integer by adding the integer to the numerator of the fraction as a numerator for the result, then taking the denominator of the fraction as a denominator for the answer. The misconception was held by 80% of the students, which dropped to only 12.9% after applying the interactive activity. The conceptual change is attributed to that the activity dealt in the concept of the integer and the fraction that expresses. It is also ascribed to guiding the students to the activity that deals in the first concept that explains the fraction concept and the nature of the numerator and denominator. The activity provided a detailed explanation in an interactional method as well as animations of pizza pieces that represent the integer, then moving with the children to how to add a fraction to an integer.

Misconception Nine: Subtracting two equivalent fractions by subtracting the two numerators taking the output as a numerator of the answer and subtracting the two denominators taking the result as a denominator of the answer. The misconception was held by 52.9% of the students and fell to 8.2% after applying

Misconception Five: Comparing a fraction with a fractional number by comparing the two fractions and ignoring the integer. The concept was present with 26.5% of the students and dropped to 4.5% only after applying the activity. The students compared the similar thing when comparing the fractions, giving no weight to the integer. This result is in line with that of Ross, Catherine and Bruce (2009), where they indicated that students find difficulties in the fractional numbers concepts because they do not understand the fact that there is a possibility to write an integer beside the fraction. Accordingly, the study emphasizes the necessity to clarify the strategy of converting the fractional number into a fraction to the students as a prior step to compare between the fraction and the fractional number, to avoid the common mistakes the students make.

Misconception Seven: Adding two fractions (that have equivalent denominators) by adding the two numerators and considering the output as the numerator of the answer and the two denominators as the denominator of the answer. The misconception was held by 56.5% of the students and dropped to 4.7% after applying the interactive activities. The students applied the strategy for adding the integers and generalizing it to the fraction adding process. The activity contributed to a considerable conceptual change with the students by placing them in an intellectual conflict through real life examples on how to add two amounts to produce an amount lesser than the two!

Table 3. Means of the Students Grades in the Pre test and Post test as well as T Value SigT ValePost testPre test 0.0014.338.904.15Mean 0.721.82S.D 5. Discussion Through the analysis of the students' answers on the post test, we found variations in attributing the misconceptions they hold. There were four similar misconceptions in terms of the context: adding two equivalent fractions, adding un equivalent fractions, subtracting two equivalent fractions, and subtracting two un equivalent fractions. The students dealt in the questions related to these concepts by adding or subtracting the two numerators making the output as the numerator of the answer, and adding subtracting the two denominators and making the output as the denominator of the answer. The prevalence of these

The means of the students' scores in the post test were calculated and compared with those of the pre test using the Paired Sample Test, to determine whether a conceptual change took place with the students after applying the interactive activities. The results showed an increase in the mean from 4.15 in the pre test to 8.9 in the post test, and that T=14.33, p=0.00,which indicates a difference in favour of the post test after applying the interactive activities. Consequently, it is an indicator that the use of the interactive activities created a conceptual change with the students as shown in Table (3).

304 ©2020 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. the interactive activities. The students were surprised by the result, as the following example explains the confusion of the student about his answer. He first solved the subtraction process as: 5 8 3 8 = 2 0 . He soon changed the zero (o) to (1) integer. When he was asked to explain his answer, he said that "it is not allowed to have a zero (0) "beneath" the fraction (denominator), and I replaced it by one The(1). activity includes clarifying the concept of subtracting two equivalent fractions using the numbers line, which contributed to the assurance of the student's understanding, as mentioned in the study of Siegler, Fazio, Bailey and Zhou (2013). The activity has sequential steps that include dividing the numbers line into equal parts from 0 to 1, defining the two fractions: the first, then going backward (because the process is subtraction) by the amount of the second fraction to find the result. Students find, at the end of the activity, and enrichment video that contains additional examples on how to subtract two equivalent fractions.

Misconception Ten: Subtracting two un equivalent fractions by subtracting the two numerators as the output of the numerator and the two denominators as the output of the denominator, which was held by 88.2% of the students, and went down to 10.6% only after applying the activity. The activity dealt in activities such as pictorial comparisons to clarify the incorrect answer to the student, then explaining the necessity to uniform two equivalent fractions before carrying out the subtraction process.

This result is in line with the study of Reinhold, Hoch, Werner, Richter Gebert, and Reiss (2020), which showed that it is possible to use an interactive educational environment to teach the fraction concepts. It is also in line with the study of Chen, Pan, Sung and Chang (2013) which showed that conceptual change instructions could correct misconceptions effectively by constructing scenarios that conflict with existing knowledge structures. These results are consistent with the results of a study conducted by Bruce and Ross (2009). The researchers designed five groups of technological activities for the fractions, which contributed to the increase in the students' achievement and reduced their misconceptions.

It is also in line with the study of Yilmaz, Özdemi and Yasar (2018), which showed that the teaching applications designed by digital stories eliminated the mistakes and the misconceptions in the fractions with a vast majority of the students. Most of the students fully realized and understood the definitions of the fractions following the activities designed with digital stories. The study of Stoyle and Morris (2017) is also in line with these results, which showed that the use of the blogs may provide unique support for fractions learning because they provide the students with opportunities to explain, justify, and discuss their thinking. They

the results showed that the use of the interactive technological activities in the fractions topic is capable to correct the students' misconceptions in the light of compatibility between Posner's Model and ADDIE Model. Therefore, care should be placed on including multiple activities of the misconceptions because misconceptions are change resistant, as one activity that includes one case is not sufficient to measure the students' conceptual change, as well as using different questions aiming at the misconception.

This result is in line with Allen (2007), who stated that the misconceptions with the students stem from the insufficiency of the prior knowledge. They also stem from misunderstanding the ideas and the conceptual relations between them, which could be obtained through inconvenient ways in a specific context. These results are also in line with the studies of Dhlamini and Kibirige (2014); Siegler, Fazio, Bailey, and Zhou (2013) about students’ treatment of the numerator and denominator as totally independent numbers and transferring their previous experiences in adding and subtracting the integers to adding and subtracting the fractions. As a result, this study emphasizes the need to train the teachers to take care of and reveal the students' misconceptions, and the necessary remedial ways. This is quite possible by the teachers' follow up of the students' answers in the examinations, not to be contented by the "abstract" grades, but they should work to analyze the answers to identify whether the misconceptions exist with the Furthermore,students.

misconceptions was relatively high, such as = 3 5. This type of misconception indicates that there are difficulties facing the students in understanding the fractions concepts. The students treat the fractions as if they were integers not paying any attention to the importance of the fraction line. The students further transfer their previous experiences and what they learned in earlier educational stages, such as operations on the integers, to their current stage in fraction learning, which resulted in an overlap in their knowledge that results in the misconceptions.

5 8 2 3

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6. Conclusions The results of our current study may be an indication that the interactive technological learning activities could lead to an improvement in the understanding of the current misconceptions that students face when learning the fractions topic. As for the content, the focus should not only be on calculating the symbolic fractions, which may seem meaningless for many students, but also on providing convenient educational opportunities to start the required conceptual change. The results show that the use of interactive electronic activities could be used to transfer the different fraction representations to aid the understanding of the concept of fractions. This study is limited to dealing with ten misconceptions only as it takes a lot of time to develop the e activities which are used to correct these misconceptions.

306 ©2020 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. also provide criticism on the logic of others through an interactive educational environment that offers chances to clarify the misunderstandings and misconceptions, which may not be found face to face in a traditional educational environment.

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Dhlamini, Z., & Kibirige, I. (2014). Grade 9 learners’ errors and misconceptions in addition of fractions. Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences, 5(8), 236 244. Duzenlihttp://dx.doi.org/10.5901/mjss.2014.v5n8p236Gokalp,N.,&Sharma,M.(2010).Astudyon

Reinhold, F., Hoch, S., Werner, B., Richter Gebert, J., & Reiss, K. (2020). Learning fractions with and without educational technology: What matters for high achieving and low achieving students? Learning and Instruction, 65, 1 19. Ross, J., Catherine D., & Bruce, C. (2009) Student achievement effects of technology supported remediation of understanding of fractions International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology, 40(6), 713 727

Ghani, N., & Maat, S. (2018). Misconception of fraction among middle grade year four pupils at primary school site. Research on Education and Psychology (REP), 2(1), 111 128. Hoch, S., Reinhold, F., Werner, B., Richter Gebert, J., & Reiss, K. (2018). Design and research potential of interactive textbooks: the case of fractions. ZDM Mathematics Education, 50(5), 839 848. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11858 018 0971 z Lazića, B., Abramovichb, S., Mrđaa, M., & Romanoc, D. (2017). On the teaching and learning of fractions through a conceptual generalization approach International Electronic Journal of Mathematics Education, 12(3), 749 767. Liljedahl, P. (2011). The theory of conceptual change as a theory for changing conceptions. Nordic Studies in Mathematics Education, 16(1 2), 101 124. Lortie Forgues, H., Tian, J., & Siegler, R. (2015). Why is learning fraction and decimal arithmetic so difficult? Developmental Review, 38, 201 221. Namkung,https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2015.07.008J.,Fuchs,L.,&Koziol,N.(2018).Does

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309 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 4, pp. 309 321, April https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.4.120208 Experimental and Research Verification of the Methodology of Forming the High School Students’ Artistic Taste for the Vocal Heritage (Late XIX-Early XX Century) Yuliia V. Merezhko1 , Dmytro A. Lievit2 , Oksana P. Petrykova3 , Svitlana V. Gmyrina4 and Mariia S. Kasianchuk5 Department of Academic and Solo Vocal, Institute of Arts, Borys Grinchenko Kyiv University, Kyiv, Ukraine 1https://orcid.org/0000 0001 5918 7496 2https://orcid.org/0000 0001 6442 3203 3https://orcid.org/0000 0002 4326 3308 4https://orcid.org/0000 0002 3549 2207 5https://orcid.org/0000 0002 6482 9497

Abstract. The article highlights the results of research and experimental work on verifying the methodology of forming the artistic taste of high school students in the vocal heritage of Ukrainian composers of the late XIX early XX centuries. The study purpose was to evaluate the elaborated methodology for the formation of the artistic taste of high school students in the process of studying the vocal heritage of Ukrainian composers. The study was accomplished using the method of paired comparisons that resulted in the scale of the comparative assessments in the control and the experimental group of high school students during the extracurricular activities in Kyiv, Zaporizhia and Dnipropetrovsk regions. The effectiveness of the proposed method was supported by the results of the statistical purposes of processing the experimental data using the χ2 criterion formula. The criteria for monitoring the formation of the high school students’ artistic taste regarding the national heritage of the late XIX early XX centuries were outlined; the three levels (high, medium, low) of high school students’ artistic taste formation were identified. The effectiveness of the applied methodology was evaluated by the series of tests comparing the results at the ascertaining and forming stages of the study. The authors argue that the data of the forming experiment showed significant positive changes in the levels of formation of high school students’ artistic taste according to all the determined criteria, which testifies to the effectiveness of the developed facilitation methodology.

Keywords: artistic taste; high school students; vocal music teaching; Ukrainian composers; aesthetic education

Modern scientific researches show that music and music pedagogy furnish experiences and values for gaining the expected progressive movement of the learners, consistently playing an integral role in the comprehensive, holistic development of the learner’s personality (Allsup, 2003; Babayan, 2006; Lebler, 2008; Padalka, 2010). However, the overwhelming majority of young people nowadays prefer listening to the “light” genre of music (Hemming & Westvall, 2010; Lebedeva, 2011; Shakhrai, 2003).

The problem of developing the personality’s artistic taste drew the attention of the researchers from various fields of study philosophers, psychologists, and educators (Abramova, 1998; Babayan, 2006; Vereshchagina, 2010; Vygotsky, 2008). In Ukraine, the dissertation theses of the recent years (Lebedeva, 2011; Ponomaryova, 2007; Popovych, 2005; Sapozhnik, 2001; Shakhrai, 2003, etc.) address the development of aesthetic taste of high school students. In particular the current research studies pedagogical conditions of shaping the aesthetic attitude to reality in the process of learning to play the musical instrument, the method of using popular and variety music in organizing forms of pedagogical influence, developing the aesthetic sphere of high school students and ensuring the aesthetic orientation of their pastime.

1. Introduction At the present stage of societal development, education lies at the basis of intellectual, cultural, spiritual, social, and economic growth of society and the country as a whole (Batalina, 2005; Rostovsky, 2001; Zyazyun 1976). To benefit the educators, practical teaching strategies need to be elaborated to actively advance music education as an essential structure, “a pillar of achieving the comprehensive development of society and a measure of its social and technological progress” (Mahidi, 2019) In accordance with the current approaches, in Ukraine the education system should ensure the formation of a person who is aware of belonging to European civilization and values, clearly oriented inand familiar with modern realities and perspectives of socio cultural progress Currently higher education focuses on the successful solution of socio cultural and pedagogical issues related to the guiding the future teachers in the advances of musical and aesthetic pedagogy.

Music education in secondary schools of Ukraine encompasses the students of I VIII grades, in contrast high school students remain unattended with the aesthetic knowledge and need guidance to complete education tasks. Unfortunately, the values of national art often stay outside of their reach. Hence, there is a contradiction between the creative potential of the vocal heritage of Ukrainian composers and the prevailing interest of high school students in contemporary music of low quality.

At the same time, the problem of instilling the artistic taste in high school students in the process of studying the vocal legacy of Ukrainian composers is almost not considered, as evidenced by Merezhko (2012, 2018). The issues of the music pedagogy, in particular the vocal education of high school students in extracurricular activities of the secondary school, remained virtually unaddressed by the researchers, the ways of shaping aesthetic attitude to

The experimental verification of the proposed methodology was applied for several years at the secondary school No. 5 (Pershotravensk), the secondary school No. 25 (Melitopol), the secondary school No. 292 named after hetman Ivan Mazepa (Kyiv), Goroshkivska school of Tetiivsk district in the process of extracurricular work in the framework of secondary school education.

The proposed methodology includes a set of methods: first, the methods which involve expanding the high school students’ awareness of the vocal music of Ukrainian composers at the turn of the XIX XX centuries; second, the methods aimed at providing the cultural basis of high school students’ perception of Ukrainian vocal creativity; third, the methods aimed at stimulating the emotional and evaluative attitude to music, and fourth, the methods aimed at motivating the high school students to express themselves in the process of performing the works of the renowned Ukrainian composers.

The methodology of forming young people’s artistic taste is aimed specifically at studying the vocal legacy of the Ukrainian composers at the turn of the XIX XX centuries, in particular Mykola Lysenko, Semen Hulak-Artemovskyi, Sydir Vorobkevych, Yaroslav Barnych, Petro Senyk and others, in extracurricular vocational classes in comprehensive schools.

2. Methods

Researchers showed that in practice, the vocal compositions with the high school students in extra curricular time are focused primarily on the use of modern “youth” music, under the influence of which the students’ artistic taste is formed (Sapozhnik, 2001). Thus, the purpose of the article is to highlight the results of the analysis of experimental work on verifying the methodology of forming the high school students’ artistic taste in the vocal legacy of Ukrainian composers contributes to elaboration of the state of the art teaching strategy. Thus, the study contributed to the field of music pedagogy the authors’ facilitation methodology of shaping musical and aesthetic attitudes of the future teachers, which can be considered as one of the important manifestations of the cultural creativity associated with the preservation, dissemination, enrichment of the values of the national vocal heritage in the life of the contemporary Ukrainian high school students.

reality of the youth in the process of vocal activity were not sufficiently explored, the possibilities of realizing the aesthetic and educational potential of Ukrainian vocal music have not been addressed The novelty of the research lies in an attempt to bridge a research gap between the need to enable the facilitating activity of the teacher as regards motivation and persuasion in high school education design and the current targeted drive for the preservation of the values of the national vocal legacy, in particular as reflected in the works of the renowned Ukrainian composers. The study is expedient as the components, criteria and levels of formation of value attitudes of the high school students are explored. Besides, theoretically substantiated and experimentally tested are the pedagogical conditions that contribute to the effective formation of value attitudes in high school students by studying the vocal legacy of the renowned Ukrainian composers at the turn of the XIX XX centuries.

4. Discussion

The issues of spiritual development of personality, formation of aesthetic attitudes to music heritage, tracing the reality of advances in music education as well as preparation of future teachers for active use of modern approaches in the educational process nowadays become particularly relevant. Nowadays the socio cultural space is saturated with information, so an important manifestation of the professional culture of the educators is the ability to navigate in the ambience of creative and aesthetic values, deeply perceive, evaluate and interpret works of art, consistently cultivating the learners’ interest As Campbell and Wiggins (2012), Rudnitskaya (2002), Padalka (2010) note, currently pedagogical education and art are potent factors of personality development. Lewy (1971) outlines and develops the taxonomy of affective educational outcomes of music pedagogy and explores their applicability for the teaching of music in school. Furthermore, Quesada and Terese (1997), Zhang (2018) point that music education activities are at the crossroads of teaching practices. Rodríguez (2019) examines the targeted practices of music education for social development, whereas Mahidi (2019) dwells on practical teaching strategies of musical education in the context of instructional design, in particular, social variables and psychological variables. On the other hand,

The results of the ascertaining experiment showed that the general level of the formation of the high school students’ artistic taste does not meet the requirements established by the regulatory documents. It is manifested, in particular, in the inability of the majority of surveyed students to distinguish the vocal music of high artistic merit from pseudo arts, inability to give an argumentative evaluation of musical works and their performance, and the inability of the high school students to adequately reproduce the artistic and artistic charge of the vocal compositions, in particular, Ukrainian songs.

The first test session was carried out in the diagnostic block, at the beginning of the forming experiment, to distribute the students of the senior school age into the control and experimental groups. The students’ level of artistic taste formation was the main factor in selecting high school students to the control and experimental groups. The students with a top and average level of aesthetic taste formation were put into the control group. The experimental group included low level students, eight high school students of the secondary school No. 5 (Pershotravensk), eight high school students of the secondary school No. 25 (Melitopol), nine high school students of school No. 292 named after hetman Ivan Mazepa in Kyiv, and eight high school students of Goroshkivska secondary school. Each group comprised of thirty three students.

3. Results

On the whole, 220 high school students aged 14 16 participated in the experimental study during all steps (ascertaining, forming, final). The verification of the results of the implementation of the developed methodology for the formation of high school students’ artistic taste was carried out by the method of ascertaining tests (Nemov, 2001).

During the experiment in the control group, the formation of artistic taste was held under the usual conditions of the educational process according to the traditional method and conducted under the direction of music teachers. In the pilot group the high school students studied according to the method developed by the authors. The empirical study involved twelve music teachers and two lecturers from the pedagogical universities in working in an expert commission on summarizing the experiment.

Bradley (2015) focuses on the interculturalist stance of music education as preferred to the multicultural perspective and examines its unintended consequences As for the national context, art is the process of forming and improving aesthetic education of the younger generation based on the intercultural relations of the art, including the vocal one (Anderson & Campbell, 1996; Chaciński, 2012). An essential component of this process is the cultivation of personality culture in the aspect of the national ideal of Ukrainian traditions (Fright, 1998; Protsyk, 1982; Shulgina, 2005) Of particular interest are theoretical studies in the field of art and aesthetic education and upbringing of pupils and students, the determination of the list of criteria for aesthetic evaluation, the research addressing the formation of an aesthetic attitude to reality and art The relevance of the value approach is also due to the "turning point" of the XX early XXI centuries, which created new ideas about space, time and movement and is determined by the transition to value consciousness. As the teaching practice shows, pupils at secondary educational institutions have little experience in musical works of the renowned Ukrainian composers. The sheer complexity of finding ways of holistic perception of the multidimensional musical world, present day musical life raises the problem of the formation of value orientations in the musical pedagogical process is particularly acute.

The second test session was conducted at the forming stage of the study to control the experimental process and the third test session was held in the final Astage.tthe final stage of the experiment with the view of determining the levels of formation of artistic taste of high school students, the method of content analysis was used. It included the evaluation of the determined indicators by competent referees, such as the teachers of vocal pedagogical universities (National Pedagogical Drahomanov University and Bohdan Khmelnitskyi Melitopol State Pedagogical University).

During the study, a general method was used for all the applied methodologies the method of pair comparisons since authors worked with two groups of recipients – the control group and the experimental one. This method resulted in the scale of the comparative assessments, expressed in percentage terms.

In the comparative analysis of experimental data of the ascertaining and forming stages of the study, we drew attention to the dynamics of the disclosure of indicators of the creation of the artistic taste levels in the process of studying the Ukrainian heritage of the past according to the criterion “The degree of interest of high school students in art, in particular, the vocal heritage of Ukrainian composers” of the high school students of the experimental and control groups. The questionnaires and the method of “musical and imaginative graphics” were

Criteria High school students of the CG (33 students) High school students of the EG (33 students)

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. used to determine the levels of formation of students’ artistic taste. The comparative indicators of the formation of high school students’ artistic taste during the study of Ukrainian classical music are presented in Table 1

As illustrated in Table 1, the low level of the artistic taste development of the students of the CG, according to the criterion “The degree of interest of high school students in the vocal heritage” at the end of the experiment declined by 9.1%. However, for the pupils of the EG it fell even more by 42.4%. The average level in the CG remained the same as it was at the beginning of the study 33.3%, the medium level of students of the EG increased by 15.1%; a high level of indicators of the formation of the artistic taste of the CG grew at the end of the experiment by 9.1%, whereas for the high school students of the EG it increased by Consequently,27.3%having analyzed the results of this table, we conclude that the level of the formation of the artistic taste according to the criterion “The degree of interest of high school students in the artistic, in particular, the vocal heritage of Ukrainian composers” among the students of the experimental group has enhanced more considerably than that of the CG students. It is due to the use of such methods by the students of the EG, how to make the most of songs of their age, familiarity with the artistic and stylistic features of the vocal heritage of Ukrainian composers, commencing a conversation about the artistic value of music, etc. At the initial and at the final stage of the experiment, it is expedient to consider the comparative table of the obtained data (see Table 2) by paying attention to the formation of the artistic taste in the students of the senior school age of the control and experimental groups according to the criterion “Measuring the ability to perceive and evaluate the contents of the vocal composition”.

Table 1: Dynamics of indicators of forming the artistic taste of the high school students of CG and EG on the criterion “The degree of interest of high school students in art, in particular the vocal heritage of Ukrainian composers”

The level of interest in the arts, in particular vocal heritage Levels of the high school students’ artistic taste formation in the vocal heritage of the renowned Ukrainian composers low medium high low medium high students % students % students % students % students % students % at the beginning of the experiment 17 51,5 11 33,3 5 15,2 21 63,6 9 27,3 3 9,1 at the end of experimentthe 14 42,4 11 33,3 8 24,3 7 21,2 14 42,4 12 36,4

315 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Table 2: Dynamics of indicators of forming the artistic taste of the high school students of CG and EG on the criterion “Ability to perceive and evaluate the contents of vocal composition” Criteria High school students of the CG (33 students) High school students of the EG (33 students) Ability to perceive composievaluateandthecontentofvocaltion Levels of the high school students’ artistic taste formation in the vocal heritage of the renowned Ukrainian composers low medium high low medium high students % students % students % students % students % students % at beginningthe of expertheiment 15 45,4 12 36,4 6 18,2 19 57,6 10 30,3 4 12,1 at the end of experimentthe 13 39,4 10 30,3 10 30,3 8 24,2 10 30,3 15 45,5

of the level of formation of the artistic taste of high school students of the control and experimental group according to the criterion “Measuring the ability to express the performance of a musical composition” was carried out with the help of the developed method of performing interpretation. In the process of diagnosis, the following results were obtained (see Table 3).

The data of the tables show that the indicators of the formation of the artistic taste according to the criterion “Ability to perceive and evaluate the contents of vocal composition” in the students of the CG did not improve significantly: the low level declined by 6%, while the high level increased by 12.1%; the medium level at the last stage of the study declined by 6.1%. The results of the students of the EG showed significant progress towards the enhancement of the state of artistic taste (the low level declined by 33.4%; the high one increased by 33.4%; the medium remained at the same level). The obtained results make it possible to conclude that the state of formation of the artistic taste according to the criterion “Ability to perceive and evaluate the contents of vocal composition” is better in the experimental group of high school students than that of the students of the control group. Thus, it should be noted that the traditional method, aimed at forming meaningful attitude and adequate evaluation of musical works in students, is not sufficiently developed and requires a more thorough study, and the introduced pedagogical methodology enhances both the artistic taste and the ability to perceive and evaluate the contents of the vocal Determinationcomposition.

According to the general results of this table, high school students of the EG are overtaking the students of the CG by 12.1%. Remarkable results of the development of the ability to expressly reproduce an artistic composition among students of the experimental group have their own ground.

The process of training high school students of the experimental group to expressly convey the artistic impact of the composition was systematic throughout the experiment with the elaborated methodology. We developed the methodology of public demonstration of vocal achievements, which includes the following techniques: the method of involving students in independent artistic and creative interpretation (“Performance interpretation”, “Independent performing analysis of the composition”, “Theatrical interpretation”, singing of the Ukrainian song with staging performance, etc.); work on vocal and performing techniques in the embodiment of the artistic and creative impact (“Imitation of the reference sample”, etc.); doing tasks of performing and creative nature (on the development of artistic, combined imagination); the application of psychological training (to identify oneself as a unique creative personality, to remove physical and emotional stress); compliance phasing in high school students’ preparing for the public performance (“Distinguishing of

316 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Table 3: Dynamics of indicators of forming the artistic taste of the high school students of CG and EG according to the criterion “Measuring the ability to express the performance of a musical composition” Criteria High school students of the CG (33 students) High studentsschooloftheEG(33students) Measuring the ability to express thecompositionofperformanceamusical Levels of the high school students’ artistic taste formation in the vocal heritage of the renowned Ukrainian composers low medium high low medium high students % students % students % students % students % students % at the beginning of the experiment 21 63,6 9 7,32 3 9,1 20 60,6 8 24,2 5 15,2 at the end of experimentthe 12 36,4 14 42,4 7 21,2 6 18,2 16 48,5 11 33,3

The results of the abovementioned table testify to the formation of the artistic taste of the CG high school students in the process of studying the vocal heritage of Ukrainian composers according to the criterion “Measuring the ability to express the performance of a musical composition” at the end of the experiment enhanced in comparison with the results of the initial stage of the experiment, namely: the low level declined by 27.2%; the medium level increased by 15.1%; the high level also increased by 12.1%. Indicators of the formation of the artistic taste of high school students also increased: the low level declined by 42.4%; the medium level increased by 24.3%; the high level also increased by 18.1%.

317 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. individual psychological peculiarities of each singer”, “Encouragement to self control”, etc.). Due to the implementation of these methods and techniques the high school students were able to “put themselves in place of the author” of the musical piece, to perceive all the intonation subtleties and to perform the vocal composition deep emotionally and highly artistically, in contrast to the students of the control group.

Table 4: Levels

Criteria

By determining the levels of the formation of the artistic taste according to the criterion of “Measuring the ability to express the performance of a musical composition” of the high school students of the CG and EG, it is relevant to say that the developed methods, techniques, creative tasks aimed at improving the ability to reproduce the work of art. The results of the table indicate that the ascertaining experiment has enhanced the artistic taste of both high school students of the control group and in the experimental group, but the levels of development of the ability to express the reproduction of the artistic impact of the work is better in the EG than in the CG. The comparison of the results obtained with the students of the experimental and control groups during the ascertaining experiment made it possible to identify the basic level of formation of their artistic taste according to all the determined criteria (see Table 4). of the artistic taste formation of the high school students of the control and experimental groups at the end of the experiment High school students of the CG (33 students) High school students of the EG (33 students)

The level of interest in heritagevocal Levels of the high school students’ artistic taste formation to the vocal heritage of the renowned Ukrainian composers low medium high low medium high students % students % students % students % student % students % 14 42,4 11 33,3 8 24,3 7 21,2 14 42,4 12 36,4 Ability to perceive and evaluate the content of compositionvocal 13 39,4 10 30,3 10 30,3 8 ,224 10 30,3 15 45,5 Measuring the ability to express thecompositionofperformanceamusical 12 36,4 14 42,4 7 21,2 6 18,2 16 48,5 11 33,3 General indicators 13 39,4 12 35,3 8 25,3 7 21,2 13 40,4 13 38,4

a) By substituting the experimental data of the students of the control group in the given formula, we obtained the following results: ( ) 1268 142 (253142) 323 (353323) 53.5 394535 X 22 k1 2 2 =++=  = According to the indicators of the students of the control group, the χ2 criterion was 12.68. Using the table 4, where we can determine the degree of significance of the differences obtained at the beginning and end of the experimental study for a given number of degrees of freedom, it was recorded that the value χ2 = 12.68 is less than the value given in the table m 1=2 degrees of freedom, that is equal to 13.82 with a possible error of less than 0.001%. This measurement has shown that studying according to the traditional methodology does not provide the formation of the artistic taste of the high school students by means of the vocal heritage of the renowned Ukrainian composers.

b) By substituting the experimental group ’ s data for the given formula, we obtained the following results: ( ) 8907 121 (384121) 273 (404273) 60.6 212606 X 22 k1 2 2 =++=  = According to the indicators of the experimental group, the value of the χ2 criterion is 89.07, exceeding the value in the table [10, 573], which is 13.82 with a probability of an error of less than 0.001%. The existing studies prove to be in accordance with the foregoing series of experiments and their design. Suffice to say, that the research done by Mahidi

From this table one can see that as a result of the new pedagogical methodology introduced in the educational process, the level of the formation of the artistic taste in the process of studying Ukrainian classical music of high school students of the experimental group exceeds the level of the artistic taste formation by means of Ukrainian classical music of the students of the control group according to all indicators and criteria by 13.1%. The given result testifies to the efficiency of the methodology of forming artistic taste developed by our high school students. Due to the introduction of this method, the results of the students in the senior school age group of the experimental group were as follows: high level thirteen students, medium thirteen, low seven. The distribution of the results in the control group was as follows: 8 students had a high level, twelve students had a medium level, and thirteen students had a low Thelevel.effectiveness

of the suggested methodology is confirmed by the statistical processing the experimental data using the formula χ2 criterion (“chi squared criterion”): ( )= m k1 k 2 2kk P VP X where Pk – the results of comments before the experiment; Vk – the results of comments after the experiment; m the total number of the groups to which the results of comments were shared.

6. References Abramova, G. (1998). Age psychology: coursebook for graduate students. Moscow, Russia: Academy Publishing Center Allsup, R. E. (2003). Transformational education and critical music pedagogy: Examining the link between culture and learning. Music Education Research, 5(1), 5 12. Anderson, W. M., & Campbell, P. S. (Eds.), (1996). Multicultural Perspectives in Music Education (2nd ed). Reston, VA: Music Educators National Conference. Babayan, A. G. (2006). Formation of aesthetic value orientations of high school students in the educational process (PhD abstract). Moscow State Linguistic University, Moscow Batalina, G. (2005). The system of aesthetic education of high school students in a secondary school (PhD abstract). Volodymyr Dahl East Ukrainian National University, Luhansk.

5. Conclusions

(2019) relies heavily on the prerequisites such as the teacher’s familiarity with the music education design, the goals sequence for learner’s perception, their success motivation and appropriateness of the chosen goals and activities against the national context and the existing culturally specific attitudes towards the effects of music as directly addressed to the deeply rooted determinants of the national spirit and national identity. The measurements obtained in the experiment expressly showed the appropriateness of measuring the learner’s success, studying according to the suggested authors’ methodology, that ensures the deeper awareness and desired acquisition of the artistic taste of the high school students and their perceptions of the vocal heritage of the renowned Ukrainian composers since cultural education of a person should possess a pronounced national character (Kablova & Pavlova, 2017).

Music education is shown to enhance the spiritual culture of the high school students who were embraced by the experimental study, to guide them in the historical experience and heritage of the nation. The verification of the research findings on the example of the high school students of the experimental group convincingly illustrates the high efficiency of the methodology introduced in the educational process. The method was aimed at forming the artistic taste of the high school students in the process of studying the vocal heritage of the renowned Ukrainian composers. The dynamics of achievements of the high school students of the experimental group testifies to the effectiveness of the proposed methodology of forming artistic taste in the process of studying the vocal heritage of Ukrainian composers. Thus, the authors’ method of shaping aesthetic attitude to reality in extra curricular music creative activity was substantiated and experimentally tested. The criteria and levels of formation of this phenomenon in students were given detailed study. The results of the forming experiment are analysed and their reliability is proved. According to the foregoing, the essence of music as a form of the artistic creativity is taken as a ground for its understanding in music pedagogy, reflecting the inherent infinity and immense power to affect the spiritual culture of the high school students.

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Mahidi, S. (2019). The foundations of teaching music education (Unpublished thesis). University of Baghdad, Baghdad. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.27406.10565 Merezhko, Y (2012). Formation of the artistic preferences of high school students in the process of learning the vocal heritage of the Ukrainian composers (Doctoral thesis). National Pedagogical Dragomanov University, Kyiv Merezhko, Y (2018). Experimental technique of formation of the artistic tastes of pupils in the process of Ukrainian vocal heritage studying (the end of XIX the beginning of XX century). Fundamental and applied researches in practice of leading scientific schools, 26(2), 103 112 Nemov, R. (2001). Psychodiagnostics. Introduction to scientific and psychological research with the elements of mathematical statistics. Moscow, Russia: VLADOS Padalka, G. (2010). Pedagogy of art: theory and methodology of teaching artistic disciplines. Kyiv, Ukraine: Ukraine education. Ponomaryova, O M. (2007). Formation of musical and aesthetic orientations of future teachers in extracurricular activities (PhD abstract thesis) Luhansk T. Shevchenko National Pedagogical University, Luhansk. Popovych, N M (2005). Pedagogical conditions of development of the artistic taste in accordion students using a variety arts (PhD abstract thesis). Kyiv National University of Culture and Arts, Kyiv. Protsyk, S. (1982). The contribution of Ukrainian composers to the theory and practice of musically aesthetic education of students. Music at School, 8, 52 57. Quesada, M. A., & Terese, M. V. (1997). World musics and music education: a review of research, 1973 1993. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, 131, 44 Rodríguez,66. O. (2019). Music education and social development. Innovare: Revista de ciencia y tecnología, 8, 124 127. https://doi.org/10.5377/innovare.v8i2.8953

Kablova, T., & Pavlova, S. (2017). Ukrainian folk songs in music education of pupils. Musical Art in the Educological Discourse, 2, 128 132. 766X.20172.12832 Lebedeva, A. V. (2011). The formation of pupils’ aesthetic attitude to reality in the extracurricular music and creative activities (PhD thesis). Mykhailo Kotsyubinsky Vinnitsa State Pedagogical University, Vinnytsia. Lebler, D. (2008). Popular music pedagogy: Peer learning in practice. Music Education Research, 10(2), 193 213. https://doi.org/10.1080/14613800802079056

321 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Rostovsky, O. (2001). Musical pedagogy: educational programs, methodical recommendations and materials. Nizhyn, Ukraine: NDPU Rudnitskaya, O. (2002). Pedagogics: general and artistic. Kyiv, Ukraine: IPPE. Sapozhnik, O. V. (2001). Musical and aesthetic education of high school students (based on contemporary popular pop music) (PhD abstract thesis). Kyiv National University of Culture and Arts, Kyiv. Shakhrai, V M. (2003). Formation of adolescents' value orientations in children's theatre activity (PhD abstract thesis). Institute of Educational Problems of APS of Ukraine, Kyiv. Shulgina, V. (2005). Ukrainian musical pedagogy. Kyiv, Ukraine: DACKIM. Vereshchagina, O. (2010). History of Ukrainian music of the XX century: a tutorial. Kyiv, Ukraine: Education of Ukraine. Vygotsky, L. (2008). Pedagogical psychology Moscow, Russia: AST, Astrel. Zhang, H. (2018) The aesthetic education of vocal music teaching in music education. In Z. Wang (Ed.), Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Social Science and Education Research (SSER 2018) (pp. 16 19). Beijing, China: Atlantis Press. https://doi.org/10.2991/sser 18.2018.4 Zyazyun, I. (1976). Aesthetic experience of the personality. Formation and spheres of influence Kyiv, Ukraine: Higher school

322 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 4, pp. 322 342, April https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.4.120209 Islamic Spirituality, Resilience and Achievement Motivation of Yemeni Refugee Students: A Proposed Conceptual Framework Manal Ali Ahmed1* , Sahabuddin Hashim2 and Nik Rosila Nik Yaacob3 USM, Universiti Sains Malaysia Penang, Malaysia 1https://orcid.org/0000 0001 6497 3256 2https://orcid.org/0000 0002 2014 1973 3https://orcid.org/0000 0002 3972 5688

Abstract. The present study aims to improve Yemeni refugee students’ achievement motivation by introducing the construct of Islamic perspective of spirituality and resilience. The issue of achievement motivation of students has been a concern in educational psychology circles. However, it appears to be mostly not concerned on refugee students. From the previous literature review finding, the study supports the belief that Islamic spirituality effects on refugee students because it encompasses the whole aspects of the person life. It also describes the role of positive outcomes of resilience on refugee students. To achieve this, a new theoretical framework is proposed to describe how spirituality from Islamic perspective and resilience can impact on achievement motivation of Yemeni refugee students. This contribution to the body of literature research aims to support theoretical and empirical research and provide a more explanation of the correlation between these three concepts. The study hasparticular implicationfor research, to help parentsand teachers to improve achievement motivation through improve Islamic spirituality and resilience of refugee students. Finally, the paper concludes by calling for future research based on the gaps identified in the current study to investigate the relationship between Islamic spirituality, resilience, and achievement motivation.

The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) reported that around twenty people every minute become a refugee worldwide. Globally, the number of refugees totalled 25.4 million people worldwide at the end of 2017 (United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees [UNHCR], 2018). An increase in the number of Yemeni people who are refugees is a new problem that started

1. Introduction

Keywords: achievement motivation; spirituality; resilience; Yemeni refugee students

There are high rates of psychological problems that are faced by the refugees who move to new countries (Van der Veer, 1992). According to Jaranson et al. (2004) and Robertson et al. (2006), refugees face psychological problems such as anxiety, depression and PTSD. Additionally, the psychological factor is one of the factors that may obstruct new refugees from adjusting in the new country (Robinson, 2013). Similarly, several types of problems have been faced by Yemeni refugee students such as psychological, economic, social and educational. Referring to educational psychological issues, achievement motivation is considered to be of critical concern in this area (Bal Taştan et al., 2018). However, with this increase in the number of Yemeni refugees, no psychological or educational research studies have yet explored the achievement motivation of Yemeni refugee students according to the best of the researcher’s knowledge. According to Shekhar and Devi (2012) and Quispe Bendezú et al., (2020), achievement motivation is an active matter in the area of education. Studies on achievement motivation have an extensive and extended history. Moreover, achievement motivation has become an extensively studied concept in the psychology field and it is still an active field of study, especially in the area of educational psychology (Chen, Elliot & Sheldon, 2019). Poledňová, Stránská and Niedobová (2014) observed that the achievement motivation topic has a critical pertinent focus within the psychology scope.

323 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. in 2015 because of the war and related circumstances in Yemen. Many Yemeni people fled their homes seeking safe places or because they lost their job. A large number of Yemeni refugees escaped to countries around the world such as the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.

Extensive research has been done on achievement motivation such as the studies conducted by Poledňová et al. (2014) and Dinesh and Kiran (2018), with less attention given to realizing what the potential impact of spirituality and resilience is. Therefore, research into spirituality and resilience in relation to achievement motivation is still limited in the previous research studies. It is critical to comprehend the factors that may impact on the achievement motivation of refugee students in their schools. Spirituality helps people adapt to challenges (Faigin & Pargament, 2011). Pulla (2014) mentioned that spirituality is essential for people. Gozdziak and Shandy (2002) stated that although there is significance in the role of religion and spirituality among refugees, it has been largely ignored by researchers.

Spirituality is recognized as an essential element when individuals face

Many studies like Brunstein and Heckhausen (2018) and Awan, Ghazala and Anjum (2011) have been published in order to determine factors that influence achievement motivation of the students. The studies identified diverse factors such as the social economic status of the family, the residential place of the student and the effort put in by the student. However, according to Wong and Schweitzer (2017), the information on the factors and resources of achievement that affect refugee adolescents is still limited.

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. difficulties (Faigin & Pargament, 2011). Similarly, Shaw, Peacock, Ali, Pillai, & Husain (2019) stated that spirituality could help refugees to face and adapt to the adversities they encounter. According to Hutchinson and Dorsett (2012), spirituality is a belief in God. Florczak (2010) asserted that spirituality is optimism, bravery and self transcendence. Crawford, Wright and Masten (2006) defined spirituality as a process that promotes resilience in individuals who were exposed to adversities in their lifespan. The discussion of the definition of spirituality above shows that the term spirituality is comprised of many aspects.

2. Background According to UNHCR (2016), since the fighting increased in late March 2015, Yemen continues to crumble. Absence of security and violence have led to the displacement of some of the population both internally and externally. Khan (2018) stated that the disaster in the Republic of Yemen is considered to be one of worst disasters worldwide. Similarly, UNHCR (2020) stated that: “The humanitarian crisis in Yemen remains the worst in the world.”

More than four years of conflict has led to more than 4.3 million Yemeni people being forced to flee (UNHCR, 2020). Approximately 166,658 refugees from Yemen have arrived in countries in the Gulf region because of the adversity in Yemen. Most of the refugees reside in countries near to their countries of origin (Shaw et al., 2019). Accordingly, most of Yemeni refugees fled to the Kingdom of Saudi

The early research studies on resilience concentrated on how adolescents encounter the difficulties in their life. Researchers have described resilience in many forms such as Kobasa (1979) with hardiness, Garmezy (1993) as an evaluation of facing adversity and Rutter (1987) who affirmed it to be a successful adaptation. Furthermore, Rak and Patterson (1996) declared resilience to be the ability of people who have encountered the risk factors to overcome difficulties and avoid negative outcomes such as behavioral problems and academic Mostdifficulties.ofthe resilience studies such as those by Peres, Moreira Almeida, Nasello, & Koenig (2007) and Isokääntä, Koivula, Honkalampi and Kokki (2019) have focused on traumatic events and other diseases. Betancourt and Khan (2008) pointed out that the previous literature focused on the risks that refugees faced with less attention paid to their resilience. Pieloch, McCullough and Marks (2016) stated that while refugees represent a large part of society in new countries, it is essential for education professionals to understand how the resilience of refugees can help in terms of their adaptation positively The purpose of the present article is to highlight a conceptual framework of spirituality from Islamic perspective, focused on the resilience and achievement motivation of Yemeni refugee students in Saudi Arabia.

Beginning with the Theory of the Hierarchy of Needs by Maslow (1954) which classified human motivation as a sequence of needs. Furthermore, Helgeson (2005) motivation as a desire to achieve an aim which is significant to humans. Akram and Ghani (2013) shared Helgeson (2005) view on motivation. They defined motivation as a desire to perform an aim or a drive related to a certain behavior. Similarly, Dörnyei and Ushioda (2011) indicated the significance of motivation that derives from the inside leading to shape motivation of individual.

3.1 Achievement Motivation

According to Waxman, Gray and Padron (2003), there is a need for studies to identify the indicators of resilience used to evaluate the impact of the students' affective and motivational results. In accordance with the previous studies, there is a dearth in the studies that seek to elucidate the relationship between resilience and the achievement motivation of the refugees (Hutchinson & Dorsett, 2012).

3. Literature Review

Arabia because of the Saudi geographic location in terms of Yemen (UNHCR, 2016). Despite the passage of more than five years referring to the war in Yemen, the ignorance of the disaster in Yemen continues. Patel et al. (2017) stated that there is a dearth in the research that studies the influence of the war crisis on the achievements of the refugee students. Although there has been a wide range of research relating to achievement motivation in school, very few studies focus on the factors that may increase the achievement motivation of refugee students (Pastoor, 2017). Further, previous studies have determined that there are many factors affecting achievement motivation such as socioeconomic and psychosocial factors. Psychology and adaptation could be associated and relevant to achievement motivation (Anderman & Anderman, After1999).

going over the scientific studies and literature influencing achievement motivation, the researcher found that the previous literature did not focus on the influence of both spirituality and resilience on achievement motivation. Harris (2016) obviously mentioned the lack of research discussed the effect of spirituality and resilience when coping with the challenges faced in life. Spirituality is viewed as significant and it has a very important role in many fields such as education (Wright, 2003) and psychology(Rego & Nunes, 2019).However, most of the previous studies relating to spirituality do not contain studies that are directly linked to achievement motivation. Kim and Esquivel (2011) highlighted the need for more research and an understanding of how spirituality affects the learning process. Resilience can positively affect an individuals’ ability to overcome the difficulties encountered when achieving personal, professional or academic goals (Smith, Tooley, Christopher & Kay, 2010). There is a lack of previous works that have examined the resilience within Arabic countries (Ungar, 2012).

The definition of achievement motivation as presented by McClelland, Atkinson, Clark, & Lowell, (1953) is: “The need to do something well in competition with a standard of excellence.”

Landrum (2000) defines spirituality as the valuing of an individual, in addition to examining or expressing a greater construction that could be used to view human life through it. Stokley (2002) had another insight into the definition of spirituality, which is the viewpoint through which actions and behavior are determined by others in the community. Kim and Esquivel (2011) described spirituality as an ingrained aspect of the nature of human beings that is revealed during the adolescence period in which the adolescents seek transcendence, purpose in life and meaning.

Various definitions of spirituality have been included in the previous research literature. Zsolnai and Illes (2017) asserted the definition of spirituality as a complex concept, with many variations across different cultures and many dimensions. The different understandings and interpretations of spirituality are because of the differences in the viewpoints, sources, and considerations Furthermore,involved.

In a later period, achievement motivation has been extended by McClelland (1961) to include the striving of an individual for excellence, shown through effort when they are coping with hardship. Furthermore, the need in McClelland's theory for achievement is deeply correlated to education conceptions. The concept of achievement motivation proposed by McClelland is that when a person has a strong need, the effects of this need motivate a person to behave in the manner which means that their needs are met.

From the Western perspective, there are different views of the spirituality concept and the religion definition. Barker (2008) summarized these different views of spirituality and religion and classified the relationship between them into five models. The first relationship classification is that there is no difference between religion and spirituality and the concept is used interchangeably. The second relationship is that spirituality is a sub division of religion. The third relationship is that religion is a subsection of spirituality. The fourth possibility is that there is a difference between religion and spirituality. Lastly, there is an overlap between religion and spirituality. Figure 1 summarizes the relationship between spirituality and religion based on Barker (2008) model.

3.2 Spirituality

It is obvious from the aforementioned literature that there is no consensus on the definition of spirituality. Although there is a degree of complexity and no agreement on the definition of spirituality, many of the definitions are centered into two aspects: an individual's connection in order to transcend and how it is central in an individual’s life experiences.

Figure 1: The relationship between spirituality and religion based on Barker (2008) model 3.3

Spirituality and Religion are same Spirituality is a sub-division of Religion Religion is a subsection of Spirituality Spirituality and Religion are overlap Spirituality and Religion are difference

In terms of the references to Islamic spirituality, the sources of spirituality in Islam are based on a solid foundation of Islamic law (Sharia) origins from the Muslims’ Holy book (The Holy Qur’an) and the habitual practice (Sunnah) of Prophet Mohammed (peace be upon him). These make up the fundamental sources of the curriculum of Muslims. Therefore, in terms of the source, spirituality in Islam is distinguished from spirituality in the Western perspective.

Spirituality from Islamic perspective

Islamic religion has its own view of spirituality that differs from that of other religions. According to Nasr (1987), from an Islamic viewpoint, the distinction between religion and spirituality does not exist. Spirituality is an integral part of religion for Muslims (Rassool, 2000). Pahlevan and Ong (2018) mentioned that the spiritual dimension is considered to be a fundamental characteristic in a Muslim society. In addition, spirituality in Muslim life is important and cannot be ignored. Sani and Maharani Ekowati (2019) revealed that spirituality in Islam ensuring that every action does is in accordance with Allah’s pleasure

Furthermore, the meaning of Islam in the Arabic language is submission to the will of Allah (Husain, 1998). In Islam, the word Islam for Muslims means whole submission to the will of Almighty Allah and the worship of Allah alone. In Islamic context, religion is a Muslim way of life (Mahudin, Noor, Dzulkifli & Janon, 2016). Based on Altareb (1996), Islamic spirituality provides the instructions and directions needed to increase Muslim spirituality. Muslims attain the highest level of spirituality if individual Muslims conduct their life and activities related to the purpose of obeying God (Islahi, 1989). In the same context, Al Ghazali (1986) declared that spirituality is gained through the practice of Islamic instructions.

Briefly, the concept of spirituality and religion in Islam is clear and there is a consensus between scholars. Additionally, Islam has a distinctive viewpoint on spirituality that differs from Western perspectives.

Relationship between Spirituality and Religion

Nasr (1981) classified spirituality as being based on three basic notions: submission (Islam), faith (Iman) and perfection (Ihsan). Islam includes the obligation to worship as a Muslim individual. Furthermore, Muslims submit through the practice of the five pillars of Islam, which is the testimony of faith, prayer five times a day, fasting during one month every year in Islamic calendar (Ramadhan), alms giving (Zakat), and pilgrimage (Hajj) (Hamdan, 2010). The second concept is Iman, which refers to the Muslim's belief in God and the other pillars of faith. Nisar, Farwa and Nadeem (2015) described how faith affects spirituality: "Faith provides a skeleton for the soul. Just as bones give a structure to a frail envelope like the skin to carry the body, in a similar manner does faith add substance to the spirit". The third one is Ihsan, which refers to the highest level of spiritual distinction that Muslim individuals are supposed to have (Mahudin et al., 2016). All these three concepts are related together to shape the whole Muslim individual. Thus, it can be observed that the perspective of spirituality in Islam means to be close to Allah and to prove that through good deeds that please Allah. From a wider angle, human beings are created from two components that interrelated that can never be separated from each other: body and soul (Al Ghazali, 1986). Al Ghazali (1989) explained that in Islam, the soul is the source of happiness for a Muslim individual and it has a high value in Muslim individual life; thus the body is considered to be only a container for the soul. Therefore, Islam pays particular attention to the soul. It seeks to purify and refine it, because of its impact on a person’s life. Because of the importance of the soul, Allah made one of the reasons behind the mission of the Prophet Muhammad (May Allah peace be upon him) to refine the soul. It is enshrined in the Qur'an: “…when He sent them a messenger from themselves, reciting to them His signs and praise them and teach them the Book and wisdom that had previously shown in error” (The Qur’an 2: 164).

The mission of the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) was comprehensive in all aspects of life, including spirituality. Moreover, Islam focused on the importance of self purification and refinement. Islam is connected to happiness in this world and success in the hereafter by adhering to the instructions given. Furthermore, it asserts that unhappiness in the world and losing out in the hereafter is a consequence of not following Allah’s orders. Allah said: “Whoever purifies it has succeeded; and failure is the lot of whoever corrupts it” (The Qur’an 91:9 10). A lot of Muslim scholars and researchers have explained the meaning of the verse as Muslims purifying their souls of sordid morals and vices (Al Jawziyyah, 2006).

According to Rassool (2000), Islam provides a spiritual path to salvation and spirituality is a result of religious thinking and practices in Islam. In Islam, it is obvious that the worship of Allah is the road that needs to be journeyed to get to spirituality. Abu Dharr reported that the Messenger of Allah, peace and blessings be upon him, said: “Be mindful of Allah wherever you are, follow a bad deed with a good deed and it will erase it, and behave with good character toward people” (Tirmidhi, Vol. 4, Book 1, Hadith 1987).

Furthermore, the concept of spirituality (ruhaniyyah) in Islam focuses on the relationship between a Muslim’s purpose of life and their religious rituals. Allah mentioned in the Qur’an that: “A Muslim’s purpose of life is to worship Allah” (The Qur’an 51:56).

Furthermore, the Holy Qur'an has pointed to the word spirit (ruh) in the following verse as the secret of life: “And they ask you about the ruh. Say: The ruh is one of the commands of my Lord, and you are not given aught of knowledge but a little” (The Qur’an 17:85).

In Islam, people are created to worship Allah and to obey Allah’s instructions.

In the light of this hadith, Islamic spirituality is defined as a concept that has been included in the fearing (taqwa) of Allah. Taqwa has been clarified as putting a protective barricade between yourself and Allah’s penalty. Practicing Islam is done by doing good deeds and being involved in society while representing good Inmorals.summary, it is obvious that spirituality is related to the connection between Allah and individual Muslims. A Muslim purifies him/herself through performing daily and periodic religious rituals. It is clear that Islam does not interpret spirituality in isolation of everyday actions and religious rituals. In Muslim life,all activities,whether small orbig, must be in accordancewith Allah’s pleasure. Performing prayers, reciting the Qur'an and attending a mosque are

In this regard, the Messenger Muhammad (peace be upon him) said: “Allah shall not look at your bodies or your faces, but rather looks into your hearts” (Muslim, Book 32, Hadith 6220). As Grine, Fares, & Meguellati (2015) stated, individual Muslims have to perform religious rituals that are considered to be a periodic nourishment for his/her spirit that help to purify his/her heart from sin. Hawa (2006) asserted that Muslims have to clean their spirits through conducting prayer, fasting, reciting the Qur’an and other rituals. According to Nasr (1987), spirituality in Islam represents the relationship between humans and Allah that influences the self esteem of the person, linking with others and nature. From an Islamic point of view, spirituality covers all Muslim life aspects.

Resilience is considered to be a significant concept in the context of adapting to the challenges of life. The term resilience has been defined by Richardson, Neiger, Jensen and Kumpfer, (1990, p. 34) as: “the process of coping with disruptive, stressful, or challenging life events in a way that provides the individual with additional protective and coping skills than prior to the disruption that results from the event” . However, Wolins and Wolins (2010, p. 5) defined resilience as the: “Capacity to bounce back, to withstand hardship, and to repair yourself”. Similarly, Masten (1994) provided the concept of resilience as a pattern that may be adjusted in the end in spite of the existence of risks, pressure or misfortunes in life. Dyer and McGuinness (1996, p. 276) assert that resilience is: “The ability to bounce back from misfortune”. From the previous view of resilience definitions, it is obvious that the term resilience has different meanings based on which perspective is used. However, all of the definitions include the meaning of resistance. Dyer and McGuinness (1996) consider resilience to be a process where individuals spring back from difficulty and carry on with their lives. Furthermore, this process is dynamic and it is affected by protective factors. Correspondingly, Masten (1994) described resilience as a process. Subsequently, Masten (2001) emphasized resilience as a set of processes between individuals and the environment. In the same context, Luthar, Cicchetti and Becker (2000) defined resilience as a process used to adapt positively with difficulty. The description of resilience follows the same lines as those of Clinton (2008) study. Resilience has been defined as a type of adaptive behavior or the ability to manage in the environment.

According to Southwick and Charney (2012, p. 6), resilience is defined as: “the process of adapting well in the face of adversity, trauma, tragedy, threats and even significant sources of stress such as family and

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. examples of strengthened spirituality. Thus, it can be observed that the perspective of spirituality in Islam means to submit to Allah and to be close to Him, to love Him and to prove that through deeds that please Allah. Briefly, based on this concept of spirituality in Islam, all actions agree with the pleasure of Allah and the feeling of connectedness with Allah and loving Him.

3.4 Resilience

Furthermore, with regard to Islamic spirituality that has been reviewed in the aforementioned literature, the current research sets out to prepare the theoretical framework of Islamic spirituality after reviewing spirituality research in order to define the concept of spirituality from an Islamic point of view in the theoretical framework.

Additionally, Bernard (2004, p. 43) summarized resilience as: “the preponderance of resilience related research identifies resilience as a universal, developmental capacity of every human being”

The previous section has outlined the concept of resilience as defined according to different facets of the previous research. Furthermore, the way that researchers have defined the term resilience is similar and has been come in interchanged words. Resilience is described in different terms such as positive coping, adaptation and persistence.

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. relationship problems, serious health problems, or workplace and financial stresses”. It is obvious from the literature and previous studies that resilience changes according to the adversities faced (Werner & Smith, 1992). Additionally, resilience is identified as a dynamic and complex process that leads to mitigation when facing stresses (Bonanno, Galea, Bucciarelli & Vlahov, 2007). Increasingly, there is an indication that resilience is a multidimensional and dynamic process in the face of misfortune (Luthar et al., 2000). Resilience is considered to be the result of the interaction process between the genetic, biological, psychological and sociological factors in the context of environmental support (Henry, 1999).

4. Relationships among Achievement Motivation, Spirituality, and Resilience

Many studies have focused on spirituality and how it relates to social outcomes, well being and coping. However, very few studies have been found that have focused specifically on spirituality and achievement motivation. Kim and Esquivel (2011) explained that the research revealed that spirituality promotes the

Resilience is defined by Luthar et al. (2000, p. 543) as: “A dynamic process encompassing positive adaptation with the context of significant adversity” Luthar et al. (2000) theory declares that in order to be resilient, one must have met two conditions: exposure to a critical threat or severe hardship and the attainment of a positive adaptation. Furthermore, she proposed focusing on the mechanisms of the variables that perform as either a protective or risk factor (Luthar et al., 2000, Luthar, Sawyer & Brown, 2006). Neenan (2017, p. 17) defined resilience as: “a set of flexible cognitive, behavioral, and emotional responses to acute or chronic adversities which can be unusual or common place”.

This section will review the related previous research studies on the relationship of achievement motivation, spirituality, and resilience. 4.1 Spirituality and Achievement Motivation

4.2 Resilience and achievement motivation

The first central conceptual component for the present research is guided by spirituality from Islamic perspective. In Islamic literature, Islam is defined in the Arabic language as submitting to Allah glory be to Him and complete obedience to His orders. According to Nasr (2002), the meaning of Islam is "surrender" as mentioned in (The Qur'an 4:125):

Furthermore, Dinesh and Kiran (2018) studied achievement motivation and self concept using Achievement Motive Test (ACMT) and a population of secondary school students The results showed there to be no significant difference between high achievers and low achievers concerning the achievement motivation of the study sample. Additionally, the scores of the high achievers among secondary school students were a little higher than the low achievers concerning achievement motivation.

The theoretical framework of this study is based on the foundation of three major theories. The perspectives are spirituality from an Islam perspective, the Resilience Theory by Masten (2014a) and the Achievement Motivation theory by Atkinson (1964). It is believed that the synthesis of these theories and perspectives provides a proper reflection of the purpose of this study.

5. Proposed Theoretical Framework of the Current Study

capability of people to face adversity and that it improves the student's performance in academic learning. It is claimed by Johnson (2008) that the interest in studies concerning spirituality and academic performance has just started and that it has been rising. Some studies have explored related constructs referring to spirituality, achievement motivation and refugee students. For example, Bowen and Cheng (2017) investigated the impact of spiritual cues on non cognitive skills. The authors conducted a research study looking at 180 secondary school students but there were no refugees in the population. The study found that the self regulatory capabilities of students are boosted by increasing their sense of religion, the predictors of educational achievement and increasing their political tolerance. Davis (2017) mentioned the influential role of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation on achievement. Generally, the literature has shown there to be few studies on the area concerning the relationship between refugees and their religiosity (Ennis, 2011).

There is a lack of studies that are concerned with refugee resilience (Hutchinson & Dorsett, 2012). The current studies recommend that there is a need to understand what the strengths and skills are of refugees in order to promote refugee resilience (Bartlett, Mendenhall & Ghaffar Kucher, 2017). Darychuk and Jackson (2015) used interviews to reveal how female refugees navigate the influences of gender within community resilience at UNRWA health centers. The study reached the result that there is a significant role played by the presence of a safe place for refugees and showed the resilience of Palestinian women.

“Whose way is better than that of the man who has submitted to God, and does good, and who follows the creed of Abraham the upright?”

Furthermore, the essential meaning of worship is declared as practicing from a firm belief that the One who orders it is Allah Almighty and that the Prophet (peace be upon him) delivered its method to us in detail. Hence worship falls under the concept of absolute submission to Allah. This surrender is to Allah who is closer to us than the jugular vein as mentioned in the (The Qur'an 50:16): “we are closer to him than [his] jugular vein”.

A Muslim is obliged to submit to and completely surrender to the orders and instructions of Allah which are mentioned in the legislation of Muslims. Allah the Exalted said: “So take what the Messenger assigns to you, and deny yourselves that which he withholds from you. And fear Allah” (The Qur'an 59: 7).

There is also the saying by the Holy Prophet (peace be upon him): “The closest that a servant can be to his Lord is when he is in prostration. Therefore, make abundant supplications (i.e. while prostrating)” (Muslim, Book 4, Hadith 979). The meaning of "closeness" has also been stressed during the migration to Madinah. The Prophet said to his friend Abu Bakr "Allah is with us" as mentioned

“to worship Allah as if you see Him, and if you do not see Him, He will see you" as mentioned in the famous hadith called the "hadith of Gabriel” (Al Bukhari, Vol. 6, Book 60, Number 300).

The meaning of this verse as explained in the interpretation of Ibn Kathir is that: “whatever the Messenger commands you, then do it and whatever he forbids you, then avoid it. Surely, He only commands righteousness and forbids evil” (Abdul Rahman, 2009, p.51).

The more one submits by worshiping Allah, the closer we are to Him as mentioned in (The Qur’an 96: 19): “and bow down in sajdah, and come closer” .

Muslims are requested to follow Abraham and to be in a state of total surrender like him, in addition to following the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) who said: “…By Allah, I am more submissive to Allah…” (Al Bukhari, Vol. 7, Book 62, Number 1).

The submitting and surrendering to Allah is including Islamic beliefs, the consequent orders, and duties that a Muslim must do according to the pillars of Islam and the pillars of faith themselves to the highest level that is called Ihsan;

in (The Qur'an 9:40). Maintaining closeness to Allah is very important for the purification of the soul as mentioned in the Qur'an and hadiths. The closeness of Allah makes the love of Him greater as stated in the Qur'an: “Say: If you love Allah, follow me, and Allah will love you” (The Qur'an 3:31).

A Muslim strives to come closer to Allah by performing worship like voluntary prayers. Allah will bring him closer to Him and his level will be raised from Eman (belief) to Ihsan. In other words, the path to gaining the love of Allah is through rituals and good deeds which bring pleasure and enhance spirituality.

oretical framework is Masten’s theory, which has been synthesized to show the conceptual framework of resilience that serves as the basis of resilience in this study. Resilience stems from the nature of a person’s ability to adjust to different circumstances (Masten, 2001). According to Masten, Morison, Pellegrini and Tellegen (1990), resilience describes phenomena by dividing them into three types. The first phenomenon is about persons who have knowledge of successful adaptations in spite of a high risk. The second phenomenon is about persons who are resilient to pressure and the third phenomenon is about persons who improve after a traumatic experience. This theory supports the purpose of the current research study to examine resilience and to assess whether there is a significant relationship between resilience with the other variables in the study.

The closer a Muslim approaches His Lord with acts of worship and obedience, to implement his orders and to avoid his prohibitions, the more his love for Him and so the greater his spirituality. Worship brings together the origin of the goal of love with the goal of submission. This is stated clearly in the hadith: “When My servant approaches Me through good works, then I love him…” (Al Bukhari, Vol. 8, Book 76, Number 509).

In the current research, spirituality as an Islamic concept originated from two sources. The first belongs to the Qur'an which discusses the three Islamic themes of submission to Allah, love and closeness. The second source comes from the hadiths which explain how to apply the aforementioned Qur'anic themes. Both sources are essential when developing Muslim spirituality from an Islamic background. Consequently, Islamic teachings could be applied in the framework of submission to Allah, love and closeness which represents a comprehensive umbrella of Islam. It can be seen what the consequence are; there is a fear of Allah when one does not perform orders.

According to this view of the concept of spirituality in Islam, submission to Allah, love and closeness may serve as a useful framework for understanding Muslim Thespirituality.nextthe

According to Masten (2014b), an adaptive system is important in youths because it describes their motivation system. Furthermore, Masten (2001) stated that if youths do not appear to be resilient in their life experiences, then this means that “basic resources nor the opportunities and experience that nurture the development of adaptive systems” do not exist in the youths. Masten, Cutuli, Herbers and Reed (2009) recommended avoiding harm to, restoring, or recompensing for any pressures in essential systems.

Based on theory of Masten et al. (2009), an individual is considered to be resilient if two conditions are fulfilled: a positive adaptation in the development of the individual and risk or threat to the individuals' positive adaptation. The positive adaptation is an alignment of the human adaptation system and developmental tasks. The expectations of a certain culture within the individuals' behavior when across diverse periods of age and in different situations consider the developmental tasks of the individual. Furthermore, Masten et al., (2009) mentioned that essential adaptation systems are a compromise between many relations such as attachment associations, families, parenting, spirituality, religion and formal education systems. In the context of refugees, Masten (2014b) stated that refugees are varied in how they perform in different areas of their life such as in school and other places, including the effect of resilience. The last theory is the theory of achievement motivation that was developed by Atkinson (1964) which is one of the most famous theories on achievement motivation. The achievement motivation theory frames the theoretical framework for achievement motivation of this study. This theory explains achievement motivation as a tendency towards positive motivation and the tendency towards negative motivation respectively. The motive of the individual is considered to be positive if they are motivated toward success (Ms) and their motivation is considered to be negative if they are motivated to avoid failure (Mf). More deeply, achievement motivation theory is a theoretical model that proposes “to explain how the motive to achieve and the motive to avoid failure influence behavior in a situation where performance is evaluated against some standard of excellence” (Atkinson, 1957, p. 371). In addition to the two motive factors, Atkinson (1957) defined the tendency to complete an achievement oriented task in terms of the four factors that are the likelihood of success, the likelihood of failure, the incentive of success and the incentive of failure. According to Atkinson and Feather (1966), the achievement motivation of individuals is derived from two types of motives; the tendency to achieve success and the tendency to avoid failure in different levels of task. The theory of achievement motivation by Atkinson and Feather (1966) places emphasizes on the competition between the motivational tendencies that are existed in every

Later, Masten studied resilience in youth refugees that were exposed to war (Masten, 2014b). Masten also studied resilience in people in war torn circumstances and related issues like homeless street children in Nepal, famine in the Niger and the war in Afghanistan (Panter Brick, Grimon & Eggerman, 2014).

The strength of expectancy or the probability of success: The probability of success in relation to a task is based on an assessment performed by the individual that is performing a task. The probability of success is between very low to very high, and it depends on the importance of success to the individual.

achievement oriented activity. Atkinson and Feather (1966, p. 328) proposed that behavior consists of three components, which are: “motive, expectancy, and incentive”.

Depending on the aforementioned theories, if individuals who escape their country because of war have a closeness to Allah and the ability to face things positively in life, then this may be a sign of the presence of an achievement motivation represented by a tendency to achieve success or to avoid failure. In contrast, if individuals who have suffered due to war do not have sufficient connectedness to Allah and the capacity to cope, then this will lead to a lack of a desire to achieve in life. Figure 2 summarizes the theoretical framework of the present study.

The incentive value of success: When the level of task difficulty increases, the incentive is required to increase in order to maintain a high level of achievement. Difficult tasks associated with a low incentive value do not motivate the individual to achieve success. The individual himself can assess the level of task difficulty and incentive. Moreover, the motivation to achieve success and the motivation to avoid failure are related. If the individual is motivated by success, he/she will perform tasks with a probability of success that is equal to the probability of failure, and where the value of the incentive is high. If an individual is motivated from a fear of failure, he/she will avoid performing tasks that are equal in terms of their probability of either success or failure. Moreover, he/she will choose easier tasks to reduce the probability of failure or more difficult tasks where failure can be attributed to the difficulty of the task. In other words, if the motive of an individual to achieve success is higher than the motive to avoid failure, then the individual's expectation will be achieved and they will perform the task well. In contrast, if the motive of an individual to avoid failure is greater than the motive to achieve success, then the individual's expectation will be the fear of failing to perform the task.

The motive of an individual to achieve success is related to: The motive or need to achieve success: This motivation refers to the ability of an individual to perform a task actively in order to achieve success. Consequently, Motivation to Success is a result of another motivation to avoid failure.

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6. Conclusion In conclusion, the current study was an attempt to propose a new theoretical framework that outlined above to define and illustrate the concept of achievement motivation of Yemeni refugee students by introducing the construct of Islamic perspective of spirituality and resilience with paying particular attention on their effects on achievement motivation. Further, most of previous spirituality studies have addressed spirituality from a western point of view, which is different from the Islamic viewpoint of spirituality. Consequently, this study attempts to fill the literature gap on spirituality from the Islamic perspective and proposes a new conceptual framework to enrich the understanding of the Islamic spirituality and resilience and its contribution to achievement motivation. This study will also help parents and teachers to improve Islamic spirituality and resilience in refugee students. Further theoretical clarification based on the current conceptual framework may provide western researchers with deep knowledge of the Islamic spirituality in Muslim society with particular emphasis on the soul as a source of happiness. Additionally, the present study calls researchers to develop models of Islamic spirituality that are appropriate in Muslim countries.

Figure 2: Theoretical framework of spirituality, resilience and achievement motivation

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Siti Irene Astuti Dwiningrum

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Abstract. This paper aims to identify the teacher's strategy in creating and developing creative learning to purposely reduce bullying behaviour in schools. To assess this objective, a quantitative data approach was employed to explore the data on bullying behaviour to illustrate the teacher's strategy and creativity in reducing bullying. Previous findings revealed that bullying is prevalent during school hours (69%), where the perpetrators consisted mainly of seniors (37%). This study serves as an empirical picture of the strategies employed by creative teachers to reduce bullying in schools by building synergy at the school environment, class setting and individual level. As for the school environment, it is necessary to strengthen the links between learning elements and teachers' teaching style. However, there was a need to improve the learning abilities of teachers in classroom settings. At the individual level, effective collaboration between teachers and students needs to be strengthened by improving non cognitive knowledge to take actions against bullying in schools. Also, it is essential to recognise findings, especially at the system level, to identify interventions and policies to ensure a secure and reliable learning environment for all students. This study also recommended the implementation of a training course for teachers to enhance their creative strategies in the classroom.

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Keywords: bullying; creative teaching; elementary school; teaching strategies

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Faculty of Science Education, Universitas Negeri Yogyakarta Yogyakarta, https://orcid.org/0000Indonesia00016377 Norwaliza Abdul Wahab Faculty of Human Development, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris Perak, https://orcid.org/0000Malaysia0002

Creative Teaching Strategy to Reduce Bullying in Schools

343 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 4, pp. 343 355, April https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.4.202020

Haryanto Faculty of Science Education, Universitas Negeri Yogyakarta Yogyakarta, https://orcid.org/0000Indonesia00028531

Based on studies conducted in multiple countries, bullying remains prevalent and has continued to affect people's lives. In Indonesia, research performed by the National Consortium Character Study in School Development indicated that almost all schools experience the bullying phenomenon (Firmansyah, 2014). This social fact was further supported based on the studies by Aryuni (2017), Dwiningrum (2019), Da Silva et al. (2019) and Chandra and Mulya (2009), which concluded that most of the students have been bullied A study conducted in Malaysia, further revealed that the most common bullying acts in secondary schools are caused by teenagers with a high level of egocentrism The studywhich involved 20 secondary school students demonstrated that their characteristics such as self esteem, vengeance, enjoyment, authority and part of prejudice were the factors influencing bullying (Norshidah, 2014). Therefore, effective strategies are necessary to overcome bullying because the causal factors are very diverse, and the intensity continues to recur. Efforts to mitigate bullying cannot be postponed anymore due to its adverse impacts. However, survey techniques to evaluate bullying behaviour are not effectively practised in schools. For example, physical and verbal aggression is usually guarded using penalty responses Since bullying can occur in different manners, most teachers are not aware of it transpiring among students, hence, is difficult to apprehend dynamic precautions (Psunder, 2010; Veenstra et al., 2010) However, some school policies play a strategic role in reducing bullying Effective ways to manage bullying at schools can be designed using creative learning processes. Having said that, creativity has not yet been fully utilised to overcome bullying in schools. Hence, this paper specifically explores techniques by which the teachers can incorporate creativity to reducing bullying at individual, class and school level to curb bullying among students. Based on the findings, interventions and policies can be identified and drafted to ensure a protected, safe and secure learning condition for all students.

Bullying encompasses a broad concept which can still potentially cause controversial arguments regarding its meaning, severity and its relationship with other constructions as it is a universal problem in schools (UNESCO, 2017)

1. Introduction

Bullying that occurs repetitively causes irreparable damage and is regarded as a social issue which is part of an aggressive manner (Erika, Pertiwi & Seniwati, 2017) Afroz and Husain (2015) stated that there are many types of bullying such as mocking, hitting or intimidating others and spreading false information It can be divided into two categories, namely direct bullying and indirect bullying. Direct bullying involves physical touch like beating, knocking, intimidating or any behaviour that inflicts injury to the victim. Meanwhile, indirect bullying through disrespectful remark affects the victim in psychological ways (Khalim, 2014). Based on previous literature, male students are more inclined towards direct bullying, whereas female students are towards indirect bullying (Boyes et al., 2014; Wang et al., 2009).

Most of the available literature is more concerned with bullying in general and are unrelated to specific research findings (Rigby, 2017). Bullying is a type of social interaction which has an impact on schools and society. Hence, the behaviour of the perpetrators or victims together with other factors depend on the school environment. Bullying is a unique form of aggressive behaviour and is manifested in various patterns of relationships. Bully victims normally experience agitation, embarrassment and exasperation which consequently caused them to be timed, self isolated from their friends, play truant, changed personality, sensitive, melancholy and suicidal. Among the effects of bullying on the victim include declining academic performance due to the loss of interest in learning, skipping classes and skipping school out of fear, self blame together with the uncertainty about one's abilities and potential (Nor Junainah, Mohd Sobri & Amelia, 2019). These effects have been identified to hold severe and lasting effects on the victim (Jenning et al., 2017; Hidalgo Rasmussen et al., 2018). Bullying is a worldwide issue regardless of gender, age, rank, race, culture or religion. Based on an international study conducted in 2015 by Musu Gillette et al. (2017), bullying among students in some countries is at an alarming rate. The awareness against bullying helps students who face similar circumstances to come up with a resolution when they are bullied. Students with a significant level of bullying conduct are inclined not to bully, while students who are rarely bullied will, in general, be more domineering over other students (Saibon, Syed Abdullah & Leong, 2017). Hence, teachers play a crucial role in facilitating appropriate interventions in school related bullying cases.

The main idea of creative teaching is for the teachers to transform their classrooms into innovative learning environments to promote lifelong learning (Aleinikov, 1990). Creative teaching strategy requires teachers to make teaching and learning fun by using a practical and imaginative approach in the classroom (Cremin, Burnard & Craft, 2006). Creative teaching is a strategy for teachers to recognise students' abilities to further empower and provide chances to their turn of events. Meanwhile, this strategy is also described using a visionary approach to make teaching and learning more enjoyable and productive. To practice creative teaching, the teacher must possess some principles. Teachers must be able to explore their identity and potential to develop the capacity and sensitivity to think creatively. This, in turn, can help them to become creative individuals. In this context, teachers should also be able to integrate local knowledge to build creativity in conducting learning in the classroom. Whereby creative thinking and critical thinking could enhance and complement each other. Creative teaching leads to creative learning is not only an essential factor in overcoming the complexities of social change but also acts as a catalyst in creating a rapidly emerging global knowledge society. Hence, creative learning should be the primary focus area in all disciplines and at all grade levels. In addition,

2. Literature review

2.1 Bullying behaviour in schools

2.2 Creative Teaching Strategy

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. educators do also need to understand the factors driving creative learning (Watts & Blessinger, 2017). In general, an essential educational goal is to develop social creativity (Craft, 2005). Researchers have explained that education is not only limited to the study of relevant theory but also provides many practical suggestions for schoolteachers. However, practical activities in the classroom that focus on fostering creativity does not necessarily yield the expected results, which is to reduce bullying among students. Creative learning in the perspective of constructivism theory can be related to the principles of constructivism which can be illustrated as 1) knowledge is developed by students, exclusively and socially, 2) knowledge cannot be conveyed from teacher to student, 3) students construct actively and continuously, and 4) teachers help provide circumstances in line with the goal for the development of students. Constructive learning occurs when students continually check for new information that is contrary to the old rules and revise those rules if they are no longer appropriate (Danarjati, Murtiadi & Ekawati, 2014). Creative learning process requires 1) democratic learning environment and atmosphere, 2) interactive student centred learning activities and 3) educators who encourage students to learn on one's own and be accountable for their learning activities. In demonstrating creative learning, firstly, the teacher must model and provide verbal remarks about their actions along with an explanation to it. Secondly, students must attempt to mirror what the teacher is doing. In the third phase, the teacher must progressively reduce intervention once the student has mastered the skill. Fourthly, the teacher and students repeatedly take the roles in turns as children need to be regularly confronted with concepts so that their spontaneous ideas become more accurate (Khodijah, 2016). Besides that, teachers should be aware of the importance of guiding to building a conducive atmosphere that reduces bullying behaviour in the classroom Hence, classroom settings should be in the form of cooperative learning between groups of students with different abilities. In a conducive environment, students will be able to interact in performing difficult tasks, bring up each other's practical problem solving strategies within the closest or proximal development area and emphasise their role as students to take responsibility for their learning.

Creative teaching strategy orcreative pedagogy emphasises on the role of teachers and students. For instance, creative teaching strategy is practised by forming new ideas, new approaches and imagination leading to the inventive teaching method or creative pedagogy. Teachers act as guidance to create dynamic and adaptable activities in the classroom (Dineen & Niu, 2008). Consequently, the implementation of creative teaching strategy should be incorporated into a bullying intervention program to boost student awareness regarding bullying behaviour among students.

4.1 Bullying behaviour in school

3. Methodology

In contrast, qualitative data approach was intended to illustrate the teacher's strategy and creativity in reducing bullying in schools. The teachers were recruited using purposive sampling A total of 55 teachers from 11 schools were selected and were interviewed The interview was audio recorded for 30 minutes and transcribed to verbatim. Observations in schools were also conducted using the observation checklists to describe the social processes that occurred in these schools to overcome bullying. Once the interview and observation were completed, the data were analysed to identify the themes Teachers' pre intervention practices were identified to develop student and school resilience by designing creative learning programs at three levels, i) school level, ii) classroom level and iii) individual level. This study aims to explore students' bullying behaviour and teachers' creative learning processes to reduce bullying behaviour in school. Through the outcome of this study, we aim to answer these questions. Firstly, when does bullying occur among students from secondary schools in Jakarta? Secondly, who are the perpetrators in bullying? Thirdly, how will the teachers implement the creative teaching strategies to reduce bullying at the school, class, and individual levels?

This study employed two approaches, quantitative and qualitative. Quantitative data approach was aimed at exploring data regarding bullying behaviour in schools A survey was used to describe the profile of bullying in schools, i) bullying setting and ii) bullying perpetrators. The survey questionnaires were distributed among 970 students from 11 secondary schools in Jakarta using stratified sampling. The data collected were analysed using percentage calculations to describe the profile of bullying in schools.

4. Results and Discussion

Based on Figure 1, it can be concluded that bullying mostly occurs within the school environment, especially during school hours (69%) and break time (23%). Some cases were reported to have occurred before school hours (8%), while none after school. A study done by UNICEF (2018) stated that the findings coincided with the exposure of victims during school hours especially at the school cafeteria and restrooms, the leading spots for bullying.

SchoolBefore8% BreakTime23%During School 69% Bullying Setting (Jakarta) Onese If 2% Together30% Alone5%Senior37% Peer14% Friend 13% Bullying Perpetrators (Jakarta) Figure 1: Bullying setting Figure 2: Bullying perpetrators

Based on Figure 2, the bullying perpetrators among high school students in Jakarta consisting of seniors (37%), together (30%), classmates (14%) and their friends (13%). This figure is further supported by the statements of high school students who claimed that most bullying cases occurred together and by seniors. This phenomenon revealed that the bullies dare to bully the victims when they are together during break time. Break time provides an excellent opportunity to oppress the victims as there would be no teacher supervision. Meanwhile, victims have also reported that bullying occurred in the classroom when there were no teachers (35.9%) or during on going lessons (30.2%). Dwiningrum (2019) also concluded that as many as 48.2% of the students claimed to have been victimised, while 45.1% of the students had been perpetrators. Similar trends were also observed in a study conducted in Malaysia on bullying, which is becoming a severe issue (Wan Salwina et al., 2014). In Canada, it was reported that 25.2% of the students were also victims of school bullying (Sampasa Kanyinga, 2014). These considerable extents demonstrate that school bullying is still prevalent among middle and high school students. According to Dwiningrum (2019), bullying behaviour in the school environment cannot be eliminated naturally. Perpetrators tend to bully the victims mostly during break time since they will be far from the supervision of teachers. Hence, schools must strengthen the social functions, especially among the students to create bond among them In brief, bullying persists due to social reproduction. Although bullying has been proved to be prevalent in school environments, most teachers still are incapable of dealing with it. Based on the literature, programs implemented to mitigate bullying in schools is not easy because the personality of each student is not the same as assessing the bullying behaviour. Such differences in personalities remain as one of the components of continuing bullying behaviour in schools. Besides that, based on the interviews with teachers in high schools, there were several obstacles to mitigating bullying in schools: a. Diversified knowledge about bullying. b. Student ignorance in responding to bullying. c. Low awareness about the impact of bullying.

However, according to teachers, bullying often occurs in the classroom (Nouran, 2015). Schools continuously try to overcome bullying by employing a variety of strategies with the school policies. These strategies are critical to consider because the impact of bullying is very complex. Programs to stop bullying are moral movements that must be fought by schools. The dire efforts to stop bullying is focused on the overwhelmed suffering of victims by repeated bullying. Juvonen and Graham (2014) also added that victims of bullying experience more serious alteration issues compared to victims of different types of peer hostility Since bullying is a more destructive and complex element of aggressive behaviour, specific interventions are needed (Ttofi et al., 2011). Hence, schools must deal with bullying more diligently and seriously to achieve optimal results. This study concluded that the schools are trying to design comprehensive techniques in combatting bullying on school grounds Based on the qualitative data analysis, school policies in reducing bullying were carried out at three levels, i) school level, ii) classroom level and iii) individual level (Olweus, 1993). This strategy is intended as the main segments fundamental to the implementation of an anti bullying program (Olweus & Alsaker, 1991).

4.2 At the school level According to Alter and Hadon (2017), classroom rules are conveyed by teachers to portray satisfactory and inadmissible conduct among the students. Based on the interviews with teachers, classroom rules against violence are conveyed through, i) written agreements with students and making it a school effort to create a healthy and friendly environment, ii) moral messages composed by schools were displayed in posters and banners at several strategic places in the school environment for students to read; iii) policies created to strengthen character education integrated into various school programs such as anti bullying programs; iv) the schools cooperated with parents to monitorchildren's behaviour at home. According to Jimenez Barbero et al. (2016), anti bullying programs have significantly reduced the frequency of bullying cases and victimisation among students.

d. Differences in economic, racial, religious, social, cultural and economic backgrounds among students. e. Limited time to provide knowledge in classroom learning. f. Discriminatory attitude between students and teachers.

4.3 At the classroom level Teachers deal with bullying problems in classrooms by associating it with the learning process. Based on the description in Table 1, it can be interpreted that to develop creativity, teachers need appropriate and comprehensive knowledge in overcoming various problems of bullying in schools. In order to create creative learning based on the perspectives of constructivist theories, the teacher's role should optimise five elements of learning including a) activating knowledge, b) acquiring knowledge by learning as a whole first, then paying attention to the details, c) understanding knowledge, i.e. constructing a temporary concept (hypothesis), sharing with others to get a response (validation) and based on that response, the idea is revised and developed, d) applying knowledge, and e)

reflecting on the knowledge development strategy. Table 1 illustrates that each teacher apprehends different ways of dealing with bullying among students

▪ Warn and punish students who commit acts of violence in class/school gradually.

Applying knowledge ▪ Organise competitions between classes and schools in various fields of learning, sports, arts and music to develop students' creativity and reduce conflicts between students.

▪ Conduct out bound activities to strengthen leadership and capacity building.

Reflecting on the knowledge development strategy

▪ Organise certain activities/programs organised by students between classes to build togetherness between students.

Activating knowledge ▪ Improve the literacy of the Koran by reading intensively at the beginning of class entry/end of learning in school.

▪ Leading prayers in class.

▪ Develop group dynamics in the classroom for learning and creative work through social and entrepreneurial activities.

Table 1. Elements and activities of teachers in the teaching process

▪ Conduct social activities that build a sense of social solidarity and social care. In addition, the ability to be creative is deemed as an important aspect to reduce bullying (Komalasari, 2011). Teacher's creative learning in the class consists of creative teaching imaginative approach to develop creative thinking behaviour, as stated in Table 2.

Acquiring knowledge by learning, then paying attention to the details ▪ Acquire the experience and impact of bullying in schools. ▪ Integrating character values in learning in schools with structured activities.

▪ Coordinate with parents to supervise children at home.

▪ Develop topics for specific material and discussion in class to build awareness of mutual respect and respect between students/teachers.

Elements of learning Teacher activities

Acquiring knowledge by learning, then paying attention to the details

Bullying behaviour affects the physical and mental health of victimised students. Therefore, efforts to reduce bullying behaviour requires a good relationship between teacher and teacher, teacher and students, and student and students, as shown in Table 3.

Teacher with teacher ▪ Sharing mutual experiences among fellow teachers in their efforts to deal with children who tend to bully in class.

1. Teach students how to respond to challenges

patternRelationship Form of activity

▪ Give taskswhichrequire studentstothinkindividually and in groups on the impacts of bullying and solutions to overcome bullying. Students with students ▪ Create a "Peer Counselling" activity for students, so that they could have the opportunity to talk to their peers freely when experiencing bullying problems.

Table 2. The teacher's creative learning in class

Table 3. Relationship pattern and activities to deal with bullying in schools

4. Develop a culture of reading and learning.

Teacher studentswith ▪ Play a film that has a moral message about bullying.

3. Getting used to organising classrooms to be safe and comfortable for students to learn.

4.4 At the individual level

▪ Sharing mutual variety of information on ways of teaching that encourage students to learn creatively.

▪ Create an "anti bully" group formed by students as ambassadors of peace at school.

3. Encourage students to study enthusiastically.

Creative teachingapproachimaginative Teaching for creativity to develop creative thinking or behaviour.

5. Encourage students to produce creative products.

5. Teach students about social sensitivity in people's lives.

6. Oversee personal growth with a humanist approach.

1. Introduce thinking and creative methods by changing the mindset.

4. Practising openness in communication.

2. Teach students to develop ideas in overcoming the problem of bullying in schools using empirical data.

2. Getting used to doing tasks effectively and creatively.

Based on the data above,it can be interpreted that the ability of teachers in creative teaching can be developed if they have sufficient knowledge about creative teaching imaginative approach According to the NACCCE Report (1999), the importance of developing the aspects of creativity in teaching is considered as their capability in overcoming social problems. The knowledge gained by students through fun and meaningful learning processes will be a fundamental basis for students for personal character or behaviour.

• At the school level, there is a need to strengthen knowledge and it must be constructed expertly. The problem of bullying must be recognised as an action that must be addressed together by enhancing awareness in all elements of learning. A comprehensive approach for a positive school environment which emphasises student wellbeing and reinforces a norm of inclusiveness and diversity is crucial in preventing bullying.

• At the individual level, it requires social relationships that are built through various social activities by strengthening aspects of non cognitive abilities to reduce bullying in schools. Teachers can acquire creative teaching strategy by attending courses and training programs. During this Covid 19 pandemic, teachers can opt to join online professional development courses available on the internet on how to secure a positive school climate This study also implies that school policies which are designed to reduce bullying need to be balanced in creating lessons with cognitive knowledge and non cognitive expertise in the learning process. This recommendation offers a guideline for a new framework and further research.

Acknowledgement

According to Table 3, social synergy must be built to combat bullying by building a safe and comfortable school for students. Although all schools are ready to comply with new techniques, creating a safe and enjoyable school culture is not an easy task. Having said that, an appropriate approach to combat bullying is to focus on developing non cognitive skills for students to resist bullying behaviour. By fostering proactive factors such as resilience and other non cognitive skills, bullying can be reduced along with its harmful effects on students. When these skills are instilled in students, they are provided with mental self defence to safeguard themselves from being bullied or from becoming the perpetrators.

This paper presented here is collaboration research activities supported by Kementerian Riset, Teknologi, dan Pendidikan Tinggi Republik Indonesia who have provided research development funds 2019 following the contract number: 73 / Research / PP / UN34.21 / 2019 and part of the matching grant between Universitas Negeri Yogjakarta (UNY) and Research Management and Research Centre (RMIC), Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris (UPSI) Research Code 2019 0240 107 01. Special thanks to for all researchers for their contributions.

5. Conclusion, Implications and Recommendations

Creative learning strategy should be acquired by teachers, especially to curb bullying among students. This study concluded that:

• At the classroom level, teachers are expected to be able to apply a variety of learning processes to make students happy and comfortable. With a conducive learning environment, there would be no reasons for students to bully. With creative learning, teachers could build a conducive and comfortable learning atmosphere for students in school.

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Code S2 Appendix 1 Creative Teaching Strategy to Reduce Bullying in Schools Instruments Please indicate your level of agreement with the statement listed below: 1 = Strongly agree 2 = Agree 3 = Neutral 4 = Disagree 5 = Strongly Disagree No Items 1 2 3 4 5 1 I experienced bullying at school 2 I experienced bullying in the community 3 I experienced bullying at home 4 Bullying at school occurs before lessons begin 5 Bullying occurs during lessons 6 Bullying occurs during school breaks 7 Bullying happens after school 8 Bullying happens repeatedly 9 Bullying often happens in my school 10 Bullying often happens in my class 11 I do bully 12 My friend also bully people 13 Bullying is done by fellow classmates 14 Bullying is done by seniors 15 Bullying is done alone 16 Bullying is done together 17 I became a victim of bullying 18 My friend is also a victim of bullying 19 Bullying is done by friends who are more powerful 20 Bullying occurs because the victim is weak 21 Bullying occurs because of inferiority complex 22 Bullying occurs because victims are physically different

I feel insulted after experiencing bullying I buried myself the bully incident that I experienced I want to be braver so that I won't be bullied I need time to tell about the bully that I experienced I told the bullying that I experienced to friends / best friends I told my parents about bullying I told the bullying I experienced to the teacher I fight when bullied My friend helped overcome the bully problem that I experienced My parents helped me overcome the bully problem that I experienced My teacher helped overcome the bully problem that I experienced I feel inferior after being bullied I feel insecure after being bullied I feel hurt after being bullied

The teacher knows the bullying incident at school My parents handled bullying that I experienced The teacher handles bullying that occurs at school

I became physically ill after being bullied My parents asked me about the bullying experience that I experienced at school The teacher asked about the bully experience that I experienced at school

Code S2 23 Bullying occurs because victims differ economically 24 Students at my school mock other students 25 Students yell at other students 26 Students embarrass other students in front of their peers 27 Students slander other students from behind 28 Students ask friends for money 29 Students hit other students 30 Students bullying on social media 31

The People’s Republic of China (PRC) is a multicultural, multi ethnic, and unified country with a written history of more than 4,000 years, and it is home to

356 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 4, pp. 356 376, April https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.4.212020 Preferential Admission Policies for Ethnic Minority Students in Yunnan: Help or Hindrance Dongyuan Deng Suranaree University of Technology, Thailand https://orcid.org/0000 0002 7003 8157 Sirinthorn Seepho Suranaree University of Technology, Thailand https://orcid.org/0000 0002 5048 5435 Andrew Lian Suranaree University of Technology, Thailand https://orcid.org/0000 0002 5812 3017

Keywords: Yunnan; ethnic minority education; Preferential Admission Policies; entrance examination; social context Introduction 1.1 Overview of Ethnic Minorities in China and Yunnan

Abstract. This research project took Yunnan (YN), the most southwestern province of China and a frontier province with the largest number of ethnic minorities along with multi ethnic languages and abundant ethnic cultures, as a specific case. It studied both the current situation of minority education and the necessity for Preferential Admission Policies (PAPs) in the particular stage of the national college entrance examination (NCEE) from a social perspective. Quantitative statistics was used to analyze data from the different education levels of the minority groups. Document analysis and in depth interviews with four groups of participants (exclusive ethnic minority university students (EEMs), university teachers, administrators and provincial officials of Yunnan Province) were conducted to explore the rationality and feasibility of PAPs. The findings reveal that PAPs are indeed justified in Yunnan’s multi ethnic social context, at the same time, geographical remoteness and regional gaps, socioeconomic determinants, and linguistic barriers contributed to the need for PAPs at present under the average level of minority education in Yunnan.

1.2 PAPs for Ethnic Minorities in the NCEE

Despite the rapid economic development of China, it is evident that there is unequal access to good quality education for people. The vast differences between China’s prosperous eastern coastal provinces and the poor western inland provinces have widened the gap. The differences between urban and rural areas are in the same situations (Adamson & Feng, 2009; Sunodula & Feng, 2011). In minority education, PAPs are designed to recruit minority students by lowering the required scores for the NCEE according to the level of economic development of some particular concentrated areas of ethnic minorities3, and then by giving those ethnic minority students priority in admission to higher education over the Han majority. The most recent PAPs have been implemented since 2000 by taking both ethnicity and level of socioeconomic development as

1The National Population Census of China started in 1953. It was usually held once every ten years ever since 1980 The 6th National Population Census of China was conducted in November 2010 and released in 2011, and so far, the data are the latest

56 ethnicities. The Han majority makes up about 91.51% of the total population in the mainland, whereas other ethnic groups constitute 8.49%. The term “ethnic minority” refers to the 55 non Han China’s officially recognized ethnic groups in the PRC They are defined as “historically constituted, stable community of people, formed based on a common language, territory, economic life, and psychological make up manifested in a common culture” (Mackerras, 2003, p.2). They share “a language, an area, an economic life, a culture” (Gladney, 1994, p.98) and “an awareness of belonging to the same group” (Campos, Ren & Petrick, 2016, p.258). The total population of the minority groups has increased to over 113.79 million, and most of these ethnic groups inhabit in frontier and rural areas with their own distinctive cultures and customs (Guo, et al., 2019). Yunnan was reported by the government authorities of the 6th National Population Census of China1 that currently the total population of Yunnan province is 45.966 million 30.629 million are Han, which comprise 66.63% of the Yunnan’s population. Yunnan contains 52 out of the 55 ethnic minorities in China, among whom 25 minority populations exceed 5,000 people and 15.337 million in total, and they composes of 33.37% of the whole population of Yunnan (Cai, 2014). Meanwhile, statistics shows that nearly one third of the poverty stricken counties2 in Yunnan and some other western parts of China are primarily inhabited by ethnic minority people (Yang, 2005; Adamson & Xia, 2011). These regions are considered as less developed and “the most economically deprived regions in China” (Feng & Cheung, 2010, p.258). In practice, ethnic minority education is of great significance for Yunnan’s socioeconomic development.

Key Regulations of PAPs

2There are five levels of primary administrative divisions in China: provincial level (1st), prefectural level (2nd), county level (3rd), township level (4th), and village level (5th).

3Concentrated areas of ethnic minorities: those ethnic community areas with people mostly from the same dominant ethnic minority group.

The Ministry of Education (MOE) in China has adopted PAPs to lower admission scores for ethnic minority students in the NCEE. To know the background of Yunnan’s PAPs for minority college applicants, it is necessary to have a comprehensive understanding of the history and social functions of China’s NCEE. The NCEE began in 1952 and has been considered by the public as the academic criteria for college entrance throughout China ever since then. The NCEE constantly plays a critical role in Chin’s education only with the interruption of the ten year Cultural Revolution (1966 1976) (Gorter & Durk, 2015). In China, the purpose of the NCEE is to select the top students who are usually those with higher examination scores to gain access to university, and to allocate limited high quality educational resources based on students’ academic performance rather than social status or their family conditions. China has set PAPs to redress the inequality in college enrollment while maintaining the practical implementation of unified NCEE scores because minority groups are often disadvantaged due to certain “historical factors as well as geographic remoteness” (Wan & Jun, 2008, p.140). If only one cutoff score is adopted nationally, applicants from some concentrated ethnic minority communities and remote regions will lose their opportunities to receive higher education, which will absolutely result in disparity in education. Therefore, for decades some ethnic minority students have had to resort to PAPs, which lowers the “entrance threshold” (Verhoeven & Zhang, 2016). As a result, a wide range of the minority population (which amounts to one fourth of the total minority population) that lives in the concentrated ethnic areas, are mostly integrated with the Han and thus have become beneficiaries of PAPs (Sautman, 2010).

PAPs for Ethnic Minorities in the NCEE

Meanwhile, the methods or assessment for students’ enrollment in vocational schools, adult education, and technical secondary schools are similar to the regulations previously mentioned.

First, minority college applicants from border counties receive 30 bonus points in the NCEE. Han applicants who were born in the concentrated areas of ethnic minorities or the families have lived there for ten or more years earn 20 bonus points. This item gives ethnic minorities a slight edge over Han students from the same place.

criteria. Some critical regulations on bonus points are illustrated as follows (Bao & Liu, 2015; Hu & Ga, 2016; Guan, 2019).

Second, the PAPs of Yunnan regulate that university applicants from China’s interior regions can obtain ten bonus points on their NCEE. 19 ethnicities in buffer and inland zones (including the Hani, Dai, Miao, Lisu, La, Wa, Jingpo, Yao, Bulang, Nu, Achang, Pumi, Deang, Dulong, Zang, Mongol, Jinuo, Shui, and Buyi) may receive ten bonus points. However, Hui, Bai, urban Zhuang, urban Yi, and Manchu applicants do not accept any bonus points.

Third, for underdeveloped counties from the concentrated areas of ethnic minorities in nomadic pastoral areas and mountainous highlands, ethnic candidates may apply for 20 bonus points in the NCEE. Fourth, ethnic minority applicants are frequently given priority over Han applicants in college admission when they have the same college admission scores if they are from the Hui, Naxi, Bai, Manchu, urban Yi, and civic Zhuang ethnic groups.

2.1 Purposes s of the Study

1.3 Novelty of This Study

2. Research Purposes and Questions

2.3 Limitations of the Study

The results of this study cannot be generalized to all minority students because the sample chosen in this study does not include all the minorities in Yunnan, China. Moreover, the data elicited from the 6th National Population Census can only work as a reference because this is the latest information available. This study was conducted in Yunnan, China, from 2017 to 2019.

(2) What are the factors that determine the necessity of PAPs’ implementation for ethnic minorities in Yunnan in the NCEE?

The purposes of this study were to obtain a picture of the minority education situation of Yunnan, China, as this province is uniquely characterized by multi ethnic cultures and includes various and diverse ethnicities. Also, it aimed to explore the factors which possibly determine the necessity of PAPs in the NCEE from a social perspective, uniquely combining the local ethnic education condition with PAPs situation together.

To achieve the objectives, the study attempted to answer the following two (1)questions:Whatis the current situation of ethnic minority education in Yunnan?

Although there have been some previous research programs concerning ethnic minority education in China, most of them focused on bilingual or multilingual education problems (Yang, 2005; Sunuodula & Feng, 2011; Adamson & Feng, 2014; Wang, 2015). Some emphasized on minority education situations in specific ethnic autonomous regions or provinces such as Tibet, Mongolia, Xinjiang, Guizhou etc. (Sunuodula & Cao, 2015; Postiglione, Jiao & Tsering, 2009; Dong, Gou, Wang & Qiu, 2015；Ba, 2009; Finifrock & Schilken, 2015). So far, only a few research programs have considered preferential policies (Wang, 2009; Teng & Ma, 2009; Zhou, 2009). But most of these studies were carried out in a macroscopic perspective, in which a general situation of ethnic minorities in China was analyzed. In 2015, Professor Yuan and his colleagues surveyed on trilingual education in Yunnan (Yuan et al., 2015). That is one of the minimal indigenous research involved Yunnan minority education, where, as mentioned above, is a province with the most diverse ethnic cultures and ethnic languages in China. Above all, studies on PAPs for ethnic minority students at the critical moment of the NCEE in the context of Yunnan are still rare. This study hopes to fill these gaps in the perspective of PAPs for ethnic minority students in Yunnan.

2.2 Questions of the Study

Samples for the Quantitative Approach

The study adopted a mixed methods approach with the qualitative method being dominant. To understand the general situation of the ethnic minority education level of Yunnan, the descriptive statistics was used to illustrate the status of minority education in Yunnan. Concerning the qualitative approach, based on the education level of the ethnic minority samples, a semi structured interview was conducted to elicit data from different ethnic participants, whom will be explained in the following part, to comprehend the rationality and feasibility of PAPs implementation in Yunnan context. By using these two methods, it enabled the researcher to confirm findings from various data sources and develop an understanding of the overall situation. Besides, the researcher used a longitudinal approach, starting from primary education to higher education. Simultaneously, horizontal multiple comparisons and analysis of different ethnicities, including the Han, were carried out to obtain an objective and comprehensive view of the research.

Although Yunnan is a province with a large number of ethnicities, there are only 15 exclusive ethnic minorities (EEMs) including Hani, Bai, Wa, Naxi, Jingpo, Bulang, Pumi, Dai, Lisu, Lahu, Jinuo, Achang, Nu, Deang, and Dulong. EEMs mean those ethnic minorities who only live in Yunnan province. As these 15 EEMs are mostly representatives of the local ethnic minorities of Yunnan (Sun, et al., 2013), therefore, the study mainly chose the 15 EEMs as samples to analyze the minority education situation in Yunnan province. The data were obtained from the 6th National Population Census, China.

The samples for interviewing consisted of four groups of people, i,e. EEMs, university teachers and administrators, and officials in Yunnan. About four representative interviewees for each 15 EEM groups of subjects (60 students) participated in both the individual and focus group interviews. They were randomly recommended by their teachers and voluntarily joined. Also, five Han students were included for some specific comparison. Besides, four university teachers with various work experiences on minority education programs were selected purposefully from four government funded universities which are well known for the enrollment of local ethnic minority college applicants from Yunnan, i.e., Yunnan Minzu University (YMU), Dali University (DU), ChuXiong Normal University (CNU), and Kunming University of Science and Technology (KUST). Also, three administrators were respectively from YMU, DU, and CNU, and another two officials were from Yunnan Provincial Department of Education (YPDE) and Kunming Education Bureau (KEB). Altogether, 74 participants were investigated as a mixture of different ethnicities, from different areas of study and with a longer or shorter term of learning and work experience by using both random and purposive sampling methods. The use of multiple resources embedded EEM groups and four university sites enabled data triangulation and provided reliability in the findings.

3.1 Research Participants

3. Methodology

Samples for the Qualitative Approach

361 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Table 1. Basic information on the participants Participants Number Method of selection Notes of sampling EEMs & Han 65 random sampling 4 for each of the 15 EEMs, plus 5 Han students University teachers 4 purposive sampling YMU, DU, CNU, KUST Administrators 3 purposive sampling YMU, DU, CNU Officials 2 purposive sampling YPDE and KEB Table 2. Demographic information on the EEMs and Han participants Universities YMU KUST DU CNU Individual interview (No) 20 16 12 12 Focus group interview (Ethnicity No) Naxi 5 Han 5 Bai 5 Deang 5 Level of education BA & MA BA & MA BA BA Location (City) Kunming Kunming Chuxiong Dali Table 3. Demographic information on teacher participants Samples Teacher1 Teacher2 Teacher3 Teacher4 University YMU KUST CNU DU Professional Title EFL lecturer EFL Asso.Prof. EFL lecturer EFL Prof. Pseudonym Ms Du Mrs Gao Mr Li Mrs Mei Ethnicity Zhuang Han Miao Bai Years of Teaching 6 20 8 25 Table 4. Demographic information on administrative and official participants Samples Adm 1 Adm 2 Adm 3 Official 1 Official 2 Work unit YMU DU CNU YPDE KEB Pseudonym Mrs Haiye Dr Yangzi Mr Lin Mr He Zhi Mr Dong Ying Ethnicity Zhuang Bai Han Naxi Han Years of working 16 12 21 22 18 3.2 Data Collection Quantitative Data for Research Question 1 All data on the 15 EEMs and the Han of Yunnan were collected through the official website of the 6th National Population Census of China. The percentage of the index for describing the situation of minority education in Yunnan were measured (see Table 5, 6). Qualitative Data for Research Question 2 As “the interview is the most widely used method of generating data in qualitative social research” (Nunkoosing, 2005, p.698), a semi structured interview was utilized to explore EEMs’ growing up experiences and their opinions of PAPs. The meetings were organized at both the interviewer’s and interviewees’ convenience and were open ended to allow for complementarity and expansion of related questions. Each in depth individual interview lasted approximately 20 minutes, and the time for the focus group interview was from half an hour to one hour. Most of the interviews took place on the campus of the

1: All data elicited from the 6th National Population Census of China were fed into the SPSS 2.0 data analysis program for the statistical frequency to measure the percentage of the index for describing and generalizing the situation of minority education level in Yunnan.

4 sample universities, in classrooms, office, or on outdoor benches. Chinese was the primary language used for the interviews. The English language was also employed when it became necessary. Above all, confidentiality was the central policy. Based on the four different groups of participants, opinions obtained from the EEMs described their educational experiences and perceptions of PAPs.

3.3 Data ResearchAnalysisQuestion

To understand the new situation of the minority education in Yunnan, the study took the 15 EEM groups as well as the Han of Yunnan as samples. Relevant data of population were collected from the 6th National Population Census of China, and the researcher measured the percentage of the index for describing and summarizing the situation of minority education in Yunnan by using SPSS 2.0 for frequency analysis of the statistical data.

Historically speaking, PAPs for minorities have figured most prominently in Yunnan’s implementation of central laws and policies. In Yunnan, the concentrated areas of ethnic minorities have traditionally suffered from the low level of economic and educational development. These areas are also confronted with a shortage of human resources. The government has implemented a series of particular preferential policies to promote the local population increase, develop education, offer human resources training programs, and encourage the regional economic development to alleviate poverty. PAPs are one method to increase the proportion of minority students who can access higher education.

4. Results and Discussion

4.1 Current Situation of Minority Education in Yunnan

Besides, the data of the teachers concerned the consequences and influence of PAPs towards ethnic minorities. Moreover, the statements made by the administrators and officials explained the contents of PAPs and their original purposes. Also, a review of all the related policy documents was conducted, and the materials were obtained from the Yunnan provincial library.

Research Question 2: A content and thematic analysis were carefully conducted with the interview data and policy document analysis. In the process of analyzing the data, three necessary steps, i.e., domains, core ideas, and a cross analysis were used to construct common themes across the participants (Hill, et al., 2005). In order to establish the reliability of the data, intra coding was employed, and afterwards, the data were developed into categories and themes through refinement, comparison, and analysis. Complicated interactions among these categories and themes were also examined. After a cross analysis and a member checking on the data, the essential extracts of the interview transcripts were elicited, and later translated into English from Chinese.

Based on the data, Yunnan education was mostly focused on the stage of primary education. Its education level fell behind many other provinces in the eastern part of China. Furthermore, almost half of the EEMs finished their primary school (50.88%), a quarter of them could continue with junior high school (25.61%). A small number of them were able to further rise to senior high school (6.91%), and only a few of them finally reached higher education (4.64%).

PopulationEducationof Uneducated PrimarySchool JuniorSchoolHigh SeniorSchoolHigh EducationHigher YN (N=million) 3.393 20.043 12.591 38.131 26.361

Article 8 of the Higher Education Law of the PRC stipulates that: In light of the characteristics and needs of ethnic minority groups, the PRC assists and supports the development of higher education in regions inhabited by ethnic peoples to cultivate ethnic talent and train senior specialists among them (National People’s Congress, 2018, p. 3).

Note: The data for the educated population here only included students above six years old, which meant the data of children under six years old (school age) were excluded. For the population, three decimal places were used, while for the percentage, only two decimal places were adopted. Higher education here covered college, university, and postgraduate levels of education.

What’s more, the data also revealed that the average years of Yunnan students’ schooling was 7.57 years. For the Han, it was 7.85 years, while for the EEMs, it was 6.93 years. Among the different minorities, Naxi (8.53 years), Bai (8.12 years), and Jinuo (7.65 years) showed a higher than average level of education in Yunnan, while the other 12 ethnic minority groups were lower. Compared with the Han proportion (7.05%) at a higher education level, the EEMs percentage was 4.64%, 2.41% lower than that of the Han. Why is a higher education of such great significance in minority education development? Chen’s finding showed that the status quo in the minority education of Yunnan is still far from satisfactory (Chen, 2019). In China’s context, for ethnic minorities, higher education functions not only to cultivate the high quality talents of minorities to serve the government’s unity and stability, but also to accelerate the socioeconomic development of these minority regions (Feng & Cheung, 2010).

Percentage (%) 11.96 50.88 25.61 6.91 4.64 (Source of the population: https://www.yearbookchina.com/)

Percentage (%) 7.99 47.19 29.64 8.98 6.21 Han (N=million) 1.954 12.653 9.028 28.593 20.095

Percentage (%) 6.86 44.39 31.67 10.03 7.05 (N=million)EEMs 7.322 31.149 1.568 4.227 2.840

Table 5. Education Situation of the 15 EEMs in Yunnan, China

In reality, concentrated areas of ethnic minorities in Yunnan are significantly in need of a strengthening of their development through the talent available from higher education. Based on statistics of the 15 EEMs, the researcher statistically calculated the numbers of illiterate/ semi illiterate and those in higher education, as shown below (Table 6).

For historical reasons, most ethnic minorities live in nomadic pastoral localities, mountainous highlands, and border areas, where geographical conditions severely restricted economic development. Although there are many supportive policies to enhance Yunnan’s socioeconomic reforms, uneasy living and educational conditions still largely exist, and geographical remoteness often

Ethnicity YN Han EEMs Hani Bai Dai Lisu Lahu Wa SemiIlliteracy/illiteracy 7.99 6.86 11.96 14.70 5.74 11.52 18.80 15.91 14.22 educationHigher 6.21 7.05 4.64 2.93 7.63 3.91 2.60 2.67 2.44

The data showed that a considerable gap still existed between the Han majority and the EEMs at both a low and high level of education. The EEMs’ illiterate/semi illiterate people (11.96%) were almost double that of the Han (6.86%), while Han’s higher education students were 2.41% higher than those of the EEMs. Among the 15 EEMs, Naxi, Bai, and Pumi’s proportions of higher education were a little higher than the Han, and Naxi had the highest ratio of students who accessed college or university. However, some EEMs such as Lisu (2.60%) and Deang (2.06%) had a deficient proportion in higher education, whereas the illiterate/semi illiterate ratios were very high. It showed that “poverty and illiteracy always come together and feed each other, and this circle needs to be broken” (Wan & Jun, 2008, p.148).

Table 6. The proportion of illiterate/ semi illiterate and higher education of the 15 EEMs in Yunnan (%)

4.2 Three determinants of PAPs in Yunnan Geographical Remoteness and Regional Gaps

The 15 EEM groups were chosen on purpose as samples to represent ethnic minority groups in Yunnan which were rationalized before. The low education level inevitably hinders the local socioeconomic development. Through later interviewing, it was found that some other factors were determining the necessity of implementing PAPs for ethnic minorities in the NCEE. In the following data, geographical remoteness and regional gaps, socioeconomic determinants, linguistic barriers, etc. are prominent. Within these factors usually brings forth the fundamental problems causing the academic differences among different ethnic minority groups.

Ethnicity Naxi Jingpo Bulang Pumi Achang Nu Jinuo Deang Dulong SemiIlliteracy/-illiteracy 7.20 9.62 14.62 14.77 8.28 16.13 9.20 19.63 16.92 educationHigher 11.46 3.70 3.42 7.77 4.67 5.68 6.21 2.06 5.98

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. results in educational disparities for minority students. From a geographic perspective, poor transportation in mountainous areas increases the difficulties for minority students’ schooling. The data show that EEM students’ locations or origins have gradually become a key element in the implementation of PAPs.

Those minority students need bonus points in their NCEE, which allows them priority in university admissions over most Han students even when all the other criteria are the same. A Lisu student from the Nujiang ethnic community revealed that in his childhood, he and his fellow students often walked a long distance to school and the conditions in his primary school were poor: I still remember when I was at primary school, there was only one classroom for two classes, and only three teachers. One was female, the others were male. (Lisu S 2, KUST Y2) Nujiang’s poverty ratio was 38.4%, almost ten times that of the average for China, and that leads to a high dropout rate as well. (Han Offical 2, KEB) In the interview, Mr He, who had abundant working experience for ethnic minorities, said: Nevertheless, how to work well with the introduction of good school teachers is a hard task since difficult mountainous conditions usually hinder teachers’ personal development. (Naxi Official 1, YPDE) This finding agreed with Gil and Adamson (2011) who emphasized that a lack of access to good facilities and qualified teachers usually resulted in minority students becoming poorer performers than most of their Han counterparts (Gil & Adamson, 2011). In Yunnan, minority education development varies from one autonomous ethnic area to another. A Hani student mentioned that different education conditions of ethnic areas to a large extent resulted in the differences in the implementation of PAPs: We have different education platforms. Surely PAPs are in need. (Hani S 6, KUST Y3) Besides, the regional disparity between the rural and urban areas in autonomous ethnic areas is also increasing. Compared with urban regions, many rural areas have fallen behind in economic, educational, and medical services and developments, and a large proportion of rural areas remained in poverty. Most interviewees confirm that the educational gap is mainly derived from regional disparities. Conversely, regional education disparities are inclined to be enlarged with the fast economic growth. I think the imbalance of high quality education resources that are allocated between the city and rural areas also enlarges the gap between the Han and the ethnic minorities. (Zhuang Adm 1, YMU) In such a highly competitive country like China, educational development is greatly influenced by some social determinants, particularly economic development. Cultural differences among different areas and various ethnic groups also play a critical role in education. It is consistent with what Li et al. (2015) pointed out. He stated that after mass college expansion to higher education in 1998 in China, rural youth from remote counties had less

The necessity of PAPs in the NCEE for higher education should be traced back to primary education. In recent years, competition in examinations in China has shifted from university entrance down to junior/senior high schools, and even to primary schools. Enrolment in a key high school is now construed almost as a dependable guarantee to enter college or university. It demonstrates the importance of school conditions in children’s education. However, most minority students typically have no access to key schools unless they happen to live in those urban areas. The farther away from cities, the fewer resources a school has. The fewer resources a school has, the less it prepares its students academically for Gaokao (NCEE). (Bai Adm 2, DU) In Yunnan, one of the problems is severe poverty in some areas which manifests itself in a small number of economic development opportunities and limited educational resources due to ethnic and regional disparities and low quality of local education systems. In China, the NCEE plays an important role in not only reallocating educational resources but selecting talent for higher education. Under the present circumstances, PAPs fill the regional gaps and increase the proportion of higher education for more ethnic minorities which, in no small degree, will determine their future academic and professional development.

Socioeconomic Determinants

366 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. opportunities to go to college or the elite Project 985 and 211 universities4 than urban youth. There were even more significant gaps existing for disadvantaged subgroups of rural youth from poor counties, such as female or ethnic minority children (Li, et al., 2015).

The rapid socioeconomic development of China in the past decades has provided ethnic minorities with both chances and challenges in overall development. All the preferential policies have strongly promoted the improvement in the livelihood of people in ethnic minority regions. But comparatively slower economic growth in Yunnan still results in a lower educational investment in minority areas. Reversely, lower level of education hinders Yunnan local socioeconomic development. And it also causes poverty and lower literacy conditions in some ethnic groups. Even as the overall level of poverty has dropped, new inequality has increased. Practically, social determinants play a critical role in the educational development of ethnic minorities, particularly, economic development and cultural differences among different regions and various ethnicities. Economically speaking, educational quality is inseparable from economic growth because education requires a good deal of financial input to provide sufficient resource including qualified teachers and teaching facilities, etc. (Han Official 2, KEB) 4Project 211 and 985 are projects of key national universities initiated in 1995 and 1998, respectively, by the Ministry of Education (MOU) of the PRC in an endeavour to found world class universities in the 21st century.

Besides, agriculture and livestock are the primary sources of economic development in minority areas in Yunnan. Concentrated areas of ethnic minorities, in particular, depend on agriculture. As described by some interviewees, most ethnic villages in the rural areas of Yunnan continue to use very traditional farming methods with cattle and horses. Consequently, a small employment market and some underdeveloped industries impose a relatively low demand for high quality labour and technology. Some of us [EEM students] cannot concentrate on our study because we have to labour in the fields for our parents. (Dai S 6, DU Y1)

The relative lagging of economic development of Yunnan mainly lies in its weak foundation in talent resources. Inadequate educational investment is destined to affect school conditions and therefore, the general quality of education. Under such circumstances, both the central government of China and some local, provincial governments like Yunnan have started to pay more attention to ethnic affairs than previously.

The three administrators from YMU, DU and CNU stressed that the purpose of higher education for ethnic minorities was to cultivate more professional talents to serve sustainable cultural and socioeconomic development in the concentrated areas of ethnic minorities. It was vital to maintain the stability of China, a state with multiethnicity, achieve equality and mutual respect among different ethnic minorities, and ultimately promote cultural retention and adaptation. Those minorities with a higher proportion of higher education usually have more advanced social cultural and economic development in their regional construction. Through the focus group interview, it was confirmed that Bai and Naxi people have a comparatively higher level of education than most of

As Verhoeven and Zhang (2016) state that, the economic development of territories in the remote mountainous areas, border areas, and pasturing areas in the western parts of China lags far behind the national average level (Verhoeven & Zhang, 2016). Yunnan’s situation exemplifies this.

On the one hand, most rural ethnic minority families depend on farming and labour for herding or subsistence agriculture. Parents often have to make a living by farming, and thus the labour of all family members is critical to their survival. On the other hand, the illiterate rural parents can at most support their children to go to school but not help with the children’s studies even if they want to. Lacking guidance of family education and parents cultivated cognitive strategies to manage schoolwork often degrades the ethnic minority students’ school records and increases their difficulties to be academically successful. To some degree, this lack of development limits local people’s views of education, which in turn impedes a positive motivation on minority students’ learning during school days. Two teachers from YMU and KUST commented that: Families cognitively/ culturally influence their children’s education. Also, poor minority families cannot financially support their children’s education. (Zhuang T 1, YMU) I believe PAPs just attempt to put students from different socioeconomic and educational backgrounds on an equal footing in the competition for higher education. (Han T 2, KUST)

Concentrating on the ethnic assimilation and ethnic pluralism, bilingual or trilingual education is essential to cultural integration and cultural pluralism. Although progress has been made, shortage of qualified bilingual teachers and, at a later stage, trilingual teaching resources, add to the difficulties that ethnic minority students have to confront with at school. For example, a Bulang student recalled his bilingual learning as follows: We (Bulang children) had to read Chinese textbooks and immerse them in Mandarin instruction as soon as we started primary school. We could do as well as our Han classmates at the very beginning, but gradually fell behind because language became an increasingly formidable barrier. (Bulang S 4, YMU Y3)

However, despite PAPs having been implemented for decades, gaps that result in ethnic minority students lagging behind in primary education later hinder the general level of minority education. The effect of the considerable difference in socioeconomic development has led to low investment at all levels of educational sectors. Yunnan is a typical province in this case. Some ethnic minority parents hold the view that it is too costly to send their children to college and then remove them from schooling at an early age. Unfortunately, many youths from the remote and poor mountainous rural areas drop out of junior high school. Furthermore, the number of female teachers in the ethnic regions is relatively small, which has greatly affected the education for both girls and women, and hindered the development of female teachers.

Linguistic Barriers Yunnan encompasses the minority groups’ native languages (L1), Mandarin Chinese (L2), and a foreign language, typically English (L3). The multilingual environment creates a triangular complex that increases possible policy configurations nowadays. But the implementation of bilingual and trilingual education still needs to be improved.

the other minorities in Yunnan. With a long history and their scripts, i.e. Baiwen and Dongba, Bai and Naxi ethnic groups are culturally advanced. While Deang students like to discuss their cooking traditions as well as board and lodging etiquette rather than science or technology. Their language belongs to the South Asia family but lacks any script. The Yunnan government encourages minority university graduates to return to their hometowns by offering special provision programs to “targeted area students”. It means PAPs mandate lowered cutoff score for college applicants from specially targeted concentrated areas of ethnic minorities on the premise that these students commit to returning to work in the targeted areas upon graduation.

PAPs state that college applicants who commit to working in 25 counties along Yunnan’s borders and three counties in Diqing prefecture after their graduation will receive an additional five bonus points on the NCEE. And for members of any ethnic group with a population smaller than one hundred thousand, an additional ten bonus points will be rewarded. (Naxi Official 1, YPDE)

Standard Chinese (Mandarin) is a compulsory course for all Chinese students from primary education. School curricula now require all pupils, including ethnic minorities, to study Chinese. Mandarin Chinese is not only the national language, but also a prerequisite for school education. Strenuous efforts have been made to promote national cohesion and unity through popularizing Putonghua as a lingua franca in China. With the emphasis on teaching and using Mandarin in minority primary schools, the pressure on minority students to learn L2 is unavoidable. A Jingpo MA student who majored in Humanities specified the situation as follows: Mandarin Chinese is difficult for me…[em] My [L2] writing proficiency is weak, and I often find my writing is without originality and creativity. In senior high school, my maths and physics were poor too. Our teacher always criticized me for not reading and analyzing questions clearly. (Jingpo S 3, YMU MA1)

Some participants stated that L2 deficiency in practice affected minority students’ regular school performance, but more importantly, influenced their academic score in the NCEE. For some minority students who especially grew up in concentrated ethnic communities where Chinese was hardly spoken, they were less competent and competitive than their Han counterparts. It is an essential factor that puts minority students at a disadvantage both in local school education and in national examinations. In our village, people all talk to each other in Dai or some in the Lincang dialect. Those teachers of the village primary school didn’t speak Mandarin as well. My Chinese scores in the NCEE were only 82 points [out of the total 150 scores], so I nearly failed to enter university. (Dai S 2, KUST Y1) Although under high pressure to learn L2, ethnic minority students are obliged to study Mandarin Chinese on all accounts. The government’s policy is to promote bilingual education in concentrated areas of ethnic minorities. However, Mandarin Chinese must be given priority. Bilingual education is necessary at the starting point of education. But after middle school, it is formulated by the Ministry of Education (MOE) that Mandarin Chinese is the only language of instruction [except for English class]. [Mandarin] Not only helps them get more chances of higher education, but have better job opportunities after graduation. (Naxi Official 1, YPDE)

Also, Yunnan is one of the provinces in the west with the most limited English teaching resources in China. In many primary or secondary schools that ethnic pupils attend, mostly due to a severe shortage of qualified English teachers, opportunities for ethnic minority students to learn English (L3) are scarce. When I was at primary school, there was no English class offered. In secondary school, we had a substitute English teacher. He was not an English graduate, but a graduate in maths…I was hopeless in English grammar, always feeling confused…Now at university, I can’t follow. The English teachers all speak English in class.

5. Implications of the Study

The teaching of L2 and L3 was introduced in a top down manner through the medium of China’s national language policies into the curricula and practices of local schools and universities. Especially at a basic level of education, the experience of ethnic minority students in developing their language proficiency often lacks symmetry. Furthermore, what the data from EEMs reveal is that the students’ language deficiencies later even create difficulties in comprehending those increasingly complicated school textbook materials when they study other subjects like physics, mathematics etc. Unfortunately, it undermines minority educational performance overall. Yunnan ethnic minority learners encounter the dilemma that bilingual education is mainly implemented only in primary schools. When students enter in secondary schools and universities, all school formal education in L1 stops. The discontinuity results deficiency in both languages for ethnic minority students. Moreover, it was found that L3 often started from junior secondary school in most places in Yunnan. Trilingual education at the higher education levels in China, not only in Yunnan, is conspicuously absent. The sense of being on an unequal footing with majority Han students and thus of being disadvantaged seemed to prevail among the EEM interviewees. It has to be noted that concerning the minority groups in Yunnan, these students have to take the NCEE in their L2, and L3 is also another compulsory exam course in the NCEE.

First, priority should be given to solving the problem of teacher shortages in ethnic rural areas and strengthening professional teacher training programs with special compensation packages provided for teachers’ personal development, including substitute teachers who work in compact ethnic minority areas. Besides, as is revealed by the study, regional disparity between the rural and the urban frequently enlarges the educational gap. Thus, it is highly suggested that the Yunnan local government consider providing more substantial financial support by explicitly targeting ethnic minority regions, especially in the mountainous, border, and rural areas, to strengthen the equipment of teaching facilities and reduce the gap. For some poverty regions such as Nujiang etc., more boarding schools can be set up for students who are from border areas starting from primary school due to the geographical remoteness (Li, 2014). It

5.1 Pedagogical Implications

Since schooling at a primary education level is one of the most influential factors fundamentally contributing to ethnic minority students’ unsatisfactory academic achievements and eventually in their NCEE performance (Wang, 2009), some problems are emphatical to be addressed.

This study highlights the necessity for the implementation of PAPs in the circumstances of Yunnan’s multi ethnic but low level minority education. To redress these unfavourable constraints requires multi dimensional interventions by the government, schools, and ethnic minorities themselves, including their communities and families in the context of Yunnan. Based on this study, three types of implications are proposed.

Second, although the research was carried on the node of the NCEE, it also uncovered that similar educational opportunities for ethnic minorities should not be confined to a fair admission to higher education after the NCEE. Instead, equal education platforms should be reflected at starting points, processes, and achievements from primary school. The actual difficulties in minority education, especially in providing educational resources, require that a more systematical minority education be tackled with an ultimate purpose of bridging the educational gaps between different ethnicities where regional disparities still exist. Moreover, at a higher education level, universities should consider offering various elective courses to help minority students make a smooth transition from primary education to higher education, and adapt to a uniform academic assessment system at the tertiary level. Universities with ethnic culture programs, like YMU, DU, and CNU, etc., should be aware of the significant disadvantages of minority students caused by external factors and make more considerable efforts to promote equal educational opportunities for them.

Economic support for education is necessary to mobilize a series of improvements with well qualified teachers, excellent teaching facilities, and even the enhancement of relevant research on minority education, which the academic success of minority students is dependent on.

First, all higher education institutes in China started to charge fees since 1996, and tuition fees have continued to rise. Rising college tuition fees have become too high for some ethnic minority families to afford (Hayhoe, 2011), and this prevents many poor rural minority students from continuing their higher education (Li, et al., 2015). PAPs should not only focus on college admission, but also help minority university students complete their academic attainments with various stipends or scholarships after they enter universities. In particular, effective measures should be taken to encourage more ethnic graduates to help develop local social economies and to bridge the gap between rural and urban areas in education.

Higher education institutions can play a much more active role in promoting multilingual and multicultural education by giving more emphasis to both social integration and individual ethnic differences.

5.2 Socioeconomic Implications

Second, as China’s education system is extremely competitive, it has to be noted that with the expansion of higher education, Yunnan ethnic minority students are also facing unprecedented competition from Han majority and even other ethnic minority groups with better social and economic backgrounds and educational conditions. College graduates face a tough job market in recent year, and those with better education background will have more opportunities for career development. Differences in access to college will continue to be a significant obstacle in achieving social equality and intergenerational mobility.

The coexistence of the three languages that ethnic minority people face in Yunnan pushes them to take on the acquisition of L2 and L3. Moreover, L3 has become an interlanguage between the local and global perspectives. The local economies are woven into a global economy, including the flow of labour, goods, tourism, and capital. When L2 and L3 become increasingly more dominant than before, minority languages are endangered because promoting these two languages can lead to cultural and linguistic imperialism (Ludwig, Pagel & Mühlhäusler, 2018). Accordingly, it is suggested that the government add some specific and supplementary regulations into preferential policies to protect minority languages, especially those of small ethnic groups, to boost the language vitality of their L1. At the same time, in minority education practice, bilingual or trilingual education is a necessary procedure to improve the ecological balance of multi languages in Yunnan.

5.3

Language Ecological Implications

Second, China’s “The Belt and Road” (B&R) policy has shifted Yunnan from a border province to the forefront of reform and is opening it up to Southeast Asia.

Linguistically, in Yunnan, except for the Hui, Man, and Shui minorities who use Mandarin Chinese, other minorities speak 25 languages, have 22 written scripts, and almost 6 million ethnic minority people are not able to speak Mandarin Chinese (Dao & Hu, 2005). Language, as an essential instruction medium at school, is the most prominent determinant influencing the level of minority education in a cultural perspective (Wang, 2015).

First, Yunnan’s multi ethnic social context is well suited to bilingual, trilingual, and even multilingual education, which is underpinned by the characteristics of minority students’ different ethnic language backgrounds. Trilingual education can play a decisive role in both social and economic development, and it can provide a boost to cultural tourism in Yunnan as well, in which the links between L1 and L2 can be effectively connected. Briefly, for a minority group, L1 is crucial for maintaining their linguistic and cultural heritage, ethnic identity, and the cognitive development of their children (Gynan & Baker, 2011). L2 is equally vital for social and economic integration, and L3 helps engage with internationalization. However, some factors in bilingual or trilingual education need to be emphasized. On the one side, the constant spread of the high status accorded to L2 and L3 imposed an external pressure on the minority languages (L1), which have the low social status due to the lack of associated economic and political capital. L1 is becoming endangered while L2 and L3 are still reinforced by systemic education mechanisms, such as the NCEE. On the other side, the realistic situations should be considered, such as a lack of comparatively useful resources, including qualified bilingual or trilingual teachers, teaching resources, and trilingual learners’ difficulties in L3 acquisition in an EFL (English as a foreign language) environment especially when ethnic minority students’ L1 and L2 have not been fully developed.

6. Conclusion For decades, Yunnan’s education level has been comparatively lower than that of many other provinces in China. PAPs intend to put minority students from different socioeconomic backgrounds on an equal footing in higher education at the critical moment of the NCEE. PAPs have helped a significant number of ethnic minority students to become beneficiaries with better education opportunities at university. Meanwhile, PAPs contribute to restore education equality, compensate for the cultural tilt of the test toward fairness. This research project is in agreement with the necessity of PAPs due to the geographical remoteness, regional gaps, socioeconomic determinants, and linguistic barriers of Yunnan ethnic minorities. Based on the data analysis, PAPs are currently justified in Yunnan’s multi ethnic social context and are indeed a significant step towards ethnic equality in education. These policies provide considerable help to ethnic minorities, especially to those whose academic attainment is not sufficient for the NCEE owing to the external constraints of society, school, and family, which are concurrently intertwined, to achieve equality in higher education. However, PAPs are not a fundamental solution to the ethnic education problem. Gaps still exist between the implementation of PAPs and expectations. Even though the local government is supportive of minority students and willing to accommodate their needs, especially at higher education level by PAPs, limited education investment often paralyzes students’ academic careers. This study calls for a more comprehensive set of policies for PAPs, including issues of pedagogy, social economy, and even cultural and linguistic diversity itself. Both the government and educators should be increasingly aware of the great importance of bridging the relevant gaps in the education of ethnic minorities in a modernized and multi ethnic Yunnan, China.

The researchers would particularly extend thanks to Suranaree University of Technology, Thailand; Also, Dongyuan Deng would like to express her gratitude to the support of the National Social Science Fund of China (Grant No. 19XYY003), and the sponsor from research projects (Grant No. SKPJ201813; skpyzd201704).

Acknowledgement

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Corresponding Authors: Sirinthorn Seepho was awarded her Doctor of Philosophy (Foreign Language Education) from the University of Pittsburgh, USA. Her academic specialties include English Language Teaching, Teacher Training, Content based Instruction, English as a Medium of Instruction, and Qualitative Research.

About the Authors Dongyuan Deng is an associate professor at Kunming University of Science and Technology, China. She was a visiting scholar at the University of Alberta, Canada, and now is a PhD at the School of Foreign Languages, Suranaree University of Technology, Thailand. Her academic interests include language planning and policy, ethnic minority multilingual education, EFL teaching and learning. Presently she is hosting the National Social Science Fund of China (Grant No. 19XYY003).

Andrew Lian is the President of AsiaCALL (Asia Association of Computer Assisted Language Learning) and currently Professor of Foreign Language Studies in the School of Foreign Languages, Suranaree University of Technology, Thailand. He was awarded his doctorate (French Language and Literature) by the University of Paris IV Sorbonne, France. His research interests are computer assisted language learning (CALL), neurolinguistics, and language learning theories.

Chief Editor Dr. Antonio Silva Sprock, Universidad Central de Venezuela, Venezuela, Bolivarian Republic of Editorial Board Dr. Fatima Zohra Belkhir Benmostefa Dr. Giorgio Poletti Dr. Chi Man Tsui Dr. Fitri Suraya Mohamad Dr. Hernando Lintag Berna Dr. Charanjit Kaur Swaran Singh Dr. Abu Bakar Dr. Eglantina Hysa Dr. Mo'en Salman Alnasraween Dr. Hermayawati Hermayawati Dr. Selma Kara Dr. Michael B. Cahapay Dr. Bunmi Isaiah Omodan Dr. Vassiliki Pliogou Dr. Meera Subramanian Dr. Muhammad Kristiawan Dr. Wahyu Widada Dr. Som Pal Baliyan Dr. Reem Khalid Abu Shawish Dr. Froilan Delute Mobo Dr. Mohamed Ali Elkot Dr. Anabelie Villa Valdez Mr. Teody Lester Verdeflor Panela International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research

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The International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research is an open access journal which has been established for the dissemination of state-of-the-art knowledge in the field of education, learning and teaching. IJLTER welcomes research articles from academics, educators, teachers, trainers and other practitioners on all aspects of education to publish high quality peer reviewed papers. Papers for publication in the International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research are selected through precise peer review to ensure quality, originality, appropriateness, significance and readability. Authors are solicited to contribute to this journal by submitting articles that illustrate research results, projects, original surveys and case studies that describe significant advances in the fields of education, training, e learning, etc. Authors are invited to submit papers to this journal through the ONLINE submission system. Submissions must be original and should not have been published previously or be under consideration for publication while being evaluated by IJLTER.