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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research (IJLTER) Vol. 19, No. 5 (May 2020) Print version: 1694 2493 Online version: 1694-2116 IJLTER International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research (IJLTER) Vol. 19, No. 5 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically those of translation, reprinting, re use of illustrations, broadcasting, reproduction by photocopying machines or similar means, and storage in data banks. Society for Research and Knowledge Management

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Foreword We are very happy to publish this issue of the International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research. The International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research is a peer reviewed open access journal committed to publishing high quality articles in the field of education. Submissions may include full-length articles, case studies and innovative solutions to problems faced by students, educators and directors of educational organisations. To learn more about this journal, please visit the website Whttp://www.ijlter.org.earegratefultothe

editor in chief, members of the Editorial Board and the reviewers for accepting only high quality articles in this issue. We seize this opportunity to thank them for their great collaboration. Editorial Board is composed of renowned people from across the world. Each paper is reviewed by at least two blind reviewers. will endeavour to ensure the reputation and quality of this journal with this

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VOLUME 19 NUMBER 5 May 2020 Table of Contents Social Pedagogy as a Necessary Basis for Teachers Training in Greece 1

125

Development of the Innovative Smart Orbital (ISO) Medium to Improve the Cognitive Skills on the Heat Transfer Firmanul Catur Wibowo, Esmar Budi, Lari Andres Sanjaya, Dina Rahmi Darman, Mohamad Syarif Sumantri and Dinas Kurnia Robby High School Indonesia Supardi Supardi Senior High School Economics in Ghana: Akwesi Owusu and Cosmas Cobbold Salama Jawhar and Ahmad M. Subahi

Students' Experiences of High Technology Based Learning in

Vassilis Pantazis and Despoina Styla Based Learning Platform and its Effects on Present Tense Mastery: Evidence from an ESL Classroom

Mohd Iskandar Idris, Nur Ehsan Mohd Said and Kim Hua Tan Effectiveness and Stakeholders’ Perceptions of the Integration of Automated E Learning Courses into Vocational Education Programmes in Universities in Ukraine

Students

Implementation of Problem Based Learning (PBL) Approach in Chemistry Instructional with Context of Tofu Liquid Waste Treatment Momo Rosbiono Kartamiharja, Wahyu Sopandi and Dini Anggraeni Ready or Not: The Experiences of Novice Academic Heads in School Leadership Gilbert S. Arrieta and Inero V. Ancho Action Research in Hadith Literacy: A Reflection of Hadith Learning in the Digital Age 99 Tedi Supriyadi, J. Julia, Ani Nur Aeni and Elan Sumarna

Perception of TPET Lecturers’ on the Effect of Global Partnerships in Developing Students’ Career Human Capital

Concept 141

Game

James Edomwonyi Edokpolor and Vero Iyalekhue Abusomwan

Junior

A Quantitative Approach ...................................................................................................................................................... 167 Anthony

Valentyna I. Bobrytska, Tatyana D. Reva, Svitlana M. Protska and Oksana M. Chkhalo

153

and Enung Hasanah Factors that Influence Learning Strategy Use among

Teachers’ Efforts in Understanding the Factual, Conceptual, Procedural and Metacognitive Assessment Using the Revised 2013 Curriculum 186 Hermayawati . The Impact of Specialty, Sex, Qualification, and Experience on Teachers’ Assessment Literacy at Saudi Higher Education ............................................................................................................................................................................. 200 Sabria

Enhancing Students’ Academic Performance in University System: The Perspective of Supplemental Instruction ...............................................................................................................................................................................................

Development of Social Intelligence in Preschool Children by Art Therapy: Case Study of Oyna Educational Centre

276 Akhmetzhan S. Seitenov, Rakhila Zh. Aubakirova, Alyona A. Kostyunina, Ekaterina V. Mishchenko, Natalya B. Shevchenko

Malaysian Public University Lecturers’ Perceptions and Practices of Formative and Alternative Assessments Tajularipin Sulaiman, Sedigheh Shakib Kotamjani, Suzieleez Syrene Abdul Rahim and Muhammad Nazrul Hakim Oral Primary Schools Muhammad Sofwan Mahmud, Aida Suraya Md. Yunus, Ahmad Fauzi Mohd Ayub and Tajularipin Sulaiman Education in Malaysia towards Developing a Human Capital Motivating Science Subject Fazilah Razali, Umi Kalthom Abdul Manaf and Ahmad Fauzi Mohd Ayub

Questioning in

STEM

Peer

Application of Cloud Educational Technologies for Teacher Competence Development 289 Iurii L. Mosenkis, Liudmyla V. Lukianyk, Oleksandr M. Strokal, Vira A. Ponomarova and Hanna V. Mykhailiuk Using U NO ME Card Game to Enhance Primary One Pupils’ Vocabulary 304 Brenda Ak Lukas, Finola Iba Ak Patrick, Gloria Chong, Nursuriati Binti Jaino and Melor Md. Yunus

Academic Reading and Writing Needs of Undergraduate Nursing Students in Research 318 Reynold C. Padagas and Bonjovi H. Hajan

Enhancing Mathematical Language through

Pedagogical Training System of Future Social Workers in Ukraine: Experimental Study 245 Hanna A. Ridkodubska, Oksana Ya. Romanyshyna, Oksana Y. Karabin, Nataliia V. Kazakova and Halyna S. Tarasenko

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Potential of the Use of Social Networks in Teaching a Foreign Language in Higher Educational Institutions 260 Iryna M. Zvarych, Natalia M. Lavrychenko, Nataliya H. Zaitseva, Olena M. Chaika and Oksana M. Skorobahata

379

217 Oyinlola Omolara Adebola, Cias T. Tsotetsi and Bunmi Isaiah Omodan Aesthetic Education as a Topical Direction of Preparation of a Modern Specialist 231 Olena F. Sbitnieva, Liudmyla M. Sbitnieva, Hanna E. Ovcharenko, Victoria S. Furkalo and Svitlana S. Bondar

Settings

through

411

Perspectives on Mentoring Support During Teaching Practicum Local & International 336 Rohaya Abdullah, M. Ali Ghufron, Yunita Puspitasari Puspitasari and Norlida Ahmad Tutorial: Championing Students at Risk 352 Joel B. Tan and Esterlina B. Gevera

395

Teaching is a demanding job that cannot be complete, unless the teacher is scientifically trained and that’s why we argue, according to relevant scientific researches, that social pedagogy theory, through practical application, can be very constructive, for this purpose. Thus, the authors initially attempt to go through a general overview of social pedagogy, to inform teachers about what social pedagogy is, about the theory, the contentandobjectives ofsocialpedagogy Moreover,theresearchmethod of the study is a systematic review and a thematic analysis of sociological and other scientific studies relevant to social pedagogy and teachers training, conducted/found on the Web. According to the results, first of all, considering the major responsibility of classroom teachers for continuing training, it’s important for teachers to be social pedagogues, since the main principles of social pedagogy can supply them with the ability to deal with problems and difficulties raised in the classroom.

Abstract. This paper aims to examine the importance of social pedagogy theory and practice throughout teachers’ continuing training in Greece.

https://orcid.org/0000 0001 9354 7125

Keywords: teachers; continuing training; social pedagogy; social pedagogues; Greek society

https://orcid.org/0000 0003 0915 7752

Social Pedagogy as a Necessary Basis for Teachers Training in Greece

Secondly, that importance is growing, if we consider that teachers attempt for a holistic teaching/didactic approach, following social pedagogy’s principles, is reflected in children’s ability for social and emotional development, for healthy relationships, for achieving wellbeing and becoming complete citizens. Finally, the necessity of this research is growing, if we consider that especially nowadays in Greek society, students face many social problems, the majority of which occur due to the current economic crisis (such as bullying, poverty, racism) and that’s why the spread of social pedagogy’s theory and practice in Greek teaching/educational community, is of high essentiality and can be achieved through teachers continuing training.

Despoina Styla Department of Early Childhood Education University of Thessaly, Greece

Vassilis Pantazis Department of Early Childhood Education University of Thessaly, Greece

The founding of Social Pedagogy in Germany depicts the enormous socio economic problems that this country was experiencing in the 19th century due to the industrial revolution, which gave birth to the need for "resistance" from society and especially from the lower social class, so that social changes can take place. Thus, more emphasis was placed on the social functioning of education (Hämäläinen, 2003). As a scientific field, social pedagogy appeared in the 20th century, when the German philosopher Paul Natorp (1854 1924), published, in 1899, the book ‘Sozialpädagogik: Theorie der Willensbildung Auf der Grundlage der Gemeinschaft’ (Social Pedagogy: The Theory of Educating the Human Will into a Community Asset)(Eriksson, 2010). Specifically, Natorp (1904, p.94) as mentioned in Kornbeck and Jensen (2012, p.201) argued that “teachers should always consider the interaction between the social aspects of education and the educational aspects of social life” There. are some theorists of the 19th and 20th century whose philosophy affected Social Pedagogy such as Karl Mager (1810 1858) and Friedrich Distersweg (1790 1866) who believe in education’s social mission and Herman Nohl (1879 1960) who argued that pedagogical intervention should focus on social help, based on love (Schugurensky & Silver, 2013). Social pedagogy΄ s relationship with the area of education is narrow, according to what Moss and Petrie (2019 p. 402) say about that issue. They claim that social pedagogy is capable of ‘’spanning and infusing’’ all the areas that work with people of all ages, including schools of all levels. Also, in some European countries, social pedagogy is the subject of undergraduate and postgraduate studies (Petrie, 2013). In Greece, at this point, there have also been developed higher education study programs, dealing with the subject of social pedagogy, such as: 1) the undergraduate course called ‘introduction to social pedagogy’ at the University of Thessaly, Department of Early Childhood Education, 2) the undergraduate course called ‘Socio educational approaches in primary school’ at the University of West Macedonia, Department of Primary Education, 3) the postgraduate course, called ‘Social Neuroscience, Social Pedagogy and Education’ at National and Kapodistrian University of Athens (EKPA) (Kontogianni, 2019). However, there is a great need that the range of those education programs about social pedagogy should become wider.

1. Introduction

Moreover, although Greek university students start becoming familiar with social pedagogy theory (to clarify the theoretical basis, such as learning a theoretical introduction to social pedagogy, including a history of ideas, basic concepts, etc.), during their studies at the university, there is no research evidence (research studies) that they continue with this, during their continuing training. We argue, that there is a great need, that teachers around the world rediscover the concept of social pedagogy, during their continuing training. And this is very crucial, especially for Greek teachers, as Greek societyis currently affected by an economic crisis that also translates into a social crisis (Kyridis, Christodoulou, Vamvakidou & Paulidis Korres, 2015). Thus, this paper aims, through literature review, to emphasize the importance of the social pedagogy theory and practice, throughout continuing training of teachers and especially Greek teachers.

To continue to literature review, we first analyse the term social pedagogy, because when the discussion comes to what social pedagogy is, there is a great misunderstanding, as it is a complex field. A field which tries to combine the principles of social, psychological, educational, etc. sciences (Cameron & Moss, 2011), to prevent and fight mostly social problems (such as social exclusion), in different spaces and ages (as schools of all levels, institutions of old age fostering, supporting domes for youth, etc.). Social pedagogy doesn’t give prescriptions for

Using the above search criteria on Web (our study’s query run between September 2019 and December 2019) we obtained 85 articles, 3 on line books, 3 theses, 4 reports, that were eligible for thematic analysis, which is a method for identifying, analysing, organizing, describing, and reporting themes found within a data set (Bryman, 2012) To use only those of the 85 articles that correspond to our main research goal, the following exclusion criteria were used: (1) exclude journals that include no references to the social pedagogy’s connection to practice and the general benefits occurred by this connection, (2) to exclude studies referring to teachers training and to the increase of their professionalism, which are the majority of studies appearing, when one types on the Web the Keywords ‘teachers training’, (3) to exclude the major number of studies that examine the history of social pedagogy in different countries, which is irrelevant to our study.

A systematic review was used in the collection of texts, included in this study Systematic review is ‘’a form of literature review, which involves identifying, synthesising and assessing all available evidence, quantitative and/or qualitative, in order to generate a robust, empirically derived answer to a focused research question’’ (Mallett, Hagen Zanker, Slater & Duvendack, 2012, pp. 445 446). Moreover, according to Green, Johnson and Adams (2006, p.104) “authors of systematic reviews attempt to obtain all original research studies published on the topic under study by searching in multiple databases, performing hand searches and contacting authors of previously published research’’. After examining the offered possibilities for selecting open accessed articles, on line books, conferences proceedings, dissertations/theses and reports relevant to social pedagogy, we decided to limit the research to the Education Resources Information Centre (ERIC), to Google Scholar database, to Scopus database, to Web of Science (WoS), to Research Gate network and Akademia.edu network of professionals and scientists. Great effort has been made to perform a scientific procedure, to meet academic standards of high quality. The following inclusion criteria were conducted, to select texts in the review: (1) deal with social pedagogy (which were the first Keywords search), (2) deal with teachers training (which were the second Keywords search), (3) be published in peer reviewed journals, (4) be published during the period 2000 2020, (5) written and published in the English Language, (6) the terms ‘social pedagogy’ or ‘social pedagogues’ must appear clearly in the titles, (7) the term ‘teachers training’ must appear in the titles, separate or combined to the social pedagogy term, (8) avoid texts referring to social work and social workers, a distinct/separate scientific field (9) avoid comparative studies of social pedagogy and social work, as they are irrelevant to our study’s topic

2. Methodology

3.1. Social pedagogy as a concept

Additionally, the drafters of the ‘Radisson Report’ (Social Education Trust, 2001, pt. 4.1) provide a list of nine characteristics of Social Pedagogy. Some of these are: social pedagogues/educators view a child’s situation holistically, education cares for social competencies and morals values learning, putting in the center the development of healthy human relations. Through prosperity and learning, it aims at complete development and integration of each individual, within his social context, considering as a given that all human beings have the potential to be valuable and responsible members of society, as long as society caters to their inclusion, rather than exclusion. That is why social educators deal with a wide range of ages, from the first years of life to old age, and social pedagogy can be applied to different contexts, such as early childhood, family support, drug addicted support, elderly support, teenagers support, disability services, support for imprisoned, etc. with priority the active participation of those involved (Petrie & Cameron, 2009).

3. Literature review

The term pedagogy is derived from the Greek word ‘pais’, meaning child and the word ‘agein’, meaning to bring up (Eichsteller & Holthoff, 2011). Τhe concept of social pedagogy concerns the relationship between society and education and the way one affects the other (Petrie, Boddy, Cameron, Wigfall & Simon, 2006).

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. the solutions, but tries to deal holistically with the situation, with an emphasis on strengthening human relationships and promoting the idea of how to develop/promote a healthy way to deal with life, to gain a mental and psychological balance, to become complete personalities, ready to stand on their feet. That’s why, social pedagogues cooperate with all the factors that affect one's life (such as the parents, the family, the topical residence, the doctors, etc.).

According to ThemPRA (2019) some of the main foundations of social pedagogy theory are the following: raise the feeling of empathy, emphasize the need for protection of human rights, enable people to achieve self autonomy and self reflection, to be able enough to change and improve their own lives and generally speaking, to understand the enormous necessity for the protection of vulnerable social groups. Moreover, taking into consideration Hämäläinen (2003) claim that social pedagogy is not a strict teaching method, we understand that an education system with a social pedagogical orientation does not only care for the strict education and cognitive performance of their students, with strict teaching prescriptions, but also pursues to educate all individuals related to the school community (students, parents, teachers, topical society etc.) to strive for a better world, for a better society, with less social discriminations (Pantazis, 2012).

Furthermore, according to Eichsteller and Bradt (2019), there are various reasons why social pedagogy is suitable for educational and social practices, such as the following: it gives attention to the enhancement of human relationships, believes that every human being has capabilities and talents and should have the opportunities to unwrap those, emphasizes dialogue and civilized communication, strikes at human problems, such as poverty, offers a specific framework that can be very helpful to a broad range of professionals, raises the

Figure 1: The Diamond Model (Eichsteller & Holthoff, 2011)

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. motivation of professionals. We should add here that the last reason is extremely crucial for teachers’ jobs, as according to Carson and Chase (2009), teacher’s motivation is an essential factor that affects and enforces classroom effectiveness. To summarize the substance of all the above references, can be compacted in Boddy, Cameron, Moss, Mooney, Petrie and Stathams (2005) following words: ‘’Social pedagogy is an approach: in which learning, care, health, general wellbeing, and development are viewed as totally inseparable, a holistic idea summed up in the pedagogical term ‘upbringing’. The pedagogue as practitioner sees herself as a person in relationship with the child as a whole person, supporting the child’s overall development’’ (Boddy et al, 2005, p. 3).

3.2. Social pedagogy’s Connection to Practice As Hämäläinen (2003) claims we can see social pedagogy both as a practice and a democratic philosophical approach. To understand the connection of social pedagogy to practice we should bring to mind two metaphorical parallelisms of social pedagogy, firstly as a tree and secondly as a diamond. According to Eichsteller and Holthoff (2012) social pedagogy as a tree finds its roots in the works of scientists in different scientific fields, such as education, philosophy, sociology, and psychology. The trees flourishment depends on the gardeners (social educators/pedagogues) who use many tools for this purpose (a person’s well being) such as teamwork, communication, etc. The Diamond Model (Figure1) is another metaphor parallelism of social pedagogy. The image of the diamond symbolizes the idea that there is a diamond within all of us, that we are all precious and have a rich variety of knowledge, skills, and abilities. The Diamond Model outlines four aims of social pedagogical practice: to enhance well being and happiness, to enable holistic learning, to develop relationships, and to increase a sense of empowerment. These aims are brought to life through positive experiences (Thempra, 2019; Eichsteller & Holthoff, 2011).

Social pedagogy in practice offers a set of organized pedagogical actions that seek to influence and change social and educational mechanisms (Petrie et al., 2006; Hämäläinen, 2012; Stephens, 2013).

e) the organization of educational activities inside and outside the school, f) the group meetings and events with parents (celebrations, etc.),

Similarly, Fontana (1994) and Brown (2004) argue a teacher must take on modern roles as: • mediator between knowledge and the student, • humanist and democrat, • counselor and discreet driver, • psychologist, sociologist, educator.

Taking into consideration the above literature review, at this point of our study, we suggest some of the following application examples of social pedagogy in a school classroom, such as:

Moreover, Jacobs (2001), in a common context, believes that the human skills a teacher should own, are divided into the following categories: A) Counseling skills: 1. help others solve problems, 2. to build trust and be open with their fellow human beings, 3. to give advice effectively, 4. help others better understand themselves. B) Communication skills: 1. to present ideas with objective way, 2. to present ideas and information comprehensively, 3. to manage the speech accurately. C) Leadership skills: 1. to inspire confidence and respect in others, 2. to organize effective groups, 3. to be able to cooperate with "difficult" people. D) Educational skills:1. help others gain knowledge and different skills, 2. activates others to present them.

The application of the above actions requires teachers with emotional stability, emotional abilities, and emotional intelligence in pedagogical interaction, as it is emphasized by many studies. When the relationship between teachers and students is charged with negative emotions, for various reasons, communication is disrupted and students get disappointed (Konstantinou, 2004).

d) the participation in experiential socio educational programs (topical or international) carried out in schools, organized by the government, aiming at highlighting the socio pedagogical dimensions (of the many forms) of the heterogeneity, the uniqueness and identity of each person (in collaboration with other teachers/colleagues),

c) the organization of experiential seminars for the parents about social issues,

Moreover, the role of the modern teacher is demanding. Essentially, in terms of the cognitive part of teaching, the teacher must help in the synthesis and analysis of knowledge, expand students’ critical thinking, and their productivity. But most important of all, the teacher must possess emotional intelligence, as according to Rogers (1983) respect, empathy, and authenticity are the three basic elements of communication with the student.

a) Humanitarian action that promotes the development of students emotional and social skills,

b) the fight of critical incidents (e.g. violence and victimization, racism in the classroom) with the development of socio educational programs, in cooperation/collaboration with social institutions and special scientists/experts,

g) the student visits to various institutions (some Greek institutions are: the Refugee Hospitality Centers, the Child's Smile, the SOS Villages, etc.) that develop social pedagogical activity.

3.3. Teachers continuing training

Many studies place importance to in service training that can take place in the school environment, as according to Mavrogiorgos (1999), the in school training is more reliable than the out of school training, because it meets teachers’ needs, combines the theory with the practice, raises the school’s quality level and contributes to the school collaboration with the other schools and with the field of scientific Accordingresearch.toEurydice

Moreover, according to OECD (2010): “These activities can be very heterogeneous: dissemination conferences, workshops (preparation to new subject matter content), school based activities (study groups, courses), personal teacher development (individual activities outside of schools)” (OECD, 2010, p.7).

(2019) formal continuing training of teachers of all levels is usually done by expertized institutions (inspected by the government for their quality) with high standards, at a national level, aiming at teachers’ professional development, career evolution, acquisition of competencies and development of capabilities to cope with change, difficulties and unpredictable situations during their careers

To summarize, according to Anderberg (2020) the review shows the global differences as it comes to the role of social pedagogues in schools (about their missions, goals, status, roles, functions, tasks, activities). The central mission in most countries is to fight the exclusion of pupil groups or individuals with problems. Another frequent mission is the prevention of serious problems such as bullying, violence, and drug use. Moreover, there is an orientation towards upbringing with a democratic manner and active social participation, of all students.

At this point in the literature review, we find it necessary to refer to the meaning of teachers’ continuing training. First of all, training is defined as: “The set of measures and activities adopted and implemented to improve and develop academic, practical and personal or professional knowledge, skills, abilities, and interests of teachers during their career” (Mavrogiorgos, 1996, p. 86).

Additionally, according to Papadopoulou and Bagakis (2015), as it is mentioned in Law 3879/2010 (The Development of Life long Learning), a teacher’s training can be evolved through: “a) access to opportunities for continual professional development, b) the creation of flexible learning paths, c) development of open education and e learning, d) branching out into non formal and informal forms of learning, e) use of new teaching and learning technologies from educational and research institutes and other providers, f) creation of networks for innovation at both a local and regional level, g) activities for the development of all the educational staff, h) individualized programs “any time and at any place” (Papadopoulou & Bagakis, 2015, p.427).

3.4. The value of teachers’ continuing training Especially nowadays, at the end of one’s studies, there is an enormous need for lifelong learning, since the field of human knowledge is not static, but is in dynamic development (Papadopoulou & Bagakis, 2015). Teachers’ professional development should begin during their studies and continue during their life. The continuing training of teachers should be characterized by flexibility and adaptability, as new pedagogical and socio cultural data are constantly emerging and teachers should be upgraded. We argue that even if they have received a quality initial teacher education, they need to be trained continually, to know how to manage the difficulties and problems to which they are faced. Therefore, it is beneficial for teachers to improve/update their skills, because benefits are enormous according to the results of different researches. For example, according to Ajokou (2013), in service continuing training: 1) enforces teachers Mental Health to be able to tolerate the disturbances that may occur in a classroom, 2) broadens their social contacts as they have many chances to socialize with other colleagues during their training, 3) grows the willingness to know more about the profession, to catch up with the new and latest findings in education, 4) gives opportunities for advancement on the job. Everybody wants to get a better position, such as becoming headmasters, counselors etc. All these positions are possible only for those who go on and strive to update through continuing training.

Moreover, we embrace the point of view of Boudersa (2016) that teacher continuing training and professional development should be democratic enough, so as not to impose on the consolidation of teachers' perceptions and established knowledge about a given teaching methodology. Teacher training and professional development should aim at the fundamental change of teachers’ practices, which, in turn, will lead to the improvement of their educative Teacherseffectiveness.atall levels of education need to be always trained if they are to improve their practices in their classes. Such training programs will help teachers to improve their knowledge of the subject they teach and the social skills they need in the classroom There is no doubt that teachers will benefit from professional development only if that development contains activities that focus on high quality content. And those activities should be organized by scientists/experts, during the training programs and courses, so that the teachers' demands get satisfied and raise their willingness to keep walking on this long life learning path.

In summary, in Greece, according to Asimaki, Sakkoulis and Vergidis (2016), Papagueli Vouliouris (1999), Papastamatis and Panitsidou (2008), in service teacher training can be tacked in the following periods: a) 1880 1977: the establishment of the “Didaskaleion”, a training institute, b) 1977 1992: the period of professional teacher training schools for elementary and secondary teachers called “SELDE SELME’’, c) 1992 1995: the Regional Training Centres (known as PEKs), d) 1995 2011: the "European" period, the implementation, under Law 2986/2002, of the Teacher Training Agency (known as OEPEK), which today is replaced by the Institute of Education Policy (known as IEP).

Generally speaking, the main principles of social pedagogy can supply them with the ability to contribute to the improvement of the Greek education system. Especially in Greece, unfortunately, that education system: ‘’Is made to create collegialities through "suppressive" actions and practices primarily attributed in the range of assessment and school competition’’ (Kyridis, Papadakis, Tourtouras, & Lytrivi, 2016, p. 12) and we agree with Kyridis, Christodoulou, Vamvakidou and Paulidis Korres (2015) who argue that: ‘’We need more holistic educational activities, such as those that social pedagogy proposes, which are gentler than those of the formal education system’’ (Vamvakidou & Paulidis Korres, 2015, p.31).

Secondly, is of great importance for teachers to come up with those principles of social pedagogy throughout their whole career, especially nowadays in modern Greek society, where students face many social problems, the majority of which occur due to the current economic crisis such as bullying, the poverty the economic crisis brings, racism (due to cultural differences that refugees face), etc. That importance is growing, if we consider that teachers attempt for a holistic teaching/didactic approach, following social pedagogy’s principles, is reflected in children’s ability for social and emotional development, for healthy relationships, for achieving wellbeing and becoming complete citizens (see 3.1).

Thirdly, as the role of the modern teacher is demanding and as according to Rogers (1983) it’s very important that teachers not only possess knowledge, but emotional intelligence too (see 3.2) it seems to be a grave need to update and gain more familiarity with the social pedagogy principles during their continuing training and professional development and not only during their university studies. This is because, according to Kyriakou, Stephens, Avramidis and Werlers (2011) student teachers, although tend to be open minded to new initiatives, they often have second thoughts about how prepared they are to concur to school’s progress and the application of innovative methods. In short, according to the citation of the above bibliography social pedagogy theory and practice it’s an ideal situation and an opportunity for all teachers to enhance their emotional and social Moreover,skills.

4. The results of the analysis

The results of the thematic analysis can be detected in the following points. First of all, it seems that Greek teachers get some information about social pedagogy theory and practice during their university studies, but in Greece we argue that there is a crucial/substantial need for those programs to be expanded, as the official number of those university studies, mentioned above (see part 1. Introduction) is extremely poor.

considering the major responsibility of classroom teachers for continuing training (as we mention above at 3.4), teachers, among other things, throughout their training and professional development, should be or become social pedagogues, since the main principles of social pedagogy can supply them with the ability to deal with problems in the classroom (Eurydice, 2019).

At this point, we cannot skip the sad truth that in Greece there is a need to obtain a wider social pedagogy network (composed of experts), and take as an example the UK, where we find a wide social pedagogy network. Where, for instance, somebody can meet the following: a) the ThemPra, which is a social pedagogical

6. References Anderberg, M. (2020).In search of asocial pedagogical profession inschools. Missions and roles under reconsideration. International Journal of Social Pedagogy, 9(1), 1 19. https://doi.org/10.14324/111.444.ijsp.2020.v9.x.001 Ajoku, L. I. (2013). Development of Teachers, Action Planning, and Utilizing 21st Century Skills in Nigerian Schools. Journal of Education and Practice, 4(15). Asimaki, A., Sakkoulis, D., & Vergidis, D. (2016). Searching for pedagogical practices for success at school for “all” the students: a sociological approach (in Greek). Step of Social Sciences, IZ(67) Boddy, J., Cameron, C., Moss, P., Mooney, A., Petrie, P., & Statham, J. (2005) Introducing PedagogyintotheChildren’sWorkforce:Children’sWorkforceStrategy:Aresponsetothe consultation document. London: Thomas Coram Research Unit. Boudersa, N. (2016). The Importance of Teachers’ Training and Development Programs in the Algerian Educational Context: Toward Informed and Effective Teaching Practices Expériences Pédagogic, 1

10 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. enterprise, supporting the development of social pedagogy through scientific actions (http://www.thempra.org.uk/), b) the Social Pedagogy Professional Association SPPA, which aims to support vulnerable social groups (https://sppa uk.org/) and c) the Social Pedagogy Development Network SPDN, which tries to unite the social pedagogues and organize relevant activities (http://www.thempra.org.uk/spdn/).

5. Discussion and conclusion In this current paper we stress the need for teachers to get acquainted with the theory and practice of social pedagogy and attain consideration of the main principles of social pedagogy, during their training, their journey of discovery, because teachers are one of the three groups of adults involved in the education of children (the other two groups are the family members and other professional such as social workers, psychologists, etc.). Especially, teachers have the potentiality to guide children to become complete citizens and integrated personalities (Kyriakou, Avramidis, Stephens & Werler, 2011). Moreover, there is a feeling, that more than ever in Greece, we need open minded teachers who will adopt and will be scientifically trained and able to apply social pedagogy in their classrooms, and this can only be achieved, throughout their continuing training, by expertized educators and trainers. Coming to the end of our study we can summarize the substance of the above literature review and analysis, to the argument that there is a diamond within all of us, we are all precious and have a rich variety of knowledge, skills, and abilities (Eichsteller & Holthoff, 2011). This is an encouraging aspect, that teachers should have in mind during their lifelong learning path. Finally, the present study has some important limitations, such as the lack of interviews (or other research methodologies) conducted with Greek teachers, to examine the way they think about social pedagogy and to examine if they feel prepared for the direct practice of the main principles of social pedagogy in education. We hope that these limitation, will be the trigger for further studies and research.

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Petrie,P.,&Cameron,C. (2009).Importing Social Pedagogy?In J.Kornbeck &N. Rosendal Jensen (eds.), TheDiversityofSocialPedagogyinEurope:StudiesinComparative Social Pedagogies and International Social Work and Social Policy, Vol. 7 (pp. 145 168). Bremen: Europäischer Hochschulverlag. Petrie, P., Boddy, J., Cameron, C., Wigfall, V., & Simon, A. (2006). Working with children in care: European perspectives. UK: Open University Press. Schugurensky, D., & Silver, M. (2013). Social pedagogy: historical traditions and transnational connections. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 21(35) Social Educational Trust (2001). Social Pedagogy and Social Education: Formerly known as the Radisson Report. A Report of two Workshops held on 11th 12th July 2000 and 14th 15th January 2001 at the Radisson Hotel, Manchester Airport. Stephens, P. (2013) Social Pedagogy: Heart and head Germany: Europäischer ThemPRAHochschulverlag(2019).

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Keywords: gamification; grammar; Kahoot!; present tense; ESL 1. Introduction The use of technology has been improving and increasing tremendously in the Fourth Industrial Revolution to the extent of penetrating the educational field. In Malaysia, the Education Ministry has proposed a 21st century learning approach

Abstract. In the 21st century, gamified learning is found to be essential for educators to assist students in achieving mastery of English grammar because the English language proficiency of Asian students, including Malaysians, remains at an unacceptable level. However, the literature on the effects of gamification on the learning of English tenses is somewhat limited. To address this issue, this study aims to examine the effectiveness of Kahoot!, a game based learning platform, in reinforcing simple present tense verb learning amongst young English as a second language (ESL) learners. A total of 31 Year 3 students (aged 9) at a national primary school in the central region of Peninsular Malaysia were involved in the study. A one group pre test post test research design was employed with an intervention programme that spanned four weeks. Results analysed using paired sample t test revealed that the performance of pupils in the post test improved significantly (M =5.61, SD=2.04) with the application of Kahoot! as compared with that in the pre test (M=3.35, SD=1.89). Discussion of the main findings revealed that gamification, through its captivating features, was responsible for lowering the learners’ affective filter during grammar lessons and subsequently increasing their learning motivation. The implications of the findings suggest that Kahoot! is a relevant teaching tool for the current generation of learners and educators may explore the possibilities which Kahoot! has to offer with other grammatical components.

13 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 5, pp. 13 26, May https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.5.20202 Game-Based Learning Platform and its Effects on Present Tense Mastery: Evidence from an ESL Classroom Mohd Iskandar Idris, Nur Ehsan Mohd Said and Kim Hua Tan Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM) Bangi, 43600 Selangor, Malaysia https://orcid.org/0000 0001 6445 2725 https://orcid.org/0000 0002 2891 327X https://orcid.org/0000 0003 3787 5006

the existing trends in the Malaysian curriculum, the incorporation of information and communications technology (ICT) in schools is valuable. Learners are driven towards the relaxing atmosphere of learning with the inclusion of ICT in teaching and learning (Azmi, 2017). Yunus (2018) claims that educators are ‘forced’ to change their pedagogical practices in consideration of ever changing technology. The concept of gamification, which was introduced by Pelling (2002), has accordingly resulted in the invention of interactive applications, namely, Kahoot!, Socrative, Quizzes, Quizlet and Plickers. Kapp (2012) defines gamification as the application of game based mechanics, aesthetics and game thinking for the purpose of captivating people which will, in turn, motivate their action, promote active learning, and eventually solve problems. It is also the process of transforming typical academic components into gaming themes. Researchers in different parts of the world report that gamification has shown positive outcomes in aiding the motivation, engagement and enjoyment of learners in learning for the past decades (Cheong et al., 2013; Denny, 2013; Dong et al., 2012; Li et al., 2012, Tan & Tan 2020). Despite the extensive literature on the use of Kahoot! to enhance English grammar learning, limited Malaysian studies can be found that discuss how Kahoot! influences present tense verb learning, especially amongst young English as a second language (ESL) learners. Most of the studies were conducted abroad in either high school or tertiary level students. Thus, such research must be carried out with local research participants. Present tense verb learning is relatively difficult to be mastered by young ESL learners because one may be confused as to when to add ‘s’ to verbs, mainly when the grammar system of their native language does not require so. This rule is somehow intertwined with plural forms, in which the letter ‘s’/‘es’ is needed to be incorporated into nouns. The participants of this study are also found to be facing this issue as indicated by their past performance through grammatical mistakes of such nature in written assignments.

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. to accomplish the main objective of the National Philosophy of Malaysian Education, which is to produce a holistic individual through education (Ministry of Education Malaysia, 2013). Students in Malaysia are exposed to approximately 11 years to 13 years of formal English language education before furthering their studies at the tertiary level. Nevertheless, a study conducted by Singh et al. (2017) has indicated that most students still have problems with mastering English grammar. Nearly 30% of the grammatical errors made by diploma students in Malaysia involve the use of verb tenses, including present tense verbs. In reality, students have been taught grammar since primary school, yet they still struggle to form grammatical sentences (Darus & Kaladevi, 2009) Stapa & Izahar, 2010) which are partly due to limited vocabulary in the language (Misbah et al., 2017; Ang & Tan, 2018). Thus, this issue must be addressed Inimmediately.parallelwith

Various educational applications can be utilised by educators to transform tedious and complicated parts of grammar learning into fun and relevant ones for learners, particularly the young ones. The low memory retention of students in learning present tense verbs should be considered. Rote learning, in which students are given the rules of present tense verbs and asked to memorise them, may be adopted. However, in most situations, students tend to be confused with when to add ‘s’/’es’ to verbs. They can hardly differentiate between present tense verbs and plural nouns. Hence, before deciding on the right method and approach to teaching present tense verbs, educators should be aware and comprehend that two types of memory exist, namely, declarative and procedural memory. Declarative memory refers to the ‘learning and storing of facts and events, including arbitrary information’ (O’Grady, 2006). This type of memory is often linked to a lexicon or mental dictionary, in which the mind works when the learner can relate to the new knowledge obtained, including its meaning, pronunciation and use. However, the information kept in this memory requires one’s conscious awareness upon retrieval. By contrast, procedural memory focuses on the use of a broad range of motor and cognitive skills, particularly the ones involving sequencing (Pinker & Ullman, 2002). This memory type helps the computations and symbol manipulation concerning grammar components, such as syntax, nonlexical semantics, morphology and phonology. This memory runs through unconsciousness. That is, learners may not be aware of and realise what enables them to form or interpret sentences, especially in first language acquisition. Declarative memory is involved in learning the grammar of a second language. Here, educators must ensure that the lesson employed triggers this part of mind in learning present tense verbs. Does the use of Kahoot! reinforce the present tense verb learning of young ESL learners? This study aims to examine the effectiveness of using Kahoot! in reinforcing present tense verb learning amongst young ESL learners. The findings of this research are expected to assist educators who are in the quest for a practical approach to teaching grammar, mainly present tense verbs. The rest of this article is structured as follows. Firstly, the literature reviews on Kahoot!, gamification and present tense are presented. Then, the research methods and procedures used in this study are described. Subsequently, the findings are discussed and summarised. Lastly, implications, limitations and directions for future research are provided.

2. Literature Review

2.1 Kahoot! and Previous Studies

Digital games have gained recognition from many educators due to the significant role of technology in language education. For example, Kahoot!, which was developed in 2006 at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology, is a popular game based student response system. It aims to make learning pleasurable and entertaining across all languages and subjects via a free online game based learning platform. Various digital devices can be used to launch this learning platform. Kahoot! is versatile because it can be tailored to accommodate the needs of learners. A good and stable Internet connection is mandatory for this method to work effectively. The gaming experience is

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. presented by the embedded graphical and audio elements. These features have the potential to promote motivation and learning among learners. Kahoot! has become a popular online game used by educators as a stimulating platform to check the understanding of learners and enhance their participation in learning. It adopts gamification as a means to involve learners actively and motivate them eventually. Gamified learning, such as Kahoot!, facilitates the achievement of learners concerning the pre test and post test conducted (Bullard & Anderson, 2014; Wichadee & Pattanapichet, 2018). Learners show improved performance after the interventions due to their engagement in the games (Poondej & Lerdpornkulrat, 2016). Learning through a fun environment enhances the retention of the lesson learnt. These studies have revealed the effectiveness of using online language games in improving the grammar skills of learners. In another perspective of grammar learning, the outcomes from a survey conducted by Zarzycka Piskorz (2016) have revealed that 70% of the participants feel motivated and inspired to learn grammar after having a session with Kahoot!. Here, Kahoot! has a high potential to elevate the enthusiasm and motivation of students to learn. Kahoot! has benefited learners of all ages since its first Studentsdebut.must register at https://kahoot.it. A unique game PIN number is given. Then, they have to key in the username of their choice (anonymous feature). The activities on Kahoot! are real time, and quizzes are presented on a screen using an overhead projector. Students can monitor their progress or scores right after the game. The total score for each question is 1,000 points. The ratings they receive are based on how fast they answer the right item (Byrne, 2013). The overall number of scores gained by each player is displayed on the screen at the end of the quiz.

The notion of computer technologies has enabled other principles, such as gamification, to emerge. According to Deterding et al. (2011), gamification or gamified learning has been defined as the use of game design elements in nongame settings to increase motivation and attention on a task. It also refers to the integration of game elements in nongame ones to solve the task at hand effectively (Khaleel et al. 2016). The difference between teaching through a gamified pedagogical method and instruction via the use of authentic games, which has been found to be a practical approach to teaching lessons, such as grammar, must be considered (Tuan & Doan, 2010; Yolageldili & Arikan, 2011).

Gamification encourages grammar learning to be entertaining, enjoyable and lasting because the game successfully delivers a meaningful context for communicative grammar practice. Unlike teaching with games, gamified instruction is the incorporation of gaming principles, and this method of teaching and learning is earning popularity in the field of education (Caponeto, Earp & Ott, 2014; Domíngues et al., 2013). Gamification in the language classroom involves the dynamic participation of students, which gradually offers a solid platform for learners to learn grammar effectively and positively in ESL (Leaning, 2015). Students acquire more words and learn the right structures

2.2 Gamification

The outcomes from a study conducted by Zarzycka Piskorz (2016) revealed that 70% of the participants became motivated to learn grammar after learning via Kahoot!

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. of English when they are engaged in gamified learning. It promotes a remarkable learning experience where students keep looking forward to learn new words (Rao, 2014). A better version of the English language is offered on online language games , other than engaging students in ESL learning (Mullins & Sabherwal, 2018). Besides, students gain vocabularies in a difference way, whereby they acquire more words based on online games, compared to the chalk and talk method (Castaneda & Cho, 2016). These findings indicate that in assisting grammar learning, gamification has high potential to be adopted. Educators can generate situations which allow unconscious learning to occur through games because the attention of learners is not on the language but on the message itself (Cross, 2000). Learners eventually acquire the language unconsciously, in the same manner, they learnt their first language because they are focusing on the game as an activity. For this study, this element of unconscious learning is appropriately observed. According to Hussein (2015), gamification benefits learners through four key domains. Two out of the four domains are closely related to young learners. Firstly, children perceive this approach as entertaining and fun, thus reducing their affective filter and maintaining consistent engagement. Secondly, gamification permits learners to reflect upon their learning. Young learners are said to have a short attention span. Within 10 min to 20 min of the lesson, their minds wander off. They lose their interest and motivation when dealing with grammar lessons due to the confusing rules and memorisation. On the contrary, high levels of engagement and motivation can be achieved with the elements of fun and competitiveness embedded in Kahoot!

. The motivation is attributed to four reasons, namely, desire to win, master own knowledge, play with others and determine the purpose of the game, which include revising, checking and consolidating knowledge. Besides, 80% of the respondents believed that this application positively influenced their learning motivation because they were well aware of its purposes, which were to check, consolidate and review their knowledge on the content learnt. Kahoot! is packed with the elements of gamification, such as leaderboards, points, feedback, performance graphs and social element/community collaboration (Flores, 2015). The ‘Leaderboard,’ as one of the main elements embedded in Kahoot!, shows the rankings of game players based on their accomplishment levels. The leaderboard, points and scores are closely related, and Kahoot! has all these features. Learners are granted with points based on their performance (Flores, 2015). A total of 1,000 points are offered for any correct response answered in under 0.05 s. From this feature, extrinsic motivation is evident, particularly when the students attempt to answer the questions by themselves. The integration of technical elements, such as music, graphics and colours, also helps retain the acceptance of Kahoot! amongst the users.

The omission, misformation, misordering and addition errors are the types of mistakes that students tend to commit in using the simple present tense.

Amongst all of the mistakes, misformation is the most common error made by students (Siswoyo, 2016). In another similar study, omission errors have been found as the frequent errors made by students (Masruddin, 2019). From these studies, students are still struggling with present tense verb learning. Thus, educators must find ways and methods to overcome this situation.

Kahoot! also encourages learners to compete to be placed amongst the high ranks, therefore making the learning experience fun and meaningful to them, especially amongst nine year old children. This learning platform is convenient for educators because it allows them to evaluate the progress of their pupils formatively. It enables future intervention to be made because the data can be made available right away. It also allows learners to continue trying to place themselves on board with the lessons without feeling scared of making themselves seem stupid. This condition is supported by the feature which only displays the top three scorers in the final leaderboard. As a result, those who do not perform well need not reveal their performance to others. These learners can learn at their own speed without incurring any negative feelings. This situation eventually contributes to meaningful learning.

2.3 Present Tense Verbs

Numerous scholars have defined and described the use and form of the simple present tense. The simple present tense, also known as the present simple, is considered the significant tense used in English to talk about things in general (Murphy, 1998). It is not merely about the present. It is also used to express that something happens repeatedly, all the time or in general. It is not about whether an action is happening at the time of speaking. For instance, ‘Aminah goes to school by bus’ and ‘The doctors treat patients in the hospital’. On the contrary, to Murthy (2003), present tense verbs are used to demonstrate that action occurs at present. This definition is reflected in the sentence ‘She speaks Arabic very well’. Similarly, Swan (2000) has indicated that such verbs are used for permanent situations or actions that happen regularly or all the time (not now). An example is ‘My mother goes to the market about twice a week.’ In a different view, Azar (2006) has claimed that the simple present expresses events or situations that usually happen, always, sometimes and habitually; they happen now, have happened previously and perhaps will happen again.

The abovementioned definitions imply that the simple present tense refers to events or actions which are always executed by a subject. It does not entail impermanent time. It is meant to be used wherever and whenever. Few past studies have been conducted on students’ mistakes or errors in using the simple present tense.

3.1 Research Procedure

As a means to measure the internal consistency of the item, reliability analysis was adhered using the IBM SPSS Statistics Version 23 software platform. The split half reliability test was used to measure the internal consistency. It is commonly used for multiple choice tests. The reliability of the instrument is almost acceptable with a reading of 0.774 based on the standard rule of thumb for interpreting split half readings. The intervention length was four weeks, which was equivalent to 12 contact hours. A prominent psychologist, Hermann Ebbinghaus (1885), concluded that students forgot approximately 56% of what they learnt within one hour, 66% forgot within one day, and 75% forgot within six days. Thus, he created ‘the forgetting curve’. Current researchers still refer to this measure of how much people forget. From this finding, students would have forgotten nearly all of the pre test questions and answers to replicate the same responses in the post test taken after four weeks (28 days). Here, the intervention length was sufficient because the students would not have an opportunity to memorise or try to remember the exact questions and answers in the pre test. Any outcomes made between the two tests are likely due to the influence of the intervention programme.

Table 1:

The research flow is shown in Table 1. Research flow PRE TEST ON PRESENT TENSE VERBS KAHOOT! POST TEST ON PRESENT TENSE VERBS X Y Z

This research employed a pre experimental method (one group pre test post test design). The data were collected exclusively from a comparison of pre test and post test data. The study was conducted in a primary school in Puchong, Selangor, where the main researcher is teaching. Convenient sampling was considered based on the information of researchers on the population of interest, the availability the sample and the objectives of the study. It involved manipulating an independent variable without random assignment of conditions or condition orders to participants.

SESSION

RESPONDENTS

3. Methodology

The sample of this study consisted of 31 Year 3 pupils (male n=14; female n=17) without any control group. All of them are nine years of age studying in the same class. The total number of the participants was acceptable as a sample size of 15 students is considered acceptable when implementing classroom research (Dörnyei, 2007). The data were analysed quantitatively because the purpose of this research was to measure the effect of Kahoot! on present tense verb learning. The pre test was administered at the beginning of the study. The final score in the post test would indicate the learning progress. It was used as the benchmark to ascertain the effect of Kahoot! on the present tense verb learning of Year 3 pupils. The present tense verb test was the only instrument used for this research and was given before and after the application of Kahoot!

Figure 1: Kahoot! Interface

3.2 Pre Intervention

The researcher firstly selected the targeted verbs. Thirty common verbs were chosen based on their standard frequencies in English language learning, as stated in the Year 3 syllabus. They were then transferred into Kahoot!. An appropriate image was inserted for each question to assist learning. The researcher felt that exposing the nine year old pupils to more than 30 verbs may lead to confusion and fatigue. Therefore, 30 common verbs, as shown in Table 2, were selected to support the research aim and examine the effectiveness of using Kahoot! in reinforcing present tense verb learning amongst the young ESL learners.

At the initial stage, the pupils were administered with the pre test, consisting of 10 multiple choice questions. The researcher believed that the number of items was sufficient due to the age and their level of English proficiency of the pupils. The duration of the pre test session was 30 min (equivalent to 1 period of English lesson). The researcher was present to monitor the course closely and to ensure that no one had a chance to copy from another classmate. The pupils were not informed about the purpose of the test. Before the test, the researcher gave them a short briefing by instructing them to read each question carefully, underline the correct answer and write the answer in the blank.

3.3 Intervention After the pre test, the pupils had the first lesson about the rules of present tense verbs and the introduction of all the targeted verbs. For future reference, they were instructed to write down the wordlist in their exercise book. The pupils were then familiarised to Kahoot!. The researcher also inserted a YouTube video about present tense verbs to enhance learning and to attract the attention of the learners. The quiz on present tense verbs was launched, and the pupils were instructed to answer it in pairs and individually, as illustrated in Figure 1 and 2.

Table 2: Targeted verbs Ask Call Come Do Feel Get Give Go Help Like Live Make Play Put Run See Take Talk Tell Think Use Want Work Wake Eat Sleep Cycle Jump Drink Learn

4. Findings and Discussions

The researcher marked all scripts. The marks scored by the respondents in the pre test and the post test were tabulated. Next, a statistical analysis was executed by recording the scores of the participants’ in both tests on the statistical software, IBM SPSS Statistics Version 23. The paired sample t test was used to describe the difference in the mean before and after the use of Kahoot!. The result from the data was crucial in verifying the effectiveness of Kahoot! in reinforcing the respondents’ learning and understanding of English present tense verbs.

3.5 Data Analysis

Ten multiple choice questions were included in both tests, as mentioned in the earlier section. The percentage was calculated for both tests to determine any differences before moving on to the statistical analysis. The researcher must identify any improvement in post test scores in comparison with the pre test scores.

4.1 Research Question: Does the use of Kahoot! reinforce the present tense verb learning of young ESL learners? The data revealed that the value of sig (p) paired sample t test was 0.000, which was less than 0.05. Therefore, the null hypothesis (H0) was rejected. That is, their scores increased after the treatment of Kahoot!. Besides, 22 respondents or 64.5% managed to obtain at least five correct answers out of the ten questions in the post test compared with only 7 or 22.6% in the pre test. This finding is shown in Figure 3.

Figure 2: Kahoot! Session

The same questions were distributed in the post test for the participants to answer on the final day of the experiment. The duration of the post-test session was 30 min (equivalent to 1 period of English lesson). The researcher was present to monitor the course closely to ensure that no one had a chance to copy from another pupil. Before the test, the researcher gave the pupils a short briefing by instructing them to read each question carefully, underline the correct answer and write the answer in the blank. The pupils were not informed about the purpose of the test.

3.4 Post-Intervention

Pre-test Post-test

The results of the pre test and the post test were keyed into SPSS Statistics Version 23 to determine the mean, standard deviation, t and significant values for supporting the data. The outcomes for the abovementioned statistics are shown in Table 3.

302520151050

studentsofNumber test vs Post test Score Score < 50% Score > 50%

The features embedded and the relevance of the application to young learners could be related to the effectiveness of Kahoot! in reinforcing the respondents’ learning of present tense verbs; Kahoot! features the elements of gamification,

Pre

Figure 3: Comparison of result

Table 3: Comparison of pre-test and post-test results N Mean Std. Dev t value Sig. Pre test score 31 3.35 1.889 5.550 .000 Post test score 31 5.61 2.044 A significant difference was observed between the scores of the pupils’ before and after the learning session via Kahoot! with (t) 30 = −5.550, p <0.05. A substantial change in the mean scores between the pre test (mean = 3.35, s.d = 1.889) and the post test (mean = 5.61, s.d = 2.044) was also found (t = −5.550, p = .000). The result from this table revealed a difference in terms of the means for the post test. These statistics ascertained that the pupils’ performance was improving over the treatment of Kahoot!. The value of sig (p) paired sample t test was 0.000, which was less than 0.05. The effect size using Cohen’s d was large, that is, Cohen’s d = (5.61 − 3.35) / 1.968027 = 1.148. Based on the results of the t test and Cohen’s d, the null hypothesis (H0) was rejected. The statistical analysis indicated a significant difference in terms of the performance of the pupils after the use of Kahoot! in learning present tense verbs. The respondents were able to reinforce their learning via Kahoot!. The results confirmed that Kahoot! reinforced the present tense verb learning of young ESL learners.

5. Conclusion In the context of the present study, Kahoot! has been indicated to have a positive effect on grammar learning, in which a significant difference exists between the scores of the pupils before and after the learning session on the present tense, leading to the discussion of several implications. The findings suggest that gamification can enhance the teaching and learning experience and is thus, a suitable tool for ESL lessons. It provides thought provoking ideas into the effectiveness of using Kahoot! in teaching grammar for young learners. Although the findings cannot be generalised to the entire population, they offer an exciting insight into the effectiveness of using Kahoot! in teaching grammar. Based on the findings, the following recommendations are offered for future research. This study serves as a starting point for subsequent research on different grammatical items, particularly for young learners at the age of 7 or 8 with large sample size. However, future studies may consider including a control group whenever possible to reduce external threats and to strengthen the research design. The study has also discussed infrastructure readiness as a main concern. A secure and stable Internet connection is crucial to execute the lesson successfully. Every school, either in rural or urban areas, should be well equipped with a computer laboratory/room to meet the demands of 21st century learning. Kahoot! maybe an inappropriate online learning platform for schools in rural areas due to poor Internet connectivity and the lack of information and technology infrastructure. Educators may further explore the possibilities which Kahoot! has to offer to deal with 21st century learners, but they should carefully develop the content of the lessons in terms of the degree of difficulty and the nature of their students when considering this method. While such recommendations are made, interested parties must be aware that educators, learners and governments play a significant role in generating conducive, contemporary and relevant learning environments suited for the current generation.

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. such as leaderboards, points, feedback, performance graphs and social elements/community collaboration (Flores 2015). Bullard and Anderson (2014) and Wichadee and Pattanapichet (2018) further stated that gamified learning, such as Kahoot!, manages to improve the achievement of learners concerning the pre test and post test carried out. Besides, Zarzycka Piskorz (2016) determined that Kahoot! could motivate learners to learn grammar. Concerning to the study by Rao (2014), he states that the effectiveness of using games to improve learners’ achievement, lies in the engagement of learners towards learning and playing at the same time. Online language games are valuable to the 21st century learning as students are able to improve their grammar in ESL with the assistance of the online language games (Mullins & Sabberwal, 2018; Leaning, 2015). Moreover, it can be said that students love something different in their typical classroom setting. Their learning motivation will increase too (Castaneda & Cho, 2016). This study also verified the statement made by Hussein (2015). He stated that this accomplishment might also be driven by the lowered affective filter triggered by the notion of gamification because learning grammar is somehow distressing to most second language learners.

24 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. 6. Acknowledgements We would like to express our gratitude to the administrators of SK Puchong for allowing us to carry out the study, the Sponsorship Division, Ministry of Education Malaysia for the scholarships awarded. Much thanks are also due to the Ministry of Higher Education Malaysia Grant FRGS/1/2018/SS09/UKM/02/1. 7. References Ang, L. H., & Tan, K. H. (2018). Specificity in English for Academic Purposes (EAP): A Corpus Analysis of Lexical Bundles in Academic Writing. 3L The Southeast Asian Journal of English Language Studies, 24(2), 82 94. https://doi.org/10.17576/3l 2018 2402 07 Azar, B. S. (2006). Understanding and Using English Grammar. Pearson Longman. Azmi, N. (2017). The Benefits of Using ICT in the EFL Classroom: From Perceived Utility to Potential Challenges. Journal of Educational and Social Research, 7(1), 111 118. https://doi.org/10.5901/jesr.2017.v7n1p111 Bullard, S. B., & Anderson, N. (2014). “I’ll Take Commas for $200: An Instructional Intervention Using Games to Help Students Master Grammar Skills.” Journalism & Mass Communication Educator, 69(1), 5 16. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077695813518778 Byrne, R. (2013, November 4). Kahoot Create Quizzes and Surveys Your Students Can Answer on Any Device. Free Technology for Teachers. Retrieved from http://www.freetech4teachers.com/2013/11/kahoot create quizzes and surveys your.html#.VLnc78buzuU Caponetto, I., Earp, J., & Ott, M. (2014). Gamification and Education: A Literature Review. In Proceedings of the 8th European Conference on Games Based Learning (ECGBL) (pp. 50 57). Berlin: Academic Conferences and Publishing Castaneda,International.D.A.,&Cho, M. H. (2016). Use of a game like application on a mobile device to improve accuracy in conjugating Spanish verbs. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 29(7). Cheong, C., Cheong, F., & Filippou, J. (2013, June). Quick Quiz: A Gamified Approach for Enhancing Learning. In PACIS (p. 206). Cross, D. (2000). A Practical Handbook of Language Teaching. Longman. Darus, S., & Subramaniam, K. (2009). Error Analysis of the Written English Essays of Secondary School Students in Malaysia: A Case Study. European Journal of Social Sciences, 8(3), 483 495. Denny, P. (2013, April). The effect of virtual achievements on student engagement. In Proceedings of the SIGCHI conference on human factors in computing systems (pp. 763 772). Paris, France Deterding, S., Dixon, D., Khaled, R., & Nacke, L. (2011). In the Proceedings of the CHI '11: CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, Association for Computing Machinery. Vancouver BC, Canada Dong, T., Dontcheva, M., Joseph, D., Karahalios, K., Newman, M., & Ackerman, M. (2012, May). Discovery based games for learning software. In the Proceedings of the SIGCHI conference on human factors in computing systems (pp. 2083 2086). Texas, USA Dörnyei, Z. (2007) Research Methods in Applied Linguistics: Quantitative, Qualitative and Mixed Methodologies. Oxford University Press.

25 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Ebbinghaus, H. (1885). About memory: studies on experimental psychology. Duncker & Humblot. Flores, J. F. F. (2015). Using Gamification to Enhance Second Language Learning. Digital Education Review, 27(21), 32 54. Hussein, B. (2015). A Blended Learning Approach to Teaching Project Management: A Model for Active Participation and Involvement: Insights from Norway. Education Sciences, 5(2), 104 125. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci5020104 Kapp, K. M. (2012). The gamification of learning and instruction: game based methods and strategies for training and education. John Wiley & Sons. Khaleel, F. S., Ashaari, N. S., Meriam, T. S., Wook, T., & Ismail, A. (2016). The Architecture of Dynamic Gamification Elements Based Learning Content. Journal of Convergence Information Technology (JCIT), 11(3), 164 177. Leaning, M. (2015). A Study of the Use of Games and Gamification to Enhance Student Engagement, Experience and Achievement on a Theory Based Course of an Undergraduate Media Degree. Journal of Media Practice, 16(2), 1 16. Li, W., Grossman, T., & Fitzmaurice, G. (2012, October). GamiCAD: a gamified tutorial system for first time autocad users. In the Proceedings of the 25th annual ACM symposium on User interface software and technology (pp. 103 112). United States. Masruddin, M. (2019). Omission: Common Simple Present Tense Errors in Students’ Writing of Descriptive Text. Ethical Lingua: Journal of Language Teaching and Literature, 6(1), 30 39. Ministry of Education Malaysia. (2013). Malaysia Education Blueprint 2013 2025 (Preschool to Post Secondary Education). Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia. Misbah, N. H., Mohamad, M., Yunus, M. M., & Ya’acob, A. (2017). Identifying the Factors Contributing to Students’ Difficulties in the English Language Learning. Creative Education, 8(13), 1999 2008. Mullins, J. K., & Sabherwal, R. (2018). Beyond Enjoyment: A Cognitive Emotional Perspective of Gamification. In the Proceedings of the 51st Hawaii International Conference on System Science. Waikoloa Village, Hawaii: USA. Murphy, R. (1998). Essential Grammar in Use. Cambridge University Press. Murthy, D. J. (2003). Contemporary English Grammar. Shivam Printers. O’Grady, W. (2006). The Problem of Verbal Inflection in Second Language Acquisition In the Proceedings of the 11th Conference of Pan Pacific Association of Applied Linguistics. Pacific Association of Applied Linguistics 2003. Kangwon National University, Korea, July 27 29, 2006 Pinker, S., & Ullman, M. T. (2002). The past and future of the past tense. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 6(11), 456 463. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1364 6613(02)01990 3 Poondej, C., & Lerdpornkulrat, T. (2016). The development of gamified learning activities to increase student engagement in learning. Australian Educational Computing, 31(2), 1 16. Rao, R. K. (2014). Enhancing Student’s Grammar by using Games: A Practical Classroom Experience. International Journal of Academic Research, 1(3). Singh, C. K. S., Jageer Singh, A. K., Abd Razak, N. Q., & Ravinthar, T. (2017). Grammar Errors Made by ESL Tertiary Students in Writing. English Language Teaching, 10(5), 16. https://doi.org/10.5539/elt.v10n5p16 Siswoyo. (2016). Students’ Error in Using Simple Present Tense Mastery. English Education: Jurnal Tadris Bahasa Inggris, 9(2), 461 479. Swan, M. (2000). Practical English Usage. Oxford University Press. Stapa, S. H., & Izahar, M. M. (2010). Analysis of errors in subject verb agreement among Malaysian ESL learners. 3L: The Southeast Asian Journal of English Language

26 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Studies, 16(1), 1 18. Tan, P. Q., & Tan, K. H. (2020). In Game Instructions: The Extent of Their Usefulness in Enhancing the Vocabulary Acquisition of ESL Learners. International Journal of Emerging Technologies in Learning, 14(4) Tuan, L., & Doan, N. (2010). Teaching English grammar through games. Studies in Literature and Language, 1(7), 61 75. Wichadee, S., & Pattanapichet, F. (2018). Enhancement of Performance and Motivation Through Application of Digital Games in an English Language Class. Teaching English with Technology, 18(1), 77 92. Yolageldili, G., & Arikan, A. (2011). Effectiveness of Using Games in Teaching Grammar to Young Learners. Elementary Education Online, 10(1), 219 229. Yunus, M. M. (2018). Innovation in Education and Language Learning in 21st Century. Journal of Sustainable Development Education and Research, 2(1), 33 34. Zarzycka Piskorz, E. (2016). Kahoot It or Not? Can Games be Motivating in Learning Grammar? Teaching English with Technology, 16(3),17 36.

Effectiveness and Stakeholders’ Perceptions of the Integration of Automated E-Learning Courses into Vocational Education Programmes in Universities in Ukraine

Valentyna I. Bobrytska National Pedagogical Dragomanov University, Kyiv, Ukraine http://orcid.org/0000-0002-1742-0103

Tatyana D. Reva Bogomolets National Medical University, Kyiv, Ukraine http://orcid.org/0000-0002-3367-5931

Svitlana M. Protska National Pedagogical Dragomanov University, Kyiv, Ukraine http://orcid.org/0000 0002 9212 8700 Oksana M. Chkhalo Bogomolets National Medical University, Kyiv, Ukraine http://orcid.org/0000 0002 8874 4674

Abstract. The purpose of this research was to identify whether the integration of the automated vocational e courses into vocational education could bring the students to the same academic achievements as the tutor moderated ones, and whether the stakeholders of education perceive the automation of e learning positively or negatively, and what impact factors triggered their perceptions. The baseline study used the e course evaluation checklist to assess the e course structure and content from eight randomly selected universities. Four hundred and four students and thirty one instructors participated inthe baseline study, first pilot, and core experiment. The instruments utilised to monitor the variables in the pilots were as follows: the sampled students’ academic records, a Criteria Cognitive Aptitude Test, a Rasch Measurement Model, and the Kolb’s Learning Style Questionnaire. The IBM SPSS Statistics 5.0.0.1. Software package was used to process the data drawn for the above measurements. The above measurements were followed by the focus group and nine education stakeholders’ perceptions analyses using the Triangle Assessment Method. The study provided new evidence that automated e course delivery can lead to approximately the same statistically significant improvements in the students’ vocational competence, academic motivation, and learning styles proving that it

The literature review found that theory, methods, quality assurance and effectiveness issues of vocational education in universities in Ukraine are thoroughly investigated and revealed (Bobrytska, 2015; Bobrytska, 2017) in terms of reshaping and adjusting it to the international job market, and making it more ‘real life friendly.’ (Tsymbaliuk, Shkoda & Artiushyna, 2019). The literature review found an extensive body of research revealing the use of technology in educational settings. The relevant and credible works show that there is the relationship between the use of information communication technology (ICT) and

It is also a trend driven innovation (CommLab India, 2020) that meets the principles of the current educational policy of Ukraine (Bobrytska, 2015; Bobrytska, 2017; Reva, 2017) and requirements associated with education accessibility, affordability, and effectiveness (Chivu et al , 2018) Besides, it is consistent with the ideas of both a new paradigm of 21st century education (Cunningham, 2019) and robotics based education (Alimisis, 2020). Interestingly, the recent developments in Speech and Language Technology (SLT), AuthorIT & TutorIT technologies have made it possible to substitute a human run learning environment losing no instructional quality and ensuring high cost effectiveness (Delić et al., 2019; Cernak, Asaei & Hyafil, 2018; Scandura, 2010; Scandura, 2016).

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. might be considered to be a feasible instructional tool. Additionally, it suggested that the use of automated educational e course assisted by a virtual agent had been a more cost efficient option.

The letter inspired this study and created a research gap as the study found insufficient limits of information on the use of virtual tutor’s assistants in the course delivered on the Moodle platform.

1. Introduction

The integration of the automated e learning courses in the vocational education is gradually becoming a preferred cost efficient option for tertiary institutions worldwide and in Ukraine, but an instructional challenge for the teachers (Latchem, 2017; Diachenko et al., 2019; Katambur, 2019) This trend is consistent with the fifth generation distance education model (The Intelligent Flexible Learning Model) that is featured with the tools of interactive, internet based, technology mediated communication (Moller, Robison & Huett, 2012). The model can provide the learners with the conventional-like quality of education for a significantly lower cost (Mirrlees & Alvi, 2020) The greatest challenge for the educators who have been recently forced to design and deliver the distance courses is a struggle to create and work online learning environment caused by a lack of computer skills. The teachers are supposed to apply more constructivists pedagogies based on new tools, approaches, and methods (Iskander, Kapila & Karim, 2010). Additionally, instructors are reluctant to shift to the use of the distance learning models, especially automated ones, as this shift entails teachers and institutions getting rid of traditional classroom instruction followed by losing jobs by teachers (Dovbenko et al., 2020).

Keywords: vocational education programme; e courses automation; vocational competence; academic motivation; learning styles

Literature review

The research questions were as follows: 1) what delivery structure of the vocational e courses at universities are commonly used at universities in Ukraine; 2) whether that structure is appropriate to train students’ vocational competence; 3) how the automated educational e courses integrated into vocational disciplines influences students’ vocational competence, academic motivation, and learning styles; 4) how the stakeholders of education perceive the automation of e learning and what factors trigger their perceptions.

Though this research problem is quite trendy, it is underrepresented in the literature, specifically from a pedagogical perspective. Therefore, the purpose of this research was to identify whether the integration of automated educational courses into vocational education programmes in universities in Ukraine could be effective and perceived positively by education stakeholders.

2. Research methodology

The study attempted to answer the research questions in the course of the core experiment that was proceeded by a baseline study and a pilot study. It was divided into four stages to have used different designs and methods (see Fig. 1) Research Design

students’ academic performance, educational self efficacy determined by the ability to navigate in the flow of information, to acquire new knowledge, to self develop professionally (Bobrytska, 2015; Bobrytska & Protska, 2017; Bobrytska & Protska, 2018; Chkhalo, n.d.; Saxena, 2017; Balali, Ahmadi, Tabatabaei & Hassani, 2018; Basri, Alandejani & Almadani, 2018).

A descriptive research design was employed to complete a baseline study, which was the first stage of the research by utilising quantitative methods. A quasi experimental research design relying on pre testing post testing procedures was utilised in the first pilot and the core experiment. The latter both relied on a mixed methods approach to monitor changes in the dependent variables and perceptions. The fourth stage was analytical that used statistical methods to process data, interpret the results, and draw conclusions. The sampled students’ vocational competence, academic motivation, and learning styles were the

The irruption of Intelligent Tutoring Systems and Artificial Linguistic Internet Computer Entity (A.L.I.C.E.) gave rise to emerging breaking educational projects (Smutny & Schreiberova, 2020; Laurillard, 2013; Holotescu, 2016; Garrett, 2017; Fadhil & Villafiorita, 2017) based on the use of the Facebook Messenger (Smutny & Schreiberova, 2020). Furthermore, educational projects to teach learners a language are coming into practice. They are using a conversational chatbot substituting a teacher and based on Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) systems used as a media (Shawa, 2018). The chatbot can reproduce a standardized dialogue by using a series of written or verbalised messages that can substate the human teacher's lesson delivery. After such a class (a lecture or a presentation, or a lab explainer) the chatbot can assign a student with a multiple choice test or quiz, immediately check it and forward the results to the teacher or the course moderator. It reduces the teacher’s workload and helps the one to engage students in the learning and collaboration process. A chatbot also can track students’ information inquiries to be further used to update the content of the e course (Farkash, 2018).

The first pilot lasted from September of 2018 to the end of January of 2019. It was run at three randomly selected institutions, which were as follows: National Pedagogical Drahomanov University (NPDU), Bogomolets National Medical

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. dependent variables for the pilot study. The above outlined variables were kept under systematic review in the core experiment and perceptions of different stakeholders were examined after completing the intervention The perceptions of automated educational e course delivery were studied in the core experiment.

The baseline study was conducted at eight leading and highly rated universities in Ukraine from January to the end of May of 2018. Those were National Pedagogical Drahomanov University (NPDU), Bogomolets National Medical University (BNMU), Borys Grinchenko Kyiv University (BGKU), Kyiv National Economic University (KNEU), Kyiv National University of Technologies and Design (KNUTD), Kyiv National University of Construction and Architecture (KNUCA), Lviv Polytechnic National University (LPNU), and V. N. Karazin Kharkiv National University (KKNU). The consent for running the study was obtained from the Institutional Scientific Review Boards of all universities prior to the intervention. The purpose of the study was to analyse scientific and methodological approaches used to develop e courses in different vocational tertiary schools, to examine (mutually considered) best practices of organising and administrating online component of the vocational training, and to specify the structure of e courses placed on the MOODLE platform. To meet the purpose of the study, two existing online course checklists developed by Federation University (Australia) (n.d.) and Winthrop University (USA) (n.d.) were adapted and refined for the use in this study to evaluate the structure of the course and instructional methods. They were chosen because they comply with Standards and Guidelines for Quality Assurance in the European Higher Education Area (ESG), Articles: 1.2 (Design and approval of programmes), 1.3 (Student centred learning, teaching, and assessment), 1.6 (Learning resources and student support) (ESG, 2015).

StudyBaseline •runinstitutionstheAcademicstheconsentObtaningfromBoardofoftothestudy •checklistusingtheExaminingecoursesa •conclusionsDrawing pilotFirst •Running the moderatedtutor e courses at institutionsthree •posttestingthroughtheMonitoringvariablespreandtesting •Data analysis and interpretation ExperimentCore •E course in automationPedagogicsGeneral •posttestingthroughtheMonitoringvariablespreandtesting •Studying stakeholdersdifferentperceptionsthe of education stageAnalytical •processingData •conclusionsDrawing

Figure 1: Abstract Research Design Research Participants and Procedure

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. University (BNMU), Borys Grinchenko Kyiv University (BGKU). The purpose of this part of the experiment was to identify how the revised and updated e courses impacted on the students’ vocational competence (comprising their abilities to communicate to solve problems, obtain and use new information thinking critically), academic motivation, and learning styles compared to conventional course delivery. The e courses in “Educational policy” (NPDU), “Analytical Chemistry” (BNMU) and “General Pedagogy” (BGKU) were chosen for the experiment for being specialism related, for being 4 ETCS credits long and for corresponding to the course design requirements developed in the online course checklists for the baseline study.

The population of the students sampled for the first pilot experiment was 358 students seeking Master’s Degree in Education (Speciality ref. 01 “Education”), Medicine (Speciality ref. 226 “Pharmacy, industrial pharmacy”) and Philology (Speciality ref. 035 “Philology”). The students were recruited from the first and the second semesters of the above programmes. This number was used to form the experimental (EG) and control groups (CG) at each university. The demographics of the groups were as follows: NPDU 15 people in the EG and 15 people in the CG; BNMU 68 students in the EG and 68 students in the CG; BGKU 98 students in the EG and 99 students in the CG. 73% of the sampled students were females aged between 22 and 24, and 27% of the participants were males of the same age. Core experiment procedure At this stage, the study attempted to test the educational effectiveness of the automated e learning course and to examine the education stakeholders’ perceptions of it. This stage lasted from September of 2019 to the end of January 2020. Two IT Department specialists for National Pedagogical Drahomanov University were involved in the automation of the “General Pedagogy” e course. The reason for the choice was that this course is in Pedagogics is compulsory for Masters’ Degree students of all majors in Ukraine and these study outcomes could be easily disseminated Dialogflow chatbot (formerly known as API.ai) was programmed to serve as a virtual tutor’s assistant in the course delivered on the Moodle platform. The chatbot was expected to verbalise lectures, commonly used instructions to engage the students into a learning process, give feedback, and answer to FAQ, evaluate the students’ progress. Those were based on the database of FAQ, solutions to typical issues that could arise in the learning process in the pilot study. The content and structure of the automated course were identical to those in the pilot study.

A randomised sampling technique was used to form the EG and the CG to participate in the core experiment. Forty six students seeking Masters’ Degree in Education National Pedagogical Drahomanov University volunteered and gave informed consent to be involved in the study. Both groups were of the same number of people the EG counted 23 persons (15 female 18 19 year olds and 8 male 18 19 year olds) and the CG comprised 23 students (14 females aged 22 24 and 9 males aged 21 24). The groups were mutually homogeneous as the sampled students were of the similar majors and from the same cohort (educational group).

Sampling for the core experiment

Instrument reliability

4) Would you recommend your friends to buy an automated course? What fee could be charged for such a course, in your view? The Triangle Assessment Method (TAM) (Pérez Rodríguez & Rojo Alboreca, 2017) was applied to analyse education stakeholders’ perceptions. The reason for choosing this method was the fact that it involves a comparison of trios rather than pairs of elements that allows increasing the representativeness of the analyses, reducing bias that might result from the repetitive judgements. Nine volunteers (education stakeholders) were involved in the criterion weighting procedure. Those criteria were as follows: convenience, cost efficiency, effectiveness, innovativeness, technological complicatedness. The education stakeholders expressed their degree of uncertainty associated with each criterion using the five point scale from 1 meaning ‘relatively low degree of uncertainty’ to 5 referring to ‘total uncertainty’.

1) How did you feel about doing an automated course? Why?

The checklist used in the baseline study consisted of 68 items distributed under the headings as follows: 1) clear and consistent curriculum design and delivery; 2) clear objectives and outcomes; 4) the content is consistent to the objectives and outcomes; 3) an interface design; 5) a difficulty progression based structure; 6) a teacher student (student teacher) support and communication provision; 7) variety of strategies for content delivery and student engagement; 8) assessment. Three statistics experts examined and made amendments to the questionnaire so that criterion validity, construct validity, and face validity was ensured. Each item was assigned a code. Before applied, it had been administered to three randomly selected online courses. This was followed by the experts’ discussion of the results and overall validity of the instrument. The interrater reliability was measured using the Intraclass Correlation Coefficient (ICC). The obtained value for all checklist scores was 0.68 (95% CI=0.59 0.72). The internal reliability of the checklist was measured utilising Cronbach’s alpha and ranged from 0.62 to 0.77 for eight universities. The Cronbach Alpha was used to measure the reliability of

Focus group interview questions:

3) How did the course influence you in terms of your learning experience? What were the benefits specifically?

The instruments used in the research were as follows: the e course evaluation checklist; the sampled students’ academic records (AR); a Criteria Cognitive Aptitude Test (CCAT, n.d.); a Rasch Measurement Model (RMM) (Njiru, 2003); Kolb’s Learning Style Questionnaire (LSQ) (2005 2006; Kolb & Kolb, 2013). The IBM SPSS Statistics 25.0.0.1. Software package was used to process the data drawn for the above measurements. The focus group interview based on four open ended questions was administered to study the perceptions of both students and tutors of the automated format of the course delivery. The interviews were recorded and manually processed by three team members.

2) What caused you to feel like that specifically? Why?

Twelve volunteers (6 males and 5 females) from the EG were randomly hired for the interview after the experiment. Research instruments

3. Results

The baseline study found that a common theoretical framework for the e course design at those universities was based on such approaches as systematic, competency based, personality oriented, and task based, which indicated the dominance of practical orientation and personification in the organisation and administration of the distance education process. The typical elements for the MOODLE platform based course structure at the above institutions were as follows: a) information about the course (course overview) (the student finds a course guide, a syllabus, the assessment criteria for completed tasks, etc.); b) lectures (a student is provided access to both PDF document versions and presentations); c) assignments for seminars (a student fulfils the assignment themself and a tutor (a course moderator) provides feedback electronically); d) assignments for practical classes (a student fulfils the assignments themself and get feedback from the tutor electronically); e) a block of self study work; f) an assessment block (tests are administered electronically and cover specific topics, modules or the whole course) (see Fig. 2). The structure of the e course may vary depending on the specificity of teaching methods used to deliver certain academic discipline and technological capabilities of the information system of the institution. Recommendations, which were an outcome of the baseline study, were used in three institutions to revise and improve the existing e courses. Those institutions were National Pedagogical Drahomanov University (NPDU), Bogomolets National Medical University (BNMU), Borys Grinchenko Kyiv University (BGKU). The automated educational e course was designed based on the above structure and was used in the first pilot and core experiment. At the first pilot stage, both the sampled students’ academic records (AR) and a Criteria Cognitive Aptitude Test (CCAT) were administered to assess students’ vocational competence. The academic motivation was measured by a Rasch Measurement Model (RMM). The changes in students’ learning styles were measured through Kolb’s Learning Style Questionnaire (LSQ). The results of the measurements are presented in Table 1.

The focus group interview relied on the strategy developed by Krueger and Casey (2015). It used opening, introductory, transition, core, and ending questions. Three statistics experts examined and made amendments to the questionnaire so that it ensured criterion validity, construct validity, and face validity. Every interview was recorded and transcribed. The coding procedure was performed to the themes that have appeared from the interview. The IBM SPSS Statistics software was used to process the responses. The Chi square was utilised to analyse qualitative data.

Kolb’s Learning Style Questionnaire. The alpha coefficients were between .83 and .86, which fits the estimated values to be higher than .81 (Kolb & Kolb, 2013).

.47 .52

.64 .74

Axis Group Mean Alfa �� Test B A B A B A �� AR EG 7.73 9.32 2.669 2.879 2.4371 0.0001CG 7.59 8.81 CCAT EG 13.23 18.23 2.157 2.313 1.5119 0.0029CG 13.22 15.34 RMM EG 15.16 17.43 2.557 2.699 1.3332 0.0015CG 15.28 16.21 LSQ EG 12.43 15.36 3.167 3.332 3.2367 0.0073 CG 12.38 13.98

.52 .62

Video content should be prerequisite Assignments for seminars Visualised data, infographics should be prerequisite Assignments for practical classes Webinars, video and audio content (for example, Analytical Chemistry) are recommended Self study block Educational pupose cloud services and resources that are adised to be integrated Assessment block

.67 .72

.42 .57

Note: B Before the Educational Intervention; A After the Educational Intervention; AR academicrecords;CCAT CriteriaCognitiveAptitudeTest; RMM RaschMeasurement Model; LSQ Learning Style Questionnaire. As can be seen, the mean values from all measurements as well as Cronbach’s Alpha figures improved, which indicated that the e courses had triggered a more significant change in the variables than the conventional learning mode. The �� value of 0.001 for AR is statistically significant meaning that overall students’ academic performance is quite high. StructureCourse overviewCourse Adding a course glossary is required

Figure 2: The e course structure with recommendations on improvements resulted from the baseline study

.47 .59

.52 .77

Lectures

The continuous updating of test questions to alow students to self control achevenets in diciplines is recommended; Note: for BNMU when "KROK"© licenced test is taken, the originally developed assessment system is used

.41 .48

Table 1: Mean values from AR, CCAT, RMM and LSQ measurements, Cronbach’s alpha, t-test, and p values (in the EG and CG, before and after the educational intervention)

Elementary level Basic level Advanced level

Figure 3: The assessment results of the students’ vocational competence using the three level scale

To enhance the reliability of the study results, the three level scale was developed to assess the students’ vocational competence. The scale included “Elementary level”, “Basic level”, and “Advanced level”. The measurements were administered in both groups. The results are presented in Fig. 3.

The data in Figure 3 indicated that due to the e courses the students experienced a positive change in their vocational competence. It implied that the educational process, in general, in NPDU, BNMU, and BGKU improved as well. It was statistically proved by the Pearson consistency criterion (χ²). It was found that the difference between the groups before the experiment and after the experiment was statistically significant (respectively ��²=343 and ��²=922). The mean value of ��2 =6.32 with �� =0.05 and the figure for �� = 2. The core experiment results

beforeNPDUthe interventi on interventiafterNPDUtheon beforeBNMUthe interventi on interventiafterBNMUtheon beforeBGKUthe interventi on interventipostBGKUtheon Elementary level 39.33% 25.72% 45.23% 28.42% 40.44% 27.92% Basic level 49.14% 47.87% 41.14% 45.54% 47.54% 50.76% Advanced level 11.53% 22.15% 13.63% 26.04% 12.02% 21.32% 60.00%50.00%40.00%30.00%20.00%10.00%0.00%

Overall, the results of measurement to have been administered after completion of the automation of the “General Pedagogy” e course at the stage of the core experiment showed that both sampled groups (EG and CG) experience almost the same change in variables as they had in the first pilot study. It implied that the automated educational e course could be as efficient as the tutor moderated one. The results that were drawn from AR, CCAT, RMM, and LSQ measurements before and after completing the automated e course presented in Table 2.

36 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Table 2: Mean values from AR, CCAT, RMM and LSQ measurements, Cronbach’s alpha, t test, and p values (in the EG and CG, before and after completing the automated e-course) Axis Group Mean Alfa �� Test B A B A B A �� AR EG 7.29 8 92 .41 49 2.548 2.835 2.1199 0.0003CG 7.31 7 91 .43 .47 CCAT EG 12 15 17 93 .46 .55 2.246 2.412 1.6712 0.0017CG 12.18 14.94 .45 .54 RMM EG 16.76 17.51 .54 .73 2.479 2.572 1.3592 0.0018CG 16 81 15 87 .53 .68 LSQ EG 13 76 16 81 .61 67 3.254 3.412 3.5134 0.0032 CG 13 69 14.85 .63 68 Note: B Before the Educational Intervention; A After the Educational Intervention; AR academicrecords;CCAT CriteriaCognitiveAptitudeTest; RMM RaschMeasurement Model; LSQ Learning Style Questionnaire. The three level scale based assessment results of the NPDU students’ vocational competence are presented in Figure 4. Figure 4: The assessment results of the students’ vocational competence using the three level scale before and after completing the automated e course Figure 4 reveals that the change in the students’ vocational competence was even more noteworthy that in the pilot study. Table 3: Focus group interview results (EG students, ��=��, �� =��) #Q Responses Frequency, % 1 I felt comfortable 53 I felt engaged and guided personally through the course 35 I felt quite overloaded 12 2 I liked the opportunity to try out different learning approaches 28 0.00% 10.00% 20.00% 30.00% 40.00% 50.00% 60.00% NPDU prior to the intervention NPDU post the interventionNPDUprior to the intervention NPDU post the intervention Advanced level 9.48% 31.01% Basic level 49.14% 43.71% Elementary level 41.38% 25.28% Advanced level Basic level Elementary level

37 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. I liked the immediate feedback 17 The course was easy to follow and interesting 14 A course virtual assistant was really helpful to me 31 The course was flexible and interactive 11 Theoretical questions took much time to learn and were diffusely formulated 9 3 I have improved my team working skills 24 I have improved technology mediated communication skills 36 I answer questions quicker 19 I have become more self confidant as a learner 21 4 Of course, I would. The fee could be $5 to 10. 38 I’m not sure. 13 The course could be worth market value. 49 The above responses showed a generally positive perception of the chatbot assisted delivery of the e course. The results of the triangle assessment method presented in Fig. 5 relied on education stakeholders’ judgements on convenience, cost efficiency, effectiveness, innovativeness, technological complicatedness of the automated e course delivery. Those stakeholders were as follows: two students, two teachers, three university representatives, and two representatives of the students’ future professional field. Figure 5: Distribution of the education stakeholders’ judgements on weighting the criteria Convenience Cost-efficiency Effectiveness Innovativeness complicatedneTechnologicalss Stakeholder 1 0.32 1.32 1.26 2.11 0.41 Stakeholder 2 1.15 1.13 1.47 2.14 0.62 Stakeholder 3 0.87 0.78 1.87 0.19 1.98 Stakeholder 4 0.23 0.82 1.56 0.24 2.21 Stakegolder 5 0.24 0.91 2.53 0.57 1.76 Stakeholder 6 0.37 1.28 2.57 0.64 1.91 Stakeholder 7 1.27 1.62 1.78 0.76 2.82 Stakeholder 8 1.19 1.32 1.75 0.79 2.67 Stakeholder 9 1.22 1.53 1.76 1.19 2.11 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

The study tested and proved that the use of automated e course assisted by a virtual agent was feasible in terms of educational and instructional effectiveness, convenience, innovativeness, and, especially, cost efficiency. It was found in the core experiment that the EG students experienced almost the same change in their vocational competence, academic motivation, and learning styles after completing the automated e course as they did in the human tutor moderated one. Theresults of the measurements of AR, CCAT, RMM, and LSQ before and after the educational intervention showed an average growth of 16% growth. This was supported by the three-level-scale-based assessment and figures for responses of the focus group students. The education stakeholders’ judgments were also suggestive. They expressed consent regarding the convenience of the automated education e course for both students and teachers and its cost efficiency for the institutions. Their views are supported by the responses from the focus group interview. Fifty three percent of those interviewed stated that they felt comfortable about the automated format of the course delivery and thirty five percent spoke positively about the way they had been engaged and guided personally through the course. The common interviewees’ quotes were: [… It was more like a game to play for me. I was just supposed to go to another level…] [… no hypo critics, no teacher dominance, no anyone to blame for my failures or […flexiblemistakes…]workinghours, fewer students skipping the classes, easier and simpler classroom management…] [… I could take time to examine the topic and recheck my results…] [… in the beginning, I suffered from the challenge, but after a while was proud of myself for meeting it…] With regard to cost efficiency, the respondents stated that [… it could be cheap $5 to 10 could be charged for the whole course...] [ … the automated course is, for sure, far cheaper than the classroom […onelearning…] time money and time investment, can be included in the course library and sold …]

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. As can be seen in Figure 5, the education stakeholders’ judgments appeared to be quite dispersed for each criterion. However, they showed unanimity and low level of hesitation in their judgements concerning convenience, effectiveness, and innovativeness of the automated e courses in the tertiary school settings. The stakeholders’ views on the innovativeness of the automated learning were also different ranging from students’ low level of uncertainty of judgments perception of this delivery format to ‘relative lack of uncertainty of judgment’ among the university representatives The views on the technological complicatedness of automation of the educational e course also varied widely among the stakeholders. Thus, the stakeholders seemed to be certain that the automated e course delivery was relatively convenient for students and teachers, cost efficient for the institution, effective as a means of instruction, though technologically complex from the perspective of the institutional representatives and employers.

4. Discussion

5. Conclusion

The core experiment results met the purpose of the study and complied with previous research on methods of distance learning and teaching in HEIs, design of materials for distance courses, automation of educational support, use of a virtual assistant in the e course, the use of smart technologies in vocational training. The study is consistent with the theoretical concepts of distance teaching of Burger (2015) stating that the students’ results in learning improve due to the application of the individualised training approach and regular student interactions. It goes in line with Kennepohl (2018), who reviewed best practices and teaching tools used in higher e education instruction, and concluded that distance learning ‘create flexible and accessible learning environments moving the emphasis from [memorising] the content to [fulfilling] activities.’

The study agrees with Ishii and Tamaki (2009), who evidentiated that the automation of education had an effect on ‘educational psychology and educational technology’. According to Smutny and Schreiberova (2020), chatbots served a gamification tool that increased students’ learning engagement, and the web sources guide providing links to certain learning content on the Internet.

The study has contributed to the growing literature investigating the integration of AI agents in the delivery of vocational e-courses Specifically, we provided new evidence that automated course delivery could lead to approximately the same statistically significant improvements in students’ vocational competence, academic motivation, and learning styles. This was supported by the results drawn from students’ academic records, the criteria cognitive aptitude test, the Rasch measurement model, and Kolb’s learning style questionnaire, before and after the educational intervention which showed an average growth of 16%. It suggests that this course delivery approach seems to be a feasible instructional tool that employs a wider range of pedagogical options of engaging students into learning. For example, the chatbot that was integrated into the automated e course encouraged students to solve educational problems through interaction and collaboration, evaluated their progress, and stimulated them to increase their academic performance and created an atmosphere of fun and enjoyment. At the same time, it was found that the use of automated e course assisted by a virtual agent had been a more economical option. Moreover, it was generally positively perceived by the education stakeholders involved in the assessment. However, further research is needed in the assessment of written assignments by a chatbot.

The results obtained from the triangle method based assessment comply with the findings of Wasfy et al. (2013), who calculated that a human teacher hourly rate varied between $30 to $100, and the automated course estimated cost was no more than $10 to $50 dollars per course per student Morales Menendez, Ramírez Mendoza and Guevara (2020) in respect of cost efficiency of automated learning and teaching emphasised that the latter required the low investment and operating costs The research boosted the theory and methods of automation of education (Ishii & Tamaki, 2009; Wasfy, 2013; Kennepohl, 2018; Diachenko et al., 2019). It made a contribution to the literature on the integration of chatbots in the vocational training process (Hajare et al., 2018; Diachenko et al., 2019; Smutny & Schreiberova, 2020) and the use of smart technologies and AI in tertiary education (Bobrytska, 2011; Zhu et al , 2016; Popenici & Kerr, 2017).

A third implication comes from the technological issues related to both the computer infrastructure and instructors’ computer literacy, which are prerequisites for the automation of the educational e course. There are several seeming limitations to the study that might cause constructive criticism. First, it is one higher educational institution that participated in the core experiment. Second, the number of sampled students to have participated in experiments and gender issues. Third, the bias of the members of the research team could be considered a limitation.

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Bobrytska, V. I. (2015). Educational policy of Ukraine in the field of informatisation of education, Educational Policy: Philosophy, Theory, Practice [monograph], Ed.: V. P. Andrushchenko, B. I. Andrusyshyn, V. I. Bobritskaya, R. M. Vernydub et al. National Pedagogic Drahomanov University, 273 316. Bobrytska, V. I. (2011). The use of ICT in higher teacher vocational education. Education in Pedagogics: Theory and Practice. Pedagogy. Psychology, 16(2), 35 39.

6. Practical implications and research limitations

Bobrytska, V. I., & Protska, S. M. (2017). Formation of professional competencies of future language teachers by means of computer oriented technologies. Information technology and training, 2(58), 59 66. Bobrytska, V. I., & Protska, S. M. (2018). Formation of professional competencies of the future teachers by means of a computer based methodology: investigational approach. Information technology and training, 5(67), 121 133.

7. Acknowledgements

A second noteworthy implication of the research derives from the finding the automated educational e course could provide the students with the same educational gains as the tutor moderated ones but for a much lower cost for the educational institution.

The major practical implication of the research is that it provides necessary empirical data about trends in the automation of the educational e learning courses, the optimum or most appropriate delivery structure of the vocational e courses at universities. The study provides insights into the education stakeholders’ perceptions of the automation of e learning and specifies factors triggering their views.

We warmly express gratitude to research team members and all people involved in the automated e course design so that this study could run smoothly.

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The course syllabus contains technical requirements for accessing the materials.

COURSE EVALUATION CHECKLIST

Consistency of the content to the andobjectivesoutcomes

Interface & course content design

23 Academic integrity and netiquette are addressed through guidelines for the students.

The course design complies with the requirements of the National Framework of Qualifications.

The learning objectives and outcomes are outlined before every module or unit or the class.

The brief overview of each module or unit or class including objectives, activities and resources is provided.

6 The course syllabus provides information about the expected involvement (attendance) for successful completion of the course online

The content is supported with evidence based explanations.

11 The learning objectives and outcomes are concise

4 The course syllabus provides information on expectations for submitting assignments electronically such as file format or resolution.

Clarity objectivesof and outcomes

21 The calendar of due dates for the assignments is posted.

Heading # Item Clarity consistencyand of deliverydesigncurriculumand

17 Each module or unit or class is supposed to bring the students to some measurable learning outcome.

12 The learning objectives are challenging but achievable.

2 The course syllabus meets the ISTE Standards teacher standards.

The content of each module or unit or class corresponds the learning objectives.

13 The learning outcomes are measurable.

The course syllabus providing course objective and learning outcomes is placed as PDF file.

7 The tutorial materials on how to start and how to navigate the course flow are given at the beginning.

20 The navigation is intuitive

24 The cross cultural context of education is incorporated in the course materials and bias free approach is ensured.

25 The content of the course is laid out and arranged in manageable portions like modules or units or classes.

5 The course syllabus clearly explains the grading system and policy.

22 The copyright issues related to the materials are addressed.

10 The course design complies with competency based approach.

9 The course complies with curriculum in the corresponding discipline.

19 The “Start Here” area is present.

The criteria for assessment are clear and do not cause misleading or confusion.

38 The tutor’s/instructor’s contact details like their phone number, Telegram or Viber or What’s up messengers, their email address are provided. 39 All instructional materials that are posted can be opened using free and accessible software with the links to access that software or app.

48 The course tutor’s expectations concerning the quality of student communications are clearly explained.

27 Each module or unit or class is structured according to a unified scheme 28 Each module or unit or class includes video content, assignments for seminar, assignments for practical classes, self study activities or research assignments.

Practical classes delivered through webinars are found.

The typical assignments for seminars are based on visualised data, infographics.

45 Weekly online group meetings or discussions are supposed. 46 The course uses gameplay design and mechanics to boost teacher student or student teacher communication.

basedprogressionDifficultystructure

40 The skills that are supposed to train are classified according to Bloom’s Taxonomy. 41 At the beginning of the course the assignments and activities are of reproductive type. At the end of the course the ones are aimed at generating content.

35 The course glossary is provided. 36 Learner support section is provided.

49 The course tutor supposes to respond students’ emails within 72 hours or less

The self study block uses educational purpose cloud services and resources 34 The links to supplemental software products are accessed from the course page.

42 Theprinciplesofself pacedlearningand self directedlearning are found. 43 The course design and materials incorporate different levels of mastery of the competencies. A provisioncommunicationsupportteacher)(studentstudentteacherand 44 The course builds learning community.

Each module or unit or class includes uses backward design to teach concepts and train skills that are related to both the subject and the real world experiences. 30 Lectures are recorded using the talking head style.

47 A teacher student (student teacher) support and communication is automated or semi automated.

Variety engagementandcontentstrategiesoffordeliverystudent 50 A variety of teaching techniques and methods are used to engage the student. 51 Active learning environment is supposed to be created. 52 Difficult terms and concepts are explained in more than one way. 53 The variety of online tools are used to deliver the course and to facilitate students’ in understanding the content and engagement.

37 All training materials are well formatted.

57 Group discussion postings, group projects, peer reviews are used to maintain the learner learner cooperation and communication.

66 The instructor’s verbal or written feedback option is included.

58 Essays, term papers, videos, self assessments, readings are used to engage students with content

54 Students learning styles are considered when they are assigned with the activities. Discussions, projects, simulations collaborative learning are used to engage and motivate the students.

67 The summative assessment is ensured. Assigning performance tasks is applied.

Assessment

59 The dosing of study workload is considered. 60 The module tests are found. The progress tests are found. Multiple types of assessments are frequently employed in the run of the course. The self checklists for the assignments are found.

56 Students’ self introduction, discussion postings with responses, providing project feedback are used as instructor(tutor) learner communication strategy.

64 Self and peer cross evaluation is used. The course evaluation form is provided.

Abstract. This research aims to determine the effectiveness of the Problem Based Learning(PBL) approachimplementationinchemistry instructional with the context of tofu wastewater treatment. This research used mixed methods with concurrent embedded research strategies and pre experiment one group pretest posttest design. The subject of this study consisted of one chemistry teacher as a presenter, three teachers as observers, and 34 Class XI students in a High School in Bandung Indonesia. The instruments were lesson plan evaluation format, student worksheet evaluation format, students’ skill and attitude observation format with a content validated rubric, and test items with the reliability coefficient of Kuder Richardson of 0.73. The research findings indicated that the PBL instructional planning strategy was classified as very good in terms of formulating learning outcomes, learning material compilation, and evaluation tools. The compilation of learning media and instructional stages were in good categories. Students’ performance displayed in all stages of PBL from problem identification to problem solving was categorized as good. The results also showed that students’ learning outcomes in understanding the concepts of tofu wastewater treatment increased from 50 (the average pre test score) to 85 (post test). The increase in learning outcomes was categorized medium with the N gain score of 0.67. Based on these findings and results, it can be concluded that instructional with the PBL approach can improve students’ learning processes and outcomes in chemistry learning.

Keywords: instruction; PBL; planning strategy; instruction implementation; tofu liquid waste treatment 1. Introduction In the 21st century, learning is intended to help humans have some skills, namely 1) thinking skills, 2) work skills, 3) skills in the use of technology,

47 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 5, pp. 47 77, May https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.5.20204 Implementation of Problem-Based Learning (PBL) Approach in Chemistry Instructional with Context of Tofu Liquid Waste Treatment Momo Rosbiono Kartamiharja, Wahyu Sopandi and Dini Anggraeni Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia, Indonesia https://orcid.org/0000 0001 6345 7399 https://orcid.org/0000 0002 1501 4064 https://orcid.org/0000 0002 8164 8807

Therefore, an innovative learning approach that is formed through the flow of constructivism is needed (Overton & Randles, 2013; Schell & Kaufman, 2015). One learning approach that is following the learning principle above is the Problem Based Learning approach (Direktorat Pembinaan Sekolah Menengah Atas, 2017). Problem Based Learning (PBL) was introduced at Case W. University School of Medicine in the United States around the 1950s (Üce & Ateş, 2016). PBL has student centered learning characteristics, where students carry out learning independently, identify the problems they will be working on and determine sources of information likes books, journals, internet, etc. (Savery, 2006). PBL is also done based on scenarios and adjusted to realistic or real problems which then makes students proficient in problem solving and group work (Gurses et al., 2015; Wijayanti & Wulandari, 2016). The PBL approach has the characteristics of problem submission, an interdisciplinary focus, official investigations, product production, as well as publication and collaboration (Arends, 2012). However, the use of PBL has not been optimized. The purpose of the PBL approach still lacks in learning; although it is implemented, PBL syntaxes are still not appropriate (Zulfaidhah, Palenewen & Hardoko, 2018). Tan Type, one type of PBL, has 5 steps, namely, step (1) meeting the problem, step (2) analyzing the problem and learning issues, step (3) discovery and reporting, step (4) presenting solution and reflection, and step (5) summarizing, integrating, and evaluating (Tan, 2003). The implementation of the PBL approach provides positive results for students, including research results from Aidoo, Pangaribuan and Pratiwi. In the research conducted by Aidoo, the experimental group had a higher chemistry achievement (Aidoo, 2016) and Pangaribuan (2016) found that students' mastery of concepts increased by 20.4%. In Pratiwi’s research, PBL was able to increase the percentage of students which reached the minimum score on redox material by 81.25% (Pratiwi, 2014). Viewed from the context of improving the quality of education, PBL can be used to improve learning systems and improve the students’ ability to solve problems (Sanjaya, 2006). Thus, learning with the PBL approach was chosen by researchers because it was able to improve students’ performance and understanding, help students understand problems in daily life, develop students’ knowledge, help them to be responsible for their learning (Wulandari, 2014) To implement PBL, instructional planning is needed. Instructional planning is a guide prepared by the teacher in the implementation of the learning process

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. information and developing literacy, 4) social responsibility and competency (Griffin & Care, 2015). Twenty first century skills can be obtained through education. Education is a conscious and planned effort so that students actively develop their potential (Depdiknas, 2003; Stivaktakis, 2017). The sustainability of Indonesian education is accommodated by the curriculum. The curriculum used is the 2013 curriculum with the principle of learning in which students begin to find out and teachers are not the only source of learning, meanwhile strengthening the use of scientific approaches and communication information technology (Depdikbud, No. 22, 2016).

2. Know students’ performance in the process of implementing the Problem Based Learning approach in learning with the context of tofu wastewater treatment.

2. Methods In this study, the method used is Mixed Methods, a research method that combines quantitative methods with qualitative methods (Creswell, 2009). The research strategy is Concurrent Embeddedwith the One GroupPretest Posttest research design, where one selected group is measured and observed before and after treatment (Ary, 2010). This research was conducted at a high school in Bandung, Indonesia. The selected research subjects were one chemistry teacher as a presenter, three chemistry teachers as the observers, and 34 students of Class XI Mathematics and Science (Chemistry). Participants are students who have learned the concept of the heterogeneous and homogeneous mixture, the concept of

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. (Sanjaya, 2015). Instructional implementation plans refer to the content standards and preparation of instructional strategies, including the development of lesson plans and preparation of media, learning resources, evaluation tools, and learning scenarios (Depdikbud, No. 23, 2016). In the chemistry syllabus, class XI high school students are required to master the concept of the colloidal system material which is quite tricky for students. For example, there are students' misconceptions about the colloidal system material, including distinguishing colloids, the concept of colloid making, the nature of colloids, and colloids in life. Besides, students experience misconceptions in the sub concept of coagulation and confused with dialysis and adsorbs. Thus, colloidal system material is quite difficult for students to understand, one of which is in the coagulation sub material (Dj, Fitri & Dewata, In2015).this research, the chosen context is the handling of tofu liquid waste because it contains colloidal particles that can pollute the environment, such as increasing turbidity. These problems can be solved by coagulation, which is to coagulate colloidal particles into more extensive and deposited particles to reduce turbidity (Ramadhani & Moesria, 2013; Septiana, 2014; Wulandari, 2014; Sudarmo, 2017; Puspasari, 2017). These problems can be used as a context in PBL learning and know how they affect the mastery of students' concepts in the concept of colloidal systems, the nature of colloids (coagulation), and the context of tofu wastewater treatment by condensation.

Based on the explanation above, this study aims to:

1. Know the effectiveness of the planning strategy or the design of the Problem Based Learning approach in instructional chemistry in the context of tofu wastewater treatment.

3. Identify students’ learning outcomes after carrying out chemistry instruction using the Problem Based Learning approach with the context of tofu wastewater treatment.

c. Make conclusions. The four instruments used in this research were lesson plan evaluation format, student worksheet evaluation format, students’ skill and attitude observation format, and test items. The first three instruments were content validated by chemistry education experts and the reliability test KR 20 (Kuder Richardson 20) was carried out on the fourth instrument with a value of 0.73 (high reliability category) The lesson plan evaluation format was used to reveal the ability of chemistry teachers in planning to learn using the PBL approach in the context of tofu liquid waste management in high schools. The student worksheet evaluation format was used to reveal the ability of high school students to carry out the problem solving stage for tofu liquid waste handling based on the PBL instructional approach. Student attitude and performance observation sheets were used to observe the attitudes and laboratory work skills of high school students during PBL instruction in tofu liquid waste management. Test items were used to reveal the basic concepts of colloid chemistry and the application of high school students before (pre test) and after (post test) following PBL learning in the treatment of tofu liquid waste.

The evaluation score for chemistry teachers and students during PBL instruction in the management of tofu wastewater were categorized based on the rules developed by Aqib (2009). The categories are divided into a very good

f. Making an evaluation instrument that includes teacher performance rubric, student worksheet evaluation sheet, attitude and performance observation sheet, test items, and a validation sheet.

c. Conduct a PBL literature study.

3. Final Stage a. Manging data of the pretest and posttest evaluation results in the form of a written test.

a. Identifying chemistry problems and chemistry learning which are quite popular and can be solved through problem based learning (PBL).

2. Implementation Stage a. Pretest, to find out the initial abilities of students. b. PBL treatment. c. Posttest, to determine the learning outcomes of instructional using PBL.

b. Analyzing Core Competency and Basic Competency according to Curriculum 2013.

d. Analyzing concepts, problems, and solutions to solve issues and materials. e. Making instructional tools (lesson plans and appendices).

b. Analyzing the results of research and discussion.

g. Validating learning tools and evaluation instruments, then revising if there are improvements.

1. Preparation Stage

Planning Strategy of Problem-Based Learning Approach in Chemistry Instruction with the Context of Tofu Wastewater Treatment

Table 1: PBL Instructional Planning Evaluation Score

Components assessed The score of the(Scalevalidator0 – 4) AverageScore (ScoreScale0-100) DeviationStandard CriteriaScore 1 2 3 Learning Outcomes 4 3 4 3.7 92.5 0.6 VG Learning Materials 4 4 4 4 100 0 VG StrategiesInstructional 4 4 4 4 100 0 VG Media and Learning Resources 2 4 4 3 3 82 5 1.2 G Instructional Steps 3 3 4 3.3 82.5 0.6 G Learning Evaluation 4 4 4 4 100 0 VG

51 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. category which was given for scores ranging from 86 to 100, good category for scores ranging from 71 to 85, average category for scores ranging from 56 to 70, bad category for scores ranging from 41 to 55, and very bad category for scores less than 40.

The findings of research and discussion include validation of the PBL planning strategy, students’ performance in the process of implementing the PBL approach, and student learning outcomes after carrying out chemistry instruction using the PBLapproach in the context of tofu wastewater treatment.

Data analysis of the pretest and posttest scores was performed with N gain which is used to determine the quality of student learning outcomes improvement before and after learning. N gain can be calculated using the following formula: N gain = pretest posttestpretest SS SS max (Meltzer, 2002) Then, the criteria for classifying N gain results were High for N gain ≥ 0.7; Medium for 0.7 > N gain ≥ 0.3; and Low for N gain < 0.3 3. Results and Discussion

The PBL instructional planning strategy is structured in the Instructional Implementation Plan component. Table 2 shows the evaluation in the PBL instructional planning strategy in the context of tofu wastewater treatment. Based on Table 1, instructional planning strategies on each component of the lesson plan in Tan type PBL instructional show an average score of 92.6. This means that the instructional planning strategy has met the evaluation criteria with very good categories. The detailed explanation for each component is as follows.

52 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Components assessed The score of the(Scalevalidator04) AverageScore (ScoreScale0100) DeviationStandard CriteriaScore 1 2 3 Teaching Materials 3 4 4 3.7 92.5 0.6 VG Student Worksheet 1 4 4 3 3.7 92.5 0.6 VG Student Worksheet 2 4 4 3 3.7 92.5 0.6 VG Student Worksheet 3 4 4 3 3.7 92.5 0.6 VG Student Worksheet 4 4 4 3 3.7 92.5 0.6 VG Evaluation of Skills 4 4 4 4 100 0 VG Evaluation of Attitude 4 4 4 4 100 0 VG Average 3 7 93.9 0.4 VG VG: Very Good Learning Outcomes (LO) Learning outcomes planning falls into the very good category (scored 90). This indicates that LO is following the required criteria, including learning outcomes that reveal students' words, competencies (cognitive domain, psychomotor, and affective) with operational verbs, chemistry content, learning conditions, and the level of quality performed (Uno, 2010). LO has been prepared following the demands of achieving High Order Thinking Skills (HOTS) which includes the ability to analyze, evaluate, and create (C4 C6). HOTS also requires critical and evaluative thinking, decision making, and problem solving (Widana, 2017). Students can obtain these higher order thinking skills through learning with the PBL approach.

The learning outcomes formulation below is following the Tan type PBL syntax where learning outcomes 1 is described from Tan type PBL step 1 Learning outcomes 2 5 is described from step 2 while learning outcomes 6 and 7 are described from 3. In addition, learning outcomes 8 is the elaboration of step 4, and learning outcomes 9 is the elaboration of step 5. Besides, the cognitive learning outcomes formulation in learning with the PBLapproach must include higher order thinking skills. Learning outcomes on instructional are shown in Table 2.

4 Students can explore solutions related to the context of tofu liquid waste by showing a creative attitude through group discussion activities.

3. reportinganddiscovery

(cooperativeCognitive(design)Affectiveandtolerance) A5C6

(cooperative)Psychomotor(carryout)Affective A5P3

Cognitive(analyze)Affective(creative) A5C4

5 Students can formulate appropriate solutionsrelated tothe contextof tofu liquid waste by showing a critical attitude through group discussion activities.

7 Students can carry out experiments related to the context of tofu waste by showing a cooperative attitude through practicum activities and group discussions.

5. evaluationandintegration,overview, (communicative)(evaluate)CognitiveAffective A5C5

4. reflectionandpresentationsolution (communicative)Psychomotor(present)Affective A5P5

2 Students can analyze problems related to the context of tofu liquid waste by showing a creative attitude through group discussion activities.

Cognitive(explore)Affective(creative) A5C4

9 Students can evaluate solutions to problems related to the context of tofu liquid waste by showing communicative attitudes through presentations and group discussions.

1. themeetingproblem

3 Students can formulate problems related to the context of tofu liquid waste by showing a critical attitude through group discussion activities.

2. ilearninganalysisproblemandssues

6 Students can design experiments related to the context of tofu waste by showing a cooperative attitude and tolerance through group discussion activities.

8 Students can present the results of experiments related to the context of tofu waste by showing communicative attitudes through presentations and group discussions.

Table 2: Learning Outcomes on PBL Instructional in the Context of Tofu Wastewater Treatment Steps of PBL Tan Domain Level No.LO Learning Outcomes (LO)

(formulate)CognitiveAffective(Critical) A5C6

Cognitive(identify)Affective(creative) A5C2

1 Students can identify problems related to the context of tofu wastewater treatment based on the concept of colloidal systems and the nature of colloids (coagulation) by showing a creative attitude through group discussion activities.

(formulate)CognitiveAffective(critical) A5C6

Learning Materials

The planning of media and learning resources falls into a good category (scored 83.2). This indicates that the media and learning resources are following the required criteria, such as learning media that are used function as a tool for the delivery of learning materials and learning resources in the form of books and other learning resources that have been relevant (Depdikbud, No. 22, 2016).

Instructional Strategies

Cognitive competencies that will be achieved through learning outcomes are C2, C4, C5, and C6. There is one formulation of learning outcomes at cognitive level C2 (understanding), two formulas at level C4 (analyzing), one method at level C5 (evaluating), and three formulations at level C6 (creating). Thus, learning outcomes that have been prepared following the demands of achieving higher order thinking skills or HOTS which must include the ability to analyze, evaluate, and create. HOTS also requires critical and evaluative thinking, decision making, and problem solving. Students can obtain these higher order thinking skills through learning with the PBL approach (Widana, 2017).

The planning of instructional strategies falls into the very good category (scored 100). This indicates that the instructional strategy is following the required criteria, such as containing models, approaches, and learning methods. Therefore, the application of learning methods can realize the learning process so that students can achieve learning outcomes that have been planned (Depdikbud, No. 22, 2016). PBL steps used is a modified Tan type PBL syntax, where the syntax is no longer only refers to the final results obtained by students. Still, it refers to the process by students to get the final results following the demands of the 2013 chemistry curriculum. Instructional models, instructional approaches, and instructional methods in instructional strategies are considered to be following the Tan type PBL learning plan.

The planning of learning materials belongs to a very good category (scored 100). This indicates that learning material has met the required criteria, such as containing relevant prerequisite material and core material consisting of facts, concepts, principles, and procedures (Depdikbud, No. 21, 2016). The selected prerequisite material is following the materials needed before learning. Then, the selected core material is following the required concepts for problem solving to be done. Some prerequisite concepts needed in studying tofu wastewater treatment were the definition of waste, homogeneous and heterogeneous mixture, electrolyte solution, and a dispersion system (true solution, colloid, and suspension). The core concepts developed in handling tofu wastewater were turbid tofu liquid waste (factual knowledge), colloidal system, colloidal properties (coagulation), and precipitation reaction as conceptual knowledge. Another core concept was tofu coagulation tofu liquid waste experiment with tamarind coagulant as procedural knowledge.

Media and Learning Resources

The planning of instructional steps formulated by chemistry teachers falls into a good category (scored 83.2). This indicates that the instructional steps are following the required criteria, such as student centered, includes three activities (introduction, core, and closing), shows the expected achievement of LO, and the time allocated is in accordancewith the LOthat needtobe achieved (Depdikbud, No. 22, 2016). Instructional is designed for four meetings, each requires 2 x 45 minutes. The first meeting is designed to present step 1 (identifying problems) and step 2 (analyzing and formulating problems) of the Tan type PBL stages. The second meeting is designed to offer step 3 (designing problem solution). While step 4 (implementing problem solution) is presented in the third meeting and step 5 (presenting, reporting, evaluating, and reflecting) is in the fourth meeting

After the introduction is the core activity which is carried out following the 5 steps of Tan type PBL. The description of the core activities with the Tan type PBL step will be discussed in the following paragraphs. The core activities at the first meeting are learning using step 1 and step 2, namely, students identify between tofu liquid and solid waste that can be harmful to the environment After recognizing the problem that can emerge from the tofu wastewater, students are guided to formulate one issue that will need a solution. In the second meeting, students carry out learning using step 3 namely, students design solutions to problems by determining one solution to be employed and followed by designing experiments to solve problems with the specified solutions. Learning using step 4 is applied in the third meeting. Students implement solutions to problems or solve problems through experiments from previous experimental designs. The results of applying this problem help students to find out whether the solution is used correctly and whether problem solving is successful.

Instructional Steps

In the introduction activities, there are several steps, namely, 1) preparing students psychologically and physically by greeting students, praying and asking how students are doing, 2) giving apperception by asking questions that link previous knowledge with the material to be learned, 3) motivating students by providing phenomena in daily life related to teaching material, 4) explaining learning objectives or essential competencies to be achieved from learning and 5) explaining learning objectives or essential skills to be obtained from education. All introduction stages are illustrated in the learning steps in the lesson plan above (Depdikbud, No. 22, 2016).

The media used are PowerPoint Templates (PPt) of tofu liquid waste handling and worksheets. Those learning media are easy to use and can help students to understand the learning material. Then, the learning resources used can help students to find and determine solutions to problems for handling tofu liquid waste.

After the core activities are finished, it ends with the closing activity. The steps in the closing activity are evaluating the series of learning activities along with the results obtained, providing feedback on the learning process and results, and informing the plans for further learning activities (Tan, 2003; Depdikbud, No. 22, 2016).

Learning Evaluation Planning for learning evaluation falls into the very good category (scored 100). This indicates that the learning evaluation is following the required criteria, such as learning evaluation carried out at the end of the learning process which includes the evaluation of attitude, skills, and knowledge, as well as the evaluation methods and tools used are relevant to the aspects of attitudes, skills, and experience (Depdikbud, No. 23, 2016).

Student Worksheet Worksheet planning falls into the very good category (91.6). This indicates that the worksheets are following the primary elements required, such as a title, competencies or learning outcomes oriented, supporting information (such as articles) availability, tasks or work steps availability, and reports that must be done (Prastowo, 2011). The spreadsheets that have been prepared refer to learning outcomes, subject matter, and Tan PBL steps. Thus, the questions in the spreadsheet can guide students to achieve learning outcomes following the PBL learning stages and can help students to solve the problem of handling tofu liquid waste (Li & Du, 2015).

The planning of teaching materials belongs to a very good category (91.6). This indicates that the teaching material has met the required criteria, such as self instructional, self contained, stand alone, and user friendly. Self instructional means that teaching material can be useful and used by students individually and autonomous means teaching material that is compiled contains all content or theory of subjects grouped in one competency unit and a dissertation with sub competencies. While stand alone means that the teaching material that has been prepared can stand alone and does not need support from other teaching materials because the teaching material already includes all required subject matter. Last, user friendly means that teaching material that has been prepared is easy to use by students through simple language as well as the easy and general term (Lestari, 2013).

Skill Evaluation Planning for the skill evaluation falls into the very good category (scored 100). This indicates that skill evaluation is following the required criteria, such as the skill evaluation used to measure the achievement following competencies or

The core activity in the fourth meeting employs step 5 namely, students present (report), evaluate, and reflect on problem solving. Students report the results of attempted problem solving through a presentation, then conduct an evaluation and reflection on the resolution that has been applied.

Teaching Materials

Attitude evaluation planning falls into the very good category (scored 100). This indicates that the attitude evaluation is following the required criteria in which the evaluation is in line with the formulation of learning outcomes with the evaluation technique that is suitable for attitude evaluation (Ditjenpendas, 2015). Attitudes that are expected to arise are creative, critical, cooperative, tolerance, and communicative attitudes which are also skills that students must have in the 21st century (Griffin & Care, 2015). Thus, learning with the PBL approach can help students to hone these attitudes.

57 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. learning outcomes. The skill evaluation requires students to demonstrate specific learning outcomes, as well as instruments used in the form of checklists or rating scales (Ditjenpendas, 2015). The skills that emerge are students able to carry out experiments and present the results of operations, and these skills are must have skills in the 21st century where students are required to have good work and communication skills (Griffin & Care, 2015). Thus, through learning with the PBL approach can help students to hone these skills.

Attitude Evaluation

Students’ Performance in the Process of Implementing Problem Based Learning Approaches with the Context of Tofu Wastewater Treatment Students’ performance evaluation is assessed using the worksheet. In the learning implementation, students are divided into six groups, so that the evaluation of students’ performance is carried out for each group.

Step 1: Identifying Problems In this step, students would be faced with problems. The problems that arise would act as a stimulus to build and expand the realistic context that students might face in the future (Tan, 2003). The following Table 3 shows the average grade of students in step 1: identifying problems.

Table 3: Students’ Grades in Step 1: Identifying Problems Group Score 1 83.3 2 91.7 3 91.7 4 91.7 5 91.7 6 83.3 Average deviationscore/standard 88.9/(4.3) Based on Table 3, groups 1 and 6 scored 83.3 in the good category, groups 2, 3, 4, and 5 scored 91.7 with a very good category. The average score of students in the step of identifying problems is 88.9, meaning that students can identify problems very well Therefore, it can be stated that the performance of students in the step of identifying problems is classified as very good.

Step 2: Analyzing and Formulating Problems

In the step of analyzing and formulating questions, students will analyze and develop one issue related to tofu wastewater treatment that will be sought for resolution. Students discuss the issues that arise and find information from various sources, then determine one problem statement that will be asked for resolution (Tan, 2003).

Table 4: Students’ Grades in Step 2: Analyzing Problems Group Score 1 75 2 75 3 75 4 75 5 100 6 75 Averagedeviationscore/standard 79.2/10.2 Based on Table 4, groups 1, 2, 3, 4, and 6 scored 75 in the good category, while group 5 scored 100 with a very good category. The average score of the group in the step of analyzing and formulating problems is 79.2, meaning that students can analyze and develop questions properly. So it can be concluded that the students’ performance in the step of analyzing and formulating questions is classified as useful. Step 3: Designing Problem Solutions After obtaining a problem statement, students will design a problem solution. At this stage, students find solutions to problem solving, then students are guided to formulate problem solving strategies from the solutions obtained, finally, students in their groups report the problem solving findings (Tan, 2003; Lin, Taiwan, Liang, 2014). The following Table 5 shows the students’ average grade in step 3: designing problem solutions.

Table 5: Students’ Grades in Step 3: Designing Problem Solutions Group Score 1 84.8 2 97 3 88 4 91 5 91 6 97 Average/standard deviation 91.5/4.9

Table 4 below shows the average grade of students in step 2: analyzing and formulating problems.

NumberItems

Table 6: Authentic students’ answers to the Items in LKS 3 Authentic Students’ Answers 1 Group 4 2 Group 2

Step 4: Implementing Solution

Item 3: What is the substance called for handling tofu wastewater? What are the ingredients? Item4: Handling of tofuliquidwaste isbased onone of the concepts of colloidalnature, what is the method called? Explain! Item 5: What is the working principle used for handling this liquid waste? Explain!

After formulating the problem solution and designing a test for problem solving, the next step is implementing the problem solution. At this stage, students will conduct tests to solve problems that are carried out based on test designs that have been made by students. In this step, students are asked to answer six items, the answers to which are poured into LKS 3. In the first item, students are asked to make a table of test results, in items number 2 4, students are asked to explain the material and ways used to solve problems. In contrast, items number 5 and 6 ask students to explain the working principle of the method used for problem solving.

Based on Table 4, group 1 scored 84.8 with the good category. Group 3 scored 88 with a very good grade, groups 4 and 5 scored 91 with the very good category, while groups 2 and 6 scored 97 with the very good grade. The average score of the group in the step of designing problem solutions is 91.5, meaning that students can create problem solutions very well. So it can be concluded that the students’ performance in the design step of problem solutions is classified as very good.

Item 6: How does tamarind coagulate colloidal particles in tofu wastewater? Write down their chemical reaction!

Item 2: What materials are used in handling tofu wastewater?

Table 6 below is an example of students’ authentic answers to the six items. Their answers are still in Indonesian. Therefore, the researchers translate students’ answers into English in order to be easily understood.

All items asked in these LKS 3 were: Item 1: Based on the experiments that you have done, make a table of observations of tests that you have done! (Write the data before and after treatment)

Item 1: Based on the experiments that you have done, make a table of observations of tests that you have done! (Write data before and after treatment) Groups The Answer 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 No. Treatment of waste turbidityObservationprecipitation 1 before the addition of tamarind turbid no precipitation 2 after the addition of tamarind turbidity level decreases (clearer) there precipitationis(white) Based on Table 7, each group discusses their findings, then writes the results of the test in tabular form. The maximum score for item number 1 is 4, with four keywords of “turbid”, “no precipitation”, “turbidity level decreases”, and “white precipitation”. All groups answered correctly and obtained a score of 4 by mentioning the four expected keywords.

Table 7 below summarizes the answers of each group to each of the items in the student worksheet 3 (LKS 3)

Table 7: Students’ Answers to item 1 in LKS 3

Two types of answers are given to item 4. Students in groups 1, 2, 3, 5, and 6 answer, “the coagulation is the process of deposition or agglomeration of colloidal particles.” The answer from group 4 is more complete, where “coagulation was interpreted as the process of deposition or clumping of colloidal particles through mixing colloids with chemicals that have different electrical charges or by adding electrolytes”. The maximum score for item number 4 is 4, with four keywords, namely “The method used is coagulation which is the process of enlarging the size of colloidal particles (coagulation of colloidal particles) by coagulants.” It turns out that all groups got a score of 3 because they could only put forward the three expected keywords.

Just like the answer given to item 1, all groups gave the same answer to item 2, that the chemical used to handle tofu liquid waste was tamarind seed powder. The maximum score for item number 2 is 1, with one keyword, namely tamarind seed powder. It turns out that all answers in each group are correct.

Likewise, all groups give the same answer to item 3, where the chemical terminology given to tamarind seed powder is called "coagulant", the material “functions to coagulate or precipitate colloids in tofu wastewater”. The maximum score for item number 3 is 3, with three keywords, namely Coagulant: its function is to thicken the colloids particle in tofu liquid waste It turns out that all answers in each group are correct.

Three types of answers are given to item 5, in which group 1 answers, “when the negative charge from colloids mixes with the positive charge from the electrolyte, a precipitation reaction occurs”. The answer from groups 2, 3, 5, and 6 is that when colloids are mixed into the electrolyte, the negative charge of the colloid will be bound by the positive ion charge of the electrolyte so that the charge becomes neutral and causes deposition (coagulation). The answer of group 4 stated that the meeting of the negative charge from the colloid and the positive charge from the electrolyte makes the charge neutral and precipitation occur. The maximum score for item number 5 is 6, with six keywords, namely “The working principle used is coagulation in the presence of electrolytes, that is if negatively charged colloids are mixed with an electrolyte solution, then the positive ions from the electrolyte solution will be attracted by negatively charged colloids, so the charge becomes neutral and causes coagulation or settles.” Based on these criteria, groups 1 and 4 get a score of 4 because they can express four principles, while groups 2, 3, 5, and 6 get a score of 5 because they can learn the 5 required criteria.

Four types of answers are given to item 6 The answer of group 1 is stated as follows Negatively charged colloids mixed with positive electrolytes Ca2+, Mg2+ and Fe3+ produce a precipitating reaction: 2OH (aq) + Ca2+(aq) + H2O(Ɩ) → Ca (OH)2(s) + H2O(Ɩ) 2OH (aq) + Mg2+(aq) + H2O(Ɩ) → Mg(OH)2(s) + H2O(Ɩ) 3OH (aq) + Fe3+(aq) + H2O(Ɩ) → Fe(OH)3(s) + H2O(Ɩ)

The maximum score for item number 6 is 8, with eight keywords as follows: Based on these criteria, group 1 gets a score of 6, groups 2, 4, and 5 get a score of 8, group 3 gets a score of 8, while group 6 gets a score of 4.

Groups 3 states that The negative charged colloid (tofu water waste) is mixed into the electrolyte solution, the ions such as Ca2+, Mg2+ , and Fe3+ contained in the tamarind seeds will be pulled by the colloidal negative charge so that the charge becomes neutral. As a result, the tofu liquid waste particles settle. 2OH (aq) + Ca2+(aq) + H2O(Ɩ) → Ca (OH)2(s) + H2O(Ɩ) 2OH (aq) + Mg2+(aq) + H2O(Ɩ) → Mg(OH)2(s) + H2O(Ɩ) 3OH (aq) + Fe3+(aq) + H2O(Ɩ) → Fe(OH)3(s) + H2O(Ɩ)

Groups 2, 4, and 5 answer that The ions from tamarind Ca2+, Mg2+ and Fe3+ are drawn by negative colloids (OH ) from tofu liquid waste, so that the charge will become neutral and form large lumps and then precipitate. The chemical equation is: 2OH (aq) + Ca2+(aq) + H2O(Ɩ) → Ca (OH)2(s) + H2O(Ɩ) 2OH (aq) + Mg2+(aq) + H2O(Ɩ) → Mg(OH)2(s) + H2O(Ɩ) 3OH (aq) + Fe3+(aq) + H2O(Ɩ) → Fe(OH)3(s) + H2O(Ɩ)

The following Table 8 shows the average grade of students in step 4: implementing the problem solution. Based on table 8, group 6 scored 77 in the good category. Group 1 scored 80.8 in the good category, group 4 composed 88.5 in the very good grade category, and groups 2, 3, and 5 scored 92.3 in the very good category. The average score of the group in the step of implementing the solution is 87.2, meaning that students can implement solutions to problems well. Therefore, students’ performance in the stepof implementing the problem solution is quite good. In the tamarind seeds contained metal ions Ca2+, Mg2+ and Fe3+ , and tofu liquid waste are negatively charged colloid Negative colloids from tofu liquid waste will attract positive ions from the tamarind seed solution so that the charge will become neutral and form large lumps and then settle. The equation for the reaction that occurs between Ca2+, Mg2+, and Fe3+ ions, and OH ions from negative colloids from tofu wastewater is as follows: 2OH (aq) + Ca2+(aq) + H2O(Ɩ) → Ca (OH)2(s) + H2O(Ɩ) 2OH (aq) + Mg2+(aq) + H2O(Ɩ) → Mg(OH)2(s) + H2O(Ɩ) 3OH (aq) + Fe3+(aq) + H2O(Ɩ) → Fe(OH)3(s) + H2O(Ɩ)

Groups 6 provide answers that The reaction equation is as follows: 2OH (aq) + Ca2+(aq) + H2O(Ɩ) → Ca (OH)2(s) + H2O(Ɩ) 2OH (aq) + Mg2+(aq) + H2O(Ɩ) → Mg(OH)2(s) + H2O(Ɩ) 3OH (aq) + Fe3+(aq) + H2O(Ɩ) → Fe(OH)3(s) + H2O(Ɩ)

Based on table 9, groups 1 and 6 scored 70.7 with sufficient category, group 5 scored 75.6 with good category, group 3 scored80.5 with good category, groups 4 and 5 scored 83 and 85.4 respectively with a good category. The average score of the group in the step of presenting (reporting), evaluating, and reflecting a problem solution is 77.7, meaning that students do well in this category. So it can be concluded that the students’ performance in the step of presenting (reporting), evaluating, and reflecting on problem solving classified as useful.

The following Table 10 shows the average score obtained by students in each learning step with the Tan type PBL approach.

Average score/standard deviation 77.7/6.3

Step 5: Presenting (Reporting), Evaluating and Reflecting Problem Resolution In this step, students will present the results of problem solving and then the teacher will clarify or confirm the problem solving offered by students. Besides, teachers will also confirm students' questions or doubts about solving problems to avoid misconceptions. Each group members also evaluate how they, as students, become problem solvers, independent students, and team members (Tan, 2003; Machika & Abrahams, 2014). Table 9 below shows the average grade of students in step 5: presenting (reporting) evaluating and reflecting problem solving.

Table 8: Students’ Grades in Step 4: Implementing Problem Solutions

Table 9: Students’ Score in Step 5: Presenting (Reporting) Evaluating and Reflecting Problem Resolution Group Score 1 70.7 2 85.4 3 80.5 4 83.0 5 75.6 6 70.7

Table 10: Students’ Score in Step 1 Step 5 Tan Type PBL Approach Group Score 1 80.8 2 92.3 3 92.3 4 88.5 5 92.3 6 77 Average score/standard deviation 87.2/6.7 Step Score 1 88.9 2 79.1 3 91.5

PD1 PD2 PD3 PD4 PD5 PD6 PD7 PD8 PD9 PD10 PD11 PD12 PD13 PD14 PD15 PD16 PD17 PD18 PD19 PD20 PD21 PD22 PD23 PD24 PD25 PD26 PD27 PD28 PD29 PD30 PD31 PD32 PD33 PD34 Value

Pretest

Student Code 4 87.2 5 77.7

Average score/standard deviation 84.9/6.1

Students’ cognitive learning outcomes (knowledge) are measured from the results of students' pretest and posttest (appendix). The pretest and posttest questions given are the same, the issues consist of eight items regarding the meaning of tofu wastewater treatment in the formof multiple choice questions.

Learning outcomes are divided into three categories, namely cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001). Thus, the evaluation of learning outcomes was carried out in all three fields with the following explanation: Students’ Learning Outcomes on Cognitive Aspects

Table 10 shows the averagescore of students’ performance in each learningstep with Tan type PBL is 84.9 which belongs to a good category. So that students’ performance in implementing the PBL approach in learning with the context of tofu wastewater treatment can be classified in the good category.

100908070605040302010

Students’ Learning Outcomes after Carrying Out Chemistry Instructional Using Problem-Based Learning Approach in the Context of Tofu Wastewater Management

The basic chemistry and technical concepts of tofu wastewater treatment that are tested include the type of tofu waste, the stages of making tofu, the formulation of the problem for investigating tofu waste handling, tofu liquid waste handling by coagulation, the chemistry principle of adding alum or tamarind into tofu liquid waste, chemical calculations, and steps of handling tofu liquid waste.

Figure 1 below shows the results of the pretest regarding the context of tofu wastewater treatment.

Students’ pretest learning outcomes are still classified as a low category because there are still many who have not yet reached the minimum score of 75. The average students’ pretest score in the context of tofu liquid waste 0

Figure 1: Students’ Pretest Score in the Context of Tofu Liquid Waste Management

PD1 PD2 PD3 PD4 PD5 PD6 PD7 PD8 PD9 PD10 PD11 PD12 PD13 PD14 PD15 PD16 PD17 PD18 PD19 PD20 PD21 PD22 PD23 PD24 PD25 PD26 PD27 PD28 PD29 PD30 PD31 PD32 PD33 PD34 Value CodePretest Posttest

Student Code 0

PD1 PD2 PD3 PD4 PD5 PD6 PD7 PD8 PD9 PD10 PD11 PD12 PD13 PD14 PD15 PD16 PD17 PD18 PD19 PD20 PD21 PD22 PD23 PD24 PD25 PD26 PD27 PD28 PD29 PD30 PD31 PD32 PD33 PD34

Student

Based on Figure 3, there is an increase in students' cognitive learning outcomes after carrying out learning with the PBL approach. The growth shows that students understand the learning material easier when using the PBL approach. 40 1009080706050

Based on Figure 2, students’ posttest results are higher when compared to pretest results Overall, there is an increase in students’ learning outcomes, wherein the posttest results there are 97% of students who have achieved minimum scores (75), with an average posttest score of 85. 3 For more details, the comparison of the pretest and posttest scores is illustrated in Figure 3 below.

Figure 2: Students’ Posttest Score in the Context of Tofu Liquid Waste Management

Figure 3: Comparison of Students’ Pretest and Posttest Score in the Context of Handling the Tofu Liquid Waste

3020100

65 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. handling is 50 which belongs to less or low category. The implementation of the pretest aims to find out students' fundamental knowledge of the material to be Afterlearned.thepretest, students are given treatment by giving knowledge about how to handle tofu liquid waste using Tan's PBL approach. Instruction is carried out four times, in the last meeting, posttest was held to find out students’ learning outcomes in the context of tofu liquid waste handling with Tan type PBL approach. Figure 2 below shows a graph of students' post test scores.

ValuePosttest

100908070605040302010

Based on the test results obtained, the average score of N gain of the students’ learning outcomes is 0.67, and there is an increase in students’ learning outcomes between pretest and posttest with the medium category. Thus, it can be concluded that learning with the Tan type problem based learning (PBL) approach can improve students’ cognitive learning outcomes. Therefore, the quality of understanding of the chemical concepts in PBL can be achieved well when the teacher functions as a facilitator (Isa et al., 2015; Li & Chen, 2018).

2. Determining a formulation of the problem related to the context of handling tofu wastewater to be resolved

Table 11 shows the indicators of competency assessed.

The evaluation of students’ learning outcomes on affective (attitude) and psychomotor (skills) is carried out by the teacher to the group of students during the learning process using the attitude and skill observation sheet instrument. The attitudes and skills observed are based on 21st century skills needed by students, including thinking skills and skills in the use of technology, information, and literacy (Griffin & Care, 2015). The attitudes observed are creative, critical, cooperative, tolerant, and communicative, while the observed skills are the students' skills when conducting experiments. Thus, the belief that arises from PBL learning demands the empowerment of combinatorial thinking following Hidayati et al. (2019).

4. Determining one tofu liquid waste management solution that is suitable for solving the problem from the results of the investigation

Creativity

3. Comparing the predicted solutions to issues that can be used to treat tofu liquid waste

Critical 1. Determining which waste is dangerous and will be dealt with and resolved (between liquid waste and solid waste)

3. Looking for problem solving solutions associated with the meaning of tofu wastewater treatment from various 4.referencesFindingseveral problem solving solutions related to the context of tofu wastewater treatment

1. Finding and detailing the adverse effects of tofu solid and liquid waste

2. Finding ideas about problems related to the context of tofu liquid waste management

Students’ Learning Outcomes on Affective Aspects

Table 11: Indicators of Competency in Attitude Aspects being Assessed AttitudeAssessedAspects

Evaluation Criteria

The improvement of students’ learning outcomes before (pretest) and after learning (posttest) was tested with N gain using Microsoft Excel 2016. This test is used to find out how the influence of the PBL approach on improving students’ cognitive learning outcomes after learning.

4. Accepting if getting criticism about ideas when designing experiments dealing with tofu liquid waste

3. Appreciating the inappropriate views of group friends when designing experiments on treating tofu wastewater

2. Providing opinions and suggestions to other groups regarding the results of the tofu liquid waste treatment experiment

1. Presenting the results of tofu wastewater treatment experiments verbally

Table 12: Results of Evaluation of Students’ Attitude Aspects Group Attitudes Aspects Assessed Average Creativity Critical Cooperation Tolerance Communicative 1 75 100 100 100 75 90 2 75 100 100 100 100 95 3 75 100 100 100 100 95 4 75 100 100 100 75 90 5 100 100 100 100 100 100 6 100 100 100 100 75 95 Average/StDev 83.3/12.9 100/0.0 100/0.0 100/0.0 87.5/13.7 94.2/3.8 Category G VG VG VG VG VG G = Good; VG = Very Good Based on Table 12, groups

have been

to find the idea

1. Actively involved in designing experiments on tofu liquid waste management

2. Finding a way to overcome differences of opinion in designing experiments on tofu liquid waste management

scored 75 with good category, while groups

4. Being active in the Question and Answer activity, both in presenting the results of experiments and in evaluating problem solutions related to the meaning of tofu wastewater treatment each group of students. 1, 2, 3, and 4 5 and 6 1, 2, 3, 4 able has able

1. Listening to the opinions of friends of the group without interrupting the conversation when giving ideas about the design of the experiment in handling tofu liquid waste

3. Actively involved in conducting experiments on tofu liquid waste management

scored 100 with a very good category. This means that groups

2. Receiving advice from friends when designing an experiment in treating tofu wastewater

4. Conducting experimental tasks in handling tofu wastewater according to the agreement made Tolerance

to think creatively to find and elaborate the negative impacts of solid and tofu liquid waste. Besides, they are able to find solutions to problems related to the context of handling tofu liquid waste and wastewater treatment. However, the group

Table 12 shows the average score of attitude for

and

Communicative

not been

3. Delivering orally the results of the evaluation of problem solutions related to the context of tofu liquid waste handling

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. for the problem related to the meaning of tofu wastewater treatment completely. As for groups 5 and 6, they have been able to do all the indicators for creative attitude. In the critical attitude evaluation, all groups received a score of 100 with a very good category. Meaning that all groups were able to think critically to determine which waste is dangerous and would be dealt with and resolved (between liquid waste and solid waste). Besides, they were also able to find one formulation of the problem related to the context of tofu liquid waste management. Finally, they can compare some of the predicted problem solutions that can be used for tofu liquid waste treatment and determine a fluid tofu waste management solution that is suitable for problem solving.

In the evaluation of tolerance, all groups received a score of 100 with a very good category. Meaning that all groups were able to tolerate each other among fellow students in the group or with other groups. Students can listen to group peers' opinions without interrupting when giving ideas about the design of the experiment. They can accept the views of groupmates, value inappropriate opinions from group friends, and take criticism of their ideas when designing experiments on liquid waste treatment tofu.

In the communicative attitude evaluation, groups 1, 4, and 6 scored 75 with a good category, while groups 2, 3, and 5 scored 100 with the very good category. This means that groups 1, 4, and 6 have been able to present verbally. They were also able to present the results of the tofu wastewater treatment experiment verbally as well as providing opinions and suggestions to other groups regarding the results of the tofu liquid waste treatment experiment. In addition, they can verbally submit the evaluation results of problem solutions related to the context of tofu liquid waste handling. The group has not been able to be active in the question and answer activities, both in presenting the results of the experiment and in evaluating problem solutions related to the context of tofu liquid waste management. As for groups 2, 3, and 5, they have been able to do well in all indicators for communicative attitudes

In the evaluation of cooperation attitude, all groups received a score of 100 with a very good category. Meaning that all groups were able to work together to be actively involved in designing a trial for tofu wastewater treatment. In addition, they can also look for ways to overcome differences of opinion in designing a trial for tofu wastewater treatment and were actively engaged in conducting experiments in handling tofu liquid waste. Finally, they were able to conduct experimental tasks in handling tofu liquid waste following the agreements made.

The average score of students’ attitudes in the implementation of learning is 94.2, with a very good category. Thus, students’ learning outcomes on aspects of view can be classified in the very good category. Then, the score of students’ learning outcomes in aspects of skills is 92.7 while students’ learning outcomes in aspects of expertise included in the category are very good.

69 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Students’ Learning Outcomes on Psychomotor Aspects The psychomotor aspect to be evaluated is the students’ skill when conducting experiments and presenting the results of operations. The evaluation of skills is carried out by the teacher to the student group by using the instrument observation sheet. The following Table 13 shows the results of the skills evaluation for each group of students. Table 13: Results of the Skills Evaluation AssessedAspectsPsychomotor Evaluation Criteria Group Score 1 2 3 4 5 6 equipmentPrepare Check the integrity of the equipment 3 3 3 3 3 3 chemicalsPrepare Check the completeness of the chemicals 3 3 3 3 3 3 ofcoagulantPreparingseedstamarind Prepare 500 mg tamarind seed powder appropriately 3 3 3 3 3 3 Measure 20 mL of distilled water with a measuring glass 3 3 2 3 2 2 Separate the solid tamarind powder which is insoluble with teabag paper, and put the filtrate into another beaker. 3 3 3 3 2 3 Preparing tofu liquid waste Measure 50 mL of tofu liquid waste with a measuring glass 3 3 3 3 3 3 Mixing wastewithtamarindcoagulanttheofseedstofuliquid Stir the mixture of tofu liquid waste and tamarind seed solution with a magnetic stirrer for 1 minute (500 rpm), and 2 minutes (100 rpm) 2 3 3 2 3 2 Leave the mixture for stirring for 30 minutes 3 3 3 3 3 3 Record the observations in the observation table 3 3 3 3 3 3 Tidy up chemicalsequipmenttheand Wash the equipment used 2 2 3 2 3 3 Return the equipment that has been used to its original place 3 3 3 3 3 3 Clean the laboratory table that has been used 2 2 3 3 2 2 Dispose the experimental results in the container provided 3 3 3 3 3 3 Present reports on the results of operations 3 3 3 3 3 3

Group 2 scored 93.8 with a very good category, meaning group 2 has fulfilled the skill aspect indicators very well. Even so, group 2 was not optimal when washing tools and cleaning laboratory tables. Then, group 2 presented the results of the experiment following the format, quite actively involved in the discussion, and polite when giving the results of the analysis.

VG: Very Good Based on Table 13, group 1 scored 91.7 with a very good grade, meaning that group 1 has fulfilled the indicators of skills aspects very well. Even so, group 1 did not do the stirring as they should, not optimal when washing tools and cleaning the laboratory table. Group 1 presented the results of the experiment following the format, quite actively involved in the discussion, and polite when giving the results of the analysis.

Group 5 scored 91.7 with a very good category, meaning that group 5 has fulfilled the skill aspect indicators very well. Even so, group 5 did not take measurements of the aqua distillation using a measuring cup carefully, did not separate the solids of tamarind seed powder, which did not dissolve with teabag paper correctly and was not optimal when cleaning the laboratory table.

Group 3 scored 95.8 with a very good category, meaning group 3 has fulfilled the skill aspect indicators very well. Even so, group 3 did not measure aqua distillation using a measuring cup carefully. Then, group 3 presented the results of the experiment according to the format, quite actively involved in the discussion, and polite when giving the results of the analysis.

Then, group 5 presented the results of the experiment following the format, quite actively involved in the discussion and polite when giving the results of the analysis.

Group 4 scored 93.8 with a very good category, meaning group 4 has met the skill aspect indicator very well. Even so, group 4 did not do the stirring as they should and was not optimal when washing the appliance. Then, group 4 presented the results of the experiment according to the format, quite actively involved in the discussion, and polite when giving the results of the analysis.

70 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. AssessedAspectsPsychomotor Evaluation Criteria Group Score 1 2 3 4 5 6 Present a report on the results of an experiment following predetermined Activelyformats involved in class discussion 2 2 2 2 2 1 Present, answer and ask questions politely 3 3 3 3 3 3 Total score 44 45 46 45 44 43 Score (Scale 100) 91.7 93.8 95.8 93.8 91.7 89.6 Average 92.7 Category VG VG VG VG VG VG

The results of this study and their discussion showthat problem based learning in the context of tofu wastewater treatment can improve the quality of processes and students’ learning outcomes in chemistry subjects. This research proved that the learning outcomes of students’ cognitive, affective, and psychomotor aspects can be improved through problem solving activities that are close to students' daily lives. In this study, problem based learning in the context of tofu wastewater treatment applied the concept of chemistry essence about colloids. In contrast to chemistry instruction in general, problem based learning requires students to simultaneously master the basic concepts of colloids and at the same time apply them in solving the problem of handling tofu liquid waste. In planning this problem based learning, teachers and students trace information on handling tofu wastewater that is feasible in the industry. To obtain the feasibility of work procedures on an instruction scale, the teacher performs an optimization test in the laboratory. By conducting optimization tests in the laboratory, there are still difficulties for most teachers in schools, given the lack of cultural attitude and scientific culture as well as the limited availability of chemistry laboratory facilities in schools. From the time allocation used, this problem based learning in handling tofu wastewater requires 4 meetings (2 x 45 minutes each). The amount of time allocation is quite a lot to study the overall colloidal material in which the curriculum is only 6 meetings. Thus, problem based learning by taking the context of tofu wastewater treatment will be difficult to be implemented by teachers in general. This happens because the teacher will find it difficult to manage the time for students to learn all the colloidal material. Therefore, further research is needed so that problem based learning by taking the context of tofu

Group 6 scored 89.6 with a very good category, meaning that group 6 has fulfilled the skill aspect indicators very well. Even so, group 6 did not take measurements of the aqua distillation using a measuring cup carefully, did not do the stirring as they should, and was not optimal when cleaning the laboratory table. Then, group 6 presented the results of the experiment according to the format, and was polite when giving the results of the test, but was less active in the discussion activities.

4. Conclusion This research developed problem based learning by taking the context of tofu wastewater treatment. This mixed methods research explored how the quality of the planning of problem based learning, students’ performance in implementing steps of problem based learning, and the effect of problem based learning on cognitive, affective, and psychomotor learning outcomes.

The average score of students in the element of skills is 92.7 which means that students’ learning outcomes on the aspect of skills when conducting experiments and presenting the results of operations on tofu wastewater treatment with Tan type PBL approach belongs to the very good category. Thus, the equipment of chemical analysis is becoming more modern, so the involvement of technology in learning chemistry must be a concern to be integrated so that instructional becomes engaging (JrCrews, 2017).

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5015.1002 Schell, R., & Kaufman, D. (2015). Designing PBL Case Studies for Patient Centered Care. International Journal of Learning, Teaching, and Educational Research, 13(3), 160 180. Septiana, A., Inayah, N. S., Azizah, N., & Aditya, R. R. (2014). Pembuatan Tawas Menggunakan Kalium dan Kalium Hidroksida [The Making of Alum Using Potassium and Potassium Hydroxide]. Jakarta: UIN Syarif Hidayatullah. Stivaktakis, S. (2017). The «Learning in Depth» Proposal: Its Importance as a Science Curriculum Strand. International Journal of Learning, Teaching, and Educational Research, 16(2), 13 22. https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.16.12.2

2. Consider the following stages of the tofu making process: The tofu making process will produce several types of waste, based on your analysis, waste that has more potential to pollute the environment is ... A. soybean skin from winnowing soy B. soybean wash water C. soaking water from soybean D. tofu pulp from filtering soybean porridge E. water from coagulating soybean juice winnowingsoybean washing soybean soybeansoaking filteringporridgesoybean coagulatejuicesoybean

A. tofu solid waste because it can pollute the soil, increase virus and bacterial contaminants, and cause unpleasant odors B. tofu solid waste because it can pollute the soil, reduce oxygen levels in the air, and cause unpleasant odors C. tofu liquid waste because it can reduce water turbidity, reduce oxygen levels in the air, and cause unpleasant odors D. tofu liquid waste because it can increase turbidity, increase contamination of viruses and bacteria, and reduce levels of dissolved oxygen in the water E. both tofu wastes have the same level of pollution

1. The tofu making process may produce solid waste and liquid waste which have a negative impact on the environment. Solid waste can pollute the soil, where the soil gets dirty and creates an unpleasant odor. While tofu liquid waste is usually discharged directly into the river so that it pollutes the river, such as increasing water turbidity, increasing contamination of viruses and bacteria, reducing the level of dissolved oxygen in the water, and affecting the water ecosystem. Based on the above reading, the waste with a higher negative impact on the environment is ....

B. What are the physical characteristics of river water that has been polluted by tofu liquid waste?

B. enlarging the size of colloidal particles

A. Coagulation with the presence of electrolytes

3. A student tries to analyze tofu liquid waste. The waste has turbid physical characteristics, turbidity can occur due to the presence of colloidal particles in the tofu liquid waste. This liquid waste is usually directly discharged into water such as rivers without prior handling so that it can pollute the river.

5. One way to handle tofu liquid waste is to add alum. The purpose of adding alum is to ...

C. How do you deal with the turbidity of tofu liquid waste due to the presence of colloidal particles in tofu liquid waste?

B. make the temperature of tofu liquid waste become room temperature C. kill bacteria in tofu liquid waste

B. Coagulation by mixing different colloid loads

D. Adsorption of positive charges by colloids E. Negative colloidal electrophoresis towards the pole of the positive electric charge

D. Why does tofu liquid waste contain colloid particles?

E. How to recognize the characteristics of colloidal particles present in tofu liquid waste and other wastes?

A. What will happen to humans if they consume river water that is contaminated with tofu liquid waste?

4. Tofu liquid waste contains colloidal particles which can cause turbidity so it must be handled first before being discharged into water. The way to handle tofu liquid waste through the coagulation process is ....

A. filtering colloidal particles

The most appropriate formulation of the problem if you want to research tofu liquid waste so as not to pollute the river is ...

C. absorbing charge by the surface of colloidal particles

D. maintaining colloidal stability E. absorbing static electricity charges by colloidal particles

E. make tofu liquid waste immediately drinkable

A. eliminate odor in tofu liquid waste

D. coagulate colloidal particles in tofu liquid waste

6. In addition to alum, tofu liquid waste management can be done by using natural ingredients, such as tamarind. Tamarind has positively charged metal ions, while tofu liquid waste is a negative colloid. In what ways do tamarind seeds and alum handle the tofu liquid waste?

C. Filtration of negative colloids with positive ions

77 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. 7. Following are the steps for handling tofu liquid waste with tamarind: 1) Put 50 mL of tofu liquid waste into a 100 mL beaker. 2) Mix the mixture of tofu liquid waste and tamarind seed powder using a magnetic stirrer for 1 minute (500 rpm) or 2 minutes (100 rpm). 3) Put the tamarind seed solution into a beaker containing tofu liquid waste 4) Weigh the 500 mg tamarind seed powder and add 20 mL of distilled Thewater.correct arrangement for handling tofu liquid waste with tamarind is ... A. 1 2 3 4 B. 1 3 2 4 C. 1 3 2 4 D. 1 4 2 3 E. 1 4 3 2 8. A student takes a sample of 50 mL of tofu liquid waste to be handled using tamarind seeds and moringa seeds. So that the following results are obtained:TamarindContenSeedt Decrease in Turbidity (%) MoringaContentSeed Decrease Turbidityin(%) 250 mg / 50 mL tofuwasteliquid 70.59 250 mg / 50 mL tofuwasteliquid 64.91 500 mg / 50 mL tofuwasteliquid 76.47 500 mg / 50 mL tofuwasteliquid 66.67 Based on the table, the most effective coagulants and their content are ... A. 250 mg of tamarind seeds / 50 mL of tofu liquid waste B. 500 mg tamarind seeds / 50 mL tofu liquid waste C. 250 mg moringa seeds / 50 mL tofu liquid waste D. 500 mg moringa seeds / 50 mL tofu liquid waste E. tamarind seeds are not more effective than moringa seeds

Ready or Not: The Experiences of Novice Academic Heads in School Leadership

Gilbert S. Arrieta Philippine Normal University Manila, Philippines Don Bosco Technical Institute Makati City, https://orcid.org/0000Philippines00022490

3330 Inero V. Ancho Philippine Normal University Manila, https://orcid.org/0000Philippines00033893

037X

Abstract. The decision to accept a leadership role will always require reflectionand discernment. Thepower, authority,privileges,and benefits attached to it are enticing, but the duties and responsibilities make a person step back and think about it. When no one else is qualified to lead, tenure and performance become the bases of appointment. Despite lacking the required credentials, particularly educational qualifications, one receives the promotion as academic head because he/she is the most senior among the teachers. This study aims to explore and find out the experiences of novice academic heads in leading and managing their teachers. It identified the challenges and struggles, including their learning experiences and realizations as new academic heads. Using the phenomenological method, seven new learning area heads (less than two years of experience) from a private sectarian school in the National Capital Region, Philippines were observed for six months and interviewed separately. The study found out that the novice academic heads considered paperwork, culture, processes and procedures, expectations of superiors, and supervision of teacher as primary challenges. To handle these challenges, they regularly consulted their supervisors and their former academic leaders mentored some of them. They also engaged themselves in professional and personal development to enhance their leadership competence. Having a succession plan will integrate the induction, leadership, and mentoring programs for future academic heads.

Keywords: educational leadership; novice academic heads; leadership training; readiness of academic heads

DepEd Secretary Briones also pointed out the migration of private school students and teachers to the public schools. Initially, the phenomenon was only of students due to various reasons. Lately, private school teachers are transferring to public schools because of higher salaries and other benefits (Manila Bulletin, 2018). With this reality, tenured teachers in private schools decrease due to retirement and preference for a better opportunity in other educational institutions. A significant number of new teachers are hired yearly, including those who have not taken the licensure examination for teachers. When few tenured teachers are left, the bench for leadership candidates become shallow. There will be few or no other candidates for the supervisory position except the most senior. The most senior may have been with the school for only three or four years, but he/she may receive an offer to become an academic leader. Some may have been with the

be vulnerable to this, particularly the private schools due to the exodus of teachers to public schools where career opportunities and salaries are better. Commissioner for Higher Education (CHED) Chairman De Vera underscored this point and said that one of the issues encountered by private colleges and universities today is the migration of their excellent faculty to state colleges and universities. The reason is the inability to pay them higher salaries. In the last two years, this had been a serious concern as reported to CHED. The state colleges and universities have created new faculty items, and the Department of Education (DepEd) openedteacheritems since the implementation of K 12. Because of this,many teachers are transferring to government educational institutions. There is a significant number of teachers who have transferred, and are moving to the public schools (Manila Bulletin, 2018).

The decision to accept a leadership role will always require reflection and discernment. The power, authority, privileges, and benefits attached to it are enticing but the duties and responsibilities make a person step back and think about it. When no one else is qualified to lead, tenure and performance become the bases of promotion. Despite lacking the required credentials, particularly educational qualifications, one gets the promotion because he/she is the most senior among the teachers. In most cases, that leaves him/herwith no otherchoice but to accept the offer. Some are even being forced to take leadership responsibilities because there are no other qualified candidates. Seniority is a traditional basis of appointment because it seems that most tenured may be the best Schoolschoice.can

1. Introduction “The greatest leaders are the reluctant ones who lead because they realize that no one else seems willing to step up.” These words of Orrin Woodward, a leadership expert, andspeaker, anda successful entrepreneur, speakabout the truth intaking leadership roles. Some rank and file employees will undoubtedly doubt their capability to lead a group of people and an organization. There are reluctant leaders in different organizations either in business or education. These are individuals who can lead, but they choose not to lead because they do not see themselves in a leadership situation. In most cases, the decision to lead is in their subconscious (Winston, 2017).

Though many, particularly those who are not in the field of education will think that it is a natural progression for teachers to become academic leaders, researches show that novice academic heads face many challenges in the transition. Classroom teaching and school leadership are two different but complementary domains in education. A classroom teacher who is offered a leadership role may not immediately accept the appointment due to various reasons.

school for ten years but never had the chance to take leadership roles. Just to fill the vacancy, he/she will be forced to accept the appointment despite lacking the needed qualifications, particularly educational qualifications, and experience. In those few years as a faculty member in the institution, it is doubtful that he/she was prepared for future leadership roles. When the term of office of the current academic heads ended, only a few have the required tenure and educational qualifications. Worst, there were no qualified teachers who can be the next academic head. In school year 2018 2019 and 2019 2020, there were nine teachers appointed as academic heads. Two are former academic heads while seven are novice academic heads. Having nine newly academic heads in the high school department in the last two years can be considered an unusual reality most especially since there was no change in the higher leadership.

2. How did the novice academic heads handle the leadership challenges and responsibilities?

3. What kind of preparation and training on leadership that novice academic heads need?

2. Literature Review Challenges of Novice Academic Heads

1. What are the challenges that novice academic heads encountered in leading the teachers?

The following are the research questions for this study :

With the given circumstances, the study aims to explore and find out the experiences of novice academic heads in leading and managing their teachers. It identified the challenges and struggles, including their learning experiences and realizations as new academic heads. Fromthe datagathered, it will providea basis for school administration in creating a program that will prepare and develop teachers for leadership roles in the future.

Being an unattractive job, teachers hesitate to take school leadership roles. Organization for Economic Co operation and Development (OECD) countries are facing a less number of applications for principal positions. There are countries finding difficulty in having suitable candidates. The number of applicants has considerably declined over the years. Researches indicate that negative images attached to the position, particularly overburdened roles, working conditions,

After obtaining their license to teach, teachers set their sight on a career in education and may end becoming an educational leader. Transitioning from classroom teaching to school leadership tasks is usually not an easy process.

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. inadequate salaries, and rewards, including lack of preparation and training are the top reasons for becoming uninterested to apply. In several countries, assistant principals and teachers don’t show interest to a higher leadership position due to small additional reward that is not commensurate with the workload and duties.

The younger generation of school leaders show a lack of interest in the principalship because of increased stress and work overload (Pont, Nusche & Moorman, Promotion2011).toleadership positions are always accompanied by challenges, including issues. A novice educational leader will encounter challenges in the transition. Any transition may be smooth or challenging that can be attributed to different factors. The factors that contributed to difficult transitions included strained interpersonal relations, poor plant maintenance, and lack of teacher support and buy in. Factors contributing to smooth transitions included cooperative staff, working systems already in place at the schools, and familiarity with the system. The new principals reported several challenges while in their new roles, ranging from teacher lateness to student misbehavior. However, the two challenges that emerged as most significant were interpersonal relations and plant maintenance. The other relatively significant challenge reported was a lack of teacher buy in for the vision of the respective principals (Van Jaarsveld, Mentz & Challens, 2015). Another study revealed another challenge, particularly in rural district schools which is on culture. Some participants struggled with the specific context of the rural school. This challenge entails more preparation since many participants had no experience in a rural setting. Unaware of the culture and characteristics of the rural school, including stakeholders who have a sense of ownership in the school, novice principals had to contend with the community. Such challengescould have been avoided if they have a clearer understanding of rural education (Edwards, 2016). In the Philippines, personal challenges are encountered by novice school heads who are members of religious congregations. They are appointed as principals out of obedience from their superiors even without knowledge and experience in managing schools. During their three year term, they enroll in graduate school for a degree in educational leadership to equip themselves with theories (De Guzman, 2007). As they juggle school leadership tasks and graduate studies, many are not able to complete their master’s degree. There is pressure to qualify themselves since they lacked the required educational qualifications particularly a master’s degree. Due to the duties and responsibilities of being a school head, they are not able to earn the degree. In a teacher university that offers educational leadership and management in the graduate school, the number of graduates continue to be few. It was concluded that graduate students need more commitment and grit to complete their graduate studies (Zulieta, Sudarsana, Arrieta & Ancho, 2020). In another study, it showed how principals face the gaps between theory, policy, and practice but there are few kinds of research conducted on these dynamics. Ethical leadership is emphasized in leadership training in the Philippines due to the presence of corruption and nepotism in its culture. The preparation for the challenges that principals will face should include sensitivity to the culture (Sutherland & Brooks, 2013).

Preparing for the Leadership Challenge School leadership is a challenging and demanding academic work that requires serious preparation. Novice and experienced academic leaders identified the challenges, and proposed programs to address them. To prepare for these challenges, become more confident in taking the new task, leadership training should be provided to novice academic leaders. Getting the right people for the principalship matters, including how they are trained for the position. New principals had acknowledged their lack of formal preparation but coped through in service training and learnings from experience. Due to minimal preparation they received, the more they became apprehensive in assuming the new role (Thody, Papanaoum, Johansson & Pashiardis, 2007).

Quality school leadership is what every educational institution desire, particularly as it looks forward to the challenges of leadership. It is essential for school improvement as the leadership workforce is aging and close to retirement. With this concern, many schools in different countries provide leadership training for novice academic leaders, but they are optional. Such programs will assist in

A study on novice rural principals revealed that eight themes emerged on the challenges they encountered namely supervision of staff, sense of isolation, work life balance, the role of the superintendent, changing school boards, legacy of the predecessor, demands of the community, and board succession planning. Five of the eight themes are already found in the literature related to this study. These eight themes all impacted on the novice rural principals and their sense of success or failure in those critical first two years of the principalship. To the novice principals, no challenge was considered a big obstacle. However, when multiple challenges pile up, they are overwhelmed by the volume of work. Some participants felt supported because of the mentors and effective networking. Unfortunately, others felt that they were alone in dealing with the demands of their new responsibility (Edwards, 2016). Another study found out that novice principals were “shocked” as they transitioned into their new roles. The sense of bigger responsibility was tremendous and contributed to the other problems in being a principal namely task volume, diversity, and unpredictability. The “shock” and conditions to the transition either lessened or made the level of practice problems they faced (Spillane & Lee, 2013).

The challenges encountered by novice academic leaders appear to be very overwhelming and difficult, but manageable if the proper preparations are provided. Researches revealed that novice academic leaders suggested programs that will assist future academic administrators before assuming the new role.

Despite the challenges they encountered, novice academic heads found ways to handle the issues. A study revealed that school headteachers experienced loneliness and isolation, particularly during the first month of their appointment. However, they managed their isolation through various approaches like having informal discussions with teachers to get to know them more. Moreover, the academic heads shared experiences and created an open environment for interaction with their teachers (Tahir, Thakib, Hamzah, Said & Musah, 2016).

shaping initial school leadership practices and create networks where leaders can share their concerns. Moreover, it should provide an understanding and balance between theoretical and practical knowledge, including self study (Schleicher, Based2012).

on experience, new principals are left to sink or swim in their new tasks. In most cases, they are presumed to be prepared to have completed their graduate studies or a university training program. They get a few directions, insincere encouragement, or sporadic practical tip. However, this kind of attitude is changing because of the realization of having a shortage of high quality school leaders. In recruiting promising school leaders, nurturing comes after their recruitment (Lashway, 2003).

Adapting to the dynamics of school leadership today, academic heads suggested solutions to the challenges they encountered to prepare future academic leaders in handling similar issues. Four major solutions are recommended to overcome isolation in the leadership task namely continuous discussions with other teachers, attitudechange among novice headteachers, establishing a network with other academic heads, and strengthening teamwork. The ability to adapt oneself to their fellow teachers will assist in the performance of one’s duties. Notably, communication with the other members of the school community, particularly the academic heads, teachers, and non teaching is important to ensure the effective dissemination of information. Through formal and informal meetings, novice academic heads can interact, exchange ideas, give comments, and recommendations leading to the development of the school community (Tahir, Thakib, Hamzah, Said & Musah, 2016).

Researches on leadership succession and preparation often mention the importance of mentorship. Every incoming academic leader needs mentorship from senior academic heads, particularly in the beginning years. They need support and guidance from experienced academic leaders, specifically in

The area that some participants struggled with and believed more preparation should be done was the specific context of the rural school. Many participants had no experience in a rural setting, either as a student themselves or as a teacher. They were unaware of the unique culture and characteristics of the rural school, including the sense of ownership parents, had towards the school, the role and status long serving staff members had in the school and with the parents, and the seemingly blurred line between school and community. The mistakes or challenges some of the participants faced could have been avoided with a more detailed understanding of rural education (Edwards, 2016). Whether in an urban or rural area, the dynamics of school leadership change. School leadership continues to evolve. The idea of growing school leadership entails that tasks in the school, including the qualities required to do them effectively are clear and understood. In every school, there is a variety of level of leadership that involves different degrees of complexity and accountability. Learning area head, discipline coordinator, headteacher, and assistant principal are some of the different levels of school leadership (West Burnham, 2004).

Succession Planning

developing required skills like effective communication with teachers, time management, and supervision of instruction to become effective academic leaders. Hence, preparing new academic leaders like principals becomes an integral component of effective school systems. Effective and well prepared mentoring programs, which provide an appropriate match between mentors and mentees, are essential to assist new principals, and other academic heads (Gumus It2019).cannot be assumed that newly appointed academic leaders or principals have all the skills and competencies to lead their schools successfully. The job is considered lonely and intimidating, but it can be resolved through an effective mentoring program. Having competent and experienced mentors will guide the new academic heads employing structured, reflective activities and experiences. (Holloway, 2004). This is evident when new headteachers validated that mentoring had enhanced significantly their professional values as middle school managers. Through this, a culture of knowledge sharing was born that gave them more confidence and improved their practical knowledge on educational leadership (Tahir, Haruzuan, Said, Daud, Vazhathodi & Khan, 2015).

The provision of effective mentoring programs is supported by the study of the Southern Regional Education Board in Atlanta, USA. It was explained that mentoring programs give initial credentialing to aspiring principals by asking them to demonstrate mastery of competencies before credible mentors. However, reality shows that many new academic leaders are left to “learn on the job.” They plan and design programs without the guidance of their successful peers. Considering the increasing amount of accountability, the training for principals or any academic leader should not be a “sink or swim” approach. Preparing future or new academic leaders is not about cutting corners, but a tedious process to enable them to grow. Quality school leaders result in quality schools. They work hard to get the job done and lead the school to its vision. Poorly prepared school leaders remain in the system and hinder the growth of the school. Hence, the mentoring program must be a rigorous and challenging internship supervised by experts in educational leadership (Board, S. R. E. 2009).

In the past, succession planning was not given much attention for leaders just looked for a replacement to vacant supervisory positions. With the emerging discussions, researches, and theories on leadership, succession planning started to gain ground and taken seriously by organizational leaders. Seeing its value, it is introduced as a significant plan that will impact leadership sustainability and realization of the vision of the organization. With the traditional perception that leaders will stay in power until they retire beginning to diminish rapidly, the term

Aside from mentorship, senior and novice school leaders propose an induction program for newly appointed academic heads. Different forms of induction programs are provided by the United States, Australia, Hungary, and Denmark to ensure the readiness of the incoming academic leaders. Only 18% of academic leaders felt prepared when they assumed office.

3. Methodology

Succession management requires substantial ongoing organizational commitment across all levels of the business implementation. A key component for effectiveness was identified as having support for the process not only at the highest levels but also down the line. In particular, senior management must be prepared to provide support and development opportunities for staff identified as high potential (Taylor & McGraw, 2004) For advancement leaders to think strategically about career pathing and succession planning, they must start by building the base of internal talent. Developing a culture within an advancement division that nurtures the individual contributor as much as it values future managers is a critical step. If there is a culture of leadership development, employees may opt to commit and reciprocate the organization (Croteau & Wolk, From2010). these researches, it suggests that incoming academic leaders will face various challenges, but they can be handled given the essential preparation and training. The development of the educational institution mainly depends on the quality of school leaders. Therefore, the competence and relational skills of academic leaders should be developed through the leadership preparation programs of the school.

The method used in this study is phenomenology. It is an approach to qualitative research that focuses on the commonality of a lived experience within a particular group. The fundamental goal of the approach is to arrive at a description of the nature of the particular phenomenon (Creswell, 2014). In the last two years, seven new learning area heads from a private sectarian school in the National Capital Region, Philippines were observed for six months and interviewed separately. Three have been with the school for three or four years while four for at least eight years. The researchers were participant observers and one of them is a member of the management team. The participants are not under the supervision of the Eresearchersxpertsin educational management and school administrators validate the research questions. The following items were asked: (1) When the appointment as a learning area head was offered to you, did you immediately accept it? Why?

(2) Were you prepared to be the learning area head when you were appointed? Why? (3) What were the challenges that you encountered in your first year as an academic head? How did you manage or handle the challenges? (4) Based on your

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. of office for leadership positions is being observed. It is now becoming part of the organizational culture where change is expected and a new set of leaders will Ocome.neof the specific practices that organizations and management development professionals must execute to effectively build their leadership pipeline is to establish a supportive organizational culture through active CEO and senior management participation in development programs and performance appraisal and reward systems that reinforce managerial engagement (Groves, 2007).

4. Results and Discussion

experience, what preparation and training should be given to the new learning heads before and after their appointment? Coding was used to analyze the data were analyzed by coding. In coding, the researcher organizes data collected into segments and assigns a word or phrase to them as labels (Creswell, 2014). Before the study, the researchers sought permission from the school administrators and the participants. The participation of the seven new learning area heads was voluntary, and their responses will not affect their status or performance. No name would be mentioned including the school where the study was conducted.

1. What are the challenges that novice academic heads encountered in leading the teachers? When the seven novice academic heads were asked if they were prepared for the supervisory responsibility, no one said that he/she was ready for the new educational role. One participant received the information that he/she would be the next academic head after two academic years. However, he/she was surprised that the appointment came a year earlier. He/She accepted the position but not without any doubts about his/her competence. Another participant said that he/she was ready but not without serious doubts considering that he/she is the most senior in the groupof teachers. However, the other five participants said that they were reluctant to accept the appointment because they were not prepared for such a role. They felt that they did not have time to be ready because the offer came too soon. But two participants said that he/she eventually accepted it because he/she considered it as a challenge. One of the participants shared: “It happened when the principal summoned me to his office sometime March or April of 2019. I did not have any idea that the appointment would be offered to me. Honestly, I was quite hesitant, for I was not prepared for it. I felt that I have focused my training in developing my skills to be a subject and content expert.” P5 Q1 A1 Their reluctance to accept the appointment may be attributed to the demographics shown in Table 1.

If teaching entails a four year college education, including pre service training, it is also important that teachers who are future academic heads must be prepared for school leadership responsibilities. Their experiences and performance are basic premises for more serious roles, but there are significant preparations needed for supervisory positions. The discussions that follow are presented based on the research problems.

These factors might be considered affecting the novice academic heads particularly in their first year of supervisory work. Based on observation, the participants showed enthusiasm in their new responsibility but were tentative in their actions. They are very careful in dealing with the teachers under their supervision. During management team meetings, they were attentively listening in the discussion and clarifying essential matters. They also appeared anxious about pressing issues and concerns because they have to figure out how to handle

87 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Table 1. Demographics of the participants Age Years ExperienceTeachingof Tenure in the school QualificationsEducational Participant 1 25 5 5 (second most senior) Master’s degree (on going) Participant 2 28 4 4 (third most senior) Master’s degree (on going) Participant 3 26 5 (most5senior) Master’s degree (on going) Participant 4 41 17 (most11senior) Master’s degree (on going) Participant 5 32 8 (most5senior) Master’s degree (on going) Participant 6 43 18 (most6senior) Master’s degree (on going) Participant 7 37 16 (most11senior) Master’s degree (completed)

Four of the participants are relatively young in terms of age, experience, and tenure in the institution. Six of the participants believed that seniority played a significant factor in their appointment. One participant pointed out that: “I was appointed because there were no other tenured teachers to lead the area. Practically, all teachers in the area are probationary.” P6 Q1 A1

Promotion based on seniority is an old fashioned way of promoting employees which may not necessarily mean loyalty or excellent performance. But some organizations still consider this as an important criterion for promotion or appointment. Seniority based promotion may be outmoded but it is perceived to be a fair basis than merit based systems. While understanding that seniority systems contribute to organizational justice is important, without the ability to evaluate employees who have specific knowledge, achievements, and abilities, the organization is simply required to take the next most senior person. Although perceived as fair among employees, it poses organizational and management challenges (Carter, 2017). Ironically, competency is found to be the predictor variable that contributes to the highest variation score in occupational stress. Organizations are advised to use competency as the first consideration for promotion criteria. At the same time, other criteria must be seriously looked into such as leadership, performance, and seniority. Seniority should be given the least consideration because it has a weak relationship with organizational performance (Yaw, 2017).

Attitude of teachers Processes and Procedures Knowledge about policies and procedures

Expectations of Superiors Fulfilling duties and responsibilities as academic Meetinghead expectations of superiors

The issue on paperwork was also the finding of in their study on novice school leaders. Considered as the most significant challenge and category that came out in the study, paperwork refers to the writing of reports and documentation. Making the job more stressful, the information had to be managed rapidly like communication, documentation, and electronic reports. (Beam, Claxton & Smith, 2016). In their study, paperwork refers to desk work done by academic heads which include forms, paper records, documentation, and other electronic records. The meaning of paperwork is similar to the responses of the participants

Supervising Teachers Handling teacher’s behaviors and attitudes

Paperwork

Paperwork No evident turnover of documents Knowledge on how to do paper works Culture Working habits of the teachers

Main Challenges Specific Challenges

The four participants shared that this is the first challenge that they have encountered. Being teachers with no leadership experience and have not been prepared for the position, they had a difficult time adjusting to the paperwork that the work requires. They have been overwhelmed by the volume of documents to be reviewed and prepared. One of the participants said: “I feel prepared for the responsibilities, but I'm not quite competent in creating documents.” P1 Q2 A2

Culture Over time, people in the organization develop habits that most of the time become the norm. When a new leader comes in, they find it difficult to change, even the practices are bad. A new leader will deal with this kind of challenge as he/she begins fulfilling that role. Two participants shared that they replaced academic heads who have been in the institution for more than thirty (30) years and as academic heads for more than six (6) years. As young and new leaders of the area, that is a daunting task that they have to face. One participant shared that two teachers in the area were his/her former teachers whom he/she considered as his role models. He/She added that alone is already a challenge. The two participants explained further that these former academic heads had established specific procedures and relationships that are considered to be the culture of the area. An

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. them. In terms of dealing with the teachers, they were more careful, particularly in responding to their comments. They said that in most cases, they do not respond immediately to their questions unless there is a clear directive from the administration. Despite being reluctant to accept the appointment, the participants eventually assumed the position and encountered the challenges as new academic heads that are found in Table 2.

Table 2. Challenges in the first year as academic head

Another participant said: “There are a lot of learning area head tasks that I am not aware of before, that if the training was given ahead of time, the adjustment would be much easier. However, as time pass by, step by step, I learned to adapt to the said position and somehow, impose an authority in our area.”

In any leadership transition, the turnover of responsibilities is essential. The participants unanimously experienced difficulty in adjusting to the new responsibility because of the absence of orientation on their new responsibility. The appointment came a few months before they assumed responsibility as an academic head. A participant shared that: “It would be the decision making process. That was the time when we purchased new computer units and fabricated computer tables. Since I don’t have a background on how to deal with the suppliers and the materials needed, it was not easy for me to deal with those situations.”

P1 Q2 A2 To be able to create change in a school environment, the new academic head should be able to earn the trust and confidence of the teachers. To build the school as an educational community that enables individual human development through cooperation and inclusion, trust should be the main foundation. Trust is one of the essential values in educational leadership that gives confidence and establishes a stronghold for safe development (Dorczak, 2014).

Processes and Procedures

P2 Q2 A2 A research study revealed similar results on the absence of orientation and other similar activities for incoming learning area heads. The participants shared that there was no mentoring, orientation, clear transition, and turnover of responsibilities that made it difficult for them as new academic heads to adjust to their new responsibility. They had to find their way and learn from experience to become confident academic heads. It is recommended that an induction program might be provided for incoming and newly appointed academic leaders which includes leadership training, mentoring, transition protocols, orientation, and turnover (Arrieta, 2020).

article explains organizational culture as an observable, consistent patterns of behavior. In the words of the great philosopher Aristotle “We are what we repeatedly do.” This opinion hoists habits or repeated behavior as the center of culture and reduces people’s beliefs, feelings, or ideas. One’s attention is focused on the influences that form the behavior in organizations. It highlights some important questions about culture on structure, processes, and incentives, including culture as simply behavioral outputs (Watkins, 2013). As a challenge, one participant said: “I consider the habit of the area as a challenge. It is difficult to break the practices created by the previous learning area head. I chose to change the bad habit of the faculty one at a time.”

P3 Q2 A2

When new appointments are out, there are expectations from teachers and more particularly the immediate superiors who recommended and appointed them. There are also expectations to bring about change and improvement in the area. The participants felt that they have to live with the manageable expectations from all teachers and academic leaders. One participant shared: “As a new learning area head, there are many expectations, particularly in changes in practices and outputs of the area at the end of the school year.”

P4 Q2 A2

Expectations of Superiors

P7 Q3 A3 As instructional leaders, academic heads should be able to direct and influence the teachers to become better educators. They are expected to create a school climate that will nurture teachers and recognize them as potential leaders. (SEAMEO INNOTECH, 2014). It is also part of their responsibility to develop and nurture relationships with their teachers and to deal constructively with conflicts. Moreover, they are expected to develop their subordinates’ competencies and enhance performance by panning effective development activities. However, it remains a challenge as the new academic heads find the right approach in dealing with different teachers with different personalities and needs. They have to read books and articles about managing and communicating with subordinates and be mentored by experienced school leaders

Newly appointed academic heads are expected from them by their immediate heads. Learning area heads are identified as middle leaders and curriculum leaders Hence, they are expected to perform tasks such as planning learning programs, leading in curriculum development, maintaining policies and procedures, and meeting the quality assurance and compliance requirements (Basset, 2016).

Handling student’s behavior is different from supervising teachers. Novice academic heads consider managing teachers a challenge because they have different mindsets, attitudes, and behavior. They are in search of the appropriate strategy in leading them most especially that the teachers. A participant shared: “Handling fellow teachers is both an objective and a personal business, to me. Perhaps, one needs to be holistically grown to lessen the hassle of guiding and leading people of the same profession, with utmost professionalism and empathy at the same time.”

Supervising Teachers

Handlingresponsibilities?leadership

2. How did the novice academic heads handle the leadership challenges and challenges bring out the best in every newly appointed academic head. He/She has to find ways to deal with them. The seven participants shared that they regularly consult their former academic head and immediate superior for guidance and assistance. Some past academic heads took the initiative to mentor them, which they appreciate. A participant said: "Whenever there are learning area head tasks that I am not aware of doing, it's a good thing that my former area head is willing to help me and give me advice on what to do in particular situations. His vast experience in

Ironically, a study revealed that one out of five novice school heads shared that support from superiors was lacking. Though they wanted to seek guidance from academic authorities, they opted not to seek help for it might be taken as a sign of weakness. Moreover, asking for assistance might put their appointment at risk. It was explicitly indicated that novice academic leaders need guidance from their supervisors. During the focus group discussion, they expressed their strategies in handling the challenges, but the support came more from informal than formal sources. Instead of being supported through the prescriptive procedures, they did their reflective processes (Beam, Claxton & Smith, 2016).

Other new academic heads decided to engage in professional development by taking graduate studies and reading books on educational leadership. Having no preparation for the leadership role, they have to study and lead their teachers at the same time. One participant said: “Another way to manage the challenge is by keeping myself abreast of the different pedagogy that is suited as a learning area head.” P6 Q3 A3

Another participant shared: “The first remarkable challenge is finding the right approach to dealing with different teachers with different personalities and needs. I read books and articles about managing and communicating with subordinates and the like.” P5 Q3 A3

Leadership requires adaptability and flexibility. The challenge is to be able to relate with others more meaningfully adapt their styles to changing circumstances and highlights the need for leadership development that enhances flexibility in leadership styles and strategies. Hence, the leadership training of future leaders should be relevant and responsive to the signs of the times. Unfortunately, leaders have been assigned to a position that they have not been prepared for (Hallinger, 2011). What these new academic heads are doing insofar as developing their leadership competencies is the right thing to do. But this should have been

Another participant said: “In decision making, I am thankful for the cooperation and understanding of my previous academic head. He was always there to answer my queries.” P3 Q3 A3 Based on observation, the seven participants often ask clarificatory questions during the management meeting. They listen attentively in the discussions, particularly to senior academic heads. Likewise, they regularly ask their immediate head for advice and guidance, most especially on area issues and concerns. Some said that they received mentorship from their former academic leaders and other academic heads who are always available to listen and give suggestions. Having supportive academic leaders and senior teachers is very helpful in carrying out their tasks as new academic heads.

3. What kind of preparation and training on leadership that novice academic heads need?

•

Mentoring

Leadership Training Expectations of Superiors Culture Succession Planning Readiness of academic heads Supervision of Teachers Induction Program

Proper turnover of responsibilities, most especially the documents is essential between the outgoing and incoming heads. This point is the concern of all participants for there was no proper orientation and transition from one academic head to another. Incoming academic leaders have to be provided sufficient time to prepare for the new task. There should also be an orientation on their duties and responsibilities including the policies and procedures. The induction program that the administration can create will assist incoming heads in becoming competent and people centered leaders. One participant suggested: “Proper turnover of documents and other related files is very much important. Leadership and management training/workshop and proper orientation of the responsibilities.” P4 Q4 A4

Induction

Table

All participants emphasized the importance of preparation before any promotion of teachers to an academic head position. Having been in the classroom for several years does not prepare a teacher completely for supervisory responsibilities for that is a different area in education. Certainly, experiences in classroom teaching will help, but a future school leader should undergo leadership training and may include on the job training. Young educators and academic leaders are facing incomparable challenges. They have to deal with accountability for student performance, providing for different student populations, parents doubting public education, implementing intricate policies on special education, and other things that are too many to mention. Yet, these young educators and leaders, who are highly motivated, still need to acquire the skills that come basically from experience (Rooney, 2008). The participants presented their suggestions on how future academic heads can be prepared based on their experiences and the challenges they encountered in their first year as an academic head. Table 3 shows the challenges and the programs that will prepare future academic leaders for leadership responsibility. 3. Programs Addressing the Challenges of Novice Academic Heads Programs Challenges Program Turnover of documents Orientation ProcessesPaperworkand Procedures ProcessesCulture and Procedures

Furthermore, it pointed out that with the absence of an induction program, leadership training, mentoring, transition protocols, orientation, and turnover to incoming and newly appointed academic heads should be provided (Arrieta, 2020).

As a preparatory programfornovice school heads, this is observedby a significant number of educational institutions. Education leaders provide mentoring and coaching which are considered professional development practices. Such practice involves a professional education leader guiding a new academic leader in a mutually enriching engagement that fosters learning and development. The established relationship is based on mutual trust, openness, and respect (Liang et al., 2016). Similarly, a study found out that it is better to have candidates for leadership positions coached long before their official appointment. Through mentoring, a supportive relationship will be established that will prove helpful during the induction years, particularly with a mentor (Beam, Claxton & Smith, 2016) Leadership Training

Mentoring Though a mentoring may be included in the induction program, the participants unanimously suggested that new academic heads should be mentored before and after the appointment, particularly in the first year. One participant shared that he was fortunate to be mentored byhis formerhead, whohappens to behisformer teacher. He was very grateful for he learned a lot from him. However, mentoring should be true to all. It can only happen if there is a mentoring program for all incoming andnew academic heads. Basedon observation, particularly during and after management team meetings, the new academic leaders sought clarification on the matters discussed. When asked about what they conferred with the senior academic leaders, they confirmed and sought advice on specific agenda in the meeting before communicating the information to the teachers.

The importance of mentoring and induction is included in The Kansas Educational Leadership Institute (KELI). KELI is a partnership of government agencies and professional organizations that provides induction and mentoring to new academic leaders in the state of Kansas, USA. In building leaders in their district, KELI, as a state model, makes support available to new school principals and assistant principals by assigning senior and skilled principals in the mentoring and induction programs (Liang & Augustine Shaw, 2016) In a study about succession planning, the importance of the induction program as an important undertaking of administration for new academic leaders came out.

Frequently, teachers are perceived to be leaders, but not all teachers have leadership competencies and skills. In leading an academic area, it will require not only teaching experience but also preparation for supervisory roles. The transition from leading students to leading teachers is not like transferring from one class to another. Therefore, leadership training for incoming and new academic heads is imperative to be able to manage the teachers and perform one’s role as an academic head more effectively. A participant stated:

P2 Q4 A4 Successful school leadership in Singapore, they found out that principals train potential teachers to be future school heads. In their leadership succession plans, there were conscious efforts by the principals in building the leadership capacity of their teachers (Wang, Gurr & Drysdale, 2015). The principals provided various opportunities to middle managers, particularly in taking more work responsibilities for them to have more exposure to lead. The absence of a training and development program for future leaders will make them ill prepared for the duties In another study, the training and development of future school leaders were found to be very essential. The findings pointed out that a critical component of succession management and planning is the development of aspiring leaders. Hence, future leaders may not be able to do their tasks effectively if they will not be subjected to appropriate, reflective, and meaningful training and development (Zepeda, Bengtson & Parylo, 2011). School leadership training and preparation should include the development of knowledge and competence of 21st century educational leaders. The Competency Framework for Southeast Asian School Heads (2014) developed by SEAMEO INNOTECH identifies strategic thinking and innovation, instructional leadership, personal excellence, stakeholders’ engagement, and managerial leadership as essential domains in developing today’s future leaders. Effective principals and middle academic supervisors enhance the creation of a school environment conducive to learning and enhancing a synergy in the school community. As an instructional leader, the principal must be able to observe and analyze instruction with precision focusing on the 21st century skills of teachers. He/She must be able to define clear steps for improving what they observe and analyze. Collaborative analysis of practice should become a central part of leadership towards developing a school culture that promotes personal and professional relationships and promotes learners’ culture of hard work, responsibility, and success (Llagas, Corpuz & Bilbao, 2016). In terms of readiness for leadership roles, taking graduate studies help in enhancing leadership competencies. Future leaders who had taken graduate level courses in educational administration showed more readiness to address problems of practice than those who have not taken graduate level courses in educational administration. Also, current leaders who have served as assistant heads showed more readiness to address problems of practice that those who have not served as assistant heads. A key recommendation was that the Ghana Education Service should consider including in the requirement to become a high school head a graduate level courses in educational administration and experience as assistant head. (Amakyi, 2017). The present system of promotion does not favor the appointment of prepared school leaders. It found out that there is a need for leadership preparation as a prerequisite for participants in the application for academic headships, and also for those who are already holding a leadership position (Delgado, 2015).

“Leadership and management training/workshop and proper orientation of the responsibilities are needed so that new heads will not be at a lost.”

A participant suggested: “The school must have a succession plan, so prospect or promising teachers would be properly groomed by their immediate heads before their appointment. The school must also let the teachers know about this plan, so they would be able to prepare themselves by aligning their training or any professional development plan with the path the school or administrators/school heads want them to take.” P5 Q4 A4 Another participant said: “There must be a succession plan, and also an orientation with regards to the different paper works that a learning area head will face along the way.” P6 Q4 A4

The leadership pipeline of every school must be filled with future leaders who have been identified based on the educational qualifications, experience, and performance. When the term of office ends, the succeeding academic head is prepared and confident to take the leadership responsibility. Therefore, the school must have a succession plan. It is inevitable for business and school organizations to have succession planning for the realization of its vision mission. Experts have come up with definitions of succession planning and the emphasis zeroes in on leadership sustainability. An American expert on human resource management said that succession planning is a systematic approach to ensuring leadership continuity within an organization by recruiting or encouraging individual employee growth and development (Haroski, 2012).

Succession Planning

Succession planning must be done and implemented in schools as an organization. Each school must have a succession plan for sustainability and continuity. School systems cannot leave leadership development to chance. There must be leadership development plans in schools with specific and interrelated components (Hall, 2008). However, several studies revealed that it is not given priority. Traditional policies are not anymore helpful in preparing school administrators due to the changing educational environment that they face. An important method in investing in human capital is through the development of a succession plan which will build a list of qualified candidates for leadership positions as the district anticipates the need before it becomes urgent. It also found out that every district must be fully invested in developing and supporting school leaders to avoid discontinuity and disruption including burnout and frustration (Hanover Research, 2014).

5. Conclusions

The study found out that the novice academic heads considered paperwork, culture, processes and procedures, and expectations of superiors as primary challenges. To handle these challenges, they regularly consulted their superiors, and their former academic heads mentored some of them. During meetings, they clarified the information, issues, and concerns so that it will be accurate when they communicate them to their teachers. With all these challenges and experiences, they suggested that incoming and new academic heads be provided with

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96 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. leadership training, orientation, and mentoring for them to carry out their duties and responsibilities more effectively. Based on the findings of this study, it can be concluded that novice heads who are ill equipped with the needed leadership training and preparation found it challenging to perform their supervisory duties and responsibilities. Also, orientation on duties and responsibilities, including policies and procedures for incoming and new academic heads is necessary for a better transition from classroom teacher to an academic leader These programs can be put into one program a succession plan. It is also worthy to note that knowledge and competence in preparing reports and documents are essential for academic heads. Novice heads that get support from their immediate head and fellow academic leaders need mentoring before and during the first year as academic head, and personal and professional relationship with the teachers is a primary concern of academic leaders when they assume office.

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99 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 5, pp. 99 124, May https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.5.20206 Action Research in Hadith Literacy: A Reflection of Hadith Learning in the Digital Age Tedi Supriyadi* Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia Bandung, https://orcid.org/0000Indonesia00030307 1958 J. Julia, Ani Nur Aeni and Elan Sumarna Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia Bandung, https://orcid.org/0000Indonesia00020249 0264 https://orcid.org/0000 0002 3593 1732 https://orcid.org/0000 0002 8960 2299

Abstract. When the internet has become the main reference source for academics and students in completing their assignments, critical attitudes towards information accessed via the internet, especially about hadith are often ignored. Critical attitude is needed to ensure the authenticity of a hadith because its discourse has a level of quality, be it sahih hadith (authentic, accepted) or da'if (rejected). Along with the development of internet technology, many false hadiths are circulating on the internet. Therefore, adequate literacy skills in reading and tracing the authenticity of a hadith are needed. This research provides examples of the results of collaborative team work to improve hadith literacy. Action Research Design was chosen to find solutions to problems through critical reflection in the process of learning Al Qur’an. The Action Research procedures were combined with the Kern’s 3R model namely Responding, Revising, and Reflecting. This study involved 398 students as research participants at one of the higher education institutions in West Java, Indonesia. This research resulted in several findings: 1) Six steps were taken to improve hadith literacy, namely the formulation of learning objectives, selection of media, update of the knowledge of hadith, understanding the learning media, application of learning media, and evaluation. 2) Two applications were used as learning media in improving hadith literacy, namely the science of hadith and the Ensiklopedi Hadits Kitab 9 Imam (EHK9I, Encyclopedia of Hadith in the book of 9 Imams). 3) The reflective actions and the integration of the two applications showed an increase in three aspects of literacy namely data literacy (54.33%), technological literacy (63.07%), and human literacy related to narration of the hadith (93.59%). It can be

Corresponding Author: Tedi Supriyadi, Email: tedisupriyadi@upi.edu

Keywords: literacy; hadith; digital native; action research; takhrij hadith

1. Introduction

One guiding principle the millennials must have in studying Islam or any scientific work on Islam is to use information from original and reliable sources (Alkhatib, Monem & Shaalan, 2017; Karim & Hazmi, 2005; Luthfi, Suryana & Basari, 2018). In the study of hadith, it is compulsory to refer to the original primary reference sources namely the books of hadith by the ulama. Works that are often used as references and recommended in hadith discussions are known as kutub sittah or the six hadith books and some even call them as kutubu tis'ah or the nine books of hadith (Mohamad & Mohamad, 2017; Suliaman & Yaakob, 2019; Suliaman et al., 2018). Along with the presence of internet technology as a communication tool and information provider, this principle is in fact often ignored. The internet has become the main reference source for academics and students in completing their assignments (Karim & Hazmi, 2005). In addition, the development of internet technology has made the millennials rely more on social media as a tool to get information such as Instagram, Facebook, Twitter, WhatsApp groups, and so on (Wahyuningsih, 2019) Ironically, obtaining the information on hadith from the internet or social media is not accompanied by a critical attitude to differentiate which hadith is authentic Students need to have the ability to investigate shahih hadith through the following criteria: a. Sanadnya continued (iitishal al sanad); b. The narrator is fair ("adalat al rawi); c. The narrator is dhabit (dhabth al rawi); d. Avoiding the syadz ("adam al syadz); e. Avoid illat ("adam" illat) As an example, the millennial generation rarely crosschecks the hadith quotations spread in the cyberspace with the books of hadith. Checking on the books of hadith is important to test whether or not a person’s arguments are strong when discussing Islamic topics.

Quoting Al Qur'an or hadith is a rhetorical strategy to build arguments on all topics (Boutz, Benninger & Lancaster, 2019) Conducting a hadith cross check as a manifestation of a critical attitude towards hadith information is oriented on to two things. First is whether the hadith quoted or used in the argument is in the books of the hadith or not. Second, the quality of the hadith used as an argument in the topic The hadith discourse is always confronted with the degree of quality of a hadith Analysis is required to conclude whether a hadith, as the footing, is accepted or rejected (Najeeb, 2014; Najiyah, Susanti, Riana & Wahyudi, 2017). The activity of searching the hadith and revealing the quality of a hadith is called takhrij hadith (Hidayat, 2018; Qomarullah, 2016) The critical attitude embodied through the takhrij hadith is a necessity for the millennials who have an interest in Islamic topics. This is important because the

concluded that the steps taken by utilizing the two applications as learning media can improve the participants’ ability to trace and determine the authenticity of a hadith

Based on the problems, this study aims at analyzing the steps of action in improving the takhrij hadith ability of the millennial generation based on information technology. The limitations of this study are formulated in the questions: “How are the steps to increase takhrij hadith ability for the millennial generation?” and “What information technology can improve the takhrij hadith ability for the millennial generation?”. In specific, this study hypothesized that the utilization of Encyclopedia of Hadith in the book of 9 Imams (hereinafter abbreviated as EHK91) that the students’ critical thinking ability on hadith circulated on the internet can be developed.

A frequently used reference in the investigation of hadith is the “six books called kutubu sittaah” , namely Sahih Al Bukhari, Sahih Muslim, Sunan Abu Daud, Sunan Al Tirmidzi, Sunan Ibnu Majah and Sunan Al Nasa'i (Najeeb, 2014). Most of the hadith experts believe that if a hadith alleged to be based on the Prophet is found in the canonical hadith collection, especially in Sahih Bukhari and Muslim, then the hadith is definitely sourced from the Prophet (Masrur, 2007). However, in contrast to most hadith experts, G H A Juynboll (1935 2010 AD) with his common link theory, as revealed by Arifah (2019) and Masrur (2007), although a

The reason for this is that the hadith is a fundamental source of Islamic teachings after Al Qur'an (Baraka & Dalloul, 2014; Najeeb, 2014)

spread of false hadith continues to increase via the internet or social media and has become a new threat that must be seriously eradicated by Muslims living in this digital world (Usman A.H, 2018). Therefore, insight, skills and high motivation are needed to carry it out as an effort to prevent false hadith from circulating online as to filter information related to the hadith. Therefore, ones’ understanding and practice of Islam should have strong legislation foundation.

2. Theoretical Framework

The hadith is the words and deeds of the prophet Muhammad (Baraka & Dalloul, 2014; Najeeb, 2014). Not only that, it is also defined as his provisions, agreements and ideals(Al Fadli, 2011; Ali, 2013; Brown, 2017; Kamali, 2014). In the perspective of Islam, the hadith is an important tool in understanding Al Qur'an as the first and foremost source of Islamic teachings (Baraka & Dalloul, 2014), hence the hadith is the second source of Islamic teachings after Al Qur'an (Najeeb, 2014; Najiyah et al., 2017). There are two parts in a hadith The first part is the original content (narration) or matan, (نتملا ) The second part is the string of narrators who conveyed the narration, or isnad ( دانسإ ). Isnad is the list narrators who were listed chronologically (the person who a narrator heard the hadith from), traced back until the first Hadith narrator of the matan and the matan itself (Azmi & Badia, 2010) For about 15 centuries, Muslims were relying on isnad to differentiate hadiths that are accepted (Sahih) and rejected (Da’if). The scholars of Hadith assess them using the isnad and the narrators making the string (Najeeb, 2014).

Therefore, in the science of hadith, a research on isnad is Hadith essential. To find out the authenticity of a hadith, Hadithhadith scholars adhere to defined steps of isnad The steps are believed to be traditional (Baraka & Dalloul, 2014)

Another application that is quite representative in studying the hadith in terms of information on both matan and isnad, which are important elements in the hadith (Azmi & bin Badia, 2010; Baraka & Dalloul, 2014; Najeeb, 2014), is the Ensiklopedi Hadits Kitab 9 Imam (hereinafter abbreviated as EHK9I, Encyclopedia of Hadith in the book of 9 Imams) developed by Lidwa Pustaka This application is equipped with punctuation marks and translations, and it is a digitalized version of the 9 books of hadith and other features that support the ease of learning the hadith. These works show a fairly high interest in studying the science of hadith and strive to utilize new techniques to present them in an application as a learning medium. This research is focused on the pedagogic aspect as an effort to improve students’ ability to trace the authenticity of a hadith using available information technology as a learning medium.

hadith has been recorded in al kutub al sittah, the hadith does not necessarily come from the Prophet. This indicates that to know the authenticity of the hadith two stages are required. The first is to trace the hadith in the canonical books and the second is to analyze the series of isnad to determine the quality by the methods established by the ulama. In the science of hadith, this is known as the takhrij hadith (Hidayat, 2018; Qomarullah, 2016; Suliaman et al., 2018)

The above steps are linked to one's literacy skills. Literacy is not limited to reading and writing activities but is also related to the demand to understand information critically and analytically (UNESCO, 2003). The advances in information technology and the internet which result in abundant digital information resources demand people to have digital literacy capabilities, namely special abilities in using digital information (Miftah, Rizal & Anwar, So2016).far,

there have been many efforts in studying the hadith, for example the multimedia based Aplikasi Seratus Satu Hadis tentang Budi Luhur (A Hundred and One Hadith on Highest Virtue Application) which was developed by Diki Silviadi. However, the purpose of the application was to assist students in memorizing hadith (Tresnawati, Satria & Silviadi, 2016). In addition, its features and contents are not representative enough to explore the quality of the hadith Rakhmah (2016) wrote an article on the making of E Hadits, a Java Eclipse based smartphone application. She mentioned that the weaknesses of the application were that contents and features were still limited and did not lead to providing information about isnad as an important aspect in tracing the authenticity of the hadith (Najeeb, 2014) The Perpustakaan Shamela application is one of the most helpful systems in learning hadith (Ghozali, 2017; Najeeb, 2014). This application helps investigating the “narrator chain” and provides accurate information about matan and isnad, as well as provides information on all important details about the narrators However, this application is not automatically able to judge the quality and all parts of the digital library use Arabic.

3. Method 3.1. Design

This research employs Action Research (AR) design because AR seeks to explore problems to find solutions (Creswell, 2002) This is in line with the problem of students’ critical attitudes in receiving, reviewing, and understanding hadith information as a source of Islamic teachings. In addition, AR provides vast space for researchers to find new innovations to make changes suitable to conditions and needs (Darwis, 2016) The exclusive characteristic of AR is that the users can make improvements and solve problems (Bozkus & Bayrak, 2019; Greenwood & Levin, 2006). In line with the above, AR is popular among researchers to solve problems in the pedagogic field. Several examples of research using AR are J. Julia research titled Technology Literacy and Student Practice: Lecturing Critical Evaluation Skills (Julia & Isrokatun, 2019), Niemi (2018) titled Five Approaches to Pedagogical Action Research and Edwards Groves and Kemmis (2016) titled Pedagogy, Education, and Praxis: Understanding New Forms of Intersubjectivity through Action Research and Practice Theory. This current article’s authors have implemented AR in their research (Suherman, Supriyadi, & Cukarso, 2019; Supriyadi & Julia, 2019; Supriyadi, Julia, & Iswara, 2019; Supriyadi, Julia, Iswara & Aeni, 2019) In addition, this research design can be used as an effort to understand self practice to enable improvements in every action taken (Kemmis & McTaggart, 2005; Kemmis, McTaggart & Nixon, 2013; McTaggart, 1994). Using AR, the researcher can apply the planning, implementation, and reflection on every research step (McTaggart, In1996)specific, the distinctive feature of AR is the principle of collaboration in conducting research (Bruce, Flynn & Stagg Peterson, 2011; Creswell, 2002; Ferguson Patrick, 2007; Jaipal & Figg, 2011; Leeman, van Koeven & Schaafsma, 2018; Somekh, 2010) In the collaborative action research in the field of education, there is cooperation between the teachers, or between the teachers and the researchers (Messiou, 2019; Zech, Gause Vega, Bray, Secules & Goldman, 2000). This research, therefore, involved several parties.

3.2. Research Participant and Site

The participants of this research were students at one of the public higher education institutions taking Islamic religious education course. There were 398 students consisting of 127 males and 271 females in one batch in three study programs. The participants were from several regions in Indonesia namely West Java, Central Java, Jakarta, and West Nusa Tenggara. The sampling technique was purposive sampling in which the researcher determined the sample with certain considerations and criteria in accordance with the objectives of the study. The consideration was that every Muslim is required to understand and practice the hadith. The sample criteria are students who were taking Islamic education courses. In addition, the participants were in the digital native criteria. According to Prensky, (2001) one of the initiators of the digital natives generation theory, digital natives have the characteristics of being born in the 1980s and thereafter, being born in the digital technology environment.

3.4. Data Collection

3.5. Development of Literacy Indicators

3.3. Research Procedure

The data were collected by means of surveys, observations, and semi structured interviews. The survey used the scale from Likert and Guttman (Allen & Seaman, 2007; Widhiarso, 2011) and was distributed using Google Documents. In today digital era, Google Documents has become a profitable and easy to use survey tool (Allen & Seaman, 2007; Brigham, 2014; Chiu, Cheng & Wu, 2016; Lin, Chang, Hou & Wu, 2016; Travis, 2010; Widhiarso, 2011). Therefore, the research instrument used consisted of observation guidelines, interview guidelines, and questionnaires (Appendix 1).

To measure the participants’ level of literacy in the field of hadith, a rubric was formulated. This rubric is a development of the three aspects of literacy ability as stated by Furqon (2018) The developed indicators were related to the aspects of human literacy and the narrators of the hadith, and we expect that the students could at least master 75% of the indicators listed in Table 1. This was necessary because tracing the authenticity of a hadith is inseparable from its history and

Considering the collaborative features of AR, this research involved several other parties. They were lecturers and the religious based students’ activity unit. The researchers as lecturers of Islamic religious education course collaborated with peers who also teach the course. One lecturer had a special expertise in the field of hadith. In addition, the researchers also collaborated with one of the student activity units in the religious field to be involved in a series of actions taken.

The procedure in this research combined the steps in AR design with the theory developed by Kern (Kern, 2000) in improving literacy known as the 3R, namely Responding, Revising, and Reflecting. Responding involves two parties, namely lecturers and learners, and they have a reciprocal relationship. Simply put, this first R, Responding, is an attempt to portray the problem of student literacy skills in hadith learning and to map students’ initial abilities in hadith literacy. This stage is the pre action analysis. The second R, Revision, includes various activities in designing improvement efforts based on problems found in the, the media used, and the improvements made in learning. The third R, Reflecting, is similar to evaluation, which is the process of evaluating what has been done, what was seen, and what was felt during the learning or it is called the post action analysis. The above 3R procedure showed a reciprocal relationship between the lecturers and the students. In the first R, Responding, the students responded to the given task of reading, tracing, and analyzing the hadith; while the lecturers responded by providing feedback to help the students reach a certain level of accuracy. In the second R. Revision, Hadith Insight Test was done to measure their knowledge about hadith by the lecturers and performed by the students. In the third R, Reflecting, the lecturers evaluated the results of the first two Rs; while the students were asked about what was seen, and what was felt during the learning.

4.1. Pre-Action Analysis

1. Able to express the quality of a hadith accompanied by the narrator's narration analysis.

2 Hadith LiteracyTechnology Ability applicationstmachineunderstandtosandechnology,and do work technologyusing based products 1. Able to utilize information technology in studying hadith 2. Able to search for and choose information technology related to the hadith appropriately 3. Able to understand the features in the hadith information technology being used 75%

3. Able to mention the source/primary book related to a hadith 4. Able to express the content of a hadith according to the explanation of ulama 75%

At this stage, issues related to the participants’ ability in the field of literacy were explored. This step was done to obtain an overview of the participants’ initial ability in the field of hadith based on the developed indicators. The indicators were (1) data literacy, which is the ability to trace a number of hadiths on certain topics, (2) technology literacy, which is the media and methods used in tracing the hadith, and (3) human literacy, which is the ability to analyze the quality of the hadith through the study of narrators of hadith.

3 NarratortherelatedLiteracyHumantoof Hadith toinnovaticreativcriticalskills,Communicationcollaboration,thinking,ityandonrelatedthe hadith narrators

To measure the 398 research participants, a number of tests in the form of questions with the topic of shalat (prayer) were given. This topic was chosen because shalat is the most fundamental ritual obligation for a Muslim. In general, shalat is defined as reciting (the prayers), supplicating, and strengthening the

The ability to read, analyze and make conclusions of thinking based on obtained data and information (big data) 1. Able to find and collect thematic hadiths. 2. Able to distinguish elements of the hadith (matan and isnad).

4. Results and Discussion

The development is described in the following Table 1 Table 1. Hadith Literacy Rubric No LiteracyAspect Description Indicator Target 1 Hadith LiteracyData

2. Able to respond to a hadith that is used as a basis for someone 75 %

abilities.

Pretest No LiteracyAspect Description Indicator Percentage(%) 1

the features in the

relatedinnovationcreativitythinking,criticalcollaboration,skills,Communicationandtothe hadith narrators

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. relationship with God (Parvez, 2016). Therefore, the practice of shalat for a Muslim must surely follow the examples and teachings of prophet Muhammad SAW in both his readings and movements, as in the words of the Prophet Muhammad SAW “Pray you as you see me pray ” (Al Asqalani, 2007) The participants were tested whether they could search information about the hadith in accordance with the specified topic, to find out the media that they used for searching the information and how they find assess the hadith’s authenticity. The test results can be seen in the following Table 2: of Hadith Literacy Hadith LiteracyData ability to read, analyze and

17.6%24.6%24.6%100% 2

a) Able to express the quality of a hadith accompanied by the narrator's narration Able to respond to a hadith that is used as a basis for someone 1.8%2.3% = 398 participants Table 2 presents that in the aspect of data literacy; only 1 indicator was able to be represented by all participants as 398 (100%) participants were able to collect the hadith thematically. For the second and the third indicators, only 98 (24.6%), and the fourth indicator only 70 (17.59%) participants were able to represent their This means that from several indicators, only one indicator from the aspect of data literacy was able to be represented by more than 80% of the

analysis. b)

The

(biginformationdataonthinkingconclusionsmakeofbasedobtainedanddata)

information technology being used 100%3%2.3% 3 NarratortherelatedLiteracyHumantoof

choose information technology related to

LiteracyTechnology Ability basedtechnologyusingandapplications,technologymachinesunderstandtoanddoworkproducts

a) Able to find and collect thematic hadiths. b) Able to distinguish elements of the hadith (matan and isnad c) Able to mention the source/primary book related to a hadith d) Able to express the content of a hadith according to the explanation of ulama Hadith

Table 2 Results

a) Able to utilize information technology in studying hadith b) Able to search for and the hadith Able to understand hadith Hadith

appropriately c)

Based on that test results, the ability to distinguish the elements of the hadith as in the second indicator in the aspect of literacy and the ability to determine the quality of the hadith as in the first indicator in the aspect of human literacy, it was suspected that the participants’ insight about the science of hadith has not been evenly distributed. Therefore, the extent of experience and insight that the participants gained about hadith were explored by using a survey.

The results showed that 398 (100%) participants claimed to have studied the science of hadith. A total of 300 (75.4) participants stated that they learned lessons about hadith in school and 278 (69.8%) participants received hadith lessons outside of school. Regarding question number 3, the participants experience in studying hadith was explored by conducting semi structured interviews with 3

In the aspect of technology literacy as shown in Table 2, 398 (100%) participants represented the ability to use information technology in tracing and collecting hadiths related to the topic of shalat. Furthermore, based on this information, all of them were surveyed to explore what kind of information technology they used in searching and gathering hadiths related to the topic of prayer. The survey results are as follows. There were 322 (80.90%) participants who used blogs, 25 (6.28%) used Twitter, 39 (9.80%) used Facebook, and 12 (3.2%) used hadith applications. It can be seen that in the aspect of technological literacy, only 12 (3.2%) participants showed the ability to search for and choose information technology that is relevant to the hadith Furthermore, to find out what applications they used in tracing the hadith, semi structured interviews were carried out with the 12 participants who claimed to use the hadith applications The question was, "What application did you use to trace the hadith?"

From the results of the semi structured interviews, three participants (24%) used the Maktabah Syamilah software, four (33.3%) used the Jawami'ul Kalim software, and five (41.67%) used the EHK9I software Based on the answers, a follow up question was asked, “Do you understand the function of each feature available in the application?” Nine participants (75%)responded that they understood it and three (24%) participants did not understand it, especially the softwares in Arabic, namely Jawami'ul Kalim and Maktabah Syamilah.

Therefore, in the aspect of technological literacy, only 9 participants (2.26%) understood the features of the application they used. In the aspect of human literacy as shown in Table 2, nine (2.26%) participants showed the ability of indicator 1 namely expressing the quality of a hadith The reason for this was assumed that the information technology they used presented information related to the quality of a hadith. Meanwhile, 389 (97.74%) did not show this ability because the information sources they used were less relevant. As for the second indicator in the aspect of human literacy, seven (1.76%) participants were able to represent the ability to respond to the hadith raised by his friend when presenting the results of his assignment.

4.2. Pre Action Evaluation

participants. The question asked was “Where did you get hadith lessons other than school?” Participant 1 answered “from pesantren (Islamic boarding school).” Participant 2 from Islamic study groups in their neighborhood and four participants answered “from parents at home.”

The results of the pre action analysis implied that the participants’ literacy in hadith was still very minimal and needed to be improved. This can be seen from the data on the average percentage obtained in each aspect of literacy. The percentages were added up and divided by the number of indicators in each Theaspect.data literacy was 41.71%, technological literacy was 35.09%, and human literacy was 2.01%, which were assessed using indicators presented in Table 1 This means that the participants’ hadith literacy was very minimal, especially in the problem of human literacy, which was to determine the authenticity of a hadith through the study of the narrators of the hadith.

In addition to the above aspects, the literacy on appropriate and representative technology in finding hadith information also needed to be strengthened because the participants tended to rely more on social media and blogs that are not representative in providing hadith information. This indicated that they have not

In addition to exploring about the participants’ experience in studying the hadith, there was also a survey to explore the extent of insight they had gained from the experience of studying the hadith in the participants’ perspectives The survey results above show a gap with the results of the test as shown in Table 2, especially in question no. 2, a number of 365 (91.70%) people stated that they understood the elements in a hadith while the test results showed the ability to distinguish elements of hadith namely matan and sanad only amounted 98 (24.62%) people. Furthermore, in question no. 3, a number of 351 (88.19%) stated that they understood the distribution of hadith in terms of quality, but the test results that showed the ability to express the quality of a hadith were only 9 (2.26%) people. However, this survey results are a recognition form of the ability of the particpant’s own perspective, but the test evidence shows different results. Therefore, the test results in Table 2 become a reference for us as a portrait of the participant’s initial ability in hadith literacy.

Based on the information from question 1 on the understanding of the basics in hadith learning which are the terminology and division, it was suspected that there was a disparity of understanding among the participants because in the hadith discourse there are also terms such as hadith, sunnah, khabar and atsar (Nasr, 2013; Nirwana, 2012; Suryadi, 2011) Therefore, a number of tests were administered in the form of questions to measure whether the subjets had an understanding of the terminology of hadith and its divisions. The test results showed that 124 (31.15%) participants had an understanding which is different from the participants’ claim as in Table 2 that 323 (81.15%) participants understood the terminology and types of hadith It can be concluded that the participants’ insight related to the science of hadith needs to be improved.

2. Presenting the position of the hadith in the book and chapter 3. Presenting the sanad chain information

b. Identifying narrators of hadith by assessing their position from the view of al Jarh wa al Ta‘dil, a systematic approach to criticize the position of the narrator

d. Determining the authenticity of a hadith, namely sahih (acceptable), hasan (good), da`if (weak) or maudu’ (fabricated or false).

a. Identifying the place of hadith by referring to its fundamental source

At this stage, the lesson plans to improve the literacy of the participants in tracing the authenticity of the hadith were made Tracing the authenticity of a hadith is closely related to the ability to perform the takhrij hadith. Hence, the learning objectives made referred to the objectives of the takhrij hadith namely:

c. Stating sanad (chain of narrators of hadith) related to their connection and matan (narrative content).

4.3.1. Step 1. Formulation of Hadith Learning Objectives

e. Recognizing the status and reliability of the hadith and its category based on sanad and also matan (Al Rajan, 2018; Qomarullah, 2016; Zulkipli et al., 2017).

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. been able to choose the right information technology in accessing hadith information. Likewise, the data literacy also needed to be strengthened because data literacy is not only the ability to collect hadiths but also relates to their insights about the science of hadith In the pre action stage the average number of participants who were able to represent hadith literacy in each aspect was below 50%. Through the focus group discussions, target number of participants capable of representing the literacy ability of hadiths would be raised at a minimum of 75%.

To achieve the learning objectives associated with the characteristics of the participants as digital natives attached to the world of internet technology, it is necessary to use media that can facilitate the characteristics of the participants and the purpose of learning. Therefore, the learning media is a necessity in the learning process (Gillen, Staarman, Littleton, Mercer & Twiner 2, 2007; Peppler & Kafai, 2007; Salomon & Clark, 1977; Willett, 2007). Based on the results of focus group discussions, at least 10 characteristics were needed to achieve the takhrij hadith learning objectives. The characteristics are as follows:

4.3. Action Implementation To achieve the target, the steps to improve the hadith literacy were structured. The steps referred to Kern's (2000) theory, namely Responding, Revising and Reflecting (3R) The first R, Responding, was implemented in the pre action stage by capturing the participants’ initial abilities in hadith literacy. Therefore, in the action stage, the second R (Revision) was implemented, which includes various activities in designing improvement efforts based on the problems, starting from the planning, the media used, and the implementation of improvements in learning.

1. Presenting the hadith source

4.3.2. Step 2. Selection of Hadith Learning Media

110 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. 4. Presenting the matan (hadith content) 5. Presenting the sanad hadith reinforcement for another sanad hadith and the similarity of matan (Syawahid and Mutaba‘at) 6. Presenting the narrator’s biography 7. Presenting the type of hadith based on sanad 8. Presenting the type of hadith based on matan 9. Presenting the law of the hadith 10. Presenting the Indonesian translation Based on the 10 criteria, existing hadith learning media were analyzed. The media were those applications that had been used by the 12 participants in the pre action stage and relevant learning media that had not been used by the participants At least five applications were reviewed with reference to the 10 criteria. The results of the review are presented in the following Table 3: Table 3. Results of Hadith Learning Media Analysis No Criteria Application EnsiklopediHaditsKitab9Imam MaktabahSyamilahVersion3 Jawa mi’ul Kalim Mawsu‘A h HadithalalNabawialSyarif alKutubAlTis‘ah 1 Presenting the hadith source ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 2 Presenting the position of the hadith in the book and chapter ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 3 Presenting the sanad chain information ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 4 Presenting the matan (hadith content) ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 5 Presenting the sanad hadith reinforcement for another sanad hadith (syawahid and mutaba‘at) ✓ ✓ ✓ X ✓ 6 Presenting the narrator biography ✓ ✓ ✓ X ✓ 7 Presenting the type of hadith based on sanad ✓ ✓ ✓ X ✓ 8 Presenting the type of hadith based on matan ✓ ✓ ✓ X X 9 Presenting the law of hadith ✓ X ✓ ✓ ✓ 10 Presenting Indonesianthetranslation ✓ X X X X Based on the table, out of the 5 available applications, only the EHK9I meets the established criteria. Therefore, the media used in the effort to improve the participants’ ability to trace the authenticity of a hadith was the EHK9I application. Additionally, for practical purposes, the application used was the mobile phone version because almost all of the participants had a smart phone.

This application was designed by Az Zikr Studio. It presents information related to concepts in the study of hadith science in terms of the meaning of the hadith, division of the hadith, types of hadith, elements of a hadith, and so on.

The display of the hadith in this application provided the following information: The number of hadith sequence from a book The quality or degree of a hadith (hadith law) Isnad information Hadith text to ease reading The translation of Arabic texts that help to understand the hadith text

In addition to using the EHK9I application, the Android based e book application, Ulumul Hadith, was utilized to strengthen the participants’ knowledge related to the science of hadith.

The EHK9I application is an application designed by Lidwa Centralka. It contains several features including: Available on Android, iOS and Windows Contains 62,000 hadith from 9 prominent imams Presents highlights, notes, share, and copy hadith Presents the related hadith complete with degrees Presents the narrators' information complete with statistics Presents thematic collections of hadith and types of hadith Contains a search engine feature to search by hadith number or hadith text.

In addition to the features, there were several information presented in every hadith display as in Figure 1.

Figure 1. The display of Hadith EHK9I Application

6. Several hadiths that are relevant to the hadiths in display

The test results above are the barometer of the theoretical mastery of hadith science. Therefore, to ensure that the participants’ theoretical mastery was applicable, it was necessary to prove their ability by practicing the takhrij hadith. The practice required a representative media which was the EHK9I application. Therefore, the participants needed to have and understand how the application works.

In advance, the features available in the application were explained. The Ulumul Hadits application provided a number of materials that include the terminology of the hadith, the scope of the hadith study, elements of the hadith, and the types and quality of the hadith The provision of material was done in three meetings In each meeting the participants received a task to review the content of the material in the application to be discussed in the next meeting. After providing the materials, all participants were tested by asking them several questions to measure their knowledge about hadith through Hadith Insight Test The result is presented in Table 4. Table 4. Hadith Insight Test Results

Table 4 shows that the participants’ level of mastery of the science of hadith Based on the three assessment indicators, there were a number of improvements. In terms of the hadith terminology, 398 (100%) participants showed understanding in the post-test which means there was an increase of 68.85% from 124 (31.15%) participants. In the second assessment aspect, 381 (95.72%) participants showed the ability to distinguish the matan and sanad of hadith. Compared to the test results in Table 2, which was 98 (24.62%) participants, there was an increase of 283 (71.1%) participants. Furthermore, in the aspect of understanding the classification of the hadith and the requirements, 383 (96.23%) participants showed the ability. The test results in Table 2 only showed 9 (2.26%) thus it increased by 374 (93.96%) participants.

Scoring Aspect Number Percentage Understand the meaning and types of hadith 398 100 Differentiate matan dan sanad 381 95 72 Understand the classification of hadith by its quality and requirements 383 96.23

Thus, there were two applications to be used in an effort to improve literacy skills in tracing the hadith. However, this research is focused on the EHK9I application, and the second application was an enrichment to support the participants’ understanding and skills in carrying out the takhrij hadith 4.3.3. Step 3. Update of Hadith Insight using Ulumul Hadits Application

In this step, a number of materials related to the science of hadith were given to the participants classically. The participants were instructed to search and download the application and then install it.

4.3.5. Step 5: Applying EHK9I in Takhrij Hadith Process

4.3.4. Step 4. Understanding the EHK9I Application

After making sure that all participants had installed the application in the pro version, all the features in the application were explained covering how to use the application and the operational steps based on the criteria as in Table 3. After these stages, a survey was administered to explore the participants’ perceptions towards the EHK91 application. The survey result is presented in Table 5

The participants were instructed to open the EHK9I application. They were instructed to enter keywords. In entering keywords, they can search for them based on meaning, number, or hadith text. In terms of searching the hadith related to Surah Al Fatihah, the keywords entered were “Al Fatihah” or “Fatihatul Kitab”. Using this search engine facility, the participants could also easily track the existence of the hadiths that are scattered online to find out the position of the hadith in the canonical books. The method used was by copying the hadith that was on the internet, then pasting it in the search bar, and it would appear whether or not the text of the hadith existed in the nine books book of hadith

The participants were instructed to download the EHK9I application from https://store.lidwa.com. Android, iOS, and Windows versions were available and the participants chose a version suitable with the facilities they had. From their observations, they chose to download the Windows version because all participants were Windows based users After they downloaded the application, they were guided throughout the installation process Shortly after the installation, there was an offer to upgrade to the pro version. After they received explanation about the different features in the free and paid versions, they were suggested to upgrade to the pro version with the consequence of paying the subscription to get the full features.

Table 5. Participants’ Perception towards EHK9I No. Statement SD D RD A SA 1 The EHK9I application grows my motivation to learn more about hadith. 332 66 2 The EHK9I application is very easy to understand and practical to use. 380 18 3 The EHK9I application is economical compared to buying printed books 392 6 Note: SD (Strongly Disagree), D(Disagree), RD (Rather Disagree), A (Agree), and SA (Strongly Agree) Table 5 above showed that the participants stating that the EHK9I application fostered their motivation to explore the hadith. Moreover, EHK9I was very easy to understand and practical to use at an economic price compared to the price for having printed books so that it was affordable for all students.

The participants were guided to explore a hadith, in this case a hadith about reading al Fatihah in shalat. There are several phases taken in this step. a. Exploring Hadith Text Using EHK9I

c. Analyzing and Assessing the Narrator in the Jarh Wa Ta’dil Framework

After entering the keywords, the display will appear as shown in Figure 2.

Figure 3. Display of the Narrator’s Information

b. Identifying Sanad and Matan

After analyzing sanad and rawi, the participants were instructed to analyze the narrators of the hadith and explore information about the assessment of the narrators according to ulama jarh wa ta'dil. By clicking on number 3 as shown in the Figure 1, the biography of the narrator is presented, the number of hadith narrated and in any book, as well as the assessment of the ulama jarh wa ta'dil about the narrator. For example, in the hadith there was a narrator named Ahmad bin Amru bin Abdullah bin Amru as Sarh. Then the information obtained from the narrator in the EHK9I application is shown in Figure 3.

Figure 2. Display of Hadith related to Surah Al-Fatihah in the EHK9I Application

From the display, the participants were instructed to identify which ones were included as matan and sanad in the series of hadiths and to review hadith that were relevant to the ones displayed. After that, they were instructed to identify the similarities and differences between the matan and sanad, between the hadith being studied and the hadith that are considered relevant in the application.

d. Determining the Authenticity of the Hadith Using the Application

1 Hadith LiteracyData The ability to read, analyze and (biginformationdataonthinkingconclusionsmakeofbasedobtainedanddata)

3 NarratortherelatedLiteracyHumantoof Hadith innovationcreativitythinking,criticalcollaboration,skills,Communicationand a) Able to express the quality of a hadith accompanied by the narrator's narration analysis. b) Able to respond to a hadith that is used as a basis for someone 96.2%95%

a) Able to utilize information technology in studying hadith. b) Able to search for and choose information technology related to the hadith appropriately c) Able to understand the features in the hadith information technology being used 94.4%100%97%

a) Able to find and collect thematic hadiths. b) Able to distinguish elements of the hadith (matan and isnad). c) Able to mention the source/primary book related to a hadith. d) Able to express the content of a hadith according to the explanation of ulama 92.2%100%96%96% 2 Hadith LiteracyTechnology Ability basedtechnologyusingandapplications,technologymachinesunderstandtoanddoworkproducts

To determine the law or the quality of a hadith, the participants clicked no 2 in Figure 1. Then the information related to the quality of the hadith was presented. By knowing the quality of the hadith, the participants could determine how reliable the hadith was in relation to its implementation as explained in the science of hadith 4.3.6. Step 6: Learning Evaluation

Table 6. Hadiths Practice Evaluation Results Using EHK91 No LiteracyAspect Description Indicator Percentage

After all of the steps and process conducted, this was the last step to portray the participants’ hadith literacy skills related in the post action. The participants were assigned to analyze the hadith around the topic of shalat. Then they were instructed to answer a number of questions related to the hadiths they were studying. The assessment was developed indicators presented in Table 1. By comparing the results of the pre test as shown in Figure 1 and the results of the post test, the evaluation of the practice of the takhrij hadith using EHK9I is described in Table 6.

5. Discussion The ability to perform takhrij hadith is closely related to one’s literacy skills in the field of hadith. Literacy is not limited to reading and writing but it is also related to the demand to understand information critically and analytically (UNESCO, 41.71 35.09 2.01 96.04 98.16 95.60

HADITH DATA LITERACY HADITHLITERACYTECHNOLOGY HUMAN LITERACY RELATED TO THE NARRATOR OF HADITH Pre Test Post Test

This stage is the implementation of the third R or Reflecting, which is evaluating the whole set of actions carried out in the research activities. This final stage was to gain an overview of the extent to which improvements had been achieved in solving the research problems. The learning results illustrated the fact that with the selection of appropriate learning media, the use of the Ulumul Hadith application and EHK9I was the appropriate solution to improve the participants’ ability to trace the authenticity of a hadith (takhrij hadith). The increase occurred in line with the increasing literacy skills which included three aspects namely data literacy, technological literacy, and human literacy, which were assessed using indicators presented in Table 1. As an illustration of this improvement, a comparison between the hadith literacy in the pre test and post test stages is presented.

Table 6 shows that by using the EHK9I resulted in an increase in the participants’ ability to trace the authenticity of hadith in several indicators on each aspect used as the barometer of the hadith literacy skill 4.4. Post-Action Evaluation

Figure 4. Comparison of Pre Test and Post Test Results of Hadith Literacy Skill

Figure 4 depicts that in the aspect of data literacy, the participants’ ability was at 47.71% in the pre test and then increased to 96.04% in the post test. This means that in the aspect of data literacy, an increase of 54.33% were gained. In the aspect of technological literacy, the participants were at 35.09%, and it increased to 98.16% in the post test. this means that in the aspect of technological literacy an increase in capability is 63.07%. In the human literacy aspect, the participants’ ability increased to 95.6% from 2.01%. This means that in the aspect of human literacy, an increase of 93.58% occurred. Thus, the use of Ulumul Hadith and EHK9I applications could improve the participants’ hadith literacy.

Therefore, literacy skills are must be possessed in the face of the 21st century (Antoro, 2017, p. 5) In facing the Industrial Revolution 4.0 or the era of disruption, "new literacy" is needed in addition to old literacy. Old literature includes the competence of read write count. Whereas, new literacy includes data literacy, technological literacy, and human literacy. Data literacy is related to the ability to read, analyze and make conclusions of thinking based on data and information (big data) obtained. Technology literacy is related to the ability to understand how machines work. Application of technology and technology based work of products to get maximum results. Human literacy is related to communication skills, collaboration, critical thinking, creative and innovative (Furqon, 2018).

The lack of hadith literacy skills in the information technology era affect vulnerable people in which they can be exposed to radical ideology. The internet or social media have become media for radicals and terrorists to propagate their radical narratives in the name of religion (Sulfikar, 2019). The internet makes it possible to spread information quickly, with little risk, and inexpensively to a variety of constituents, from potential recruits to potential partners in terrorist organizations (Seib & Janbek, 2010). The results of Golose's research revealed that the efforts made by terrorist groups in the cyber world include 9P namely, Propaganda, Perekrutan (Recruitment), Pelatihan (Training), Penyediaan Logistik (Logistics Provision), Pembentukan paramiliter secara melawan hukum (Formation of unlawful paramilitaries), Perencanaan (Planning), Pelaksanaan serangan teroris (Conducting terrorist attacks), Persembunyian (Hiding), and Pendanaan (Funding) (Golose, 2015, p. 31). That is why literacy skill is a social function of a person in using his literacy to contribute to the community (Keefe & Copeland, 2011). The development of someone's literacy will be effective if done in a community context. This means that one's literacy ability is not only focused on improving cognitive abilities and processing information (Webber & Johnston, 2000) but also utilizing it in the context of community development (Nuswantara & Savitri, 2018)

2003). For the millennials who live in a digital era, special abilities are needed in using information in digital format, namely digital literacy (Miftah et al., 2016) Digital literacy is very important to have because someone's misunderstanding in the digital world opens up opportunities for various abuses of digital media that occur at the personal, social, and national levels (Pratiwi & Pritanova, 2017).

It can be understood that the literacy of the hadith in the 4.0 era is not only limited to the activities of reading and writing the hadith and analyzing the quality of the hadith. Rather, it includes data literacy, technology literacy, and human literacy. Data literacy is related to the ability to read, analyze, and make conclusions of thinking based on data and information (big data). Technology literacy is related to the ability to understand how machines work and technology applications, and to work using technology products to obtain maximum results. Human literacy is related to communication skills, collaboration, critical thinking, creativity, and innovation (Furqon, 2018).

Narrator An application for creating an ontology of Hadiths narration tree semantically and graphically. Arabian Journal for Science

6. Conclusion This research has shown the fact that the implementation of the Kern's (Kern, 2000) model of Responding, Revising and Reflecting in this research succeeded in showing an increase in the participants’ literacy skills in the field of hadith

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The increase could be seen in several aspects of literacy, namely in data literacy by 54.33%, technological literacy by 63.07%, and human literacy related to narration of the hadith by 93.59%. These improvements indicated that the participants; literacy skills exceeded the target set by 75%. In post action, the data literacy was resented at 96.04%, technology literacy at 98.16% and human literacy related to narration of hadith at 95.60%. The increase is inseparable from the steps taken in the Revising phase, which produced six reflective action steps including the selection of Ulumul Hadith and EHK9I as the learning media

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doi:10.33364/algoritma/v.13

8 From the answer of question no 1, how is the quality of that hadith?

9 Comment on your friend’s cited by a peer, seen from the quality and content.

7 Does the use of IT help you to learn hadith?

1 Hadith LiteracyData The ability to read, analyze and make conclusions of thinking based on obtained data and information (big data) Able to find and collect thematic hadiths. Able to distinguish elements of the hadith (matan and isnad).

1 Find one hadith related to shalat

2 From the answer of question no 1, mark which one is rawi and sanad.

4. Able to respond to a hadith that is used as a basis for someone RESEARCH INSTRUMENT 2

Questions Items on a Test No Questions

4 Explain the content of that hadith according to one ulama.

6 If you’re using IT or software application, do you know how to operate it?

7. Able to mention the source/primary book related to a hadith. Able to express the content of a hadith according to the explanation of ulama Hadith LiteracyTechnology Ability applications,technologymachinesunderstandtoandand do work technolousinggy based products Able to utilize information technology in studying hadith Able to search for and choose information technology related to the hadith appropriately Able to understand the features in the hadith information technology being used

LiteracyHuman related to the Narrator of Hadith

3. Able to express the quality of a hadith accompanied by the narrator's narration analysis.

5 Do you use information and technology or application in finding the hadith? If so, what is the application you use?

theinnovationcreativitycriticalskills,Communicationcollaboration,thinking,andrelatedto hadith narrators

3 From the answer of question no 1, what is the source of that hadith?

124 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. RESEARCH INSTRUMENT 3 Survey No Questions on Literacy Aspect 1 Have you ever studied the science of hadith? 2 Have you ever received lessons about hadith in school? 3 Have you ever received lessons about hadith outside of school? 4 Have you sufficiently understood the terminilogy of hadith and kinds of hadith? 5 Have you sufficiently understood the elements that a hadith must have? 6 Have you sufficiently understood the division of hadiths by their quality and requirements? RESEARCH INSTRUMENT 4 Hadith Insight Test No Questions on Literacy Aspect 1 Mention aspects related to hadith. 2 From the hadith you cited, which one is sanad and matan? 3 How about its hadith classification seen from the quality and the characteristics? RESEARCH INSTRUMENT 5 Survey on the EHK9I No. Statement SD D RD A SA 1 The EHK9I application grows my motivation to learn more about hadith. 2 The EHK9I application is very easy to understand and practical to use. 3 The EHK9I application is economical compared to buying printed books SD=Note:Strongly Disagree D= SA=A=RD=DisagreeRatherDisagreeAgreeStronglyAgree

Career Human Capital James Edomwonyi Edokpolor Benson Idahosa University Benin City, Edo State, Nigeria https://orcid.org/0000 0002 8085 9696

Abstract. This study plans to look at the perception of TPET (technical and professional education and training) lecturers on the effect of global partnerships in developing students’ expertise and abilities to engage in entrepreneurial career and lifelong learning tasks A structured questionnaire approved by four lecturers was administered to a sample of 158 TPET lecturers, which was randomly selected across universities in South South Nigeria. The reliability coefficient utilizing the Cronbach alpha was α=.89. A quantitative approach was used in the study by using standard deviation to assess the degree to which participants’ responses were clustered around the mean. A one sample t test was also used to find the difference in scores between global partnerships and its effects in developing students’ expertise and abilities to engage in entrepreneurial career and lifelong learning tasks. The results indicated that global partnerships could influence the development of students’ expertise and abilities to engage in entrepreneurial career and lifelong learning tasks based on TPET lecturers’ perception The analysis of hypotheses 1 and 2 demonstrated that global partnerships do not have a significant effect on the development of students’ expertise and abilities to engage in entrepreneurial career and lifelong learning tasks These findings have some practical implications for all major stakeholders of TPET such as the government, families, international donor agencies, and employers.

125 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 5, pp. 125 140, May https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.5.20207 Perception of TPET Lecturers’ on the Effect of Global Partnerships in Developing Students’

Vero Iyalekhue Abusomwan University of Lagos Yaba, Lagos State, Nigeria https://orcid.org/0000 0002 7950 7052

Keywords: entrepreneurial career tasks; expertise and abilities; global partnerships; lifelong learning tasks; professional education; technical training

1. Introduction Around the world, technical and professional education and training (TPET) has been described as any skills oriented programs that consolidate all learning experiences, which is intended to equip recipients with expertise and abilities to engage in entrepreneurial career and lifelong learning tasks. Under this broad definition, technical education and training, career and technical education, technical and vocational education, vocational and technical education, technical and vocational education and training, apprenticeship training, and entrepreneurship training, offered in formal and non formal settings, are usually classified as TPET. The major goals of TPET are to equip recipients with expertise and abilities to become gainfully employed, as well as, to engage in lifelong learning tasks after graduation (Wenstrom, Uusiautti & Maatta, 2018). Despite these broad goals, TPET students still possessed the inadequate human capital (hereafter referred to as expertise and abilities) to engage in entrepreneurial career and lifelong learning tasks confidently The inadequate expertise and abilities possessed by TPET students may have contributed to the increasing rates of unemployment, underemployment, and school dropouts. In Nigeria, unemployment and all other social burden rates as of late is quite high and on the increase. For instance, in Nigeria, four out of every ten persons under the age of 35 are unemployed (Busson, 2020). Unemployment rates in Nigeria in the second quarter of 2018 was 22.70% and increased to 23.10% in the third quarter of 2018, and youth unemployment rates was 36.5% (National Bureau of Statistics, 2018). Unemployment rates in Nigeria increased from 10.6 % in 2012 to 22.6 % in 2018, with an annual growth rate of 16.02% (World Data Atlas, 2018). Unemployment rates in Nigeria are on the increase with underemployment rates at the same time (Federal Republic of Nigeria, 2017) For instance, underemployment rates within the age range of 15 and 34 in the third quarter of 2017 was 52.6% and increased to 55.4% in the third quarter of 2018 (National Bureau of Statistics, 2018).

TPET programs in Nigeria are neither supporting the quest to achieve the 2030 sustainable development goals (SDGs) nor capable of equipping students with relevant expertise and abilities to engage in entrepreneurial career and lifelong learning tasks The fulfilling of the 2030 SDGs and the acquisition of necessary expertise and abilities among students require the active cooperation of all relevant stakeholders across the world. The need for global partnerships in

Equally documented in the literature is the increasing rates of dropout among students. For instance, Edokpolor (2018) called attention concerning TPET students’ low self confidence toward lifelong learning. Edokpolor and Dumbiri (2019) added that the reason for the increasing rate of students’ dropout could attribute to the inadequate provision of tangible and intangible resources, which appear to hinder the acquisition of essential expertise and abilities needed to engage in entrepreneurial and lifelong learning tasks. It implies that most TPET students were trained with little or no instructional resources, which could affect the development of expertise and abilities to venture into entrepreneurial and lifelong learning tasks upon graduation.

The overriding goals of global partnerships for education are to reduce the rates of unemployment and school dropout among young youths. However, each partner has their specific roles in the partnerships arrangement. For example,

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. developing students’ expertise and abilities to engage in entrepreneurial career and lifelong learning tasks has been documented in the United Nations and the Federal Republic of Nigeria vision 2030 sustainable development document. The United Nations (2017) in its 2030 sustainable development document had stipulated that Goal 4 aimed to “ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all” (p. 5). The document also remarked that Goal 8 aimed to “promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment, and decent work for all” (p. 7). The document further points out that Goal 17 aimed to “strengthen the means of implementation and revitalization of the Global Partnerships for Sustainable Development” (p. 11). The SDGs mentioned the need to promote entrepreneurial career and lifelong learning opportunities for all, and the degree to which global partnerships influence the realization of these goals. Stakeholders cooperation worldwide has been described as global partnerships (Paula, Khan, & Stuart, 2015), multi stakeholder partnerships (Okitasari, Dahiya, & Takemoto, 2018), or public, private, civil society partnerships (Storeng & de Bengy, 2018). In this current study, global partnerships are more utilized. Global partnerships emerge as a strategic model for mobilizing and pooling core complementary competencies, capabilities, resources, and networks to support the realization of 2030 SDGs. The rising interest in global partnerships as a strategic model for cooperation has been understood as a response to failure of the government to meet her obligations of providing adequate financial resources and firm policy to support the realization of 2030 SDGs. TPETs that are well implemented through global partnerships could help in equipping students with the expertise and abilities needed to engage in entrepreneurial career and lifelong learning tasks upon graduation. Global partnerships for education were identified and used by the UNESCO (2015) and the World Economic Forum (WEF, 2012) to provide a clear sense of the relationship between those actors in the public, private and civil society sectors for pooling and mobilizing resources to expand and improve quality education. To WEF, global partnerships for education is a strategic model of cooperation in which actors from the private sector, civil society sector, and public sector bring together expertise and resources to achieve the set goals and objectives of TPET. This type of partnership which involves the collaboration of all significant stakeholders can be established for pooling and mobilizing resources, for exchange of expertise, or for developing befitting infrastructures. Global partnerships for education are generally organized around a particular point or set of objectives. In particular, the broad objectives of partnership arrangements between TPET providers, international donor agencies, government, and employers are to provide opportunities for students’ to possess the expertise and abilities to engage in entrepreneurial career and lifelong learning tasks

TPET providers should help in providing an enabling environment for instructional delivery The TPET providers should also help to provide better career paths and positive learning experiences for students. These potential roles should help TPET providers to change employers’ attitudes about the quality of graduates and respond to employers’ needs Employers should help to deliver training to staff, provide opportunities for teachers to regularly upgrade and update themselves through workplace experiences, provide opportunities for students and trainees to have industrial work experiences, address the skills gap and build a larger workforce through the creation of a pool of apprentices.

Other forms of partnerships include, students industrial work experience schemes, work study, teaching practice, internships, and work visits, where private sector actors’ partner with TPET institutions to develop students’ expertise and abilities to engage in entrepreneurial career and lifelong learning tasks. Private sector actors can also partner with TPET institutions for the management of resources, development of curriculum, mentoring of students, donation, and maintenance of facilities for developing students’ expertise and abilities (Adewuyi & Okemakinde, 2013). The effort of private sector actors to partner with TPET institutions is not capable enough to equip students with expertise and abilities needed to engage in entrepreneurial career and lifelong learning tasks upon graduation. The reason is that private sector actors and TPET institutions cannot manage the TPET programs alone because of its resource intensive nature. However, there is a need for extensive partnerships that involves all major stakeholders of TPET, rather than partnerships between private sector actors and TPET institutions alone

The main purpose of the present study, therefore, is to examine the perception of TPET lecturers on the effect of global partnerships in developing students’ career human capital in South South Nigerian Universities The specific objectives of the study were to: (1) investigate the effect of global partnerships in developing

Employers should also help in providing opportunities for students to have equivalent access to the most current innovation and technology utilized on the industry floors and for the teachers and mentors themselves to make the ground on current industrial practices. International donor agencies should help in funding TPET researchers and advocacies, develop national TPET policies and strategies, support capacity building in the TPET sector, identify and implement best practices Moreover, they can help in establishing major conditions for developing students’ expertise and abilities, by optimizing physical facilities, procure instructional resources; and ensure equal access to quality TPETs. They should also help in developing instructional content and upgrading skills, by strengthening curriculum content and teacher training, build 21st century skills for employability and foster effective TPET management, by developing funding mechanisms and promoting results oriented management. The government should help in investing in TPET, mobilize the private sector actors to be involved in TPET management, provide legislative backing for TPET policies, monitor performance, evaluate TPET effectiveness and apply corrective measures accordingly

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. students’ expertise and abilities to engage in entrepreneurial career tasks based on TPET lecturers’ perception, and (2) ascertain the effect of global partnerships in developing students’ expertise and abilities to engage in lifelong learning tasks based on TPET lecturers’ perception. To achieve these specific objectives, this research was further composed as follows. First, an applied framework was developed, followed by discussions of the methodologies utilized in carrying out in the research Second, the information gathered from the respondents were analyzed, and the outcomes were discussed. Third, the research impediments were spotted out. Fourth, the research implications were discussed. Lastly, the conclusion emerging from the research outcomes were consistently drawn

2. Conceptual Framework

Global partnerships have been acquainted with the connection that unites wide scope of public, private, and civil society sector actors (European Commission, 2020). Reid, Hayes, and Stibbe (2014) stipulated that global partnerships involve

The authors’ supported this study with a theoretical model (see Figure 1) to understand the effect of global partnerships in developing students’ expertise and abilities needed to engage in entrepreneurial and lifelong learning tasks based on TPET lecturers' perception. The underlying assumption of this present study is that high quality cooperation among stakeholders of TPET could help in pooling both tangible and intangible resources, which would equip students with expertise and abilities needed to venture into entrepreneurial and lifelong learning tasks. This assumption has been propounded by the interdependence theory (Thibaut & Kelley, 1959), the stakeholder theory (Freeman, 1984), the social exchange theory (Blau, 1964; Emerson, 1976; Homans, 1958), the network theory (Granovetter, 1973; Burt, 1976), the collaborative empowerment theory (Perkins & Zimmerman, 1995), and the collaboration advantage theory (Huxham, 1993). However, the present study does not examine the perceptions of TPET lecturers on the effect of global partnerships in pooling resources for effective teaching and learning. Although, the Edokpolor and Imafidon’s article published in Technology Education and Training Based Journal in 2019 has helped to assess the perceptions of TPET lecturers on the influence of global partnerships in pooling resources for instructional delivery and execution of projects Figure 1: Conceptual Model of the Study

2.1 Global Partnerships

business and non profit civil society organizations working in partnerships with government agencies and official development agencies Stibbe, Reid, and Gilbert (2018) described global partnerships as a model of development cooperation in which actors from the private and public sectors bring together core complementary capabilities, expertise, and resources for achieving developmental goals and objectives This signifies that global partnerships could help in achieving the developmental goals and objectives of promoting employment and lifelong learning opportunities for all Nigerian citizens.

According to United Nations (2016), the concept of global partnerships entail a reciprocal obligation and mutual accountability and transparency, including either voluntary or contractual relationship; the sharing of investment (financially and otherwise), reputational risks (rather than a one dimensional transfer of risk to the private sector actors), and joint responsibility in the design and execution of developmental goals. A critical look at the conceptual clarification showed that global partnerships have been implemented for advocacy, exchange of expertise, pooling and mobilization of resources and, or developing new ways of constructing or providing befitting infrastructure and services for achieving sustainable developmental plans. The International Fund for Agricultural Development (2018) stated that partnerships among all stakeholders around the world involve a complementary initiative that can provide expertise, synergies, resources, capabilities, or responses to needs. These needs expected to achieve through partnerships among the public, the private, and the civil society actors include the development of expertise and abilities to seize entrepreneurial and lifelong learning opportunities among TPET students in Nigeria.

2.2 Entrepreneurial Human Capital

Entrepreneurship has been described as the usage of critical and advantageous thoughts into an effective business undertaking (Barringer & Ireland, 2013) The ideas conceived by individuals can help to identify entrepreneurial opportunities and turn critical and advantageous thought into practice (Acs, 2010). Human capital, on the other hand, can be seen as the expertise and abilities acquired by individuals. In other words, it has been viewed as the expertise and abilities of individuals that are developed via education and experience (Becker, 1975). The expertise and abilities of individuals acquired through education and experience would allow individuals to pursue entrepreneurial and lifelong learning tasks upon graduation confidently The concept of human capital involves the development of expertise and abilities that are specific to entrepreneurial and lifelong learning tasks and not easily inimitable and substitutable, which influence substantial competitive advantage (Barney, 1991). Therefore, the concept of human capital is referred to as the expertise and abilities acquired by students as one of the contributing factors to venture into entrepreneurial career and lifelong learning activities confidently immediately after graduation. Accordingly, entrepreneurial human capital can be described as the expertise and abilities required to take part in entrepreneurial tasks (Edokpolor & Chukwuedo, 2018). However, this type of human capital can be measured via items, such as prior knowledge of markets, ways to serve markets, and customer problems

The problems and challenges of how to improve the quality of the TPET program to respond to the skills needed by students to pursue an entrepreneurial career and lifelong learning confidently seem to be a common concern to major stakeholders worldwide. Many authors argued that there is a gap between the skills needed to pursue career tasks and the skills acquired at the end of TPET (Deutsche Investitions, 2016). Skills gap seems to have a direct impact on the increasing unemployment rates and every other social problem. It is unexpected because these skills should have been developed during studies as they are needed by students to confidently venture into an entrepreneurial career and lifelong learning tasks upon graduation (Jaschik, 2015). However, this skills mismatch has been addressed via collaborative partnerships among major stakeholders of TPET across the globe (Ferns, Dawson & Howitt, 2019)

2.3 Lifelong Learning Human Capital

Accordingly, lifelong learning human capital has been defined as the knowledge and skills that motivate individuals to engage in learning throughout their life (Edokpolor & Chukwuedo, 2018) Lifelong learning human capital can be measured via items, such as critical thinking and problem solving, desirability and feasibility, initiative and discipline, flexibility and adaptability, self direction and regulation, social and cross cultural, creativity and innovation, ICT literacy, collaboration and teamwork, and learning to learn As such, partnerships among TPET providers, private organizations and international donor agencies can provide the chance for students to access practical learning environment that would equip them with expertise and abilities needed to engage in lifelong learning confidently 2.4 Global Partnerships, Entrepreneurial Career, and Lifelong Learning

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. (Shepherd & Patzelt, 2018). As such, partnerships among TPET providers, private organizations and international donor agencies can provide the chance for students to access practical learning environment that would equip them with expertise and abilities to pursue entrepreneurial careers confidently.

The conceptual meaning of lifelong learning has gained much research interests in education (Chukwuedo, 2019). Lifelong learning can be referred to as a wide range of consistent learning activities that individuals are engaged in throughout their life for the aim of improving knowledge, skills, and competencies for professional career or development (Quinn & Sinclair, 2016). The European Commission (2001) defined lifelong learning as all learning assignments attempted all through life, with the point of developing expertise, abilities, and skill inside an individual, community, social, and additionally business related viewpoint. Brookfield (1983) defined long lasting learning as a viable activity, not a political method, in which grown up individuals learn all through the formative phases of adulthood in the light of life emergencies, for the inborn delight of learning, and explicit activity purposes. McMahon, Patton, and Tatham (2008) recognized that the broad targets of long lasting learning were to guarantee that prior education and training provide a sound foundation for further learning, and that open doors for learning in adulthood are accessible to everybody.

3. Research Methodology

The respondents were 158 TPET lecturers from South South Nigerian Universities A self constructed questionnaire was developed from the literature and was reviewed as an instrument for the collection of data. The instrument was a four point scale, ranging from 1 (low degree) to 4 (greater degree). The instrument consists of 18 items, where eight items measure the perceptions of TPET lecturers on the effect of global partnerships in developing TPET students’ expertise and abilities to engage in entrepreneurial career tasks. The remaining 10 items measure the perceptions of TPET lecturers on the effect of global partnerships in developing TPET students’ expertise and abilities to engage in lifelong learning tasks Four lecturers verified the content of the instrument. Two of them were from measurement and evaluation, and the two others were from TPET disciplines. The authors analyzed the responses of 30 lecturers, which were not part of the study sample, to determine the instrument reliability. The results of analyzed responses showed that the instrument for data collection was reliable, with a Cronbach alpha coefficient value of α=.89

Data was analyzed using the mean, standard deviation, and one sample t test statistics. Mean values were used to answer the research questions, standard deviation was used to determine the degree to which TPET lecturers’ responses were clustered around or deviated from the mean and one sample t test was used to test the null hypotheses at .05 level of significance. A mean score equivalent to, or greater than 2.50 implied that TPET lecturers’ consent to a high degree with the questionnaire items; and mean scores under 2.50 implied that TPET lecturers differ to a high degree with the corresponding questionnaire items. Also, the standard deviation values between .00 and .96 suggest that TPET lecturers’ reactions are exceptionally close, which implies that their answers were clustered around the mean. The p value were used in making choices on the null hypotheses. If the p value is not equivalent to the critical value (0.05), the null hypothesis will be dismissed, on the chance that the value (p) is higher than 0.05, the null hypothesis will not be dismissed

The study conducted by Andre and Barnes (2010) highlighted the importance of industry and donor agencies involved in program design as imperative to the success of the program. This implies that multinational companies, like, UNs agencies, International Financial Institutions, and civil society organizations have to take an active involvement in the management of TPET programs to produce the kind of graduates who would be equipped with the expertise and abilities to engage in entrepreneurial and lifelong learning tasks

Different authors have also reaffirmed the importance of industries and international donor agencies working closely with TPET institutions to provide opportunities for students to access the most current innovations and technologies used in factories and for teachers to have an immediate encounter on current practices (Ferns, Dawson & Howitt, 2019). Global partnerships also aim to strengthen the TPET systems, especially in developing countries like Nigeria that increase entrepreneurial career and lifelong learning opportunities (Global Partnership for Education, 2019)

S/N Statements To what degree does: M SD Remark

1. The global partnerships help in developing TPET students’ expertise and abilities for the creation of new products and services. 3.70 .61 GD 2. The global partnerships help in developing TPET students’ expertise and abilities for the improvement of new products and services. 3.34 .71 GD

3. The global partnerships help in developing TPET students’ expertise and abilities for the management of organizational resources. 3.30 .82 GD 4. The global partnerships help in developing TPET students’ expertise and abilities for risk taking. 3.26 .95 GD 5. The global partnerships help in developing TPET students’ expertise and abilities for the sale of goods and services. 3.51 .76 GD 6. The global partnerships help in developing TPET students’ expertise and abilities to understand customer needs. 3.54 .70 GD 7. The global partnerships help in developing TPET students’ expertise and abilities to understand how a particular market operates 3.41 .69 GD 8. The global partnerships help in developing TPET students’ expertise and abilities to understand how technologies can be packaged to meet a particular market needs 3.39 .60 GD Cluster 3.42 .41 GD Note. N = 158, M = Mean, SD = Standard Deviations

The mean values infer that global partnerships could influence the development of students’ expertise and abilities to engage in entrepreneurial career tasks based on TPET lecturers’ perception. The corresponding standard deviation values indicated that global partnerships would influence the development of students’ expertise and abilities to pursue entrepreneurial career tasks based on TPET lecturers’ perception.

The outcomes of the information presented in Table 1 demonstrated that eight items, with sequential number 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8 had the mean values that ran from 3.26 to 3.70, and the comparing standard deviation values ran from .41 to .95

The information gathered from the respondents were analyzed and presented in Tables 1 to 4. Research Question 1: What is the perception of TPET lecturers on the effect of global partnerships in developing students’ expertise and abilities to engage in entrepreneurial career tasks?

Table 1: The Mean and Standard Deviations of TPET Lecturers’ Perception on the Effects of Global Partnerships in Developing Students’ Expertise and Abilities to Engage in Entrepreneurial Career Tasks

Table 2: The Mean and Standard Deviations of TPET Lecturers’ Perception on the Effects of Global Partnerships in Developing TPET Students’ Expertise and Abilities to Engage in Lifelong Learning Tasks

The outcomes of the information presented in Table 2 indicated that ten items, with sequential number 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17 and 18 had the mean values that ran from 3.18 to 3.56, and the comparing standard deviation values ran from .69 to .93. The mean values infer that global partnerships could influence the development of students’ expertise and abilities to engage in lifelong learning tasks based on TPET lecturers’ perception. The corresponding standard deviation values indicated that global partnerships influence the development of students’ expertise and abilities to engage in lifelong learning tasks based on TPETlecturers’ perception.

Research Question 2: What is the perception of TPET lecturers on the effect of global partnerships in developing students’ expertise and abilities to engage in lifelong learning tasks?

S/N Statements

To what degree does: M SD Remark 9. The global partnerships help in developing TPET students’ critical thinking and problem solving skills to engage in learning throughout their lifetime 3.56 .80 GD 10. The global partnerships help in developing TPET students’ desirability and feasibility skills to engage in learning throughout their lifetime 3.32 .85 GD 11. The global partnerships help in developing TPET students’ initiative and self discipline skills to engage in learning throughout their lifetime 3.41 .69 GD 12. The global partnerships help in developing TPET students’ flexibility and adaptability skills to engage in learning throughout their lifetime 3.38 .85 GD 13. The global partnerships help in developing TPET students’ self direction and self regulation skills to engage in learning throughout their lifetime 3.37 .86 GD 14. The global partnerships help in developing TPET students’ social and cross cultural skills to engage in learning throughout their lifetime. 3.35 .90 GD 15. The global partnerships help in developing TPET students’ creativity and innovation skills to engage in learning throughout their lifetime. 3.34 .93 GD 16. The global partnerships help in developing TPET students’ ICT literacy and numeracy skills to engage in learning throughout their lifetime. 3.18 .90 GD 17. The global partnerships help in developing TPET students’ collaboration and teamwork skills to engage in learning throughout their lifetime. 3.18 .90 GD 18. The global partnerships help in developing TPET students’ learning to learn skills to engage in learning throughout their lifetime 3.48 .87 GD Cluster 3.36 .47 GD Note. N = 158, M = Mean, SD = Standard Deviations

Research Hypothesis 2: Global partnerships do not have a significant effect on the development of students’ expertise and abilities to engage in lifelong learning tasks Table 4: T Test of the Difference between Global Partnerships and its Effects on the Development of Students’ Expertise and Abilities to Engage in Lifelong Learning tasks Variables N M SD TV MD df t p Decision PartnershipGlobals and Lifelong Learning Human Capital 158 3.356 .473 2.50 .856 157 22.749 .000 Ns

Research Hypothesis 1: Global partnerships do not have a significant effect on the development of students’ expertise and abilities to engage in entrepreneurial career tasks.

Variables N M SD TV MD df t p Decision PartnershipGlobals

Table 3: T Test of the Difference between Global Partnerships and its Effects on the Development of Students’ Expertise and Abilities to Engage in Entrepreneurial Career Tasks

Note. M = Mean, SD = Standard Deviations, TV = Test Value, MD = Mean Difference, p > .001 Table 3 demonstrated that the mean scores concerning the degree to which global partnerships influence the development of students’ expertise and abilities to engage in entrepreneurial career tasks based on TPET lecturers’ perception are 3.419, and the comparing standard deviations value is .414. The Table demonstrated that the test value is 2.50, the mean difference is .919, t statistic is 27.896 at df of 157, and the value p (.000) is lower than the significant alpha value (.05); along these lines, the hypothetical speculation was dismissed. Therefore, the results of the hypothesis demonstrated that global partnerships do not significantly influence the development of students’ expertise and abilities to engage in entrepreneurial career tasks based on TPET lecturers’ perception

Note. M = Mean, SD = Standard Deviations, TV = Test Value, MD = Mean Difference, p > .001 Table 4 demonstrated that the mean scores concerning the degree to which global partnerships influence the development of students’ expertise and abilities to engage in lifelong learning tasks based on TPET lecturers’ perception are 3.356, and the comparing standard deviations value is .473. The Table demonstrated that the test value is 2.50, the mean difference is .856, t statistic is 22.749 at df of 157, and the value p (.000) is lower than the significant alpha value (.05); along these lines, the hypothetical speculation were dismissed. Therefore, the results of the hypothesis demonstrated that global partnerships do not significantly influence

HumanEntrepreneurialandCapital 158 3.419 .414 2.50 .919 157 27.896 .000 Ns

the development of students’ expertise and abilities to engage in lifelong learning tasks based on TPET lecturers’ perception Discussion

The analysis of research question 2 indicated that global partnerships could help in developing students’ expertise and abilities to engage in lifelong learning tasks based on TPET lecturers’ perception The hypothesis indicated that there is a discrepancy between global partnerships and its effect on developing students’ expertise and abilities to engage in lifelong learning tasks based on TPETlecturers’ perception. This finding is not in agreement with network theory which proposes that networks can help the students to decide in participating in lifelong learning tasks by providing resources through partnerships (Desjardins & Schuller, 2007)

This study has provided empirical evidence concerning the degree to which global partnerships influence the development of students’ expertise and abilities needed to venture into entrepreneurial and lifelong learning tasks based on TPET lecturers’ perception. First, due to the data that were collected via the non experimental method (or descriptive survey based design), a causal induction could not be made in the investigation. Therefore, the authors of the present research recommend that experimental studies should be conducted by researchers to assist in providing better results. Second, due to the sample size of

The finding is not also in support of assumption of the collaborative advantage theory. This theory states that to get the real advantage of alliances, something (e.g., lifelong learning) needs to be achieved. TPET institutions acting alone cannot achieve much (Huxham, 1993). The finding is not also in agreement with the assertions of some authors (Bryson, Crosby & Stone, 2015; Ospina & Foldy, 2015) that global partnerships could help to address precarious situations (e.g., unemployment, poverty, insecurity, underemployment, or students’ dropout) facing developing countries

6. Limitations

The present study specifically aims to provide empirical evidence on the degree to which global partnerships influence the development of students’ expertise and abilities needed to engage in entrepreneurial career and lifelong learning tasks based on TPET lecturers’ perception

. Analysis of the research question 1 indicated that global partnerships could help in developing students’ expertise and abilities to engage in entrepreneurial career task based on TPET lecturers’ perception The hypothesis demonstrated that there is a discrepancy between global partnerships and its effect on developing students’ expertise and abilities to engage in entrepreneurial career tasks based on TPET lecturers’ perception This finding does not agree with the proposition of collaborative empowerment theory which assumed that partnerships involve the collaboration of all major stakeholders to achieve the goals of education (Batson, 2004; Porter O’Grady, Hawkins, & Parker, 1997). The finding does not agree with the assumption of stakeholder theory, which proposed that if TPET providers adopt a relationship among all major stakeholders, then TPET providers have a better chance to achieve set goals (Freeman, 1984). Conversely, when principles that relate to the concept of partnerships is incorporated into TPET programs, providers of the programs can be empowered to achieve the set objectives of TPET programs.

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. participants (N=158), which was drawn from a single institution (federal) university, caution should be exercised when generalizing the results of the study. Therefore, the authors of the present study recommended that further studies should aim to consider the inclusion of proportionally representative samples that cut across all geopolitical zones (e.g., North Central, North West, North East, South West, and South East) to ensure that all federal universities in Nigeria were represented in the study. Third, due to the homogenous nature of the participants in the study, which involves TPET lecturers’ only, caution should be exercised when generalizing results, especially to lecturers in other academic disciplines.

7. Implications

The research questions revealed that global partnerships have positive effects on the development of students’ expertise and abilities needed to pursue an entrepreneurial career and lifelong learning tasks based on TPET lecturers’ perception The hypotheses demonstrated that global partnerships do not have significant effects on the development of students’ expertise and abilities to engage in an entrepreneurial career and lifelong learning tasks based on TPET lecturers’ perception. Therefore, the authors concluded that there is a discrepancy between global partnerships and its effect on the development of students’ expertise and abilities needed to engage in entrepreneurial career and lifelong learning tasks based on TPET lecturers’ perception.

As posited in the introduction, focus has not been placed on the study of global partnerships and its effect on developing students’ expertise and abilities needed to engage in entrepreneurial careers and lifelong learning tasks based on TPET lecturers’ perception. The outcomes of this research, therefore, have great implications for stakeholders of TPET. First, the analysis showed that global partnerships can influence the development of students’ expertise and abilities needed to venture into entrepreneurial career tasks based on TPET lecturers’ perception. It would be beneficial for all major stakeholders of TPET to collaborate to develop students’ expertise and abilities to pursue entrepreneurial career tasks

8. Conclusion

The study aims to provide empirical evidence concerning the degree to which global partnerships could influence the development of students’ expertise and abilities to pursue an entrepreneurial career and lifelong learning tasks based on TPET lecturers’ perception

Thus, the authors recommend that researchers should embark on further studies that would employ all categories of lecturers from other educational based disciplines.

Second, the analysis showed that global partnerships can influence the development of students’ expertise and abilities to engage in lifelong learning tasks based on TPET lecturers’ perception. Therefore, it would be beneficial for all relevant stakeholders of TPET to cooperate to develop students’ expertise and abilities needed to engage in lifelong learning tasks. If these recommendations are implemented adequately, they would help in realizing the set goals and objectives of the TPET programs, especially in Nigeria

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Firmanul Catur Wibowo*, Esmar Budi and Lari Andres Sanjaya Department of Physics Education Universitas Negeri Jakarta, Indonesia https://orcid.org/0000 0001 9632 6061 https://orcid.org/0000 0002 7960 0839 https://orcid.org/0000 0002 2642 1909 Dina Rahmi Darman Department of Physics Education Universitas Sultan Ageng Tirtayasa, Indonesia https://orcid.org/0000 0002 4602 2657

Mohamad Syarif Sumantri and Dinas Kurnia Robby Faculty of Education Universitas Negeri Jakarta, Indonesia https://orcid.org/0000 0002 2862 9826 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2041-0571

Keywords: InnovativeSmart Orbital(ISO); medium; cognitive skills; heat transfer concept * Corresponding author: Firmanul Catur Wibowo, email: fcwibowo@unj.ac.id

Development of the Innovative Smart Orbital (ISO) Medium to Improve the Cognitive Skills on the Heat Transfer Concept

Abstract. Learning media can enhance the learning process and can enhance cognitive skills This research aims to use the Innovative Smart Orbital (ISO) approach to improve the cognitive skills on the concept of heat transfer. ISO is a new development medium which is a modification of the snakes and ladders games An experimental class and a control class were used in this study. The experimental class learning is done usinginquirywith ISO.Inthe controlclass, learningis done using inquiry only Three hundred and four (304) students from 10 classes took part in this study. A purposive sampling technique was used to select them The posttest score of cognitive skills of students before learning was 18.2 with an ideal score of 60. The posttest score of cognitive skills of students after learning was 49.5. The man normalized gain score <g> of the experimental class was 0.44. Using the ISO medium led to a moderate increase in cognitive skills on the heat transfer concept.

A game is a contest between players who interact with each other by following certain rules to achieve certain goals. As a learning aid, games have many advantages, including: it is a fun and entertaining activity to do, it allows for

1. Introduction Science is dynamic and moves along with its times and technology (Shinn & Joerges, 2002). Science develops as an effort to adjust to the demands and needs of the increasingly complex educational field. Education continues to be developed and continues to be fostered in the face of rapid world competition that prioritizes technology as the basis for the development of increasingly quality education (Wibowo, et a., 2019 & Hirsh Pasek et al , 2015). The application of the Education Unit Level Curriculum requires an increase in the role of students in each learning activity (Morales Martinez et al., 2018). The position of the student who was previously the object of learning has now turned to the subject of learning (Herro & Quigley, 2016). The curriculumrequires junior and middle high school Physics teachers to be creative. For example, in preparing a syllabus, which is in accordance with the conditions of the student situation or location (regional) Learning is a process that is based on a change in a person (Gan, Menkhoff & Smith, 2015; Al Said, Du, Al Khatib, Romanowski & Barham, 2019). Changes in learning outcomes can be shown in various forms such as changes in knowledge, understanding, attitudes and behavior, skills and habits that exist in individuals who learn (Wehn & Montalvo, 2018; Darman et al., 2019). Learning outcomes are the results of student learning activities that illustrate the skills or mastery of teaching materials (Shadiev, Hwang, Huang & Liu, 2017). The learning outcomes are usually expressed by test scores or numbers given by the teacher. Interesting learning media can increase student interest in learning a subject matter. Learning media can provide real experiences that stimulate one's own activities for learning (Chotimah, Bernard & Wulandari, 2018; Wibowo et al., 2016). Games can be a learning tool that is played to motivate andchangeattitudes (Mustamin, Ahmad, Jasruddin, Syam & Fitriani, 2019). Games related to education support the understanding of concepts (Alsawaier, 2018; Arango Lopez, Ceron Valdivieso, Collazos, Gutierrez & Moreira, 2018). Learning media are tools, methods, techniques, which are used in order to make communication more effective and to increase interactions between teachers and students in the learning process at school (Kariippanon, Cliff, Lancaster, Okely & Parrish, 2017; Sun & Wu, 2016). Learning media can enhance the learning process and can also enhance learning outcomes (tom Dieck, Jung 7, tom Dieck, 2018; Hong et al., 2016). The function of learning media can arouse motivation and stimulate learning activities and even bring psychological influence on students (Wijekumar et al., 2019; Graham et al., 2017). Factors that must be considered in the selection of instructional media include: rational (it must make sense and be easy to understand), scientific (it must be used in accordance with reason and scientific principles), economical (affordable to schools, students and teachers), practical & efficient (it is easily available and is appropriate for its use) and functional (it is useful for learning).

An experimental class and a control class have been used in this study The population of this research is VII grade students at the Middle School in Semarang City, Indonesia. The sample for this research was 304 students from 10 classes, who were selected using a purposive sampling technique. The sample in this study was selected by using the random sampling cluster technique, which consist of taking two classes randomly from the population with the condition that the population is homogeneous. One class acts as an experimental class and the other class becomes the control class. After the homogeneity test was carried out It turned out that the population was homogeneous, so the next step was to draw the sample. An initial analysis was conducted to find out whether these two classes were similar. After finding out the condition of the two classes, a homogeneity test was performed. The design of this study uses the static class comparison pattern, which is to see the differences in the results of the posttest between the experimental class and the control class as presented in Table 1.

Heat transfer is one subject in Physics which is considered to be very difficult. This topic requires more effort to understand compared to other topics. However, to improve students' understanding in learning heat material and heat transfer concepts, a smart and fun Physics learning media must be introduced Innovative Smart Orbital (ISO) consists of three words. This media is considered innovative because it is a novel way of using the snakes and ladders game in the teaching of Physics concepts. The media is smart which means that it is expected to facilitate learning so that students can learn in smarter ways which are more interesting and engaging. And orbital means that this learning media has an expanded trajectory similar to the orbital paths of starts and planets. The cognitive skills of students in this study is an increase in learning outcomes from the mean normalized gain score <g> before and after learning. Thus, the purpose of this research is the development of ISO, which is an Innovative Smart Orbital (ISO) medium to improve the cognitive skills of students on the concept of heat transfer.

active participation from students to learn, so learning is not only one way, it is flexible, meaning that it can adjust to the situation and they generally require little effort to do However, there are also some disadvantages to use games are learning aids. Sometimes, they may be quite complex to understand and may require a lot of time to explain. Moreover, there are often educational materials that would be very challenging to explain via games. Students who do not understand the rules of the games can create difficulties for the teacher and other Physicsstudents.is one subject that is of particular concern to both teachers and students. This subject is considered difficult because it deals with complex formulas and complex materials. This makes the students' interest to study Physics decrease.

2. Research Methodology

In the experimental class, with a total of 5 classes, the learning stages were preceded by a pretest and then learning was carried out by the Inquiry approach together with the ISO media method. A posttest was also carried out. Whereas in the control class, with a total of 5 classes, the learning stages were preceded by a pretest and then learning was carried out by the Inquiry approach without the ISO media. A posttest was also carried out

Experimental 5 Test Inquiry with ISO Test Control 5 Test Inquiry Test

Total Class 10

3.1 Innovative Smart Orbital (ISO) Board

3. Results

The step to be taken by NASA astronauts is to walk 20 miles to the planned landing point. At the landing site, they can contact the operator of the aircraft to send a rescue aircraft. Before walking for 20 miles, the astronaut examined the plane that was badly damaged. The examination aims to find items that can be carried as provisions on the way. It turns out that there are 10 types of goods that are still intact and can be used. These ten items are 5 useful items and 5 less useful items based on importance and needs. These ten items are shown in Table 2

A Smart Orbital Board is a square board game with a size of 40 x 40 cm. This board game consists of 49 boxes which are of the same size. Each box has a picture that has a specific purpose. The box contained in the Orbital Well consists of 5 bonus images, 5 penalty images, 3 pictures containing concepts, 3 pictures containing knowledge (memories), 3 images containing understanding, 3 images containing applications, 3 images containing analysis, 3 images containing synthesis and 3 images containing evaluation. The astronaut plans to carry out a mission to the lunar planet and is on a smooth journey. Suddenly the aircraft's engine is broken and falls off, as far as 20 miles from the landing point. The NASA astronauts survives and are not injured, but the spaceship is heavily damaged. The astronauts are faced with the problem of how to re join the aircraft.

Innovative Smart Orbital (ISO) is a learning media that is smart and fun, and which is in the form of a star or orbit travel. The ISO game is a modification of the snakes and ladders game. These modifications are found in the game board, dice and rules of the game. The ISO media is used when the teacher has finished explaining a subject or chapter in relevant Physics topics. The use of this media aims to improve the cognitive skills of students on the concept of heat transfer.

Helpful goods in ISO function as a rise in score through an orbit with a blue circular shape, as shown in Figure 1. Less useful goods in ISO function as a reduction in score through the orbit in a red circular shape, as shown in Figure 1. An orbital board consist of 49 boxes, each of which has different function. The orbital board consists of several components namely the start box [Box 1], the material (bonus, punishment and Physics concepts) boxes, the finish box [Box 49], the ISO frame board and the orbit or the path that must be taken to reach the destination, as shown in Figure 1

The use of ISO media in the learning process is clarify the presentation of the message so that it is not too verbal (in the form of mere written or oral words). The ISO media is able to overcome the limitations of learning space because learning can be done from anywhere. It can also help to overcome students' passive attitudes. It also inculcates a sense of responsibility as they have the feeling that they are leading a NASA mission to the moon. The ISO learning media can be used as a channel of communication between the teacher and students so that the teaching objectives are achieved. However, it is very time consuming to create such media for each topic. Moreover, some students have difficulties to follow the rules of the game.

5 Solar FM radio The main communication tools

Table 2: Items on the ISO Board

9 Magnetic Not useful because the magnetic field of the moon is different from the earth.

4 Food To make a living for a while until a certain period.

7 Milk Powder Cannot be drunk because you need water and air to dissolve it

8 Heater The surface of the moon on the bright side is already hot, so it is not needed.

2 Clean water The main life tool after air for body metabolism

The main tool of life breathing is that there is no air on the moon

Source: Human Synergy, Michigan, USA (Wibowo, 2010)

No Types of uses Types of goods Reason 1 Useful Oxygen tube

10 MatchesCompass Not useful because in the month there is no air (oxygen) on the moon

6 Less Useful Pistol FN 45 Perhaps the eruption can be used as a body thrust

3 Moon Map The main directions and nothing else.

Kilo (k) 103

3.3 Orbital Well The Orbital Well is a tool that is made of paper and consists of a hollow cylinder, as shown in Figure 3(a) and 3(b). In the Orbital Well game, there is an image that contains bonuses, penalties, concepts and Physics materials During the game, the orbital well is placed next to the ISO board with the state of the orbital well standing parallel to the ISO board. The orbital well is a function to take water or oil An orbital well is also a tool that contains concepts, materials and answers to problems. If the player cannot answer the question contained in the face of a cylindrical orbital well, then the player can take answers from the inside of the well.

Smart dice are cube shaped dice and there is a measurement unit on each surface, as shown in Figure 2(a) and 2(b). A common dice has numbers or dots on its surfaces. The unit foundon each surface of a smart dice shows the value (or range) of the steps that must be taken. The smart dice are made of wood or rubber.

Figure 1. ISO Board 3.2 Smart Dice

Figure 2. Smart dice design

e. If the player lands on a cell where he must answer the question on the face of the cylindrical orbital well, but cannot answer it, then he can take the help of the answers contained on the inside of the well. This is possible when the player has been unable to answer a question twice.

a. Games are played by 2 to 5 players and players determine the order of play.

d. After stopping at the box corresponding to the Physics unit number, the player is presented with concepts, questions, bonuses that must be worked on.

Figure 3. (a) Orbital Well front view and (b) Orbital Well back view 3.4 Smart Orbital game rules

The rules of the game in ISO are almost the same as the rules of the snakes and ladders game. The rules of the ISO game are as follows:

i. If an astronaut stops in an empty box, then the playercan takea break, followed by the next sequence of astronauts to roll the smart dice.

j. The player is declared the winner if he has reached the landing point on the moon which is No. 49 on the ISO board.

c. The first player runs the astronauts into the box corresponding to the Physics unit obtained when throwing the smart dice. For example, in an ISO game, the player is considered an astronaut. If the player throws a smart dice and gets a kilo (103), then the astronaut will walk forward 3 steps on the ISO board.

f. After the first player finishes, then the second player continues in accordance with the sequence.

g. If the player gets a bonus, it will go through the ascending orbital trajectory and has the right to roll the dice again. A bonus is obtained if the player can answer the questions provided on the face of the orbital well.

h. If the player gets a penalty, for example, if he cannot answer the question on the face of the orbital well tube, then he will go down the orbit and he will lose the right to roll the dice on the next turn. The player loses the opportunity only once and can resume the ISO game again after another player has has his turn.

(a) (b)

Likewise, if an astronaut throws a smart dice and gets a Mega (106), he will move forward 6 steps

b. Players who get first place roll the dice and play first.

148 ©2020TheauthorsandIJLTER.ORG.Allrightsreserved. 4. Results and Discussion The use of ISO media in learning can increase students’ interest, creativity and level of activity in the classroom. Each student has different characteristics in terms of their capacity to capture and understand the materials that are presented to them. The midterm test scores in semester I of 2019/2020 from the Natural Sciences class VII were used in this study. The results are shown in Table 3. Table 3: Comparison of Middle Semester Deuteronomy (MSD) Data with Learning Outcomes of Experimental and Control Classes Class Indicator MSD Cognitive Skill Control Class Students 28 28 The highest score 92 76 Lowest Value 40 43 Mean 69 62 Variance 12.75 10.53 Standard Deviation 3.57 3.24 ExperimentalClass Students 29 29 The highest score 90 83 Lowest Value 32 60 Mean 63 41 74 Variance 11 14 6 23 Standard Deviation 3 33 2 50 From Table 3, we can see that the mean MSD score in the experimental group was 63.41 before ISO was used. After using ISO as a Physics learning media, the score rose to 74. Thus, the use of ISO media as a learning media in the experimental class positively affected the learning process Table 4: Test Results Normality Test Posttest Value Class 2 count 2 Table Criteria Experimental Class 6 82 7 81 Normal Control Class 7 74 7 81 Normal A normality test has been carried out to find out whether the data is normally distributed or not. A normality test is also conducted to determine whether to use parametric statistics or nonparametric statistics. In the normality test, the formula used is the Chi Square test. Population criteria are homogeneous if the calculated value for 2 is smaller or equal to the 2 table value. From Table 4, we can see that 2 count for each data is smaller than 2 table values. Thus, the data is normally distributed and therefore parametric statistics must be used. If the sample in this study is declared normal based on the calculation with the normality test, then the calculation of the increase in cognitive skills is then performed as shown in Figure 4.

18.2 49.5 44.1 14.3 44.1 34.6 0.0

Pretest Posttest <g> Experimental Class Control Class

Figure 4. Pretest Score, Posttest Score and Normalized gain score <g> Cognitive Skill

Figure 4 shows the pretest scores, the posttest test scores and the normalized gain score scores <g> cognitive skill by students after applying inquiry with ISO for Physics learning. The posttest experiment class score of cognitive skills of students before learning was 18.2 from the ideal score of 60. The score of the posttest of cognitive skill of students after learning was 49.5 from the ideal score of 60. The normalized gain score <g> of the experimental class was 0.44. This falls in the medium increase category (Hake, 1999).

30.0

60.0

The posttest score of the control class was 14.3 while the score of the posttest was 44.1. The normalized gain score <g> of the experimental class was 0.34. This falls in the low increase category (Hake, 1999) The results of this study are in line with research conducted by Alsawaier (2018). Thus, the use of ISO media as a learning medium can influence the value of cognitive skills in the experimental class compared to the control class. Based on the data presented in Figure 4, the use of ISO as a Physics learning media on the subject of heat and heat transfer can affect cognitive skills. This effect is in the form of increased learning outcomes. The value of the MSD I class in the experimental group has increased from 63.41 to 74 after using ISO as a Physics learning media. Learning media also provides experiences that are not easily obtained through other materials and makes the of learning deeper. The ISO game makes students able to learn while playing. During games, students feel motivated (Syawaluddin et al., 2020). Students actively participate in learning as it is not one way. Instructional media is very supportive of students in their memory and understanding (Talarico, Kraha, Self & Boals, 2019). Every learning activity is emphasized to facilitate students in understanding the subject matter. The media acts as a transfer that transmits messages from the sender to the recipient of the message (information receiver) This message is a Physics concept that has been studied and is repeated using media. 10.0 20.0 40.0 50.0

Learning in the control groupusing the lecture method produced different results. From Table 2, we can see that students experience a decrease in learning outcomes. The value of MSD I has been reduced from 69 to 62. This decrease is caused by students in the control group not understanding the materials because they were based on traditional lectures only. The students were not motivated in learning Physics in the classroom. Many feel sleepy when following lessons in this way, although the session may be interspersed with questions and answers. Only certain students remain fully active during the whole duration of a class session. Therefore, the use of instructional media can arouse motivation and stimulate learning activities and even have some positive influences on student psychology (Wijekumar et al., 2019; Graham, Kiuhara, Harris & Fishman, 2017) Learning in the control group has decreased. This is due to the difference in the use of the questions used at MSD I and the questions at the posttest. This difference occurs because some students have difficulty answering questions in the form of descriptions as students are accustomed to multiple choice questions. Application of ISO as a media of learning Physics can improve comprehension and memory. The ability to remember and understand material can have a positive impact on learning outcomes. The ability of students to improve learning outcomes is influenced by motivation (Aşıksoy & Özdamlı 2016). Motivation is what trains students' memory and understanding. One of the powers possessed by humans is memory. Memory can be trained through reading and memorization. The teacher functions as a facilitator for learning activities in the experimental group The teacher's role is to provide direction and guidance to students to find their own concepts. Conclusions material that has been studied is made jointly by students and the teacher gives emphasis. The existence of student activity can improve student understanding so that the learning outcomes.

5. Conclusion

Learning media can enhance the learning process and can enhance the cognitive skills of students. A moderate increase in scores was achieved in the cognitive skills on the concept of heat transfer for the experimental class compared with the control class However, the use of learning media such as ISO (Innovative Smart Orbital) can increase students’ interest in the learning of Physics concepts. Based on this research, our recommendation is as follows: use appropriate games to teach difficult concepts while recognizing that there are certain concepts that can be difficult to learn via this approach and identify students who may not appreciate this style of learning so that alternative solutions could be devised in such situations. This research was limited to the teaching of heat transfer concept in the Physics subject. Thus, there is a broad range of research that can still be done in this field. For example, other researchers may use the ISO approach to teach other subjects. Student motivation, independence and critical thinking skills may also be studied in more depth.

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Appendix Cognitive Skills Test (60 Question) 1. Phase transition that releases heat in the diagram below is a. 1 and 2 b. 2 and 3 c. 3 and 4 d. 1 and 4 2. A solid substance weighing 25 grams is heated. The heat graph for the temperature is depicted in the following figure The melting point of the solid is .... oC a. 0 c. 320 b. 120 d. 420 3. A piece of bread is placed under an electric burner that is burning red to make toast How does the heat energy reach bread? a. only conduction b. conduction and convection only c. convection and radiation alone d. radiation alone 4. The flask prevents heat transfer by: 1. Radiation 3. Conduction 2. Convection The correct statement is .... a. 1 and 3 c. 2 and 3 b. 1 and 2 d. 1, 2 and 3 5. Air must be allowed to circulate freely around the back of a refrigerator. Why is that? a. To prevent conduction b. To help convection c. To help evaporation d. To prevent radiation BreadBurner Solid Liquid Gas 1 43 2 Calor (J) A 900 1500 1800 420320 B C D (Temperature oC)

6. The form of energy that moves due to temperature differences is ... a. Calories c. Heat b. Radiation d. Conduction 7. One kilocalorie is equivalent to ... a. 0,45 x 103 joule c. 42 x 103 joule b. 4,2 x 103 joule d. 420 x 103 joule 8. An object if given heat will experience ... a. change in form and mass of matter b. changes in size and mass of substances c. changes in temperature and size of substances d. changes in temperature and form of substances 9. The heat energy absorbed by a substance depends on the factors below, except ... a. The mass of substances c. The size of the substance b. Type of substance d. Temperature rise 10. The heat unit in the International System (SI) is ... a. calories c. joules b. kilocalories d. Kwh 11. If an object with a different temperature is touched, then ... a. heat flows from a low temperature object to a high temperature object b. heat flows from high temperature objects to low temperature objects c. Low temperature objects release heat d. High temperature objects have a temperature increase 12. Aluminum beams have a mass of 0.4 kg experiencing a temperature increase from 20oC to 40oC. if the heat type is 900J/kgoC, then the heat received by aluminum is ... a. 560 joule c. 7200 joule b. 1800 joule d. 3600 joule 13. Known heat type of water 4200 J/kgoC, if 84000 J heat is given into 5 kg of water, the temperature of the water will increase by ... oC a. 1 c. 3 b. 2 d. 4 14. Iron with a mass of 4 kg is heated from 20oC to 70oC. if it is known that the heat type of iron is 460J/kgoC, the energy needed is ... a. 9.200 J c. 92.200 J b. 32.300 J d. 394.000 J

21. Tocook4kgoficeatitsmeltingpoint,asmuchas13.28x105 J.heatenergyisneeded… a. 3,32 x 10 5 J/kg c. 4,2 x 105 J/kg b. 3,33 x 10 5J/kg d. 42 x 10 6 J/kg 22. 5 kg of water is heated from 0oC to 100oC so that it boils and evaporates. If the water vapor is 2.3 x 106 J/kg, the heat needed to evaporate is ... a. 11,6 x 106 J c. 13,6 x 106 J b. 12,6 x 106 J d. 14,6 x 106 J

15. The water is raised in temperature of 20oC to 60oC which has a heat capacity of 4200 J/kgoC requires as much heat as 840,000 J, then the mass of water is ... a. 50 kg c. 0,5 kg b. 5 kg d. 0,05 kg

16. Heat of 21,000 joules of given to 5kg of water with 4,200 J/kgoC type heat. the temperature rise is ... a. 1oC c. 10 oC b. 5oC d. 25oC

20. When alcohol is dropped on the skin of the hands, the hands will feel cold, because ... a. alcohol seeps into the skin b. alcohol releases heat into our skin c. alcohol evaporates while giving heat to our skin d. alcohol evaporates after absorbing heat from our skin

17. To raise the temperature of sea water to 1oC, it needs 3900 joules of heat. If the type of seawater is 3.9 x 103 J/kgoC, the mass of sea water is ... a. 100 kg c. 1 kg b. 10 kg d. 0,1 kg

18. Aluminium heat 0.21 kcal / kgoC, this means ... a. heat of 1 kcal is needed to raise the temperature of aluminum by 1oC b. heat of 1 kcal is needed to raise 0.21 kg, aluminum temperature of 1oC c. heat of 0.21 kcal is needed to raise the aluminum temperature by 1oC d. heat of 0.21 kcal is required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of aluminum by 1 oC

19. A piece of iron and a piece of aluminium with the same mass are given the same heat, it turns out that the temperature rise of the two substances is different. The difference in temperature rise is caused by ... a. Different types of heat b. different density c. the density is different d. different specific gravity

24. One way to speed up evaporation is .... a. Minimize the evaporation field b. Minimize solution crystals c. Increase the temperature d. Add pressure to the surface

27. A piece of iron has a mass of 0.2 kg and a specific heat of 0.11 kcal / kgoC. If the temperature drops from 75oC to 25oC then a lot of heat is released ... a. 0.22 kcal c. 1.10 kcal b. 0.55 kcal d. 1.65 kcal

26. If the temperature of the water whose mass is 200 grams is increased from 20oC to 100oC, then the heat needed is .... (heat type water 1 cal/goC) a. 4 kkal c. 20 kkal b. 16 kkal d. 24 kkal

25. Azas Black states that .... a. the amount of heat released is smaller than the amount of heat received b. the amount of heat released is greater than the amount of heat received c. the amount of heat released is the same as the amount of heat received d. heat flows from an object with a low temperature to an object with a high temperature

23. In accordance with problem number 19, the heat of the melting solid is ... a. 24 x 10 3 J/kg c. 60 x 10 3 J/kg b. 36 x 10 3 J/kg d. 72 x 10 3 J/kg

28. Dry air is very easy to suck water vapor. Therefore, by flowing dry air over the surface of the liquid which evaporates, the evaporation process ... a. not happening c. slowed down b. accelerated d. late 29. From the following statement the truth is ... a. The boiling point of pure water is higher than the boiling point of salt water at the same pressure b. The boiling point of pure water is the same as the boiling point of salt water at the same pressure c. At 1 pressure the boiling point of pure water is lower than salt water d. At 1 pressure the boiling point of pure water is higher than salt water

b. Cooking water in the mountains boils more slowly because the air pressure is less than 1 atmosphere

c. Cooking water on the beach with the mountains will boil together d. Mamasak water on the beach will boil faster because the air pressure is 1 atmosphere

34. Energy of 160 calories is given to a piece of ice, if the ice melts all at its melting point. What is the mass of ice if the ice melt is 80 cal/kg ....

31. To convert 0.5 kg of water into water vapor all at its boiling point requires as much heat as if ... If the heat of water evaporation is 100 cal/kg. a. 50 cal c. 150 cal b. 1000 cal d. 200 cal

30. To convert 0.5 kg of water into water vapor all at its boiling point is needed as much heat ........ ... If the heat of water evaporation is 100 cal/kg. a. 50 cal c. 150 cal b. 1000 cal d. 200 cal

a. 0,2 Kg c. 20 Kg b. 2 Kg d. 240 Kg

32. To convert 0.5 kg of water into water vapor all at its boiling point requires as much heat as ........ If the heat of water evaporation is 100 cal/kg. a. 50 cal c. 150 cal b. 1000 cal d. 200 cal

33. Statements relating to changes in the boiling point of water are correct ...

35. A piece of aluminum whose mass is 200 grams is heated to a temperature of 80oC, then immediately dropped into a vessel containing 100 grams of water at 20oC. Ignore heat exchange for the container and the surrounding environment. Calculate the final temperature of the mixture when thermal equilibrium is reached ... (Aluminum heat type 900 J/kgoC and water 4200 J/kgoC).

a. 1130 kJ c. 4,520 kJ b. 4520 kJ d. 11,30 kJ

a. 30oC c. 36oC b. 34oC d. 38oC

36. How much heat must a heater give to heat 2 kg of water at 100 oC? (known for water vapor of 2260 kJ / kg)

a. Cooking water in the mountains boils faster because the air pressure is less than 1 atmosphere

39. If black and white clothes are dried together, black clothes will dry faster than white clothes because of the black colour a. absorbs a lot of heat b. slightly radiating heat c. emits a lot of heat d. absorbs a little heat

37. Metal is much easier to conduct heat compared to other solids because .... a. in metals there are many free electrons b. the particles in the metal are denser c. the particles in the metal are more tenuous d. smoother metal surface

40. The statements below are true, except ... a. air flow in the chimney is heat transfer, by convection b. heat transfer at the end of a heated iron bar, by radiation c. transfer of heated water in the kettle, by convection d. heat transfer at the end of a heated copper rod, by conduction

38. Metal is much easier to conduct heat compared to other solids because ... a. in metals there are many free electrons b. the particles in the metal are denser c. the particles in the metal are more tenuous d. smoother metal surface

41. 200 grams of lead sample at 110oC were put into a calorimeter containing 300 grams of water at 18oC. if the heat type of lead is 140 J / kgoC and the heat type of water is 4200 J / kgoC, the final temperature of the mixture when the thermal balance is reached is .... a. 10oC c. 20oC b. 15oC d. 25oC

42. A piece of ice is put into a vessel then heated. Ice turns into water. When constantly heated, the water boils and evaporates. What are your conclusions about the relationship between heat and changing forms of matter? a. melting and yawning requires heat b. yawn and condense requires heat c. freezes and melts releasing heat d. melting and condensing releases heat

3. Heats the end of the metal on the ember

b. From the condensation of air at the border on the outside of the glass teapot, because the temperature of the air decreases the water points will arise c. From the condensation of air at the border on the outside of the glass pitcher, because the temperature of the air rises there will be points of water Figure 1 Figure 2

46. Rini treats guests who come to her house on a hot afternoon with ice syrup placed on the glass jug in Figure 1. After a while, Rini saw water points appearing on the outside of the teapot wall. Figure 2. Where did the water come from? And why are the water dots on the outside of the teapot?

45. Below are examples of changing forms that we often find in everyday life:

1. Water turns to ice 3. Candles melt when heated

a. From the liquid in the glass, because the drink inside the glass pitcher can penetrate the outer wall of the teapot.

2. Water turns to steam 4. Ice turns to water Which one is included in the melting event ... a. 1 and 2 c. 3 and 1 b. 2 and 3 d. 3 and 4

44.

4. Stay near a campfire Which is the heat transfer by radiation is a number ... a. 4 c. 2 b. 3 d. 1

1.Data:Boil water over the embers 2. Walking on a hot afternoon

43. In a lighted room, our bodies feel warm. There we get heat from the lamp by means of convection and radiation. The following factors cause it, except ... a. heat emitted from lights in all directions b. heat can move without intermediates c. air flow occurs in the room d. the air is good enough to spread the heat

48. Two types of heat sources are usually available at the Science Laboratory, namely electric heating plates and burners. Didi plans a study to test which of these heat sources heats water faster. He poured 200 mL of water into the same two containers and recorded the initial temperature of the water in each container. Where should Didi place the thermometer to read the thermometer properly during the study? a. c. b. d.

d. From the evaporation of air at the border on the outside of the glass pitcher, because the temperature of the air decreases there will be points of water

49. Based on question No. 47, Didi uses the results of his research to draw a graph as shown below. Solid Liquid Gas Heat (Q) (Temperatura o C) O: Bunsen burner X: Electric Heating Plates

47. Pay the figure changes in form below Changes in the form of substances that release heat in the diagram are .... a. 1, 3, and 6 c. 1, 4, and 6 b. 2, 3, and 6 d. 2, 3, and 5

and

Consider the following

follows:

(°

a. Ice block 1, because plastic retains heat from the ice out into the environment b. Ice beam 2, because the plastic holds the heat from the ice out into the environment c. Ice Block 1, because plastic absorbs heat from ice d. Ice block 2, because plastic gives heat from ice Several substances with the same mass, heated for 2 minutes at a joint temperature 27 ° Obtained data as Substance type Area (m2) Length (m) Final temperature C) ∆T (oC) Iron 0,01 0.5 32 5 Copper 0,01 0.5 9 Silver 0,01 0.5 on the above data it can be said ... Iron absorbs more heat than copper and silver b. Copper absorbs more heat than iron and silver c. Silver absorbs more heat than iron and copper d. Copper conducts little heat Heat can move by conduction, convection radiation. question! Block 1 Ice Block 2 wrapped in plastic

51.

42 15 Based

52.

b.a.The3.2.1.ConductionisthetransferofheatthroughintermediatesaccompaniedbythetransferofparticlesConvectionisthetransferofheatthroughanintermediateaccompaniedbythetransferofparticlesRadiationisheattransferwithouttheneedforintermediatescorrectstatementaboutheattransferisanumber...1and2c.1and32and3d.1,2and3 Ice

Based on the information in the graph above, which heat source can heat up water a.faster?Bunsen burner b. Electric Heating Plates c. Bunsen burners and electric heating plates are just as fast d. Not both 50. The picture below shows two blocks of ice placed in two containers. The second ice beam was put in a plastic filled with air. Which block of ice will melt more slowly?

53. Most cooking utensils are made of aluminum. What properties does aluminum have that are used for cooking equipment? a. conduct heat c. generate heat b. absorb heat d. inhibits heat 54. The following events that show heat transfer by conduction are .... a. house ventilation b. heating up the electric iron c. melting polar ice caps d. radiating sunlight to the earth 55. Pay attention to the following factors! 1. solid 3. gas 2. liquid 4. vacuum Factors that affect heat transfer by convection are .... a. 1 and 2 c. 2 and 4 b. 2 and 3 d. 1 and 3 56. If the black cloth and white cloth are dried together, the black cloth dries faster than the white cloth because .... a. Black cloth absorbs more heat than white cloth b. Black cloth releases heat less than white cloth c. Black cloth emits less heat than white cloth d. Black cloth absorbs and releases heat 57. Thermos prevent heat transfer by: a. 1. radiation 3. conduction b. 2. convection The correct statement is ... a. 1 and 3 c. 2 and 3 b. 1 and 2 d. all right 58. Solid objects such as metals cannot produce heat by convection, because ... a. The number of particles making up solids is very large b. the particles in the solid are close together c. The particles in the solid material are held firmly in place d. The particles always move randomly

59. Look at the picture of the open fire below! Every position around the fire will receive heat, at which position the heat received is due to radiation ... a. 1 and 2 c. 2 and 3 b. 2 and 3 d. 1 and 4 60. You don't feel too hot when you hold your fingers close next to the candle flame, but you will immediately feel very hot when you hold your fingers close to the candle flame. This happened because ... a. air convection flow occurs from the top of the flame continues to the side b. air convection flow occurs from various directions to the fire c. air convection flow occurs from the side of the flame continues upward d. radiant heat from the candle flame occurs mostly upward 1 2 3 4

Supardi Supardi Universitas Negeri Yogyakarta Yogyakarta, https://orcid.org/0000Indonesia00033642

Junior High School Students' Experiences of High Technology Based Learning in Indonesia

Abstract. This study aims to understand the meaning of high technology utilization in learning for early adolescents High Technology Based Learning (HTBL) is for a phenomenon in every country today. However, the side effects of the use of high technology in education are troubling, especially for early adolescent junior high school students, who are still labile. This article tries to explore the meaning of HTBL in junior high school in Yogyakarta. The researchers used a phenomenological approach in collecting the data in this study in line with the idea that the people who understand the meaning of an experience are themselves, the subject of the phenomenon. Participants were chosen using purposive sampling with the following criteria: junior high school students, 11 13 years old, living in Yogyakarta and experiencing HTBL at school. The results of the research show that for junior high school students: 1) HTBL ismorefunand moreaccessible;2) adultguidanceisnecessaryasa means of raising self awareness. We suggest collaboration between parents and teachers in the implementation of all HTBL processes at school and home since they play significant roles in the use of HTBL for students.

Keywords: high tech; adolescents; phenomenology

153 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 5, pp. 153 166, May https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.5.92020

7789

1029 Enung Hasanah Universitas Ahmad Dahlan Yogyakarta, https://orcid.org/0000Indonesia00034899

1. Introduction High tech or high technology is the newest, most advanced technology that can be found today (Cortright & Mayer, 2001). In the era of industry 4.0 (Vuksanović, Vešić & Korčok, 2016; Erboz, 2017), society is very familiar with high tech. The most advanced technology that can be found today is Information Technology (IT) that has affected many aspects of human life and it has succeeded in changing today's education paradigm (Vivekananthamoorthy, Shanmuganathan & Sharmila, 2009; Newell, 2014), so that it incorporates technology more fully. This

new paradigm needs a responsive mechanism that is different from those of the past (Tomoziiab & Topală, 2014) organizationally and individually, to achieve holistic, innovative, and sustainable solutions (Morrar, Rabeh & Arman, Husam, 2017). In the context of education, the organizations and individuals referred to in this paper are the schools, school's management, government, society, parents, and students.

In developing countries such as Indonesia, society has begun to utilize IT extensively in daily life. This is illustrated by the data which indicate that Indonesians use the internet for an average of almost eight hours a day (Kemp, 2020). Unfortunately, the development of the educational system in its new digital direction is still in its early stages, and use of digital IT has not yet penetrated every layer of education in every region evenly. There are some well advanced regions such as Yogyakarta, Jakarta, and Bali. However, some regions do not yet utilize high tech. These regions are categorized as 3T [Terpinggir, Terdalam, Terluar, or marginalized, deepest, outermost] regions. Hasthoro & Ambarwati (2016) stated that a marginalized region is defined based on the social condition, economy, culture, and the area, which are below other regions in terms of avariety of measures. These 3T regions include 26 provinces and 142 cities.

The distinct differences in the social conditions of different regions in Indonesia (Daerobi & Suyono, 2019) is a serious matter for the Indonesian government. Moreover, it relates to the uneven development of science and technology that has resulted in uneven development of human resources, which directly affects national development. Therefore, the Indonesian government is trying to structure, equalize, and improve the quality of education, including educational policy by implementing HTBL in the regions. Unfortunately, the transition of the educational model from manual to digital form in schools in particular regions in Indonesia raises some problems. Besides the lack of facilities, the attitude of students toward high tech and digital communication devices or gadgets is still worrying. Most junior high school students in Indonesia are in their early adolescent period (Papini, Farmer, Clark, Micka & Barnett, 1990; Malin, Indrawati Liauw & Damon, 2017) People think that early adolescents still consider entertainment to be the primary function and purpose of high tech and gadgets. This perception has raised fears among parents regarding the adverse effects of technology for their children (Hollingworth, Mansaray, Allen & Rose, 2011; Hind, 2017). Therefore, many parents in Indonesia are reluctant to support the utilization of high tech at school and home. Schools, as the catalyst for education (Hammer, 2016), need to find strategies that can synergize the potential of children, parents' support, and the school (Ainscow, Muijs, Daniel & West, 2006), especially in terms of the use of IT in learning. The trajectory towards its use is aimed at improving the quality of education in line with the demands of the time. It is necessary to understand that education is not a generic concept; it is part of the process of life, wherein there is a realization that it is essential to pay attention to values for the sake of the sustainability of individuals or communities through experiences (Dewey, 1963; Chambliss, 2003).

Therefore, adults should be willing to listen to adolescents concerning the use of high tech in learning based on adolescents' experiences of HTBL implementation. The utilization of high technology in learning is proven to improve the academic competences of students (Basri, Alandejani & Almadani, 2018); however, the impact of the implementation of HTBL for junior high school students in developing countries has not yet been clearly understood This article aims to explore the meaning of HTBL experienced by early adolescents in a developing country to fill about a gap in our understanding of this issue. The researchers hope the results of this research can be used as a supplementary source of knowledge for parents and teachers. It is hoped that the research will help teachers and parents in deciding on how to use high tech in the process of learning at school and home for junior high school students, especially for students in a developing country such as Indonesia.

2. Research Problem

The development of the educational system in a new digital direction in Indonesia is still in its early stages. In contrast, the digital roles of modern information technology have not yet penetrated every layer of education in every region evenly because there are differences in the development of each region. There are some well advanced regions such as Yogyakarta, Jakarta, and Bali. However, some regions do not yet make much use of high tech. These regions are categorized as 3T [Terpinggir, Terdalam, Terluar, or marginalized, deepest, outermost] regions Thus, students across Indonesia have not had the same opportunities in terms of utilizing information technology in learning. Some of them are already familiar with HTBL while many of them have not encountered it at all. Of the various problems that exist, this research focused on exploring how junior high school students interpret their experiences of HTBL. We hypothesize that junior high school students in Indonesia have positive impressions of the use of HTBL in their learning processes The purpose of this study is to explore the HTBL experiences of junior high school students in Indonesia. The research question is: How do junior high school students interpret their experiences of InHTBL?thisresearch, there is no intimate relationship between the researchers and the participants. There is only a professional relationship between the researchers and their sample participants. The role of the researchers is solely to collect data through individual in depth interviews and analyze the data according to a pre established framework. As lecturers and researchers in Indonesia, the researchers chose this topic because they felt responsible for participating in building a civilization through research relating to education. This empirical research is a part of comprehensive analysis that focuses on the psychological readiness of middle school students to use high technology in learning, with a particular focus on the use of gadgets compared to the use of PCs in developing countries. To measure the level of psychological readiness of students, data were needed relating to the meaning given to such technology in the minds of students Therefore, the initial step undertaken by the researcher was to conduct qualitative empirical research in order to explore the data in depth.

The researchers obtained information about children in junior high school from the management of Kampung [hamlet] Joho, Yogyakarta, Indonesia. Later, the obtained information was followed up by visiting the Joho mothers' community activity and asking the parents whose children were at their junior high school and had IT implemented in the classroom. In Joho hamlet, 11 children were attending junior high school and already using IT in their classes After obtaining the names of the students, researchers visited the parents of the children to ask for permission to interview their children, handing out a letter stating that all the participants' private data would be kept confidential. Out of the 11 children whom researchers asked, only seven children were willing to be interviewed and given permission to be participants in the research. The research was approved by the Universitas Negeri Yogyakarta and the school where the participants study. Additionally, we were granted permission by the participants' parents through written informed consent to secure the participants' confidential data. We also assured participants that their identities in the study would be altered to codes to protect their privacy.

The researchers obtained the data for this research through in depth individual interviews at each participant's home. Each participant was interviewed once for 45 60 minutes. Researchers summarized the results of each interview and rechecked the interview results with each participant before analyzing and publishing them to ensure the validity of the data. Besides that, the researchers also performed a second interview with some of the participants to crosscheck any unclear data. A phenomenological study, usually but not always, is a qualitative research project designed to better understand individual experiences of a phenomenon. Therefore, open questions are suitable to elicit more understanding of particular topics rather than trying to define or identify the cause of a phenomenon (Langdridge, 2007; Moustakas, 1994)

4. Instrument and Procedures

The data source in this research was the experiences of junior high school students in Yogyakarta, whose school conducts HTBL, mainly in IT based learning. The participants in this research were seven students, three boys, and four girls. To determine the number of data sources in this research, the researchers referred to Langdridge (2007), who stated that for qualitative research, 3 7 participants is sufficient because each participant will give plenty of data.

3. Research Design

The research followed a qualitative research (Creswell, 2009; Creswell & Creswell, 2013), using a phenomenological perspective (Moustakas, 1994; Wolff, 2012). The phenomenological perspective always perceives the essence of the data’s meaning to come from the first person perspective, obtained from dialog. In this context, students are the people who experience the process of HTBL. Hence, they are the most knowledgeable people to inform on the meaning for them of experiencing IT based learning and to identify the effects on their lives

1) Please tell us about your experience of HTBL, whether using PCs or gadgets. Could you tell us more about that? 2) Please tell us about your feelings when experiencing HTBL using PCs or gadgets or laptops. Could you tell us more about that?

The interview guide comprises two main questions, given below:

The data analysis technique used in this research was modified phenomenological data analysis by Moustakas (Moustakas, 1994: 119-152; Zeeck, 2012: 39; Shosha, 2012: 34 41), which consists of six steps of data analysis, as follows: 1.) researcher conducts transcription; 2.) identifying all relevant data; 3.) reducing transcendental phenomenology; 4.) the invariant constituent which is the unique quality from the prominent experience of each participant is identified and all of them are arranged into themes that may point to general themes for every participant; 5.) validating the invariant constituent; 6.) arranging the individuals' structural description. Then the data are described using individual textural description (ITD) to develop a composite description of the essence of all of the participants’ experiences 5. Findings From the result of the interviews with seven junior high school students in Yogyakarta, the researchers found some themes relevant to the meaning of IT implementation in the process of learning. The themes are: 1.) HTBL keeps me awake; 2.) using computers in learning has to be focused, using gadgets is much more fun; 3.) I know that I have to be self controlled (in using gadgets), but still, it is hard to do. Below are the individual textural descriptions of early adolescents' experiences. Theme 1: HTBL keeps me awake. The participants stated that learning using gadgets is fun. One of the things which they identified as fun when using high tech was that they felt that learning using high tech was more interesting than just listening to a lecture. Besides that, they felt more comfortable about obtaining the learning materials that were being studied. The statements of P1 as follows: "At my school, not all teachers can use high tech. Some teachers just speak in all the classes. Well then, I get bored..., when students get sleepy, we are scolded, but they just keep talking by themselves in front of the class. That's the old ones, hehe, as old as my mom. However, the young teachers are fun when teaching..., moreover when we are permitted to use our gadgets... (A little pause) ... When using gadgets in learning, it's more fun. I don't get sleepy... Hehe... We can also do some other stuff with it. My friends are just the same. While studying, they watch pictures of some artists or peek at social media" (P1, Line 9 17). The feeling of fun when using gadgets or high tech in the learning setting was also felt by P2. The notion can be seen in the statement of P2 as follows: "There is a prohibition of bringing gadgets at my school, except for particular days when it is a must to bring one, a gadget or laptop for learning. Outside those particular schedules, we are prohibited from bringing any gadgets. Sometimes when my parents couldn't pick me up,

Theme 2: Using computers in learning has to be focused, using gadgets is much more fun. The participants stated that learning using gadgets also involves many distractions in the process of education. They become distracted and play on social media while learning. It is different for students who are using PCs or laptops. They are more focused on the lesson rather than trying to steal some time to surf social media.

P5 also described their feelings which of fun when learning using high tech. Moreover, exams using android have already been implemented at their school. For P5, learning using high tech can increase the motivation to study, also the motivation to socialize on the internet. "Well, we are happy to use high tech and gadgets. Every matter learned is in high tech. We also don't need to write manually, just search on the internet, copy, paste... done. When the exams are coming, it's simpler, right. The results of the exams can be seen immediately; there is no need to be wondering any more about the result. Nevertheless, not everything must be using high tech, some still are done manually; for example, math. We still have to write and count manually. If we don't learn how to count, then how it would be?" (P5, Line 17 24). In another statement, P5 also explained: "In the process of learning, using high tech, I became motivated to study. Everything got simple. Besides that, I can also make more friends on the internet. However, my social media accounts still can be seen by my parents, so I'm not freely playing on the internet. My parents know all the passwords of my accounts, even my android password too" (P5, Line 29 33).

Actually, sometimes I also take a chance to watch social media while in the class when we’re using gadgets (blushing)" (P2, Line 12 19).

P7 also made a similar statement to the other participants. P7 admitted that learning with gadgets gave them different impressions compared to the traditional learning process, which they usually experienced. Below is P7’s statement that shows a change of perception about learning when experiencing learning with high tech. "I felt happy because the learning at school right now is more fun compared to when I was at elementary school. Now, I can often use the smartphone and the internet for learning. I don't need to keep listening to teachers' lectures, but I also can look for learning materials on the internet by myself.

It is more fun and interesting" (P7, Line 24 29)

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. well, we had to bring the gadget; therefore, we must entrust our gadget to be kept by the class's teacher. It is fun for learning using high tech. We can find many things: is it something around me, in the other regions, or even something outside the country? Also, I can watch Instagram, just a brief surf, so I don't get caught by the teacher hehe (smiling)... The gist is, it is fun. Sometimes I also get serious when studying; there are many questions asked by the teacher, and every answer can be found with high tech. I like to find it at brainly.com. Every lesson is there; it's totally different from the manual style of learning. Always having speech lectures, it's boring.

Despite studying at a different school to P1, P3 said something similar regarding the use of gadgets and laptops or PCs Below is P3's statement regarding a comparison of using computers and gadgets in learning. "Well, compared to using gadgets, I became more focused when learning using a laptop because we can't haphazardly open any application. The teacher also can watch what we do in the class. However, using the gadget is simpler; many apps can be used and downloaded" (P3, Line 16 18).

P1 explicitly explained the process of learning and their attitude towards the use of gadgets compared to laptops or PCs. P1 admitted that the use of gadgets distracts them from being focused on the study. It is too tempting to use gadgets for other things besides learning. Below is P1’s statement which illustrates this: "Sometimes, the teachers ask me to bring gadgets or laptops for learning at school. From what I experienced, using the gadget is much simpler and easier to carry, and it's also easier to be played with. Even though I didn't have any intention to play, sometimes my friends ask me to play with them, stealthily playing games together in the class" (P1, Line 25 29).

The participants admitted that the temptation to use the technology in unhealthy ways does not have a positive effect on their self development and is caused by an impulse to want to be the same as their friends. They do not want to be left behind by their friends. They were afraid of being regarded as an unsocial person. Therefore, even if the school prohibits students from bringing gadgets except occasionally, students still sneakily bring their gadgets for the sake of socializing with their friends.

Theme 3: I know that I have to be self controlled, but still, it is hard to do. Early adolescents are aware that they ought to be self controlled so that they do not misuse gadgets. However, they still find this hard. The desire to exist and communicate with their friends through social media is a major factor that leads to the misuse of gadgets. Some students see gadgets as mere entertainment for playing on social media or games; hence they are unable to control themselves.

P4 also stated that students are more comfortable using gadgets than computers. However, in terms of the success of the learning, they admitted that using computers makes them more focused. They also like gadgets more than laptops because they are less complicated and more comfortable to carry. In contrast, a laptop is quite heavy. Below is one of P4's statements comparing laptops and devices: "I like to use the gadget more; it's easier to use and to carry. If using a laptop, even if it also high tech, sometimes the WIFI at school is turned off or not reaching our class, it's bothering. There is also a case, hmmm... If I want to open social media, I would likely be scolded by the teacher; they can properly see what we do. We can't also download new apps. So, when there is a time that we must bring a device, I prefer bringing my gadget. A laptop is heavy, but in terms of learning, it's better to use a laptop. There is a smaller chance of deviating by playing on social media because we are being watched. At home, too, I am restricted in terms of using gadgets, but it is okay to use the PC. My mom said that it is better for my eyes" (P4, Line 27 33).

Another participant also spoke about the process of learning self control and time management in using gadgets. P7 explained: "I often get scolded when playing gadgets I can't play too long, except for browsing learning materials. However, sometimes, I still tried to steal some occasions. My friends play it (gadget). I want to do the same” (P7, Line 32 34).

P2 admitted that they had been addicted to their gadget since junior high school.

P2 loved to surf the internet with gadgets, watching videos on YouTube and any other apps. Below is P2’s statement: "My mom has been prohibiting me from playing with HP (Handphone). I didn't get a chance to play it. However, since junior high school, the school often asks us to bring gadgets with us… Because of that, I got encouraged to explore the gadget more I like to watch videos, social media, chatting with my friends, and many more" (P2, Line 25 28)

6. Discussion The results show that students experience a positive impact from IT based learning. However, early adolescents also realized that high technology has been affecting them negatively. Based on Moustakas (1994), the researchers conducted further data analysis of the data from the entire group of individual textural descriptions, which then developed into a composite description. The meaning and the invariant themes from every participant were intricately identified to obtain a focused image of the entire group's overall experience.

P5 also felt in a similar way to P2. They often could not be self controlled when using high technology. They would rather play with the gadget than study with it. The following is one of the participant’s statements regarding this issue: "Well, for me, my mom and dad want me to study, my teachers also want me to study through this gadget, not playing. I am often told that I ought to manage my time. There is also an agreement between my parents concerning the time I can use the gadget and me, I learned to conduct self control, but still, I can't. It's hard to do... I also need something to play, need entertainment, playing games with my friends, or just watching videos on the internet. I also need those so I can make friends" (P5, Line 78 82).

IT based learning is more comfortable and more fun for early adolescents. Minimizing drowsiness and being more comfortable finding study materials were the two most prominent factors that adolescents identified in the use of HTBL. This is in line with Vasallo and Warren (2018) who showed that the use of computers can be extremely helpful for students in developing their skills in particular academic subjects. The use of modern devices such as smartphones, tablets, or gadgets offers various advantages in learning(Disterer & Kleiner,2014). Technology could be a factor in academic achievement and motivation to stay longer at school (Harris, Al Bataineh & Al Bateineh, 2016). The use of high tech for junior high school students is more likely to be interpreted as a positive thing in the learning environment. For junior high school students who tend to have a high desire to play, HTBL becomes a medium through which to cope with their boredom (Raja & Nagasubramani, 2018).

The statements of the participants about their experiences of HTBL at school demonstrate that the participants considered the use of high tech to be more comfortable and more fun. This indicates that early adolescents are in a transition period in which they want everything to be fun for them (Swartz & Wilde, 2012; Emmons, 2012). Parents and teachers need to respond to this situation wisely in the context of early adolescent students' education. Besides providing a safe high tech environment (Hogan & Strasburger, 2018), teachers and parents need to improve their communication skills appropriately to understand what adolescents desire from their parents and teachers. In such a context, behavior related to high tech utilization would become more directed and positive (Ardies, De Maeyer, Gijbels & van Keulen, 2014).

Adults' guidance is more important than their control over the usage of IT. The revealed facts showed that the participants regarded gadgets and high tech merely as entertainment. Hence, they admitted to trying to steal some time to open non learning sites during learning sessions This matter needs to be addressed by parents and teachers. Gadgets with internet access have the potential to be misused by adolescents. For example, adolescents could access content with violence and pornography. The misuse of gadgets can have a negative effect on children's and adolescents' psychological development (Flood, 2009). Therefore, the use of gadgets by early adolescents needs to be accompanied by guidance from parents. Awareness raised among early adolescents on HTBL may result in self directed behavioral control. This corresponds with the idea of Hommel and Wiers (2017), that the congruity between actions and understanding of humans in terms of ethical codes is an effect of their perception arising from the match between their intention and actions For students who regard gadgets as mere entertainment, the school needs to come up with a solution by utilizing computers (PCs or laptops) rather than gadgets. Some studies support this finding, demonstrating that gadgets result in more unexpected distractions in the process of learning in comparison with computers (Langmia & Glass, 2014; Ugur & Koç, 2015).

The data gathered in the interviews reflect facts, knowledge, and the experiences of the participants regarding the phenomenon; these adolescents' perspectives may differ from adult thinking on the same issue.The data offernovel information regarding HTBL for early adolescents. It is hoped that the research will help schools and teachers to understand more about the most appropriate HTBL and/or IT based learning methods for early adolescents (Li, Snow & White, 2015).

The enthusiastic responses of the participants regarding HTBL demonstrate that, fundamentally, technology was considered to be a medium that can relieve the psychological burden of students. This is because it minimizes the need for students to keep listening to teachers’ lectures intensively. It also allows them to actively gather learning materials independently. This should be encouraged by teachers and parents because junior high school children fundamentally have the potential to become independent learners.

Therefore, schools need to develop educational strategies to increase students' awareness about the importance of HTBL and its advantages in the future.

This study involved qualitative research that was intensely influenced by the participants' cultural environment Thus, the results of the study cannot be generalized. However, the results can be used by researchers, parents, and teachers operating in similar contexts.

The findings from this research demonstrate that parents and teachers face a challenge in terms of providing guidance to junior high school students, who are also early adolescents, about the dangers of the misuse of gadgets and high tech to prevent them from experiencing the negative effects of technology. Guidance can come in the form of advice and role models, and also when early adolescents internalize religious and moral values, and social values in their daily lives.

Teachers and parents should be adapting to changes in technology. Technological advances easily change the behaviors and perspectives of adolescents because children adapt quickly to technology (Gaidhani, Arora & Sharma, 2019). Teachers and parents tend to be slower in adapting to technological advances (McDaniel & Radesky, 2017). Therefore, it is not surprising if, between parents and children, there is always a generation gap that makes it difficult for them to connect. Based on this notion, teachers and parents who already have a particular lifestyle and have already adopted a mindset towards technology need to make a serious effort to escalate their adaptability to be able to accompany their children in the process of the technology revolution. Technology is like two sides of a coin. There are beneficial and adverse impacts on the growth of adolescents. Therefore, teachers and parents should be able to increase the positive impacts and reduce the negative impacts of technology by strengthening their own skills and competency in terms of technology (Mundy, Kupczynski & Kee, 2012).

7. Conclusion High tech contains various educational instruments needed to support students' educational processes (Gudanescu, 2010). However, it is necessary to adjust the use of a variety of technology according to the psychological development of students. Teachers and parents need to realize that, in the digital era, the utilization of high tech is a certainty because it is a basic necessity to adapt to the changing times. Parents and teachers must give more space to adolescents It is more important for teachers and parents to guide adolescents (Laitonjam & Singh, 2014) to enable them to manage themselves in a health way. This research shows that gadgets, as an example of high tech, have more negative effects than various other high tech devices. Therefore, schools need to elaborate on regulations that direct the use of technology besides gadgets, to prevent the learning tasks from becoming a cover for being dependent on gadgets. This approach also needs the support of parents in its execution, as parents must always be prepared for changes in the world of education In this context, collaboration between parents and schools is essential, whether in terms of the planning or implementation of approaches. Collaboration is necessary because, in addition to an understanding of the negative and positive effects in the implementation of HTBL, gadgets are also continuously in use both at school and at home by adolescents.

8. Limitations of the Research

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doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.07.670

Keywords: teaching method; learning styles; motivation; student status; school type; learning strategies

1. Introduction Studies aimed at discovering factors that determine the learning strategy preference of students are critical, not only to the learning success of students but

Abstract. The purpose of this study was to investigate factors that influence Senior High School (SHS) economics students’ use of learning strategies. We conducted the study using 668 final year economics students drawn from 24 public and private SHSs in the Central Region of Ghana. A questionnaire was used to collect data, which was analyzed using multiple regression analysis. The results showed that learning style and teaching method influence students’ choice of cognitive learning strategies. Also, learning styles, teaching method, motivation to study the subject, and student status significantly influence students’ use of metacognitive strategies. Finally, the study showed that learning style, teaching method, motivation, student status, and school type significantly explain variability in resource management learning strategies of Economics students. The study, therefore, suggested that teachers should adopt practices that actively engage students in a class. Also, teachers, heads, and parents of students should motivate students to develop an interest in studying economics. Also, the study recommended that government and school authorities should formulate and implement policies that provide similar learning opportunities for day and boarding students since all students irrespective of their status, require equal opportunities to unearth their learning potentials. Finally, based on the findings, a conceptual model was developed to enhance learner autonomy through the use of metacognitive strategies.

167 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 5, pp. 167 185, May https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.5.202010

Factors that Influence Learning Strategy Use among Senior High School Economics Students in Ghana: A Quantitative Approach Anthony Akwesi Owusu University of Cape Coast, Ghana 0002 6880 094X Cosmas Cobbold University of Cape Coast, Ghana https://orcid.org/0000 0002 9342 0084

https://orcid.org/0000

also to the teaching effectiveness of teachers. As a fact, school learning success is not solely dependent on the kind of teaching that takes place in the classroom, but mostly dependent on the dominant strategies that students use to cope with the enormous demandsof learning. The termlearning strategies, asusedin this work, refers to practices that students use to learn (Krish, Zubaidah & Pakrudin, 2019).

Certain defined factors influence students’ use of these learning strategies.

Studies on learning strategies have shown that students are more successful in accomplishing academic tasks when they acknowledge and use higher order metacognitive learning strategies (Dunlosky, Katherine, Marsh, Mitchell & Willingham, 2013). Metacognitive learning strategies have proven to have a high positive effect on learning (Säälik, 2015; Tuncer & Kaysi, 2013). Learning strategies enable students to gather new information and retain their existing knowledge (Khamkhien, 2010). Research has shown that inappropriate use of learning strategies account for low performance among students (Alimirzaloo, 2016). Also, learning strategy use explains students’ performance discrepancies (e.g. Khonbi & Mohammadi, 2015; Säälik, 2015). Very related to learning strategies is the concept of self regulated learning (Gambo & Shakir, 2019), which has been under robust investigation culminating in the development of various constructs or models and theories (Usher & Schunk, 2017). Students use a repertoire of learning strategies to regulate their learning. But the big question is, ‘what factors predispose students to the use of a particular learning strategy? Few researchers have researched in this area in a bid to understand the issues therein (Hsiao, & Oxford, 2002). For instance, Bergin (2019) found learning background, as a factor tied to self regulation, motivation, and the use of learning strategies. A year later, Oxford (1989) in a correlation study, found a robust association between an individual’s use of learning strategies and their individual and school factors. Tamada (1996) on his part, in a correlation study found that the teaching method, proficiency level, gender, learning styles, and motivation to learn influenced learning strategy use among the students. In a recent study to investigate variations in the use of strategies, Alnujaidi (2017) and Wang (2014) found that internal factors (that is learners’ age, intelligence, personality and cognitive style)

There are three types of learning strategies (cognitive, metacognitive, and resource management learning strategies), which this study used. The purpose of using cognitive strategies is often to achieve a particular goal, whereas metacognitive strategy use aims to ensure that the cognitive goal has been reached. Cognitive strategies use helps learners to recall information easily and successfully. These include repetition, organising, summarising meaning, guessing meaning from context, using imagery for memorisation. In contrast, metacognitive strategies occur either before or after cognitive strategies and are sometimes termed to as “learning to learn” While students use cognitive strategies on the materials they learn, metacognitive strategies use the knowledge of cognitive procedures to adjust the learning process (Saks & Leijen, 2018). Metacognitive strategies involve processes like planning for learning, monitoring, self directing evaluating how well one is achieving their learning objective.People have described metacognitive strategies as things which allow learners to control their own cognition by coordinating the learning process through arranging, planning, and evaluating. Metacognitive strategies are important for successful learning.

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. and external factors (teachers’ teaching approaches and materials) are factors that influenced learners’ use of language learning strategies. These studies, which researchers conducted outside Ghana in language education, excluded factors such as student status, and school type, which are critical variables that could influence students’ learning strategy choice. The extent to which these factors might apply in the Ghanaian background was the focus of the current study.

The purpose of this study was, therefore to examine, using a quantitative approach, the factors that influence learning strategy use among SHS economics students in Ghana. The aim was to determine how individual student factors (sex, learning style), motivation, and school factors (teaching method, school type, and student status) predict a particular learning strategy use to developing a framework, to enhance the teaching and learning of SHS economics, given its important role in the socio economic transformation of countries. Effective teaching of economics at the SHS level guarantees students’ ability to apply economic concepts and principles to everyday life thus, ensuring the nurturing of responsible citizens that work to fulfil their civic responsibilities (Owusu, 2018).

2. Conceptual Framework

The Biggs (1985) model of meta learning underpins the study. Biggs established the connection between the learning environment and student learning in a presage, procedure, and the production stage. He denoted prior learning, as a presage factor, which he explained as reflecting the entry characteristics of students in the learning situation. Some of these factors include prior knowledge, capabilities, favourite ways of learning with hopes of accomplishment The process stage emerges initially due to the interface between teaching and learning, producing the development of students’ preconceptions, notions, and anticipations. Their discernments give focus to their reactions at this stage. The product stage denotes the consequences of student learning as a result of their learning approaches (Karatas, 2017; Raoofi et al., 2012). In effect, the model sought to explain the student and the teaching background (school) factors that mediate the learning process. The model was not, however explicit on the learning approaches at the product level. This study adapted the model and included only teaching method in the school factors, thus, excluding the curriculum, the classroom climate and assessment. In place of these, this study added student status and school type, which are related to boarding/day school education in Ghana. Also, the student factors in this study were student learning styles, motivation, and sex (Zhang, 2018). We maintained the three stages of the model but denoted the first and second stages as input and through put instead of the presage and process in the original model. Figures 1 and 2 respectively present diagrammatic representation of the original Biggs (1985) model and the model authors adapted for the study.

Figure 1: A model of meta learning (Biggs, 1985, p. 192).

Figure 2: A hypothesised conceptual framework of the study (Authors’ Adapted Construct, 2018)

3. H0: student factors (sex, learning style, motivation) and school factors (teaching method, school type, and student status) do not significantly predispose economics students to the use of resource management learning Hstrategy.

2. H0: student factors (sex, learning style, motivation) and school factors (teaching method, school type, and student status) do not significantly predispose economics students to the use of metacognitive learning strategy.

Hi: student factors (sex, learning style, motivation) and school factors (teaching method, school type, and student status) do not significantly predispose economics students to the use of cognitive learning strategy.

Research hypothesis The study sought to test these theories:

1. H0: student factors (sex, learning style, motivation) and school factors (teaching method, school type, and student status) do not significantly predispose economics students to the use of cognitive learning strategy.

LSI = β0 + β1Teachmei + β2MotiI + β3LstyleI + β4StdsexI + β5SchtypeI + β6Studentstatusi + ɛI (2) Where Teahmei represents teaching method of economics teachers as an economics student I experiences in the classroom. Teaching method variable is measured as a dummy with 1 representing teacher centred method and 0 representing student centred method Again, MotI from the function represents motivation to study economics by an economics student I. We measured motivation also as a dummy variable. We coded 1 for extrinsic and coded 0 for intrinsic motivation. Lstylei, from the function, represents the learning styles of an economics student I We measured them as a dummy variable with 0 coding for visual learner; 1 for auditory; and 2 for kinaesthetic learner. We nominated StudentsexI to be sex of an economics student I, and we gave code 1 to female while we gave code 0 to male From the function, SchtypeI represented the school type, which was a categorical variable We gave I coding toprivate school whereas 0 coding denoted public school. Lastly, we represented student status of an economics student I with Studentstatusi. We gave code 1 to day students while

i: student factors (sex, learning style, motivation) and school factors (teaching method, school type, and student status) do not significantly predispose economics students to the use of resource management learning strategy. Mathematical Model Specification LSI = β0 + β1XI + ɛI (1) Where LSi is the learningstrategy, measuredin terms of learning strategy adjusted for error; Xi the determinant of learning strategy of an economics student I, measured, as their out of the class way of learning; ɛI is the error term, measured as other factors that determine learning strategy. Mathematically, β0 and β1 are the coefficients of elasticity for determinants. For this study, determinant (XI) is a function of teaching method.

4. Results and Discussions

The study sought to test three theories on how school and individual student factors influence cognitive, metacognitive, and resource management learning strategy. For this reason, the researchers ran a regression analysis. However, to avoid erroneous interpretations and conclusions, researchers ran post estimation tests to meet all the regression requirements.

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. code 0 symbolised boarder/hosteller). The LSI (learning strategy) had a normal distribution. There, there was no need to take the logarithm of the LS to make the residuals normal. The model posits that teachers’ teaching practices (methods) influence the learning strategies students adopt. Also, their motivation to study economics, the learning styles they choose in learning, their sex the school type, and the school status influence the learning strategies theyuse. The linearfunction describes the relationship between the explanatory and criterion variables in the form y = c + MX where M is the slope or the gradient of the line telling us the rate of change of the endogenous variable y per unit change of the exogenous variable x. The constant c gives the value of y if x is assumed zero (y intercept).

3. Methods

The study sought to examine the school and individual student factors that influence learning strategy choice among SHS economics students. The study used the descriptive survey design, as the most appropriate plan. The questionnaire is available in the Appendix. In a survey, the investigator selects a group of respondents, collects data, and then analyses the data to test theories (Loeb, Dynarski, McFarland, Morris, Reardon & Reber, 2017). The choice of the plan enabled the researchers to test the hypotheses on how individual student and school factors influence students’ learning strategy use among economics students. The project also provided the researchers with an opportunity to investigate the phenomenon of learning strategy use, giving background data about the issue in question, as well as providing clarifications. Besides, it allowed the researchers to gather and analyse large volumes of data for purposes of establishing patterns and finding the relationships between and among variables (Boone & Noltemeyer, 2017).

The target population for the study comprised 6,911 final (third) year SHS Economics students for the 2017/2018 academic year from both government and private schools in the Central Region. We chose final year students because we deemed them to have had enough experiences in economics education. Of the number, we sampled 688 using a multi-stage sampling procedure. First, we divided the population of schools into two groups (public = 53 schools andprivate = 19 schools). Second, we selected 34% of the public and private schools in each group. As a result, we obtained 18 public and six (6) private schools form the proportionate sampling procedure. Third, the researchers used a stratified random sampling technique based on sex (male/female) to select 30 students in each participating school (15 boys and 15 girls). The sampling procedure helped us to obtain an equal number of boys and girls for the study.

Normality Test

Prior to running a multiple regression test, the researchers ran post estimation tests on the heteroskedasticity, multicollinearity, and the model specification. These tests did not violate the assumptions for running multiple regression test. The results from Table 2 shows that the data is homoscedastic and that, the variance of the dependent variable (either cognitive, metacognitive, or resource management strategy) is not dependent on the independent variables (sex, learning styles, teaching method etc.). Also, Table 2 shows that there is no multicollinearity among independent variables. The assurance with this result is that the correlations between the independent variables are not too high to lose their predictive power in variations of the dependent variables. We provided separate explanations relating to each of the models in Table 2.

Table 1: The Kolmogorov Smirnov and Shapiro Wilk test for normality of student learning strategies Kolmogorov Smirnov Shapiro Wilk Statistic Df Sig. Statistic Df Sig. COGNITIVE .25 95 .246 .062 95 .341 METACOGNITIVE .091 95 .102 .082 95 .217 RESOURCE MGT. .006 95 .432 .75 95 .192

We conducted a normality test on student learning strategies using the Kolmogorov Smirnov and Shapiro Wilk test for normality to check if it met the underlying assumption for multiple regression analysis. The test showed: D(95) = 0.06, p = 0.341 > 0.05 for cognitive strategy; D(95) = 0.08, p = 0.217 > 0.05 for metacognitive strategy; and D(95) = 0.80, p = 0.192 > 0.05 for resource management strategy. Since in all three outcome variables, the p values were greater than the chosen alpha level (0.05) researchers failed to reject the null hypothesis (that the explanatory variables did notinfluence the criterion variable).

We concluded that the data was normally distributed. Table 1 shows the results on the Kolmogorov Smirnov and the Shapiro Wilk tests of normality for learning strategy choice of economics students.

Table 2: The homoskedasticity, model specification, and multicollinearity assumptions for multiple regression MODEL Homoskedasticity Model Specification Multicollinearity Model 1 chi2(1) = 3.75 Prob > chi2 = .0529 F(3, 657) = 1.21 Prob > F = 0.3054 Mean VIF =1.17 Model 2 chi2(1) = 1.75 Prob > chi2 = .1860 F(3, 657) = 3.82 Prob > F = 0.0098 Mean VIF = 1.17 Model 3 chi2(1) = 3.1 Prob > chi2 = .075 F(3, 655) = 2.01 Prob > F = 0.1107 Mean VIF = 1.20 Table 2 shows the results on the homoskedasticity test for the three models. We used the Breusch Pagan / Cook Weisberg test for heteroskedasticity under the null hypothesis that there is a constant variance. We obtained a p value of 0.0529 > 0.05 for model 1, showing homoscedasticity. We used the same procedure for model 2 and 3, which also yielded p values of 0.1860 > 0.05 and 0.075 > 0.05 respectively, showing the homoscedasticity data. Again, we ran the Ramsey reset

174 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. test of the fitted values and model 1 showed, Prob > F = 0.3054. By this, the test gave an assurance that the model was well specified. So, researchers concluded on the null hypothesis that there is no problem of omitted variable bias. We followed the same procedure to obtain values for models 2 and 3, which also showedProb > F = 0.0098 andProb > F = 0.1107 respectively, giving the assurance that the models were well specified. Lastly, we ran the multicollinearity test using the Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) on the three models. Model 1 showed that the Mean Variance Inflation Factor (Mean VIF=1.17) < 10, therefore, model 1 was devoid of multicollinearity. We used the same procedure for models 2 and 3, which yielded mean VIF of 1.17 (< 10) and Mean VIF of 1.20 (< 10) respectively, suggesting that the models were devoid of multicollinearity. Table 3 shows the results on the regression analyses. Table 3: Regression analysis on how the predictor variables influence the criterion Explanatory Vari Cognitive Metacognitive Resource Mgt Learning styles (base=auditory) Visual 0.309***(0.000) 0.418***(0.000) 0.253***(0.000) Kinaesthetic 0.222***(0.000) 0.178***(0.006) 0.169***(0.005) Teaching method (base=student-centred) Teacher centred 0.018***(0.000) (0.025)0.008** 0.112**(0.020) Motivation (base=extrinsic) Intrinsic Motiv. (0.175)0.096 0.213***(0.002) 0.192***(0.008) Sex (base=male) Female (0.452)0.033 (0.140)0.071 (0.281)0.048 Student status (base=boarding/hosteller) Day student (0.766)0.014 (0.017)0.119** 0.144***(0.002) School type (base=public) Private school (0.642)0.020 (0.129)0.073 0.129***(0.005) _cons 2.282***(0.000) 2.241***(0.000) 1.882***(0.000) Number of obs = 668 668 668 F( 9, 658) = 11.84 8.37 9.34 Prob > F = 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 R squared = 0.0816 0.0901 0.1393 Adj R squared = 0.0718 0.0804 0.1276 n = 668 668 668 P values in parentheses * p < 0.10, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01; where: Vari = Variable; Mgt = Management; Moti = Motivation; Adj R-squared = Adjusted R squared; n = Sample size; Obs = Observations; cons = Constant.

The aim if this study is to investigate how the explanatory variables predispose or influence students’ use of cognitive learning strategies. Some of the cognitive learning strategies include repeating learnt materials, taking verbatim notes, commit to memory learnt stuff, among others. Others involve students reciting learnt concepts, solving past questions, outlining of economics materials, and categorising economics materials from different sources to make learning easier. The rest include relating learnt materials to real life and arranging thoughts and thinking about possible alternatives to solving economics problems. From Table 3, it is clear that a visual learner’s use of cognitive learning strategy increases by 0.309 more than auditory learners, ceteris paribus meaning that visual learners use cognitive learning strategies more than auditory learners. The result is statistically significant at one percent, indicating the relevance of this variation. From Table 3, we can observe that compared to an auditory learner, a kinaesthetic learner’s use of cognitive learning strategy increased more by 0.222, significant at one percent.

Regarding teaching method, when the teacher uses the student centred method, students’ use of cognitive learning strategy increases by 0.018 (all other things being equal) compared to a case where the teacher uses teacher centred approach. This outcome was statistically significant at one percent, indicating the relevance of the variation. This outcome supports a suggestion by Pennell (2018) and McGoldrick (2011) that teachers should use cooperative learning exercises (the student centred method) to allow less capable learners learn from their more skilful counterparts. Also, the result shows that teachers’ teaching practice plays a vital role in nurturing students’ cognitive learning strategy use (Omer, 2019).

Students’ tactical action also connects to the teachers’ methods by which they promote students’ use of a particular learning strategy in different situations.

On motivation, when students are intrinsically motivated, their use of cognitive learning strategy increases by 0.096 more compared to when they are extrinsically motivated, but this is not statistically significant. Shim and Ryan (2019) suggest that in motivation, the environmental issues that affect students’ learning goals could relate broadly to households, peers, community, culture, ethnic, among others. Again, compared to a male student, a female student’s cognitive learning strategy increases more by 0.033, but this is not statistically significant. Though the result is not significant, the positive correlation coefficient shows that females are by accident predisposed to use of more cognitive learning strategies than Lastly,males.

it is clear that compared to a boarder/hosteller (student status), a day student’s use of cognitive learning strategy increased by 0.014 higher than their counterpart in the boarding or hostel, ceteris paribus. However, this is not statistically significant. The result, however, not substantial, seems to contrast one of the three ideologies fundamental to Vygotsky’s social development theory, which Wink and Putney (2002) echoed. Day students do not usually have people to interact with and to consult for help. To overcome this challenge; they increase their cognitive strategy use.

Factors Influencing the use of Cognitive Learning Strategies

In Table 3, it is evident that a visual learner’s use of metacognitive learning strategy increased by 0.418 higher than an auditory learner, holding constant, all other factors in the modelsignificant at one percent. Again, a kinaesthetic learner’s use of metacognitive strategy increased by 0.178 compared to an auditory learner, and this variation is statistically significant at one percent. The inference is that both the visual and the kinaesthetic learners use more metacognitive learning strategies than auditory learners.

Factors Influencing the Use of Metacognitive Learning Strategies

Also, compared to a student in a government school, (type of school) a private school student’s use of cognitive learning strategies was lower by 0.020 than a student in the government school, ceteris paribus. However, the result is not statistically significant. By inference, students in government schools are more predisposed to using cognitive learning strategies than their counterparts in private schools. This result lends credence to the fact that learning background is a critical factor linked to self regulation, motivation, and learning strategy use (Bergin, 2019). From the analysis, it is clear that learning styles and teaching practices explain differences in students’ cognitive learning strategy use. The adjusted r square score of 0.0718 shows that teaching practices and learning styles account for nearly 7% variation in students’ use of cognitive learning strategies.

Again, intrinsically motivated students increased their metacognitive learning strategy use more by 0.213 than extrinsically motivated students at one percent statistical significance. By inference, intrinsically motivated students are predisposed to using more metacognitive learning strategies than extrinsically motivated students. Again, a female student will increase her use of metacognitive learning strategy by 0.071 more than a male counterpart, all things being equal though this outcome is not statistically significant. The correlation coefficient shows that females use more metacognitive learning strategies than males though this result is due to chance. Lastly, it is clear that compared to a boarder/hosteller, a day student’s use of metacognitive learning strategy decreased by 0.119 lower than their boarding or hostel counterpart, ceteris paribus, statistically significant at five percent. By inference, boarding/hostel students are predisposed to using metacognitive learning strategies than their day student counterparts. Perhaps, this is naturally so because boarding/hostellers

Further, students’ use of metacognitive learning strategy increased more by 0.008 when the teacher used the student centred method than when he/she used the teacher centred method. By implication, for teachers to develop metacognitive learning strategies in students; they have to use the student centred practices in teaching economics for the simple reason that this method predisposes students to the use of metacognitive learning strategies. The finding concurs with what Owusu (2018) said concerning the suggestion Vygotsky suggestion made that teachers should use cooperative learning exercises to allow able learners to help less able ones. Also, the finding shows that, teachers have several ways to enhance metacognitive self regulation and use of cognitive learning strategies (Omer, 2019). Through the classroom demonstrations, support, and the use of coaching, Jucks and Brummernhenrich, (2016) stated that teachers can help students develop cognitive self regulation.

understand the need to take advantage of their learning environment, work extra hard to ‘out perform’ their perceived less privileged colleague day students. Also, compared to students in public schools, private school students decreased their use of metacognitive learning strategy by 0.073 than students in government schools, ‘ceteris paribus’ though this was not statistically significant. By inference, students in government schools were more likely to be predisposed to using metacognitive learning strategies than students in private schools. From the results, it is clear that learning styles, teaching practices, motivation, and student status substantially explain about 8% variations in students’ cognitive learning strategy use.

Factors Influencing the use of Resource Management Learning Strategies

Further,strategies.an intrinsically motivated student’s use of resource management learning strategies increased by 0.192 more, ceteris paribus compared to an extrinsically motivated student, and this result is statistically significant. However, compared to a male, a female student’s use of resource management strategy decreased by 0.048, implying that male students were more predisposed tousing resource management learning strategies thanfemale students However, the result wasnotstatistically significant. Lastly, comparedtoa boarder/hosteller, a day student’s use of resource management learning strategy increased by 0.144 higher than their boarding or hostel counterpart, ceteris paribus and this is statistically significant at one percent. However, compared to a student in a government school, a student in a private school decreased their use of resource management learning strategy by 0.129 than a student in a government school, ceteris paribus, statistically substantial at one percent. By inference, students in government schools are more predisposed to using resource management learning strategies than their counterparts in private schools. Learning styles, teaching practices, motivation, student status, and school type explain almost 13% variations in students’ use of resource management learning strategies. From the findings, we developed a conceptual model that we intend to use to train autonomous SHS Economics students, as shown in Figure 3

From Table 3, it is clear that a visual learner’s use of resource management learning strategy increased by 0.253 higher than an auditory learner. These are all statistically significant, implying that the differences between the two groups are relevant. Furthermore, a kinaesthetic learner’s use of resource management strategy increased more by 0.169 compared to an auditory learner and this is also statistically significant at one percent. By deduction, both the visual and the kinaesthetic learners were more predisposed to using resource management learning strategies than auditory learners. Also, students’ use of resource management strategies increased more by 0.112 when the teacher uses the student centred method compared to when the teacher uses the teacher centred method. The result is also significant at five percent, indicating the relevance of the variation. By inference, teachers could develop a taste to use resource management learning strategies in students when they adopt the student centred method of teaching. From the previous results, it is evident that four explanatory variables (learning styles, teaching practices, motivation, and student status) account for about 9% variations in students’ use of metacognitive learning

Leveraging on these factors through apt teaching and learning policies and programmes will enhance the learning of economics. The teaching method that teachers use is crucial for learning success because it contributes positively to students’ use of cognitive, metacognitive, and resource management learning strategies. However, as the literature has shown, teachers and school authorities may succeed in their bid to enhance learning if they focus on the factors that stimulate the use of metacognitive strategies. These critical factors include teaching methods, learning styles, and student motivation Shih (n.d.) Additionally, teaching methods, learning styles, student motivation, student status, and school type encourage students’ use of resource management learning strategies. Leveraging on the factors predisposing students to the use of metacognitive learning strategies through the formulation of appropriate policies and programmes enhance the learning of economics and ensure that instruction in the subject produces self directed, autonomous learners.

Source: Authors, 2019 Explanations of the Model

The model seeks to explain that for a country to produce autonomous, self directed economics teachers must use the existingstudent centred methods in line with student learning styles, to maintain a supportive relationship in the class. When this is achieved, students will be intrinsically motivated to study using metacognitive strategies, thereby nullifying the adverse effects of their status (either as a day student, a boarding student or a hosteller). Consequently, when students use metacognitive strategies, they will master the learning skills of planning, monitoring, and self regulation, which are necessary for achieving learning autonomy

Figure 3: A model towards the training of autonomous SHS economics students.

5. Conclusion

The focus of this research was to establish factors that stimulate students’ use of a particular learning strategy. Studies have found several factors to affect the learning strategy use of students. These factors, the current study has shown, are from individual student ones (sex, learning styles, and motivation) and environmental ones (teaching method, school type, and student status).

3. The government of Ghana should, through the Ghana Education Service, provide instructional support (IS) for schools. The personnel to ensure the instructional support, should have backgrounds in counseling, social work, and psychology so that to provide career, socio emotional support and other counselling services to SHS students in the various schools across the country. The personnel could give guidance services to students on their learning style, thereby improving their academic well being.

1. Teachers should attend seminars/workshops on modern teaching practices to apprise themselves with the skills of actively engaging students in the class.

3. Teachers must make efforts to know their students and their learning styles. The teacher should leverage this data (in the classroom) to adopt teaching practices that are harmonious with students’ learning styles.

2. Teachers should use the student centred learning practices such as collaborative practices to keep students actively involved during lessons since the teacher centred methods only lead to learning by rote.

The Ministryof Education should resource the Ghana Education Service (GES) well to clamp down on unlicensed private schools whose owners operate with repugnant school infrastructure and without authorization

Recommendations for Practice

5. The recommendations have cost implications for teachers and schools. Therefore, government must resource teachers and the various senior high schools to enable them deliver on their mandate.

4. Teachers should trust the capabilities and competences of their students. They should lay stress on effort over innate ability and praise students when they master new skills or knowledge. For instance, kinaesthetic learners best understand concepts and data through tactile representations. Therefore, the teacher must provide them with opportunities for hands on activities.

1. The study has shown that teacher centred practices increase students’ cognitive learning strategy use. Therefore, government policy should make teacher participation in In service Training and Workshops mandatory and tied to promotions so that teachers understand the need to continually update their teaching skills and understand the need to use the student centred ways.

Recommendations for Policy

5. The study showed that student status influenced the use of resource management learning strategy. Therefore, government policy on day and boarding schools must ensure that there is parity and fairness in the resource distribution to boarding and day students.

4. Since motivation predisposes students to the use of metacognitive learning strategies, the government of Ghana should commence a national debate on actions schools, parents, and communities can take to motivate students to learn, persevere, and succeed in school and even after school.

2. The government should address the infrastructural challenges of schools. It should work to provide appropriate instructional materials for teachers to help them adopt proper teaching practices.

6. School type influenced resource management learning strategies, which has implications for policies on the establishment of schools. Government policy should press for enforcement of laws concerning the establishment of private schools to ensure that these schools have the minimum infrastructure to run.

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Kindly indicate by choosing one of the options how frequently your Economics teacher engages in the following activities. The items are measured on a five point scale ranging from ‘Always =4 to Never =0. The key for measuring the items are provided below: Always [4] Often [3] Sometimes [2] Rarely [1] Never [0] My teacher engages us actively by using self directed learning while he/she only assumes the role of a facilitator 4 3 2 1 0 The tasks my teacher assigns us require analytical thinking, and problem solving 4 3 2 1 0 My teacher helps us to learn economics concepts through brainstorming and he/she ensures a non threatening atmosphere for learning 4 3 2 1 0 My teacher makes us narrate our personal experiences through discussions in economics 4 3 2 1 0 Teacher uses lecture and does all the talking in class 4 3 2 1 0 In all, how would you describe your teacher’s teaching method? Student centred [ ] teacher centred [ ]

SECTION 2 METHODS TEACHERS USE TO TEACH ECONOMICS

SECTION 1 Biographic Data of Students tell us about your background with a Tick in the appropriate box School Type: Public [ ] Private [ ] Sex: Male [ ] Female [ ] Student Status: Boarder/Hosteller [ ] Day [ ] Please, tick one of the boxes to indicate why you study economics: a. Career/employment purpose [ ] b. Parental advice [ ] c. Interest in the subject [ ] d. Obliged to because of my programme choice [ ] Based on your response in 4, what is your motivation for studying economics? Intrinsic [ ] Extrinsic [ ] Hint: responses for ‘c’ is intrinsic while responses for’ a’, ‘b’, and ‘d’ are extrinsic

Please

182 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Appendix Questionnaire for Students Introduction The purpose of this questionnaire is to investigate the factors that influence learning strategy use among Senior High School Economics students in Ghana using a quantitative approach There are no correct or incorrect responses. Researchers are only interested in your personal point of view. All responses to this questionnaire are completely confidential and will be used for research purposes only. Please, kindly be as candid as possible in your responses. Thank you.

183 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. SECTION 3 STUDENTS’ LEARNING STYLES Students learn in many different ways. For example, some students learn mainly with their eyes (visual learners) or with their ears (auditory learners); some others prefer to learn by experience and/or by “hands on” tasks (kinaestheitc learners). This questionnaire has been designed to help you identify the way(s) in which you learn best. Read the statement and indicate whether you agree or disagree with it by circling the appropriate number using the key provided below. AgreeStrongly[4] Agree [3] Undecided [2] Disagree [1] DisagreeStrongly [0] 1. I learn better by reading what the teacher writes on the Board 4 3 2 1 0 2. When I read instructions, I remember them better 4 3 2 1 0 3. I learn more by reading textbooks than by listening to Lectures 4 3 2 1 0 4. When the teacher gives me instructions, I understand better 4 3 2 1 0 5. I remember things I hear in class better than things I read 4 3 2 1 0 6. I learn better in class when the teacher gives a lecture 4 3 2 1 0 7. I learn better in class when I listen to someone 4 3 2 1 0 8. When I do things in class, I learn better 4 3 2 1 0 9. I enjoy learning in class by doing experiments 4 3 2 1 0 10. I understand things better in class when I participate in role playing 4 3 2 1 0 11. I learn best in class when I can participate in related activities 4 3 2 1 0 Now, carefully read the statements and indicate by ticking the appropriate AGREE box to show your preferred (dominant) learning style. Ticking a box implies that you agree with the statements indicated. Learning styles Agree 1. I learn better by reading what the teacher writes on the board. 2. When I read instructions, I remember them better. 3. I learn more by reading textbooks than by listening to lectures. 4. When the teacher gives me instructions I understand better. 5. I remember things I hear in class better than things I read. 6. I learn better in class when the teacher gives a lecture. 7. I learn better in class when I listen to someone. 8. When I do things in class, I learn better. 9. I enjoy learning in class by doing experiments. 10. I understand things better in class when I participate in role playing. 11. I learn best in class when I can participate in related activities.

184 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. SECTION 4 LEARNING STRATEGIES Kindly indicate by choosing one of the options how true the following statements are about you. The items are measured on a five point scale ranging from ‘Very true of me =4 to Never true of me =0 and you are expected to choose only one option under each question. The key for measuring the items are provided below: Very true of me [4] ofsometimesme[3] [2]Neutral Rarely true of me [1] Never true of me [0] 1. I often repeat materials I have learnt aloud 4 3 2 1 0 2. I copy every learnt material in economics and selectively take verbatim notes when learning 4 3 2 1 0 3. I memorise key words to remind me of important concepts learnt 4 3 2 1 0 4. In learning, I underline most important parts of concepts 4 3 2 1 0 5. I recite items learnt in economics in order to activate information in my working memory 4 3 2 1 0 6. In studying economics, I pull together information from different sources, such as textbook readings and discussions 4 3 2 1 0 7. I try to relate ideas in economics to those in Math and other subjects whenever possible to better learn economics 4 3 2 1 0 8. I relate economics materials learnt to what I already know 4 3 2 1 0 9. As a tactics for learning economics, I paraphrase and summarise main ideas 4 3 2 1 0 10. To enhance what I learn in economics, I answer a lot of past questions 4 3 2 1 0 11. In studying economics, I deliberately outline the materials to help me organise my thoughts in order to build connections 4 3 2 1 0 12. I make use of simple charts, tables, and diagrams in order to organise my thoughts better in economics 4 3 2 1 0 13. I select the main ideas in economics materials consciously connect them through summary through charts and diagrams 4 3 2 1 0 14. Whenever I read or hear an assertion or conclusion in an economics class, I organise my thought and think about possible alternatives 4 3 2 1 0 15. I set learning goals in learning economics 4 3 2 1 0 16. I quickly read all materials learnt and out of it, I generate questions on my own 4 3 2 1 0 17. During each term, I develop study plan to which I follow religiously 4 3 2 1 0 18. I have a well defined schedule for learning economics 4 3 2 1 0 19. I intentionally always check myself to ensure that I have comprehended every concept in economics 4 3 2 1 0

185 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. 20. I track my attention rate as I learn materials in economics 4 3 2 1 0 21. I self test the questions I am able to generate on my own as a devise of learning economics 4 3 2 1 0 22. I usually use test taking strategies in learning economics 4 3 2 1 0 23. I review my test taking tactics often to ensure learning progress in economics 4 3 2 1 0 24. I seek out information in economics on my own when there is a need to do so 4 3 2 1 0 25. I persist at difficult concepts ( such as national income computation) and tasks and devise strategies to master them I am able regulate my thoughts, feelings, and actions and manage these to learning of economics 4 3 2 1 0 26. I draw on my previous learning experiences to build a range of beliefs that aid my learning 4 3 2 1 0 27. I study in line with the economics syllabus requirements 4 3 2 1 0 28. I make good use of my study time for economics 4 3 2 1 0 29. I find it hard to stick to a study schedule 4 3 2 1 0 30. I find that I don't spend very much time on economics because of other activities 4 3 2 1 0 31. I keep designated learning outlets clean and pleasant for learning 4 3 2 1 0 32. I entreat my colleagues not to create nuisance at learning centres 4 3 2 1 0 33. I prefer to study in a quiet atmosphere than in a noisy one 4 3 2 1 0 34. I put in my best to realize the desire to accomplish my study goals 4 3 2 1 0 35. I feel so lazy or bored when I am studying for economics such that I quit before I finish what I planned to do I learn hard to do well in economics even if I do not like the topics we are taught 4 3 2 1 0 36. When some topics prove difficult, I give up and only study the easy parts 4 3 2 1 0 37. Even economics materials to be learnt become 4 3 2 1 0 38. uninteresting, I still manage to keep learning it till mastery is attained 4 3 2 1 0 39. In studying economics, I try to explain concepts to a colleague or a friend as way of retaining the facts 4 3 2 1 0 40. I study economics through group discussions of learning experiences with other colleagues in my class 4 3 2 1 0 41. Even if I have trouble grasping some economic concepts, I do not seek help from any one 4 3 2 1 0 42. I regularly ask my teacher to or a colleague (out of the class) to clarify concepts I do not understand well 4 3 2 1 0 43. I feel shy approaching a colleague of the opposite sex to help clarify complex economics concepts to me 4 3 2 1 0 Thank you for your cooperation.

186 ©2020 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 5, pp. 186 199, May https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.5.202011

Abstract. This paper aims at analysing the efforts of forty teachers of the Madrasah Tsanawiyah School in Indonesia in understanding the Revised 2013 Curriculum (RC 13), particularly on how to implement the Factual, Conceptual, Procedural, and Metacognitive (FCPM) knowledge dimensions in assessments. This case study was carried out using the lecturing, discussion and implementation (LDI) approach to understand the RC 13 conceptually, discuss teachers’ problems and implement assessments using FCPM. The results of an in depth observation and data analysis indicated that 30 out of 40 participants gained a better understanding on the RC 13 concept. They are now in a better position to know what should be done to prepare their RC based instructional programs and they are conceptually able to implement the RC 13, except for the metacognitive dimension. The ten other teachers are still having some difficulties with FCPM as they did not have real classes such as Guidance Counselling, Sport and Health, and Scouting teachers. The results imply that teachers must be proactively trained to continually update their knowledge, particularly on curriculum development so that the quality of education can be improved

Using the Revised 2013 Curriculum Hermayawati Universitas Mercu Buana Yogyakarta Yogyakarta, Indonesia https://orcid.org/0000 0003 2860 6322

1. Introduction

Secondary education in Indonesia has been currently implementing higher order thinking skills (HOTS) in their curriculum to improve learning. This affects the teachers who were previously more focused on implementing lower order thinking skills (LOTS) (Abdullah et al., 2016; Seman et. al., 2017; Ahmad, 2018; Mohan, 2019). LOTS and HOTS are the levels of thinking skills suggested by Bloom in 1956 and which came to be known as the Bloom's Taxonomy (Bloom, 1956) Bloom’s Taxonomy is an ordering of cognitive skills, while a taxonomy is a form of classification.

Keywords: Revised 2013 curriculum; LDI; FCPM

Teachers’ Efforts in Understanding the Factual, Conceptual, Procedural and Metacognitive Assessment

Higher order thinking skills (HOTS) is a concept which distinguishes critical thinking skills from low order learning outcomes which are achieved through sequential memorizing while HOTS involves synthesizing, analyzing, reasoning, comprehending, application, and evaluation (Watson, 2019). Such a concept develops students’ capacities in analyzing, evaluating, and creating through their Factual, Conceptual, Procedural, and Metacognitive (FCPM) thinking capacities.

The launch of the 2013 Curriculum 2013, which has been revised three times in 2017, has confused many primary and secondary teachers, both in understanding its content and its implementation (Suyanto, 2017; Hermayawati, 2017; Palupi, 2018). As a result, many teachers pro actively requested their institutions to guide them on its implementation of RC 13 and its revisions. Ironically, the institutions also did not seem to fully understand both the content and its implementation According to the Minister of Education and Culture (2013), RC 13 is a dynamic document, i.e., it could be interpreted and developed by the needs, situations, and conditions of the learners and the schools. The curriculum had been successfully revised three times, namely in 2014, 2016 and 2017. Various changes were made, starting from the concept of the curriculum, the books used, and the regulations related to its implementation. However, until this project was carried out, the existence of curriculum revisions did not fully socialize among secondary level teachers, especially in understanding and applying the factual, conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive (FCPM) dimensions of knowledge (Marlina et al., 2017). Such a condition confused the teachers especially in its implementation (Hermayawati, 2017). Teachers needeed more drilling and practice in designing and implementing lesson plans (Roza et al , 2017; Ekawati, 2017). There is a lack of monitoring and training conducted by the government and the school itself (Ramdani & Pangestu, 2017). The revision of the 2013 Curriculum (C 13) into the 2017 version (RC 13) was supported by the Minister of Education and Culture Regulations (MECR), Number: 54 of 2013 (Graduates Competency Standards for Primary and Secondary Education Units), 64 of 2013 (Content Standards for Primary and Secondary Education Units), Number 65 of 2013 (Process Standards for Units Basic and Secondary Education), Number 66 of 2013 (Educational Assessment Standards), and Number 104 of 2014 (Learning Outcomes Evaluation by Educators on Primary and Secondary Education). Learning models in the C 13 include cooperative learning, contextual teaching and learning (CTL), discovery learning, task based learning, project based learning and problem based learning (Kemendikbud, 2013). Even though the Minister of Education and Culture had synchronized both the C 13 and its revisions in various schools through training, there were still many schools where teachers were still having much difficulties to cope with these changes. This case was also evidenced from the teachers’ statements in several secondary schools who did not understand the nature of the C 13 such that they are still using the previous Curriculum, which is known as the 2006 Education Unit Level Curriculum (EULC) (Barratt-Pugh, 2015; Hermayawati, 2017).

Although previous studies have conducted teacher training regarding the implementation of HOTS, as demanded by the currently used curriculum, there has been no study regarding the implementation of FCPM needed by the secondary school teachers, that was conducted through training as well as workshops. Considering such problems, this paper is intended to provide enlightenment regarding the understanding of the revised curriculum content, especially the 2017 revised edition (RC 13) implemented at a Madrasah Tsanawiyah (MTs). This Islamic junior high school is located in Magelang Regency, Middle Java, Indonesia whose teachers were involved as the research participants. The understanding of the RC 13 was concerned with the content of the concept and its practical implementation, particularly in designing the lesson plans and its assessments. Slightly different from the C 13, the RC 13 involves aspects of developing learning through new the Factual, Conceptual, Procedural, and Metacognitive (FCPM) knowledge dimensions, as demanded by the authorized educational institutions. This study was conducted with forty junior high school teachers who had difficulties to implement the RC 13 guidelines. This study investigated the following: (1) what type of method or approach should be used to gain teachers’ understanding on the RC 13 Curriculum concept; (2) assessment of the capacity of teachers to prepare their curriculum based instructional programs; (3) monitoring teachers’ efficacy in implementing the RC 13 consistently, including conducting appropriate assessments. In this study, it was assumed that those three data could be obtained through LDI (Lecturing, Discussion, and Implementation) procedures.

Training that was provided to teachers was limited to the introduction level. The training only reached the stage of knowing and not preparing teachers to implement the curriculum (Ekawati, 2017). The main problem in implementation the C 13 are the lack of teachers’ capability in implementing authentic assessments. They need more drilling exercises to practice on designing and implementing teaching programs (Roza et al., 2017; Suyanto, 2017). However, little research has been conducted to examine how teachers implement a new curriculum, particularly concerning the literacy curriculum at the lower level of primary schools, in the Indonesian context (Barratt Pugh, 2015). Other findings indicated that teachers faced several challenges in teaching and learning for HOTS. The challenges were in the aspects of teaching and learning (Seman, et al., 2017). The findings also showed that the level of knowledge and practice of the assessment aspect was the weakest. Also, there was a relationship between the level of knowledge and practice of HOTS (Abdullah, et al., 2016). These issues need solutions through the Direct Teaching Model, which fosters a learning environment characterized by teacher directed learning and a high level of teacher student interaction (Mohan, 2019). Another solution that may solve the problems faced by the teachers is the need to closely mentor them regarding the implementation of C 13. They must be taught how to write lesson plans, how to adopt a scientific approach to problem solving, what the different models of learning, and how to assess student learning outcomes (Gunawan, 2017).

2. Research Method

This project employed a Single Case Study (SCS) that was carried out at an Islamic Junior High School located at Magelang Regency, Middle Java, Indonesia. Conceptually, a Single Case Study (SCS) is established when the researcher wants to study, for example, a person or a group of people in detail (Yin, 2009). In this case, the researcher also may investigate old theoretical relationships and explore the new ones. This aims at making a more careful study (Gustafson, 2017). It also can provide a viable alternative to large group studies such as randomized clinical trials. Single case studies involve repeated measures, and manipulation of an independent variable (Lobo et al., 2017). It is different from a multiple case study (MCS), where the researcher studies multiple cases to understand the similarities and differences between the cases (Yin, 2009). This study employed SCS for it only involved a certain location of Islamic secondary school, the so called Madrasah Tsanawiyah (MTs), which is situated at Magelang Regency, Middle Java, Indonesia. The author was invited as an instructor in the training and workshop initiated by this MTs School as many teachers, including the principal, were having difficulties with the implementation of the Revised 2013 Curriculum, particularly on how to implement the FCPM dimensions in their teaching programs. Thus, the researcher functioned as the main instrument for data collection through an in depth observation of the training and workshop. Data collected on the in depth observations on teachers' training and workshops regarding the concept and implementation of the RC 2013 were recorded and analysed. The activities particularly focused on Bloom's revised cognitive domains and the Factual, Conceptual, Procedural and Metacognitive (FCPM) knowledge dimensions. The training method was carried out in an intensive and comprehensive LDI (lecturing, discussions, and implementation) procedure by involving 40 teachers from various subjects. The program was also attended by the Head of the Education and Culture of Magelang District. As an illustration, Figure 1 describes the stages of the LDI procedure conducted in this project.

In the RC 13, an assessment must involve Factual, Conceptual, Procedural, and Metacognitive (FCPM) question to keep its quality, as suggested by Krathwohl et al. (2002). The first three categories were included in the original classification, while the fourth one, namely the Metacognitive aspect was added later Metacognitive involves knowledge about cognition in general as well as awareness of and knowledge about one’s cognition. It has both educational and psychological benefits and helps students’ to be more knowledgeable and responsible for their cognition (Pintrich, 2002).

FCPM knowledge dimensions in this study were introduced to the teachers who were treated as the research participants through a Needs Analysis, Teaching and Actuating Assessment (NATA) procedure. This project employed such a procedure for the pursuit of the teachers’ ability in implementing the FCPM both conceptually and practically within the use of both Lower Order and Higher Order Thinking Skills (LOTS and HOTS) as demanded in the FCPM implementation. By doing so, it was assumed that the teachers’ FCPM capacities implementation would affect their students’ learning achievements.

The lecture was conducted at the same time or in an integrated way with the discussion and implementation stages sequentially. Lecturing was performed to find the depth of teachers' acquisition level both towards the original C 13 and its revision of RC 13. This activity functioned as a data resource collection of their needs (that included their deficiencies, wants and necessities) concerning LOTS, HOTS and FCPM. These results could be used as the basis of developing further procedures for the discussion and implementation stages. The lecture content included the concept, implementation, and evaluation (CIE) of the RC 13. CIE was delivered orally (questions answers or stimulus response). The lectured materials were around the concepts of both C 13 and RC 13, in which its content and its assessment were delivered primarily by employing FCPM knowledge dimensions. In this stage participants’ performance was observed and assessed by using the Carnegie Mellon Oral Communication Scoring Rubrics. Table 1 shows the scoring rubrics employed to assess the participant’s performance in the LDI procedures. These were inspired by Huba and Freed (2000).

1. Lecturing on CIE (for Needs Analysis on teachers Revised Bloom's Taxonomy: LOTS, HOTS, and FCPM)

Lecturing stage

Discussion stage. In this case, CIE was also employed in five prior topics that were delivered in the forms of structured questions, which were distributed to be discussed in groups. The topics were similar to the lectured materials related to the RC 13 content, the primary content differences, LOTS and HOTS, FCPM knowledge dimensions and its implementation for each. The discussion was conducted in groups by considering both the number of the participants and the limited available time in this study. The forty teachers with the various subject matter fields were divided into five groups. Each group consisted of eight teachers. Each group was assigned a topic to discuss. This stage aimed to obtain certainty about the level of teachers' understanding of various explanations delivered at the lecturing stage.

2. Discussion on the CIE (Concept, Implementation and Evaluation) related to their teaching issues

3. Implementation on how to conduct NATA (Needs Analysis, Teaching, and Actuating Assessment) for Teaching Program Design Figure 1. Research Procedure

Depth of content Speaker

Organization Presentation is clear, logical, and organized. Listener can follow the line of reasoning. Presentation is generally clear and organized.wellAfew minor points that maybe confusing. Organization is haphazard; listener can follow presentation only with effort. Arguments are not clear.

Responds to withreluctancelanguageinadequately.questionsBodyrevealsatointeractaudience.

Sentences are complete and grammatical for the most part. They flow together easily. With some exceptions, words are well chosen and precise. Listeners can follow presentation, but they are distracted by some grammatical errors and use of slang. Oral language and/or body language includes some identifiable bias. Some listeners will be offended.

consistentlypresentationincluded(names,literature.drawingconceptseaccurateprovidesandcompletexplanationsofkeyandtheories,onrelevantInformationfacts,etc.)intheisaccurate.

For the most made.Noaccurateandexplanationspart,ofconceptstheoriesareandcomplete.significanterrorsare Explanations of concepts and/or theories are inaccurate Someincomplete.orinformation is accurate but the listener must determine what information is reliable.

Use of language Sentences are complete

Presenter uncomfortableseemsand can be heard only if listener is very attentive. Much of the information is read.

Style Speaker is comfortable in front of the group and can be heard by all. Presenter seems slightly uncomfortable at times, and occasionallyaudiencehas trouble hearing him/her.

Consistently clarifies, restates, and responds to withcomfortlanguageneeded.Summarizesquestions.whenBodyreflectsinteractingtheaudience. Generally responsive to Audience questions and needs. Misses some opportunities for interaction. Body language reflects some discomfort interacting with audience.

Use of aidscommunication Communication aids enhance presentation Communication aids contribute to the quality of the presentation. Communication aids are poorly prepared or used inappropriately.

Table 1: Scoring rubrics for assessing participants performance simplified from Carnegie Mellon oral communication scoring rubrics (Huba and Freed, 2000) Components Good3-Sophisticated/ Fair2-Competent/ 1-Not yet Competent/ Poor

toResponsivenesstheaudience

freeandBothmthechosen;Wordsgrammatical.andTheyflowtogethereasily.arewelltheyexpressintendedeaningprecisely.orallanguagebodylanguagearefrombias.

Implementation Stage The next stage after the discussion was the implementation of the RC 13 on each of the subjects taught. The class was kept in groups of eight persons. However, they were grouped based on the similarity of their teaching subject They were

only 10 subjects contained in the RC 13. However, some schools added subjects that were needed to cater for healthcare, scouting, information technology and local content. Each groupwas asked to implementthe concepts they just discussed to practice formulating the design of each teaching program with samples of teaching materials. This activity was monitored by the school principal and the Head of the Education and Culture department of Magelang District. They were then requested to submit their works to the Head of the Education and Culture department as evidence for the activity. All of these activities were then analyzed descriptively and provided relevant data for this research.

Figure 2: RC 13 Program of MTs referring to the Ministry of Education and Culture Regulation No. 35/2018 (Kami Madrasah, 2019) Figure 2 (which is in Bahasa Indonesia) shows that there are 14 subjects in the Implementation Stage, namely: (1) Religion Education, (2) Pancasila and Civic Education, (3) Bahasa Indonesia (Indonesian Language), (4) Mathematics, (5) Natural Sciences, (6) Social Sciences, (7) English, (8) Cultural and Arts, (9) Physical Education, Sports, and Health, (10) Handy Craft, (11) Informatics, (12) Scouts, (13) Local Content (Javanese Language) subjects, and (14) School Health Centre and Juvenile Red Cross. There are 5 teachers who teach each subject. They teach from the first to the third year. All of the in depth observations conducted during the LDI stages were compiled as the research findings. Figure 3 describes the LDI stages procedure for the data collection technique and its analysis.

Figure 3: LDI stages procedure for data collection technique and its analysis

Firstly, the result of the Lecturing Stage indicated that all teachers relatively understood the concepts of the Revised 2013 Curriculum (RC 13). They were able to answer the questions embedded in the training materials. But when they were also asked on how they implemented the FCPM knowledge dimensions related to their subject matters field, many teachers were not able to answer. Similarly, in answering the instructor's questions and in finding the examples on how to evaluate their students using FCPM, LOTS and HOTS, there were respectively only 21 and 31 teachers who were able to respond to the questions correctly. The remaining, in each case, responded only to the tutorial questions addressed to them. This case occurred mainly because ten teachers did not teach classically but they carried out their duties outdoors such modules as Guidance and Counselling, Sports Physical Education and Health, Scouts, and Juvenile Red Cross Education.

193 ©2020 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. 3. Findings There were three objective in this project, namely: (a) increasing the teacher's ability to understand the Revised 2013 Curriculum (RC 13) concept (through lecturing); (b) increases teachers' ability to deduce what needs to be done to prepare their RC 13 based instructional programs (performed through discussion); and (c) enhances teacher's ability to implement the current curriculum consistently across schools (performed through implementation) The results of the LDI (Lecturing, Discussion, and Implementation) stages and the in depth structured observations are presented in Table 2. Table 2: Lecturing stage of concept, implementation, and evaluation (CIE) # Lecturing Materials Content Number of Teachers Who Understood the Concepts Delivered UnderstandingSubjects Conceptual Implementation Evaluation 1 C 13: The What, Why and How? 40 38 40 2 RC 13: The difference between RC 13 and C 13. 40 31 35 3 Bloom’s Taxonomy and its revision (Anderson et al., 2002) 40 34 35 4 FCPM knowledge dimensions 40 34 21 5 LOTS versus HOTS: The What, Why and How? 40 35 31

Secondly, the result of the Discussion Stage showed that there were two groups who achieved a ‘very good understanding’, two groups reached ‘good understanding’ and the remaining one group got ‘fairly/average understanding’ levels. Such achievement levels were obtained through the presentation of the assigned materials and in responding to all the problems' queries addressed by the other groups. Table 3 illustrates the structured questions that were distributed for discussion to each group of eight teachers.

UnderstandabilityLevelFactual Conceptual Procedural Metacognitive 1 ++ ++ ++ √ 8 Very Good 2 ++ ++ √ √ 6 Fair 3 ++ ++ + √ 7 Good 4 ++ ++ √ √ 7 Good 5 ++ ++ + 3 Fair Note:

very

Art and Culture subjects They still

194 ©2020 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Table 3: Structured questions assignment to discuss and perform in groups # Structured Questions Content to Discuss and Perform 5 groups of 8 persons ResultsDiscussionLevel 1 Explanation of the C 13 concept: definition/s, reasons to implement it and Procedure/s to deliver it by examples based on the teachers teaching subjects Group Discussion1Material Very Good 2 Explanation of the difference between RC 13 and C 13 conceptually, including the definition, reasons to implement it and procedures to deliver. Group Discussion2Material Good 3 Explanation of the concept of Bloom’s Taxonomy and its revision (Anderson et al., 2000) Group Discussion3Material Very Good 4 Explanations on the concept of FCPM knowledge dimensions for learning assessment. Group Discussion4Material Fair/Average 5 Explanation of the concept of LOTS versus HOTS: The What, Why and How? Group Discussion5Material Good

Thirdly, the result of the Implementation Stage revealed the teachers' ability in implementing the FCPM in their teaching assessments that were designed for their students. In this stage, teachers were invited to design assessment items by considering the use of FCPM in their learners’ tasks items The aim was to develop their learners HOTS skills based on each of the subject matters that they were assigned to teach. The results are shown in Table Structured observations on how to implement FCPM in the TeachingProgram Observable FCPM Knowledge Dimensions of Teachers’ Teachers’ A double plus sign (++) means a good a single plus (+) sign means a good understanding; a tick sign (√) means a fair/average understanding; a single dash sign ( ) means a poor understanding and a single cross sign (x) means a very poor understanding. The ‘fair’ score category was mostly obtained by those who did not understand how to implement FCPM, particularly the Metacognitive dimension, such the GC Drawing, Religion, found it difficult to implement such did

Number

understanding;

a curriculum because they

4 Table 4:

not

(Guidance and Counselling),

Grp.No.

Acquisition

Grp.No.

Table 5: Teachers’ ability in implementing the knowledge and the cognitive process dimensions for their assessments DimensionKnowledgeThe The

195 ©2020 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. have teaching hours in class. A similar trend was found for Physical Education (Sport) and Health teachers. Also, there were ten teachers who were still confused with the process and evaluation of learning particularly with the metacognitive Evendimension.though most participants seemed relatively confident in implementing the FCPM knowledge dimensions (orally), many of them revealed that they were still doubtful for the problems that may arise during their teaching. Such worries appeared mainly due to low ability students. It was difficult for the teachers to design assessment to enhance the cognitive domain and the HOTS skills of such students. Moreover, they also felt doubtful in enhancing their students' Metacognitive capacity.

Cognitive Process Dimension Remember1 Understand2 Apply3 Analy4ze Evaluate5 Create6 1 Factual + + + + + + Conceptual + + + + + + Procedural + + + + + + Metacognitive √ √ √ √ √ x 2 Factual + + + + + + Conceptual + + + + + + Procedural + + + + + + Metacognitive √ √ √ √ √ x 3 Factual + + + + + + Conceptual + + + + + + Procedural + + √ √ √ √ Metacognitive √ √ √ √ √ x 4 Factual + + + + + + Conceptual + + + + + + Procedural √ √ √ √ √ x Metacognitive √ √ √ √ √ x 5 Factual + + + + + + Conceptual + + + + + + Procedural √ √ √ √ √ x Metacognitive √ √ √ √ √ x Note: (++) means a very good understanding; (+) means a good understanding; (√) means a fair/average understanding, a ( ) means a poor understanding and an x means a very poor understanding.

Table 5 describes the teachers' ability in implementing their assessments by applying both the cognitive domain and the FCPM knowledge dimensions, in which the teaching process embedded the students' LOTS and HOTS capacities in an integrated way. The results showed that most of the teachers were able toapply the integrated cognitive aspects and FC (Factual and Conceptual) knowledge dimensions in their teaching However, ten teachers were still confused, for they did not have any traditional lecture type classes for carrying out their jobs. In other words, their duties were mainly carried outdoors. Nevertheless, they were also demanded to implement such a current curriculum since there was no exception for anyone category of subjects or teachers 4. Discussion Curriculum characteristics, including the Revised 2013 Curriculum (RC 13) are conceptually designed with due regard to theoretical and juridical aspects. Theoretical aspects refer to the concept of subjects or fields of teaching and learning. The juridical aspect refers to the applicable law when the curriculum was designed and implemented in schools. The concept of subjects refers to functionalism and cognitive theories and constructivist theories of learning. The learning process must also access the concept of mixed education (eclectic), namely the philosophy of the reconstructionist theory, essentialism and progressivism (Kemendikbud, 2017).

The juridical foundation of the 2013 Curriculum (C 13) design is Law No. 20/2003 on the National Education System (NES), National Education Objectives (NEO), and Government Regulation No. 19/2005 on the Standards of National Education (SNE). The foundation requires understanding and implementation of relevant stakeholders regarding factual, procedural, conceptual, and metacognitive (FCPM) learning at the Madrasah Tsanawiyah (MTs) schoolteachers The ability of teachers to prepare instructional programs based on the RC 13 was inseparable from giving questions, as a means of checking students' understanding of the material to be studied.

In line with the education system, the 2013 Curriculum (C 13) based assessment concept is legally based on the: (1) Minister of Education and Culture Regulation No. 3/2017 on the Assessment of Learning Outcomes by the Government (through National Examination) and Assessment of Learning Outcomes by Education Units (through National Standard School Exams refers to Graduates Competency Standards; (2) Regulation of the Minister of Education and Culture No. 23/2016 on Educational Assessment Standards. RC 13 has been intended to develop the learning process and its evaluation by referring to the revision of the well known and well accepted Bloom's Taxonomy. Conceptually, the six cognitive domains must be implemented in an integrated way together with the four FCPM knowledge dimensions. King et al. (2016) argued that those knowledge dimensions are activated when individuals encounter unfamiliar problems, uncertainties, questions, or dilemmas.

Successful applications of the skills result in explanations, decisions, performances, and products that are valid within the context of the available knowledge and experiences. This promotes continued growth in the quality of education and other intellectual skills. However, it is still not easy for teachers to implement these guidelines, especially in the procedural and metacognitive dimensions. There is a need for teacher training related to preparation for designing at the C4, C5, and C6 (including the HOTS) levels according to the NSO (National Science Olympiad) test items. This will improve student performance and also affect the implementation of the teaching and learning process.

The limitation of this study was that only a single institution was involved for it was a single case study (SCS) with forty teachers of different subjects. The researcher also functions as the training instructor at the request of Madrasah Tsanawiyah (an Islamic Junior High School) “Ma'arif” Magelang, Middle-Java, Indonesia Further studies on the teachers’ FCPM actualization is needed for improvement in the quality of teaching.

6. Limitations and further studies

This study is a collaboration between the Research and Community Service Board of UMBY and one of the Islamic secondary schools located in Magelang Regency, Middle Java, Indonesia. The author would like to thank everyone who helped her to complete this study

7. Acknowledgements

5. Conclusion Even after the four dimensions of factual, conceptual, procedural and metacognitive knowledge were carried, some of the teachers were still confused in their implementation, both in the learning process and their evaluation. Even though they had been involved in training, many are them are still unable to practice it in their classrooms. Most test items designed by teachers only cover factual and conceptual Knowledge. Teachers rarely include procedural and metacognitive knowledge in their assessments. The training of teachers should be related to understanding concepts, implementation, and evaluation of learning by employing the rules of both the cognitive domain and knowledge dimensions. This study only touches a very small fraction of the total number of teachers. The results of this study imply that the continuity of partnerships between schools and FTTE (Faculty of Teachers Training and Education) graduates as teacher providers should be carried out proactively and continually to improve the quality of education. The quality of education imparted to teachers will have an impact on improving the quality of the Indonesian human resources. Therefore, it is recommended that the FTTE should work closely with schools in order to provide continuous professional development programmes to teachers on a regular basis so that they can be trained in relevant aspects of teaching and learning. Teachers always need to remain up to date so that the quality of imparted education can be maintained.

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&Rohani,F.M.S.(2016).HigherOrderThinkingSkills:Definition, teaching strategies, assessment (A publication of the Educational Services Program, now known as the Centre for Advancement of Learning and

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Anderson, L. W., Krathwohl, D. R., Airasian, P. W., Cruikshank, K. A., Mayer, R. E., Pintrich, P. R., Raths, J., & Wittrock, M. C. (2000). A Taxonomy for learning, Pearson.teaching,andassessing:ArevisionofBloom'staxonomyofeducationalobjectives

Barratt Pugh, C. (2015). Indonesian teachers’ implementation of new curriculum initiatives concerning teaching writing in lower primary school International Journal of Education, 7(4), 53 72 doi:10.5296/ije.v7i4.8265 Bloom, B. S. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives Addison Wesley Longman Ltd. Ekawati, Y. N. (2017). English teachers’ problems in applying the 2013 curriculum English Review: Journal of English Education, 6(1), 41 48. doi:10.25134/erjee.v6i1.769 Gunawan, I. (2017). Indonesian curriculum 2013: Instructional management, obstacles faced by teachers in implementation and the way forward. In B. B. Wiyono, L. K. Hui, Y. Isao & I. Khan (Eds.), Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Education and Training (ICET 2017) Vol. 128. Batu Malang Indonesia Gustafson, J. (2017). Single case studies vs. multiple case studies: A comparative study. Halmstad, Sweden: Retrieved from http://www.diva Hariyadi,portal.org/smash/get/diva2:1064378/S.,Corebima,A.D.,Zubaidah,S.I ., & Ibrohim. (2017). The comparison of the question types in the RQA (reading, questioning, and answering) learning model andconventional learning model InternationalJournalofHumanities,SocialSciences and Education, 4(7), 10 18 doi:10.20431/2349 0381.0407002 Hermayawati. (2017). Analysis of the English teachers' understanding in implementing the 2013 curriculum In Saefurrohman, M. Winda, B. A. Suady, Suhandin, & A. S. Dadari (Eds.), Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research. Proceedings of the 4th Asia Pacific Education Conference, Vol. 109, (pp. 124 132), Purwokerto, Indonesia. doi:10.2991/aecon 17.2017.25 Huba, M. E., & Freed, J. E. (2000). Rubric for Formal Oral Communication. Adapted from Learner centered assessment on college campuses: Shifting the focus from teaching to learning, 156 157. Allyn & Bacon: Needham Heights, MA. Kami Madrasah. (2019). Alokasi Waktu Mata Pelajaran K13 SMP, MTs, SMA, MA Tahun 2019 [Time allocation of C 13 subjects for secondary schools, MTs, MA, 2019] Retrieved from https://kamimadrasah.blogspot.com/

Kemendikbud. (2003).Undang Undang Nomor 20 Tahun 2003 tentang Sistem Pendidikan Nasional (Law Number 20 of 2003 concerning the National Education System). Retrieved from http://hukum.unsrat.ac.id/uu/uu_20_03.htm

199 ©2020 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Assessment), 1 177. Retrieved from https://informationtips.files. Krathwohl,wordpress.com/D R. (2002). A Revision of Bloom’s Taxonomy: An Overview Journal of Theory into Practice, The Ohio State University, 41(4), 212 218. Retrieved from https://www.depauw.edu/files/ resources/ Lobo, M A., Moeyaert, M., Cunha, B A., & Babik, I (2017). Single Case Design, Analysis, and Quality Assessment for Intervention Research. Journal of neurologic physical therapy, 41(3), 187 197. Marlina, H. R., Puspaningrum, H., & Hamdani. (2017). Differentiation of Test Items between the High School Biology Olympiad in North Kayong and the National Science Olympiad. Jurnal Pendidikan IPA Indonesia, 6(2), 245 251 Mohan, R. (2019). Innovative Science Teaching. Delhi, India: PHI Learning. Palupi, D. T. (2018). What type of curriculum development models do we follow? Indonesia’s 2013 curriculum case. Indonesian Journal of Curriculum and Educational Technology Studies, 6(2), 98 105 doi:10.15294/ijcets.v6i2.26954. Pintrich, P R. (2002). The role of metacognitive knowledge in learning, teaching, and assessing, 41(4), 219 225. doi:10.1207/s15430421tip4104_3 Ramdani, D. S., & Pangestu, A. (2018). Understanding SMK Teacher in curriculum implementation 2013 revision 2017 in Banten Province. Vanos: Journal of Mechanical Engineering Education, 3(1). doi: 10.30870/vanos.v3i1.3690. Roza, Y., Satria, G., & Syarifah, N. S. (2017). the development of e tutorial on implementation national curriculum 2013 for the mathematics teacher. Journal of Physics: Conference. Series, 855(1), 1 9 doi:10.1088/1742 6596/855/1/012038 Seman, S C., Wan, M., Yusoff, W., & Embong, R. (2017). Teachers challenges in teaching and learning for higher order thinking skills (HOTS) in primary school International Journal of Asian Social Science, 7(7), 534 545 doi:10.18488/journal.1.2017.77.534.545 534 545 Sukasni, A., & Efendy, H. (2017). The problematic of Education System in Indonesia and Reform Agenda. International Journal of Education, 9(3), 183 199. Suyanto,doi:10.5296/ije.v9i3.11705S.(2017).Areflectionon the implementation of a new curriculum in Indonesia: A crucial problem on school readiness. C. Kusumawardani, A. M. Abadi, S. Suyanto, & I. Wilujeng (Eds.), AIP Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Research, Implementation, and Education of Mathematics and Science (4th ICRIEMS) Vol. 1868, (pp. 1 9). Yogyakarta, Indonesia. Watson, S. (2020, March 8). Higher Order Thinking Skills (HOTS) in Education. ThoughtCo Retrieved from https://www.thoughtco.com/higher order thinking skills hots education 3111297 Yin, R. K. (2009). Case study research: design and methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

200 ©2020TheauthorsandIJLTER.ORG.Allrightsreserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 5, pp. 200 216, May https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.5.120202 The Impact of Specialty, Sex, Qualification, and Experience on Teachers’ Assessment Literacy at Saudi Higher Education Sabria Salama Jawhar Applied and Educational Linguistics

King Saud bin Abdulaziz University for Health Sciences https://orcid.org/0000 0002 2032 2993

King Saud bin Abdulaziz University for Health Sciences https://orcid.org/0000 0002 1799 8888 Ahmad M. Subahi* Medical Physics

Abstract. The importance of assessment literacy (AL) among teachers at all educational levels has been of interest for a considerable period. Literature has shown the increasing research surrounding the importance of AL knowledge and its impact on students' performance. This paper examines the level of assessment literacy among instructors on a Saudi higher education university preparatory program. It uses a/the Classroom Assessment Literacy Inventory (CALI), developed by Mertler and Campbell (2005), and a demographic questionnaire to investigate the AL level. It also looks at the impact of factors such as specialty (i.e., subject department), sex, academic qualification, and years of teaching experience on the AL level. The subjects of the study included 54 English and Basic Sciences teachers on the preparatory program. The study found that the level of AL among the participants was inadequate (mean=17). However, there was no significant difference found among the participants when it came to sex, qualifications, or years of experience. The subject department, on the other hand, was found to be a factor that impacted the level of AL. The study concludes with some recommendations related to increasing assessment literacy among in service teachers and, more importantly, it highlights the importance of contextual factors when evaluating assessment literacy.

Keywords: assessment literacy; higher education, gender; teaching experience Both authors have contributed equally in this work.

1. Introduction Assessment is a critical aspect of the education process, and researchers have placed it at the heart of the teaching and learning process. It is one of the most important tools through which teachers can evaluate their students’ yearlong work. Moreover, it is the only scheme through which teachers are able to see the impact and efficiency of their teaching approaches. Consequently, classroom assessment literacy (CAL) is essential for teachers, not only so they can prepare the students to deal with the end of the semester exams but also so they can carry out their classroom based assessment and make informed decisions regarding their students’ achievements. Researchers (e.g., Earl & Katz, 2006) associate assessment with the promotion of learning and improvement of the students' performance during the year. According to the reviewed literature, the problem is that many teachers get involved in academic activities related to students' assessment and, consequently, their achievement, without possessing the necessary knowledge for it (DeLuca, 2012; Lam, 2015) Given the rising prevalence of CAL, there is a pressing need for educational institutions, which are built on a system that puts formative assessment at the heart of the teaching and learning process, to emphasize assessment literacy (AL) to their staff Also, they need to understand the consequences of a deficiency in such essential knowledge. Malone (2013) emphasized the mutual relationship between teaching and assessment, adding that they inform each other, and that assessment literacy affects the quality of education. Valencia (2002) argued that though teachers use assessment to gather evidence from their classrooms regarding their students’ achievements and their teaching practices, they are still not able to use that information to make an instructional decision. Some teachers cannot understand the implications of the results they obtain through their students’ assessment (Rogier, 2014). A closer look at the literature review shows that, despite the importance given to assessment literacy among teachers, it is still under researched in many educational contexts. Saudi higher education is one of those contexts where there is a scarcity of conducted research papers investigating assessment literacy among teachers. This study is an addition to the body of work investigating the level of classroom assessment literacy at the higher education level. However, it focuses on the impact of factors such as subject department (referred to as specialty), sex, teachers’ qualification level, and years of teaching experience (referred to as experience) with a specific focus on assessment literacy. It also highlights the importance of context when evaluating assessment literacy among teachers. In other words, the paper provides proof that teachers’ theoretical knowledge about assessment is not necessarily reflected in their actual practice. The context where assessment is carried out, we argue, is more important than general theoretical knowledge. This is not to undermine theoretical knowledge. On the contrary, it is a call for an expansion of the instrument(s) through which AL is evaluated to include context specific elements (Inbar Lourie & Levi, 2020). It is crucial to mention here that the terms ‘classroom assessment literacy’ and ‘assessment literacy’ are used interchangeably throughout this paper.

2. The importance of the study

5. What is the relationship between the teachers’ experience and their overall assessment literacy?

There has been some sustainable research activity in teachers’ assessment literacy and its impact on the teaching and learning process. As a result, several instruments have been developed to assess and understand the nature of this knowledge and how it can be enlisted under the construct of AL. The efforts of most research groups have been concentrated on conceptualizing AL and determining what aspects might be considered as crucial knowledge or skills for the teacher to be considered assessment literate Others focused on the factors that affect the level of AL among pre and in service teachers.

3. The research questions

3. How does the assessment literacy of female teachers compare to that of male teachers?

To date, the number of studies that have looked at this concept is still limited and context specific. Saudi Arabia, going through massive reform that has touched upon a variety of different aspects of life, has placed education at the heart of the country's transformation plan, with billions of dollars of funding being invested in the education sector. In addition, the country is counting on education to help reduce its dependence on oil as the primary source of income. With this emphasis on education comes the recognition of the importance of assessment and the teachers’ ability to design tests while, at the same time, understand the implications of educational outcomes. As far as the researchers are concerned, little if any research has been done to look at teachers’ AL in the Saudi higher education context This study measures the overall assessment literacy level among university teachers in a Saudi context, considering the impact of factors such as specialty i.e. the subject department, sex, qualification, and years of experience on the level of AL.

The paper aims to measure the level of assessment literacy among teachers in a Saudi higher education preparatory program. It also tries to determine if factors such as subject department, sex, level and type of qualification, and years of teaching experience impact the teachers' general assessment knowledge. To this aim, we propose the following research questions:

1. What is the assessment literacy level of teachers in Saudi higher education as measured by the CALI?

2. How does the assessment literacy of Basic Science teachers compare to that of English Language teachers?

4. What is the relationship between the teachers’ academic qualification and their overall assessment literacy?

4.1. Research context

The study was carried out at the Preparatory Program at King Saudi bin Abdulaziz University for Health Sciences (KSAU HS), Jeddah campus During this two year program, sometimes referred to as the pre professional program, students follow intensive English language courses to improve their English language proficiency to be able to study their future professional courses where English is the medium of instruction. During those two years, the students are also introduced to the basic concepts of general and medical science that are needed for higher level education in the health sciences. Those concepts are presented in the form of eleven Basic Science courses, such as biology, chemistry, and physics. The program consists of two paths, nursing and unified. The nursing students choose their specialty before joining the university, while the unified students go through a selection process based on their General Point Average (GPA). Because of the limited number of allocated seats at the School of Medicine (around 150 depending on each campus’ capacity), the use of exam scores in this context is crucial in determining the students’ future The students who are not selected for medicine will be directed to the school of Applied Medical Sciences, where they also go through an additional phase of selection based on their GPAs. Those factors make the program highly competitive and place more importance on the accuracy of assessment, and consequently, the teachers’ assessment literacy. The study targeted all teachers at the preparatory program, Jeddah campus, as part of the faculty enhancement initiative to assess the need for training to ensure quality teaching and learning. All teachers, i.e., Basic Science and English, were invited to participate in the study. However, it was not mandatory, so only those who were willing joined.

The permission and IRP for this study were obtained. The participants were granted anonymity, and they were told that the result of the questionnaires would not influence their annual appraisal form in any way They were also informed that the study's primary goal was to help improve the university's assessment practices and, consequently, enhance teaching and learning quality.

The participants of this study consist of 54 English Language and Basic Science teachers in a preparatory program. As the demographic information shows (table 1), the participants varied in their educational background. Most of the participants are English language teachers (n=41) while Basic Science teachers represent less than half of the sample (n=13). The female participants, on the other hand, made 60% of the sample(n=33). When it comes to educational level, most of the participants are master’s degree holders (n=45). The instructors’ experience varied with the majority having work experience of between 11 and 15 years (See table 1). The paper uses the convenience sample method. More than 70 questionnaires were distributed, but only 54 were completed and returned.

4.2. Participants

4. Methodology

4.3. Procedures

• Standard (4): about using the assessment results when making decisions about individual students, planning teaching, developing curriculum, and school improvement.

• Standard(5): tests the teachers’ ability to develop valid students’ grading procedures that use student assessments.

Eachinformation.ofthe35items consisted of four options, of which only one was correct. When statistically calculated, the right answer received a score of (1), while the wrong answer received a score of (0). The aim was to assess the general level of the teachers’ knowledge regarding some competencies related to assessment. Consequently, a higher total score equated to a higher level of assessment literacy It is very important to mention that the instrument developers initally aligned the seven standards with the American "Standards for Teacher Competence in Educational Assessment of Students" (The American Federation of Teachers, the National Council on Measurement in Education, and the National Education Association, (1990)). The second part of the questionnaire aimed to collect demographic information related to the participants' subject department, sex, the educational level, and length of years of teaching experience.

The teachers who agreed to participate were provided with a hard copy of the questionnaire containing 35 multiple choices questions. The participants’ responses were calculated for correctness, with a value of one score given to the correct answer and a value of zero given to the wrong response. The total number of correct answers for the five questions represented the score for each standard. The scores of CAL were then divided into three levels, namely: Inadequate or needs improvement (lower than 60%), Fair (60 79%) and High (80% and higher) The survey also included the participants’ demographical information (See 4.4). There was no time limit specified for answering the questions, and the teachers were permitted to take the questionnaires home and return them whenever they had completed them 4.4.

Instrumentation In this paper, we used the Classroom Assessment Literacy Inventory (CALI) approach. The instrument was developed by Mertler and Campbell (2005). It consisted of five scenarios followed by seven questions each, i.e., a total of 35 questions. Each of the seven questions within a single scenario was aligned to one of the following standards:

• Standard (1): related to the teachers' skills in choosing assessment methods appropriate for instructional decisions

• Standard(7): adresses the teachers’ skills in recognizing unethical, illegal, and otherwise inappropriate assessment methods and uses of assessment

• Standard (2): related to the teachers’ ability to develop assessment methods appropriate for instructional decisions.

• Standard (3): about the teachers' ability to administer, score, and interpret the results of both assessment methods.

• Standard(6): addresses the teachers' skills in communicating assessment results to students, parents, and other educators.

Ashraf and Zolfaghari (2018) also assessed EFL teachers' assessment literacy and their reflective teaching. The authors used two questionnaires that were explicitly designed to assess language teachers' assessment literacy and covered three subscales, which were teachers' disposition about assessment, knowledge

Fulcher (2012), on the other hand, enlisted the following among the needed skills for assessment literacy: knowledge about how to design and evaluate both standardized and classroom based test, familiarity with test processes and awareness of principles and concepts that govern the practice (i.e., ethics of the Hepractice).alsoconnected assessment literacy to a broader social and political context.

Some researchers (e.g., Pill & Harding, 2013 and Volante & Fazio, 2007) define assessment literacy from the stakeholders’ perspective, such as students and test developers. Gottheiner and Siegel (2012) added the ability to interpret the assessment and to take action based on the results among the required skills of AL, while Popham (2011) argued that AL should include, among other elements, the use of basic statistics for educational measurement.

Mertler (2003) used the classroom assessment inventory (CALI) to investigate the impact of experience on assessment literacy between two groups. The first group consisted of 197 in service teachers, while the second group consisted of 67 pre service teachers. The results show that experience has an impact on the in service teachers as they performed better in administrating, scoring, and interpreting assessments' results. The pre service teachers outranked their in service teachers in the category related to developing valid grading procedures.

5. Literature review

However, some of them went as far as considering AL an essential preventive measure against possible problems that might result from the lack of such knowledge, especially if the impact of assessment on the teaching and learning process is taken into consideration (Stiggins, 1995; Brookhart, 2011). Others associated AL with the students’ achievement and their ability to learn (Rogier, The2014)literature review shows that despite this agreement among researchers and educators regarding AL's importance, there is still a great deal of debate surrounding the generic skills teachers need to possess to be considered assessment literate. For instance, Paterno (2001) argued that the basic knowledge required for assessment literacy included knowledge of assessment terminology and ways of developing and using assessment methodologies and techniques.

The term assessment literacy (AL) is used as an umbrella term under which teachers’ different knowledge regarding the what, how, and why of classroom assessment can be tested or measured (Stiggins, 1999) Researchers agree on the importance of AL as part of the academic and professional skills that teachers need across the different educational levels and disciplines (Xu & Brown, 2016).

The paper concluded that in service teachers outranked their pre service counterparts in five of the seven competency areas. According to the study, the difference is significant and in favor of in service teachers, which highlights the importance of experience when it comes to assessment literacy.

3. Administering, scoring and interpreting the results of both externally produced and teacher produced assessment methods

6. Communicating assessment results to various stakeholders

about assessment, and performance (Ashraf & Zolfaghari, 2018). The second questionnaire was specifically designed to assess the teachers’ reflective teaching. The questionnaire was based on six factors: cognitive, metacognitive, affective, practical, critical, and moral. They concluded that teachers' assessment literacy impacts their reflective teaching and can also be used to predict their teaching practices. Xu and Brown (2017) offered a framework covering the trajectory of professional development that, they claim, encompasses all aspects of teachers' educational growth. This was done through a scoping literature review and synthesis of the previously conducted studies.

5. Developing valid pupil grading procedures

7. Recognizing unethical, illegal, and inappropriate assessment methods and uses of assessment information. Xu and Brown (2017:150)

Some researchers added sociopolitical and sociocultural dimensions to the factors that impact assessment literacy in general and language assessment literacy, in particular. Fulcher (2012), for instance, states that “assessment principles and practices should be discussed within a much wider historical and social context” (p.125). Discussing assessment literacy, Scarino (2013) also stressed the importance of experience when it comes to AL as, according to the author, instructors tend to learn “on the job." Crusan, Plakans and Gebril (2016) also looked at the development of language teachers' assessment literacy. Their work is among the recent studies that have urged researchers and educators to look at specific contextual and experiential factors when investigating teachers’ assessment literacy.

Finally, Alsomaani (2014) looked at the techniques used by the Saudi novice EFL teachers at 12 public middle schools. Though the study does not use the term ‘assessment literacy,' it reported that the teachers' inadequate training in assessment during their undergraduate programs is to be blamed for the mismatch between the teachers' assessment practices and the students’ needs. The study also revealed that the teachers obtained most of their assessment knowledge through their “on the job experience." This study, and others, point to the importance of continuous assessment training for in service teachers if we want to ensure we have reliable assessment methods and that students have a better learning experience

The study identified seven competencies related to the base knowledge that teachers need to possess as part of their academic skills. Those competencies are:

1. Choosing assessment methods appropriate for instructional decisions

2. Developing assessment methods appropriate for instructional decisions

4. Using assessment results when making decisions about individual students planning, teaching, developing curriculum and school improvement

26 30 3

Table 1 shows that the majority of teachers were from the English department (n=41), and female faculty constitute 61.1% of the study sample (n=33) Regarding the academic qualifications, the table shows that 64.8% of teachers were MA or MS holders, while 20.4% of them were PhD holders. The participants, however, varied in the number of years they had spent in teaching. As can be seen from the table 1, 13 instructors out of the 54 participating in the study had spent 11 15 years in teaching. Nine of the participants, on the other hand, had spent more than 31 years in teaching. Three teachers reported that they had spent 21 25 years, and another three stated that they had had 26 30 years of experience in education. The second largest number of instructors (n=11) reported that they had spent between 1 to 5 years in teaching.

41 75.9 Sex Male 21 38.9 Female 33

Qualification BA or

Table 1: Demographic Profile Variable N= 54 % Department Basic science 24.1 English 61.1 BS MS 64.8 24.1 16.7 5.6 5.6 31+ 9 16.7

6. Results In this section, we will report the statistical procedures that were used to analyze the data. A descriptive analysis was conducted for the seven composite scores based on the Standards. Inferential analyses including a t test, evaluated at an alpha level of .05, was used to compare the English language to the Basic Science teachers’ mean scores for each of the seven composite scores, and the total score for the entire instrument. A t test was also used to compare the performance of the female to the male teachers in each of the seven standards. Finally, ANOVA test was used to look at the multiple variables of obtained qualifications and years of experience in teaching.

Specialist 4 7.4 PhD 11 20.4 Experience 1 5 11 20.4 6 10 6 11.1 11 15 13

16 20 9

21 25 3

4 7.4 MA or

Table 1 gives the demographic and basic information regarding the sample’s number, subject department, sex, qualifications they have obtained, and the number of years spent in teaching, i.e., experience.

208 ©2020TheauthorsandIJLTER.ORG.Allrightsreserved. Table 2: Descriptive statistics Standard Mean of assessmentoverall SD Choosing an assessment method 2.6 1.1 Developing assessment methods 2.7 1.4 Administering, assigning, and interpreting learning outcomes 2.0 1.1 Using assessment outcomes in decision making 3.0 1.0 Using assessment to determine levels of learning outcomes 2.2 1.3 Communicating assessment outcomes 2.6 1.2 Knowing unethical practices 1.7 1.1 Overall 16.8 4.5

division. Table 3: Teachers overall performance in Classroom Assessment Literacy Standard Poor Fair High n % n % n % Choosing an assessment method 22 40.7 24 44.4 8 14.8 Developing assessment methods 23 42.6 14 25.9 17 31.5 Administering, assigning, and interpreting learning outcomes 36 66.7 12 22.2 6 11.1 Using assessment outcomes in decision making 17 31.5 21 38.9 16 29.6 Using assessment to determine levels of learning outcomes 32 59.3 13 24.1 9 16.7 Communicating assessment outcomes 31 57.4 9 16.7 14 25.9 Knowing unethical practices 43 79.6 9 16.7 2 3.7 Overall 42 77.8 12 22.2 0 0 The overall scores show that 77.8% of sample cases have a poor CAL level, while 22.2% of them have a fair CAL level. It is essential to mention here that although some participants scored high in some of the listed standards, none of them obtained a high overall score (see table 3). When analyzing the results by standards, it can be seen that standard 4, relating to the use of assessment outcomes in decision making, obtained the highest percentage. The standard

Breaking down the results by standards, it is found that the standard related to using assessment outcomes in the decision making had the highest mean score while knowing unethical practices standard was found to receive the lowest mean score (1.7), indicating poor knowledge in this standard. The next stage of the analysis was dividing the scores of CAL into three namely: Inadequate or needs improvement (lower than 60%), Fair (60 79%) and High (80% and higher). 3 summarizes the results based on this

CALI descriptive statistics are illustrated in the table 2. For the overall assessment literacy performance, the minimum obtained score was six, and the maximum obtained score was 25 out of 35. The mean of overall assessment was computed at 16.8, with 4.5 SD. The mean of overall statements was less than 20, which indicates poor classroom assessment literacy among the study sample.

levels,

Table

Knowing unethical practices 1.77 1.73 0.913 Overall 13.54 17.76 0.003**

Choosing an assessment method 2.64 2.68 0.876

Using assessment outcomes in decision making 3.36 2.84 0.107

Using assessment outcome in decision making 2.54 3.12 0.077

Choosing an assessment method 2.31 2.66 0.332

Using assessment to determine levels of learning outcomes 1.38 2.44 0.008**

Developing assessment methods 3.14 2.84 0.465

Communicating assessment outcomes 2.86 2.53 0.354

Knowing unethical practices 1.77 1.68 0.776 Overall 18.45 16.95 0.233

* independent t test

related to knowing unethical practices, 7th in the table 3, scored the lowest. Almost 80% of the sample showed poor knowledge about ethical practice in assessment. Developing assessment methods and using the assessment scores to make decisions received a relatively high percentage of correct answers, 31.5%, and 29.9 %, respectively, compared to the rest of the standards.

Developing assessment methods 1.62 3.00 0.001** Administering, assigning, and interpreting learning outcomes 1.85 2.10 0.463

Standard FemalesMean MalesMean value*P-

Administering, assigning, and interpreting learning outcomes 2.00 2.21 0.553

Using assessment to determine levels of learning outcomes 2.68 2.16 0.120

Table 5: The difference in CAL based on sex

Communicating assessment outcomes 2.08 2.71 0.097

Table 4: Differences in CALI performance between departments Standard BasicMeanscience EnglishMean value*P

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* independent t test; ** p value is less than 0.05 The t test for independent samples was conducted to determine whether there was a significant difference between the CAL levels of Basic Science and English department faculty. The results show that the p value was less than 0.05 (P<0.05), which indicates a significant difference between the two departments in terms of overall CAL scores. The mean scores in the seven standards of English language faculty were found to be higher than the mean scores of Basic Science faculty. This result indicates a higher level of knowledge in CAL among English language department members. In particular, the results show a significant difference in standards two (i.e., developing assessment methods) and six (i.e., using assessment to determine levels of learning outcomes). The difference is in favor of the English faculty To answer the question related to the participants' sex, a t test was calculated, as shown in Table 5.

Using assessment to determine levels of learning outcomes 2.75 2.40 2.25 1.27 0.055 assessment outcomes 3.50 2.66 2.00 2.09 0.150

Standard

Communicating

Knowing unethical practices 1.50 1.74 2.25 1.64 0.759

Using

Table 7: CAL performance based on number of years of experience Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig. Between Groups 2221.598 6 370.266 1.609 .166 Within Groups 10583.874 46 230.084 Total 12805.472 52 In Table 7, it can be seen that there is no significant difference in the classroom assessment literacy level among the participants based on their years of experience (p value is >0.05)

Overall 17.50 17.49 16.75 14.09 0.185

* F test result from ANOVA Table 6 shows no significant difference in the participants’ performance in the seven CAL standards based on their academic qualifications Nevertheless, the table shows that the performance of the bachelor’s and master’s degree holders, whether in Arts or Science subjects, was slightly better than that of the PhD holding staff members. Table 7 shows the difference among the participants based on their overall scores in CAL and the length of their experience as educators. Table 7 illustrates the relationship between the teachers’ general level of assessment literacy, as reflected by CALI, and the number of years they have spent in education, i.e., years of experience.

The summarized results in the table 5, show an insignificant difference in CAL levels between male and female faculty in the English and Basic Science departments (p>0.05) However, a quick look at the table 5 shows that the female staff members performed better than their male counterparts

Table 6: CAL performance based on academic qualification difference BAMeanorBS MAMeanorMS SpecialistMean MeanPhD value*PChoosing an assessment method 2.75 2.60 2.75 2.36 0.903 assessment methods 2.25 2.94 2.25 2.09 0.247

Administering, assigning, and interpreting learning outcomes 1.50 2.14 2.75 1.64 0.194 assessment outcomes in decision making 3.25 3.00 2.50 3.00 0.776

Developing

210

However, when we look closely at our participants’ results in the each of the individual standards, we notice that their performance varied across the different standards. For instance, it seems that our participants displayed better knowledge of the standards related to using assessment outcomes in decision making. That was followed by the standard of administering, assigning, and interpreting the learning outcomes. On the other hand, they scored the lowest in the standard dealing with the knowledge related to unethical practices. The

Most of the research studies attribute teachers' lack of knowledge about assessment literacy to inadequate preparation in assessment during their in service teacher education programs, or perhaps a complete lack of any such training at all (e.g., Alsomaani, 2014; Schafer, 1993) Herrera and Macias (2015) is one of the studies that, although looking specifically at language assessment literacy, emphasized that teachers need to develop their overall assessment literacy and that special attention should be placed on improving the quality of AL courses during pre service educational programs. They argued that teachers are "expected to have a working knowledge of all aspects of assessment to support their instruction and to effectively respond to students, parents, and the school community” (p.303).

7. Discussion Our participants' overall performance shows that the general level of assessment literacy cannot be considered adequate, especially when compared to the importance given to assessment in the program and the role it plays in determining the students’ future in this context. The average for the seven standards together is 16.8 out 35, which indicates a lack of AL knowledge. The results show the need for further training in this area, as it seems that the teachers might not be adequately prepared to effectively assess the students’ learning. However, these results do not come as a surprise as, despite the different AL evaluation methods and contextual differences, they concur with what is reported in the literature. Most of the previous studies show that teachers’ general performance in AL tests is not satisfactory (e.g., Perry, 2013; Brown, 2004; Mertler, 2003; Plake, Impara & Fager, 1993). Although using a different assessment instrument, the same result was reported by Plake, Impara and Fager (1993). In their study, they used the Teacher Assessment Literacy Questionnaire (TALQ) as part of a two part instrument. The instrument, similar to the one used in this research, consisted of 35 items that measured the seven competencies mentioned in the standards. Their study also reflected the poor assessment literacy level among the participants. Maclellan (2004) also reached the same conclusion, although that study used a different approach to data collection. The researcher tested the teachers’ knowledge by analyzing each teacher's written scripts. In a comparable study, Muhammad and Bardakçi (2019), reported a less than satisfactory level of AL among Iraqi EFL teachers. The authors compared the teachers’ results with the results reported in the published literature and concluded that Iraqi teachers scored the lowest internationally (mean=16). The average reported score globally, they stated, is 17 to 24 out of 35. As can be seen, the result of our study falls between the Iraqi score and the lowest reported score internationally.

To answer the question regarding the relationship between the level of AL and the subject department, the results indicate a significant difference in the overall performance between the English language and the Basic Science teachers. The results showed that English language teachers tend to possess more assessment knowledge than their Basic Science counterparts Furthermore, a closer look at the detail of the teachers’ performance across the standards shows that the difference is evident mainly in the standards related to developing assessment methods and using assessment to determine levels of learning outcomes. This result could be attributed to the nature of the courses being assessed

Additionally, the fact that the university requires the English language teachers to be graduates of specialized EFL teaching educational programs could also be considered as a contributing factor to this difference. This tends not to be the case with the Basic Science teachers, who are mostly graduates of Basic Science programs and usually not required to have any specific teacher training

It could also be attributed to the standardized system of assessment formatting employed by the university.

same result was obtained in the studies conducted by Perry (2013) and Muhammad and Bardakci (2019). The relatively good outcome in standard four can perhaps be attributed to the constant contact new teachers have with their more experienced colleagues, a deliberate placement strategy in the department

Finally, although the participants’ length of experience as teachers varied from 1 5 years to more than 30 years, this difference was not reflected in their overall performance. i.e., they all had low scores. This could be a result of the teachers’ tendency to learn from each other's assessment experience, particularly where less experienced teachers look to their more experienced colleagues for guidance. In many cases, this practice has a positive impact However, the

Interestingly Alkharusi (2009) found that teachers who specialized in academic areas such as English and Basic Science were better than those who specialized in performance areas such as art and physical education. The performance of female members of staff was roughly equal to that of their male counterparts indicating that the sex of the participants in our study, i.e., the third research question, did not have any impact on the participants' general performance This result has led us to rule out sex as a factor when it comes to assessment literacy in Saudi higher education. Contrary to this study, Alkharusi (2009) found that “measurement and test knowledge of pre service teachers tended to vary as a function of gender and major” (p.15). Males, in his data, have more knowledge in assessment than females However, this study shared a similar conclusion to Alkharusi (2009), which showed that the participants’ academic qualifications did not influence their general performance. This research reflected no significant difference among the teachers’ general level of AL when it came to their educational qualifications It was found that the average scored mark ranged between 14.09 and 17.50 in the seven standards. In other words, there was no difference in the LA level among teachers with a Bachelor's, Master's, or a Doctorate.

8. Conclusion Assessment is one of the most critical aspects of education; therefore, assessment literacy among teachers is considered one of the most crucial skills to be mastered at all educational levels. This study evaluated the AL level of teachers at a Saudi higher education institution preparatory program. It used the Classroom Assessment Literacy Inventory developed by Mertler and Campbell (2005). The study found that the general level of AL among teachers in the Saudi higher education program is less than satisfactory. It also reported that factors

The result of the overall performance in AL in this study indicates poor knowledge of the principles underlying classroom assessment, which is a wake up call to educators in the higher education sector The results also bring to our attention the need to emphasize the importance of attending continuous assessment training for in service teachers. Furthermore, policies and ethics that govern assessment should also be placed at the heart of any training related to continuous professional development in the Saudi context. The importance of continuous assessment literacy training during the teachers' years of service was also emphasized by Popham (2006). It is also important to note that the instrument used for this study is not context specific. It is an instrument designed according to the American education context, which is significantly different from the Saudi one. For that reason, we would like to call for more studies investigating assessment literacy in the Saudi context, but would suggest the use of an instrument that is context sensitive, and that takes the Saudi education policies and practices into consideration (Yan, Zhang & Fan, 2018).

novice teachers might also copy the formats of older versions of tests without possessing the necessary knowledge regarding the purposes for which those exams were developed. While such practices lead to the sharing of positive knowledge, it can also contribute to the teachers’ transference of erroneous practices (Stiggins, 1988). This underlines the importance of ensuring that new teaching staff is adequately mentored and that both old and new faculty are encouraged to engage in continuous professional development.

The use of CALI in this study is a good start and an indicator of the teachers’ basic knowledge. However, it should not be used on its own and should also be modified to include more context specific elements.

An additional factor that may explain the lack of differentiation in results according to years of experience may be that the survey asked about teaching experience and did not ask specifically about what kind of experience each teacher had had. A teacher may have had 20 years teaching part time, perhaps as little as 2 hours a week, or in an institution where little or no standardized assessment was used. In such cases, the 20 years of teaching would give them limited opportunities to learn about assessment. To conclude, it is worth mentioning that this study has its limitations as the number of participants is relatively small. The use of a single instrument to assess AL is yet another possible source of limitation. Fulcher (2012) reported that the use of questionnaires to assess LAL might elicit skewed responses. Nevertheless, the study is a good indicator and a step in the right direction towards improving the teaching and learning quality in the Saudi context.

2. Assessment related workshops should be introduced throughout the academic year, particularly every time a change in the assessment scheme is introduced (Deluca, LaPointe McEwan & Luhanga, 2016)

11. References Alkharusi, H. A. (2009). Correlates of Teacher Education Students' Academic Performance in an Educational Measurement Course. International Journal of Learning: Annual Review, 16(2), 1 16 https://doi.org/10.18848/1447 9494/CGP/v16i02/46111

such as sex, the qualification that the participants obtained, or length of years of teaching experience have no impact on their assessment literacy. Nevertheless, the English language teachers scored higher than their Basic Science colleagues, which highlighted the role that the subject department played in the level of AL.

1. Assessment education should be part of the teachers’ continuous development practices.

4. Assessment literacy evaluation instruments should be context specific and reflect the teachers' beliefs, practices, and educational policies.

This might be attributed to different factors such as pre service preparation programs or the nature of the courses, as explained in the discussion section. The overall result placed the Saudi teachers within a level of performance close, if not similar to, most of the reported results in different contexts around the world. This study is additional empirical proof, adding to the already published work, calling for continuous assessment training for in service teachers. Significantly, it also adds emphasis to the importance of including contextual elements to AL (Crusan, Plakans & Gebril, 2016; Yan, Zhang & Fan, 2018.)

3. Teachers’ assessment literacy requires further recognition in the Saudi higher education system and should be placed at the heart of any research tackling higher education issues.

10. Recommendations for educators

The inadequate level of assessment literacy among our participants does not mean inadequate assessment practices in the institution. It is imperative to mention here that at KSAU HS assessment is strictly regulated, and the university uses a variety of methods to ensure that all assessments adhere to international best practice standards, to ensure validity and fairness. As per institutional policy, instructors are required to align their test items with the learning outcomes of each course. This alignment practice, as stated by Yon, Zhang and Fan (2018), can help teachers to “develop sensitivity to the content validity of their assessments because of the mandate to assess students' learning outcome against the standardized curriculum" (p. 165). The values of reliability coefficients of the exam samples that were taken from the different preparatory level courses indicate that all items are highly reliable. The accepted overall reliability values of exams in KSAU HS is (>0.7), which provides additional evidence of the importance and the influence that other factors such as context, belief, and experience have on teachers' assessment literacy Deluca, LaPointe McEwan and Luhanga (2016).

9. Contextualization of the result

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Enhancing Students’ Academic Performance in University System: The Perspective of Supplemental Instruction Oyinlola Omolara Adebola University of the Free State, Republic of South Africa 0003 2768 4273 Cias T. Tsotetsi and Bunmi Isaiah Omodan University of the Free State, Republic of South Africa 0003 1035 3339 0002 9093 3108

https://orcid.org/0000

Abstract. Following the dwindled academic performance of first year undergraduate students in the universities as observed by the researchers and confirmed by the literature, the study problematised Supplemental Instruction (SI) mechanism as a tool to enhance students’ performance. Supplemental Instruction, according to this study, is the kind of supplementary academic supports rendered to students to enhance their performance. In order to achieve this, this study explored the challenges with the use of Supplemental Instruction along with the possible solutions to the problems. Social constructivism was used to theorise the study. Participatory Research (PR) was adopted as a methodology for the study because it involved the coming together of the concerned people to participate in problem definition, problem assessment, implementation, and evaluation. Unstructured interviewswere used to generate data from the participants who were facilitators and students as co researchers with the use of audiotape recorder. The participants for the study included first year students at the selected university, the SI coordinator, two tutors for various modules and their lecturers. Thematic analysis was adopted to categorise, interpret, and analyse the generated data because it involved the reflection of categorised objectives. The study found out among others that; inadequate planning and lack of collaborative engagement were the major challenges while training and retraining of SI personnel and collaborative engagement were the suggestible solutions to ameliorate the problems. However, the study, in its conclusion, significantly enhances the university’s reputation and increases the quality of its outputs in terms of students’ academic performance through the use of SI Keywords: first year students; academic performance; university system; supplemental instruction

1. Introduction University is an institution of higher learning providing facilities for teaching and research and authorised to grant academic degrees. It was further stated that a university consists of both higher institutions of learning and a community of scholars (Sintayehu, 2018). Meanwhile, it has been said that university students are not doing well in their performance. It was revealed in a study that was conducted by (Rajendra & Sue,2015), that some of the reasons why students do not perform well and the increase in the rate of drop out in university were finances, lack of qualified lecturers, lack of academic support from the university and wrong choices of specialisation to mention but few. However, this study is to bridge the gap by providing academic assistance in the form of Supplemental Instruction for those students who are especially facing poor academic performance in university. This kind of academic support works in a way that the senior students who have passed the specific modules are employed by the university to tutor the junior students (Olstedt, 2005). According to Medina (2003), Widmar (1994), Magin and Churches (1995), Anderson, Boud and Sampson (1996), Potter (1997), and Wood (1997), SI is a well established program to promote students learning. It was estimated that the use of SI had increased significantly, and a decade ago was already used at more than 1500 university colleges and all over the world (Martin 2008). According to Olstedt (2005) and Arendale, (1997), SI is not just an approach, but it is a belief system to learning. Inner action and curiosity are the driving forces, and the main focus is on self determination and collective learning. It has been used in higher institutions, including the University of the Free State, to support students in their learning activities.

From the above, we see Supplemental Instruction (SI) as an academic support program that employs successful senior tertiary students to facilitate peer learning sessions with first year students. SI is mostly attached to highly populated modules (Philip, Jacques, Jane & Kym 2014). It has been observed by researchers that students with average and with high SI attendance do significantly better in terms of overall first year credit performance than students with scanty attendance (Etter, Sandra, Burmeister & Elder; 2001). It was further noted by (Joakim, Leif & Lise 2012) that students with low, average, andhigh prior academic achievement all benefit from attending SI sessions. SI complements the regular studies of a course. The idea behind it was that learning a subject should be enhanced by the exchange of thoughts and ideas between students. This is realised by them asking questions, initiating work in small groups, and coordinating the presentation of conclusions. These senior students attend training courses on how to be SI leaders and provided with tools to use during these sessions (Joakim, Leif & Lise 2012). Michelle (2012) concluded that SI sessions improved students’ performances in the semester that they attended SI sessions. It was noted that SI is a useful approach to support student success. The U.S. Department of Education asserted that participation in SI was correlated with higher mean grades, lower failure, and withdrawal rates, as well as higher retention and graduation rates (Philip,

Jacques, Jane & Kym, 2014). Based on extensive research, it was concluded that in entry level courses, SI contributed to increased pass rates, as well as in higher level courses (Peterfreund, Rath, Xenos & Bayliss, 2008). SI was associated with higher graduation rates and thus, student retention (Bowles, McCoy & Bates, and 2008; Crosling, 2018). While the studies mentioned here all point to the successes of SI, the lack of students’ success in a large scale first year module offered at universities in South Africa, even with SI implemented, led to the need for closer scrutiny. From the above, we argue that Supplemental Instruction is a kind of academic support rendered by the university to assist some students who have difficulties in passing specific modules, in helping classes with a large number of students and also to boost the academic performance of students. Therefore, the problem of the study is that in some of the modules offered to large numbers of first year students, it was discovered that despite the intervention of the university through SI, students’ grades were still below average. This happens in almost all supplemented modules offered by first year students. The period from 2015 2019 has shown that students were performing averagely. Thus, there is a need to explore why the academic performance of first year students did not improve in the period under review 2015 2018 A lack of expected improvement prompted me to pursue this study. The researchers observe this problem while she was tutoring the module.

2. Theoretical Framework Social constructivism was used as a theoretical framework for this study. This theory is grounded in knowledge construction (Vygotsky, 1978). Vygotsky, the father and founder of social constructivism, believed that the origin of knowledge construction is the social interaction of people, based on the sharing, comparing, and debating amongst learners and mentors (Dagar & Yadav, 2016). This is a highly involving process of learning, focused on both learners and teachers, improving their cognition to help others find meaning by means of the discourse. Therefore, knowledge was seen not to exist in isolation from social and cultural settings (Vygotsky, 1978; Dagar & Yadav, 2016). This viewpoint was in line with the conclusion of Gergen (1995) that the basic principle behind social constructivism pertains to knowledge was phrased through social interaction and the result of social processes. This theory is relevant to this study because it substantiates the fundamental importance of recognising diverse opinions in the classroom with unrestricted social interaction among the classroom stakeholders such as SI leaders, facilitators, and students. From the above, one could deduce that Social Constructivism believes that students learn best when collaborating with their peers. Since the study is about using SI to enhance the use of academic performance of first year students, Social Constructivism as a theory is relevant to the study It is relevant because it enables both facilitators and students to engage in socially constituted interrelation opportunities to construct and interchange knowledge through their social discourse. Following Chambers Turner (2010) that social constructivism allows students to share knowledge among themselves, which in our views enhances academic performance and leads to the increase in the graduation rate, lowers drop out rate, and also ensure

• To identify challenges with the use of SI in enhancing the academic performance of first year students in Universities.

3. Research Question & Objectives

• To explore solutions to the challenges facing the academic performance of first year students in Universities.

4.1 Research Design

retention rate. In other words, social constructivism through collaborative share knowledge in social context enhances Supplemental Instruction towards student academic performance. Dagar and Yadav (2016) further justified the collaborative knowledge sharing that a highly involving process of learning is focused on both learners and teachers, improving their cognition to help others find meanings to the discourse.

4.2 Data Generation Method and Process

The following research question was formulated to pilot the study: How can SI be used to enhance the academic performance of first year students in Universities? To achieve the piloting question, the following objectives were raised to guide the study:

4. Methodology

This study adopted Participatory Research (PR) design; the nature of the research design choice for this study is based on the premise that; there is a need for individuals faced with the problem of the study to be part of the solution process (Jarg & Thomas, 2012). PR is a research process where the concerns people participate in one or more of the following: intervention planning, problem definition, problem assessment, implementation, and evaluation (Hughes, 2003; Ho, 2002). PR is also seen as a collective inquiry into a social situation to improve the rationality and justice of participants’ social practices. In our view, it enhances participants’ critical consciousness and resources, such as knowledge, social networks, and their sense of community (Nelson, Ochocka & Griffin, 1998; Foster Fishman, Pennie, Kristen, Lauren & Christina, 2010). By implementation, the participants were treated as equals to the researcher and also seen as empowering and liberating (Aldridge, 2017). Its ideological orientation is liberal, focusing on the improvement of professional practices. This is to say that the design is highly committed to democratic engagement, transparency, and openness, cooperative and communitarian ethos, inclusion, and multiculturalism (Dale, 2001). PR is, therefore, appropriate for this study because of its involvement with the people. The people in this study are the academic researchers and the researched. They were brought together to find a lasting solution to the trajectory of Supplemental Instruction and its correlational effect on Academic performance of Students.

An unstructured interview, also called an in depth interview, was used for data generation in this study. An unstructured interview, according to (Dana, 2013) is the best to discover important information about a topic and focuses on a particular theme. We try as much as possible to remain transparent to new and unexpected phenomena instead of imposing will on the participants (Sandy,

4.3 Participants and Selection of Participants

4.4 Method of Data Analysis and Ethical Consideration

Thematic Analysis (TA) was adopted to analyse the generated data. Nowell, Norris, White, and Moules (2017) opined that TA should be a basis for analysing data because of its core value for conducting qualitative analyses. It is an approach for categorising, reporting, organising, defining, and analysing themes found within a data set (Omodan, 2019). The thematic analysis made it easy for us to analyse data because it makes data to be easily understood, it provides conveniently detailed, especially when summarising critical concepts of a huge data set (Braun & Clarke, 2006). The ethical committee of the University of the Free State approved the study with approval number UFS HSD2018/1132. The consent of the participants was sorted for, and they were provided with information that, during, and after the study, their information and utterances will be kept confidential from the third parties. They were also assured that their names would not be disclosed to the third party and that their responses would remain anonymous.

The participants in the study included two first year students, two lectures, two tutors, and two SI leaders from the selected university. They assisted with their experiences to address the issue in SI. Two first year students were chosen because they offered the module under investigation. The two lecturers chosen were responsible for teaching the module for many years with adequate experiences regarding the selected module. Also, the two supplemental instruction leaders were selected because they were responsible for the administrative aspect (recruiting, salary, assessment) of all tutors in the university. They were able to share their experiences in terms of challenges, success, and their views about using SI in a university.

4.5 Presentation of Data and Discussion

In order to enhance the academic performance of first-year students in a university with the use of SI, below were some of the challenges and possible solutions that were found during the study; Inadequate planning and lack of clear communication as challenges, training and retraining, and collaborative engagement were found as solutions. For anonymity sake, the participants were represented using A1 & A2 (Lecturers), B1 & B2 (Tutees), C1 & C2 (Tutors), and D1 & D2 (SI Leaders/Personnel).

2011). All the participants in this process were seen as being reflective of real life experience and social reality. The data generation process involved having meetings with co researchers, which was aimed at clarifying the purpose, problem, and process of the study. Interview with them focused on challenges and solutions faced by the use of SI to enhance the academic performance of first year students in the university. After the generation of data, the researcher presented the report to co researchers/participants to check, add inputs, and suggest corrections. Participants had the opportunity to check whether the data generated were interpreted correctly. In addition, participants were allowed to use any language that they were comfortable with during the interview.

Participant D2 who happens to be one of the SI leaders emphasised that even though timetable clashes is a challenge that is rendering their effort worthless, continue to say that attending tutorial is voluntary; that is, it is not a must for students to attend. Timetable clashes make it difficult for SI to blame or punish any student who decides not to participate. This is a big challenge in such a way that the students who are tutoring are clashing with the students (tutees) to be tutored. Even though SI is responsible for managing tutorials, they are unable to profile any solution to this challenge just because the university as a whole manages the timetable through the office of Examination and records. Thisshows that the department responsible for the payment of tutors is seen to be wasting resources like money to a programme that cannot be controlled or managed well.

For any organisation to succeed, there must be proper planning. Planning was one of the challenges facing the implementation of SI in higher institutions of learning and could hinder the progress of any programme if not taking into consideration.

5.1 Inadequate planning as a challenge

5. The challenges with the use of SI to enhance the academic performance

The above analysis confirms that inadequate planning, such as clashes of timetable, class attendance, and assuring non performing tutors, is confirmed to be a severe challenge to the implementation of SI. This is in support of Alemu (2019). Even this is also against the principle of social constructivism that says that students should be learning collaboratively among themselves through interaction and engaging in critically thinking. However, if there is no adequate planning from both students and tutors, the implementation of SI will be a

According to participant A2, one major challenge associated with a lack of constant planning was the issue of timetable clashes between tutors and tutees and or among all the faculty in the university. It has been in existence for years and seems to be seen as a normal thing to happen. It happens most of the time that the time a tutor supposed to be in tutorial sessions clashed with the time he/she was having a lecture, (Moleko, Hlalele & Mahlomaholo, 2014). In other words, class attendance could also be of assistance in solving timetable clashes in relation to what participant A said. Participant D2: “Timetable clashes with that of the tutors, which renders our tutorials at some point not to be important because they are voluntary by nature. Some students don’t attend tutorials or neglect tutorials, but we can’t blame them because this happens as a result of timetable clashes.”

When there is no planning, all academic programmes, including tutorials, are at risk, and this means that students’ academic performance cannot be enhanced. This problem of planning is not limited to South Africa Universities alone, but as stated by the Kenya Education Sector Support Programme (KESSP) in a research conducted by (Education Management Capacity Assessment, 2005). Below were the comments from the participants: Participant A2: “one major is about tutor clashes students who are also tutors might miss tutorials we need to find a way because if a tutor who is also a student has to attend class and tutor as well can be a challenge.”

Participant A2: “Communication between the lecturers and tutors been lacking can also be a challenge that will really require a way in which it is coordinated better.”

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. challenge (Amineh & Asl, 2015). Nevertheless, this does not mean that there was no planning at all, but instead, the study proved that preparation was not sufficient enough to implement SI easily 5.2 Lack of Clear Communication

Effective communication is an essential factor in the teaching and learning process; without it, SI is might lead to fruitless efforts. It was another challenge that hindered the implementation of Supplemental Instruction in universities and other institutions of learning. When communication is not clear, students, especially first year students who are just finding their ways into higher institution environments, are lost and do not know what to do concerning a particular instruction. In Supplemental Instruction, communication among all the stakeholders involved is considered to very vital, and this includes; tutors, students (tutees), lecturers, and SI leaders (coordinators). Meanwhile, a lecturer supposed to brief tutors what they ought to teach in the class, and at the same time tutor should report back to the lecturer and SI coordinators. This channel of communication keeps SI personnel abreast of what is happening at tutorial sessions and informed them of the next action or strategy to take in order to improve this support system. Participants also agreed that the lack of communication and relationship among collaborators hindered the success of SI, which made it a challenge; this was supported by SI (Moleko et al., 2014). Below are the comments from participants; Participant D2: “There is no proper communication between these parties such that most students miss their tutorials.”

Proper communication among all the stakeholders was also raised to be a challenge facing the implementation of SI. It is not that there was no communication but that the channel at which communication was wrong, or there was no effective communication. Participant D2 was saying that the reason why students who attend tutorials do miss classes was because of improper contact between students and tutors. The same problem was echoed by participant A2 that the lack or inadequate communication was as a result of the lack of coordinated communication, that is, improper or ineffective communication. The participant A2 went further to say that apart from the issue of rapport between them, it was also reported that lack of communication is another challenge. Lack of clear communication was discovered in the data analysis process to be one of the challenges facing the implementation of SI. Clear communication is an aspect in academics that needs careful attention either horizontally or vertically if teaching and learning should be successful. It emanated from the data that lack of clear communication between students and tutors, students and lecturers, SI personnel and tutors, and even between SI personnel and lecturers is not sufficient. Research made it clear that due to lack of clearcommunication, students give reasons why tutorial sessions are not appealing to them and see no point in attending (Malm, Bryngfors & Mörner, 2012). Social constructivism theory states that one of the significant factors that determine the success of peer learning is

Participant B1: “Another condition is to keep on training the tutors. They must receive training on a regular basis in order to keep them abreast of the changes which are there of tutors.”

Participant B2: “One section could be of maintaining experienced tutors if they are experienced we do not struggle too much but as well lecturers, we may not be shy again to expel those who do not do well because if you do not expel them, even those who are doing well they can see that if you don’t do well, it does not matter.”

From the statement of participant A1, it was believed that if a tutor who was experienced could be paired with an inexperienced tutor in order to learn from each other. From the researchers' point of view, it was necessary even for the

6. The Suggestible solutions to the challenges to enhance the academic performance

According to Mohamed, Saud and Amhad (2018), the place of training of people should be given a priority of constant attention to training. Training and retraining is an essential key that should not be neglected in every aspect of academics, including SI personnel and facilitators. One of the major goals of SI was to help students who are not doing well in specific modules, and for this goal to be achieved, the studyrevealed that there was a needfor training and retraining of facilitators. Another reason why training was needed was to keep facilitators abreast and to be a master of their work (content knowledge), methods of teaching, and strategies they could employ to make teaching and learning interesting and engaging. These facilitators were also students who were doing their third or final year, which means that they were still undergraduates students. Therefore, if the point mentioned above could be implemented, there will be an improvement from both sides, students will be motivated to come to the tutorial session, and the academic performance of students will be enhanced through supplemental instruction support. The following statements from the co participants support our point: Participant A1: “pairing experienced tutors with inexperienced tutors, For example, yourself you were sort of mature compared to most of the tutors you could handle a particular group alone, but with other tutors, we used to pair them because some of them were not necessarily experienced.” I think for me, the experience of a tutor plays an important role.

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. language; that is, clear and effective communication helps students to function well when interacting with other peers and even in the community (Gergen, 1995). Therefore, the findings show a contradictory phenomenon where the current reality indicates that there is a lack of clear communication among the SI personnel and students.

Participant A2: “Another solution for this challenge is the tutors can be trained to utilise podcasting for e learning.” Whereby they will be trained to capture themselves planning for the lesson on their laptops, recording themselves and send to the students via the Blackboard so that they can view on their own time.”

6.1 Training and Retraining of SI personnel

Participant B1 opined that tutors could be trained on how to use podcasting for e learning as solutions for the challenge of over enrolment and lack of venues. (Podcast is kind of video files which a user can download to listen to). Because participant B1 was talking about training tutors being able to use podcasts to reduce in order to overcome the challenge, but there was a need for training. This means that tutors can record themselves on what they wanted to facilitate and upload it to Blackboard where students can both receive the content and master them before or after tutorial sessions. In this way, SI could be enhanced tremendously. To achieve this, the researchers suggested that tutors must be trained on the use of podcasting ‘for e learning’; this suggestion seems to be a good one, not only for the success of SI but also for academic staff as well if Therefore,implemented.itwas found that the training and retraining of SI personnel like tutors and SI coordinators are very important in making SI implementation successful. It was revealed that constant training is a requirement for any organisation that wants to achieve its goal. This is, according to Mohamed, Saud, and Amhad (2018). It is important that tutors and SI personnel, in particular, are put to constant training from time to time to be productive, creative and even master the content to be shared with the tutees during tutorial sessions. When they know what is expected of them and are empowered to do so, they will be encouraged and gain confidence in class.

6.2 Collaborative engagement and communication Collaborative learning is a method of learning where groups of students coming together to share their knowledge in solving problems, engage in collaborative activities to learn from one another. This means that one of the reasons for Supplemental Instruction, which is a support system in any higher institution of learning, was to assist students who were having challenges in some specific modules. Therefore, for SI implementation to be effective, there should be collaborative learning among all the participants, including tutors where everyone is involved, as we all know that “learning is doing”. In this process, it will be easier for any tutor to know where students were having challenges that can be attended to immediately. After this study, the researchers discovered that collaborative learning was fun, interesting and made teaching and learning to be meaningful in the hand of a skillful tutor. Apart from been interesting, students were eager to attend the next class and will not want to miss it for anything. Collaborative learning has advantages such as students developing higher level thinking, improved communication skills, and they are able to conduct themselves and also develop leadership skills. SI believes that collaborative learning is a method that both student and tutor could look into because of the attributes to enhance the academic performance of students. The esponses from the co participants are as follows:

experienced tutor to be given training and retraining before pairing with an inexperienced tutor. It was also found that training and retraining of tutors and even staff should be a continuous practice in academics generally. (Enaibe, 2012; Joy, Nneka & Idugbo, 2013).

Participant B2: “On the issue of lack of flow of information all the stakeholders involved must have a workshop/training where they are told to work together because they all need to collaborate in order to have effective tutorials sessions.”

Participant B1: “On the issue of not participating, students need to be encouraged to take their tutorials seriously. Most of them think that it’s just a way of punishing first year students.”

Participant C1: “The issue of communication there is need for the tutorial team to emphasise the importance of proper planning so that planning can be consistence between the two because communication is key to ensure that the tutors can be able to facilitate the relevant content in the tutorials.”

The comments from participant B1 about students not participating in the tutorial session in my understanding, he/she was saying that if students could be encouraged, maybe there will be a change in the way they view tutorials. It was believed that first year students see tutorials as a way of punishment, and because of that, they see no reason to engage during a session that was supposed to be collaborative learning. Since we are discussing the solutions to SI, one of the suggestions is student’s encouragement, according to the participant, could be one of the solutions. Participant B2 suggested that all the stakeholders involved in SI should be having workshops/training regularly. Since the lack of communication and collaborative engagement was mentioned to be part of the problems facing SI.

Furthermore, Participant B2 believed that if SI personnel, such as SI coordinator, lecturer, tutor and tutees (students) could hold a workshop often to discuss challenges that tutor faced during the tutorial and provide solutions, to raise issues related to tutorials and how they can support one another in assisting students who attend the tutorial. According to the statement, it sometimes happened that tutors do go to class without knowledge of what to facilitate, and this made tutors to be ridiculed, but if there is meeting from time to time, among these people, indeed, students who attend tutorial will be motivated and eager to always attend. With this solution, the academic performance of first year students will be enhanced through SI, and teaching and learning will also be effective. I strongly agree with them the above statements because if there is effective communication among all the stakeholders, workshops from time to time, and proper planning, certainly SI will be enhanced, and the academic performance will definitely be improved.

Participant D1: “Most of the time the students do not show up if you ask they blame the lecturers that they were not introduced.” “If you dig deeper, you will realise that there is no communication between the tutors and lecturers are not okay.”

Participant C2: “Flow of information among all the stakeholders involved must have a workshop/training where they are told to work together because they all need to collaborate to have effective tutorials sessions.”

1. Recommendation for University: Those universities with the same academic experience ensure that educational facilities such as mentioned in the findings are provided. Effective communication among lecturers, tutors, and tutees is essential as this was found to be a barrier that has to improve. Adequate funding is a must for universities to run smoothly as it is supposed to be. So the study suggests that universities should improve in this aspect. During winter, it is always challenging to write as most universities in South Africa write the midterm examination this time. Therefore, the study suggests that more classrooms are built to accommodate a large number of students and should be conducive enough for both staff and at least 1000 capacity of students since the campus is growing fast. Alternatively, universities should consider capping the number of first year students

2. Recommendation for Supplemental Instruction Department: That any department responsible for the management and operation of SI system should ensure that there are training and retraining for their staff and tutors/facilitators. Not only that, but they must also device new meaning following dynamism as regards university environmental factors and change. Since the department is responsible for the recruitment of tutors, they must

The collaborative engagement was, therefore, found to be one of the suggested solutions to the SI implementation. Collaborative engagement could be in the form of peer learning, group work, cooperative learning, etc. Aminneh and Ast (2015) said that when learning under the assumption of Social Constructivism, knowledge should be constructed through students interacting with one another because knowledge does not take place in isolation, but rather in a social context. Social Constructivism states that students are supposed to be critical thinkers and constructors of their knowledge among themselves through collaborative engagement (Kuka, 2000).

7. Conclusion and Recommendations

Based on the findings, we, therefore, concluded that the challenges facing the implementation of SI include inadequate planning, overcrowded as a result of over enrolment, lack of communication, and collaborative engagement. In that manner, the suggested solutions to these challenges remain training and retraining of SI personnel, collaborative engagement and communication, and Up to date evaluation and feedback. The study concluded that if the suggested solutions can be implemented, then SI implementation will be possible in a university. In summary,the study concluded thatusing Supplemental Instruction to enhance the academic performance of first year students is doable if the above findings can be implemented in university. Of course, the use of SI in a university as a supporting educational system is not a strange programme. Still, the aspect of using it to enhance first year students academic performance needs more attention from universities. The study recommends that supplemental Instruction should be prioritised to improve first year students academic performance. The research also suggests that both students (tutees) and tutors need to be motivated in any form. There is a need for constant training and retraining of all SI personnel and especially tutors. However, the following recommendations were made according to the findings:

3. Recommendation for Tutor/Facilitator: Tutors must ensure that they prepare before going for tutorial sessions as lack of preparation was mentioned as one of the reasons why tutees feel discouraged to attend tutorials. They should incorporate various strategies to engage their tutees to work either collaboratively or individually. They should be accountable and responsible for each tutee under their leadership.

4. Recommendation for Tutee/Student: That tutorials should be seen as a roadmap to their success and not as a punishment. They should always see tutorials as a platform where they can improve themselves both academically and socially. Since tutorial sessions are organised for students, then it should be seen as a place to ask questions and participate collaboratively in any form of academic discussion.

228 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. ensure that competent tutors are recruited. The provision of feedback and evaluation from time to time among the staff and the tutors must also be ensured. The study also suggests that tutorials should be made compulsory for not only students who have difficulties in some modules, but especially first year students. Attendance should also be taken and monitored by SI coordinator. If a university wants to enhance students performance, there should be adequate planning on the ground.

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Victoria S. Furkalo and Svitlana S. Bondar Pavlo Tychyna Uman State Pedagogical University, Uman, Ukraine https://orcid.org/0000 0002 0502 3207 https://orcid.org/0000 0001 6159 2159

Hanna E. Ovcharenko Kyiv Municipal Academy of Variety and Circus Art, Kyiv, Ukraine https://orcid.org/0000 0001 8648 6694

Aesthetic Education as a Topical Direction of Preparation of a Modern Specialist

Abstract. This article explores the problem of aesthetic education and focuses on issues related to its implementation in the educational process of a modern educational institution. The content and features of modern aesthetic education in the system of professional training of future specialists are covered. The study was conducted during the 2018/2019 academic year. The experimental group consisted of 105 students aged between 17 19 years, while the control group consisted of 155 students of the same ages. As part of this summative assessment, a survey was conducted with the help of a questionnaire, which involved a total of 260 students from both universities, who answered the questions specifying the main shortcomings of modern educational activities. It is known that one of the conditions that interferes with aesthetic development of future specialists is the lack of free time, due to the fact that most students work in their free time after classes and the lack of motivation to participate in classroom discussions. In the process of conducting summative assessment with the help of psychological methods, the main attention was focused on communicative and organizational abilities, empathy, creativity and reflection. It is noted that among the priorities of educational activities at the faculty, it is important to create appropriate aesthetic conditions for the active development of students. Based on the survey, it was found that the main methods in aesthetic education are training, creative meetings with experts, artists and writers; practicals (method of assignments, setting of

Olena F. Sbitnieva Borys Grinchenko Kyiv University, Kyiv, Ukraine https://orcid.org/0000 0002 2201 2120 Liudmyla M. Sbitnieva Luhansk Taras Shevchenko National University, Starobilsk, Ukraine https://orcid.org/0000 0001 5370 531X

231 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 5, pp. 231 244, May https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.5.202014

This process is ensured by the main provisions presented in the National Doctrine for the Development of Education of Ukraine in the 21st Century, the National State Comprehensive Program of Aesthetic Education, which traces the need for consistent and effective solution of the problems of aesthetic education of student youth, development of planetary thinking, preparation for its comprehensive world perception and creative knowledge of the aesthetic phenomena of life, works of art. Therefore, the above urges the problem of theoretical study of aesthetic education in the context of contemporary needs of Ukrainian society, substantiation of already existing concepts that take into account the aesthetic development of the future specialist, consideration of appropriate pedagogical conditions in order to increase the level of aesthetic culture of student youth is becoming urgent.

Keywords: aesthetic education; spirituality; methods; creativity; values

practical tasks involvement in creative activity); preparation of excursions to museums, theatres, cinemas and the creation of thematic exhibitions. It is determined that studying at the university is not only preparation for future professional activities, but also the formation of character, inculcation of aesthetic and moral values, sustenance of culture and the development of creative thinking. The use of relevant international experience in the processes of creative preparation of young people plays an important role in ensuring the effectiveness of training and aesthetic education of students.

In addition, it should be emphasized that the emergence of spiritual impoverishment in young people is currently observed in the educational field. This problem is currently widespread, but for countries of different levels of socio economic development, the possibilities of progress in the educational field in different pedagogical technologies may not be similar (Batrak, 2015). To solve these problems, it is essential to use aesthetic values by future specialists. Therefore, the main task facing the higher school today is to educate a highly cultured person, a true professional, with the purpose of further building their lives according to the laws of harmony and beauty of the world. It follows that building a process for the effective organization of aesthetic education of future specialists is important in pedagogical education (Skrypnikova, 2015).

1. Introduction Due to Ukraine’s integration into the European educational space, modern education should be aimed at shaping the national spiritual revival of student youth. The solution of urgent problems of becoming a harmonious personality and shaping its civic consciousness, the ability to understand and multiply the values of spiritual culture is of particular importance. In the 21st century, higher education in the world educational space strives for internationalization and international integration, while preserving its specifics. This occurs in the field of common approaches to the development of a comprehensively developed personality, system, content, method, forms of education, important moral and ethical values and directions of the educational process, in the tendencies of reforming education, innovation, creation of joint projects (Bitaev, 2004).

The influence of aesthetic education on the formation of the aesthetic development of the future specialist is analyzed using aesthetic oriented interactive methods, forms and means. In conducting the research, we were guided by modern requirements to the methods selected in accordance with the goal and objectives of the study. The following research methods were used to solve our research objectives: analysis and generalization of scientific and methodological literature and documents, pedagogical observation and pedagogical experiment and sociological & psychological research methods.

The study is prolonged. It was conducted using general scientific theoretical, empirical and statistical methods of research and analysis of results according to the objective of each stage.

Survey techniques were used: interview and questionnaire. Student questionnaire has been developed. The survey was conducted in accordance with the main provisions and requirements for sociological research in order to: determine the attitude of future specialists to the problems of organization of aesthetic education, identify the positive and negative sides of the educational process and evaluate the effectiveness of aesthetic education, its sections and forms. The method of conversation was used to get acquainted with students, study the person, identify strengths and weaknesses in their personal preparation and professional training, for feedback on the correction of the organization and content of aesthetic education of student youth.

The analysis and generalization of scientific and methodological literature on the topic of this research made it possible to systematize, comprehend, compare the scientific significance of specialized information from publications of foreign scholars. Attention was paid to the following issues: requirements of professional activity of future specialists and development of students’ personal and professional qualities, study of students’ attitude to aesthetic education, study of peculiarities of organization of content, forms and methods of aesthetic oriented educational activities.

2. Research methodology

2.1. Research Design

2.2. Sociological methods

The pedagogical observations were conducted at the Luhansk Taras Shevchenko National University, Institute of Culture and Arts in order to identify several aspects of the study of student youth, namely: revealing the content of psychological and pedagogical conditions of formation of a modern specialist in the process of aesthetic education, identifying the relationship between the educational process and aesthetic education, studying the process of formation of personal and professional qualities as a basis for successful professional activity of future specialists and improving the process of aesthetic education, which will contribute to the effective formation of personal and professional qualities of specialists by means, methods and forms of work.

The study was organized according to the requirements and was carried out during the 2018/2019 academic year at the Luhansk Taras Shevchenko National

2.3. Analysis of key research and publications

A detailed analysis of the scientific and pedagogical literature shows that the main aspects of aesthetic education were considered in their scientific works by well known teachers. It should be noted that philosophical foundations of aesthetic education (Bitaev, 2004; Gurina, 2005); cultural aspects (Petrova, 2007); pedagogical aspects (Skrypnikova, 2015) made significant contributions to the study of the problem. Important contribution was also made by foreign scholars Kumar (2014), Maravilhas (2015), who considered the humanitarization of education as a process of its culturalization in their works. The objective of the article was to analyze the essence and peculiarities of aesthetic education as a topical direction of preparation of a modern specialist.

University, Institute of Culture and Arts with 105 students aged between 17 19 years (experimental group). The control group consisted of 155 students aged between 17 19 years from the Kyiv National University of Culture and Arts at the Faculty of Performing Arts

The experimental part of the study was divided into several stages. At the first stage, the search, analysis and generalization of data of scientific, methodological and specialized literature and documents were carried out. The research work of this stage has allowed revealing problems of educational work of modern youth and passing to the substantiation and development of their vision of aesthetic education of modern specialists. At the second stage, in the course of the summative assessment, a survey of students of the 1st 2nd years of study (n = 105) studying at the Luhansk Taras Shevchenko National University, the Institute of Culture and Arts was conducted in order to analyze the current state and identify problems of aesthetic education in an educational institution. Based on the analysis of the literature, the answers of the respondents, the data obtained and the results of the pedagogical experiment, the program of aesthetic education was theoretically substantiated in order to improve the personal and professional formation of future specialists. The structure of aesthetic oriented educational activity was developed, priority personal and professional qualities were determined, comparative analysis of performed control exercises was carried out. A formative assessment was conducted to test the effectiveness of the proposed aesthetic education program for modern specialists. The results were compared in the control group (155 students) and the experimental group (105 students). At the third stage, the results of the research and experimental work were analyzed and generalized, the conclusions and practical recommendations were drawn. The pedagogical experiment was conducted in order to scientifically substantiate, develop and experimentally test students’ impressions of the forms of educational activities.

Table 1: Scholars’ views on determination of “aesthetic education”

Authors Definition of the concept of “aesthetic education” 1 Shevchenko(2010) the process of objectification and appropriation of aesthetic values by the subject through formation of aesthetic attitude towards them and intensification of creative artistic and aesthetic activity 2 Sharata(2018)Kedisand the process of acquiring artistic knowledge and skills; a means of personal development based on the identification of: creative abilities of future specialists, their professional abilities, musical, aesthetic needs and interests based on the historical experience of their people, acceptance of multicultural space, value attitude to ethno national specifics

3 (2015)Batrak purposeful process aimed at developing a modern socially and creatively active person with a conscious life position, formed on the examples of eternal human values and high culture, able to critically perceive reality and bring beauty to the process and result of life in all its manifestations 4 Bitaev(2004) sees the essence of aesthetic education in the formation of a “universal worldview of a man, combining both artistic and moral, thus representing the unity of truth, good and beauty of human being” and states that “aesthetic education based on art seeks to develop the person universally, transferring experience to the individual, and through it the total experience of human being. In this way, the process of human creation goes on, its ability to think is activated, a sensual culture is formed.”

It is well known that the main purpose of students in higher educational institutions is to acquire professional knowledge. But it should be noted that higher educational institutions prepare not only for future professional activity, but also for the formation of moral, emotional and aesthetic values, etc. Therefore, a university shall introduce activities for further formation of aesthetic attitude of future specialists towards the world and themselves in the first place, to the environment, and the desire to join the world of values, to improve themselves physically and spiritually, to enhance aesthetic qualities and so on. On the basis of the analysis of scientific and pedagogical literature and practice, various interpretations of the essence of the concept of “aesthetic education” were analyzed, which are presented in more detail in Table 1.

ItemNo.

3. Results

Analyzing the views of scholars, we note that according to the educational program of training future specialists, which is aimed at personal and professional development of an individual, the acquisition of integrated knowledge, skills, formation of an educated individual capable of self development and self knowledge, professional mobility, successful adaptation to changes in different spheres of life and labor management in a competitive market economy. But first of all, in today’s society, the development of the spiritual and aesthetic qualities of future specialists is worth consideration.

Lack

22 42 Insufficient

The next step in the summative experiment was a survey involving a total of 260 students from the Luhansk Taras Shevchenko National University, the Institute of Culture and Arts, and the Kyiv National University of Culture and Arts, which identified the major drawbacks of modern educational activities work when providing answers to the questions. The results are presented in Table 2. 2: The main disadvantages of modern educational work (%) Experimentalgroup Controlgroup of proper pedagogical conditions of free time for classes 42 19 of motivation to participate in aesthetic activities attention of lecturers and supervisors to educational activities need for aesthetic education, because they work daily 5 8 Other

Lack

5 7 No

2 11

Therefore, the main purpose of aesthetic education in educational institutions is the formation of an aesthetic culture the opportunity for aesthetic mastery of the world, spiritual growth of personality, assimilation and transformation of the world and himself. The main result of successful aesthetic education is a comprehensively and harmoniously developed individual, which combines high ideological beliefs, moral qualities, aesthetic values (Ushakova, 2015). In higher educational institutions, the main tasks of aesthetic education of the future specialist are the formation of creative abilities, aesthetic motives, interests; aesthetic concepts, views and beliefs and true aesthetic and spiritual values; development of students’ aesthetic tastes; acquaintance with national and world cultural heritage, with contemporary art; forming the readiness of graduates of higher educational institutions to introduce aesthetic education in their future life and the improvement of artistic literacy (Tserklevych & Kyrylyuk, 2015).

24 13 Lack

The following aesthetic components are used in the educational process of higher education institutions during aesthetic education: aesthetic perception, aesthetic attitude, aesthetic feeling, aesthetic judgment, aesthetic ideal, aesthetic taste and aesthetic activity. In the process of pedagogical activity, it is necessary to include the general culture, intelligence of the teacher and the student; emotional saturation and expressiveness of educational material; the culture of thought and the beauty of the world and the knowledge of arts and aesthetic experiences (Shevchenko, 2010). The aesthetic education during which the aesthetic culture is formed and the creative abilities of future specialists should be realized in the interaction of lecturers, mentors, tutors, advisors and students. Within the pedagogical process, it is the supervisors and the mentors who are the subjects of aesthetic education and the students are the objects of education (Radkevych, 2000). Lecturers, mentors and supervisors play an important role in the process of aesthetic education of the future specialist, since a comprehensive and harmonious formation of students depends on personal and professional abilities of the subjects of education (Tserklevych & Kyrylyuk, 2015).

Disadvantages

Table

Another methodology was the Self actualization Test, where all students have a sufficient level (58%) on the scale of “value orientations”, thus confirming their orientation to the society in which they live, to its ideals, norms, rules. In accordance with the society’s guidelines, youth builds their value system based on their needs and motives, i.e. the value system and its hierarchy are individual for each student. The lowest scores on the cognition and creativity scales were obtained by the specialists of the Kyiv National University of Culture and Arts,

An integral feature of the future specialist’s personality as one element of the development of aesthetic and moral values is creativity, which is manifested in the student’s ability to think outside the box and behavior, as well as to the awareness and development of professional and life experience. On this basis, we can say that thinking is related to the accumulation of facts that are promising for science at the present stage of society development. According to Petrova (2007) and Belyalova (2014), one of the components of a research culture is exploratory thinking as the ability to generate new knowledge. They emphasize that research thinking is related to self exploration, research skills and personality traits that are part of the research culture. Kumar (2014) believes, that research thinking is a logical and rational way of thinking that prompts us to explore every aspect of emerging problems. Therefore, the method of Vartega “Circle” was used in the study. Effective professional activity is supported by empathy as “understanding the emotional state, penetration into the experience of another person.” The Methods of Diagnostics of the Level of Empathic Abilities were used for this purpose. The use of empathy in teaching helps students succeed, positively engages with students, enhances the social and emotional component of learning (Warren, 2017), motivates and enhances student performance (Arghode, Yalvac & Liew, 2013). Based on the analysis of the results of the Motivation to Learning at Higher Educational Institution methodology, it is found that the majority of students of higher educational institution seek only a diploma of higher education, but do not want to develop or to form an aesthetic culture for mastering their professional activity. Attention was paid to motivation, reflection, creativity, empathy, communication and organizational skills.

One of the conditions that hinder future professionals from aesthetic development is known to be lack of free time due to the fact that most students work in their free time after classes and lack of motivation to take part in sessions held by tutors In the process of conducting the summative assessment with the help of psychological methods, the main attention was focused on the communicative and organizational abilities, which are of great importance for modern specialists, since communicativeness synthesizes various elements of the outlook, moral, professional, physical and emotional volitional qualities of student youth, as well as special knowledge, skills and abilities that influence the means of transferring, using and storing information. Reflection, analysis of one’s professional activity, actions, behavior; critical analysis and determination of ways of constructive improvement of their activity is carried out with the help of professional reflection through the Method of Studying the Level of Reflection.

238 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. while the students the future specialists of the Luhansk Taras Shevchenko National University, the Institute of Culture and Arts had a sufficient level of these indicators, which can be explained by the inertness of many students, their personal transformation in the conditions of the modern society, which are manifested in the loss of or indistinct awareness of their own professional prospects after graduation, over emphasis on material incentives to perform one or another activity. Data on the results of the study for each of the methods are provided in Table 3. Table 3: Comparative characteristics of the results of the study of future specialists Experimental group, % Control group, % Н С В Н С В Communicative 62 11 27 41 21 38 Organizational abilities 58 15 27 53 19 34 Reflection 62 62 26 11 59 31 Creativity 29 29 49 22 26 52 Empathy 64 64 28 8 59 23 Acquisition of knowledge 47 42 11 55 39 16 Motivation Mastery of profession 46 38 16 31 44 25 Getting a diploma 3 15 82 4 12 84

Analyzing the data obtained, we find that students have productive educational activities. Having analyzed the results presented above, we can draw the following conclusion: the development of the personal and professional qualities of future specialists is not sufficient for the formation of aesthetic culture. Discussion

The development of techniques for the use of interactive technologies for higher education (Bodin, Marty & Carron, 2011) are of particular importance for our study. The use of educational games as a way to model the conditional professional environment makes it possible to “include” the student in the scientific model of the theory of professional activity (Bellotti et al., 2011). The effectiveness of the process of aesthetic education of future specialists depends on the intended use of interactive and creative methods of work by lecturers, supervisors, mentors, such as a case method, round table method, project method, discussions, business games, role playing games, supervisor’s hours, conversations, creative competitions, musical evenings, exhibitions of creative works and the like. The main means of aesthetic education of students are education, work, life, communication, creativity, literature and art

Aesthetic education involves the development of knowledge, the ability to multiply the cultural and artistic heritage of the people, to feel and reproduce the beautiful things in their lives, the development of aesthetic needs and feelings, moral and aesthetic values, as well as creative activities (Petrova, 2007).

It should be noted that during the aesthetic education at the Luhansk Taras Shevchenko National University, the Institute of Culture and Arts, the project method Moral and Aesthetic Culture of the Modern Specialist was implemented in order to form productive knowledge. The purpose was to teach students to think, find and solve problems independently, using knowledge from different fields, to form integrative skills, to predict results and possible consequences of different solutions and the ability to establish cause and effect relationships.

Training Development of Aesthetic Culture includes exercises such as emotions and creativity, dialogue with art, emotional intelligence and others. This was conducted with the purpose of assimilating knowledge, developing skills, abilities, formation of attitudes and increasing competence in a certain sphere of life. Professional training for future specialists becomes more effective if there is an active interaction between students and teaching staff in the educational process and if they learn and practice these skills Therefore, the use of training contributes to the overall formation of a culture of interaction. Viewing and discussing videos on the topic, Beautiful and Ugly in Art, helps to cover artistic problems and the problems of aesthetic education of modern students. The conference on the topic, Formation of the Aesthetic Culture of Student Youth the Key to Successful Harmonious Personality, was held with the participation of teachers and students, which discussed the problems and prospects of aesthetic education in a modern educational institution through questions and answers. In addition, the Word about Ukraine Speech Contest was held on the Day of National Unity of Ukraine and the commemoration of the Heavenly Hundred Heroes (people killed during the 2014 Revolution). Students presented their patriotic speeches with emotions, sincerity, extraordinary passion and dedication, which impressed those present. Furthermore, students had the opportunity to visit the Park of Partisan Glory at the Chervonyi Khutir in Kyiv.

The Institute of Culture and Arts paid considerable attention to the formation of aesthetic culture and tastes in students. Among the advantages of educational activities at the faculty, the basic is building educational process, which is aimed at comprehensive and harmonious development, creative self development and self realization of a young specialist, development of creativity and creative thinking. This is implemented in the process of cultural and aesthetic activities, which helps the student further increase the level of aesthetic culture and acquire a creative potential. Moreover, creativity has been at the heart of the innovations underlying student competitiveness (Chen & Chen 2012). The creative thinking style of people has become a platform for new economic and social trends (Černetič, 2012), information society (Maravilhas, 2015) and a creative economy (Araya & Peters, 2010). According to Radovic (2016), creative thinking is a synergy of cognition and personality traits that enables a person to apply his or her intellectual abilities and knowledge to solve a problem using a figurative and experimental approach.

were conducted on the basis of the following questions: “How do you see yourself in 5 years in your future professional activity?”, “How is it possible to form your own aesthetic culture?”, “What are the problems in the aesthetic education of your higher educational institution?”

An excursion to the memorial park and an interesting story about the heroic past of our people made young people think about the fates of those who gave their lives for the sake of future generations; the University Open Photo Contest “The World through the Eyes of Students”; the briefing was held: Aesthetic Competence as One of the Important Components of Professional Development of a Future Specialist during which the following issues were analyzed and discussed: “Aesthetic culture in the system of professional activity”, “Aesthetic culture and worldview orientations of the future profession”, “Aesthetic taste and aesthetic thinking”, “Aesthetic knowledge in the chosen profession”. During the lesson, students were provided with information material on the structure of aesthetic culture, analyzed the differences between aesthetic outlook and aesthetic culture, detailing each component of the structure of aesthetic culture. In order to work independently, students were asked to analyze each of the components of aesthetic culture in accordance with the scientific approaches of contemporary national and foreign scholars, etc. The educational process in higher educational institutions is aimed at the aesthetic development of an individual. Each subject taught in higher educational institutions has opportunities for aesthetic education of a modern specialist. All forms of educational activity lectures, seminars, practical classes, trainings are characterized by a certain level of aesthetic load. It is individual classes that not only give knowledge but create creative thinking. Lecturers, supervisors teach students in the process of educational activities to see the beauty in their actions, to understand the aesthetic aspects in joint activity, in the process of teamwork. For example, in social studies, lecturers have the opportunity to show students all the beauty of the enthusiastic and heroic. In addition, the study of such subjects as Ethics, Cultural Studies, Aesthetics, Ukrainian and Foreign Languages, Psychology and Acting Skills play a significant role in the aesthetic education of modern specialists (Shevchenko, 2010). The work of Keller et al. (2016) attracted much attention as they believed that the teacher has to invest his time, his love and his energy in the development of the student’s personality. In order to establish a harmonious relationship with students, consultations were organized with the supervisors, where they created a trustful atmosphere and helped solve the educational problems of Consultationspreparation.withstudents

Thus, the high schools use various forms of aesthetic education (traditional and innovative), which were determined by the creative and innovative approach of lecturers, supervisors, mentors, and tutors. In the process of educational work, an aesthetically favorable atmosphere was created. It was aimed at the effectiveness of aesthetic education of students at the faculty. This ensures the development of a high level of aesthetic culture of a modern specialist In addition, famous cultural figures were involved in educational events, cultural meetings. Also, cultural excursions with artists and writers were organized. That

Based on the survey, it was determined that the following methods were most effective in aesthetic educational activities: (trainings 70% of respondents), creative meetings with artists, writers 85%; practical (method of assignments, projects, case study, setting practical tasks engaging in active creative activity 68%); preparation of excursions to museums, theatres, cinemas; creation of thematic exhibitions 75%, briefing (56% of respondents), business and role playing games (77% of respondents), the students like lectures the least (38%), because, as students stated, they occupy a passive position in this form of activities. The developed criteria and the system of psychological and pedagogical tests and methods of diagnostics were used to obtain the necessary data for determining the levels of formation of components of readiness for aesthetic development. At this stage, the students of the control and experimental groups were diagnosed. The data obtained during this diagnosis are presented in Table 4. 4: results at the appropriate level

Criterion % of persons

Professional Professional Professional EG % CG % EG % CG % EG % CG % Communicative 1.72% 29.31% 3.45% 14.65% 42.24% 8.62% Moral aestheticand 2.58% 31.03% 13.79% 15.52% 31.03% 6.03% Psychological 0.86% 38.79% 18.96% 9.48% 27.58% 4.31% Creative 1.72% 12.93% 15.52% 31.89% 30.17% 7.76%

Table

Diagnosis

It should be noted that a survey was conducted on the topic: “Your Impressions of the Forms of Educational Activities” among students of the Luhansk Taras Shevchenko National University, the Institute of Culture and Arts The survey involved 260 students. Analyzing the results obtained, we find that the positive influence of the introduced forms and methods of educational activities, which contributed to the cultural and aesthetic development and acquisition of moral and aesthetic values by the students, their desire to achieve the aesthetic ideal, the formation of aesthetic feelings, needs, tastes, that make it possible to increase the efficiency of forming manners in modern specialists.

is, based on the literature (Kavanagh et al., 2019), it should be noted that lecturers have to independently choose such methods, forms and tools that they believe will help students develop their aesthetic culture, spirituality, aesthetic taste, creativity, etc. In this area, various educational activities of aesthetic orientation were of great importance, conducted by lecturers, supervisors, mentors at the student dormitory, namely: Student’s Day, Culture of Communication in the Dormitory, Respect your Roommates, Exterior Appearance and Culture of Behavior, a contest for the best dormitory room.

Summative assessment Formative assessment Basic 47% 2.58% Professional 38% 13 79% Professionally specialized 9% 31 03%

Table 5: Formation of the levels of moral and aesthetic criteria Levels % of persons at the relevant level

The total number of students with a professionally specialized level for moral and aesthetic criteria increased due to positive changes resulting from displacement of those students who had professional and basic levels: basic 47%, after the formative assessment the figure became 2.58%; professional 38%, after the experiment 13,79%; professionally specialized 9%, after conducting a formative assessment of students 31 03%. Future specialists with a professionally specialized (high) level of psychological criterion were characterized by personal maturity, emotional equilibrium, reflection and empathy, but students still experience some difficulties with independent assessment of some problem situations and conflict resolution. Thus, EG students at the Luhansk Taras Shevchenko National University underwent qualitative and quantitative changes due to the introduction of educational aesthetic activities, application of criteria and levels; implementation of trainings, conducting of classes, lectures using interactive methods, etc.

4.1. Results of the pedagogical experiment

The results obtained indicate that it is advisable to divide students by three levels (basic, professional, and professionally specialized) according to four determined criteria. While at the stage of the summative assessment students with the basic level of communication criterion amounted to 62%, after the formative assessment they amounted to 1.72%, i.e. by 60.28% less. The formation of levels of moral and aesthetic criterion during the ascertaining experiment and after conducting the formative experiment is of particular interest. The data obtained during this diagnosis are presented in Table 5

Therefore, the objectives of the management of the educational institution, lecturers, supervisors on aesthetic education are the development of special methods of aesthetic orientation, intensification of educational activities to involve students in various forms of educational activities, the organization of meetings with famous artists, writers, holding all university competitions, trainings, role playing and business games, organization of cultural leisure in the form of excursions to cultural monuments, and visits to the theatres and museums (Batrak, 2015). Therefore, the following indicators play an important role in the effective aesthetic education in higher educational institutions: the development of the aesthetic theory, which is the basis of aesthetic education; aesthetic orientation of lecturers in the educational process in order to develop the moral and ethical values of a modern specialist and spiritual values that will be important for the Ukrainian society (Skrypnikova, 2015).

Aesthetic education is interpreted as the purposeful formation of aesthetic attitude of a person to reality. This is a specific type of socially significant activity carried out by the subject in relation to the object in order to develop a system of orientation in the world of moral and aesthetic values as regards the ideas established in modern society, about their nature and purpose (Yarmachenko, 2001). It has been determined that aesthetic education plays an important role in the system of professional training of modern specialists, develops moral and aesthetic values, creative thinking and spiritual abilities that future specialists will be able to use in the personal and professional sphere. It is also noted that lecturers, supervisors, mentors, and tutors have a special role in aesthetic education. Creating aesthetic conditions involves the joint activity of lecturers and students. Analyzing the process of aesthetic education at the Luhansk Taras Shevchenko National University, the Institute of Culture and Arts shows that the institution provides training of aesthetically competent specialists and forms a comprehensively developed, spiritual and cultural personality. In the process of education, individuals develop a system of values that structures the spiritual rebirth of the individual. It is spirituality as the basis of aesthetic education that helps people to aesthetically perceive the surrounding reality and develops the ability to be creative, to develop and use moral and aesthetic values, spiritual abilities in the professional sphere, in life, in actions and behavior. As a spatial limitation of the orientation process, the educational institution acts as the center of the society for the student in which he lives and acts in the period of self determination. The process of formation of aesthetic orientations can be represented as the process of an individual ascending to aesthetic values. This aspect of the problem can become the basis for further research in the field of vocational education in order to organize the aesthetic, spiritual and moral education of students.

5. Conclusions

We are grateful to all members of the University for this research that we were able to complete it smoothly.

7. References Araya, D., & Peters, M. A. (Eds.). (2010). Education in the creative economy: Knowledge and learning in the age of innovation. New York, NY: Peter Lang. Arghode, V., Yalvac, B., & Liew, J. (2013). Teacher empathy and science education: A collective case study. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, 9(2), 89 99. https://doi.org/10.12973/eurasia.2013.921a Batrak, T. V. (2015). Aesthetic education of students by means of foreign art culture as interdisciplanary problem. Scientific Issues of Ternopil Volodymyr Hnatiuk National Pedagogical University. Series: Pedagogy, 1, 195 201. Bellotti, F., Ott, M., Arnab, S., Berta, R., Freitas, S. D., Kiili, K., & De Gloria, A. (2011). Designing serious games for education: from pedagogical principles to game mechanisms. In D. Gouscos, & M. Meimaris (Eds.), Proceedings of the 5th European Conference on Games Based Learning (pp. 26 34). Reading, UK: Academic Publishing International. Belyalova, M. A. (2014). Research thinking and research abilities of the student in ensuring quality of modern professional education. International Journal of Experimental Education, 10, 78 81.

6. Acknowledgements

244 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Bitaev, V. A. (2004). Aesthetic education and humanization of the individual (Doctoral thesis). Volodymyr Dahl Eastern Ukrainian National University, Lugansk, Ukraine. Bodin, M., Marty, J., & Carron, T. (2011). Specifying collaborative tools in game based learning environments: Clues from the trenches. In D. Gouscos, & M. Meimaris (Eds.), Proceedings of the 5th European Conference on Games Based Learning (pp. 5 9). Reading, UK: Academic Publishing International. Černetič, M. (2012). Education and knowledge based economy. Metodički obzori, 7(3), 5 15. Chen, J. K., & Chen, I. S. (2012). Creative oriented personality, creativity improvement and innovation level enhancement. Quality and Quantity, 46(5), 1625 1642. Gurina, G. G. (Comp.). (2005). Aesthetics: dictionary of the most common terms (Ukrainian and Russian). Kharkiv, Ukraine: CDAC. Kavanagh, S. S., Monte Sano, C., Reisman, A., Fogo, B., McGrew, S., & Cipparone, P. (2019). Teaching content in practice: Investigating rehearsals of social studies discussions. Teaching and Teacher Education, 86, Article 102863. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2019.06.017

Radkevych, V. A. (2000). The concept of vocational education. Vocational and technical education, 2, 44 46. Radovic, Z. (2016). Creative thinking an essential skill for the 21st century. INKBOT DESIGN Retrieved from https://inkbotdesign.com/creative thinking/ Sharata, N., & Kedis, O. (2018). Artistically aesthetic education of student young people of the Mykolaiv national agrarian university. Scientific Herald of the Mykolaiv V. O. Sukhomlynskyi National University. Seria: Pedagogical Sciences, 1(60), 398 402. Shevchenko, G. P. (2010). Nowadays development of aesthetic education in higher educational establishments of Ukraine. Тhe Sources of Pedagogical Skills. Seria: Pedagogical Sciences, 7, 9 13. Skrypnikova, S. V. (2015). The experience of aesthetic education in Ukraine: origins, current state and prospects of development. In T. I. Andrushchenko (Ed.), Aesthetic education of teacher: collective monograph (pp. 99 116). Kyiv, Ukraine: Publishing House of N. P. Dragomanov NPU. Tserklevych, V. S., & Kyrylyuk, Y. M. (2015). To the help of the curator of an academic group: an informative and methodical manual Khmelnytskyi, Ukraine: KhKTEI. Ushakova, I. (2015). The formation of the aesthetic image of man in student youth by the complex of arts (PhD thesis). Volodymyr Dahl Eastern Ukrainian National University, Kyiv, Ukraine. Warren, C. A. (2017). Empathy, teacher dispositions, and preparation for culturally responsive pedagogy. Journal of Teacher Education, 69(2), 169 183. Yarmachenko, M. D. (Ed.). (2001). Pedagogical Dictionary. Kyiv, Ukraine: Pedagogical Thought.

Keller, M. M., Hoy, A. W., Goetz, T., & Frenzel, A. C. (2016). Teacher enthusiasm: Reviewing and redefining a complex construct. Educational Psychology Review, 28(4), 743 769. Kumar, R. (2014). Research methodology: A step by step guide for beginners (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE. Maravilhas, S. (2015). Challenges for education in the information society. Hershey, PA: IGI Petrova,Global.N.V. (2007). Psychology and pedagogical essence of research culture of the personality. The Bulletin of the Adyghe State University: Internet Scientific Journal, 4 Retrieved from http://vestnik.adygnet.ru/files/2007.4/609/petrova2007_4.pdf

245 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 5, pp. 245 259, May https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.5.202015 Pedagogical Training System of Future Social Workers in Ukraine: Experimental Study Hanna A. Ridkodubska Khmelnytskyi National University, Ukraine https://orcid.org/0000 0003 0561 6835 Oksana Ya. Romanyshyna and Oksana Y. Karabin Ternopil Volodymyr Hnatiuk National Pedagogical University, Ukraine https://orcid.org/0000 0002 2887 5023 https://orcid.org/0000 0001 8759 948X Nataliia V. Kazakova Khmelnytskyi Humanitarian Pedagogical Academy, Ukraine https://orcid.org/0000 0003 1499 3448 Halyna S. Tarasenko Communal Higher Educational Institution “Vinnytsia Academy of Continuing Education” , https://orcid.org/0000Ukraine00019394 2600 Abstract This research is intended to reveal the study and experimental testing of the efficiency of the pedagogical system of training future social workers for professional mobility. The article substantiates theoretical and methodical framework for the training future social workers for professional mobility (PM). The pedagogical experiment was conducted in2015 2019. Thepedagogical training system of future socialworkersfor PM was developed based on modern innovative pedagogical technologies. The result of this research is a well ordered system of interrelated elements of the educational process that has a particular organization and structure. The structural logical model combines independent subsystems represented by conceptual, technological, and performance evaluation structural blocks. As a result, the pedagogical conditions of training future social workers for PM was substantiated. It involved the creation of a positive motivational attitude of the future social workers towards PM, the introduction and application of innovative technologies of training future social workers for PM and the interdisciplinary coordination in the study of professional subjects.

Keywords: future social workers; professional mobility; pedagogical system; structural functional model; social workers’ readiness

Globalisation and integration processes are the essential features of modern society. They lead to the deepening of international relations, modernisation of processes in various spheres of human activity. Nowadays the labour market imposes requirements on the future specialists who are focused on success and continuous self improvement. They should also be able to adapt quickly to new market demands, make independent and responsible decisions and work in the multicultural environment and multinational corporations. Thus, the Ukrainian system of professional education is aimed at updating the training opportunities for professional mobility (PM) of students as one of the main tools of efficiency of the Bologna process implementation. The importance of ensuring the continuity of the educational process is argued in the laws of Ukraine (Legislation of Ukraine, 2014; 2017; 2019). The issues of the development of young people’s and adults’ motivation for lifelong learning play a significant role in these documents. This problem is focused on the Concepts of Continuing Teacher Development (Euroosvita, 2012) and in research papers of Ukrainian and foreign scholars (Agasisti, 2017; Baldwin & Gould, 2016; Bogdanova, 2013; Cubberley, 2018; Sushentseva, 2017). They interpret knowledge about training as a new concept of professional activity in terms of technological and technocratic impacts on the quality of professional assistance by future specialists in the social Insphere.Ukrain

the process of developing a new educational system is focused on personal development and integration into the international educational space. In all spheres, especially in the social one, there are qualities of a specialist that become increasingly important. They include: adequate perception and mobile response to new professional tasks, social responsibility, dynamism, constructiveness, a developed sense of rapid adaptation in professional activity, independence and efficiency in decision making, the readiness to adapt quickly to new working conditions and other qualities which determine a person’s readiness for social and professional Professional mobility has been studied in sociology, particularly in the classical works of sociologists, such as Zaslavskaya and Ryvkina (1991), Lipset (2012), Sorokin (1992), Shubkin (2010) and others. The problem of training for PM was covered in the studies of Ukrainian and foreign scholars. The future specialists’ training for professional activity (Bila, 2013) and personal mobility is studied (Bogdanova, 2013). The other studies focus on professional mobility of future specialists in economics (Ivanchenko, 2005) and social work (Kapska, 2005), social education (Polishchuk, 2012), professional mobility principles (Prima, 2010) and social mobility in developed countries (Romanovska, 2013; Sushentseva, 2017). The conditions determining professional mobility are identified by (Blau, 1964; 1977; 1995; Boddy, Cameron & Petrie, 2006). Students’ mobility is a precondition of academic achievements (Demie, 2002). However, mobility change throughout life (Dominelli, 2007; 2010; Ultee & Luijkx, 1990). Therefore, the modern social work theory change (Payne, 2015).

1. Introduction

3. Outline promising directions of the work aimed at training future social workers for professional mobility. The main hypotheses connected with testing the efficiency of pedagogical system based on future social workers sample are the following. H1: the developed pedagogical system of training future social workers for professional mobility is more efficient than traditional training pedagogical system. H2: The integration of new educational technologies in teaching and learning processes in universities, as well as in the training future social workers for professional mobility contributed to the increase in professional mobility of students.

The aims and objectives of this article is to study and experimentally test the efficiency of the pedagogical system of training future social workers for professional mobility. Research objectives: 1. Analyse the efficiency of training future social workers for professional mobility.

2. Research Methods

2. Select and adapt the methods of diagnostics and criteria for measuring the future social workers’ readiness for professional mobility accepted in psychological and pedagogical literature

This research is based on statistical analysis of the results obtained. The first research stage is bibliometric analysis of scientific papers prepared in the period of 1964 2020 in order to identify changes occurred in the theory and conceptual framework. Theoretical background and approach to conduct this research was chosen on this basis. The bibliometric analysis provides for determining tools for interpreting the results of the pedagogical experiment based on statistical analysis. The bibliometric analysis covers the period of the first half of 2015 academic year. The next stage is the pedagogical experiment conducted during 2015 2019. The quasi experimental study provided conducting the research by collecting data through the questionnaire. Quasi experiment was used in the study of control (CG) and experimental (EG) groups, where the variables were added. The pedagogical experiment is used to measure the cause and effect relationship. The first stage of pedagogical experiment conducted during the second half of 2015 academic year is determinative. At this stage, representative sample was formed and empirical data were collected, traditional methods of training future social workers for PM are analyzed. The statistical analysis was based on mean values, percentage statistic indicators. The second stage of pedagogical experiment conducted during 2016 the first half of 2019 academic year is formative. The experimental groups were formed at this stage

Therefore, the literature review helped identify the gap in the existing research and studies. The recent studies do not cover the experimental test of future social workers for professional mobility in Ukraine, as well as the modern pedagogical technologies and tools to be integrated in the teaching and learning processes in universities.

The research was conducted with diagnostic tools used by the lecturers and at the formative stage of the research for students of control (CG) and experimental (EG) groups. The use of diagnostic tools enables determining the state of the future social workers’ readiness for PM at four levels, which in the digital equivalent were indicated as follows: high 5 scores; optimal 4 scores; sufficient 3 scores; basic – 2 scores.

The third stage is statistical analysis carried out in 2019. At this stage, the results of the experimental study conducted based on identified determinative and formative research stages were analysed. The accuracy and reliability of the obtained results was proved based on mathematical statistics tools: mean and average percentage. The results validity was confirmed by the criterion for the implication of differences between mean values of the Student’s t test for independent samples. The determinative and formative stages of the experiment were conducted based on six institutions of higher education, where future social workers obtain their degrees. The determinative stage of the pedagogical experiment involved 97 students of the 4th academic year in 2014 2015 studying for Speciality 6.130102 “Social work”, and 18 lecturers, who conducted surveys, questionnaires, testing, control works and so on. The questionnaires and data were collected in classes.

3. A modified version of Ivanov’s and Kolobov’s Mast test for determining the vital values of future social workers (Fetiskin, Kozlov & Manuilov, 2002).

1. Diagnosis of the research efficiency was carried out using the following methods: modified Rogov’s method for establishing the professional orientation of a future social worker.

2. Adapted Yanchuk’s method for determining the ability of students to match the real and ideal images of “self identity” (Bodalev, 2010).

6. “Integrated Assessment of a Social Worker’s Efficiency in VocationalActivity” (the method adapted by Fetiskin et al. (2002)).

4. Ehlers’ “Motivation for Success” (Fetiskin et al., 2002) for determining motivational purposefulness of future social workers

7. The adapted method “Something New in Your Life”, which reveals the level of the student’s readiness for the adoption of new techniques, “Readiness for Professional Self Development” method (Kodzhaspirova, 2005).

5. Vershlovskys’s method, which enables revealing the changes of students’ perceptions on the phenomenology of PM by revealing a subjective understanding of the meaning of the phrase “mobility of the future social worker”, to clarify the formation of this quality in each student (Vershlovskys, 2002).

8. Berezhnova’s adapted methodology test of “Reflection on Self Development”, questionnaire “Diagnosis of realization of the need for SelfDevelopment (Fetiskin et al., 2002).

The pedagogical experiment was conducted based on tools and tests for diagnostics the professional orientation of future social workers. The next tools and tests were used:

9. Test “Are You Independent?” (Moskvina’s (1996) method) for students to introduce their readiness for professional mobility.

3. Research Results

We interpret the professional mobility of future social workers as the ability to solve a wide range of problems in the social sector, the ability to acquire quickly new special skills, a willingness to cope with new professional functions which determine the specificities of providing professional assistance for different types of clients, to assimilate technologies, knowledge and skills successfully We analysed the works of foreign scholars, in particular Dominelli (2010), who considers professional knowledge as the main feature of this process, Demie (2002) justifies preparation for professional activity as a prerequisite for training future specialists. Ukrainian scholars, in particular Sushentseva (2017) describes the features of preparation for PM, Prima (2010) determines features of PM development and concluded on the specifics of training of future workers for PM. We distinguish the following features: acquiring professional knowledge, skills, gaining professional experience in performing tasks of a professionally oriented practice, developing new methods to assist the clients, studying the efficiency of customers’ interaction; rapid independent decision making; ability to behave differentially with people, understand people with respect to their needs and interests; determining the objectivity, active life position of future social workers.

In order to optimize the process of training future social workers for PM, we consider aspects of implementing the international educational experience in training for professional mobility in Western Europe and America (RAND

The next stage is statistical analysis of tests results. The statistical indicators were used to report the data of pedagogical experiment: mean, standard deviation. To confirm the validity of the experimental research, an empirical F criterion was calculated, the numerical value of which was compared with the theoretical F criterion (Fcrit). The reliability of the survey results was used by Cronbach's alpha.

Cronbach's alpha is a measure of internal consistency, that is, how closely related a set of items are as a group. It is considered to be a measure of scale reliability. A “high” value for alpha does not imply that the measure is unidimensional (UCLA, n./d.). Its values range between zero (0) and one (1.00). A practical way to interpret the magnitude of a reliability coefficient can be the following scale (ResearchGate, 2016): 0.81 to 1.00 Very High; 0.61 to 0.80 High; 0.41 to 0.60 Medium; 0.21 to 0.40 Low; 0.01 to 0.20 Very Low. A reliability coefficient is considered acceptable at least at the upper limit (0.80) of the category “High”.

The research was being conducted from 2015 to 2019 in four stages of scientific pedagogical search based on Kamianets Podilskyi National Ivan Ohiienko University, Volodymyr Vynnychenko Central Ukrainian State Pedagogical University, Yurii Fedkovych Chernivtsi National University , the Municipal Establishment “Kharkiv Humanitarian Pedagogical Academy” of the Kharkiv Regional Council, Khmelnytskyi National University, Ternopil National Economic University. At different stages of the study, 233 students were involved in the experiment: 97 future social workers (students of the 4th academic year, Speciality 6.130102 “Social work”) at the determinative stage, 68 students of control groups and 68 students of experimental groups participated in the formative stage, as well as 18 lecturers of higher educational institutions (HEIs)

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Corporation, n./d.). Ideas of openness (the ability to self development) (Altbach, Berdahl & Gumport, 2001), mobility (activation of all spheres of social life, flexible adaptation to the requirements of the labour market (Barr & McClellan, 2018)), continuity (lifelong learning), advanced development (orientation at the future) are based on the professional training of social workers in the international educational environment). These ideas are constantly developing and they reflect a new perspective on achieving professional goals of training competitive specialists (Görlitz et al., 2015).

Future social workers’ willingness for PM is determined as a unifying dynamic new formation in the personality’s structure of future social workers, which actualizes the openness to change, the degree of understanding the need for mobility, manifests in the flexibility of thinking and adequate assessment of their professional tasks, balancing their capacities with the motives for professional self development. The results of the research proved that training future social workers for PM becomes effective. The process effectiveness is regulated in accordance with scientifically grounded and developed pedagogical principles of the following approaches: system, individual oriented (Payne, 2015), action (Ivanchenko, 2005), praxeological (Boddy et al., 2006), competent (Vyhrusch & Romanyshyna, 2016), dialectical (Polishchuk, 2012), epistemological (Halatyr, 2010), synergetic (Altbach et al., 2011) approaches in the process of training future social workers for PM. Based on the analysis of scientific sources and practical experience of training future social workers, the pedagogical conditions of training for PM were substantiated. The first pedagogical condition is the creation of a positive motivational attitude for the future social workers’ PM. The second pedagogical condition is the introduction and application of innovative technologies of training future social workers for PM We determine the interdisciplinary coordination in the study of professional disciplines as the third pedagogical condition. Interdisciplinary coordination is a system of forming an integrated viewpoint at mobility (Baldwin & Gould, 2016). Interdisciplinary coordination is intended to cover all sides of this phenomenon. That is why, if properly constructed, it will help to carry out qualitative training of future social workers for PM by means of methodically justified integrated use of different subjects, methods, forms and appropriate didactic materials. Therefore, we consider interdisciplinary coordination in the study of professional subjects as a real basis for training future social workers’ PM, with the introduction of the following subjects: “Introduction to Major”, “Social Work with Families, Children and Youth”, “Practice of Social Activity”, “Rehabilitation Work”, “Social Work with Different Client Groups”. We consider the ability to adapt quickly tonew conditions of professional activity, to solve difficult specialized issues and practical problems as readiness for PM. It implies the application of certain theories and are characterized by the complexity of conditions as the main indicator of future social workers’ readiness for PM.

The third stage (formative) was conducted from 2016 until the first half of the 2019 academic year. At this experimental stage, a pedagogical system of training future social workers for PM was implemented in experimental groups. The theoretical

The conceptual block accumulates the realization of the objective of motivation to be mobile and successful; forming a person’s professional orientation, advanced personal and professional development; stimulating students to professional self improvement, self development. The technological block of the structural functional model of the pedagogical system of training future social workers for PM describes the substantive provision of the training process in the context of studying different subjects. The following subjects were introduced: “Introduction to Major” (1st semester, 1st academic year), “Social Work with Families, Children and Youth” (1st semester, 2nd academic year), “Practice of Social Activity” (1st semester, 3rd academic year), “Rehabilitation Work” (1st semester, 4th academic year), “Social Work with Different Client Groups” (2nd semester, 4th academic year). The performance evaluation block gives an idea of the efficiency of the process of training future social workers for PM at the level of relevant personal and professional qualities (personality, nature of activity, dynamics of self development) (Figure 1). The pedagogical experiment aims at testing the hypothesis probability and its verification. Conducting a pedagogical experiment and research helped to achieve the outlined objectives in four stages.

The first stage (preparatory theoretical) was conducted during the first half of the 2015 academic year. At this stage, the bibliometric analysis of the scientific literature on foreign and Ukrainian experience was conduct based on the discussion of future social workers’ professional training. The conceptual research approaches were clarified. The bibliometric analysis includes identification of peculiarities of training future social workers for PM. The results were compared based on pedagogical innovative and traditional technologies in educational process. The nature, structure, criteria and indicators were specified, and four levels (high, optimal, sufficient and basic) of the future social workers’ readiness for PM were identified. The second stage (determinative) was conducted during the second half of 2015 academic year. At this stage, proper empirical information about the efficiency of traditional training future social workers for PM was collected and analysed. The relevance and reasonability of updating the students’ training for PM were confirmed. A representative sample of groups of students, who subsequently participated in the experimental pedagogical research in control and experimental groups was created.

3.1. Determination of the process and result of training future social workers

The developed model of the pedagogical system of training future social workers for PM has been viewed through its introduction into the teaching and learning process. The orientation of the structural and functional model is outlined in the determined components, divided into conceptual, technological, performance evaluation structural blocks. As a result, this provides the possibility of reproduction of the purposeful process of the integration system of PM training. The criteria of the integration system of PM training were defined: personal qualities of readiness for PM, the students’ search and analytical qualities, students’ professional capacities and skills.

conditions:Pedagogical thePM,socialfuturetheforattitudemotivationalpositiveaofcreationtheworkers PMforworkerssocialfuturetrainingoftechnologiesinnovativeofapplicationandintroduction

Social demand on social workers: regulatory and legal support for the continuity of vocational training, improvement of the educational process at HEIs in the context of training for PM

Efficiency assessment block Components of readiness for PM: personal, cognitive, analyticallybehavioproceduralural,productive

Trainings, multimedia technologies were applied, independent work and all kinds of activities was organized. The fourth stage is statistical analysis conducted in 2019. At this stage, the results of experimental research conducted during the determinative and formative stages in Research Methods section were analyzed. The accuracy and reliability of the obtained results was proved by means of methods of mathematical statistics. The general conclusions of the study were drawn. Methodological recommendations for improving the efficiency of implementing the pedagogical system of training the future social workers for PM were developed.

Specific principles: consistent creative position, business communication, unity of subject and social contexts, specialization and role influence, dialogism of communication approaches:Methodologicalsystem, individual oriented, action, synergeticepistemological,competent,praxeological,dialectical, Technological block Content provision: “Introduction to Major”, “Social Work with Families, Children and Youth”, “Practice of Social Activity”, “Rehabilitation Work”, “Social Work with Different Client Groups”, independent work and practical assignments. Pedagogical technologies: individually oriented, project, interactive Methods: intellectual game, case method, project method, portfolio, creating situations of success, educational games Forms: lectures, practical classes, independent work, trainings, consultations

background is the developed methodological support based on bibliometric analysis, pedagogical conditions that ensure its efficiency. The innovative pedagogical technologies (person oriented, project, interactive) used include: training methods, case methods, presentations, game methods, practical assignments.

Conceptual block conditions:Pedagogical professionalofstudytheincoordinationinterdisciplinarythesubjects

Purpose: training future social workers for PM Tasks: collect and analyse ofpedagogicaldevelopsamplerepresentativeinformation,empiricalformaofstudents,asystemtrainingforPM

Criteria of readiness for PM: personal qualities, search and analytical qualities, professional skills and capacities, of skills and capacities of self esteem and reflexion Levels of readiness for PM: basic, sufficient, optimal, high Result: future social workers’ readiness for PM

Source: author’s development based on literature review Figure 1: The structural-functional model of the pedagogical system of training future social workers for PM

the generalized indicators

The main purpose of conducting the determinative stage of the experiment was to diagnose the level of future social workers’ readiness for PM, who have completed their training at the HEIs. The research was conducted with diagnostic tools used by the lecturers and at the formative stage of the research for students of control (CG) and experimental (EG) groups. This approach provided for the reliability of measuring the levels of personal, cognitive, procedural behavioural, analytically productive components of the future social workers’ readiness for PM according to the determined criteria. The use of diagnostic tools enables determining the level of the future social workers’ readiness for PM at four levels, which were indicated as follows in the digital equivalent: high 5 scores; optimal 4 scores; sufficient 3 scores; basic 2 scores.

Table 1: The reliability and validity statistics

Table 2: The levels of the future social workers’ readiness for PM (4th academic year) at the determinative stage of the experiment levels of the future social workers’ readiness for PM (AS)scoreAverage(5Highscores) (4Optimalscores) PM PM professional

Reliability statistics Cronbach’s alpha No of items No respondentsof Future social workers at the determinative stage 0.712 45 97 Control group 0.706 45 68 Experimental group 0.702 45 68

Components The

Sufficient(3scores) (2Basicscores) CG % CG % CG % CG % Personal 25 25.8 53 54.6 19 19.6 0 0 4.1 Cognitive 13 13 4 47 48 5 37 38 1 0 0 3 8 Procedural behavioural 14 14 4 45 46 4 38 39 2 0 0 3 8 Analytically productive 22 22.7 50 51.5 25 25.8 0 0 4.0 Readiness for

The determinative and formative stages of the experiment were conducted on the basis of six institutions of higher education, where future social workers obtain their degrees Determinative stage of the pedagogical experiment involved 97 students of the 4th academic year 2014 2015, Specialty: “Social Work” and 18 lecturers who conducted surveys, questionnaires, testing, control works and so on.

mobility; CG number of students; AS average score

the following levels of readiness of 97

social workers of the

The reliability statistics were calculated to assess reliability and validity of the results (Table 1). Cronbach’s alpha is 0.706 for control group survey and 0.702 for experimental group survey. Therefore, the results are highly reliable.

Based on processing and analysis of the obtained indicators and levels of each component of the future social workers’ readiness for PM, the results of the determinative stage of the experiment were obtained as provided in Table 2.

high in

The analysis of (Table 2) revealed future 4th academic year PM:

for

18 18 6 48 49 5 31 31 9 0 0 3 9 Designations:

Groups – control phase –number of students The levels of the future social workers’ readiness for PM AS(5Highscores) (4Optimalscores) Sufficient(3scores) (2Basicscores) NS % NS % NS % NS % CG IC 68 students 11 16.2 26 38.2 28 41.2 3 4.4 3.7 CG OC 62 students 14 22 6 29 46 8 19 30 6 0 0 3 9 EG IC 68 students 10 14 7 27 39 7 27 39 7 4 5 9 3 6 EG OC 64 students 20 31 3 34 53 1 10 15 6 0 0 4 2 The data analysis of the Table 3 confirms the efficiency of implementing the author’s experimental pedagogical system in the educational process of HEIs, because in terms of indicators of all levels and the average score, the EG students showed more significant changes than the CG students as regards training future social workers for PM. Comparison of the results of changes in training future social workers for PM in the context of traditional training showed that no significant changes occurred in CG. Mathematical statistics methods used in professional pedagogy were applied to prove the results of the experimental study. The reliability of the results in the formation of CG and EG was established by calculating the criteria by the Student’s t test or t distribution (shift index and dynamics).

254 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. 18 students (18.6%); optimal in 48 students (49.5%); sufficient in 31 students (31 9%); the basic level was not found; the average score was 3 9. The obtained results of the determinative stage of the experiment determined the relevance and reasonability of developing additional pedagogical factors: the need to introduce the author’s pedagogical system and its technological support to improve the efficiency of training future social workers. The positive impact and efficiency of the developed pedagogical system was proven through the formative stage of the experiment. For this purpose, 1st year students who started their studies in 2015 2016 academic year were divided into control (CG) and experimental (EG) groups. CG students were studying for four years according to the traditional model, and EG students were studying with the use of the author’s pedagogical system of training for PM. The final control was conducted with the students of CGandEGinthe periodof completion their studies in the 4th academic year of 2018 2019. At the stage of generalization and analysis, a thorough analysis of the results of the stages of input and output controls of the experiment was conducted, the numerical values of the levels of each component of future social workers’ readiness for PM were compared by the indicators of input control (IC) and output control (OC). The generalized results of training future social workers for PM, which reflect the complex development of all components of readiness, at the stages of input and output controls are presented in Table 3.

Table 3: The levels of the future social workers’ readiness for PM at the stages of input and output controls

F criterion for

calculations for generalized indicators stageGroupscontrol AS Indicators for determining the

crit).

Femp

68 and 62,

(Femp

degrees of

Fempf 5 4 3 2 5 4 3 2 CG IC 3.66 11 26 28 3 1.34 0.34 0.66 1.66 43.22 0.64 1 2 CG OC 3 91 14 29 19 0 1 08 0 08 0 92 1 92 32 6 0 53 EG IC 3.63 10 27 27 4 1.37 0.37 0.63 1.63 43.81 0.64 1.5 EG OC 4 16 20 34 10 0 0 84 0 16 1 16 2 16 28 44 0 44 To

5),

emp

for our

of 1.7 1.3

= 1 2) goes beyond the standard tabular data (1.7 1.3). Therefore, a slight increase in the level of each component and the overall readiness of the future social workers who studied in the control () xx i  2()fxx 2 

68 and 64 students,

Table 5:

To confirm the validity of the results of the experiment, an empirical F criterion (F CG and EG) was calculated, the value of which was compared with the Table value (Table 5) of the theoretical F criterion (F The Fcrit index research was determined by the number of freedom (Table which was determined by subtracting one unit fromthenumber of students in the group. Thus, in the CG, where the number of students was and the EG, which had the F criterion should be range (for the number of degrees of freedom 60 120). Results F criterion F-criterion determine the empirical F summarize that CG CG

Table 4: The state of future social workers’ readiness of for professional mobility by levels Groups control phase number of students The state of future social workers’ readiness of for professional mobility by levels ASHigh (5 scores) (4Optimalscores) (3Sufficientscores) Basic scores)(2 % NS % NS % NS % IC 97 students 18 18.6 48 49.5 31 31.9 0 0 3.9 CG OC 62 students 14 22 6 29 46 8 19 30 6 0 0 3 9 EG OC 64 students 20 31 3 34 53 1 10 15 6 0 0 4 2

The data analysis of Table 3 enables summarizing the findings of the determinative stage of the experiment (DSE) obtained in 2014 2015 academic year with 4th year students, and the results of the output control in CG (OC CG), obtained in 2018 2019 academic year in CG, which were almost identical at all levels and the same in terms of the average score (3.9), in contrast to the output control in the EG, where the average score was 4.2 points. The differences in the criteria and levels, that is, between the achievements of the participants in the experimental and control groups are statistically relevant and significant. The analysis of the indicators of Table 3 and the calculation of the Student’s t test indicates the achievement of reliability in the distribution of students with the specified levels (Table 4).

criterion, general parameters (averages and variances) were compared for each component and future social workers’ overall readiness for professional mobility. Analysis of indicators of Table 5 allows us to

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. groups for PM, is related to the natural conditions of the traditional educational process at HEIs. The F criterion for the experimental groups (Femp EG = 1 5) is within the standard table (1.7 1.3). This means that the results of our research are reliable andconfirm the validity of the experiment. Thus, the levels of futuresocial workers’ readiness for PM depend on the purposeful implementation of the developed pedagogical author’s system. The results of the experimental study have been confirmed by reliable indicators, verified by the methods of mathematical statistics.

At the same time, there are no specific studies that would directly address the training of future social workers for professional mobility, which is determined by the development of multi professional qualities of future specialists, which are the basis for the development of professional competence. Some areas of research problems of training future social workers for professional mobility have not been covered. The first problem is a lack of pedagogical system of scientific and methodological training of social workers for professional mobility. The second problem is the lack of scientific and pedagogical support of the process oriented towards training for professional mobility. The third problem is the insufficient use of innovative technologies that would provide qualitative dynamic changes in training future social workers for future mobility at the HEIs. The fourth problem is the existing need for system integrative organization of training future social workers for professional mobility and the lack of a conceptual justification in the theory and methodology of professional education. The reliability of the research results were due to the system of methods and techniques for studying the efficiency of training future social workers for

4. Discussion In the conditions of irreversible transformations, which are taking place in Ukrainian society, the problem of reforming all spheres of life of the society becomes more acute. The development of professional mobility of future specialists, which is a prerequisite forthe effectiverestructuring of socio economic problems, harmonization of cultural and intellectual levels of different population groups, undoubtedly leads to the achievement of social justice, and therefore, the stability of the society. The consequence of the interaction of the conditioned processes is the activation of the redistribution of new and change of the already existing spheres of professional activity of future specialists, which, in turn,causes the redistribution of professional units in the labour market, motivated by the emergence of new requirements, adequate requirements of the time and the sphere of professional activity (Halatyr, 2010; Prima, 2010 and others). This reveals the relevance of the issue of future specialists’ professional mobility, since professional mobility is one of the most significant characteristics of human interaction and professional activity. The bibliometric analysis showed that considerable experience was gained in the pedagogical theory and practice of Ukraine. It could become the basis for future social workers’ professional training (Kapska, 2005; Nychkalo, 2015; Polishchuk, 2012 and others). The analysis of the quality problem of professional education was carried out (Sushentseva, 2017; Vyhrusch & Romanyshyna, 2016 and others).

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. professional mobility, the objectivity of the data obtained was confirmed by Student’s t test, the conclusions are based on the reasonability of providing the main components of the studied system. The conducted research confirmed the assumption that the use of pedagogical training system of social workers improves the quality of the development of readiness of future specialists in the social sphere for PM.

The experimental results illustrate positive changes in the future social workers’ readiness for PM. The analysis of the results of the experiment confirmed the pedagogical reasonability of the substantiated conceptual approaches for the development and implementation of the author’s pedagogical system of training future social workers for PM. The research was limited in terms of the respondent’s sample, as the participants of the control and experimental groups were students of the faculties of pedagogy. The results were not tested on students from different specialities. Therefore, the results cannot be extended to other specialities. Promising area of development of the problem is the development of readiness of bachelors’ and masters’ of social studies in the context of modern realities connected with the globalization of intellectual potential, leading educational and fundamental achievements for the purpose of self development and professional growth of future social workers.

6. References Agasisti, T. (2017). Management of Higher Education Institutions and the Evaluation of their Efficiency and Performance. Tertiary Education and Management, 23(3), 187 190. https://doi.org/10.1080/13583883.2017.1336250 Altbach, P. G., Berdahl, R. O., & Gumport, P. J. (2001). American Higher Education in the 21st Century. Baltimore, MD: The John Hopkins University Press. Baldwin, M., & Gould, N. (Eds.), (2016). Social work, critical reflection and the learning organization. Abingdon, UK: Routledge. Bila,O.O.(2013). Preparationoffuturespecialists inthesocialsphereforthedesignofprofessional activity: theory and practice: monograph. Odessa, Ukraine: Astroprint. Blau, P. (1964). Exchange and power in social life. New York, US: Wiley.

5. Conclusion We interpret the future social workers’ professional mobility as the ability of future social workers to fulfil a wide range of tasks in the social field. Training future social workers for professional mobility is a dynamic consistent pedagogical process that changes due to innovative technologies implemented by introducing forms and methods of training aimed at forming an individual who is ready for self development, self building and adaptation. The pedagogical conditions for training future social workers for PM were identified, and the method of their realization was scientifically substantiated. The pedagogical conditions are the following: the creation of a positive motivational attitude of the future social workers towards PM, the introduction and application of innovative technologies of training future social workers for PM, the interdisciplinary coordination in the study of professional subjects. Therefore, the trainer should be a leader and motivate future workers, create motivational environment. In order to realise this recommendation, universities should test the teachers at regular intervals based on special motivational questionnaire

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260 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 5, pp. 260 275, May https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.5.202016

Abstract. The article justifies the need to use social networks in teaching a foreign language in higher educational institutions. The research identified the prospectsof InstagraminEnglishlanguageclasses. Besides, the author developed the algorithm to implement the function of this social network in students’ foreign language learning. The diagnostic, summative, and final stages of the experiment provided for filling of questionnaires by students The study began with a diagnostic test to establish the level of interest of students and teachers in the use of the potential of social networks. It helped reveal the urgent need to use new social networks in the process of teaching English language to students. Toverify the initial level of student’s communicative competence, foreign language skills of students majoring in Pedagogy and Speciality “Foreign Language,” were considered. The experiment involved 40 students. An academicgroup of the 1st year of the bachelor’s degree was selected to test the developed fragment of the algorithm for using the capabilities of Instagram. The age of students was 18 19 years. The results of this study include a significant improvement of students’ vocabulary, training for the correct usage of grammatical structures, and bridging the language barrier while communicating in English. This technology also received positive feedback from students. Moreover, the study demonstrated the opportunities self learning by students at home.

Keywords: informational and communicative technologies; social networks; foreign communicative competency; students; teachers

Iryna M. Zvarych Kyiv National University of Trade and Economics, Ukraine http://orcid.org/0000 0003 0715 9551 Natalia М. Lavrychenko, Nataliya H. Zaitseva, Olena M. Chaika and Oksana M. Skorobahata Oleksandr Dovzhenko Hlukhiv National Pedagogical University, Ukraine http://orcid.org/0000 0003 0776 7362 http://orcid.org/0000 0002 0131 5368 http://orcid.org/0000 0002 3650 3991 http://orcid.org/0000 0002 9519 587X

Potential of the Use of Social Networks in Teaching a Foreign Language in Higher Educational Institutions

The study of the existing theoretical framework allowed establishing some academic aspects of the use of social networks in the study of a foreign language in the educational process of HEIs. In particular, the specifics of motivating students to learn professional English terminology while listening to international thematic blogs are specified (Gerhart, 2017). The potential of thematic communities in Facebook (Birky & Collins, 2011) is substantiated. We do not find practical recommendations for using the capabilities of today’s popular network Instagram. Therefore, we will try to develop a fragment of the algorithm for using Instagram in the study of English.

1. Introduction Today, in the current context, transparency of higher educational institutions (HEIs) to external requests, as a strong foundation, is the basis of the educational system. Thus, at the present day stage of development of the education informatisation that provides opportunities for quick information processing and creation of new qualitative information on its basis is essential in the process of realization of these principles. In its turn, it is a foundation for the intellectual activity quality improvement of (Maguth, Yamaguchi & Elliott, 2010). Besides, in modern higher professional education, the vital principle is the concept of the accessibility of education of any degree and forms to every individual regardless of sex, social status, nationality, and physical conditions (Mills, 2009). The outlined tendencies emphasise the possibility to use social networks in the educational process in HEIs. It will help to make education accessible to everybody. It will also activate the process of assimilation of the educational Forinformation.thelastten years, foreign language teachers have been actively using Internet resources to immerse students in the language environment. The integration of online radio materials, foreign language TV programs into the educational process allows for fundamentally new vectors of development of the study process of teaching foreign languages. The use of mass media information provides a more profound mastery of a foreign language, promotes the development of students’ foreign language communicative competence, orients them to the development of information culture, skills of independent acquisition of knowledge. At the same time, we note that a significant disadvantage of such resources is the lack of feedback, necessary for the communicative process. I It is essential to take into account the recipient’s reaction to the source message in any act of communication (oral or written) in the process of social interaction. At the same time, social services Web 2.0, which can be used in the learning process, provide new extensive opportunities for the exchange of different information. Many educators, psychologists, and researchers today note that the current generation of young people, who grew up on technological innovations, prefer to communicate through blogs and social networks over real social interaction. According to surveys, most students find blogs convenient and useful in learning a foreign language (Gerhart, 2017). In this regard, one of the urgent tasks of the pedagogical community is to understand the educational potential of Internet resources and the development of innovative educational technologies aimed at their practical use in the educational process (Arndt, 2017; Gerhart, 2017).

According to the results of the survey, the highest number of students from domestic HEIs use Instagram. During the last two years, the popularity of Facebook has been increasing, especially among students of HEIs (Birky & Collins, 2011). Nevertheless, many representatives of generation 40+ (including teachers of HEIs) are prone to regard social networks sceptically as a waste of time. Moreover, many HEI teachers keep considering a social network mostly as an “ enemy ”(Maguth et al., 2010). In particular, the matter is about such service as Instagram. Trying to use social networks in their work, teachers must take into account a crucial aspect: everyone is equal in social networks. People do not find ”correct“ patterns of creativity and thoughts known in advance (Romano, 2009). Consequently, this demonstrates certain signs of subjectivity related to the student’s sign in (or failure to sign in) in social networks.

From the researchers’ points of view on social networks on the Internet, virtual social networks are “a social structure of the Internet environment, nets of which are organizations or certain people, where ties determine interactions established.” (Mills, 2011; Roblyer, McDaniel, Webb, Herman & Witty, 2010). In current realities of the spread of available high speed Internet, and popularity of mobile devices with Internet access, communication with the help of social networks is becoming necessary as a breath of life for us. Every fifth user aged 18 to 34 spends 6 hours and more per day on the social networks (Gilpin, 2011).

In general, the experience of Western countries demonstrates the effective impact of social networks on the educational process. Thus, the review of the works of modern scholars found the correlation between a teacher’s presence in Facebook and “the climate” in an auditorium. This study proved that there is a relationship between the level of teacher’s self disclosure through the social network with the degree of motivation of students to study particular educational material; the relationship of student assessments with the level of teacher’s “disclosure” through Facebook (Handley & Chapman, 2011; Redston & Cunnigham, 2012). Therefore, we believe that the higher students rate the level of teacher’s self disclosure through the network, the better their emotional state will be. Social networks were poorly used in the educational process in the post Soviet countries (Boyd & Ellison, 2007). The reason is a skeptical attitude of the teaching staff to social networks (Aksenova, 2015; Klimenko, 2012). At the same time, researchers in the sphere of education believe that application of social networks is promising in terms of improving the quality of education, in particular foreign language learning (Ballance, 2012; Chen, 2013; Reinhardt & Chen, 2013; Lin, Warschauer & Blake, 2016). According to them, these technologies have a serious pedagogical potential that must be understood by a professional community and implemented into practical activity (Bezukladnikov, Novosyolov & Kruze, 2014; Mozhaeva & Feshchenko, 2010).

• the system organization of permanent consulting and information support for all participants in the educational process;

• improving qualifications of the teaching staff, their introduction to new methodologies, motivation to be creative and to develop professionally;

• scholars stress that application of social networks in foreign language learning enables achieving the following results:

• At the same time, it is possible to distinguish the usage of social networks among other types of network technologies in the practice of foreign language teaching in HEIs (Sorokovykh, Shumeyko & Vishnevskaya, 2020):

• a familiar environment for students: an interface, means of communication and content publication are studied thoroughly by users;

• a social network as a library catalogue. Numerous special groups or communities have books on various academic subjects. Full text copies of books increasingly appear in such online libraries due to the Internet capacity increase. It allows referring to them with the observance of all rules of scientific citing;

Social networks allow students to contact their teachers, ask them questions and write some comments directly during the preparation for practical classes. For example, social networks allow posting educational videos, pictures, photos, audio records, and documents. Besides, teachers post both obligatory and additional learning materials for independent students’ work on their pages or specially created accounts of educational environment quite often (Hall & Walsh, 2002; Huang & Hung, 2013; Junco & Cole Avent, 2008).

• formation of the new thinking culture of participants in the educational process, transfer from a psychological paradigm to competency based one, an increase of information literacy (Figure 1).

• a social network as a message board. It can be used for official messages and announcements of upcoming events by structural divisions of HEIs;

• a social network as a substitute for paper periodicals. Almost all modern newspapers, magazines covering economic, and management topics have groups in social networks, where they announce or publish a full text of their materials (Aydin, 2014).

• production of high quality, transparent, and accessible portals of educational resources;

• a social network as a messenger, that is, a program for quick message exchange. Given the spread of mobile devices with Internet access, this function is convenient and publicly available. It is ideal for online consultations and organization of the current teacher student cooperation;

• creation of a single information environment of the educational system;

In the current circumstances, the main functions of social networks in education are as follows:

• diversity of communicational forms: wiki pages, forums, polls, voting, comments, subscriptions, sending of personal messages, and others provide a wide range of opportunities for collaboration (Kabilan, Ahmad & Abidin, 2010; Schmitt, 2008; Yavuz, 2012).

combining staff capacity of teachers, improving their skills, familiarity with new techniques, motivation for creativity and

2. Materials and Methods

Figure 1: Theoretical scheme for the application of social networks in foreign language training

participantsorganizationdevelopmentprofessionalofasystemofconstantconsultingandinformationsupportforallintheeducationalprocess

The research represents the author’s idea and consisted of several stages. The first stage was to study the current level of communicative, lexical, and grammatical knowledge, skills, abilities of students. Foreign language skills and abilities of students majoring in Pedagogical education, Speciality “Foreign Language” were measured to identify the initial level of students’ communicative competence. The experiment involved forty students. A focus group was an academic group of first year students aged 18 19 and studying for their bachelor’s degree (Sorokovykh, Shumeyko & Vishnevskaya, 2020) Before the experiment, the state of affairs in the academic group was thoroughly analysed. The students had English classes two times a week with teaching based on the manual by Dellar and Walkley (2010). This manual was prepared jointly with National Geographic, so that it is illustrated by beautiful photos and other forms of visualization. Each level of the course consists of 100 120 hours for work in the class. The manual consists of 16 units: My First Class, Feelings, Time Off, Interests, Working Life, Going Shopping, School and Studying, Eating, Houses, Going Out, The Natural World, People I Know, Travel, Technology, Injuries and Illness, News and Events. Each unit consists of subunits: vocabulary, grammar, reading, listening, and developing conversations. It means that each topic requires the mastering of all types of speech activities. Each unit begins with explanations of the aims for the chapter, and each unit ends with Review (generalized information on the material studied). The manual ends with assignments to work on written communication skills (Introduce Yourself, Short Emails, Stories, Making Requests, Suggesting Changes, Reports, For and Against, Review). Students can find Grammar Reference after this part, which contains short theoretical material on grammar topics and assignments for its formation of a single information space of the education system ensuring the enlargement of students' foreign vocabulary formation of a new culture of thinking of participants in the educational process, the transition from a psychological paradigm to competence, improving information literacy creation of high quality, open and accessible portals of educational educationalintensificationresourcesofselfactivityoffuturespecialiststowardslearningprofessionalvocabularyinsocialnetworks

After establishing the current level of communicative, lexical, grammatical competencies of first year students majoring in Pedagogy, Specialization “Foreign Language”, the students identified the level of their interest in the use of social networks in foreign language classes. Therefore, we consider a survey to be a critical method of our research. The obtained data testified to the significant interest of students in learning a foreign language using new social networks. The development of a fragment of the algorithm for the use of Instagram in the study of English by first year students majoring in Pedagogy, Specialization “Foreign Language” was followed by an input survey. To reach the goal, students filled in a questionnaire during the diagnostic, summative and final stages of the experiment. The research begins with a diagnostic test to identify the level of students’ and teachers’ interest in the application of social networks' potential to activate the process of acquirement of professional terminology by future specialists. It enabled identifying the urgent need for the application of modern social networks in English language learning by students.

mastering. The next part is Information Files containing additional materials to developthe communicative skills of students. Theuseful content endswith scripts for all audio records in the manual to study them thoroughly. An exciting aspect of this manual includes short insertions titled Native Speaker English in the middle of chapters. They provide information on spoken English as well as on how to use unusual and exciting phrases. For example, when we should use the word “right” (this word has several meanings). Besides, a set of educational videos accompany the course. The stated above are the advantages of the manual However, the textbook has some disadvantages. First, the grammatical part is rather small, which is a negative side of the manual. Not all students can cope with such a format due to a lack of fundamental knowledge obtained at schools or other places. It most likely explains the choice of the manual for the intermediate level. because the focus of this manual shifts from grammar towards vocabulary. Students hardly join work in the classroom without clear explanation of Despitegrammarthepreparation

for passing a standardized state exam (SSE), the language level is low. The results of the placement test proved it. The SSE level means to know the subject on levels from A1 to B2. In practice, few, if any, has B2 level. It is especially the case in a focus group. Another weak point of this program is its orientation. Students major in Pedagogy, Speciality “Foreign Language,” which provides that future specialists must be able to communicate in English in their professional environment. However, the textbook is of general social focus. Before the research, participants filled in the placement questionnaire and completed the test to identify the English level. The test originated from a free source, an official website Macmillian (Sorokovykh, Shumeyko & Vishnevskaya, 2020). The maximum points for the test are 60. Gradation of levels is as follows: 1 15 (Elementary), 16 30 (Intermediate), 31 45 (Upper Intermediate), 46 60 (Advanced). Twenty four people of the group passed the test on Elementary / Pre Intermediate level, thirteen people on Intermediate level, and three people from the group had Upper Intermediate level.

Table 2: Students’ responses about the total time spent on social networks Values in % Total time spent on social networks 30% Check their pages on social networks from time to time 32% I spend less than an hour a day on social networks 20% More than an hour a day 18% I spend all day on social networks

3. Results While modelling the innovative foreign language teaching process with the implementation of publicly available social networks, it is necessary to assess the convenience of their usage from the technical point of view and the usefulness of social networks application from the learning perspective (Robelia, Greenhow & Burton, 2011). We should note that this study presents only a few results of the survey of students and foreign language teachers. The students completed the questionnaire before they worked with social networks within mixed education. The presented part of the questionnaire had both open and closed questions, and aimed at identifying the subjective experience of students and teachers in the application of social networks, students’ and teachers’ thoughts and expectations from the integration of social networks into educational practice (Sorokovykh, Shumeyko & Vishnevskaya, 2020)

The results obtained from these questions demonstrate the high level of social network popularity among students. At the same time, they show that students lack understanding of the potential of education In its turn, it proves the idea (Depew, 2011) that even if modern students are “digital aborigines,” they often have no idea of how they can use ICT for studying. The majority of students who took part in the survey were “for” (89.8 %), and only 10.2 % were “against” when answering the question on the possibility to use social networks in the study of foreign language (Figure 2).

Let us start with the results of the survey of the second, the third, and the fourth year of all forms of attendance (full time, full and part time, and students of the correspondence department. They major in Pedagogy, Speciality “Foreign Language” (foreign language level is from B1 to C1). The first question aimed to identify the most popular social networks among students, which they use frequently. The results showed that all students had pages in several social networks; a leader is Instagram. All respondents use this network. Facebook ranks second, and Twitter ranks third (Tables 1, 2).

Table 1: Students’ responses the purposes of using social networks Values in % The purpose of using social networks 50% Communication with friends 30 % For entertainment 16 % For studying 4 % Other options for social network usage

WritingReadingSpeakingcomrehensionListening

Figure 2: Application of social networks in the study of foreign language by students

Table 3: Effectiveness of social networks for the development of speech activities

Figure 3: Assessment of the effectiveness of social networks for speech activities 10% 90% Against For 15% 18% 35% 32%

Values in % Reasonability of using social networks for the development of communicative foreign language knowledge, skills, abilities 35% the most effective use of social networks for the development of reading 32% letters 18% speaking 15% listening All students mentioned several answers to this question (Figure 3). Thus, the research conducted among students shows popularity of social networks. The survey demonstrated that the majority of students support the idea of integrating social networks into teaching foreign language They consider social networks as the most effective tools for learning reading and writing.

The results demonstrate students’ readiness and willingness to include social networks in teaching practice (audition 7). When analysing students’ responses about the effectiveness of the use of social networks for the development of speech activities, we found several facts shown in Table 3.

Table 4: Time spent working on social networks by teachers

Values in % Total time spent on social networks 40% Spend less than an hour a day checking their social media pages 50% Check their pages on social networks from time to time 6,8% Spend more than an hour a day on social networks 3.2% do not use social networks

Four percent of teachers indicated that they use different social networks.

The next step was to conduct a questionnaire among teachers (Table 4). The majority of teachers respondents are using social networks (84.4%); 15.6% do not use social networks. The most popular social networks among teachers are Instagram (62%, ranks first), Facebook (27%, ranks second), and Twitter (7%).

Figure 4: Teachers’ opinion on social networks in foreign language teaching 6% 94% ForAgainst

Determining types of speech activities for which social networks application would be the most effective, teachers emphasized the highest level of effectiveness: for writing skills development (37%); for reading (35%); for listening comprehension (audition) and speaking (14 % for each) (Figure 5). Let us state that while answering this question, teachers chose several answers, rating them according to the effectiveness of using listed speech activities in social networks.

Majority of teachers use social networks to relax (43.8%), to communicate with students (34.4%), to study (18.6%), 3.2% chose the answer “other” (in this case in comments teachers wrote that they used social networks for communication with colleagues). 93.6 percent of teachers who took part in the survey expressed their support of social networks application in the practice of foreign language teaching. 6 4 percent of teachers demonstrated their negative attitudes (Figure 4).

In general, summing up the results of students’ and teachers’ questionnaires leads to the following conclusion: the majority of students and teachers are registered in social networks what enables to avoid difficulties related to adaptation and exploration of a new interface, which can appear during the work with specialized educational programs. The conclusions drawn by modern researchers prove this. They stated that application of social networks reduces the number of challenges related to adaptation to a new communicative environment that can emerge in the process of working with unique educational platforms (Chartrand, 2012; Ryan, Magro & Sharp, 2011; Shahrokni, 2009). 14% 35% 37%

2. Individualise the educational process. Social networks allow students to complete assignments anywhere anytime; teachers can learn more about students’ interests and hobbies in social networks and then use this information while planning the educational process (Ballance, 2012).

14%

1. Manage the educational process. Social networks are practical means that help teachers and students communicate seamlessly. The information on cancellation, postponement of classes, holding conferences, etc. can be posted there (Arndt, 2017)

Listening comprehension WritingReadingSpeaking

3. Organise the educational process. Teachers can continue discussions started during the lesson and post assignments for students (Gerhart, 2017)

4. Engage students who are inactive or less active during lessons in discussions (Chartrand, 2012).

Figure 5: Appropriateness of social networks application to develop different types of speech activities (teachers’ experience)

Ranking writing and reading first according to the effective development in social networks is explained by the fact that communication in social networks is mainly written, making them a convenient type for the development of such skills. Based on the comments provided by teachers, we conclude that social networks are educational space, which along with possibilities for foreign language learning offers options for tackling several educational objectives:

5. Update students' motives for acquirement of professional terminology in the process of learning English. Social networks can be a platform for projects’ preparation and delivery, organization of quizzes and competitions, conducting various surveys (Aksenova, 2015).

These opinions were divided between “likely,” “likely not,” and “not.”

• posting videos with a verbal message on the topic;

• posting videos in Ukrainian/English as materials for translation;

• live sessions preparation on behalf of the teacher or with an invited student;

• short tasks and messages (photos and videos) in stories.

These data allowed hypothesizing that the experiment would be successful because the majority of participants used the Internet every day. Besides, they use Instagram and are positive about language learning through this social network.

4. Discussion Nowadays, as the educational system is changing, it is necessary to develop new educational technologies using new resources. We tried to develop additional technique to teach students majoring in Pedagogy, Specialty “Foreign Language” , the English language by applying Instagram. According to its principles, Instagram is a supplement to the main in class practical lessons to use the English language in an authentic environment for the development of students’ foreign language communicative competence (Aksenova, 2015). Data on the placement questionnaire demonstrate that all respondents (100%) use the Internet every day. 66.7 percent use the Internet for communication and 33% for work and studying.

The primary forms of activities for learning English on Instagram are:

50% of users use Instagram, 33.3% of respondents use Facebook, and 16.7% use Telegram. All respondents expressed their willingness to increase their competency level in a foreign language. 66.7% of voters are ready to do it through the Internet, and 33.3% are “rather interested.” There are no leaders as regards the time that respondents are ready to spend on language learning on the Internet. 33.3% are ready to spend between 30 40 minutes, another 33.3% are ready to spend between 40 60 minutes, and the remaining 33.3% are ready to spend more than 60 minutes a day to study the English language on the Internet. Half of the respondents opined that it is possible to study a language through Instagram.

• commenting on photos and pictures (as comments the written language; as videos an answer, and as messages oral communication);

Thus, 66.7% of responses proved the Internet usage in 50 80% of cases related to the need to find additional information. 16.7 percent voted for less than 50%, and 16.7% voted for more than 80%. The open question about the time spent on the Internet per day does not have an absolute consensus. Answers varied from 1 to 7 hours a day on average. The responses on titles of the most popular social networks ranked in a rather exciting way.

Instagram ranks first regarding attendance of the first year students majoring in Pedagogy, Specialty “Foreign Language.” Initially, this service was for prompt photo exchange. To organise distance electronic learning of a foreign language, we recommend creating a separate account to subscribe all students of the group.

Subscribers can regularly check for updates and participate in various forms of work suggested by the teacher. For students’ supervised independent work and distance learning not to be spontaneous, the teacher must develop a schedule for posting publications or broadcasting live in advance. It is also useful to agree on a suitable time for live sessions with students.

So, the first form of the work is teaching through pictures and photos. A teacher posts an image on the topic of the lesson and gives assignments to comment on it. Thus, in the account specially created for this purpose, the teacher posted images on the topic “Feelings” that refer to the problem “Stay Fit and Healthy.” Students had to comment on the images offered. We should note that in such terms, students themselves suggested an activity directed towards the speed and correctness of the answer. While completing this task, students will reread previous comments. It will help memorise vocabulary on the topic. The program update of 2016 enables to post not only publications that are stored in a feed, but also so called “stories” short 15 seconds video records limited in their number. However, each story is available only for 24 hours for subscribers. Teachers can use “stories’” as assignments for the next lesson, raise some problematic issues, draw students’ attention to changes in the schedule. “Stories” is an excellent opportunity to remind subscribers about upcoming events and tests. We used “stories” to test students (Figure 6). The third form of distance learning is the work with videos. The length of the video content loading is60 seconds.Videomaterials can be usedboth tointroduce additional information on the topic under study and as material for translation. Videos can also be a popular “Challenge” – a problematic task posted on students’ pages with an appropriate hashtag. Figure 6: The application of test function in Instagram to work on grammar material (modal verb “should”)

Through live sessions on Instagram, a person can study the English language. For example, it can be a session on any topics developed for independent study or supervised independent work. During a live session, it is convenient to introduce additional literature to students, and to recommend how to assimilate a particular topic. The students will have an additional stimulus not to miss a live session because it is in available up to a day (or you can set even shorter time). It is especially relevant if students are going to have a test based on this material. Moreover, a live session is appropriate for student’s answers before a credit or an

The results confirm the existing conclusions of researchers that the academic potential and features of the use of virtual social networks are due to their accessibility to most Internet users (Klimenko, 2012). The very ideology and interface of Instagram make it possible to save time when there is no need to organise the adaptation of students to a new educational tool and a communicative space. Virtual social networks also contribute both to formal and informal communication between teachers and students, making it possible to

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. exam, a thematic colloquium or a test. Besides, a live session provides an opportunity to work on the main mistakes made in tests, to provide examples of communicative situations that will be presented on exams.

Thirdly, the possibility to invite a speaker for a live session enables teachers to engage students in active participation. The organization of this type of project work should be as follows: the teacher develops a schedule of distance sessions, according to which each student prepares a particular topic. On the appointed day and time, a teacher goes live and invites a student to join. Other subscribers join the session, listen to reports, and ask questions. The teacher assesses both the readiness of the studentwhoorganizes the session andthe level of activityof other students. The teacher can also ask questions or add some information. It is especially important in the first stages of this type of work, when the activity of participants is low. While teaching the topic “Travel”, the teacher suggested watching a video about Singapore, a city of the future, demonstrated on National Geographic. Regarding grammar, the teacher repeated information about modal Inverbs.general, an obligatory part of such an experiment lasts four weeks. However, there were some breaks between weeks during which the group’s activity did not stop. The teacher posted games, songs, and funny materials. The students, having understood it, also shared their stories. After the end of the testing, students filled in a final questionnaire, and passed a test to identify the language level one more time. The majority of students admitted that many questions became clearer after the course completion. Thus, nine participants succeeded in improving their first results. Thirty people proved their level, and one student passed the test worse than the first one. The final questionnaire showed the following statistics The participants used Instagram every day. 66.7% of respondents revealed that they spent 15 20 minutes a day to become familiar with the group’s material, 16.7% spent between 5 10 minutes, and another 16.7% spent more than 60 minutes. 66.7% spent 20 30 minutes on social interaction, and 33.3% spent only 15 20 minutes. 50% of respondents used dictionaries while writing their posts, 33.3% did it quite often, and only 16.7% did it rarely. All respondents answered used their smartphones to search for relevant resources. Following the results of the experiment, the participants assessed Instagram as a way to obtain new knowledge of the foreign language. 83.3% gave a favourable consideration to this method, and 16.7% gave a negative one. Thus, the research received positive feedback from students, even though students did not actively engage in the core activities.

5. Conclusions

Current modernization processes in higher education provide for shifting a significant proportion of academic time from in class hours to independent work of students. The use of virtual social networks has a similar effect. It makes the use of research approaches in learning, independent and group search for information to solve theproblem set by the teacher, to developthe ability to search for the necessary information independently, to work in a team, to perform collective search activities, and make interaction with groupmates more popular and accessible.

In addition to the above possibilities of using virtual social networks in teaching foreign languages, including English, the combination of individual and group forms of educational work with the help of virtual networks allows us to achieve a better understanding and assimilation of educational materials, as well as the individualization of learning. The common communicative space of virtual social networks for all subjects of the foreign language learning process allows us to jointly assess both the process and the results of completing academic assignments, observe the dynamics of success of each member of the virtual learning group and track their activities.

Modern technologies are incredibly popular, especially mobile devices and computers with access to the Internet. Many foreign universities use mobile devices to optimise the educational process. They are a supplement to the main educational program creating unique educational games. The popularization of social networks is ongoing. Their functions are changing and transforming from purely social to broader ones. The process of foreign language learning reflects these trends. The main goal of foreign language teaching in HEIs is the formation of the communicative skills of students. There is an urgent need to create a new way to develop students’ communicative skills in the context of reducing hours provided for foreign language learning and increasing number of students in one group. Instagram was an attempt to reach these goals. The study provides a short instruction on the possible application of Instagram for educational purposes in the process of learning. The developed algorithm implies the active cooperation between students and a teacher on the Internet by using social networks to improve the communicative skills of future specialists. The technique was tested on 40 first-year students majoring in Pedagogy, Specialty “Foreign Language.”

During the experimental verification of the efficiency of this technique, Instagram was used as an additional resource as indicated in the program. The experiment was not extended, though it can provide practically oriented conclusions and produced positive results in the level of students’ English language skills Further research may involve a subsequent improvement of the methodology for the formation of professional culture in law students in their professional training at the undergraduate level.

implement the technology of personality oriented learning. We agree with the position of modern scholars that the multimedia of the communicative space greatly facilitates uploading video and audio materials, interactive applications, and viewing them in the virtual learning space (Huang & Hung, 2013).

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Keywords: social intelligence; development; preschool child; art therapy

Abstract. The objective of this research paper is to elaborate methods for the development of social intelligence of preschool children by means of art therapy. Using the Tromsø Social Intelligence Scale cognitive, behavioural and affective criteria are refined with the corresponding indicators of the levels of development of social intelligence in preschool children. The methodology was implemented at the following stages: the preparatory one was characterized by an emotional mood, rallying the children’steam, and diagnosinginterpersonalrelationships, the mainone is both summative and formative, which provides for training, and the final one is summing up with the help of a diary of pedagogical observations. The description of art therapeutic methods, in particular, fairy tale therapy, game therapy, drama therapy and isotherapy used in working with children are presented. The paper substantiates the need to test the effectiveness of the developed methodology in the process of empiricalresearchand the adaptation of the Tromsø Scale todiagnosethe levels of development of social intelligence in preschool children. In addition, the preparation of teachers for work, sharing and assimilation of the acquired pedagogical experience in the teaching process of preschool educational institutions was covered.

Educational Centre Akhmetzhan S. Seitenov Ahseyt LLC, Pavlodar, Republic of Kazakhstan https://orcid.org/0000 0002 1767 3274 Rakhila Zh. Aubakirova Pavlodar State University, Pavlodar, Republic of Kazakhstan https://orcid.org/0000 0002 7984 2387

288, May https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.5.202017 Development

276 Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational 276 of Social Intelligence in Preschool Children by Art Therapy: Case Study of Oyna

Natalya B. Shevchenko

Research Vol. 19, No. 5, pp.

Alyona A. Kostyunina and Ekaterina V. Mishchenko Gorno Altai State University, Gorno Altaisk, Russian Federation https://orcid.org/0000 0001 9055 6472 https://orcid.org/0000 0003 2820 9167

Altai State Humanitarian and Pedagogical University, Biysk, Russian Federation https://orcid.org/0000 0001 5763 5021

Secondly, it is necessary to identify the components of social intelligence as a complex phenomenon. It is important to note that most authors define social intelligence as a combination of certain components, distinguishing not only cognitive (knowledge) and behavioural (skill) components, as mentioned above, but also motivational (social needs and interests) (Astramovich, Lyons &

Analysis of the scientific literature demonstrates the diversity of definitions of the concept of “social intelligence”. Wedeck (1947) understood it as the ability to properly assess the feelings, moods and motivations of people. Robinson (1947) believed that the basis of a child’s social intelligence contained knowledge of himself and relationships with other children, the ability to make decisions on interaction with others and act according to these decisions. Bailey (2002) has a similar opinion, noting that social intelligence includes complex social skills that reflect the ability to understand other people’s hidden mental states and act based on these findings. Buzan (2002) distinguished eight groups of skills in the structure of social intelligence, namely: 1) understanding and cognizing people through verbal and non verbal signals; 2) active listening; 3) sociability; 4) influencing others; 5) social activity; 6) negotiating and solving social problems; 7) persuasion of others; 8) orientation and behaviour in different social environments. Doğan and Çetin (2009), summarizing the essence of social intelligence based on the analysis of scientific works of other authors concluded that there are four related issues that need to be resolved. First, this is the correct definition of this concept. Silvera, Martinussen and Dahl (2001) found out that some psychologists question the existence of this formation and its expediency, since it is difficult to measure it in the process of empirical research. The authors see the solution to this problem in defining social intelligence as a multiaspect formation, which will allow establishing its connection with other psychological formations.

1. Introduction

Preschool age is the basis for the formation of the child’s personality. UNESCO (2018) determines early childhood (from birth to the age of eight) as the peak period of brain development. At this stage, children are significantly affected by the environment and people. In this regard, the education and upbringing of preschool children should be directed not only at preparing for primary school, but also at the holistic development of the child’s social, emotional, cognitive and physical needs in order to build a solid foundation for life long learning, as well as personal, social and physical well being (UNESCO, 2018). The World Health Organization (WHO) notes that children are the future, and ensuring their physical, socio emotional, verbal and cognitive development should be a priority for all societies (WHO, 2019). The Incheon Declaration (UNESCO, 2016) notes, that quality education stimulates creative spirit and knowledge, guarantees the acquisition of basic literacy and numeracy skills, as well as the skills, of analysing, problem solving and other high level cognitive, interpersonal, and social skills. Therefore, the development of social intelligence of a child of preschool age and the development of appropriate methodological support for the implementation of this process is an urgent problem.

2. Materials and Methods

Hamilton, 2015; Nolan & Paatsch, 2018; Rodney et al., 1988) and affective (emotions and feelings) (Kaukainen et al., 1999; Kisida, Bowen & Greene, 2018; Wawra, 2009) components. Thirdly, it is necessary to clarify whether social intelligence is an independent formation and establish its connection with the intelligence itself. Doğan and Çetin (2009), referring to the opinions of predecessor scientists, conclude that social intelligence and academic intelligence are two separate structures that are independent, however, complement each other.

The experiment involved 12 children of the experimental group. The following research methods were used in the study: analysis and generalization of scientific literature in order to generalize and study the research problem, pedagogical observation with the use of a diary for pedagogical observation of children, recording the qualitative changesthat occurin the process of introducing methods of developing social intelligence in preschool children by means of art therapy, SWOT analysis is a method of strategic planning, in order to identify strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, threats) and pedagogical modeling which is the introduction of art therapeutic methods and techniques on the basis of Oyna Training Centre in Pavlodar, Republic of Kazakhstan. The Tromsø Social Intelligence Scale was used to refine the criteria and indicators of the levels of social intelligence in preschool children.

Fourthly, as the researchers note, the procedure for measuring social intelligence and selecting appropriate diagnostic tools is quite complicated. Despite the existence of many methods in the psychological and pedagogical literature, most of them are focused on the measurement of a particular trait, for example, the cognitive or behavioural component of social intelligence. Therefore, it is advisable to refer to the Tromsø Social Intelligence Scale, developed by Norwegian scholars (Silvera et al., 2001), which, in our opinion, most meaningfully reflects the components of social intelligence (cognitive, affective and behavioural). It is worth noting that this methodology was tested by its authors to determine the level of social intelligence of teachers and students of higher educational institutions, as well as by Turkish scholars (Doğan & Çetin, 2009), who similarly tested the validity and reliability of this methodology in the process of working with university students. For the first time, Russian scholars tested the Tromsø Social Intelligence Scale for schoolchildren; its high reliability for various age and gender groups was revealed and subscale test norms for students aged 7 16 years were developed (Enygin, Fominykh, Bubenchikova, Arregi Orue & Aubakirova, 2018; Fominykh, Barsova, Zarudnaya & Kolomiytseva, 2016; Nasledov & Semenov, 2015; Zarudnaya et al., 2018). However, the potential of the proposed methodology for measuring the level of social intelligence in preschool children is insufficiently studied. We believe that there is a fifth issue related to social intelligence, which is poorly studied in scientific works and requires careful analysis and systematic study, namely the development of methodological support for the development of social intelligence of preschool children, which is the objective of this study.

The method of Norwegian researchers (Silvera et al., 2001) is used to refine the criteria and indicators of the levels of development of social intelligence in preschool children. The criteria are determined on the basis of three subscales: processing social information, social skills and social awareness. Cognitive indicators indicate the subject’s ability to understand the desires, aspirations, intentions and feelings of others through verbal or non verbal signals, predict other people’s behaviour, their feelings and reactions to the actions of the subject Behavioural indicators assess the ability to easily adapt to new situations of communication, to initiate and maintain interaction with others, choosing the right words and topics for communication and affective indicators measure the susceptibility to events and reactions to others in interpersonal interactions

2.2. The Tromsø Social Intelligence Scale

2.3. Diary of Pedagogical Observations

In the process of pedagogical research, it is appropriate to use both quantitative, and qualitative research methods. Such methods, according to Nind and Lewthwaite (2018), allow obtaining more meaningful and in depth information, identifying factors affecting the object of study, the causes and consequences of its condition. We use a diary for pedagogical observation of the children of the experimental group (12 people) and to record the qualitative changes occurring in the process of implementing the methodology of the development of social intelligence in preschool children by means of art therapy. The basis for building a diary is a SWOT analysis (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, Threats) to record the strengths and weaknesses of a child’s personality, reflecting the degree of formation of social intelligence according to cognitive, behavioural and affective criteria, and “Opportunities” are formulated as guidelines for further work in order to intensify strengths and eliminate weaknesses. Nind and Lewthwaite (2018) suggest using the diary not only as a method of pedagogical self observation, but also as a way of exchanging opinions with colleagues. We consider it expedient to organize the cooperation of a teacher with the child’s parents with the help of a diary to increase the efficiency of the methodology.

2.1. Pedagogical Modelling

The methodology of the development of social intelligence in preschool children by means of art therapy was developed in the study, the stages of its implementation were identified; appropriate art therapeutic methods and techniques were selected; this methodology has been introduced on the basis of Oyna Educational Centre in Pavlodar, the Republic of Kazakhstan. In the process of developing the methodology, scientific works of the scholars (Van Oers & Duijkers, 2013; Taber, 2013; Katzmann, Goertz Dorten, Hautmann & Doepfner, 2018; Mora, van Sebille & Neill, 2018;) were used, which justified the creation of methodologies for teaching and developing children on the basis of art therapy, in particular, game therapy, since the leading activity of children of preschool age is gaming. The experience of scholars (Bachar, 2008; Cutter Mackenzie & Edwards, 2013; Robson & Rowe, 2012; Müller, Naples, Cannon, Haffner & Mullins, 2018) was taken into account, who proved the effectiveness of using works of art and attracting children to create them for the harmonious development of preschool children.

Oyna Educational Centre (Pavlodar, Republic of Kazakhstan) pays special attention to the education, upbringing and development of preschool children based on the synthesis of advanced pedagogical experience from various countries of the world (Finland, Hungary, Singapore, Japan). At the same time, it is important to preserve the national Kazakh traditions of teaching and upbringing, which is achieved through the use of an ethnological material. In the process of work with children, the methods of art therapy, fairy tale therapy, drama therapy, game therapy and isotherapy are widely used, and, in addition, their educational potential for the development of social intelligence is determined. Isotherapy is the therapy by fine arts, first of all drawing, which is currently used for psychological correction of clients with neurotic, psychosomatic disorders, children and adolescents with difficulties in learning and social adaptation, in the family conflicts. The methodology of development of social intelligence in preschool children by means of art therapy is implemented in three stages as detailed below.

3.2. Main (summative and formative) Its goal is to develop the social intelligence in preschool children in terms of cognitive, behavioural and affective criteria through a special training that combines the signs of role playing, communicative and sensitivity trainings. Using a combination of fairy tale therapy and game therapy, the child’s social intelligence is developed according to cognitive criteria, and the task of the educator is to direct the children involved towards: predicting other people’s behaviour and understanding of feelings, desires, intentions of other people using, among other things, words, gestures, facial expressions and other means.

3.1. Preparatory

The purpose of this stage is the emotional mood of children to effectively interact with each other, ensuring group cohesion and diagnosing interpersonal relationships in the children’s team. Pedagogically valuable is the use of icebreaking games: “Acquaintance”, “Find the onewho ...”,with thehelp ofwhich children are directed towards initiating communication with each other, displaying positive emotions, spontaneous expression of feelings. It is also advisable at this stage to identify the overall level of relationships in the children’s group and rank the participants from the category of “rejected” to the category of “stars”, that is, the children who enjoy popularity and sympathy in the group. For this purpose, the methods of sociometry and the method of projective drawing as a type of isotherapy are used. Each child is invited to draw himself in the centre of the sheet as the sun or the moon, and to “place” the other members of the group in the form of stars around. Thus, the child draws those to whom he feels sympathy and trust closer to himself. The information contained in the drawings of children is processed by the educator and transformed into a sociogram, which is also a drawing in which members of the group are drawn as geometric figures. These figures are connected by arrows, which reflect the nature of the relationship in the children’s group. This allows forming microgroups of children for the joint solution of a certain educational task in the future work.

3. Findings

Lessons with children are built on the basis of the plot of a particular fairy tale or a series of fairy tales. It is known that a preschool child will never remain indifferent if what he does is connected with the world of fairy tales, fantasies, games and things that are closetohim (hobbies, friends). Practical experience with children indicates the appropriateness of using Kazakh folk tales about animals, for example, Tiger and Mouse, Dog Assessment, Cautious Bunny, Small Bunny, and others. It requires an analysis of fairy tales which are based on the interaction of subjects with children. We share the point of view of Sidorchuk and Khomenko (1998), who believe that the traditional approach to the analysis of literary works with preschool children through a detailed study of the causal relationships of the interaction of heroes and the identification of their characteristics has several disadvantages: due to psycho physiological features children quickly lose interest in analysing the content of a work, almost do not see identical models in works, cannot draw analogies between different situations.

3. Questions are structured in accordance with the algorithm for deciphering the details (signs) of the situation. At the same time, we omit such points proposed by the authors as clarifying the level of reality and establishing the genre of the work, since it is already known that this is a fairy tale. Other questions are arranged in the following order: clarification of the signs of the first object, clarification of the signs of the second object, determining the place where the objects interact, determining the time of interaction, determining relationships between the objects and finding out the characteristics of secondary objects.

1. Inaccurately compiled text code of any literary work is deliberately delivered. For example, analysing the fairy tale Dog Assessment, the following statement is formulated: “A kind person, coming up to me, starts shouting, making noise, swearing”.

6. Search for analogies: children give examples of other fairy tales that are based on a similar model.

Therefore, in our work we use the method proposed by the authors for analysing a literary work with the help of the “Yes No” situational game:

2. The main rule of the game is reported: generalized questions should be asked in such a way that the presenter (teacher or child) can answer “Yes” or “No”. Questions concerning the names of the characters or the names of the fairy tale remain unanswered.

7. Return to the put up fairy tale. Children should clarify the content of the work and write a new text “Yes No”.

4. After each clarified step, the text with established features is gradually built. It is necessary to reformulate and clarify the original statement (“A good person, coming up to me, does not touch me and silently passes me by, and a bad person begins to scream, make noise, swear”) and continue the work with the adjusted 5.task.The text enriched with clarified characteristics is reproduced by children in the final version.

8. Determination of the version of the fairy tale most accurately compiled (in terms of the plot) fairy tale.

The next is a combination of such art therapy methods as drama therapy, game therapy and isotherapy, which allows the development of a child’s social intelligence according to behavioural and affective criteria. The task of the educator is to develop in participating children susceptibility to the events and reactions of others in interpersonal interaction, as well as the ability to: adapt to new situations of communication and to initiate and support interaction with others, selecting the right words and topics for communication. At this stage, staging of fairy tales, which were analysed, and the role playing of participating children is appropriate. Dramatization is interesting when the rest of the participants are not informed of the name of the fairy tale and they have to guess it, carefully watching the play of the “actors”. We also use the recommendations of Edwards (2017) on the use of three types of games: open ended, modelled and purposefully framed. The goal of the open ended game is the assimilation of a new concept by children in the process of their own search activity, and the techniques are observation, experiment; the goal of the modelled game is the assimilation of a new concept by children through its demonstration in action by the teacher, and the techniques are demonstration, explanation; the goal of the third type of games is the assimilation by children of a new concept in joint activities with a teacher through the study of various information sources, and the techniques are discussion, open questions, observations, use of resources, transfer of previously acquired knowledge to a new situation. For example, continuing the study of the topic “Animals”, we conduct an open ended game with children, combining game therapy and isotherapy. At first, children are divided into search groups, the participants are offered cards with the image of wild animals, and each group selects a research topic related to a certain animal (for example, one of those living in the Republic of Kazakhstan). The purpose of the research is to study the features, behavioural patterns of an animal, associations with it, ideas that arise. We consider the possibility of living observation of the object of research to be pedagogically valuable, therefore we organize a visit with the children to the zoo or museum. The next is to collect data about the object. The children record the obtained information using the writing panel drawings, symbols, signs, children perform together in search groups. In addition to observations, we encourage children to “interview experts” other people, relatives, acquaintances. This allows not only supplementing knowledge about the object of research, but also develops the ability of children to initiate communication not only with their peers, but also with older people. As practice shows, the most difficult thing for a child is to summarize the data obtained, so the educator must help him with this, tell him which details are basic and which are secondary. At the end, the participants of each search group define a new concept, characterizing its features, giving examples and the like. Members of other groups are encouraged to ask questions, discuss the submitted report. Such a collective research work contributes both to the acquisition of research experience by children,and teaches teamwork and adaptation to various communication situations.

At the summative and formative stage, it is important to comply with the requirements of the training, namely:

1) relationship of education, upbringing and development;

3 Agree Quality is stable, manifests itself in most cases

2 Undecided Quality is unstable, its manifestation is situational

3) educational cooperation of children;

3)communication;activity,initiative, spontaneity, sincere expression of feelings is encouraged. It is necessary to determine the conditions under which the training will be productive, namely:

2) correspondence of the methods, techniques and forms of training to psycho physiological nature of a child;

4 Strongly Disagree Quality is stable, manifests itself continuous

1.example:Asoften as possible, ask Kaisar to tell what he thinks about one or another life situation, discuss the development of the plot in a fairy tale or cartoon. In order to understand cause effect relationships, ask your son: “Why did the heroes do this? Could they have done differently? What could follow?” In order for Kaisar to understand the mood of another person, sympathize with him and learn to sincerely express his feelings, tell him more often what you feel in a given situation and why.

283

It is important to trace the dynamics of the results before and after the implementation of the methods of development of social intelligence in preschool children. The data obtained as a result of pedagogical observation allow us to carry out a SWOT analysis: to identify the child’s strengths and weaknesses as internal factors, and to identify opportunities and threats as external factors.

3.3. The final stage, aimed at summarizing with the help of a diary of pedagogical observations

Table 1: Level of formation of social intelligence in the child

1) children should be about the same age (5 6 years);

Choice Quality

4) ensuring the physical and emotional well being of a child is to create a state of comfort, confidence and success for the children during the entire period of the training.

Based on the SWOT analysis, recommendations for parents are formulated, for

2) during the training, the educator maintains a positive atmosphere, focusing on the successful actions of children, which ensured the effectiveness of interpersonal

The level of formation of social intelligence in the child is determined according to the indicators based on the modified version of the Tromsø Social Intelligence Scale (Table 1).

1 Disagree Almost no quality

0 Strongly Disagree No quality

2. Amina often seeks support and patterns her behaviour on her brother; this makes it impossible to build her own strategies of social behaviour. Therefore, she needs to be taught to initiate interaction with others, to demonstrate her reactions to their actions, to actively manifest herself in the society. Try to express her unconditional acceptance to the child, not because she does something good or behaves correctly, but because you accept her as she is. Find an opportunity to encourage her independence and initiative.

The need to keep a diary of pedagogical observations in order to develop the social intelligence of a preschool child is supported by the results of a study by McLeod et al. (2018), who discovered that educators and parents are more concerned about the development of the speech of children and their expressiveness than their behaviour in society, readiness for school, independence, and the like. This indicates that both parents and educators, as subjects of pedagogical influence, underestimate the importance of developing the child’s social intelligence for his successful self realization in society. A sample diary to characterize a preschool child according to these three criteria are provided in Appendix 1.

It was revealed that the leading art therapeutic method in the process of implementing the developed methodology is game therapy, which corresponds to the age and psycho physiological needs of preschool children. Despite the scientific and pedagogical community recognize the educational and developmental benefits of the game compared to traditional education, educators

4. Conclusion In the study, the concept of “social intelligence of a preschool child” is defined as a combination of cognitive, behavioural, and affective components that reflect the essence of social intelligence as a multiaspect formation. It is worth noting that when introducing the methods of developing the social intelligence of preschool children with art therapy means, the educator’s preparation for the implementation of the methodology is particularly significant. In this regard, the educator is an important socializer, ensuring that learners acquire social and emotional experience, teaching them to overcome emotional and behavioural problems. Therefore, in our opinion, it is appropriate to conduct psycho pedagogical training for educators in order to form their readiness for work with preschool children, aimed at developing their social intelligence by means of art therapy. At the same time, self diagnosis and self development by educators of their own social intelligence are important for productive work with children. The practical significance of the results lies in the fact that methods for the development of social intelligence of preschool children by means of art therapy have been developed and implemented. In the future, it will allow specialists to identify the characteristics of the child’s mental organization and contribute to its successful socialization and adaptation in general in educational institutions The outcomes from this study can be used in the preparation and advanced training of specialists majoring in Psychology, in particular in the process of preparing lectures and practical classes on social psychology, personality psychology, pedagogical psychology, special courses and special seminars.

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Doğan, T., & Çetin, B. (2009). The validity, reliability and factorial structure of the Turkish version of the Tromsø social intelligence scale. Educational Sciences: Theory & Practice,9(2), 709 720. Edwards, S. (2017). Play based learning and intentional teaching: Forever different? Australasian Journal of Early Childhood, 42, 4 11. Enygin,https://doi.org/10.23965/AJEC.42.2.01.D.V.,Fominykh,N.Y.,Bubenchikova,A. V., Arregi Orue, J. I., & Aubakirova, R. (2018). To the definition of the notion "multicultural educational environment". AstraSalvensis, 1(11), 601 616.

in preschool education institutions fully apply the latter to teach preschool children, feeling some uncertainty, because they lack the relevant theoretical knowledge and practical experience in the use of games for learning. The combination of game therapy with other art therapeutic methods of fairy tale, iso and dramatherapy is pedagogically valuable. It is necessary to check the effectiveness of the developed methodology in the process of empirical research, which requires conducting a pedagogical experiment on the basis of Oyna Educational Centre. To implement its stating and control stages, it is necessary to adapt the Tromsø Scale to diagnose the levels of development of social intelligence in preschool children, taking into account their age characteristics, differences, and the like. However, we believe that this method does not take into account the diagnosis of the motivational and value component of social intelligence, which is manifested in the motives of communication and value orientations of a child (for himself, the others, the group), therefore, the criterion and diagnostic tools for determining the level of development of social intelligence of a preschool child requires refining. It is important to share and introduce the acquired pedagogical experience of implementing the methods of developing the social intelligence of preschool children by means of art therapy in the educational process of preschool educational institutions. Research prospects can be, first, further development and testing of psychological and pedagogical technologies for the development of social intelligence of children, to contribute to their development, preservation of mental health. Second, in the comparative analysis of the results of an empirical study and determining the most sensitive age period for development social intelligence of an individual.

Robinson, J. (1947). Developing social intelligence in children. Childhood Education, 23(9), 410 413 Robson, S., & Rowe, V. (2012). Observing young children's creative thinking: engagement, involvement and persistence. International Journal of Early Years Education, 20(4), 349 364. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669760.2012.743098

Nasledov, A., & Semenov, V. (2015). Modification of the Tromsø social intelligence scale for Russian students. Bulletin of Saint Petersburg University, Series 12: Psychology. Sociology.Pedagogy,4, 5 21. Nind, M., & Lewthwaite, S. (2018). Methods that teach: developing pedagogic research methods, developing pedagogy. International Journal of Research & Method in Education,41(4), 398 410. https://doi.org/10.1080/1743727X.2018.1427057

Taber, K. S. (2013). Chess variants & games: for intellectual development and amusement. TeacherDevelopment,17(1),148 149.https://doi.org10.1080/13664530.2013.766492

Fominykh, N., Barsova, O., Zarudnaya, M., & Kolomiytseva, N. (2016). Approaches to prospective economists professional foreign language training in computer orientated language learning environment. International Journal of Environmental andScienceEducation, 11(18), 12067 12083. Katzmann, J., Goertz Dorten, A., Hautmann, C., & Doepfner, M. (2018). Social skills training and play group intervention for children with oppositional defiant disorders/conduct disorder: Mediating mechanisms in a head to head comparison. Psychotherapy Research Kaukainen,https://doi.org/10.1080/10503307.2018.1425559A.,Björkqvist,K.,Lagerspetz,K.,Österman,K., Salmivalli, C., Rothberg, S., & Ahlbom, A. (1999). The relationship between social intelligence, empathy and three types of agression. AggressiveBehaviour,25, 81 89. Kisida, B., Bowen, D. H., & Greene, J. P. (2018). Cultivating interest in art: Causal effects of arts exposure during early childhood. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 45, 197 203. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2017.12.003 McLeod, Sh., Crowe, K., McCormack, L., White, P., Wren, Y., Baker, E., Masso, S., & Roulstone, S. (2018). Preschool children’s communication, motor and social development: Parents’ and educators’ concerns. International Journal of Speech Language Pathology, 20(4), 468 482.

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Silvera, D. H., Martinussen, M., & Dahl, T. I. (2001). The Tromsø social intelligence scale, a self report measure of social intelligence. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 42(4), 313 319. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467 9450.00242

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Müller, E., Naples, L. H., Cannon, L., Haffner, B., & Mullins, A. (2018). Using integrated arts programming to facilitate social and emotional learning in young children with social cognition challenges. Early Child Development and Care, 189(14), 2219 2232. https://doi.org/10.1080/03004430.2018.1445732

Nolan, A., & Paatsch, L. (2018). (Re)affirming identities: implementing a play based approach to learning in the early years of schooling. International Journal of Early YearsEducation,26(1), 42 55. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669760.2017.1369397

Mora, L., van Sebille, K., & Neill, L. (2018). An evaluation of play therapy for children and young people with intellectual disabilities. ResearchandPracticeinIntellectualand Developmental Disabilities, 5(2), 178 191. https://doi.org/10.1080/23297018.2018.1442739

Sidorchuk, T., & Khomenko, N. (1998). Analysisoftheplotmeaningoffairytalesbymeansof the situation game “yes no”. Retrieved from http://www.trizminsk.org/e/23209.htm

287 ©2020TheauthorsandIJLTER.ORG.Allrightsreserved. UNESCO. (2016). Education 2030: Incheon Declaration and Framework for Action for the implementation of Sustainable Development Goal 4: Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all. Retrieved from UNESCO.https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000245656(2018). Early childhood care and education. Retrieved from https://en.unesco.org/themes/early childhood care and education Van Oers, B., & Duijkers, D. (2013). Teaching in a play based curriculum: Theory, practice and evidence of developmental education for young children. Journal of CurriculumStudies, 45(4), 511 534. https://doi.org 10.1080/00220272.2011.637182 Wawra, D. (2009). Social intelligence. European Journal of English Studies, 13(2), 163 177. https://doi.org 10.1080/13825570902907193 Wedeck, J. (1947). The relationship between personality and ‘psychological ability’. British JournalofPsychology,37, 133 151. WHO. (2019). Child Development. Retrieved from Zarudnaya,https://www.who.int/topics/child_development/en/M.,Fominykh,N.,Enygin,D.,Kudysheva,A.,Epifanov, D., & Eferova, A. Languages(2018).MethodologicalApproachestoUniversityInstructorsProfessionalForeignCompetenceDevelopment. The Journal of Social Sciences Research, 5, 375 381.

7.peopleFrequently

Opportunities Threats Suggestions

288 ©2020TheauthorsandIJLTER.ORG.Allrightsreserved. Appendix 1 A Sample of a Diary Child’s Name: Age: Date: Criteria Indicators Levels of Development 4 3 2 1 0 Information(SocialCognitive Processing) 1. Can predict other peoples’ behaviour 2. Knows how his/her actions will make others feel 3. Understands other peoples’ feelings 4. Understands others’ wishes 5. Can often understand what others are trying to accomplish without the need for them to say anything 6. Can predict how others will react to his/her behaviour 7. Can often understand what others really mean through their expression, body language, etc.

Awareness)(SocialAffective It is difficult for him/her to understand others’ choices Is often surprised with things people do Feels that other people become angry with him/her without explaining why Feels that people are often angry or irritated with him/her when he/she says what he/she thinks Finds people unpredictable Feels that he/she often hurts others without realizing Is often surprized by others’ reactions to what he/sheStrengthsdoes Weaknesses for parents:

5.peopleIttakes

Skills)(SocialalBehaviour Often feels uncertain around new people who he/she doesn’t know Fits in easily in social situations Is good at entering new situations and meeting people for the first time Has a hard time getting along with other a long time for him/her to get to know others well Is good at getting on good terms with new has problems finding good conversation topics

https://orcid.org/0000

Taras

https://orcid.org/0000

Vira A. Ponomarova Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv, Ukraine https://orcid.org/0000 0003 1880 4691 Hanna V. Mykhailiuk Borys Grinchenko Kyiv University, Kyiv, Ukraine https://orcid.org/0000 0002 4734 7031

Abstract. The research deals with solving an urgent pedagogical problem finding ways for teacher competence development based on the use of innovative educational technologies that meet the modern requirements of society, pedagogical science and practice. It is established that the educational process on line can be managed with the use of cloud technologies that influence the architecture, the services provided and the logistics of implementation of training courses. The experimental use of Google Apps Education Edition and OwnCloud was tested in distance training courses for teacher competence development with up to 10 years of practical experience. The obtained results and the dynamics of the development of the motivational, cognitive, activity and personal components of teacher competences were analysed using the methods of mathematical statistics. This study reveals that Google Apps Education Edition has powerful tools and extensive opportunities for distance learning, and is an effective means of enhancing the development of all components of teacher competence. The use of these services in the process of distance learning courses to increase teacher competence almost completely solves the problem of interaction with the teaching staff and the learning environment. This helps to establish the

Iurii L. Mosenkis Shevchenko National University of Kyiv, Ukraine 0002 9957 0585 Liudmyla V. Lukianyk Rivne State University of Humanities, Ukraine 0003 3432 1614

289 ©2020TheauthorsandIJLTER.ORG.Allrightsreserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 5, pp. 289 303, May https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.5.182020 Application of Cloud Educational Technologies for Teacher Competence Development

Oleksandr M. Strokal Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv, Ukraine https://orcid.org/0000 0002 9229 2711

correspondence of the content of assignments to the studied topics and to ensure a professional focus of project assignments of teachers. This model can be used to develop and implement services that allow the organization of personal information space for teachers (on the example of blogs and Google cloud service).

The great value of incorporating cloud technology into the educational process is the ability to increase time for learning without changing the curricula of educational institutions (Lakshminarayanan, Kumar & Raju, 2014).

The urgency of using cloud based learning technologies in developing teacher competence is dictated, first of all, by the pedagogical needs for improving the learning performance (Hidayat & Utomo, 2014). Competence orientation of the learning process is characterized by increasing dynamics of the educational process, a significant increase in the role of distance learning technologies, as well as the global transition of information resources in the virtual environment. All this encourages educational institutions to adopt innovative models of activity.

Keywords: cloud learning technologies; Google Apps Education Edition services; distance competence; development courses

1. Introduction With a wide spread of digital technologies, learning takes the form of a continuous, individually oriented, flexible and dynamic process. Global trends in improving technologies and ways of obtaining, processing and transferring information open up new educational opportunities (Haris & Khan, 2018). The development of information technology, the use of the Internet, the networking of educational organizations, e-learning necessitate the study of the training and competence development of teachers, taking into account the priority areas of digitalization of society (Admiraal & Berry, 2016). The world educational space is expanding the use of electronic means, technologies and resources using the Internet and various innovative technologies (Maican & Lixandroiu, 2016). The dynamic development of information technology and, as a consequence, the changing requirements for educational activities are in line with the level of teacher competence development level (Khedr & Idrees, 2017; Singh & Baheti, 2017). The emergence of new forms of organization of the educational process and increasing the range of educational tools, technologies and educational services make new demands on the teacher competence in an electronic information educational environment. The continuity of professional education, the expansion of basic skills, independent continuing of study are all necessary for teachers to develop their competence and improve pedagogical skills (McKenney, 2018). In this regard, e learning, including mass open online courses and cloud based learning technologies, becomes increasingly widespread.

Therefore, the optimization of adult (teachers) learning involves the use of information and communication technology platforms, smartphones, learning management systems (Jain & Pandey, 2013; Odeh, Garcia Perez & Warwick, 2017; Prescott, 2014). Cloud technologies optimize the collection, systematization, storage, retrieval, processing and presentation of information, are of general educational importance and can be used in the study of all subjects (Sultan, 2010).

The issue of application of cloud technologies in the educational process is determined by a number of their advantages. First, they provide on demand self service, i.e. the users’ ability to use computing resources to the required extent without the provider’s (system administrator’s) consent. Second, the combination of resources is a dynamic redistribution of capacity (storage devices, RAM, network bandwidth, etc.) (Etawi, 2018). Third, the distribution of resources between multiple data centers allows the use of IT resources by different applications and users in an incoherent mode (Su, Tzeng & Hu, 2016). They also provide universal network access the users receive cloud services regardless of the terminal device used via the Internet from high tech data centers. Another advantage of cloud technologies is the elasticity (“infinite” scalability) of services, provides access to the system even in the “peak” of requests, and the list of services can expand or narrow automatically, without additional interaction with the provider (Kleftodimos & Evangelidis, 2016) and consumption record (payment upon use). In spite of the above, the researches show that theoretical prerequisites on the issues of informatization of education and competence development of specialists with the use of different pedagogical technologies have been formed so far, but there is a lack of research examining the use of cloud educational technologies for the competence of teachers.

1.1. Research questions

1.2. Literature Review

Literature review showed that teacher competence functions under the conditions of totally innovative realities of the modern world, high rate of knowledge updating, blurring the boundaries of teaching as its system building element (Vangrieken, Dochy, Raes & Kyndt, 2015). Having a range of professionally significant functions (ability to reflect, creativity, self organization, self development, selectivity, manifestation of creating content, innovative solutions) (Lauermann & König, 2016; van Leeuwen, Janssen, Erkens & Brekelmans, 2015) in conjunction with professional skills allow teachers to act as reflective agents of industrial and socio cultural innovations, which ensures their personal and professional success. The expansion of teaching activities collaboration, counselling, tutoring, monitoring necessitates building competence and realizing skills within computer assisted communication (Yousafzai, Chang, Gani & Noor, 2016). It also urges the search for alternatives to traditional forms of organization of the educational process, creating opportunities for personal learning, interactive classes and group teaching (Nosenko, Popel & Shyshkina, 2018). It should be noted that the organization of advanced teacher training has some features. The work which states that the diversity of existing online services requires their analysis and evaluation for the purpose of selection for use in the curriculum (Diaby & Rad, 2017; Kaur, 2016) is interesting for the achievement of the research

The objective of this study was to determine 1) how and to what extent the distance learning program based on Google Apps Education Edition and OwnCloud can contribute to the learning process and increase the teacher competence; and 2) how teachers perceived the program of the distance qualification courses?

Year

2.1. Population Sampling

2017 2018 45 48 2018 2019 24 30

objectives. Of course, such selection should be made taking into account the educational potential of services, the possibility and reasonability of their use in the educational process (Narayana, Kumar & Jayashree, 2017). Building the teacher competence based on cloud technologies should be aimed not only at studying the actual specific services and technologies, but also at mastering the methods of their use in educational activities (Chhabra & Dixit, 2015; Kaur, 2015).

2. Materials and Methods

In this regard, the organization of teacher competence building provides review lectures of an introductory nature, as well as practical classes, where the teachers will consider specific examples of the use of cloud technologies and services, and round tables where they can discuss and “play through” learning situations using a variety of online services. We base our belief on the study of the researches (Elmonem, Nasr & Geith, 2016; Admiraal & Berry, 2016; Bulla, Hunshal & Mehta 2016; Hidayat & Utomo, 2014; Kleftodimos & Evangelidis, 2016).

The study was prolonged and was conducted using general scientific theoretical, empirical (pedagogical observation, questioning, experiment) and statistical (quantitative andqualitative analysis of experimental results) methods of research and analysis of results according to the objective of each stage. The structure of the pedagogical experiment included three stages: diagnostic (primary diagnosis of the level of teacher competence), formative and final stages. The research work was based on the use of the following experimental methods: questionnaires, testing, laboratory research work, defence of projects, element by element analysis, peer assessment, computer processing of research results; methods of mathematical processing of research results. The general scheme of organization of research work was as follows: a survey was conducted; project topic, project requirements were developed; the elements for element by element analysis were selected; weight points were distributed; peer assessment of projects was carried out by opponents. According to the tasks of the research and the main characteristics of teaching activity, the structural components of teachers’ competences are distinguished: motivational, cognitive, activity and personal. The outlined components became the basis for distinguishing the basic, reproductive and creative levels of teachers’ competence development.

The general population of the sample of the survey conducted during 2016 2019 was 311 teachers of different subjects from the National Pedagogical Dragomanov University (93), South Ukrainian National Pedagogical University named after K. D. Ushynsky (84), Ternopil Volodymyr Hnatiuk National Pedagogical University (65), Sumy State A. S. Makarenko Pedagogical University (69) with approximately the same work experience. To organize the experiment, the teachers who participated in the experiment during 2016 2019 were divided into experimental and control groups (Table 1). Table 1: Number of students in experimental and control groups Experimental group Control group 2016 2017 60 55

Types of training work Levels Basic Reproductive Creative Laboratory research work 10 13 14 16 17 20 Individual works 10 13 14 16 17 20 Test papers 5 6 7 8 9 10 Testing 5 6 7 8 9 10

Table 2:

within

Non variational conditions in CG and EG were the conduct of experimental research during the study of the same subjects and the use of the same forms of control. CG teachers’ training was carried out according to the traditional method of advanced training (full time, full time and part time). Variational conditions included the implementation of cloud based learning technologies in the EG in the distance competence development courses for teachers. Experimental verification of teachers’ competence level was based on a level approach (Livingston, 2014), according to which teachers’ competence levels were determined with the use of cloud technologies: basic reproductive, creative. Based on the research (Livingston, 2014; Simaiya & Paul, 2018), teachers’ competence level assessment is presented in the form of: 3 min{,,}, yo uuuu = whereu conditional index number of teachers' competence level, where: 0 initial; 1 basic; 2 reproductive; 3 creative; 3u conditional index number of the level of knowledge of teachers, where: 0 initial; 1 basic; 2 reproductive; 3 creative; y u conditional index number of the level of teachers’ skills, where: 0 initial; 1 basic; 2 reproductive; 3 creative; o u conditional index number of the level of experience of teachers, where: 0 initial; 1 basic; 2 reproductive; 3 creative.

Testing based on Google Forms was implemented in self preparation mode directly to control knowledge. Therefore, the level of motivation for teaching was assessed by performing laboratory research work; the level of knowledge of teachers in each disciplinary section (topic) based on the results of the final diagnostic work (practical, control and independent work). The content of control measuring materials covers all sections and topics that were studied within the distance competence building courses by means of cloud services. The teachers’ skills were assessed based on the results of the defence of final project work on a dichotomous measurement scale, as well as practical tasks, independent (individual, group) and tests, observation, participation in research (preparation of reports for conferences). The level of teachers’ experience was assessed based on the results of the defence of the project research work, which was performed within professional activity. The total number of assignments is a multiple of three the number of identified levels. The results of the current control and intermediate appraisal formed the rating of teachers. Based on the rating scale adopted in higher educational institutions (60 74/75 89/90 100 points), the corresponding points were accrued for the relevant types of work (Table 2). Distribution of points for the work the experimental study

types of

Table

Groups

% 2016

15 31.25% 6 12.5% EG

At the pre experimental stage, the teachers performed the input diagnostic work with the outlined diagnostic tools, and its results are presented in Table 3. It follows from its analysis that all participants of the pedagogical experiment successfully completed the input diagnostic work and were admitted to participate in the pedagogical experiment. Experimental and control groups were formed according to the results of the input diagnostic work. 3: Results of input diagnostic work of teachers’ competence at the preexperimental stage Levels of teachers’ competence development levels according to the results of input diagnostic work Reproductive Creative No. of teachers No. teachers No. of teachers 2017 CG 33 60% 31% 9% 39 65% 25% CG 27 56.25% 23 51.1% 37.8% 2019 CG 18 60% 36.7%

5 11.1% 2018

1 3.3% EG 16 66.7% 7 29.2% 1 4.1% At the beginning of the experiment, comparisons of the division of teachers by levels of academic achievement were made. The purpose of this statistical operation is to confirm the insignificant difference between the academic achievement of the competence development of EG and CG teachers. We used 2  criterion to test the null hypothesis (H0) that there is no difference between the distribution of students in the two groups by level of academic achievement. According to the results of the input testing (by years), statistical evaluation was performed based on the homogeneity criterion 2  . The empirical value of 2 emp was calculated by the formula: 2 2 1 , ii L emp i ii nm NMNM nm=   = +

It was assumed that the theoretical model of the distribution of the data obtained from the experiment is a normal distribution, since the random variables obtained from the analysis are the sum of a large number of weakly dependent terms. Mathematical processing of average scores was carried out using a data analysis tool descriptive statistics from the Microsoft Excel 2007 software package. This statistical analysis allowed assessing the level of effectiveness of teacher competence through the use of cloud technologies and services due to the interpretation of the level of the average score on the set of competence components identified.

6 10% 2017 2018

Basic

Distance competence building courses for teachers were based on the use of specialGooglesoftware:services (Google Classroom, Google Mindmeister, Google Docs, Google Spreadsheets, Google Presentation, Google Forms); QR code generator QR coder; mobile service QR scanner; online designer of interactive assignments LearningApps; service for organizing interactive testing, surveys and quizzes (Socrative, PollEverywhere).

L number of gradations of levels of teacher competence development levels. N and M respectively, the volumes of the experimental and control groups; in number of EG students who showed a certain level of competence (basic, reproductive, creative); im the number of CG students who showed a certain level of competence (basic, reproductive, creative). Two hypotheses we put forward to establish matches or differences in the characteristics of CG and EG. Н0 (null hypothesis) there are no differences between EG and CG teachers in terms of compared characteristics. Н1 (alternative hypothesis) differences between EG and CG teachers in terms of compared characteristics are significant. Comparison of the values of the criterion 2  with the critical one ( 2 0.05 = 5.99) allowed noting that the characteristics of the samples coincide at the significance level of 0.05 and the EG and CG splitting in the chosen way is possible, therefore the hypothesis Н0 is accepted. The results are shown in Table 4.

Table 4: Values of the 2 emp criterion by years of pre experimental study Year 2016 2017 2017 2018 2018 2019 2 emp 0.364 0.440 0.344 2.2. Research Design In order to improve the competence of teachers, distance competence development courses have been developed by means of cloud services. Within the study, the main category of trainees were practitioners with a work experience of no more than 10 years. The teachers chose Google online portal as an online platform for the practical assignments. The choice of using Google Apps Education Edition in remote teacher competence development courses is due to the following reasons: minimum hardware requirements (prerequisite is Internet access); cloud technology does not require any funds for purchasing and maintaining specialized software (the applications can be accessed through a web browser window); Google Apps supports all operating systems and client programs used by teachers and educational institutions; working with documents is possible with any mobile device that supports the Internet; All Google Apps Education Edition tools are free allowing synchronous mobile communication mechanism (confirmations, notifications, reminders), online help system.

Google Slides, Google Docs, Google Spreadsheets

Gmail, Google Drive, Google Calendar Provision of educational communications

296

Table 5: Purpose of Google Services for teacher competence development Services Purpose Google Docs, Google Spreadsheets Displays training information

The main Google services used by teachers for their competence development were: Google Drive for posting abstracts of lectures and their presentations; Google Docs – for active work with lecture texts; Google Calendar – to plan and manage educational activities (schedule of classes, consultations, schedule of conferences, reminders of check weeks, deadlines for submitting reports); Google Group a means of bringing different users together into one group; Google Site a system for publishing the necessary information on the network; Google Mail to receive notifications of changes in personal space and to conduct off line consultations; Google + Hangouts for online seminars (webinars) and the opportunity to ask questions in the text chat. In the educational process, students also created their own cloud storage on the local network with the help of OwnCloud service, explored the possibilities of its use in their professional activity. The set of outlined services provided by the educational “cloud” of a particular teacher, form his personal information and educational environment. The purpose of each service is shown in Table 5.

Google+ Hangouts Organization of lectures, webinars, laboratory work, extracurricular work

Google Calendar, Gmail Instructions on the timing of work, notification of events

Google Forms Organization of testing Google Docs, Google Spreadsheets, Google Slides Assessment of group and individual work

The use of Google Apps Internet Services in distance competence development courses allowed us to fulfil a number of tasks: creating training groups based on each lecture groups by assigning a group address of @groups.live.com type; organization of a calendar of training assignments during the courses with the possibility of automatic notification of the group one week before and subsequent marking of the performance; discussing a separate lecture topic based on OneNoteWebApps notebook; joint editing of the document by several members of the group (this task was most successfully accomplished in the process of carrying out case studies and project assignments, since the results of the discussion with the teacher or other participants of the groups did not require the transfer of files and creation of new documents on the basis of previous ones); posting of educational materials with the possibility of updating them in the current file (making additions; adding comments to individual content elements); receiving assignments by teacher and reporting on their performance 24/7; monitoring the performance of training assignments throughout the courses.

297 ©2020TheauthorsandIJLTER.ORG.Allrightsreserved. 3. Results Repeated assessments were made according to the same diagnostic methods upon completion of the distance competence development courses by the EG teachers with the use of cloud technologies. The following dynamics were obtained in CG and EG (see Tables 6 10). Table 6: Results of laboratory work to evaluate the motivational component of teachers’ competence Groups Levels of the development of motivational component of competence Basic Reproductive Creative No. of teachers % No. of teachers % No. of teachers % 2016 2017 EG 10 17% 32 53% 18 30% CG 20 36% 23 42% 12 22% 2017 2018 EG 9 20% 23 51% 13 29% CG 15 31% 24 50% 9 19% 2018 2019 EG 2 8% 11 46% 11 46% CG 11 37% 13 43% 6 20% Table 7: Results of the performance of final diagnostic work to evaluate the cognitive component of teachers’ competence Groups Levels of the development of cognitive component of competence Basic Reproductive Creative No. teachersof % No. teachersof % No. teachersof % 2016 2017 EG 17 28% 27 45% 16 27% CG 23 41.8% 26 47.3% 6 10.9% 2017 2018 EG 10 22.2% 24 53.3% 11 24.4% CG 19 39.6% 23 47.9% 6 12.5% 2018 2019 EG 4 16.7% 10 41.7% 10 41.7% CG 14 47% 12 40% 4 13% Table 8: Results of the defence of the final project work for the evaluation of the activity component of the competence of teachers Groups Levels of the development of activity component of competence Basic Reproductive Creative No. of teachers % No. of teachers % No. of teachers % 2016 2017 EG 12 20% 29 48% 19 32% CG 23 42% 27 49% 5 9% 2017 2018 EG 12 26.7% 21 46.7% 12 26.7% CG 25 52% 18 38% 5 10% 2018 2019 EG 4 17% 14 58% 6 25% CG 10 33% 20 67% 0 0%

298 ©2020TheauthorsandIJLTER.ORG.Allrightsreserved. Table 9: Results of the defence of project research work to evaluate the personal component of teachers’ competence Groups Levels of the development of personality component of competence Basic Reproductive Creative No. of teachers % No. of teachers % No. of teachers % 2016 2017 EG 19 32% 26 43% 15 25% CG 19 34.5% 28 50.9% 8 14.5% 2017 2018 EG 8 17.8% 30 66.7% 7 15.6% CG 13 27% 29 60% 6 13% 2018 2019 EG 4 17% 12 50% 8 33% CG 10 33% 18 60% 2 7% The result of the distance teacher competence development courses was evaluated comprehensively, based on all types of work. Results for distance courses using cloud technologies are presented in Table 10. Table 10: Changes in teacher competence development during distance courses based on cloud-based learning Groups Summarized levels of the teacher competence development Basic Reproductive Creative No. of teachers % No. of teachers % No. of teachers % 2016 2017 EG 13 22% 36 60% 11 18% CG 24 44% 25 45% 6 11% 2017 2018 EG 9 20% 21 47% 15 33% CG 16 33.3% 27 56.3% 5 10.4% 2018 2019 EG 2 8% 15 63% 7 29% CG 12 40% 16 53% 2 7% Figure 1: Summarized distribution of teachers by levels of competence development at the pre experimental stage, % 80706050403020100 CG EG CG EG CG EG teachersof% 2016 2019 Teacher competence development levels before the experiment CreativeReproductiveBasic

Year 2016-2017 2017-2018 2018-2019 2 emp 6.519 7.621 9.402

CreativeReproductiveBasic

teachersof% 2016

Figure 2: Summarized distribution of teachers by levels of competence development at the post experimental stage, % Figures 1 and 2 show the distribution of teachers by levels of competence development before and after the experiment. The results of the statistical data processing compared to the academic results of the CG and EG (after the end of the experiment) made it possible to accept an alternative hypothesis and confirmed the reliability of differences of the characteristics of the compared samples at the level of 95% (Table 11).

Table 11: The value of the 2 emp criterion by years of study after the experiment (comparison of control and experimental groups)

The numerical indicators reflect the effectiveness of the use of cloud based learning technologies in improving teacher competencies. The given data of tables and figures testify to increase of competence of the EG and CG teachers. In the EG, this increase was, however, more significant (for 2016 2019): on average, there was an increase in the number of teachers with a creative level of competence in CG EG CG EG CG EG 2019 Teacher competence development levels before the experiment

Year 2016 2017 2017 2018 2018 2019 CG 5.593 6.333 2.459 EG 25.440 16.9823 18.297

6050403020100 70

Table 12: The value of the 2 emp criterion by years of study after the experiment (comparison of control and experimental groups)

Statistical processing of the results of competence development levels in the control group before and after the application of traditional training method (without the use of cloud technologies) indicates more significant changes of the experimental group results before and after the training using cloud technologies (Table 12).

Theparticipants.studycomplemented

The experience of using the above forms and methods of working with Google Apps Education Edition services has shown that the formation, development and improvement of teacher competence is possible through consistent work in the system and the development of all its tools. In addition, distance training courses provided individualization of learning, created preconditions for the transition to personality oriented learning, allowed teachers to “immerse” in a virtual environment with the ability to simulate educational and professional situations, initiating a willingness to solve problems. The latter is consistent with the findings of Singh and Baheti (2017). When determining the role and service of cloud computing for higher education system proved that cloud services allow rethinking the use of the Internet in the educational process: from access to educational materials of various kinds (text, visual, multimedia) to joint work with the teacher or partners. This study is consistent with the results of our literature review and contributes to the study of the problem of introducing cloud educational technologies in the system of professional training and building competence of teachers. The results confirmed a previous study conducted by Purwoko, Andayani, Muntar and Diartha (2017), which points out that there is a current need for teachers who focus on continuity of professional education, the expansion of basic skills. Therefore, there is also a need for e learning, mass open on line courses. Although this was outside the scope of this study, distance courses reduced the imbalance between excessive efforts to develop teachers’ ability to engage in a variety of independent activities to collect, process, store, transfer, produce educational information, and lack of tutor in the development of information skills in the experiment

The use of cloud technologies, in particular the Internet portal Google Apps Education Edition with its main services in the system of advance training of teachers proved to be a pedagogical stimulus for their professional development.

4. Discussions

the EG compared to CG by 17.1%; with reproductive level by 5.3%; as for the basic level, there were 9.3% fewer teachers in the EG with this level.

The use of cloud technologies to improve the competence of teachers practitioner is quite effective and efficient, as evidenced by our distance cloud competence development courses, including the Google Apps Education Edition web portal with its main services. The use of these services extends the cognitive activity of teachers, develops communication and information skills enabling the use of online cloud services and sharing technologies for network cooperation and solving professional problems in the future. The EG teachers have mastered different models of educational activity based on the distribution of the functions of learning activities and the organization of communication between the teacher and students, as well as students with each other using cloud technology.

and deepened previous research on the use of cloud technologies in the educational process in the following aspects: the use of cloud computing and technology in education (Bulla et al., 2016); forming feedback and

The use of cloud based learning technologies in the process of enhancing the competence of teachers enables continuous learning, self development, raising the level of knowledge of specialists, mass sharing of information and experience regardless of spatial and temporal boundaries, equal chances for self realization of the participants to the process, creates conditions for teachers to build individual educational trajectories, maximum individualization of the educational process and orientation to conscious independent work. The set of Google Apps Education Edition services we considered meets the requirements for training systems, because they not only facilitate the acquisition of knowledge, but also enhance the skills to use of different strategies for finding information on the Internet, to analyse the information received, effective interaction of teachers in the fulfilment of common tasks and organization of the studied material. Experience in using the said forms and methods of work with Google Apps Education Edition has proven effective development and improvement of teachers’ competences during distance courses for systematic work in the systems and development of all their tools. The study of theoretical modules of educational programs in the format of remote technologies, which are implemented on Google Apps platform can be used in the prospect of the development of cloud technologies in higher education. For further research, we propose to develop a mobile application for teachers on Android and IOS to monitor their own achievements, as well as the techniques and methodological support for using Google Apps Education Edition in teaching. It will be very convenient, since mobile phones are always with you and you can complete the task at any time.

The results of the study can be challenged because the experiment relied on the experience of only a few higher educational institutions and involved teachers who had no more than 10 years of experience. The quasi experimental design of the study and a number of variables studied were also limitations of this study.

metadiscourse at the group level through cloud technologies (Resendes, Scardamalia, Bereiter & Halewood, 2015) and using open source technologies and open Internet resources to create an interactive learning environment (Kleftodimos & Evangelidis, 2016). The theoretical, methodological and practical developments have outlined further problem field of research on the technology of integration of cloud services “application as a service” and learning management systems (LMS).

This study experimentally proves that traditional courses in the system of the university based qualification courses for teachers should soon become a secondary matter, as the digitalization of learning and cloud storage of not only data but also applications changes the approach towards the traditional client server model, where the user obtains the minimum required functions.

6. Limitations and Implications for the Research

5. Conclusion

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Keywords: vocabulary acquisition; memory retention; motivation; educational game; social interaction 1. Introduction Vocabulary is essential knowledge in any language learning. New words learned are new vocabulary obtained in the targeted language. When learning

304 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 5, pp. 304 317, May https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.5.192020 Using U-NO-ME Card Game to Enhance Primary One Pupils’ Vocabulary Brenda Ak Lukas, Finola Iba Ak Patrick, Gloria Chong, Nursuriati Binti Jaino and Melor Md Yunus* Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia https://orcid.org/0000 0003 2892 8217 https://orcid.org/0000 0002 2854 7062 https://orcid.org/0000 0003 3145 3603 https://orcid.org/0000 0002 3197 7119 https://orcid.org/0000 0001 7504 7143

Abstract. It has been taxing for most English teachers to conduct proper English lessons since their pupils know minimal English vocabulary. Experiencing meaningful learning to understand the lesson content is more challenging when there is a limited chance to fully integrate ICT into English lessons, especially in rural schools in Sarawak. Therefore, this study aimed to unveil the U NO ME card game's potential as an educational game in enhancing Primary One pupils' vocabulary acquisition. The research design employed in this study is quasi experimental. The two types of data collection instruments used were pre and post test and a Likert scale questionnaire. A total of fifty two (52) Primary One pupils from four different schools of four different districts in Sarawak were selected through purposive sampling. The vocabulary adopted into the card game was aligned with the current CEFR based curriculum as designed in the Supermind textbook of Primary One and Primary Two's pupils in Malaysia. There is a significant improvement in pupils' vocabulary acquisition based on the scores between the pre and post test. Results from the questionnaire implied that pupils had positive perceptions of U NO ME card game as it enhanced pupils' memory retention and encouraged their learning motivation. Moreover, this study provides an insight for English teachers to discover the use of educational games in creating more interesting, useful, and meaningful teaching and learning vocabulary lessons.

In the current Malaysian education system, primary and secondary schools have integrated the Common European Framework of Reference for Language (CEFR). This new curriculum aids in improving English proficiency among younger learners through natural learning. Despite the reformation of curriculum, "vocabulary acquisition in a foreign language is a problematic and time consuming task" (Yunus, Salehi & Amini, 2016, p. 184). Yamat, Fisher and Rich (2014) opined that due to lack exposure to English language and opportunity to use the language, Malaysian primary school pupils are likely to face difficulties to engage actively in classroom activities. Inadequate amount of vocabulary acquired disable them to express themselves and use the language Accordingconfidently.to Umar and Hassan (2015), the integration of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) into teaching and learning acts as an essential tool to accompaniment and support teachers’ professional development to deliver productive and successful lessons. In conjunction with the statement, the ICT usage is prominent in teaching and learning in schools, managing educational institutions, and administrative sectors for the development of Malaysia (Ministry of Education, 2012). Nevertheless, some schools, especially those in rural areas, are facing challenges in implementing and integrating ICT into teaching and learning purposes due to technology barriers. Without the help of ICT, non native speaker pupils from rural and even suburban schools are struggling in understanding the lesson content of CEFR textbooks, which differ from the local context. These children are supposedly in their generation known as digital natives. Realistically speaking, they are far from being one. Growing

English as a second language, getting vocabulary first is important than mastering other language skills (listening, speaking, reading, and writing). The learners also expanded other language skills. "Vocabulary is an essential component of language proficiency and acts as foundation for learners to communicate with each other" (Khoii & Sharififar, 2013, p. 199). Alqahtani (2015) also agreed by stating that second language learners must acquire sufficient vocabulary knowledge to impede effective and meaningful communication. Acquiring vocabulary is fundamental for the development of all other skills in learning the English language. Learners need to acquire an extensive vocabulary as this will help them to speak, read, and write more proficiently in the second language. Vocabulary is especially essential to English language teaching as we need them to express ideas. Thus, it plays a significant role in everyday conversations as well as scholarly communication. Tovar Viera (2017) stated that learning vocabulary means learners also learn their meanings and how to use them in different contexts and situations. Hence, mastering an adequate number of words, and using them correctly is essential to communicate well in a targeted language.

One of the most challenging parts in learning a foreign language, particularly in English as a second language (ESL), is the retention of vocabulary. The importance of vocabulary is reflected daily in and out of the school as pupils who possess sufficient vocabulary are those achieving pupils (Alqahtani, 2015).

Originally, U NO ME was an idea generated from a famous card game called UNO, which was developed initially in 1971. Internet connection is not needed for this card game to operate. Most of the time, educators consider learners' memory is the only evidence that something learned. As Thornbury (2002, cited in Rizki et al., 2013) stated, to ensure pupils can recall and retent the knowledge longer, needs to be placed into working memory. Based on Cowan in 2014, working memory requires information to be in a ready accesible form. Working memory facilitates planning, comprehending, reasoning, and problem solving

In 2016, Richard reviewed that card games benefit in improving academic achievement and promoting high order thinking and problem solving. Card games further encouraged learners to interact actively and collaborate with other people and learn to come up with effective solutions to any problem that they face. Therefore, this study lets the pupils expose to the U NO ME card game that challenges their thinking and promotes their decision making.

It is a practical and user friendly game that enables users or players to use it to gain information and learning at the same time. Teachers modified on how to play the cards and the cards' content. The content of the U NO ME cards consists of words, pictures, and power cards. When playing the original UNO game, players have to match the number, colour, or the action of the card that the previous players discard. For instance, a blue card with the number "three (3)" is on top of the Discard Pile, the next player has to discard either a blue card or a card with the number "3" on it. Players can also discard a Wild card, which can alter the card's colour at that time in play. The U NO ME card game, on the other hand, players need to find the matching cards, picture to its word correctly, and take them out. Power cards are to make the games more entertaining and exciting. Pupils who finish all their cards in their possession will become the winner. As mentioned by Akdogan (2017), games, as fun activities develop intellectual skills and analytical thinking. A game makes the players absorb in an artificial struggle, defined by rules, that results in a quantifiable consequence. The originality of the materials exposes the pupils with new vocabulary and improve their proficiency in the using of vocabulary words. In the process of U NO ME card game, reading, speaking and listening language skills are involved. This number of players of the U NO ME card game can be two to six.

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. up in a rural and suburban area, although it's not entirely inaccessible to the town, some are rarely going out of the village. Due to inadequate facilities and unavoidable technology barriers, most teachers tend to stick to traditional methods in teaching. Teachers use conventional ways of teaching vocabulary, such as giving synonyms, memorisation, and oral explanations from teachers. These actions can demotivate pupils, and gradually, the pupils will lose interest in learning the English language and may not be willing to be in contact with anything related to English. Referring to Amjah (2014), learners should learn in a pleasurable and engaging environment. Therefore, teachers are highly encouraged to prepare effective teaching pedagogy to ensure learners can learn better in learning the English language.

1.1 Origin of U NO ME

2. Literature Review

The study addresses an important issue on how the U NO ME Card game could be used to enhance the primary one pupils' English vocabulary. The paper could make a significant contribution to the teaching of a second language through gaming. Thus, this study is to unveil the U NO ME card game's potential as an educational game in enhancing pupils' vocabulary acquisition when inadequate ICT facilities occur. Through the pre and post test together with a questionnaire, this study sought to discover the research questions, as follow:

According to Derakhshan and Khatir (2015), traditional teaching methods such as memorisation, repetition of words, direct translation methods, and fill in the blank exercises tend to make pupils feel troublesome and bored during teaching and learning session. They also stated that “using a long list of words and their translation items make no guarantee that remembering will take place” (p.40). Thus, it makes learning a language can also be frustrating and demotivate the pupils as they are only acquiring new vocabulary through unfamiliar words in the textbooks or during the teachers’ lectures during a classroom lesson. Susanto et al. (2019) suggested that motivation is the contributing factor to the success of language learning. It indicated that motivation plays an important role to attract pupils’ attention in vocabulary acquisition. Young learners get distracted easily as they mostly have short attention span. Therefore, teachers need to prepare exciting activities to avoid boredom in the classroom. Susanto et al. (2019) mentioned that some educators have been teaching vocabulary based on an

1. To what extent does the U NO ME card game aids in pupils’ vocabulary acquisition?

Figure 1 shows the images of the U NO ME cards' prototype. All of U NO ME cards are 8.7cm length and 5.5cm width, which is of the perfect grip. They are nicely packed together with a manual in their box. U NO ME cards consist of a total number of forty eight (48) cards, twenty (20) word cards, 20 picture cards, and eight powers cards. Apart from that, the design of the deck was on one theme, which is animals. This particular theme is present in the CEFR Supermind textbook and the English syllabus.

2.1 Vocabulary Learning

2. What are pupils’ perceptions regarding the use of U NO ME card game in English vocabulary learning?

Figure 1: U NO ME prototype

2.2 Game based Learning Game based learning is not a new notion in education. It has been widespread worldwide in recent years, particularly in classrooms where educators have started to look for various interactive and engaging learning environments, as stated by Serrano (2019). Today's curriculum needs to include solutions to attract pupils' attention and keep them engaged in their learning and encourage their critical and creative thinking. One of the relevant solutions is through a game based learning approach Games are mainly used for strategic thinking back in the Middle Ages (Cahill, 2019). Therefore, game based learning is an acceptable approach in today’s world of teaching and learning because of its constructivist concept. “Constructivism posits the need to provide pupils with the necessary tools so they can build their procedures to solve a problem" (Gamelearn, 2017). The constructivist approach allows learners to participate as they interact with people of their surroundings. They get to solve the problems that are being set out and apply the knowledge in daily life. Furthermore, learning through repetition, experiencing defeat, and accomplishment of goals is the principle of games (Cahill, 2019). Games are usually designed with appropriate difficulties while still easy to be played and conducted. The same concept is applied in using games in the education curriculum since learners will work towards a goal, choose their actions and exploring and testing the strategies that they come across while playing. In this way, they can indirectly find solutions to the problems. Thus, active learning takes place instead of passive learning.

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. academic achievement approach and disregard the appropriateness of the words’ difficulties used. In this situation, English grammar is usually essential in measuring the English proficiency or academic achievement and is a reflection of the mastery of English rather than vocabulary.

Some studies have shown that vocabulary enhancement activities, such as games, can improve learners' vocabulary acquisition. In 2011, Yunus et al. emphasised that learning has to be active so that the pupils can link between their prior knowledge and what they are about to learn. Correspondingly, pupils know their goals and what they will achieve at the end of the learning. Teaching and learning context can be meaningful and useful if pupils can experience and have a better understanding of the language as they practise all the language skills through games. According to Dr Karpicke (2016), meaningful learning is long lasting, understandable, and well organised. It also helps learners to be able to transfer knowledge, making inferences, and overcome obstacles Ulrich and Glendon (2005), as cited in Williyam et al. (2016), claimed that the use of games effectively draws pupils' attention. Games allow the immediate provision of feedback from teachers; thus, pupils can assess their comprehension and improve themselves. Subsequently, it helps to encourage learners to sustain their interest, work, and need for further study (Williyam et al., 2016). Hence, the game can help teachers maximise learners' learning potential. Games can make learners more enthusiastic and motivated in learning vocabulary.

2.3 Learning Vocabulary Through Games

Secondly, a questionnaire was administered to the same respondents in four different schools from four different districts in Sarawak. Using a questionnaire in this study was to obtain information about pupils' perceptions of the U NO ME card game in learning vocabulary in ESL classrooms. As mentioned by Debois (2019), the use of questionnaires is used to the targeted groups and conducted in several means. As for this study, the format of the questionnaire employed Likert scales. The data collection method was done quantitatively instead of qualitatively. This research aimed to reveal the lexical development of pupils in the pre and post

This study utilised the quasi experimental research design. Quasi experiments employ experimental and observational studies by using randomised controlled trials (RCTs) in many respects as mentioned by Maciejewski (2018). The researcher selects the target group into different treatments instead of using random selection. The researchers collect pre and post test scores data, hence involving manipulating independent variables from purposive samples. According to Rogers and Revesz (2019), the independent variable is predicted to bring about some effects or changes in the dependent variable. For example, in this study, it is about examining the impact of using U NO ME card game on vocabulary acquisition. There are two parts of the data in this study. Firstly, data were derived from pre test and post test scores. Before the inception of U NO ME card game as a treatment, a pre test was given to check pupils' performance. A post test was given as an evaluation of the development of pupils' performance after the treatment. It illustrated the effect of using U NO ME card game on the vocabulary learning process.

Also, Derakhshan and Khatir (2015), referring to Huyen and Nga's (2003) study on learning vocabulary through games, stated that the use of vocabulary games in the classroom exposes learners to the real world situations. It also enables pupils to use language in an adaptable, comfortable and interactive way. Learning vocabulary through play is believed to hold high value in language education since it helps to make language learning more entertaining (Razali et al., 2017). Connecting the intended meaning with images is how a word is learned and with the virtual aid method thus heightened the retention of the word. In a research study conducted by McLean and Griffiths (2019), it was ascertained that playing games have a positive impact as it fosters social support as well as the progress of social ties, including social capital, social identity, and civic engagement. Learners are more likely to develop positive attitudes and be more motivated through game based learning. Rizki et al. (2013) also supported that statement by mentioned that physical activities that make pupils move around could boost pupils' motivation in learning. Physical movements aid in boosting energy to tired learners during class. It can avoid boredom as well as refresh learners' memory on the learning.

3. Methodology 3.1 Research Design

3.2 Research Respondents

Table 1 illustrates the number of respondents used throughout this study. A total of 52 Primary One pupils (seven years old) were selected purposely for this research; without any control group. Out of fifty two (52) respondents, ten (10) were from a rural school in Kapit district, sixteen (16) were from Saratok district, another 16 were from a rural school in Tatau district, and 10 were from a rural school in Sri Aman district. These schools were labelled as School A, B, C, and D, respectively. 1: Number of respondents (n) The(District)School Male Female Total number of respondents (n) A (Kapit) 2 8 10 B (Saratok) 8 8 16 C (Tatau) 11 5 16 D (Sri Aman) 4 6 10 Total (n) 52 3.3 Research Procedures

A total of twenty (20) animal vocabulary words were listed and used in the pre test and post test items. Both tests comprised of three (3) types of items, which included matching pictures to words (10 items), unscramble letters based on the given images (5 items), and write the correct names to the images provided (5 items). The researchers chose 20 words because they are in one of the suggested themes available in the CEFR Supermind Textbook. Not only that, but teachers also believed that exposing more than 20 words may cause the pupils to burn out. Hence, selecting only 20 words was considered well suited to accommodate the research aim, which was to study the U NO ME card game's potential in enhancing pupils' vocabulary acquisition. Figure 2 is the research design of this study. Before the teaching and learning process began, the pupils were to answer the pre test questions. Once the pre test was completed, teachers continued with the first lesson by explaining animals and introducing the pupils to all 20 targeted animal vocabulary words using pictures. Immediately after the introduction, the pupils were introduced to the U NO ME card game. The teachers had to demonstrate how to play the games and explained its rules because pupils are not familiar with it. This practice went on every day for one month, with at least 10 minutes allocated during each interaction. On the last day of the experiment periods, the teachers handed out the post test, which was similar to the pre test for pupils to complete.

Table

Figure 2: Pre test and post test design

4.1 Comparison of outcomes between pre-test and post-test Table 2: Comparison of results between pre test and post test

The results in table 2 show that there is an improvement in the pupils' vocabulary acquisition. Three rural schools and one suburban school in Sarawak administered the tests. Pupils in School A (Kapit) and School B (Saratok) showed a definite increase of 55.5% and 52.2% score percentage in their post tests, respectively. In the meantime, pupils in School C (Tatau) showed a positive increment of 40%, and pupils in School D (Sri Aman) showed a definite increase of 32% in their post tests. In this study, most pupils have shown an School District Number of pupils (n) Pre(%)Test Post(%)Test Difference(%) A Kapit 10 33.5 89 + 55.5 B Saratok 16 33.4 85.6 +52.2 C Tatau 16 22.8 62.8 +40 D Sri Aman 10 39.5 71.5 +32

4. Results

This section will discuss two sets of findings, which are the comparisons between test results from four different schools as well as the survey results from the questionnaire distributed to the respondents.

Both pre test and post test were checked by teachers before the results were listed and translated into percentages. The percentage from the post test was deducted by percentage from the pre test to verify any improvements from both tests. This result is then presented in a table. Then, pupils' achievement in both tests were introduced in the form of a bar chart. To further support the data, a paired sample t test was carried out to describe the difference in mean before and after the U NO ME card game. The respondents' achievement scores were recorded into statistical software known as IBM SPSS Statistics version 20. The difference between the pre test and post test results was recorded as proof that there is a positive increment between pre test results and post test results from the four schools. Next, the results from the questionnaire were translated into percentages and presented in a table. Each of the items was rated on a Likert scale of 1 to 5. It is to indicate to what extent the respondents agree to the given statements based on their experience throughout the implementation of U NO ME card game. The findings were analysed through SPSS version 20, and descriptive statistics involving percentages and mean score were employed. The mean score was classified into three levels. Low level denoted to the mean score of 1 2.33 while moderate level referred to the mean score of 2.34 3.66. The high standard, on the other hand, was constituted by the mean score ranging from 3.67 5.00. The results from the two data were significant in proving the U NO ME card game's effectiveness in enhancing the acquisition of pupils' vocabulary.

3.4 Data analysis

Figure 3: Average score percentage between pre test and post test Figure 3 shows the mean score percentage for pre test and post test in three rural schools and one suburban school. Figure 3 shows a positive increment of 45.2% from the average score of pre test and post test. Hence, this innovation has brought a significant influence on the pupils' vocabulary acquisition. To further support the data from the document analysis, a paired sample t test was conducted through SPSS version 20 to get the mean value, standard deviation value, t value, and significance value. The results are illustrated in the table 3 and table 4. % +11.

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. improvement in their vocabulary acquisition regardless of their school settings. By playing the U NO ME card game, pupils were exposed to a total of 20 animal vocabulary words repeatedly. The U NO ME card game has resulted in a positive effect on the frequent use of repeated words. Bakar and Nosratirad (2013) stated that the new words found in the game were frequently and repeatedly used. This card game allowed their players to learn the vocabulary quickly in their study as they had the opportunity to recall the prior knowledge Also, the pupils were learning to interact with their peers as this game requires them to verify their friends' cards to ensure they found the matching pair. Social interactions are essential in ensuring the pupils have ample opportunities to use the target language. U NO ME card game exhibits a fun yet challenging atmosphere for the pupils during the game. Nevertheless, most of the pupils actively participated as they enjoyed playing U NO ME card game. In conclusion, this outcome has proven that the U NO ME card game improved pupils' vocabulary acquisition in all four schools.

Table 3: Paired Samples Statistics Mean N DeviationStd. Std.MeanError Pair 1 PRE TEST 31.3462 52 18.44747 2.55820 POST TEST 76.5385 52 19.08542 2.64667 31.3

76.5 %100806040200 PRE-TEST POST-TEST (%)ScoreAverage Pre-test VS Post-test

313 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Table 4: Paired Samples Test Paired Differences t Df Sig. tailed)(2Mean DeviatiStd.on MeanErrorStd. 95% LowerIntervalConfidenceoftheDifferenceUpper Pair 1 PostPre-testtest 45.19231 19.77723 2.74261 50.69832 39.68629 16.478 51 .000 The pre test and post test results were compared using a paired sample t test. As illustrated in table 3 and table 4, there was a noticeable difference in the scores between pre test (mean=31.3462, s.d=18.44747) and post test (mean=76.5385, s.d = 19.08542) ; (t = 16.478, p < .001). Besides, the table showed a greater difference in terms of the mean for the post test. It is concluded that Ho was rejected since there was a significant difference in pupils’ vocabulary acquisition after they were introduced to the U NO ME card game. This statistic proved that the pupils’ vocabulary acquisition has improved over the treatment given during the experimental period. 4.2 Pupils’ perceptions of U NO ME card game Table 5: Pupils’ perception of U-NO-ME card game No. ITEMS Strongly disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly agree MeanScore 1. U NO ME is interesting. (0%)0 (5%)3 (0%)0 (10%)6 (83%)43 (High)4.71 2. U NO ME is easy to play. (3%)2 (2%)1 (2%)1 (17%)10 (73%)38 (High)4.56 3. I enjoy learning with the U NO ME card game. (0%)0 (5%)3 (0%)0 (7%)4 (87%)45 (High)4.75 4. I can play U NO ME with my friends anywhere. (0%)0 (0%)0 (0%)0 (8%)5 (90%)47 (High)4.90 5. The pictures and words in the U NO ME card game are bright and attractive. (0%)0 (2%)1 (0%)0 (13%)8 (83%)43 (High)4.79 6. U NO ME makes me feel excited to learn English. (0%)0 (2%)1 (0%)0 (8%)5 (88%)46 (High)4.85 7. I can remember the spellings better using U NO ME. (0%)0 (2%)1 (3%2) (20%)12 (71%)37 (High)4.63 8. U NO ME motivates me to learn the English language. (0%)0 (0%)0 (0%)0 (8%)5 (90%)47 (High)4.90 9. U NO ME helps me to improve my vocabulary. (0%)0 (2%)1 (2%)1 (13%)8 (81%)42 (High)4.75 10. I will continue to use U NO ME to learn. (0%)0 (0%)0 (0%)0 (7%)4 (92%)48 (High)4.92

Based on table 5, 83% of the respondents strongly agreed that this innovation is an exciting game to play. On the other hand, 87% of the respondents strongly agreed that they enjoyed playing U NO ME card game with a high mean of 4.75.

5.2 Pupils’ perceptions on the use of U NO ME card game in English vocabulary learning

The results showed a positive increment in the respondents’ score percentage in all of the schools. Despite being implemented in a different setting, this innovation made its way to support pupils’ learning in the English language.

Meanwhile, 90% of the respondents strongly agreed that U NO ME card game had motivated them to learn the English language, as shown in the questionnaire results in table 5. According to Uberman (1998), as cited in Luu (2012), learning through games will boost learners' motivation as it cultivates healthy competition in learners. It helps learners to learn and retain new words quickly. Besides, 81% of the respondents strongly agreed that this innovation had improved their vocabulary acquisition. A total of 92% of respondents had firmly decided to continue using this innovation in their learning. Both of the statements scored a high mean level of 4.75 and 4.92, respectively. In sum, the questionnaire results indicated that most of the respondents had ethical perceptions of using U NO ME card game to learn vocabulary. It is crucial for the pupils to feel comfortable using the target language to allow the learning process to occur naturally. Therefore, the U NO ME card game was proven effective in improving pupils’ vocabulary acquisition.

5. Discussion 5.1

According to Oxford (2002), memory strategy has significantly been used in increasing vocabulary retention as it allows learners to associate words with images and sounds. U NO ME card game requires pupils to adopt a memory strategy frequently as they need to find the matching pairs to win the game. More words were correctly recalled by the pupils as shown in the post test after playing the U NO ME card game as compared to their findings in the pre test. Therefore, the U NO ME card game is effective in enhancing pupils’ memory retention of theme based vocabulary in the CEFR syllabus Besides, 88% of the pupils were excited to learn vocabulary through this card game. Hence, this innovation was proven to engage pupils in their learning. According to Honarmand et al. (2015), as cited in Bavi (2018), the use of interactive activities in vocabulary teaching allows pupils to overcome the embarrassment and participate more actively in their learning. Furthermore, interactive activities are known for establishing a positive environment in a classroom. In this study, the U NO ME card game allowed pupils to express themselves using the English language comfortably. This card game has a positive impact on implementing interactive activities in an ESL classroom. Besides, teachers should no longer stick to the conventional teaching methods when it concerns a language that the pupils rarely use. By incorporating interactive activities in a classroom, pupils are slowly shaped into independent learners as they have more autonomy in their learning. Eventually, they will be able to identify their mistakes and improve on their weaknesses.

U NO ME card game aids pupils’ vocabulary acquisition

6. Conclusion In this study, the findings provided an insight into the use of U NO ME card game in providing active and meaningful English vocabulary learning for primary ESL classroom. Results from the pre test and post test showed a significant improvement in pupils' vocabulary acquisition. The data collected from the questionnaire implied that this innovation enhances pupils' memory retention in learning new vocabulary. Pupils were motivated to learn new vocabulary through games. Additionally, their interactive skills were gradually improved as peer assessment was inevitable while playing U NO ME card Apartgame.

from that, this study could help educators to realise the importance of providing meaningful learning. The findings have proven that card games can be used and modified to cater to pupils with different needs. Furthermore, this innovation allows teachers to act as facilitators while pupils assess each other during the game, thus creating a pupil centered learning environment However, the researchers discovered two research limitations during the study. First, there is a lack of prior research studies on the topic as less citing on previous research studies in the literature review. The second limitation was the sample size and population. In this study, the researchers used a relatively small number of respondents. Thus, the significant relationship of the data only represents the distribution of the population and is considered as a representative of the groups of pupils to whom results were generalised. Lastly, few measures could be taken into consideration in the future replication of this research innovation, which is to incorporate the use of ICT, such as Quick Response (QR) codes and Augmented Reality (AR), into the card game.

This outcome proves that the respondents had ethical perceptions of this innovation. Besides, the researchers who were the teachers themselves played their roles as facilitators throughout this study. Vygotsky (1978) clarified Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) as "the distance between the actual developmental level determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development determined through problem solving under adult guidance, or in collaboration with more skilled partners" (p.86). It refers to the gap between what learners can achieve independently and what they can achieve with guidance and encouragement from competent partners. A teacher who acts as a facilitator will provide more room for the pupils to learn at their best; and hence, create a meaningful learning experience. Besides, this innovation allows pupils to interact with their friends as they play the game, which indirectly promotes peer coaching. According to Celce Murcia, Brinton, and Snow (2014), interactive activities involving negotiation aid in learners' vocabulary acquisition as these activities exhibit more exposure, attention, time, and manipulation during the process. Most of the pupils were no longer reluctant to use the English language to interact with their friends as they were eager to win the game. This card game has proven that it is necessary, especially for timid pupils, to feel comfortable instead of burdened in using a target language. It would help create meaningful learning opportunities for the pupils, as they could confidently use the language.

7. References Alqahtani, M. (2015). The importance of vocabulary in language learning and how to be taught. International Journal of Teaching and Education, International Institute of Social and Economic Sciences, 3(3), 21 34. doi:10.20472/TE.2015.3.3.002 Amjah, D. Y. P. H. (2014). A study of teachers’ strategies so develop students’ interest towards learning English as a second language. Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences, 134, 188 192. Askdogan, E. (2017). Developing vocabulary in game activities and game materials. Journal of Teaching and Education, 7(1), 31 66. Bakar, N. A., & Nosratirad, E. (2013). Sustaining vocabulary acquisition through computer game: A case study. Asian Social Science, 9(5), 235 242. doi:10.5539/ass.v9n5p235 Bavi, F. (2018). The effect of using fun activities on learning vocabulary at the elementary level. Journal of Language Teaching and Research, 9(3), 629 639. Cahill, G. (2019). Why game based learning? Retrieved from https://thelearningcounsel.com/article/why game based learning Celce Murcia, M., Brinton, D. M., & Snow, M. A. (Eds). (2014). Teaching English as a second or foreign language. Boston, USA: National Geographic Learning. Cowan, N. (2014). Working memory underpins cognitive development, learning, and education. Educational Psychology Review, 26(2), 197 223. Debois, S. (2019). 10 advantages and disadvantages of questionnaires. Retrieved from https://surveyanyplace.com/questionnaire pros and cons/ Derakhshan, A., & Khatir, E. D. (2015). The effects of using games on English vocabulary learning. Journal of Applied Linguistics and Language Research, 2(3), 39 47. Gamelearn. (2017). The theory of game based learning. Retrieved from https://www.game learn.com/the theory of game based learning/ Karpicke, J. D. (2016). A powerful way to improve learning and memory. Retrieved from https://www.apa.org/science/about/psa/2016/06/learning memory Khoii, R., & Sharififar, S. (2013). Memorization versus semantic mapping in L2 vocabulary acquisition. ELT Journal, 67(2), 199 209. doi:10.1093/elt/ccs101 Luu, T. T. (2012). Vocabulary recollection through games. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 2(2), 257 264. Maciejewski, M. (2018). Quasi experimental design. Biostatistics & Epidemiology, 4(1), 38 47. McLean, L., & Griffiths, M. D. (2019). Female gamers’ experience of online harassment and social support in online gaming: A qualitative study. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 17(4), 970 994. Ministry of Education in Malaysia. (2013). Executive summary Malaysia education blueprint 2013 2025 (preschool to post secondary education). Putrajaya: Ministry of Education Malaysia. Oxford, L. R. (2002). Language learning strategies: What every teacher should know. Boston: Heinle & Heinle. Razali, W. N., Amin, M. N., Kudus, N. V., & Musa, M. K. (2017). Using card game to improve vocabulary retention: A preliminary study. International Academic Research Journal of Social Science, 3(1), 30 36. Richard, B. (2016). Game based selective attention intervention: Effect of blink on selective attention for street youth in Zambia (Senior Honors Theses), 583 Liberty University Retrieved from https://digitalcommons.liberty.edu/honors/583

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Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Williyam, A., Yunus, M. M., & Aziz, A. A. (2016). Students’ perception of using games in the teaching of reading skill. International Conference on Education, 100 103. Yamat, H., Fisher, R., & Rich, S. (2014). Revisiting English language learning among Malaysian children. Asian Social Science, 10(3), 174 180. Yunus, M. M., Salehi, H., & Amini, M. (2016). Impact of using CALL on Iranian EFL learners’ vocabulary knowledge. English Language Teaching, 9(1), 173 187. Yunus, M. M., & Abdullah, N. R. K. R. (2011). Motivation and attitudes for learning English among primary six students in primary rural school. Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences, 15, 2631 2636.

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Appendix 1: Pre Test Name: Class: Date: A.Match the pictures to the correct words. 1. • • camel 2. • • horse 3. • • kangaroo 4. • • cow 5. • • polar bear

6. • • jellyfish 7. • • koala 8. • • sheep 9. • • parrot .10 • • cheetah

B.Rearrange the letters to form the correct words. 1. g o t a 2. w l a h e 3. n a s k e

4. b r a b i t 5. g e p n u n i

C.Name the pictures correctly. 5.4.3.2.1.

Appendix 2: Post Test Name: Class: Date: A.) Match the pictures to the correct names. 10.9.8.7.6.5.4.3.2.1. polarkangaroojellyfishwhalebearcrocodileparrothorsetigercamelsnake

B.) Rearrange the letters to form the correct words. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. ocw p ndo hil b tirab h pese p ngu ein

C.) Name the pictures correctly. 1. 3.2. 54..

Appendix 3: Questionnaire Circle a number for each statement. 1 = Strongly disagree 2 = Diagree 3 = Neutral 4 = Agree 5 = Strongly agree No. ITEMS Strongly disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly agree 1. U NO ME is interesting. 1 2 3 4 5 2. U NO ME is easy to play. 1 2 3 4 5 3. I enjoy learning with U NO ME card game. 1 2 3 4 5 4. I can play U NO ME with my friends anywhere. 1 2 3 4 5 5. The pictures and words in U NO ME card game are clear and attractive. 1 2 3 4 5 6. U NO ME makes me feel excited to learn English. 1 2 3 4 5 7. I can remember the spellings better using U-NO-ME. 1 2 3 4 5 8. U NO ME motivates me to learn English language. 1 2 3 4 5 9. U NO ME helps me to improve my vocabulary. 1 2 3 4 5 10. I will continue to use U NO ME to learn. 1 2 3 4 5

Keywords: academic reading and writing; undergraduate nursing research; English for academic purposes

Abstract. Like other students of any discipline, nursing students are taught to develop and enhance their cognitive, affective, and psychomotor skills. They are being trained for their future nursing responsibilities in the clinical or community based facilities and are empowered to create positive changes in healthcare through the conduct and publication of quality research. However, conducting and publishing quality research could be challenging for many nursing students as these entail a myriad of skills, including reading and writing in the discipline. This study investigated students’ needs in academic reading and writing in nursing research using sequential explanatory mixed methods design. Quantitative data were first gathered through a self administered questionnaire from a group of 18 nursing students. Afterward, six conveniently selected students from the same group were subjected to a semi structured interview conducted online. Descriptive statistics such as Mean and Standard Deviation and content analysis were employed as data analyses for the survey and interview data. The following are the findings of the study: (1) on academic reading, nursing students’ needs include organizing literature items reviewed, and synthesizing general concepts to generate a new idea; and (2) on academic writing, students’ needs encompass the use of correct grammar, paraphrasing, adherence to a publication format, and confidence in academic writing. The study draws pedagogical implications for an English for Academic Purposes (EAP) classroom, suggesting that language teachers employ explicit teaching of reading strategies that facilitate critical reading and teach academic writing both at the micro and macro levels.

Reynold C. Padagas College of Nursing and Health Sciences, José Rizal University Mandaluyong City, Philippines https://orcid.org/0000 0001 7584 1750 Bonjovi H. Hajan Senior High School Division, José Rizal University Mandaluyong City, Philippines https://orcid.org/0000 0003 2911 5824

Academic Reading and Writing Needs of Undergraduate Nursing Students in Research

318 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 5, pp. 318 335, May https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.5.202020

Considering this, research is regarded as the core that bridges the gaps in both the academic and community purposes of higher education institutions. Research is elemental in any learning institution as it creates a secure interconnection between and among the goals of higher learning. It is one of the fundamental metrics of quality education in higher learning institutions like the university. It is perhaps safe to assume that an institution without quality research production and publication may be a clear manifestation of a lack of support for higher learning.

Disseminating new scientific knowledge through publication is crucial in any discipline, including nursing (Yancey, 2016). Nursing students are trained to develop and enhance their cognitive, affective, and psychomotor skills. The formal training of nursing students is not only limited to their future promotive, preventive, curative, and rehabilitative duties in the clinical or public nursing facilities. It also includes an aspect that fosters healthcare development through active involvement in the writing and publishing of scientific research. Preparing undergraduate nursing students to become researchers is a faculty requirement (Parilo, Parsh & Samson, 2019). The need to improve nursing students' research skills is essential as it contributes to the science of nursing, specifically evidence based nursing (Ryan, 2016). However, critical reading as an essential skill in research could be difficult to maneuver (Gile, 2001). Also, writing has remained "a game with a bewildering set of rules, many of which are never made explicit to student writers" (Harwood & Hadley, 2004: 356).

1.1.1. Academic Reading and Writing

Building on this contention, this study is an attempt made to provide insights into the needs of nursing students concerning academic reading and writing in research. The researchers believe that skills in reading and writing applied in academic settings are extremely pivotal in nursing research as these serve as pathways for nursing students to engage in research and demonstrate scholarship essential for evidence based practice in healthcare and nursing. The findings of the present study have useful applications to the EAP pedagogy, particularly in the context of academic reading and writing in nursing research.

1. Introduction

1.1. Literature Review

Institutions of higher learning have a time old threefold function, and these include research, instruction, and extension (Tanhueco Tumapon, 2016).

Academic reading is defined as "purposeful and critical reading of lengthy academic texts for studying specific major subject areas" (Sengupta, 2002: 3). It is a concentrated reading and is distinct from daily reading (Faizah, 2004). The ability to comprehend academic writings is vital, which the university students are required to perform (Levine, Ferenz & Reves, 2000). In the context of research, academic reading may be regarded as critical reading. Gile (2001) identified three norms for critical reading: a research act subject to the similar patterns as other research acts, the importance of comprehending before evaluating, and skepticism towards one's evaluation. Critical reading as a research act subject pertains to its role in ascertaining systematic, rigorous, careful, and objective reading. Comprehension before evaluation suggests that the reader must

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. understand the writer's positions and opinions embedded in his or her writing. This is important to ensure that misperceptions about the veracity of the literature are avoided. Finally, skepticism towards one's evaluation signifies a careful process of reading to avoid reader bias. A thorough reading of all parts of the material and double checking are essential features of this norm.

1.1.2 Some Studies on Academic Reading and Writing in Nursing Research into academic reading and writing in the context of nursing have been proliferating recently. For example, Gazza and Hunker (2012) determined scholarly writing problems in post licensure nursing students that needed teachers to respond to a variety of writing abilities. To improve writer development, they offered scaffolding within and across courses in the nursing

Given these norms, academic reading in research has direct applications in the literature review because, in many cases, the literature reading stage is not appropriately undertaken (Gile, 2001). As Gile (2001: 1) asserted, one reason could be attributed to the critical reader's behavior, "who may be careless, impatient, or lack the stamina required for long, careful reading." In connection, critical reading entails genre knowledge. According to Carrell (1985), students who are taught using genre structure tend to develop better reading recall and/or comprehension. This is also consistent with Hyon (2001), who discovered that an EAP genre based reading pedagogy resulted in students' more considerable attention to rhetorical features in texts. The notion of “academic writing” is frequently construed in a slightly unreflective approach leading to the existence of its various definitions (Ask, 2007, as cited in Borglin & Fagerström, 2012). Grami (2010: 9) describes academic writing as a sophisticated writing type that entails, “careful thought, discipline, and concentration.” It is that type of writing that makes use of linguistic devices held as an academic language (Schleppegrell, 2012). However, an academic language may be better viewed from different disciplinary perspectives because, according to Hyland and Tse (2007), each field of study shares its own bundle of lexical terms and structures. In connection, academic writing requires genre knowledge since genre commands certain rhetorical devices needed in a specific discipline (Bhatia, 1993). In a nutshell, academic writing involves knowledge of conventions, styles, language, and audience given a specific area of discipline (Hyland, 2003), and successful academic writing situates “complex higher order analytical demands” on learners (Whitehead, 2002: 502). In research, effective academic writing entails a certain level of awareness and understanding and, more importantly, the ability to critically evaluate and integrate ideas and correctly build on and reference to the body of knowledge (Knowles & McGloin, 2007). Given the nature of academic reading and writing espoused above, it can be argued that these skillsets are essential for conducting proper research that results in publication. Academic reading is necessary to critically examine the existing body of knowledge, which could pave the way for the development of academic writing skills, which is central for writing and publishing research outputs in nursing.

In the Philippines, research and development is an integral component of the Science, Technology, Engineering, Agri Fisheries, and Mathematics (STEAM) program in higher education (Anito & Morales, 2019). Universities should establish a research organization that supports the development of research competence among their research stakeholders (Anito, Limjap & Padagas, 2020) Particularly, nursing graduates are expected to participate in health related research, evaluate research projects, and utilize the research process in improving client care (Commission on Higher Education, 2017). Through courses on disciplinary research, nursing students are assumed to communicate effectively using culturally appropriate language; and conduct research with an experienced researcher that contributes to the development of practice in healthcare and nursing. The journey in nursing research, however, is not learned overnight. As a result, many strategic interventions have been established to help nursing students in their research work. These interventions include internship other than the collective didactic and classroom learning experience in research writing.

According to O’Brien and Hathaway (2018), an internship is a favorable practice that not only provides significant practical skills but also helps stimulate curiosity in a prospective research profession

Moreover, Uysal Toraman, Hamaratçılar, Tülü and Erkin (2017) investigated the effectiveness of writing an undergraduate thesis on the behaviors of nursing learners with respect to research and advancement in nursing. The research suggested that writing a nursing education thesis has a favorable impact on nursing students’ behaviors towards and understanding of research and advancement in nursing.Additionally, Miller, Russell, Cheng, and Zembles(2018) studied the usefulness of a scaffolded pedagogy in writing with virtual degree accomplishment nursing learners. The study concluded that writing should be taught with devoted time in the nursing classes for learners to develop as skilled writers. It should provide authentic exposure that will enable them to conceptualize as well as present their thoughts in a meaningful and critical manner.

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. program and also in courses that promote the nursing curriculum. The authors also responded to the call for faculty training to facilitate successful scaffolding.

Interestingly, O’Brien and Hathaway (2018) also expressed that teachers carrying out research projects seldom interact with nursing learners in undergraduate courses. The workshop strategy is useful for training nurses to write publishable articles and for developing the writing abilities of nurses and nursing learners; however, such method, to be effective, should work hand in hand with individual

Furthermore, Shellenbarger, Gazza, and Hunker’s (2018) study determined perceived skills of undergraduate nursing learners in showcasing the scholarly writing competence. Their results showed that the students perceived they understand the necessary elements of scholarly writing. Besides, the study found that students sometimes employed preliminary activities which included preparing an outline, thinking, find the literature, devoting time conceptualizing, writing in small parts to scaffold their writing, constructing scholarly writing following recognized project formats, among others.

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. monitoring and feedback on writing (Derouin et al., 2015). In another study, attributional retraining (AR) was instituted to improve students’ writing performance (Tai, Pan & Lee, 2016). Moreover, the development and the durability of research allow for the marked appearance of discipline in nursing sciences (Szyba et al., 2018). Issues and concerns in research writing also include facilitation styles employed by the teacher and academic integrity held by students. In a nursing research class with diverse learners, a teacher needs to ensure class facilitation to fulfill course objectives. While the study was related to the class facilitation in a hard science course, the lessons uncovered from the findings of Padagas (2020) emphasized the role of facilitation techniques in maximizing collaborative learning activities despite team diversity. A supportive intervention facilitation style is deemed necessary because writing skills can thrive among nontraditional undergraduate students when scaffolded with guided instruction (Miller, Russell, Cheng & Skarbek, 2015). Besides, Gutierrez and Padagas (2019) examined academic dishonesty among college nursing students. Their findings revealed that while there is no single measure to prevent or resolve academic dishonesty in college students, teachers and the school play a crucial role in helping students live with academic integrity.

Ostensibly, writing research in nursing requires tedious preparations for one to be able to master it. More than the pieces of training embedded in instructional designs that are translated into teaching and learning processes in nursing research is the necessity to publish in reputable journals, both those in print and pixels. However, research publication entails a myriad of skills, including critical analysis of the literature and advanced academic writing. These are much debated as the culprit as to why student researchers fail to publish their academic works because academic writing is perhaps the most critical factor in showcasing scholarship (Whitehead, 2002). Notwithstanding its central value, research on writing within the context of nursing students indicates that academic reading and writing remains as one of the most challenging facets of their learning (Whitehead, 2002). All the studies mentioned above underscore the importance of academic literacy skills such as reading and writing in nursing education. However, it is noteworthy that none of these studies has explored the needs of nursing students with respect to academic reading and writing, especially in the research context. The researchers believe that skills in reading and writing applied in academic contexts are extremely pivotal in nursing research as these serve as pathways for nursing students to engage in research and demonstrate scholarship essential for evidence based practice in healthcare and nursing.

This study investigated the academic reading andwriting needs of undergraduate nursing students in research. Specifically, this research aimed to address the following questions:

1. What are the academic reading needs of nursing students in a research class? 2. What are the academic writing needs of nursing students?

This study applied the sequential explanatory mixed methods research design by Creswell and Plano Clark (2011). The use of such design was applicable in the present study because quantitative data collection and analysis preceded the qualitative phase (see Figure 1). Besides, the emphasis of the study was maintained since a more in depth investigation was carried out to build on the quantitative data results (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2011). However, it should be noted that the qualitative phase may be limited. It only considered responses from the six participants who were conveniently available to take part in its conduct.

The participants of this research were undergraduate nursing students in a private university in Mandaluyong City, Philippines. For the quantitative strand of the study, the researchers used an entire class comprising of 18 fourth year nursing students (6 male and 12 female) whose age bracket ranged from 20 40. These students could be considered bilingual since English is treated as a medium of instruction in the Philippines (Wa Mbaleka, 2014). They were purposively selected as the participants because they were enrolled in a nursing research class and had already completed research projects on clinical and community nursing. The researchers believed that these students could best share their challenges (needs) regarding academic reading and writing.

For the qualitative strand, the researchers employed a convenience sampling technique in which six students from the same group participated in the qualitative interview. It should be noted that the qualitative phase occurred after the semester had ended in which some students were no longer available for interviews during this time; hence, the employment of convenience sampling.

2. Methods

2.1 Research Design

2.2 Participants

2.3 Instruments

After reviewing extant literature on academic reading andwriting, the researchers developed a survey questionnaire to assess the academic reading and writing needs of the participants. The questionnaire consisted of two parts. Part 1 measures the academic reading needs and part 2 assesses the academic writing needs. The instrument was a Likert scale characterized with a four point scaling (refer to Table 1 for the scaling and its verbal interpretations). The verbal interpretations were based on Akcaoğlu's (2011) study, which assessed the needs of graduate students in terms of academic writing. The original version had "no need" as the last level comprising of five levels all in all. For this study's purpose, only four levels were retained since the researchers opted to use a four point scaling. The range was calculated by (4 − 1 = 3) then divided by four as it is the

Figure 1: Sequential explanatory research design flow (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2011)

The quantitative data were processed using descriptive statistics. Explicitly, Mean Score (MS) and Standard Deviation (SD) were calculated on the individual items of the academic reading and writing needs survey. Weighted Mean (WS) was also determined to provide an overall measure of students’ academic reading and writing needs. To determine students’ academic reading and writing needs, verbal interpretations of the acquired MS and theWS, which can be found in Table 1, were used. Meanwhile, content analysis was performed for the qualitative data. The contents in which the qualitative analysis anchored were on the two variables investigated in this study. This was done so because the qualitative findings were used as supplements to the quantitative results.

Table 1: Arbitrary Score and Its Corresponding Verbal Interpretation (VI) WM range VI 3.26 4.00 Low 2.51 3.25 Moderate 1.76 2.50 High 1.00 1.75 Very high Initially, there were eight items in each part of the questionnaire. These items were checked for face and content validity. The questionnaire's validation was done by a panel of experts from the English Language and Nursing fields. The number of items in the instrument was increased to 10 for each component after the validation. There were also modifications in the language components of the items that were considered vague. After the validation, the instrument was pilot tested among 15 students, and the result yielded a Cronbach's alpha of 0.82, suggesting that items were internally consistent. For the qualitative strand, the researchers focused on two questions regarding students' needs in academic reading and academic writing. The questions also underwent validation by the same panel of experts. The survey was administered as a self completion questionnaire. Moreover, the participants were given one hour to complete it. The qualitative interview was of a semi structured type, conducted among the participants through online. An example of a question that was asked to the participants during the semi structured interview was, "What challenges about reading and writing did you encounter in your research class?". 2.4 Data Analysis

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. highest value of the scale (3 ÷ 4 = 0.75). This became the basis of the arbitrary scores necessary to interpret the weighted means (WM). As a justification, Borgers, Sikkel, and Hox (2004), as cited by Leung (2011), suggested using four points as an ideal after recognizing several choices, the neutral point, and reliability. Meanwhile, using the arbitrary scores, the researchers created corresponding verbal interpretation (VI) adapted from Akcaoğlu (2011) for each range, as presented in Table 1.

7. I am organized in conducting the literature review. 2.78 0.97 Moderate

Table 2: Academic Reading Needs of Nursing Students Items MS SD VI

9. I consider time element in conducting the literature review. 3.33 0.94 Low I construct conclusion based on the information obtained. 3.06 0.83 Moderate Weighted Mean 3.13 0.84 Moderate

3. I understand primary and secondary sources in literature review. 3.11 0.87 Moderate I am techno intelligent to search using the online platforms. 3.06 0.85 Moderate

6. I need to broaden my skill in literature search using specific and topic related concepts. 3.28 0.93 Moderate

10.

2.5 Ethical Considerations

3.1 Academic Reading Needs of Nursing Students in Research Table 2 presents the quantitative results on students’ academic reading needs. It can be gleaned that the nursing students’ academic reading needs in a research class are moderate (WM: 3.13). Among the items in this skills set, Item Number 1 that says “I use journal articles during the literature review because they are highly reliable” (MS: 3.56; SD: 0.60) got the highest mean score followed by Item Number 9, which states “I consider time element in conducting the literature review” (MS: 3.33; SD: 0.94). The lowest mean scores are Item Numbers 7 and 8 that stated: “I am organized in conducting the literature review” (MS: 2.78; SD: 0.97) and “I am capable of synthesizing general concepts to generate a new idea” (MS: 2.72; SD: 0.87), respectively.

The Jose Rizal University Research Ethics Committee allowed the conduct of the study. Also, individual informed consent was acquired from the students. The participants were ensured of anonymity and confidentiality of personal information. To establish rigor on the acquired qualitative data from written interviews, the researchers treated the data free from partialities and students were consulted with their responses to ensure authenticity and reliability of the analysis. Results

5. I read the entire articles from various sources to look for the most important information to be retrieved. 3.17 0.60 Moderate

2. I use journal articles during the literature review because they are highly reliable. 3.56 0.60 Low

1. I create a comprehensive plan for the literature review. 3.22 0.92 Moderate

8. I am capable to synthesize general concepts to generate a new idea. 2.72 0.87 Moderate

Remarkably, the quantitative result above shows that while nursing students’ needs are moderate in terms of academic reading, they may need further support concerning organizing and synthesizing literature. This is indicated by the lowest mean scores obtained in Items 8 and 7, as discussed above. The qualitative findings could further explain such a result asked during the interview. Below are the extracts exemplifying this confirmation. We needed to enhance our analyzation [analytical] technique in order to create good interpretation [of the literature examined]. (NS1)

I haven’t much struggle with this since I can access a lot of paper which includes some concept from our study too. However, given there are too many studies, I’ve had a hard time selecting which is really necessary and [which is not] not. (NS2) In our case, since it was a timeless worldwide problem, there are a lot of researchers who conducted a similar study or at least a close one. Here comes the most complicated thing for us. How do we sort out those literature? Given that, it is a lot. It almost feel[s] like doing a puzzle and it was overwhelming. (NS5) From the extracts above, it is apparent that students find it challenging to organize and synthesize the literature that they read about their studies. NS1 illustrates this by stating that excellent analytical skills are a must to examine the relevance of the works examined critically. This is also reiterated in NS2’s statement that choosing the most relevant literature could be challenging, whereas NS5 underscores how doing literature review could be overwhelming with all the information presented and that the real challenge is to organize them into something that would make sense. Besides organizing and synthesizing literature, students also find it challenging to locate information appropriate to their studies.

The statements below from students affirm such findings. I think the biggest challenges we encountered during finding literature review, are finding up to date researches which are researches from 2014 to present and give interpretation for it. (NS1) Hunting for a good related literature is challenging because you have to find an equal or significant source[s] or ideas that is [are] logical with the argument. There times that when you find a good article, the date does not fall under the given time period. (NS3) Notably, students indicate that locating the right information could also be challenging because one must consider not only the relevance of the information but also their recency. This particular finding seems to differ from what they revealed in the quantitative result in which they reported low needs in considering time elements when conducting a literature review. Considering that they are nursing students, the qualitative finding is noteworthy due to the nature of nursing as a fast paced and dynamic field.

3.2 Academic Writing Needs of Nursing Students in Research In Table 3, a summary of the quantitative results regarding the academic writing needs of nursing students in research is presented. It can be deduced that nursing students’ academic writing needs are moderate (WM: 2.99). Highest mean scores are obtained by Item Number 6, “I am confident to follow comments and

5. I easily follow the guidelines set for publication with minimal assistance from my adviser. 2.78 0.85 Moderate

4. I write a paragraph free from grammatical errors. 2.50 0.69 High

9. I consult the dictionary or thesaurus to understand the words I use in my article. 3.56 0.50 Low

10. I strictly observe proper in text and reference citations. 3.33 0.67 Moderate Weighted Mean 2.99 0.77 Moderate

1. I am aware of the various research formats to complete my article prior to journal submission. 2.67 0.94 Moderate

2. I am aware of grammar rules. 2.61 0.83 Moderate

6. I am confident to follow comments and suggestions. 3.56 0.60 Low

The quantitative result on students’ academic writing needs, as illustrated above, implies that although in general, their academic writing needs are moderate, there is evidence that they may necessitate more support on English grammar for them to write effectively. This is illustrated in the lowest mean scores obtained in Items 4 and 2. While Item 4 is clear about writing free from grammatical errors, Item 2, I am aware of grammar rules means that students have metalinguistic knowledge such as knowledge on subject verb agreement, active and passive voice, transitional devices, among others.

7. I read and re read, and write and re write what I have initially read and written to keep improvements of my article. 3.22 0.79 Moderate

Table 3: Academic Writing Needs of Nursing Students Items MS SD VI

3. I am confident in my technical writing skills. 2.67 0.94 Moderate

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. suggestions” (MS: 3.56; SD: 0.60), Item Number 9, “I consult the dictionary or thesaurus to understand the words I use in my article” (MS: 3.56; SD: 0.50), and Item Number 10, “I strictly observe proper in text and reference citations” (MS: 3.33; SD: 0.67). The lowest mean scores are those in the Item Number 4, “I write a paragraph free from grammatical errors” (MS: 2.50; SD: 0.69), Item Number 2, “I am aware of grammar rules” (MS: 2.61; SD: 0.83), Item Number 1, “I am aware of the various research formats to complete my article prior to journal submission” (MS: 2.67; SD: 0.94), and Item Number 3, “I am confident in my academic writing skills” (MS: 2.67; SD: 0.94).

8. I know how to do proofreading and editing of my own article. 3.00 0.88 Moderate

This study aimed at investigating the academic reading and writing needs of nursing students in research. The quantitative results generally suggest that nursing students manifest moderate needs in terms of academic reading and writing. As supplemented by the qualitative findings, the overall analysis provides further evidence that these students do require as much support in terms of certain aspects of academic reading and writing. In their research, Chen, Khalid, and Faruk (2019) created a model to guide universities in adopting changes for the development of the academic writing skills of new scholars such

As found in the quantitative result, nursing students need much support concerning these two aspects. Such a result is further elaborated in the qualitative responses of students, as exemplified in some extracts below. I observed that grammar was also our weakness. We also had a hard time paraphrasing contents from the sources. An online grammar checker and paraphrasing tool was been helpful to us. (NS2) This is also very challenging for me because I’m not really good in writing in any forms especially in English but I always tried and do my best to do the writings on my own and consulted some person I know that will help me to check on my grammar so that I can improve myself in writing English. (NS4) We encountered countless of problems in terms of grammar, since we do not have the same proficiency or knowledge in doing so. It was such a critical aspect in research writing because good English writing skills are equal to better explanation of the topic. (NS5) From the statements above, it can be inferred that the students need further knowledge of grammar rules, which seems to hinder them from writing a good research article in nursing. Given that English as a subject is required from elementary to tertiary level (Cam & Tran, 2017), grammar is still of concern. However, NS2 and NS4 consider having some strategy in dealing with this problem by referring to specific online tools or by having a third person to do the language editing. Also, NS5 explicitly points out that knowledge of the English language is highly valuable. It aids in the production of a clear and concise explanation of one’s ideas, which is needed in research writing. Moreover, nursing students’ needs in academic writing are not limited to grammar. They also reported that skills in paraphrasing are fundamental. This is seen in NS2’s response above, and this finding is consistent with the quantitative result.

Furthermore, because nursing research is highly technical and requires advanced academic writing skills, students state that the professional way of writing is essential. This specific finding agrees with what was found in the quantitative result, whereby students stated that they had moderate needs in adhering to guidelines set for publication as indicated by one of the lowest mean values from the dataset. This finding is further reflected in NS1’s response below. In writing in English, I think the biggest challenge for me is writing in professional English. Knowing myself, I tend to always write only in basic English. (NS1)

4. Discussion

Additionally, it seems that nursing students, as far as the results of this study are concerned, are not genre oriented. This is seen in their lack of awareness of the publication formats (Item 1) and their inability to comply with publication writing guidelines with minimal revisions (Item 5). However, this conclusion should be

Students' needs on grammar were specifically indicated in the lowest mean scores of items in thequantitative survey relating to grammar rules. This particular result was also confirmed in the qualitative interview, where majority of the students reported challenges in terms of grammar rules. This finding corroborates Alfaki's (2015) study, which revealed the university students indicated several writing needs, mostly language related at the levels of usage errors, mechanical mistakes, among others. This is also consistent with the result of Ratnawati, Faridah, Anam, and Retnaningdyah (2018) which found that Indonesian undergraduate students' academic writing needs were highly reflected in their use of incorrect grammar such as incorrect tenses. Grammatical competence, apart from vocabulary, is a fundamental linguistic device that every student, regardless of discipline, needs to develop to achieve proficiency in academic writing because students are expected to write in correct English (Coxhead, 2011). Thus, it can be argued that nursing students, despite their discipline as a hard science, should not be excused from developing good grammatical knowledge in English.

As with academic writing, students' needs revolve around correct grammar, paraphrasing, adherence to a publication format, and confidence in academic writing. This means that nursing students may have little knowledge of the English language's grammatical structure, which consequently results in their difficulty in paraphrasing and, in general, in low confidence in academic writing.

Critical reading requires that students read research articles to critically evaluate their worth for “adequacy, appropriateness, and thoroughness” (Garrard, 2017).

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. as students which could lead to the advancement of the quality of research and publications globally Nursing students’ academic literacy skills, such as academic reading and writing, have been espoused in previous studies (Borglin, 2012; Borglin & Fagerström, 2012; Whitehead, 2002). On the aspect of academic reading, the results show that nursing learners need support concerning organizing literature items reviewed and synthesizing general concepts to generate a new idea. Given such findings, it appears that nursing students lack critical thinking in doing a literature review.

The literature review is a critical component of research because it clarifies why students research the topic they investigated. Hence, nursing students should employ critical thinking in conducting a literature analysis The ability to think critically is an integral aspect of medical nursing training (Mangena & Chabeli, 2005; Profetto McGrath, 2003). However, such skill is embedded when one reads at a critical level, especially when examining the literature review (Gile, 2001).

The findings on academic reading in this research support the study of Borglin (2012). It was asserted that the cultivation of skills in critical thinking and judgment is vital in nursing education. Undergraduate students’ difficulty in reading research articles was also discovered in St Clair Thompson, Graham, and Marsham’s (2018) study.

taken with careful consideration since students’ needs were only self reported, and a further probe delving into the students’ actual writing when preparing to publish may be needed to confirm such result. Genre knowledge is equally essential in academic writing because it has been found to be strongly linked to students’ writing performance (Graham, 2006; Lu, 2010). In this case, if nursing students are introduced to the language and conventions of academic writing in scientific publishing in their research class, then there is a prospect that they can become genre oriented on publication writing. All these results on academic writing needs collectively corroborate Kapborg and Berterö’s (2002) finding. It states that nursing students encounter problems relating to poor spelling and grammar, as well as inadequate structure. Moreover, previous studies (Diekelmann & Ironside, 1998; Whitehead, 2002) also found a similar result in which nursing students demonstrate little knowledge upon which to build on, and the burden of addressing demanding and conventional academic writing needs which perhaps hindered the growth of inventive and authentic work. Overall, this study provides further evidence endorsing the study of Borglin (2012), which suggested that the teaching of critical thinking and academic writing in nursing program has to take off from theoretically founded instructive models, e.g. academic literacies model by Lea and Street (1998, 2006). Indeed, research writing in nursing demands a multitude of academic literacies.Academic Reading and Writing are two of the most crucial skills that students ought to have to succeed in their writing endeavors.

Several pedagogical implications in the context of EAP can be drawn from the findings of the present study. First, language teachers, especially those teaching academic writing courses in higher education institutions, should explicitly teach different reading strategies that students can employ when doing a literature review. Explicit teaching of reading strategies can develop students’ reading skills (Gatcho & Hajan, 2019). By explicit teaching, it does not mean that teachers focus merely on theoretical aspects of reading strategies as a topic. Instead, they should guide the students on how to integrate such strategies into their real life applications. In other words, these reading strategies, when taught to students, should enable them to develop critical thinking (Castillo Hajan, Hajan & Marasigan, 2019), which, in this case, can be achieved through a critical reading of the extensive works students examine as part of their literature review. To do this, language teachers should make use of published research articles within the students’ discipline as reading materials. It should be noted that literature review is an essential component of research as it involves students proving mastery in their field of discipline. It also provides justifications to the academic community about why students research their chosen topic. More importantly, critical reading is a vital precursor to critical writing (Knott, n.d.). Hence, it is indispensable that language teachers first develop students’ academic reading skills before introducing them to the complexity of academic writing in research.

4.1 Implications for EAP Teaching

Despite the pedagogical implications of the study, certain limitations are noted.

Third and last, because academic writing in the context of nursing research can be complex to teach, it would be best if language teachers are writers themselves. Language teachers, as writers, can have the advantage of being able to connect with students and understand their struggles in writing (Whitaker, 2012, as cited in, Hajan, Castillo Hajan & Marasigan, 2019). Hence, to help students boost their confidence in academic writing, language teachers must be not only knowledge dispensers but also motivators. Perhaps, motivating students in an academic writing classroom can best start with teachers sharing their written artifacts as models for student writing.

4.2 Limitations of the Study

The study has attempted to investigate the academic reading and writing needs of nursing students in a research class. It was concluded that nursing students still need further support on their skills set on academic reading and writing for them to write in their chosen discipline successfully. In particular, they could hardly organize literature items reviewed and synthesize general concepts to formulate a new idea. This establishes that their academic reading needs principally revolve

Second, language teachers should teach academic writing to nursing students both at the micro and macro level. At the micro level, nursing students should be taught small bits of linguistic devices such as grammar, spelling, and punctuation. The teaching of these linguistic elements should be directly related to students’ discipline because each discipline consists of its own bundle of lexical terms and structures (Hyland & Tse, 2007). For example, whether students should use active voice rather than passive voice or vice versa in writing given their discipline has to be clearly explained to students. Nursing students should be taught genre, conventions, and styles in academic writing at the macro level, especially if the goal of nursing research is publication. Again, language teachers are suggested to make use of research articles published within the students’ discipline as models for writing. By doing so, students can acquire the stylistic elements expected within the academic community of their field.

The study has, by far, examined nursing students' academic reading and writing needs. Although employing mixed methods with both survey and interview data present, the investigation may have limitations in providing an actual view regarding nursing students since the study was heavily based on students' self reported responses in its quantitative and qualitative phases. Self reports may have failed to capture students' real needs as compared to when data collection involved analysis of students' actual writing, such as their research papers. In addition, the qualitative strand of the study may be unable to account for students' actual needs in academic reading and writing as no analysis of students' reading and writing skills based on their actual performance was made. Finally, considering the small sample size, the results of this study could not be generalizable to all nursing learners. Hence, conclusions about the nursing students' academic reading and writing needs have to be taken with careful consideration.

5. Conclusion

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. around organizing and synthesizing literature. Also, they have problems concerning the use of correct grammar, paraphrasing, adherence to a publication format, and confidence in academic writing. This illustrates that their complex academic writing needs range from foundational to more advanced skills in Buildingwriting.

on the findings of this study, implications for EAP teaching were drawn suggesting that language teachers handling academic writing courses employ explicit teaching of reading strategies that facilitate critical reading, and teach academic writing both at the micro and macro levels, i.e., students taught small bits of linguistic resources as well as genre, convention, and style in academic writing. Pedagogical implications further explicate that it is best if language teachers of academic writing are writers themselves through which they can serve as motivators in boosting students’ confidence in academic writing.

The study recommends that future research may employ language teachers who are teaching academic writing courses as respondents to gain more in depth insights regarding students’ academic reading and writing needs in nursing. This enables the triangulation of responses that can provide a more encompassing result. Besides, future studies may also consider investigating nursing students’ research papers from a linguistic lens as basis for further explicating their needs in academic writing. For instance, genre analysis of their research introductions may help future researchers understand better students’ academic writing skills in terms of organization and style. A more authentic tool for determining students’ academic reading needs apart from the survey is also suggested. This is to address the limitations of self reported responses of the participants captured by the self administered questionnaire employed in the quantitative phase of this study. Furthermore, more nursing students sampled from different year levels are necessary for future research to provide a more conclusive view concerning academic reading and writing needs in nursing research.

6. References Akcaoğlu, M. Ö. (2011). Anassessmentofacademicwritingneedsofgraduatestudents (Doctoral dissertation). Middle East Technical University. Alfaki, I. M. (2015). University students’ English writing problems: Diagnosis and remedy. International Journal of English Language Teaching, 3(3), 40 52. Anito, J., & Morales, M. P. (2019). The pedagogical model of Philippine steam education: drawing implications for the reengineering of Philippine STEAM learning ecosystem. Universal Journal of Educational Research, 7(12), 2662 2669. https://doi.org/10.13189/ujer.2019.071213

Anito, J., Limjap, A., & Padagas, R. (2020). Praxis for accelerated improvement in research (PAIR). International Journal of Higher Education, 9(3), 248 261. https://doi.org/10.5430/ijhe.v9n3p248

5.1 Recommendations

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336 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 5, pp. 336 351, May https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.5.220201 Perspectives on Mentoring Support During Teaching Practicum in Local & International Settings Rohaya Abdullah Universiti Sains Malaysia https://orcid.org/0000 0003 4518 1733 M. Ali Ghufron IKIP PGRI Bojonegoro, Indonesia https://orcid.org/0000 0003 0681 9140 Yunita Puspitasari STKIP PGRI Jombang, Indonesia https://orcid.org/0000 0002 7079 6011 Norlida Ahmad Universiti Sains Malaysia https://orcid.org/0000 0001 5167 6471 Abstract. This study aims to investigate the mentoring support given by the local and foreign mentors to English language teacher trainees during their teaching practicum. The practicum comprised two phases. In phase one, the trainees experienced a local teaching practicum for one month in Penang, Malaysia. In phase two, they went through an international teaching practicum in Indonesia for two months. The sample of this qualitative study comprised four respondents from Universiti Sains Malaysia, who voluntarily undertook the international teaching practicum in Jombang, Indonesia. All of them were females aged 24 years old. The data were collected from reflections and semi structured interviews and were analyzed using thematic analysis. The findings suggest that in both phases, the mentors cumulatively provided cognitive, affective and, social support. All types of support augmented the teacher trainees’ competence as future teachers. Keywords: English language; international teaching practicum; local teaching practicum; teacher trainees

1. Introduction

To achieve effective teaching, various approaches were administered. One familiar educational term within the context of teaching education is mentoring. It is initially done through university based preservice formal training and seen as a course that helps teacher trainees (TTs) become professional teachers. Mentoring is a process of assisting novices develop teaching practice through a nurturing relationship between those with less experience and those with more experience in the field (Hairon et al., 2020), and a mentor guides by serving as a role model and advisor (Bigelow, 2002). The instructional relationship is typical in the form of instructional supervision, assessment monitoring, curriculum implementation, and establishment of a supportive work environment. Teaching practice in schools is a part of teaching practicum (TP) which is pertinent for TTs as they have the opportunity to exercise the acquired teaching concepts (Barton, Hartwig & Cain, 2015). Studies on mentoring have revealed fruitful outcomes in various aspects ranging from cognitive and affective of learning to teach the socialization process that takes place during the first contact with the realities of classroom teaching and school context (Aderibigbe, 2013; Kaasila & Lauriala, Mostly,2010).

TP occurs in a local setting in which the TTs and mentors share a similar socio cultural background. However, to provide experiences of learning and engaging teaching in foreign education settings, international networking, agreements, and meaningful collaborations have been initiated by many institutions (Kabilan et al., 2017). In the Malaysian context, the School of Educational Studies, Universiti Sains Malaysia (SES, USM) has been conducting international teaching practicum (ITP) since 2011, allowing the TTs to carry out their teaching practicum in other countries such as the Maldives and Bangladesh (Kabilan, 2013; Kabilan et al., 2017) after going through a period of local teaching practicum (LTP). Mentoring in the ITP platform provides TTs the opportunity to experience effective pedagogical training and the interplay between individuals with different socio-cultural variables (Kabilan et al., 2020; Quick & Sieborger, 2005). It also embraces broader counseling, role modeling, and supports from the mentors. There are many studies on teacher mentoring. However, research on ESL TTs experiencing mentoring in an EFL context, Indonesia, to the best of our knowledge, is scarce. Experiencing knowledge gain in this context would contribute to the field of TP, particularly on mentoring. The findings would be beneficial for novel teachers teaching in a similar setting.

The rapid advancement of technology, global market, and unique demographic nature of students have challenged the teaching profession to employ a range of practice in which it accommodates different purposes, integration of knowledge, sophisticated pedagogical repertoire, learners’ diversity, and shifting contextual forces. Learning to teach could be intriguing as well as mischievous (Borko, Whitcomb & Liston, 2009; Fomin, 2020) because it is drawn upon a complex array of contextual and unpredictable knowledge that occurs throughout the life of a teacher. Teacher education today should be able to equip teachers with knowledge and skills to establish effective teaching.

Following this issue, the research on teaching practicum mainly focuses on either LTP or ITP. Studies in which TTs undergo two modes of practicum (LTP and ITP) are scarce (Kabilan, 2013; Kabilan et al. 2017; Kabilan et al. 2020). It is imperative to investigate the mentor support received during the LTP as well as the ITP to see whether the mentoring support offered at the home ground and outbound are the same or otherwise. It is also crucial to find out whether the mentoring support is vital for TTs during LTP or is it more necessary during ITP. Could the mentor support in LTP and ITP complement each other in shaping the TTs professionalism?

When faced with such adversities, the teacher training providers need to have the knowledge about the type of support required to ensure that the TTs’ learning experience during their ITP is not in jeopardy. Amid of our vivacity in advocating the change in the practicum landscape for the last 20 years (Lang, Cacciattolo, & Kidman, 2016), mentoring support is not addressed aptly at this juncture. The lack of research on ITP on this matter has not substantiated the kind or manner of support for the TTs undertaking ITP. Hahl and Mikulec (2018) found that the mentors’ support is pivotal for the international students’ training in Finland for being very practical and reassuring, but that was only a small part of the whole finding. More research is necessary to investigate this phenomenon not only to ensure the quality of mentoring support but also to provide solutions to the issues reported in the challenges of ITP.

While many studies reported that ITP seems to be encouraging and promising (Ahmad et al., 2019; Burgard et al., 2018; Cinelli & Jones, 2017; Cruickshank & Westbrook, 2013; Kabilan, 2013; Kabilan et al., 2016; Kabilan et al., 2017; Kim, & Choi, 2018; Quick & Sieborger, 2005; Tambyah, 2019), some studies underscored the challenges faced by the TTs. For instance, Hendra et al. (2019) found that the five TT’s from the Philipines and Thailand who underwent the ITP in Jambi, Indonesia had difficulties in religious sensitivity, content subject, language, and school climate. Kim & Choi (2018) found that Korean TTs faced communication and culture issues during their practicum training in the U.S. In another study, TTs from Indonesia had predicaments in the curriculum, lesson planning, language proficiency and cultural differences in multi ethnic Malaysian schools (Kabilan et al., 2020). Jin et al. (2019) revealed that the Australian TTs in Anshan, China, were perplexed with the Chinese education system, which is different in the social and cultural contexts.

The findings from such a study would inform teacher training providers alike on the necessary framework to support the TTs’ practicum training that is usually carried out once in their bachelor’s degree. Thus, this study aims is to examine the mentoring experiences of TTs in Penang, Malaysia, and Jombang, Indonesia. The objective of the study is to examine the type of mentoring support given to the English language teacher trainees by the local and foreign teacher mentors.

2. Review of Literature

The attained knowledge could translate into various forms, such as attitude, competencies, beliefs, and skills. Mentoring mimics this behavior modeling concept. Differing classroom instructions, classroom management, feedback, and discussions that relate to content and pedagogical knowledge and moral conducts modeled by the Indonesian and Malaysian preceptors or mentors could enrich the TTs’ learning experiences on the teaching practice during the LTP and ITP. The models obtained from the two training milieus could demonstrate a set of examples for the TTs’ considerations. Mentoring Mentoring,supportatraditional practice to provide first hand on site training to the TTs during their practicum is still relevant. The mentor is a knowledgeable teacher, functioning as the guide, counselor, facilitator, expert other, supervisor and evaluator to name a few. The young and naïve TTs consider their mentors as the experts. The TTs will turn to their mentor teachers as the primary source for proper strategies to deliver a meaningful lesson, amend the instructional planning, class control, overcome fear and build confidence and other matters related to teaching. Mentoring is thus an agentic social process acquired from skillful mentors (Bandura, 1999; Edwards, 2017). Mentoring is argued extensively in the literature (Pennanen et al. 2016). The mentoring concept seems to be divergent. Mena, Hennissen & Loughran (2017) contended that an effectual mentoring would be influenced by how the mentors assume their roles to assist the TTs in the field during their practicum tenure. The mentors must be equipped with sufficient mentoring knowledge and execute them vigilantly. However, things are more complex. Mentors who are supposed to be constructive are destructive instead. Domineering mentors eradicate dynamism in the TTs, hence giving distraught to the TT’s identity formation (Yuan, 2016). Being directive and dominating discussions also fail to support the TTs (Mena, Hennissen & Loughran, 2017). Langdon (2017) motioned that mentors with presumptions hold beliefs and practices that are hard to break, resulting in poor mentoring.

The underpinning theory Drawing from Social Cognitive Theory by Bandura (1999), this study involved the interconnectedness between learning and observed conditioning behaviors. The theory propagates that knowledge is constructed by modeled behaviors in the social environment. Through the capability of reflective thinking, the individual then self regulates sensible decisions on his actions by accepting or rejecting the behavior. Choices lie in the hands of the individual. When a notable observed behavior is emulated, the creative human psyche could expand the new knowledge further, resulting in cognitive, affective or behavioral changes. As described by Bandura (1999), “While performing activities, the individual form ideas about what leads to what, act on them or predict occurrences from them, judge from the results the adequacy of their thoughts and change them accordingly” (p.25).

3. Methodology Research Background and Setting

The research adopted a qualitative design to investigate the mentoring experiences received by the respondents. Initially, the TTs had their LTP in Penang, Malaysia for four weeks. They were assigned to two mainstream schools correspondingly. Then, ITP ensued for eight weeks. The four TTs were placed in two government schools in Jombang, Indonesia (East Java). The first pair went to a vocational school while the other, in a mainstream school. During the TP, the participants taught English language to secondary level. For the LTP, the TTs were given between 8 12 periods of English language(40minutes per lesson). Meanwhile, in the ITP, they were required to teach eight classes (50 minutes per lesson). Besides normal teaching, the TTs were involved in extracurricular activities assigned by the schools. Each TT was assigned a school mentor teacher.

Participants The sampling technique used in this study was purposive and criterion sampling. Only those who chose to undergo this mode of TP (LTP & ITP) and were willing to participate in the study voluntarily were involved in the research. This study employed Siedman’s (2013) criterion to determine the sample size, i.e., sufficiency and saturation of information. The number of respondents must be representative of the total population and data must reach saturation. Hence, four female TTs

As opposed to those findings, Izadinia (2016) asserted that having ‘an open line of communication and feedback’ with the TTs are fundamental while establishing positive rapports and addressing the needs of theTTs are the key conceptsof good mentoring (Izadinia, 2015). This study is also corroborated by Duse, Duse & Karkowska (2017), who studied mentoring engaging four counties of Sibiu, Brasov, Cluj Napoca and Iasi for three years. They emphasize that the mentors and the TTs’ pronounced relationships have resulted in the TTs’ progress during the training. The authors also urge that mentoring is crucial for TTs and for novice teachers who are just starting their career in the teaching profession. MERID model (Mentor (teacher) Roles In Dialogues) developed in 2008 (Crasborn et al., 2011) proposed that the mentoring dialog framework would assist the mentors in upskilling their mentoring technique by employing the appropriate role according to the contexts. In this framework, the mentors are classified into four quadrants: active vs. reactive (Y axis) and directive vs. non directive (x axis). In each quadrant, they play different roles: a) active and non directive quadrant initiator, b) active and directive quadrant imperator, c) non directive and reactive quadrant encourager, and directive and reactive quadrant advisor. In their study, this framework benefitted the mentors in looking back at their supervision and improving them for future use. Mentoring could also be collaborative in nature, where co thinkers and co learners concept intercept conventional mentoring. This mode of mentoring affords co learning between the TTs and the mentors. Although this strategy seems to undermine the expertise of a knowledgeable mentor, the effect could be indispensable as proven by Ginkel, Verloop & Denessen (2016).

Lesson planning In Malaysia, when Ching told her mentor that she could not complete the objectives of her lesson, Ching was advised to shorten them as it is just a one period lesson; ‘…he just asked me to like... minimise the numbers of learning objectives, that’s how I learned from him’(IS). Sydney learned to suit the focus skill with the lesson plan and the materials with the level of the students. Her lesson plan was appropriate for writing, not speaking. Thus, her mentor commented, ‘it was

The data for this study was collected from reflective journals or reflections (JR) and two interview sessions (IS). The reflective journals were written daily on their LTP and ITP mentoring experiences. They wrote about their encounters with their mentors, especially on the attainments that are prominent for their professional development as future English language teachers. The TTs were encouraged to add their emotions when giving their insights. They could also add on their viewpoints in their reflections. The interview sessions took place in SES, USM, after their LTP and ITP, respectively. The interview was designed following the semi structured protocol. Each TT was interviewed for a minimum of 30 minutes. The questions asked dealt with the mentor mentees’ relationships, frequency, and place of meetings, discussion matters, expectations and the support given by the mentors. Both interviews were recorded for analysis purposes. The data were analyzed using thematic analysis. To ascertain the trustworthiness of the study, the six phases of analysis process proposed by Lincoln and Guba (as cited in Nowell et al. 2017, p.1) were employed. The phases were familiarizing with data, formulating for initial codes, searching for themes, reviewing the themes, defining and naming the themes and finally, producing the report.

Data Collection and Analysis

For this study, the TTs were named (pseudonym) as Mel, Sydney, Nor and Ching.

Before involving in the ITP mode, there were prerequisites that the TTs had to pass, which included a minimum CGPA of 3.0, positive attitudes towards the teaching profession, learning and research. The ITP should also be self funded

4. Findings

out of eight TTs who went for the ITP in Jombang, Indonesia (majoring in English) were chosen for the study. All four were from multi ethnic females, aged 24 years old and were in the fourth year of their degree program, the year for their practicum training.

Three common themes of mentoring support emerged from the study. The TTs reported that they improved their professionalisms as beginning teachers through cognitive, affective, and social supports. Cognitive support Cognitive support refers to the assistance obtained by the TT in the acquisition of new knowledge or the expansion of existing knowledge. The data revealed that the mentors supported the trainees cognitively in various aspects. They include lesson planning, pedagogical skills, classroom and time management and assessment.

Assessment Sydney was given the chance to mark a test paper with the help of her Malaysian mentor. The experience was very meaningful for her, ‘… she showed us how marks are awarded for different types of questions based on the answer scheme. I find this very

Analogously, Ching’s Indonesian mentor also modelled some teaching methods before Ching started teaching her own classes. Ching preferred the Indonesian teaching methods as she found them to be more stimulating and effective. She justified, ‘For instance, my school in Indonesia only focused on the specific courses the students studied. For example, in my mentor’s classes which were about accounting, he always related English to their job scopes and he often stressed on the importance of English’(JR). This suggests that English is taught as a functional subject in that Uniquely,school.

In Indonesia, Sydney had some difficulties in writing the lesson plan as she was asked to teach a topic for two weeks. Thus, she asked her mentor who then lent her some reference books to refer to‘…I asked her and she even gave me, I mean lent me one of the books that she co wrote. She told me that I can just use the exercises from that book so that really helps me’ (SI). Similarly, Nor, who had two mentors, said that ‘They both support me a lot. In giving ideas on how to teach. Giving lesson plan samples. Sharing items and materials.’ In short, the TTs had no problem attaining their resources. Pedagogical skills In Malaysia, Mel shadowed her mentor’s lessons to learn the various approaches, and later, she was asked to repeat the same lesson in another class using her technique. From her reflection, although she loved her mentor’s lessons, ‘Her set induction was realistic and direct as she asked students to brainstorm the ways of doing certain action. I love it because it is more applicable and relatable for the students.’ (JR), Mel decided to use video in her set induction and discussed the issue of her lesson with the students using power point slides. This technique she claimed had captured more attention from her students.

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. supposed to be a speaking lesson …..but the way I um approached it is wrong. It’s more like a writing lesson instead of a speaking lesson and the material is actually too difficult for the students’ proficiency level’(SI). Nor’s mentor supported her using questioning techniques during their discussions. When Nor wanted to teach her students on paraphrasing using ‘SpongeBob Squarepants’ video clip, her mentor questioned, ‘….…if she were to ask the students to write a summary of what they saw the video was about, is it considered paraphrasing? But she said, no’(SI). Nor reflected and agreed with her mentor.

Sydney experienced the role of a mentor in Indonesia. She was asked to comment on her mentor’s teaching, ‘After the observation, my mentor approached me for feedback about her lesson. I commented on her ease in managing the classroom, some students’ lack of interest in learning the English language and her teaching pace’ (JR). The discussion paved the way for interchange of ideas and built new understandings in Sydney. The mentor had empowered Sydney to exercise what she had acquired from her knowledge and translating it into practice.

useful as I would be able to make good use of this knowledge (the criteria of a grade A short essay etc) to deliver a better reading or writing lesson that focuses on the certain aspects which I might have overlooked before. This would help Sydney structure her lesson Anotherfocus.

enriching experience in Indonesia was about the authenticity of their evaluation system. The TTs witnessed how speaking evaluation was carried out at Borobudur temple. According to Ching, ‘During the English trip to Jogjakarta, the students needed to converse English to Foreigners to pass their exam. It was more to practical usage. We went to Borobudur temple for conducting the English speaking test’(JR). Nor attested to this, ‘I loved this idea of practically using English to speak to foreigners in order to improve their skills, it also helps improving their social skills.’(JR). Their testing method is realistic. From this experience, the TTs discovered the alternative of oral testing. Classroom and time management Nor’s Malaysian mentor taught her about classroom management, ‘…before we started to actually teaching, we had like, a round table. She gave us situations, what can we do if this happens, and she asked us, what will we do. …… she did point out if what we do is suitable or not suitable and she suggested ways on how she did it in classes.’ (SI). The scenario given had helped Nor to visualize the situation and think of ways to deal with the situation. And when the mentor gave her some solutions, Nor was able to see things realistically. Mel was supported when she accounted for a discipline problem in her class during her LTP. Her mentor advised her to take this measure, ‘..... tomorrow... you go and do a show, let them admit themselves, what did they do wrongly, who are the culprits, and... So, from there, we can actually train them and want them to admit their fault not to repeat again and also to apologise to the others’(SI). Mel did precisely that, and the problem was resolved. In Indonesia, the TTs were exposed to a unique approach of disciplining through character building. Every morning, all school students are greeted by the teachers and perform ‘salam’ (Islamic handshake). The students have daily assembly and singing the national anthem is made compulsory in every meet, signifying the inculcation of patriotism. They even have hand drawn ‘batik’ classes. The ‘batik’ lesson is not merely a drawing exercise, but it has a commercial objective as well. The ‘batik’ products are sold to the locals and visitors. The TTs were amazed by such Chingpractices.alsolearned

Affective support deals with one’s unsteady emotions. In a complicated learning journey as this practicum training, this support is necessary to provide a

Affective support

about time management from her Indonesian mentor on how to still produce quality teaching despite a busy schedule. She wrote, ‘The things that he taught me was useful to me as it minimized the burden and energy spent on specific days especially when the English periods were continuously for the whole day with 3 classes’ (JR). The mentor taught Ching that in school, students’ knowledge augmentations should be the teacher’s priority, anything besides that is secondary. In short, students’ needs should never be risked.

Social support Social support refers to the type of support that would establish the rapport between the mentors and the TTs. Similar to affective support, it is also imperative

Care According to Sydney, ‘Mm mentoring in Indonesia seems more intimate because the mentors, they erm took great lengths to take care of us not only in terms of us doing well in the school but also outside of the school. They constantly check on us, making sure that erm we are not experiencing any difficulties and so on. That’s why I said that my mentor is a mother figure for me in Indonesia’(SI). This affective support suggests another benefit that the Malaysian TTs had obtained during their ITP. They were well looked after.

Nor was very thankful and touched that the Indonesian mentors took very good care of her wellbeing, especially when she was sick, and that was the week that her supervisor from Malaysia was coming to observe her. Not only her mentor but the supervisor was also concerned about her health to the extent that they, ‘…came to our place every day to check on me, cook for us, and massage me whenever she had time. I was told to rest at home for a couple of days so that I will feel better for my observation’(SI). The data did not reveal any evidence of ‘care’ from the local mentors. However, this does not mean that they were not treated well. It could indicate that perhaps the students did not need it because they were at the home ground and were able to take care of themselves.

Nor received good comments from Bu Tenty and she suggested some ways to improve the lessons as well, ‘The comments were very uplifting which made me feel like teaching wasn’t actually that bad after all’(JR). The support must have been very significant for Nor to make such a claim.

conducive learning environment that ultimately would optimize the TTs’ learning progress. The data revealed that the TTs did obtain motivation and care, particularly in Indonesia. Motivation In Malaysia, Sydney’s mentor motivated and commended her for the improvement in her second appraisal. Unlike the first lesson, she managed to overcome her weaknesses in her lesson plan, approach, and classroom management as her mentor stated, ‘she said that I improved a lot … mm students, they actually listen when I talk. And the flow of the lesson is smoother classroom interruptions by the students, I’m, I handled it well instead of panicking like last time, doesn’t detract from my lesson objectives.’ (IS). Sydney felt overjoyed that it boosted her spirit. Mel adored her Malaysian mentor as she was very reassuring, ‘She always encouraged me throughout the time, especially by motivating me to be patient for the weak students. I love her way very much as she truly gave me inspiration and strength in teaching the weak students’ (JR). Mel was very appreciative for the guidance and encouragement because she was very troubled with the issue.

Relationship Mel was treatedlike a sister by herMalaysian mentor, hence; her relationship with her mentor was very casual. They always shared things, chatted, and had fun. She confessed, ‘I always shared my teaching materials, specifically the notes, SPM trial papers and worksheet to her for my Form 4 class and in return she gave me advices and guidance of my teaching materials…… she treated all the USM trainees a lunch at a cosy café. We chatted a lot, shared what we had learnt from both sides and took pictures We text through Whatsapp and are friends in Facebook. I sent her my pictures in Indonesia too’(JR). Mel was delighted to have such a relationship.

Cognitive support appeared to be an integral contributing factor to the TTs’ professional development during the practicum. The mentors, especially in Malaysia, emerged as the knowledge providers playing their roles in ensuring the

to ensure that the trainees are comfortable to learn. In this practicum, the trainees were supported socially, primarily in Indonesia.

Hospitality

5. Discussion From the data, it was evident that the LTP and ITP have evolved the TTs’ initial professionalisms in teaching. The three months’ period accentuated the self actualization of the TTs, despite the intermittent challenges faced along the tumultuous journey. During this experimental interim period, the TTs are usually ‘vulnerable’ (Stanulis & Russell, 2000) for being in a country that is altogether dissimilar from theirs, especially in the curriculum and culture. To excel in teaching, the TTs realized the need to have a certain set of competencies. Prominently, a strong foundation in theory and practical aspects were the prerequisites. This teaching practicum was the clinical platform that translated those hypothetical understandings into pragmatic (Burns et al., 2016). For first timers, the TTs captured that mentor support was imperative at this juncture as beginning teachers. The three types of mentor support; cognitive, affective, and social obtained from both their local and transnational mentors proved to be beneficial for the TTs.

The TTs reported that they received a very warm welcome from the Indonesian mentors. The hosts were very hospitable. According to Nor, the Jombang local newspaper highlighted the news about their coming; ‘Press was invited and I was interviewed by the reporter, they welcomed us wholeheartedly, as what Bu Muna said, STKIP PGRI Jombang is now our second home’(IS). Bu Muna’s words made them feel at home right away. Besides that, the trainees were brought sightseeing to Kampung Coklat andPantai Pasir Putih Trenggalek. Mel said that ‘Pak Adib, planned to bring us there ever since the first week we were there but he just had the time on this day so we went out with him, Bu Rukmini and her daughter, Nalla. We had a great time out and enjoyed the journey’(JR). After coming back from a short trip to Yogyakarta and Bali, Sydney’s mentor also asked about how the trip went. ‘She did some catching up with me to check on my well being,’ Sydney claimed (JR). The social support that established the TTs’ relationships with their mentors had alleviated their learning process.

execution of proper lessons. Using divergent approaches, the mentors, amid their busy schedules, never failed to offer professional supervision. This opportunity had enabled the TTs to link their learned theories into practice, in which oftentimes adaptations seemed to be more applicable. The TTs understood that a failed lesson, whether in the planning, management, or time and classroom management, would be detrimental for the students. Evidently, the support had helped the TTs to reflect on unforeseen matters in their lessons. Having gone through two different settings of practicum doubled the TTs’ knowledge. Similar findings on the development on cognition were found in these studies i.e., increased in confidence in speaking and communication, teaching confidence and skills, interpersonal skills, new world views of education and culture and adapting to new working cultures (Kabilan et al., 2017), and developed teaching skills, interpersonal skills, awareness to diversity and independence.

In Indonesia, being in an EFL context was another reinforcing training as the TTs were guided on the adoption of a curriculum alien to them. The exposure on how a speaking test could be conducted outside the classroom and in an authentic environment had also widened the TTs’ wisdom as such an evaluation is rare in their home country. The character building experience was meaningful, as well. The TTs were taught the ways of how patriotism was instilled among the Indonesian students by their daily routines. The ‘salam’ inculcated respect for the teacher and the ‘batik’ lessons nurtured their love for their culture. Meanwhile, in two unique cases, besides being the sage, the mentors collaborated with the TTs in the knowledge building. Back in Penang, Malaysia, when Sydney was empowered to take the role of her mentor, she successfully commented on her mentor’s lesson. Even though the purpose was to train Sydney in a reverse fashion, the mentor could have also learned from Sydney’s comments. This experience portrays that the TTs and the mentor could co learn with one another. Similar finding is found in Ginkel, Verloop and Denessen’s (2016) study. In Mel’s instance, the close relationship she had, witnessed the sharing of materials and knowledgebetween thementorandher. This experience suggests that thesupport can also be reciprocal. Affective support was the second theme that emerged from the data. Sydney’s mentor praised her for the remarkable improvement that Sydney made in her lesson. During her second observation, she did not panic, her lesson went smoothly, she articulated well, and her class control was perfect. The appraisal motivated Sydney to improve further. Meanwhile, when Mel encountered a complex situation in dealing with weak students, her mentor consoled, and encouraged her. Her mentor’s move was very much appreciated. In Nor’s case, the inspiring words from her Indonesian mentor had made Nor changed her pessimistic notion on teaching. In Indonesia, the experience of affective support was impeccable. As a host country, host mentor, they were accountable for the safety, comfort and health of the TTs under their wings. For that reason, Nor was treated with great care while she was sick, and Sydney reported that the TTs’ wellbeing was often checked. This support had moved the TTs. The intimacy had made Sydney felt that their relationship was more of a mother and daughter. The concerns had impacted the TTs’ professional development positively. The

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. prevalence of affective support also emerged in Israel et al.’s (2014) study. Coined as emotional support, they concluded that affective support and cognitive support were interrelated. Similarly, in Mitroi and Mazilescu’s (2014) study, the respondents perceived that an effective mentor support should consist of emotional support. Mentors should be balanced emotionally, possess empathy, calmness, and kindness. Analogously, Izadinia (2015; 2016) and Duse, Duse and Karkowska (2017) also concur that having a good relationship with the TTs will enhance their professionalism.

The TTs utterly adored the hospitality received while training in Indonesia. Although making the headlines in the local newspaper was overwhelming, the TTs were delighted by the opportunity. They were not just welcomed by the mentors but by the entire school. The mentors tightened their bonds with the TTs by taking them on sightseeing trips. They had a splendid time. With this good rapport, Kabilan (2013) claimed, the TTs would settle in the new environment at a fast pace. The findings supported Bandura’s (1999) postulation in his Social Cognitive Theory as well. The mentors in the LTP and ITP had indeed played a crucial part in the TTs’ professional developments. They assumed the roles that the TTs could emulate from. However, other factors also formulated a pleasant learning environment for the TTs, namely, the students, school, and administrators. Bandura divided this environment into three imposed environment, selected environment, and constructed environment. Most of the teaching experiences in this study were supported by constructed environment. The conducive social environment was created between the TTs and their mentors, students, school, and has an essential implication for the Ministry of Higher Learning and teacher training providers. With adequate mentoring support, it is wise for teacher education programs to adopt this measure to cater to the needs of globalization, diversity, and mobility, which are becoming notable in today’s world. It is a fact that the world is becoming interconnected and becoming more and more borderless. Thus, the ministry and providers need to be mindful of the possibility of job-seeking beyond the TTs’ internal perimeter. This scenario has been happening in the outside world, where multinational teachers from South Africa, India, the Philippines, and Eastern Europe have sought for employments in the UK and US schools (Brown & Stevick, 2014 as cited in Cladinin & Husu,

Thisadministrators.approachofTP

Social support is also fundamental during an exacting period, like the teaching practicum. The evidence from Mel’s experience connotes the rudimentary of social interactions that should take place between a TT and the mentor. Casual and compassionate portrayals of the mentor had smoothened Mel’s learning undertakings. The relationship they had was invariably complementary. The acceptance and recognitions in turn had built Mel’s trust, in her mentor. Similarly, Mukeredzi (2017) found that to be accepted as part of the community, establishes trust. The importance of such a bond was also parallel with Sulistiyo et al.’s (2017) findings. The relationship needs to be built ‘based on mutual respect and understanding of each other’s expertise, needs and perspectives’ (Sulistiyo, et al., 2017).

Another consideration that the ministry and teacher education providers should pay attention to is the influx of student immigration or migration from countries like Indonesia, Rohingya, Pakistan, the Philippines, Vietnam and the Arab world into Malaysia, particularly in private schools. This influx has resulted in a substantial diversity in the local schools in terms of language, religion, and culture. The local teachers are often perplexed and overwhelmed by the different needs of the multinational student populace (Kim & Kim, 2012). While immersion courses for in service teachers are necessary to support existing teaching services, many teacher training providers are integrating ITP in their pre service courses to fit the TTs for the diverse classrooms. To evade the necessity of such a training would not be appropriate.

2017 ; Dunn et al., 2014; Manik, Maharaj & Sookrajh, 2006 as cited in Cladinin & Husu, 2017). By getting extra training, the TTs’ chances of job security of the TTs would be expanded, enabling their mobility to other countries.

6. Conclusion In conclusion, the mentors in Malaysia and Indonesia provided cognitive, affective, and social support to the TTs. For novice teachers to be, the trainings were invaluable, although it was just for a short stint three months. Although the mentors originated from different backgrounds and cultures, they had the same objective i.e., optimizing the opportunities for the TTs to experience a meaningful practicum. The mentors, one in Malaysia and one or two in Indonesia, complemented each other. Ultimately, the TTs attained holistic support. This studyreveals anothersuccess of this fashion of teaching practicum.Hence, teacher training providers with similar background could consider this dual TP program. The practitioners or teacher mentors could also utilize the support found in this research when becoming a mentor teacher. More importantly, the researchers would like to urge the Ministry of Higher Learning of Malaysia to take heed and reassess the curriculum of teacher training providers at the local universities to cater to this dire need.

Pre service mentoring: voices of mentors and protégés. (Doctoral dissertation). University of Wyoming, United States.

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Stories, experiences, and answers of study participants were properly documented, analyzed, and provided with meanings using the thematic analysis approach Themes on the benefits of Peer Tutorial included: help cultivate good study habits and learning style; improve students' academic performance; reinforce and strengthen personal learning and understanding of topics; build self confidence and independence in learning accounting and promote progressive education and skills development The Peer Tutorial Program hopes to bring positive results, joy, hope, and inspiration to students by learning with and through their peers. With the shift to Outcomes Based Education (OBE), where students are expected to manage their learning styles and pace, the program becomes even more timely and helpful to facilitate the change. Essentially, peer tutorial is a profound expression of commitment to the pedagogy of equitable and conscientious education through collaboration and inclusivity, where students learn and succeed with one another.

Peer Tutorial: Championing Students at Risk

352 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 5, pp. 352 378, May https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.5.220202

Abstract. This study aimed to evaluate the implementation of the Peer Tutorial Program by the Dynamic Society of Accounting Students (DySAS) of the College of Accounting Education (CAE), University of Mindanao. The study employed descriptive qualitative research design and focused group discussions were conducted among 21 students selected through purposive sampling. The researchers held all measures to ensure the rigor, trustworthiness, and ethical soundness of this paper.

1. Introduction

Joel B. Tan and Esterlina B. Gevera University of Mindanao Davao City, Philippines 0002 3902 7986 0002 1468 3346

https://orcid.org/0000

Keywords: education; peer learning; tutorial; qualitative; accountancy

https://orcid.org/0000

Historically, businesses and market enterprises have trusted accountants to provide accurate and timely financial information for informed decision making, to examine the fairness of economic reports, and to assist management in honest compliance with regulatory and tax reporting requirements (Albrecht & Sack, 2001). Hence, the demand for accounting graduates has attracted many students to enroll in the accounting program. But the way to becoming an

Another kind is proctoring, which is one-on-one tutoring by senior students who have demonstrated expertise with the topic (Bloom, 1984; Briggs, 2014). The emerging type of tutorial is cooperative learning, where a person is given the responsibility to teach others, and each contributes to the group’s performance (Johnson & Johnson, 2009) Alternatively, there is the so-called 'reciprocal peer tutoring (RPT)' where the entire class is divided into pairs to tutor each other. As to ways, it can come in small groups like a mini seminar or workshop (Exley &

There had been so many reasons to account why the cohort rate of accounting is judiciously low. First, accounting courses are highly technical and are not that easy to learn. Second, the majority, if not all freshmen, are in the process of personal dissonance and adjustment, a shift from being carefree persons to responsible, mature individuals. Lastly, few students are considerably slow learners; that is, more time and discussions are needed so they could understand the topics substantially.

Tutorials come in different ways and forms Briggs (2013) explained the many forms of peer tutoring. One is surrogate teaching that is common in universities and higher learning institutions wherein an older student, often graduate or advanced undergraduate, is given the teaching role for an apprentice or learner.

accountant is not a walk in the park. It is full of challenges, and only those who remain steadfast until the end survive.

The open admission policy of the University of Mindanao has paved the way for students to enroll in accounting programs regardless of their academic preparedness. However, because of the program’s standards and retention requirements, many have failed, dropped, or even shifted to other programs

To address this apparent concern, the College of Accounting Education (CAE) has altruistically designed a peer tutorial program as a mechanism to help students, particularly those ‘students at risk, otherwise known as the 'STAR' in acquiring desired competencies and eventually pass the currently enrolled professional courses. The CAE hopes that through academic interventions like tutorials and bridging programs, students will perform better, increase their likelihood to pass the course, and promote the spirit of teamwork among its students, which is one of the core values of the University of Mindanao Peer teaching is an old, deep rooted concept. During Aristotle’s time, tutors were played by the archons, or student leaders and were described in the letters of Seneca, the Younger. In 1795, Scotsman Andrew Bell popularized the concept into a theory which then implemented in French and English schools decades after (Briggs, 2013) In principle, peer tutoring is an approach by which one student, known as the expert, instructs another student, called a novice (Briggs, 2013; Dowd, 2018). In recent years, Chen and Liu (2011) and Flores, Veiga Simao, and Carrasco (2012) averred that many Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) around the world had implemented tutoring as an alternative learning system. This is because of the difficulties and inadequacies experienced by students in learning their lessons under a limited, fast paced class discussion.

The tutorial program has been in existence since 1991 (Lumactod et al., 2013) Yet, no tangible and substantial studies have been done to gauge how successful the implementation of the program has been relative to its objective of helping students pass their currently enrolled courses, thus helping the College improve its cohort rate. In their latest account, DySAS reported that during the first semester of the school year 2015 2016, they were able to conduct several tutorial sessions for two courses: Accounting 1A and Accounting 5. A total of 122 tutees participated and benefited from the program. Of this number, 95 were Accounting 1A students, and 27 were enrolled in Accounting 5 course. Majority of the tutees enrolled in both courses got a passing mark from 3.5 - 3.1 or 75 – 79

Further, students learning with fellow students eliminate that feeling of intimidation, inhibition, and reservations; thus, making it easy for them to clarify and qualify knowledge without fear of being ridiculed or feeling undignified (Aclo, Damiar & Norodin, 2015; Dowd, 2018).

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Dennick, 2004) or through self help or tutor less form (Yazedjian & Kolkhorst, Peer2007)tutorial, as cited by the Athletic Study Center (2016), is an effective learning technique that promotes and enhances the student's academic competencies and self resolve towards independent learning (Topping, 2005; Colvin & Ashman, 2010; Viana et al., 2019). In a related study, Chi, Roy, and Hussmann (2008) described peer tutorial as an academic exercise that encourages learners to become active and productive participants in the learning process through interactions with peers. In peer tutorial, tutees and tutors are collaborators of learning. Falchicov (2001) described collaborative learning as instrumental in developing self esteem, improving classroom engagement, increasing academic interest, and improving study habits (Matine, 2019; Shenoy & Petersen, 2019).

In the College of Accounting Education, peer tutorial is a flagship program implemented in partnership with the Dynamic Society of Accounting Students (DySAS), a student organization of the College. One of the fundamental objectives of the program is to provide an avenue for students, especially those who are having a hard time dealing with accounting courses to enhance and improve their knowledge in accounting (Lumactod, Nipales, Pelenio & Taripe, 2013). The tutorial process begins with the recommendation of the teacher of students (tutees) who failed in at least two assessment periods to join the tutorial program Tutorial classes are handled by selected DySAS members (tutors) who are competent to deliver the designated topic. To determine whether the program has indeed contributed to the tutee's performance, concerned teachers monitor the progress of the tutee in his or her succeeding assessment periods.

Under the Program, tutorial activities include, but not limited to, discussing the scheduled topics, administering and answering pre and posttests, answering problems in the textbook, giving review materials, and presenting an overview of the next topic (Dynamic Society of Accounting Students [DySAS], 2015)

Given the lack of study that assesses the implementation of the Peer Tutorial Program, which could serve as the basis for quality improvement; hence this

Primarily, this research assesses the level of implementation of the Peer Tutorial Program. Specifically, the study aims to answer the following questions:

The paper utilized a descriptive qualitative study design. King (2007) mentioned that qualitative studies achieve an in depth understanding of the 'constructs' people use to describe and rationalize everyday experiences and interactions with the world. We aptly opted for this design as we intended to describe and interpret thoughts and feelings of the participants and find meanings in their shared stories on the implementation of peer tutorial program (Hannes, Booth, Harris & Noyes, 2013) The qualitative approach is deemed appropriate for this research because it described how the program was implemented and improved the performance of the participants through their experiences and views on peer tutorial, the problems they have encountered as well as their suggestions to enhance the program

4. How does Peer Tutorial help tutees and tutors in their professional course performance?

The participants of the study were accounting students from the 1st to 4th year level selected through purposive sampling. They were students who had undergone the peer tutorial program at least twice and had given their consent to be part of the study, whether as tutees or tutors The chosen tutors were outstanding DySAS members, mostly 3rd and 4th year accountancy students who have been involved with the tutorial for at least one (1) year or two (2) semesters. They were shortlisted because of their rich and meaningful experience with the program.

2. What are the perceptions of 'STAR' on the Peer Tutorial Program?

study was undertaken. The researchers believe that this inquiry shall provide concrete evidence on the program's intrinsic value and significance through an objective and comprehensive evaluation of its implementation in terms of delivery and results Further, this study shall offer practical interventions and recommendations to improve its design, delivery, and overall services.

2. Method

5. What are the suggestions of the participants to improve the implementation of the Peer Tutorial Program?

This section outlines the methodologies and processes employed in the conduct of the study to ensure the integrity and scholarliness of the paper. The discussion is structured in order of the study design, study participants and selection process, phases of exploration, the role of researcher, trustworthiness of the study, and ethical consideration.

1. What is the status of 'STAR' after subscribing to Peer Tutorial?

On the other hand, the selected tutees were 1st, and 2nd year accountancy and accounting technology students who have shown consistent poor academic performance, sedentary class participation and are considered 'at risk' of failing

Participants and Selection Process

Study Design

3. What are the problems encountered by students in the Peer Tutorial Program?

Data were gathered through document analysis and focus group discussions (FGDs) using an expert validated interview guide during the 3rd quarter of the academic year 2016 2017. The format of the FGD was open and spontaneous to reduce inhibitions among participants. While the interview was structured around predetermined questions, the discussion went interactive, free flowing, and dynamic. Marshall and Rossman (as cited in Walby, 2015) suggested that the data collection method in qualitative research is categorized into four types: participation in the setting, direct observation, in depth interview, and document analysis. The responses during the FGD were carefully logged using notes and a machine recorder, accurately transcribed and confirmed by the participants in a journal. Data gathered were coded individually and categorized based on the nature of participation as either tutee (TE) or tutor (TR) and research objectives. After then, the coded data were analyzed using the thematic analysis approach.

In addition, we also took the role of encoders. The first thing we encoded was the accounting performance of our participants before and after they have joined the tutorial program. This coding was needed to determine the statistical impact of peer tutorial to the tutees' academic progress. After this, we carefully recorded the participants' responses during the interview The narratives of the participants are critical to validate the numbers collected. As encoders, we observed honesty and impartiality to ensure that the themes and concepts generated are according to the context and perspective of our participants To this end, we employed the audit trail to facilitate an easy and efficient way to indexing the responses of our participants to and from the transcripts of focus group discussion. The format we used was (TE P#/TR P#). TE stands for the 'Tutee' while TR represents 'Tutor.' The P# means' Participant Number'. Say, for

Role of Researchers As researchers, we played the following roles in the study. One of the roles we played was as interviewers. As such, we captured and document stories of our participants relevant to the study objectives. As interviewers, we made sure that a carefree and relaxed conversation is carried on the set. With a sincere yet light environment, we allowed our participants to share their experiences without intimidation, pressure, and fear of being judged. Another important role we assumed was as observers. Since this inquiry is qualitative, we were equally interested in non verbal languages like emotions and mannerisms as with their words We believe that often, meaningful anecdotes can be drawn from unguarded facial expressions, behaviors, and gestures. For this purpose, we kept an eye to eye contact with our participants during the interview.

Phases of Exploration

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. the course. They were referred and nominated by their accounting teachers. However, to qualify as participants, they must have attended the tutorial session at least twice, are willing to participate in the study, and are confident about the impact of the program in their academic success. The participants were clustered into three (3) of seven (7) participants (Creswell, 1998), namely: the tutors, the triumphant tutees, and the fruitless tutees.

Ethical Consideration

3. Results

As researchers, we put high regard to the anonymity of our participants and the confidentiality of the data gathered. On this, pseudonyms were assigned to the participants to hide their identity. The information gathered was never shared with others and used other than the purpose of the study. Consent was also secured to guarantee the voluntary participation of the participants. We respected the right of our participants to withdraw from participating should they decide to discontinue Further, this research paper is entirely credible, devoid of any data manipulation, deceit, and plagiarism.

This section of the paper presents the results of the data gathered. It outlines the meaningful and significant answers of the participants to questions relevant to the objectives of the study. The results are presented following the order of the research questions. Status of "STAR" after subscribing to Peer Tutorial

We began our exploration of the phenomenon by looking at the summative report of the tutorial program prepared by DySAS for the 1st semester of 2015 2016. A total of 122 students attended the program for the entire semester, with an overall passing mean rating of 65.81 percent. Accounting 1A recorded 56

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. example (TE P1), interpreted as Tutee Participant 1 or (TR P1), described as Tutor Participant 1. Trustworthiness of the Study In qualitative studies, the trustworthiness of the study is both paramount and sacred. This thrust is ensured by keeping high levels of integrity, transparency, and objectivity in the collection, transcription, and interpretation of data In his literature, Shenton (2004) indicated four elements of reliability to include credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability. As with credibility, the study was carried out systematically (Silverman, 2015; Shenton, 2004). We followed technical and ethical standards in the collection and analysis of data. Processes and tools were checked, reviewed, and verified by experts in qualitative studies. Conversely, transferability was upheld through clear cut research objectives, contextualized themes, and well defined respondents. Moreover, we never allowed our personal biases and prejudices to influence the outcome of this study (Creswell, 1998; Shenton, 2004). Similarly, to ensure dependability, member checking was done on the data before and after analysis and interpretation. Participants were able to validate their narratives as to completeness and accuracy (Silverman, 2015). Further, participants were adequately oriented on the purpose and rigor of the study, especially on data gathering. Lastly, confirmability was secured in this study through the use of audit trails. This device allows the reader to trace and confirm the information from its raw source Marshall and Rossman (2010) stressed that the findings, interpretations, and conclusions must be supported appropriately. Besides, all materials and instruments used in this study were kept intact for verification and corroboration purposes.

As shown in Table 1, the tutorial sessions in Accounting 1A and Accounting 5 helped the STARs pass their currently enrolled courses. In the study of Braganza, Capisnon, Dela Salde, and Manib (2014), peer tutorials increase the level of performance of students in an exam. It is worth noting, though, that some tutees failed to proceed because of irregular attendance and poor participation during the session. In the related study, Briggs (2013) noted that those who obtained higher scores on the QRI (Quality Reading Inventory) test are students engaged in peer learning. This suggests the positive effect peer tutoring can have on academic performance. While academic achievement is a function of many factors, including aptitude, preparation, and environmental support, a tutorial session is a big rally round to nurturing and strengthening the readiness and confidence of students to do good in class and eventually pass the course.

Stressful challengingand Typical "When tutees find the topic very hard to understand even if repeatedly taught" (TE P7) Interactive and fun experiencelearning Typical "We were provided with discussions about a topic. We were encouraged and allowed to ask questions freely. We were provided with sample problems with answers. It is a great experience" (TE P12)

A review session Typical "Attending tutorial sessions enables students to review their accounting lessons by answering the pre and posttests" (TR P1) Platform to learnknowledgeshareandwithothers

Accounting

Table 2: Perceptions on Peer Tutorial Program Ideas/CoreThemes FrequencyResponsesof Key Statements

General "I always had fun. You get to share and learn new knowledge with fellow students" (TE P10) acquaintancesCreate and friends Typical "Tutorial was fun. I can meet different people and find friends" (TE P15)

358 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. passers with a general passing rate of 61.54 percent, 35 flunkers, and four no grade or in dropped condition. Meanwhile, 21 tutees enrolled in Accounting 5 passed the course with a staggering 80.77 percent passing percentage, with five flunkers and one no grade or in dropped status. While we were confident that the program had helped our STARs, we did not discount the fact that there might be students who failed to profit from the program.

Accounting

Table 1: Report on Peer Tutorial Implementation Period Subject Passed Failed No Grade (NG) and Dropped Total PassingRate semester 1a 56 35 4 95 61.54% 5 21 5 1 27 80.77% 77 40 5 122 65.81%

1st

Overall

General "Allow us to learn through various methods and activities like pre and posttest, seatwork, oral recitations, reporting, working with buddies and giving assignment" (TR P1) Discover new learning not taught in the classroom General "It adds new learning because they also teach things not discussed in the class" (TE P17) Find models and inspiration to do better in studies and in life

Typical "I have become more patient in studying and developed new ways to learn better and faster" (TE 11)

Typical "I really make sure that I will be present when I am assigned to teach or tutor. This makes me more responsible and caring of others" (TR P7) unorganized,Boring, and non interactive Variant "When we have to move from one room to another and when the tutorial session seems unprepared and unorganized" (TE P8) Having stern interest and strong desire in one thing will drive every person to commit, pursue, and work hard for it. This interest is influenced by a person's need, condition, priorities, and perception. This truth led us to ask our participants about their views and thoughts about the tutorial program We probed this area first to be able to understand the students' reasons for attending or withdrawing from the activity. We carefully captured and classified the answers of our participants based on their universal thesis. The following ten themes emerged from the responses on the perceptions on the Peer Tutorial Program.

classroomReinforcelearning

Builds teamwork and sense responsibilityoftolearning

A Review Session

A tutorial session simulates a typical review class where tutors and tutees update and refresh themselves on specific accounting topics. The tutors who are assigned to manage the learning session had to review themselves and master the topics to be discussed so they can deliver satisfactorily to the tutees (TR P1). The tutees, on the other hand, had to appraise themselves of what they have already learned so they can catch up with the lesson (TE P11; TE P13). Tutors also employ various teaching techniques characterizing a typical teaching learning environment. Participant (Tutor) 1 aptly said, “Attending tutorial sessions will enable students to review their accounting lessons by answering the posttest and pre test prepared by the tutor” (TR P1) This is supported by Participant (Tutee) 13 saying, “It helped me retain the topics I have studied in the past” (TE P13) Essentially, akin to review class, tutors provide learning materials, discuss the outlined topics, and conduct assessment activities.

Platform to share knowledge and learn with others CAE's tutorial program is a student initiative. It is run and managed by DySAS, an organization of accounting students. The program allows selected members, usually academic scholars and accounting adept students, to become tutors to share their knowledge and skills to their fellow students, especially those who are at risk and those belonging to lower years. The entire process espouses the sharing of knowledge among fellow students and learning along with others, not just about accounting but also about best practices on how to manage time, stress, and personal issues (TR P3; TR P6; TE P11; TE P18) Participant (Tutor) 3 profoundly recounted, “It is very fulfilling on my part because I can be able to share what I have learned in accounting. Also, I have the opportunity to share my study habits to them” (TR P3) Participant (Tutee) 18 echoed, “Of course, I am happy being able to learn with my classmates and friends as we share ideas” (TE P18) Over time, the program has transcended from sheer teaching to coaching, mentoring, and advising. It has empowered tutees to be self reliant and to interact confidently with their fellow tutees, friends, and classmates. In effect, the breadth of learning from simple tutorial sessions has become even more extensive and more impactful Creating acquaintances and friends Apart from the opportunity to learn, the tutorial program is also a venue to win friends and comrades. Learning together fosters good rapport and friendship between and among tutors and tutees (TR P1; TR P3; TR P7; TE P11; TE P19) This makes learning even more enjoyable and exciting. Participant 7 (Tutor) and 11 (Tutee) declared, “The tutorial experience was great. I was able to make friends with tutees” (TR P7) “Tutees and tutors become friends” (TE P11) Sharing knowledge and interacting with one another is a show of care, building mutual trust and respect, which are essential elements to creating and keeping relationships such as friendship. After all, learning, to be extra meaningful and exciting, must be fun and shared with friends. Stressful and challenging A tutorial session can be toxic and exhausting both for student tutors and tutees. Both tutors and tutees have to manage their time to prepare and attend to the tutorial sessions (TR P1; TR P2; TE P8). Tutors, in particular, have to bear the difficulties of reviewing and strategizing on how the topics will be discussed They even have to bear tutees' diverse personalities, motivation, priorities, concerns, and reception towards the session, not to mention the feeling of anxiety during the discussion and in answering every tutee's question.

Participant 1 (Tutor) cordially narrated,

The tutorial session is designed to reinforce class discussion of identified topics that are critical and challenging to students, especially for those at risk of failing or have shown poor academic performance consistently The tutorial aims to strengthen student understanding of accounting topics learned first inside the classroom (TE P10; TE P11; TE P13; TE P15; TE P16; TE P17). Participants 15 and 16 convincingly recounted, “Tutorial session is very helpful to us. It helps us clear lessons we do not understand” (TE P15)

“The challenging moment for me is seeing tutees not prepared coming to the session and not doing their assignment” (TR P1) Even Participant 5 revealed one of her sad experiences by telling us, “There was once an instance when my tutee asked a question, and I was not able to answer it. I felt embarrassed and disappointed at myself” (TR P5) For tutees, it has always been a challenge to review past lessons or learning new ones in a fast paced manner. More so, the time available for the tutees that could match the tutors' free schedule as regular classes are continuing Interactive and fun learning experience

Nothing beats fun learning. It does not only fight boredom and exhaustion, but it also increases topic absorption and retention. The tutorial works through interactive and fun learning activities (TR P2; TE P8; TE P10; TE P12; TE P19). With interactive and fun learning activities, tutees are expelled from feeling bored, exhausted, and mentally consumed. Instead, they remain to be attentive, focused, and alive during the entire session. Participant 2 shared, “I had great interactions with my tutees. It is fun to learn accounting on tutorials” (TR P2) Participant 8 disclosed, “I had good times with the tutorial session when the discussion happens to be interactive, and all my questions are answered” (TE P8) Participant 10 warmly disclosed, “I always had fun. You get to share and learn new knowledge. I had fun reviewing” (TE P10) Tutors are not just predisposed to do lecturing as a means to discuss the topics but also tasked to use other approaches like cooperative learning and student led discussions that encourage independent learning, interaction, and active participation. These approaches to teaching also help the tutors save their energy and tone by shifting their role from being a resource person to a facilitator and, at the same time, addressing the multi intelligences and varied learning styles of students. Reinforces classroom learning

In some rare cases and circumstances, the tutorial session becomes a hub of new knowledge and accounting skills. Tutors share techniques in solving accounting problems and tips in understanding difficult concepts and principles. Apart from accounting, tutees also learn from their tutors best practices on how to manage time, how to study effectively, and how to learn steadfastly. Time and again, it has been acknowledged that education goes beyond the classroom; tutorial sessions can be a ground of fresh, meaningful experiences and instruction helpful to understanding accounting and even life, in general.

Discover new learning not taught in the classroom

Through the review materials provided and discussions given, students are able to deepen their understanding of the topic. They are even encouraged to ask questions or clarify information which they have missed to ask or are afraid to clarify with their teachers (TE P11; TE P12; TE P13; TE P14; TE P17) Participant 12 narrated, “We were provided with discussions about a particular topic. We were encouraged and allowed to ask questions freely without feeling intimidated by the tutors. We were provided with sample problems with answers. It is a great experience” (TE P12)

The tutorial session is more than just learning with experts. It is also an opportunity where tutors model and inspire student leadership and excellence to tutees. One apparent impact of the tutorial is that tutees find exemplars and inspiration from the tutors. Tutees see their tutors as their motivation to do better and be like them. This idea was shared by Participant 20 pronouncing, “I study more now than before because I am inspired by the advice of our tutor” (TE P20)

Find models and inspiration to do better in studies and in life

Participant 12 noted, “Tutorials provide me with new tips, techniques, and shortcuts in understanding and solving problems” (TE P12) We categorically believe that learning is not confined within the four walls of the classroom. There are discoveries and fresh thoughts that take place beyond it and which are, in several instances, more meaningful and exciting as these were acquired spontaneously and with others.

Indeed, the tutorial session can be a potent mechanism to enhance the learning and comprehension of the students, especially those who struggle and have difficulty in understanding and learning the lessons at once. In the tutorial, the pacing is relatively slow as the topic discussions are specific and controlled. It can also be an excellent aid for students who have missed their classes as they can learn the topics they missed during the tutorial. Participant 3 confidently said, “I learned new topics from the session” (TE P3) While tutorials are held to reinforce learning which occurred inside the class, being attentive and engaged during classroom encounters with teacher remains to be very important and will help a lot in improving our academic performance.

The admiration and respect developed by tutees towards their tutors can lead to emulation and replication; thus, tutors become persons that tutees look up to as their model of scholarship, responsibility, and resilience. In many circumstances, tutors also provide peer advising relating to career goals and personal issues.

One of the tutors, our Participant 3 delightfully narrated, “One of the happy moments I've had with the tutorial session was when I inspired students not only to work hard for accounting but also to learn to love it” (TR P3) In tutorial sessions, students do not only acquire and enhance their knowledge and understanding of a specific topic and make new friends but also find exemplars that serve as inspiration and models of motivation.

Builds teamwork and sense of responsibility to learning

The success of tutorials rests on the teamwork and commitment between and among tutors and tutees. Tutors need to demonstrate teamwork by planning the details of the tutorial session to include the list of topics, the assignment of tutors, and the flow of the session. Consequently, tutees must show commitment and support through active participation and engagement during the session. A tutorial is not about the tutors or the tutees individually; it's about the collaboration forged between the two and the shared responsibility towards learning. In the equation of tutorial, teamwork and shared responsibility are the essential variables. Heartwarming insights we heard from our participants was from Participants 5 and 12 when they realized, “It made me realized that dealing with accounting, you need a friend to walk with you on the journey. The best buddy you could have is your peer ” (TR P5) “The feeling of accomplishment was indescribable. Learning with peers is a good thing, especially when everyone is attentive and cooperative. It made me easy to understand the topic” (TE P12) Learning with others through the tutors or mentors or coaches is an experience that beholds teamwork, responsibility, charity, and sharing. These same qualities are what the University of Mindanao wants from its students and graduates.

Boring, unorganized and non-interactive

One common reason why students are not attracted to tutorials and likely to withdraw and disengaged during sessions is because of its predisposition to get boring and non interactive. This situation typically happens when tutors failed to meet the interest and expectations of the tutees; when learning materials are lacking; teaching strategies are repetitive; tutors are unprepared, and the environment is not conducive for learning. Participant 8 shared, “When we have to move from one room to another and when the tutorial session seems unprepared and unorganized” (TE P8) Just like any other learning session, be it a formal class or a tutorial, making the session attractive to students and sustaining its dynamics and energy is a

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. continuous challenge. Hence, while tutors may have the key responsibility to design and navigate the session, tutees have equal power to make it enjoyable and productive.

Key Statements

Difficulty of scheduling the date and time of tutorial General "Most of the time, the schedule of tutorial is in conflict with our classes and personal schedules" (TR P1) Tutors' lack of skills in tutoring and of strategiesteaching Variant "Some tutees are bored because of the lack of teaching skills of the tutors" (TR P4) Lack of tutorial room General "We have to look for a vacant room every time we hold the tutorial; otherwise we have to disrupt or cancel the activity" (TR P5) Lack of learning materials and resources Typical "There were times when materials and topic notes were not provided which could be very helpful so we can follow the discussion and have it reviewed at home" (TE P13)

Lack of encouragementteachers'andsupport Variant "There could be more tutees in attendance if teachers would require those who are supposed to attend. And there should be credit points to be given to tutees" (TR P6) Unsound attitude of Tutees and Tutors Variant "Students attending the tutorial sessions are eager to learn, but as the discussion goes on, they get bored easily and slowly losing focus" (TE P10) As with any other initiatives, activities, and programs, the tutorial has its own set of problems and challenges that can derail the achievement of its goals and objectives. We thought that the tutorial might not be perfect, hence need to improve continually There may be errors, weaknesses, and limitations in its method and mechanism that need to be addressed. Having said so, we, researchers explored the problems and challenges as perceived and experienced by the participants. The six themes that emerged from the anecdotes on the problems encountered by "STAR" on Peer Tutorial Program are provided herewith. Difficulty of scheduling the date and time of tutorial Tutors and DySAS officers agreed that one of their pressing problems in the conduct of tutorials was to sync the schedule of the tutor and the tutees. Participants confessed that organizing a peer tutoring activity can be daunting and challenging, even during scheduling There must be a common, agreed upon time structure for the tutorial session that will not compromise regular classes of both tutors and tutees. Failure to meet both parties' availability would mean no tutorial session. Time must be open, free, and unrestricted to allow comprehensive, complete, and concentrated discussions

Table 3: Problems Encountered by "STAR" on Peer Tutorial Core Ideas /Themes FrequencyResponsesof

One critical element that could make or break a tutorial session is the knowledge, skills, and attitude of the tutors. Many agreed that one major culprit to a successful tutorial is the lack of competency among tutors in imparting knowledge and managing the session. Without the right attitude and skills, the discussion tends to become unorganized, boring, and ineffective. Tutees, when feeling bored and worn out, easily lose their focus, become disengaged, and can be unreceptive towards learning.

Typically, tutorial sessions are done on weekdays, during the free hours of the tutees and tutors. While this is relatively difficult because students have reservations to participate owing to the regular classes that they have to attend to in between or after the session, weekend schedules are nearly impossible either because of the many, equally important activities that both tutors and tutees have to accommodate like the bridging program, OJT seminars, weekend exams, thesis defense, CWTS, and PE classes among others. Participant 1 captured this challenge saying, “Most of the time, the schedule of the tutorial is in conflict with class and personal schedules” (TR P1) Another concern was revealed to us by Participant 12 citing, “I hope tutorial sessions do not fall on regular class schedule so that they will not be in conflict with regular class” (TE P12) Having the right schedule that allows students at risk to be in attendance can make the program more efficient and valuable to those who especially need it. This is something DySAS has to manage and deal with effectively Tutors' lack of skills in tutoring and of teaching strategies

While tutors must be knowledgeable on the subject and topics they ought to share with the tutees, they must also be equipped with the appropriate tutoring/teaching skills in order to transfer such knowledge effectively. Tutors must be well armed with excellent communication and interpersonal skills alongside the values of passion, commitment, patience, and understanding. A participant narrated, “Tutors' way of teaching must be lively, and tutors must have a sense of humor to break the monotony of discussion and catch our attention the tutees” (TE P11) This challenge was also recognized among tutors. One tutor confessed, “We should have seminars and training to help us improve our teaching skills” (TR P6) Apart from the technical knowledge, there is also a need for tutors to become adept at various teaching approaches and pedagogy to become effective and relevant in their instruction.

Lack of tutorial room

Lack of learning materials and resources

Learning is never perfected within the tutorial session. The quality of tutoring is affected by many limitations, including the time, the environment, and the type of tutees in attendance, hence to augment student learning, materials and resources are indispensable. However, these things are inadequate, if not completely lacking among tutors. Given this scantiness, it could impede the learner's capacity to fully grasp the concepts and topics taught during the residential session. Having no materials at hand may also trigger disengagement and demotivation among tutees. As tutees have different styles and ways of learning, different pacing, and conditions during the session, the learning materials could greatly help reinforce the topics discussed. It can also facilitate better learning as the tutees do not just hear the discussion but also have something to see and follow through, especially for visual learners Alternatively, tutees need materials so they can relearn and practice their learning at home, in the classroom, or at the library, thus deepen and enhance their understanding of the topic. This problem was shared vividly to us by Participant 15 saying, “Tutors must provide learning materials like sample questionnaires and reviewers that we can bring at home for further study and practice” (TE P15)

One of the most important logistical requirements for the conduct of tutorials is a room a place conducive for learning. The room must be spacious, well lighted, with good ventilation and physical resources like chairs, tables, and whiteboards Ideally, a tutorial room must support a productive and fun learning experience. Apart from managing an amenable schedule that works for tutors and tutees, another perennial concern that besets DySAS every time tutorials are planned is where to hold the learning sessions By practice, tutorials are held in vacant classrooms and discussion rooms at the library. However, it must be pre scheduled since reservations are also limited. This problem was best articulated through suggestions by Participants 5 and 12 citing respectively, “There must be a permanent room that is conducive for learning” (TR P4) “The College must also provide vacant rooms specifically intended for the conduct of tutorial because as experienced, we do not have permanent rooms which led to the interruption and cancellation of the session” (TE P12) As members of the faculty of the CAE, we remembered that there was a time where no rooms are available; thus, tutees and tutors just hopped from one classroom to another every after an hour, which disrupts the energy, concentration, and learning momentum of the participants. This kind of experience discourages students from actively attending the activity.

Lack of teachers' encouragement and support

As an intervention program for the STARs (students at risk), the process design of tutorial is cyclical; and it begins from the inputs of the teachers. It is the task of the teachers to identify students who need help and intervention, especially those who have shown consistent poor performance in the class and on examinations. They must encourage students to attend tutorials. This idea was resonated strongly by Participant 2 when she told us, “Teachers must require their students to attend tutorial classes especially those who need peer tutorial” (TR P2) Likewise, teachers need to monitor the progress of their students. They should help evaluate the effectiveness of the program through reinforcement in the classroom, like giving out assessment tasks related to the topics discussed during the session. To encourage participation, teachers may include in their quizzes and even in the exam problems given during the tutorials. Through this, students can find connection, value, and appreciation of the program. On this note, Participant 6 commented, “There should be an evaluation of the performances of tutees inside the classroom” – (TR P6) From a different perspective, Participant 4 mentioned another role accounting teachers have to play in improving the implementation of the program. He loudly pondered, “I think there must be a professor or any equivalent representative of the College to evaluate the performances of the tutors” (TE P4) With how the program works, the roles of teachers as providers of inputs and evaluators of outcomes are critical. Teachers' constructive feedback on the program delivery and outcomes will serve as valuable inputs to the quality improvement program of the College. The worst that could happen is when teachers failed to monitor whether tutors are doing what they are supposed to do and that tutees are making progress in their performance. Unsound attitude of Tutees and Tutors We believe that beyond the legitimate issues of lack of resources and support system, the low turnout and poor participation among tutees and even tutors are influenced by their attitude and impression towards the program. One significant factor that contributes to the success of any program, such as tutorials, is the attitude of the tutees. When tutees come to tutorial sessions just to comply with their teacher's encouragement or requirement, they remain passive and disengaged with the activity. When tutees view tutorial sessions as burdensome, insignificant, and ineffective, they become reluctant and will most likely not attend or become apathetic to the program. When tutees find no

With the learning materials available on hand, tutees will become independent learners themselves, that is, self directed learning, away from the oversight of tutors and only through the aid of adequate and appropriate materials This is an autonomous learning that works.

Table 4: Benefits of Peer Tutorial to "STAR" and the Tutors Core Ideas/ Themes FrequencyResponsesof Key Statements

appreciation and remain unsympathetic towards the tutors and the learning activities, the quality of learning is compromised. This iniquitous truth was framed in the words of Participant 11 when she recounted, “As tutee, tutorial session does not have any impact on my academic performance because I am satisfied with my professor's performance. There is no reason for me to attend tutorial session” (TE P11) Participant 14 echoed, “During tutorials, while the tutors are friendly and approachable, but what they are teaching is just the same with what we're given in the class. The knowledge I have gained inside the classroom is just the same as in the tutorials” (TE P14) As with tutors, when they see the program as an obligation than a noble responsibility, they will easily succumb to indolence and apathy, making their performance less satisfactory and mediocre. When tutors perceive tutorials as onerous and unrewarding, they may stop learning and enhancing their skills and eventually stay off from the program. Indeed, the attitude and commitment of both tutees and tutors matter in the value proposition of tutorials.

Help cultivate good study habit and learning style General "For me, it improves my study habit especially on taking down notes and how to become focused in everything that you do" (TE P16) Improve students' academic performance

Typical "My classroom performance like my quizzes and exam scores has improved because I can relate the questions from the tutorial" (TE P15) Reinforce and strengthen own learning and understanding of topics

Typical "After attending tutorials, I am just studying on my own. I can really answer questions" (TE P15) At this point, we have explored the real and perceived benefits of the program for both tutees and tutors alike. Understandably, what attracts and keeps the participants from being engaged and committed are the favors and gains they get from it. While there are participant centered objectives outlined in the program, these can only make sense when achieved satisfactorily and have impacted the participants significantly. Five themes have emerged describing the benefits of the program, to wit:

General "Tutorial session really helps students because tutors can share some topics that were not taken up in classes" (TE P13) Build self confidence and independence Typical "Attendance to tutorial improved my competence and confidence in understanding accounting. It pressured me to strive more and learn more accounting courses." (TE P12) Promote active education and skills development

Peer tutorial is a confidence booster. Studying with someone of relatively the same age typically makes students feel more comfortable and relaxed. They do not feel as intimidated with a peer as they might with a teacher. Besides, peer tutors can share personal struggles with the subject material, such as rationalizing the difficulties they have encountered and what strategies they used to overcome it. This circumstance allows the learner to feel comforted and empowered On this note, Participant 12 narrated, “Attendance to tutorial improved my competence and confidence in understanding accounting. It pressured me to strive more and learn more accounting courses.” (TE P12) Promote active education and skills development

Direct peer tutoring promotes active learning and skills development

Tutors reinforce their learning through tutoring By instructing their peers, tutors even enrich their knowledge and develop their sense of compassion and responsibility for others. Tutors become more competent in the topic and diligent in their studies as they have to ensure their tutees will learn and get inspired through them. As tutors, they need to retool themselves and master the knowledge they ought to impart. In the words of Participant 13, she said; “Tutorial session really helps students because tutors can share some topics that were not taken up in classes” (TE P13) Build self-confidence and independence

Help cultivate good study habit and learning style

The tutorial strengthens learning motivation and increases students' academic accomplishments. Tutees attributed the improvements in their class performance to their active participation in tutorials. Results of both formative and summative assessments, like quizzes and exams, have improved. In addition, tutees have shown improvements in their attitude towards learning. In fact, Participant 15 shared, “My classroom performance like my quizzes and exam scores has improved because I can relate the questions from the tutorial” (TE P15) Reinforce and strengthen own learning and understanding of topics

Peer teaching learning provides opportunities for students to raise questions, confer issues, exchange viewpoints, and engage in collaborative learning by working in teams on problems and tasks The use of varied and effective teaching strategies like role plays, healthy discourses, case studies, and simulated projects not only

Students believed that the tutorial has helped them cultivate good study habits and learning styles. Tutees confessed that their study hours have increased after joining the learning sessions. Moreover, tutees were able to develop the right attitude, competencies, and disposition towards learning after consistent participation. Participant 16 recounted, “For me, it improves my study habit especially on taking down notes and how to become focused in everything that you do” (TE P16) Improve students' academic performance

Suggestions to Improve the Implementation of the Peer Tutorial

This section presents the suggestions of our participants to improve the design and delivery of the tutorial program through an action plan. The six themes that emerged from the suggestions of the participants on how to improve the implementation of the program, both the design and execution, are provided in table 5.

Provide tutorial materials and resources General "Provide learning materials like sample questionnaires and reviewers" (TE P15) Offer a flexible schedule or tutorial time option General "Posting of flexible schedules for the tutorial session should be made clearly and ahead of time" (TE P10) Conduct one on one tutorial sessions Variant "There must be one on one tutorial session or buddy buddy system especially for working students" (TE P11) Provide a tutorial facility or room General "There must be one permanent tutorial room that is conducive for learning" (TR P5) Conduct a retooling or skills training for tutors Typical "Tutors need to attend seminars and workshops on how to be an effective tutor" (TE P8) Conduct a college wide campaign about the program

Teachers can also help in the dissemination effort by introducing the said program its design, purpose, and benefits during the class orientation. Further, an attractive advertisement may be placed in a conspicuous place within the College area so students will be reminded Participant 3 made a point by saying,

To increase student participation and strengthen the programs' goal and advocacy of helping the STARs, the College through the DySAS may conduct a college wide campaign to promote and raise awareness about the initiative and how students can benefit from it. Organizers may do a room to room campaign to reach students and encourage them to get involved.

stir students' enthusiasm and creative participation but also address their multi intelligences. Confidently, Participant 15 told us, “After attending tutorials, I am just studying on my own. I can really answer questions” (TE P15)

Table 5: Suggestions to Improve the Implementation of the Peer Tutorial Core Ideas/ Themes Frequency of Responses Key Statements

Conduct a college wide campaign about the program Typical "The College should promote the program so that many students would be aware of it and can participate" (TR P3)

“The College should promote the program so that many students would be aware of it and can participate” (TR P3) Provide tutorial materials and resources

Learning materials and handouts must be provided to tutees. These tools could facilitate a better understanding of the topic being discussed and help students follow through the lessons gained even beyond the tutorial session, hence inspire self directed, independent learning. Materials also respond equitably to multiple intelligences. It is essential for visual learners and supports auditory and kinesthetic learners as well In support of this call, Participant 15 detailed, “Provide learning materials like sample questionnaires and reviewers” (TE P15) Offer a flexible schedule or tutorial-time option With the different free time and availability of the tutors and tutees, it would be helpful and encouraging to students if they can choose their schedule when to attend the tutorial. Through this, they can thoroughly focus and lend quality time to the activity for effective learning and engagement. They need not hurry nor worry about possible conflict with their regular classes. This mechanism also serves the interest of the tutors as they will be afforded enough time to prepare themselves, their tools and strategies, so to ensure quality discussion and learning experience for their tutees. Since tutors work within their means and time, they can facilitate better without worry and prejudice to personal academic pursuits. After all, their services are free. This suggestion was held by Participant 10 expressing, “Posting of flexible schedules for the tutorial session should be made clearly and ahead of time” (TE P10) Conduct a one on one tutorial session When the crowd of tutees becomes bigger with multiple levels of readiness, conditions, and motivations, it would be very challenging, if not nearly impossible, for tutors to cater all the needs and preferences of the tutees. Tutors can only apply general approaches in discussing the topic. This truth can have different effects, though. For those fast learners, they may get bored; those less prepared may find the discussion harder to follow. Some may get distracted and become disengaged because of class size, while others tend to feel anxious and uncomfortable. All these translate into ineffective learning One alternative to group tutoring is one on one tutorial session. This alternative addresses the issue of individual learning style, need, and pace. Personal tutorial provides a more comprehensive, well thought, and customized learning activities. Participant 11 candidly shared his insight on this matter by saying, “There must be one on one tutorial session or buddy buddy system especially for working students” (TE P11)

4. Discussion

Having a room for the activity and having a place that fits the learning session are two different yet equally important things. First, there must be a specific room or facility to hold tutorial classes. Second, it must be conducive for learning and can facilitate various teaching strategies available to tutors. The facility must be equipped with learning tools and materials, is accessible, well ventilated, and away from unnecessary disturbances like noise. In support of this need, Participant 5 proposed, “There must be one permanent tutorial room that is conducive for learning” (TR P5) Conduct a retooling or skills training for tutors Akin to the saying, "One cannot give what he or she does not have," tutors need to undergo a regular and structured retooling or training program designed to equip them with the right skills and attitude on teaching and how to manage tutorial sessions. In this way, they can transfer their knowledge to the tutees more effectively. Just like full pledged teachers, tutors must be trained about pedagogy and teaching strategies and get oriented about the dos and don'ts of advising and motivating learners. With tutorial sessions, the most challenging part is not about what knowledge and information to share but how to effectively and meaningfully transfer them despite the differing learning styles, intelligence, attitudes, and readiness of the learners. After all, learning is not just about the learner; it is also about the conduits the teacher and the technology Participant 8 expressed her hopes that, “Tutors need to attend seminars and workshops on how to be an effective tutor” –(TE P8)

The Peer Tutorial Program empowers students to appraise and evaluate their academic preparedness, strengths, and weaknesses concerning specific courses and topics (Braganza et al., 2014; O’Dea & Harris, 2019). It does not only help tutees enhance their understanding and knowledge about a particular lesson or course (Shenoy & Petersen, 2019) but also promote the spirit of service, sacrifice, teamwork and disciple between and among tutees and tutors (Braganza et al., 2014; Briggs, 2013). By its worth, the tutorial session is a great help for students, especially those who are struggling to understand their accounting lessons (Shenoy & Petersen, 2019). At least, through the program, students are able to clarify and deepen

Perceptions of "Students at Risk" on the Peer Tutorial Program

Provide a tutorial facility or room

This section of the paper presents the discussion on the themes that emerged from the meaningful responses of our participants relative to the research questions. It is organized into four main categories, namely: Perceptions of 'Students at Risk' on the Peer Tutorial Program, Problems Encountered by Students in the Peer Tutorial Program, Benefits of the Peer Tutorial Program to Tutees and Tutors, and Suggestions to Improve the Peer Tutorial Program.

Akin to a classroom, it employs similar teaching techniques commonly used by teachers inside the classroom; thus, tutees can easily follow the dynamics and format of instruction and are more relaxed and open in grasping the lessons (Aclo et al., 2015; Johnson, 2011). Among the popular techniques used were lecture, think pair share (TPS), team learning, and debates, among others (Bailey, 2010; Chi & Vanlehn, 2010) Essentially, DySAS tutorial program provides meaningful services to students by creating a practical and fun learning experience. It encourages and inspires tutees to continue pursuing their dream of becoming an accounting professional despite the hardships encountered in their core courses. Through DySAS, the tutees have found hope and comfort in their studies and became more driven to study harder (Aclo et al., 2015; Lumactod et al., 2013).

Problems Encountered by Students in the Peer Tutorial Program

One pressing issue of peer tutorial is student resignation and lowliness. Some students who may feel less and inferior when tutored by fellow students may develop a hostile relationship with one another (Booth & Hyland, 1996). If a student cultivates this feeling of lowliness, he or she may withdraw from working effectively with his or her assigned peer and, as a result, failing to get the full benefits of the program.

In the context of study participants, the compelling issues and concerns that need to be addressed are the scarcity of learning materials and tools, tutor’s poor pedagogy and methodology, lack of infrastructure, conflicting time and schedule between tutors and tutees and the inimical attitude of the learners towards the program. In the works of Jain (2010), it was held that little had been reported about the efficacy of peer tutorials on improving the class performance of tutees. He even argued that the risk of transferring the wrong knowledge from one student to another brought about by inexperienced and incompetent tutors could bring more harm than help to participants (Pratiwi & Ariani, 2020)

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. their understanding of their lessons and can give due attention to addressing specific and personal academic concerns (Bailey, 2010; Aclo et al., 2015; Matinde, 2019). Tutors use varied teaching strategies depending on the topic to be discussed, the time available, and the number of tutees in attendance (Bailey, 2010; Chi & Vanlehn, 2010). The rule of the thumb, though, is to ensure a friendly, open, comfortable, and inspiring approach, so tutees never get bored, and quality learning is achieved (Aclo et al., 2015; Briggs, 2013).

Tutors are great motivators and serve as an inspiration to tutees. Apart from imparting their knowledge, time, and self, they motivate the tutees to develop self confidence and continue pursuing their dream of becoming a CPA. They model hope and inspiration to students to carry on despite the hardships and struggles they come across with the accounting course (Aclo et al., 2015; Pratiwi & Ariani, 2020). In several cases, the tutor tutee relationship has bloomed into a profound connection of friendship and fellowship (Kram & Isabella, 1985; Zapata, 2020).

While the University of Mindanao embraces continuing quality improvement (CQI) as an approach to grow and advance its management systems, so is the College of Accounting Education in developing innovative and improved programs and activities for its stakeholders, especially the students (Pratiwi & Ariani, 2020) Through this approach, the College could identify the weak areas

The peer tutorial, as cited by Chi et al. (2008), is an effective academic program that encourages learners to become active participants in the learning process through tutoring and collaborating with peers. In tutorials, tutees and tutors become partners by allowing each other discover their strengths and weaknesses and, together, help improve those areas that require enhancement (Astin, Wogelgesang, Ikeda & Yee, 2000). While the tutees learn from their tutors, the tutors master the lessons. Falchicov (2001) described collaborative learning to be instrumental in developing self esteem, improving academic performance (Viana et al., 2019), creating new friends, increasing course interest, and improving study habits. The Athletic Study Center (2016) asserted that tutorial is an alternative learning technique that promotes and enhances a student's academic competencies and self resolve (Topping, 2005; Colvin & Ashman, 2010). In the same light, tutorials foster students’ self reliance and self confidence as they get engaged in academics. Students learning with fellow students eliminate that feeling of intimidation, inhibition, and reservations; thus, it is easy for them to clarify and qualify knowledge without fear of being ridiculed or feeling undignified (Aclo et al., 2015; Dowd, 2018). On another thought, Palfreyman and Tapper (2013) accentuated that peer tutoring allows students to ask questions and clarifications, which seldom happens in the classroom. It should be noted, however, that peer tutoring complements and is not replacing classroom instruction (Briggs, 2014; Zapata, 2020) Tutoring is not and will never be displacing professional teaching. In fact, blending these two learning modalities, bringing its strengths, can be a powerful means to helping STARs improve their academic pursuits. As Borchert (2000) and Debard (2004) put it, millennial students learn quickly and effectively when with others. They are more team oriented than individualistic (Dowd, 2018; Johnson & Johnson, 2009) In their study, Kunch, Jitendra, and Sood (2007) discussed that peer tutoring is best when students of diverse abilities and intelligence toil together in teams to learn specific material or practice an academic task. Progress happens when an experienced student, usually a senior, helps a novice learner enhance his or her skills and knowledge (Dowd, 2018). Along this process, a tutor's personal growth as he or she imparts learning and provides support to the mentee (Colvin & Ashman, 2010; Osborne & Othman, 2019). Likewise, Alakija (2005) stressed that a good relationship between tutors and tutees is essential in tutorials because tutoring improves not just knowledge but also character and values.

Suggestions to Improve the Peer Tutorial Program

Benefits of Peer Tutorial Program to Tutees and Tutors

6. References Aclo, K. M., Damiar, J., & Norodin, A. (2015). Looking Through the Eyes of the Learners: A Qualitative Assessment on DySAS Tutorial Program (Thesis) University of Mindanao, Philippines Alakija, S. (2005). Getting into Oxford and Cambridge. London: Trotman & Co Ltd. Albrecht, W. S. & Sack, R. J. (2001). The Perilous Future of Accounting Education. The CPA Journal, 71(3), 16 Astin, A. W., Vogelgesang, L , Ikeda, E. K., & Yee, J. A. (2000). How Service learning affects students. Los Angeles: Higher Education Research Institute, University of California Retrieved from https://www. gseis. ucla/edu/slc

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. and can exhaust means to perfect it, making it more current, relevant, and effective for the students and other interested parties (O’Dea & Harris, 2019) The tutorial program is not an exemption to this approach. From the design to the implementation of the program, there have been many areas that require further enhancement. Suggested improvements had been as simple as awareness campaign and provision of learning materials to more complex and resource intensive like the conduct of retooling (Osborne & Othman, 2019) and construction of the tutorial facility, among others. As an output of this study, an action plan was developed. The action plan encloses the detailed set of activities that can be done to ensure quality, effective, and sustainable tutorial program for both tutees and tutors.

5. Conclusion Peer tutorial may be a timeworn, alternative means to collaborative learning but it has proven to be effective and powerful in helping not just those having difficulty in their academics and non performing in their courses, but also those who want to enrich their knowledge, skills and even character by teaching fellow students. It works in two ways: tutees get to understand, clarify and learn more about the lessons, and tutors get the chance to contribute to the success of their colleagues and find purpose and satisfaction from studying to remain credible and competent in imparting knowledge. Inspired by the University's vocation, "No one is left behind," the College's peer tutorial program envisions a conscientious alternative education where students help their fellow students improve their academic readiness and performance during exams and classroom activities, all in the spirit of inclusive excellence and responsible community. It is on this truth that the College acknowledges the significant role played by students to improve the quality and delivery of equitable education. It may still be a long way for the Institution to perfect this Peer Tutorial Program but what is worth celebrating now is the partnership that is built between the College and its students as well as the trust afforded by the College towards its student tutors in helping the 'STAR' achieve their academic outcomes While this study is delimited on assessing the implementation of the Program, significant lessons and insights can be drawn for future investigation as to its sustainability and implication to education policy. Nonetheless, we still applaud the gallantry and solidarity developed and shown by the tutors towards their fellows. This is teamwork that works. This is excellence in citizenship at its best.

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Abstract. Successful teaching and learning are highly dependent on assessment as it provides necessary information for making informed decisions in a higher education program. University lecturers should be equipped with skills and knowledge on different methods of evaluation to assess their students effectively. Only few researchers have investigated the assessment methods employed by lecturers in universities in Malaysia. Traditional class based assessments are the most common mode of assessment although this form of assessment fails to measure students’ learning adequately. This qualitative study aims to determine the level of lecturers’ awareness of the different kinds of assessments at the University Puta Malaysia (UPM). The study sampled 48 lecturers from various faculties at UPM. They responded to a self reporting questionnaire that required them to indicate their perceived competence in alternative and formative assessments. The result of the thematic analysis revealed that lecturers were utterly aware of formative assessment practices. However, despite the significance of alternative assessments in the learning process, some lecturers were not aware of alternative assessment practices. The implication is that the literacy level of lecturers in alternative assessment methods should be improved.

Keywords: alternative assessments; formative assessment; lecturers’ practices

379 International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 5, pp. 379 394, May https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.5.220203 Malaysian Public University Lecturers’ Perceptions and Practices of Formative and Alternative Assessments Tajularipin Sulaiman Faculty of Educational Studies / Sport Academy, Universiti Putra Malaysia https://orcid.org/0000 0002 4664 2637 Sedigheh Shakib Kotamjani Faculty of Educational Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia https://orcid.org/0000 0001 6249 0293 Suzieleez Syrene Abdul Rahim Faculty of Education, University Malaya https://orcid.org/0000 0001 9272 5241 Muhammad Nazrul Hakim Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia https://orcid.org/0000 0002 4710 3467

380 1. Introduction

Therefore, in assessment for learning, lecturers give constructive feedback to learners to achieve learning outcomes. While summative evaluation is concerned with the assessment of learning aiming at determining the level at which learning objectives have been realised (Kitula & Ogoti, 2018).

Educators conduct assessment to obtain information to determine the degree to which learners have reached the desired goals of the program. University lecturers should be encouraged to emphasise assessment practices that support students’ learning (Yan & Cheng, 2015). Assessment is the process of acquiring information about students’ learning. Students’ assessment in higher education has been extensively debated by educators and educational (Ibarra Sáiz & Rodríguez Gómez, 2015). They discuss whether the current assessment practices enhance students’ lifelong learning and which assessment practices are appropriate for learning enhancement, and how giving feedback can improve students’ learning (To & Carless, 2016; Kitula, Kireti, & Wambiya, 2018). It is through the use of assessment results, informed decisions about teaching and learning processes can be reached (Stears & Gopal, 2018) Therefore, assessment is an essential part of the teaching learning as it provides evidence of learning. Formative and summative assessments are popular in educational contexts. Formative assessment is conducted periodically during instructions to give constructive feedback to both learners and educators about learning success and failures (Kitula et al., 2018). Instructors use the results of formative assessment to monitor the learning process during instruction to improve the learning process (Kitula & Ogoti, 2018) However, summative assessment comes at the end of a given course to enhance the degree of instructional goals and to evaluate both students and the teaching process (Khairil & Mokshein, 2018) These two forms of (formative and summative) assessment play two significant roles in education. The first role is to determine the level of learning (assessment of knowledge), and the second is to use an assessment to improve the process of learning (assessment for learning). Generally, formative assessment is more concerned with the assessment of learning whereby instructors identify learning difficulties and take corrective measures (Kaur, Singh, Of & Scaffolding, 2017).

On the other hand, alternative or authentic or comprehensive assessment refers to the measurement of students’ ability and skills in accomplishing complex tasks which lead to intended learning outcomes. In an alternative assessment, students are engaged to perform some tasks in which they typically imitate real life situations. If teachers apply alternative assessments, they will be able to examine students’ strengths and skills, and they can use the information to design their teaching approaches appropriately. Hence, alternative assessment refers to a process oriented evaluation in which lecturers emphasise on the students' progress and growth (Ghaffar, Yusop, Enhancement & Enhancement, 2018)

381

in Malaysia, lecturers conduct both continuous assessment and final examinations with more weight given to the final exams (Lyamtane & Ogoti, 2018). However, scores obtained in the continuous assessment tasks contribute to the final score a student gets at the end of the course. Lecturers decide on the type and the number of assessment tasks to be given, the frequency of assessing, the weightage of each assessment task, and the administration of the assessment tasks. Therefore, it is essential to evaluate the level of assessment literacy among university lecturers in a public university in Malaysia to determine if they are competent enough to assess their students thoroughly.

The Malaysia Education Blueprint 2015 2025 realised the skills that students are required to master in a globally competitive environment. Hence, Malaysia Education Blueprint and the National Higher Education Strategic Plan 2013 2025 put a lot of emphasis on using assessment to encourage active student learning. Consequently, all universities in Malaysia must integrate two crucial components, namely clear and measurable learning outcomes and well designed quality assessment in harmony with the intended results. There is a close relationship between these two components since learning outcomes are a basis of guidance and practice for assessment among university academicians (Badariah & Ahmad, 2015). To achieve this requirement, academicians should refer to primary sources (a) Quality Assurance Division in the Malaysian Ministry of Higher Education, and (b) the Malaysia Education Blueprint 2015 2025. Having implemented these critical components into programs, the public universities guide their academic staff regarding classroom assessment practices through holding workshops to raise their awareness of classroom assessment practices. University lecturers also need to assess their students’ learning and provide evidence on the mastery of skills, knowledge, and competencies and determine challenges associated with the learning process. Therefore, they also need to be equipped with skills in assessment since the quality of any assessment technique used, and its consequences depend on lecturers’ competence and knowledge in educational assessment (Xu & Brown, 2016). Lack of proper procedures in assessment results in poor learning outcomes as one of the challenges facing higher education in Malaysia and failure in enhancing learners’ thinking ability (Ibarra Sáiz & Rodríguez Gómez, 2015). In Malaysia, university education has been expanding from year to year due to the increased number of students enrolling in different universities in the country. High enrolment rates of students go hand in hand with a demand for more lecturers. These lecturers need to have skills and knowledge on educational assessment for them to be in the right positions of making informed decisions about teaching and learning in Inuniversities.mostuniversities

2. Statement of the Problem Traditional assessment is the primary method of assessment that could undesirably influence students’ learning results in Malaysian higher education. This study aimed to address this problem (Badariah & Ahmad, 2015). Even

Secondly, traditional examinations fail to measure students’ learning over the whole course (Zhan, 2015; Sambell, 2016). Due to academic and student concerns on traditional assessment in higher education, lecturers need to discover alternative assessment practices.

Few researches have investigated lecturers’ perceptions of formative and alternative assessment practices in a Malaysian higher education institution As mentioned before, in the teaching and learning process, assessment is an important aspect, and the whole process of formative evaluation in universities is all left in the hands of lecturers (John, 2015). University lecturers, therefore, need to be well equipped with skills and knowledge on different assessment techniques to assess their students effectively. Malaysian higher education expects universities to conduct credible exams at the end of each semester, which includes setting examinations according to the course outline, moderating before they are administered, ensuring proper administration, marking objectively, and giving out realistic results.

Academicians have frequently been using the traditional form of assessments in higher education (Streff, 2016). Many proficient experts in all fields have been utilising conventional assessments in the certifying process because instructor’ s bias is more likely to reduce in objective scoring and the results provide detailed information about learners’ common errors (Marín García, Bonavia & Losilla, 2011) Some scholars indicated that students could cheat easily in traditional assessments. This form of assessment cannot measure in depth understanding, students’ problem solving and critical thinking skills (Streff, 2016). Besides, recent studies in literature, described that traditional evaluations might not be a valid indicator of learning outcomes if learners face some problems such as fear of tests or biases throughout the assessment (Klusmann, Richter & Ludtke, 2016).

382 though several workshops held for lecturers to implement alternative assessment practices in higher education, many academics still have been relying on pen and paper exams to gauge students’ learning (Flores, Veiga, Barros & Pereira, 2014) Hence, it seems that lecturers have limited awareness of alternative assessment practices.

3. Literature Review

Along with other factors, practical assessment depends on knowledge of lectures in the field of the evaluation. Some studies conducted in Malaysia; however, revealed lecturers were sufficiently familiar with continuous assessments and alternative assessment practices (Nor Hasnida, 2016). Other studies, on the contrary, indicated that lecturers do perceive themselves as being more or less competent in the field (Abidin, 2015). This ambiguity, therefore, led to the current study to determine the perceived competence of university lecturers in conducting assessment practices in a public university, where little research has been done The objective of the study was to identify Malaysian public university lecturers’ perception with regards to assessment, specifically about formative assessment, alternative assessment and modes of alternative assessment.

Furthermore, some studies reported that learning objectives and the content of an alternative assessment were not thoroughly investigated (Sarrico, et al., 2010) Overall, the current literature suggests that formative and summative assessments do not necessarily give a suitable measure of student learning (Kaur et al., 2017) Some studies provided evidence, that alternative assessments gauge student learning more precisely than traditional assessment; however, much of the available research on alternative assessments reflected some flaws in different modes of alternative assessment in terms of measuring learning.

are three types of alternative assessments; performance based, authentic, and constructivist assessments (Dikli, 2006) In performance based evaluation, lecturers observe students' ability to use higher order thinking skills while doing the tasks and applying the skills they learned from a course. Authentic assessments refer to the evaluations in which students are assigned “real world” tasks In constructivist assessments, lecturers assign students to accomplish some tasks or work, and they examine their mastery of the skill; moreover, students play a part in evaluating their work (Matovu & Madziah Zubairi, 2014).

Nevertheless, other researchers employed alternative assessments to identify perceptions of students instead of learning Nezakatgoo (2011) reported that some portfolio assessments suffer from design limitations and create some issues with validity and reliability (Nezakatgoo, 2011) Moreover, another study by Kramer et al. (2018) examined the effectiveness of group assessment in which a group cooperated on evaluation, and all members of the group received the similar grades, the suggestion was not robust enough to influence stakeholders (Kramer, Olson & Walker, 2018).

383

Current studies suggested that alternative assessments are used as delivery mechanisms, learning strategies, or triangulation instruments in addition to being used as methods of measuring student learning (Avalos, 2011). The finding of another study revealed that if the alternative assessment is used as a triangulation instrument, it would lead to different outcomes, ranged from no association to a strong association of increased learning (Yan & Zhang, 2017) However, other studies found that alternative assessments were learning strategies instead of assessments (Mohammadi & Golaghaei, 2018).

In recent studies, some lecturers are interested in implementing an alternative assessment due to the limitations and shortcomings of traditional assessment practices (Streff, 2016; Nederland, Sluijsmans, Zuyd & Jochems, 2010). Having integrated alternative assessments, lecturers provide more definitive evidence of learning in higher education (van Gog, Sluijsmans, Brinke & Prins, 2010). In alternative assessments, a lecturer might ask students to find a solution to a problem, produce work, or demonstrate a skill. Portfolios and instructor observation are examples of alternative assessment forms Alternative assessments usually assess higher order skills of Bloom’s Taxonomy; analysis, synthesis, and evaluation (Margulies & Ghent, 2013). To implement HOTS, teachers need to have sound knowledge, skills and positive attitudes towards alternative assessments (Sulaiman, Ibrahim, Abdul Rahim, Hakim & Omar, There2019).

384 On the other hand, Gavin (2012) reported that lecturers’ perceptions of assessing students play a crucial role in the improvement of student learning (Gavin, 2012) Some studies reported that lecturers raise the issue of poor assessment methods, and some of the lecturers lack satisfactory competencies in assessing students (Matovu & Madziah Zubairi, 2014).

Lecturers’ assessment practices play a significant role in determining student learning (Schafer, 1991). The lecturers’ assessment competencies and practices are inconsistent at various levels of education (Alkharusi, 2008). Other studies reported that lecturers’ knowledge and practices in the assessment are much dependent on their experience (Postareff et al., 2007) However, based on the current literature in Malaysian higher education, there are few studies conducted to investigate assessment practices and competencies (Khairani, 2017) It was reported that the most frequently used assessment is the traditional assessment in Malaysian public universities. Currently, there is more tendency for alternative assessments in the majority of Malaysian universities (Kaur et al., 2017). To date, there is a need to address the lecturers’ self perception of assessment practices in Malaysian universities to ensure they implement different assessments to measure the specified learning outcomes (Mohamad Uri & Abd Aziz, 2017)

4. Methodology

A qualitative approach was adopted for this study as it was deemed suitable to achieve the aim of this study, which was to identify the lectures’ perception and assessment practices in a Malaysian public university. A qualitative research methodology allowed the participants to openly explain their related perceptions and experiences that supported the researcher to have an in depth understanding of their practices (Creswell, 2013). The study made use of a purposive sampling technique. This type of sampling involves a selection of participants with specific characteristics that can provide relevant and rich information to achieve the purpose of the study (Patton, 2001). The participants of the study were 48 lecturers from different faculties in a Malaysian public university who were willing to take part in the study. A written open ended questionnaire (Appendix 1) was employed to collect data from the participants. The responses were then analysed and coded to identify relevant themes. The data were analysed through the manual method. The researchers became familiar with the data, then they compiled and organized data by breaking data into smaller categories through colour coding each category or categories, at this point, the researchers had developed the categories scheme based on the individuals’ responses to questions (Yin, 2016) The researchers went through the responses, and they searched for common patterns to create categories. The relationship between emerging patterns and themes resulted in creating new concepts and codes within the categories. The researchers took into account the words that participants often used to convey a similar meaning or idea. These recurrent ideas developed into themes. Table 1 illustrates the themes and sub themes that emerged from the data related to formative assessment.

Frequent repetition of written papers, observation, group assessment, presentation, project work, debate

Enhancement of soft skills, problem solving, team working, interpersonal and intrapersonal management lack of lecturers’ awareness of alternative assessment modes

Connecting formative assessment to instruction, matching with students’ learning styles, to compensate limitation of formative assessment

The consumingforassessmentalternativeissuitablesmallclassandtimetoassess

This section discusses the findings which were summarised into themes. The finding is related to the purpose of the study, that is, teachers’ perspectives of formative and alternative assessment.

Alternative assessments, small class size, challenging to develop, time consuming to assess and grade

In what follows, five themes were developed based on the lecturers’ responses to alternative assessment practices. Table 2 illustrates the themes and sub themes that emerged from alternative assessments.

To examine effectivenesstheof teaching and learning Continuous basis, evaluation, systematic way, checking mechanism, learning objective

5.1 Formative Assessment

Alternative assessments improve learning and soft skills

5. Findings

The results of the analysis revealed that all lectures were aware of the concept of formative assessment and its practice. They usually conduct formative assessments throughout the course continuously They maintained that this assessment examines the effectiveness of a teaching and learning process. Some lecturers defined the formative assessment as “a systematic way to evaluate whether learning outcomes have achieved and to examine whether the teaching was effective” (L 1) Another lecturer referred to the formative assessment as: “A checking mechanism to identify if the learning objectives are achieved” (L 3)

385

The instructionformativeassessmentAlternativereconnectsassessmentto

Other than assessmenttraditional Non traditional assessment, assessing skills

Table 2: Themes and sub themes outlined about alternative assessment Theme Sub theme

Theme 1: To Examine the Effectiveness of Teaching and Learning Process

Table 1: Themes and sub themes outlined concerning the formative assessment Theme Sub theme

Providing feedback Constructive feedback, learning outcomes, modifying instruction, modifying content

Students’ and teacher’s active participation is required to achieve the desired outcomes in formative assessment (Jacoby, Heugh, Bax & Branford White, 2014) Therefore, the feedback provided in the formative assessment can enhance students’ achievement, engagement, and motivation to learn (Bennett, 2011). Through these engagements and interactions between lecturers, students, and tasks, knowledge is developed based on the social constructivist learning theory (Janeth, 2019) Due to its importance to learning, formative evaluation is known as assessment for learning (Gikandi, Morrow & Davis, 2011).

386 Most lecturers defined the formative assessment as a method to check whether “learning objectives” have been met. The findings indicated that lecturers administered the formative assessment continuously during the course, which is consistent with other studies (Bahati, Tedre, Fors & Mukama, 2016). Moreover, this finding is in line with Kitula and Ogoti’s research that formative assessment was used to monitor the learning process during instruction to improve the learning process (Kitula & Ogoti, 2018). Also, the formative assessment provides lecturers with a more precise representation of student knowledge and skills by utilising different strategies throughout the instructional process (Khairil & Mokshein, 2018)

5.2 Alternative Assessment Theme 1: Other than Traditional Assessment

The majority of lecturers were familiar with the concept of the alternative assessment as most of them defined it as “other than traditional assessment” (L 3, L 7, L 15, L 33). This is a common theme which emerged from the description of alternative assessment by lecturers. This definition is consistent with Oosterhof and Todorov (2008) definition of the alternative assessment which collects data in a non traditional method, for instance, peer review, self assessment, portfolio,

The second common theme that emerged from the formative assessment was providing feedback. The majority of lecturers reported that formative assessment is an efficient assessment tool to find students’ weaknesses and to provide constructive feedback to enhance learning outcomes.

One of the lecturers with twenty years of teaching experience maintain that: “Formative assessment is employed to monitor how well students are grasping instruction throughout the course. It provides useful information for not only lecturers on how to modify ongoing lesson and to meet students’ needs, but also for students on how to improve their work” (L 10). Another lecturer defined formative assessment as: “A way of gauging the level comprehension, competency and mastery of certain knowledge and skills and formative assessment leads to constructive feedback” (L 21). The finding of this study support previous research that supportive feedback from the different formative assessments can improve learners’ (Sambell, 2013).

Theme 2: Providing Feedback in Formative Assessment

The findings showcased all participants in this study agreed with the effectiveness of an alternative mode of assessments. They also were aware of the effect of alternative assessments on students’ learning; nevertheless, these lecturers were still applying traditional assessments, since these assessments are much easier to create and measure than those of alternative assessments (Wright, 2016)

Theme 3: The Alternative Assessment Improves Learning and the Soft Skills

The majority of lecturers mentioned that the alternative assessment aims to measure students’ soft skills, for instance, problem solving, team working, interpersonal and intrapersonal management. This is consistent with the definition of the alternative assessment which requires students to solve a problem, to answer an open ended question, to carry out a skill, to produce work such as instructor observation and portfolios (Conijn, Franz, Emons, de Beurs & Carlier, 2019)

Concerning the type of alternative assessments, fifty percent of lecturers only were aware of some types of alternative assessments. Assessment choice differs based on instructors’ teaching methodology and learning theories. In terms of the types of alternative assessments, some lecturers mentioned written papers, observation, group assessment, a presentation, project work, and debate. This finding is supported by Rawlusyk (2016) who found instructors frequently employed group projects, written papers, and personal projects. Lepp (2010) also reported that lecturers widely asked students to make a presentation group or individual projects These three modes of assessments were explained as an authentic assessment, that is to say, they are relevant to the real world and prepare students for the future (To & Carless, 2016).

Theme 2: It reconnects Formative Assessment to Instruction

The participants shared their experiences as they asked about alternative assessments. L 5 and L 3 maintained that “alternative assessments are great strategies to complement formative assessment and to connect assessment to instruction”. They highlighted that alternative assessments and formative assessments together can match students’ learning styles. L 7 clarified that “alternative assessments enhance students’ comprehension by assisting students in applying what they have learnt” Furthermore, L 4 stated that formative assessment had several limitations. “It fails to gauge higher order skills” (L 4). Moreover, the formative assessment fails to gauge students’ learning over the entire course. Therefore, academicians need to implement alternative methods of assessment practices in higher education.

Theme 4: Lecturers’ Limited knowledge of Alternative Assessment Modes

387 problem solving, and projects. Moreover, most lecturers mentioned that “alternative assessment aims to assess students’ skills, not their knowledge ” (L 7, L 11, L 20). The alternative assessment measures students’ ability and skills in accomplishing real life tasks which lead to intended learning outcomes.

388 Furthermore, lecturers who have more teaching experience in the faculty of education and medicine used more alternative assessment modes compared with other lecturers in other faculties. They mostly used observation, individual, and group projects The findings indicated that academics with less than three years of teaching experience, usually implement formative assessments to assess students. This finding is consistent with Rawlusk’s (2016) result in which Nursing lecturers used more learner centered methods of teaching and alternative modes of assessments than other lecturers in other programs. Lecturers used alternative assessments such as performance assessment, practicums, observations, self assessment, interviews/conferences, written papers, debates, and journals. Moreover, lecturers mainly employed group projects, written papers, and individual projects as the most frequently implemented modes of alternative assessment. It worth mentioning that self assessment, peer assessment, and portfolio were not common practices by lecturers. This result is consistent with another study by Rawlusyk (2016) that only a few lecturers used peer assessment and self assessment to assess students in tertiary education. In the same vein, other studies also found restricted use of portfolios by lectures (To & Carless, 2016) Rieg and Wilson (2009) researched to rank various assessment techniques used by lecturers. They described that self assessment ranked as the ninth and peer assessment as the 14th.

When the lecturers were asked about the best mode of assessment, different types of assessments were reported such as group assessment, observation, group presentation, debate, writing a paper, peer assessment, project work, and discussion. Lecturers with more than ten years of teaching experience explained that observation is the best mode of alternative assessment. Lecturers, with five years of teaching experience, found group presentation as the best alternative mode of assessment.

Theme 5: The Alternative Assessment is Suitable for a Small Class and Time Consuming to assess The majority of lecturers explained that alternative assessment practices are more suitable for small class sizes. They explained that, for larger class sizes, formative assessment is more appropriate since this kind of assessment has rubrics, and scoring and marking would be more convenient. L 9 stated that “smaller class easier for me to conduct the assessment in the class”. Moreover, participants revealed that creating alternative assessments needs a lot of time and is time consuming to assess them. L 2 described that, “I consider alternative assessments for some of my lessons, but some lessons are not easy to mold into alternative strategies.” (L 2) L 7 stated that “students tend to have alternative assessments in my class such as projects, presentations, open book, etc. However, it takes much longer to grade” (L 7).

5.3 Best Modes of Alternative Assessment

Lectures mostly used observation, individual, and group projects. The findings indicated that academics with less than three years of teaching experience, usually implement a formative assessment to assess students. One possible implication of this study is that that higher education should provide more continuous professional development in alternative (authentic) assessments to raise lecturers’ awareness of assessment practices in higher education (Postareff, Virtanen, Katajavuori & Lindblom Ylänne, 2012) (Martín, 2016). Moreover, training would help lecturers transform from their traditional assessments mode to more authentic assessments which involve students in learning skills (Martin & Mahat, 2017). Another implication for this study is that lecturers should be provided with professional development sessions to raise their awareness of various authentic assessment methods.

Lecturers typically utilise assessments to make crucial decisions on the students learning (Matovu & Madziah Zubairi, 2014). Assessments play key roles in learning, and due to this reason, lecturers have to implement appropriate assessments to ensure learning outcomes were achieved throughout the course (Sambell, 2016). However, some lecturers stated that exams fail to measure higher order thinking skills Hence, they mentioned that they use alternative assessments along with the formative assessment. They reported that alternative assessments are great strategies to complement formative assessment and to connect assessment to instruction. However, the majority of lecturers explained that alternative assessment practices are more suitable for small class sizes. They described that for larger class sizes, the formative assessment is more appropriate since this kind of assessment has rubrics, and scoring would be more convenient. In terms of implementing alternative assessments, most lectures relied on presentation, individual projects, written papers, and group work. Other modes of alternative assessments, for example, portfolios, journals, workbooks, and practicums, have not frequently implemented. Lectures just rely on merely three out of the thirteen methods recorded as an alternative assessment to produce a course grade. Furthermore, responses from lecturers indicated that they rarely implement these techniques. The reason why some lecturers fail to apply alternative assessments may be related to a lack of lecturers’ awareness of alternative assessment practices Furthermore, lecturers who have more than teaching experience in the faculty of education and medicine used more alternative assessment modes compared with other lecturers in other faculties. These findings showcased lecturers have different assessment competencies and practices, which implied that the more experienced lecturers applied more appropriate assessment practices.

389 6. Discussion

390 7. Conclusion

The findings of the study indicate that the participants generally view alternative assessments as any type of assessments other than the traditional paper pencil based assessments. They also view alternative assessments as connecting formative assessments with instructions. Alternative assessments are also seen as ways to improve students’ learning and soft skills. Some of the lecturers view alternative assessments as mainly suitable for small classes However, in general, lecturers seemed to have limited knowledge of various types of alternative assessment modes. Moreover, they found them to be time consuming. As for formative assessments, the lecturers were of the opinion that information from formative assessment helps them gauge the effectiveness of the teaching and learning processes. Formative assessments also provide feedback to students about their learning. The findings also indicated that the majority of academics use formative assessments for grading purposes. Hence, university lecturers need professional development to enhance their knowledge about formative and summative assessments, which will improve their assessment practices.

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Tunku Ahmad, T. B., Bello, A., & Nordin, M. S. (2013). Exploring Malaysian university students ’ awareness of green computing GSTF International Journal on Education, 1(2), 92 102. doi:10.5176/2345 7163_1.2.34 Van Gog, T., Sluijsmans, D. M. A., Brinke, D. J., & Prins, F. J. (2010). Formative assessment in an online learning environment to support flexible on the job learning in complex professional domains. Educational Technology Research and Development, 58(3), 311 324. doi:10.1007/s11423 008 9099 0 Wright, T. M. (2016). Middle school teachers’ perceptions of incorporating alternative assessments to accommodate students. Walden University. Yan, Z., & Cheng, E. C. (2015). Primary teachers' attitudes, intentions, and practices regarding formative assessment. Teaching and Teacher Education, 45, 128 136. Yan, Q., & Zhang, L. J. (2017). Book review: Assessing young learners of English: Global and local perspectives. Language Testing, 35(1), 145 148 doi:10.1177/0265532217698782 Yin, R. K. (2016). Qualitative Research from Start to Finish. Second Edition. Guilford Publication. doi:10.1007/s13398 014 0173 7.2 Xu, Y., & Brown, G. T. (2016). Teacher assessment literacy inpractice: a reconceptualization. Teach. Teach. Educ. 58, 149 162. doi: 10.1016/j.tate.2016.05.010 Zhan, Y. (2015). David Carless: Excellence in university assessment: Learning from award winning practice. Higher Education, 71(3), 435 437. doi:10.1007/s10734 015 9911 9

Streff, R. J. (2016). A qualitative case study of strategies for choosing and evaluating alternative assessments in online higher education. Walden Dissertations and Doctoral Studies, Walden University. Sulaiman, T., Ibrahim, A., Abdul Rahim, S. S., Hakim, M. N., Omar, R. (2019). Model of the relationship between knowledge, skills and disposition of alternative assessment and higher order thinking skills among educators. International Journal of Innovation, Creativity and Change, 9(12), 297 309. To, J., & Carless, D. (2016). Making productive use of exemplars: Peer discussion and teacher guidance for positive transfer of strategies. Journal of Further and Higher Education, 40(6), 746 764. doi:10.1080/0309877X.2015.1014317

393 Sarrico, C. S., Rosa, M. J., Teixeira, P. N., & Cardoso, M. F. (2010). Assessing quality and evaluating performance in higher education: Worlds apart or complementary views? Minerva, 48(1), 35 54. doi:10.1007/s11024 010 9142 2 Schafer, W. D. (1991). Essential assessment skills in the professional education of teachers. Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice. doi:10.1111/j.1745 3992.1991.tb00170.x Stears, M., & Gopal, N. (2018). Exploring alternative assessment strategies in science classrooms. South African Journal of Education, 30(4), 591 604. doi:10.15700/saje.v30n4a390

394 Appendix 1 Open ended questions Answer all questions. YearsFaculty:University:ofteaching experience: What is assessment? Explain What is formative assessment? Explain What is alternative assessment and give examples of alternative assessment modes? Explain

https://orcid.org/0000

395 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 5, pp. 395 410, May https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.5.220204

https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4664-2637

https://orcid.org/0000

Muhammad Sofwan Mahmud Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Malaysia Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia 0002 0504 4622 Aida Suraya Md. Yunus, Ahmad Fauzi Mohd Ayub and Tajularipin Sulaiman Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia https://orcid.org/0000 0002 8742 4855 0002 4313 2922

The study found that students were questioned by emphasizing the correct pronunciation and were asked mathematical terms and keywords to improve their mathematical language ability through oral questions. To enhance mathematical language, the teacher also restated terms in the teachers’ own words, asking using verbal cloze questions, asking questions about mathematical terms repeatedly and using seeking clarification questions. Thus, the use of various approaches in oral questioning had helped students to improve their fluency of mathematical language and enabled them to understand mathematical concepts better. Therefore, teachers need to understand the role played by oral questioning in the teaching of mathematical language to students.

Keywords: mathematical language; oral questioning; teaching mathematics

Abstract. Fluency in mathematical language is essential in helping students to master mathematics content. This qualitative case study was conducted to describe how mathematics teachers apply mathematical language to students in the oral questioning process. Data were collected through observations, interviews, and field notes. Six mathematics teachers from six different primary schools were selected as participants of the study using a purposive sampling method. The data were then analyzed using a constant comparative method to identify the patterns and themes that emerged from the data obtained.

Enhancing Mathematical Language through Oral Questioning in Primary Schools

Effective use of oral questioning in the mathematics teaching process can develop students' mathematical thinking and help students develop a better understanding of the topics being studied (Desli & Galanopoulou, 2017; Shahrill & Clarke, 2014). Mahmud et al. (2020a) stated that one of the crucial functions of oral questioning is to help improve students' thinking towards understanding mathematical problems and finding solutions. Mathematical learning objectives will become more challenging to achieve if students have poor fluency and proficiency in mathematical language (Zhang & Lin, 2015). Good mathematical language fluency can help strengthen students' mathematical senses to make connections with various mathematical concepts (Mohamad et al., 2009) Mohamad et al. (2009) further stated that the use of correct language facilitates students to communicate with mathematics and correct their misunderstanding of mathematical terms used in the classroom. Communication is part of the process of learning mathematics, and effective communication will create meaningful understanding in subjects taught to students. Using the correct mathematical language is one of the essential skills in the process of teaching and learning mathematics, in addition to many other skills such as procedural skills and problem solving skills (Ministry of Education Malaysia, 2014). It is also an essential element in the aspect of classroom communication in effective mathematics teaching. Effective communication in mathematics refers to the ability to convey information, and to understand and apply mathematical notations and language correctly (Idris, 2005). Students need to use the correct language and mathematical symbols to ensure that mathematical ideas can be correctly interpreted (Ahmad et al., 2006). Also, mastering the language of mathematics can help learners to understand mathematical concepts more efficiently and help students solve various mathematical problems at a higher level (Riccomini et al., 2015). Thus, understanding and mastering mathematical terms and languages can help students shape their mathematical senses and logic (Ryve et al., 2013).

Improving mathematical language skills is an essential aspect of teaching mathematics, especially at the primary school level. This process is a continuous process throughout one's education (Mahmud et al., 2020a). Thus, mastering mathematical language enhances students' ability to use mathematical vocabulary correctly and helps students to communicate mathematically in developing their overall mathematical skills (Morin & Franks, 2009) Providing strong mathematical language support can enhance students' skills in solving various mathematical problems as well as in developing students' ability to clarify their ideas in mathematics language. Riccomini et al. (2015) explained that there are three primary purposes for emphasizing the language of mathematics. First is to help the understanding and memorization of the meaning of a mathematical word in the long term memory. The second is to help students become fluent and retain the meaning of the word over time. The third is to assist students in using the mathematical language efficiently and accurately to clarify, thus allowing the formation of the concepts and mathematical relationships.

1. Introduction

There is also a traditional way used by the teacher, which directly provides information to students on the term or mathematical language emphasized. However, this is found to be more teacher centered and lack the active involvement of students in the learning process. Hence, among the approaches that teachers can use are through oral questioning strategies (McAninch, 2015) Through oral questioning, students will be more stimulated to actively think and to provide more information regarding the topics being discussed (Mahmud, 2019). Hence, the teaching of the mathematical language will be more active and help students' thinking to better understanding. Critical thinking is one of the factors that need to be considered to improve teaching performance of teachers (Sulaiman et al., 2017). Also, Riccomini et al. (2015) suggested some specific techniques to help students increase the vocabulary of mathematics, i.e. (a) explicit vocabulary instruction, (b) mnemonic strategies, (c) fluency building through multiple exposures, (d) games like activities, and (e) technology applications. Besides, Marzano (2005) also proposed six important ways of incorporating mathematical language into teaching, as shown in Figure 1:

However, students' poor understanding of mathematical language may make it difficult for students to understand the mathematical concepts they have learned and to discourage them from solving various mathematical problems (Purpura & Reid, 2016). Students cannot understand the different terms and symbols that are important in mathematical sentences. This may indirectly undermine students' confidence to learn mathematics to the extent that it can cause

There are many ways that teachers can use to implement the language of mathematics, such as repeating the mathematical terms frequently during the duration of learning (Morin & Franks, 2009). They further explained that this would indirectly help build sharper memory of the term introduced and allow the student to pronounce correctly each word introduced. However, the best application of mathematical language should be combined with visual stimulation for a better understanding of the meaning or terms of mathematics introduced (Kanapathy, 2016) Lasiun (2016) explained that the application of mathematical concepts supported by visual stimuli could help students improve their mental reflection skills on a mathematical topic.

Figure 1: Concept map based on six recommendations by Marzano (2004) for effective vocabulary instruction

2. Methodology

This study was a qualitative study. The case study method was chosen to help the researcher gain an in depth understanding of enhancing mathematical language in the process of oral questioning in mathematics teaching in primary schools. The study involved six participants from six different schools in a district that were selected using a purposive sampling technique. Multiple sources of data were collected, including two interviews (Appendix 1) (i.e., initial interview and stimulated recall interview) for each teacher, non participant observation, and field notes by the researcher for each interview and observation. The researcher developed instruments for observation and initial interviews while instrument for stimulated recall interviews was adapted from McAninch's (2015) study. This study used semi structured face to face interviews (Creswell, 2014) as a guide to the researcher to ensure that the interview process aligns with the objectives and research questions.

The interview questions developed by the researcher are based on the theoretical framework and literature available in the previous study will ensure that the researcher did not miss every critical point that was the focus of the research. All the instruments used in this study were reviewed and validated by six experts in the field of mathematics education. The use of various data collection techniques allows the researchers to triangulate the data at the analysis level while also confirming the results obtained (Creswell, 2013). In this study, the analysis was conducted using the continuous comparative method where data from the verbatim interviews were compared between each study participant and analyzed using Atlas.ti 8 software through open coding, axial coding and selective coding for themes and subthemes (Kolb, 2012). Miller et al. (2012)

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. mathematic anxiety (Morin & Franks, 2009). Also, there have been studies mentioning that students' weaknesses in understanding mathematical language well may lead to mathematical phobias (Okafor & Anaduaka, 2013). Students need to understand the language of mathematics to assist the students' mathematical learning process better. Further research is needed on how the oral questioning process implemented in mathematics teaching can help students improve their mastery of the language of mathematics. This is because oral questioning is widely used in the teaching of mathematics (Mahmud, 2020) Little is known about the language of mathematics and how it is applied through the oral questioning process. According to a study by Mohamad et al. (2009), teachers still do not understand the importance of emphasizing mathematical language to students, and mathematical language is seen as less important than the mastery of mathematical concepts and skills. A previous study by Mahmud et al. (2020b) on oral questioning also found that teachers were less concerned with the application of mathematical language as compared to the cognitive aspects. Hence, this study was conducted to describe how oral questioning in the mathematics teaching process was used as a means to enhance students’ mathematical language. This general question entails two findings, (1) the oral questioning in the mathematics teaching process and (2) how it enhances students’’ mathematical language.

Table 1: Educational Background and Teaching Experience of the Participants Ana Nadia Ada Raha Azah Roza Age 28 27 28 46 50 44 Mathematics Teaching Experience 4 3 4 20 23 23

399 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. stated that the validity and reliability of a study refer to the extent to which the study's findings can accurately and consistently represent the phenomenon studied. Therefore, the researcher had used several methods to enhance the validity and reliability of the study using the triangulation method, member checking and peer review.

Based on the findings, it is found that there are various strategies used by teachers in the oral questioning process to apply mathematical language to students. Excerpts from the teacher’s observations as well as excerpts from the interviews conducted support each of the explanations discussed in the findings Examples of labels for observations are [Azah, P3/12452 12723] where ‘Azah’ (participant's name), ‘P3’ (third observation for Teacher Azah) and ‘12452 12723’ (sentence numbering in the observation document analyzed). For interview transcripts, the researcher used the label ‘SRI’ or ‘II’ where ‘SRI’ refers to the stimulated recall interview while ‘II’ refers to the initial interview. For example, the label [Roza, SRI3/4751 5047] refers to 'Roza' (participant's name), ‘SRI3’ (third stimulated recall interview), and ‘4751 5047’ refers to the sentence numbering in the interview transcript document. Besides, for the data involving field notes, the researcher labelled it as 'NL' such as [Ada, NL/17082018] where 'Ada' refers to the participant, NL (field note) and '17082018' refer to the date that the field note was taken, which was August 17, 2018.

Applying mathematical language in the process of oral questioning conducted in the process of teaching mathematics a) Asking students to pronounce the information in the question correctly

Academic Qualification Bachelor’s Degree in Mathematics with Education

3. Findings

The study found that teachers emphasized the ability to pronounce words, mathematical phrases as well as giving information contained in the question given. This was strongly emphasized by Teacher Roza based on the excerpt of the follow up interview conducted with her in which she explained that "... students must know to mention if they have units, decimal points, correct numbers, what operations, how to write symbols." [Roza, SRI3/4538 4671].

The ages of the research participants ranged from 27 to 50 years old (Table 1). Teacher Ana, Teacher Nadia and Teacher Ada were in their twenties, and all of them have less than four years of teaching experience. On the other hand, Teacher Raha, Teacher Azah and Teacher Roza were more than 40 years of age and had more than 20 years of teaching experience. All the participants obtained undergraduate degrees in Mathematics Education. Hence, the participants were considered to have the credibility, knowledge and skills to teach mathematics.

Teacher Azah also expressed the same opinion that students need to emphasize the correct pronunciation. Teacher Azah said, “this is a way for us to introduce

b) Ask students about mathematical terms and keywords

Besides, Teacher Azah also stated that it is important to emphasize the pronunciation as highlighted in her explanation as follows: “For example, when it comes to decimals, it is important to read and pronounce the decimal numbers correctly. For weak students, it is usually when we tell them to read; they will read like fourteen point twenty (14.20). It was supposed to be fourteen point two zero, so the student mispronounced it. So we want to correct how to read decimal numbers and indirectly help students to remember the concept of decimal numbers” [Azah, SRI 2/12496 13084].

Based on these explanations, the study found that teachers have the opportunity to correct students' mistakes and weaknesses by correcting the pronunciation of the student and teacher can also be joining the students in recalling the lessons learned to help students solve math problems better.

Also, participants asked questions on mathematical terms, phrases and keywords to help students understand the requirements to answer questions found in a text [Ana, NL/ 09082018]. In this context, questions relating to terms, phrases and keywords were introduced and emphasized to students as factual or descriptive information as well as reinforcing mathematical vocabulary. This can be seen based on the verbatim example of a teacher's teaching, as shown below: Teacher: Okay. What is the name of this fraction? A whole number meets a proper fraction, what does it mean? What kind of fraction is that? It is a mixed fraction. Please remember. [Ana, P1/10745 10844]

Teacher: Who knows what volume is? What do we mean by volume? [Nadia, P3/300 396] Based on the verbatim transcription of the lesson, Teacher Ana asked the students questions about the term fraction. Similarly, Teacher Nadia had also emphasized on the term by asking about volume [Nadia, NL/25092018]. These questions are examples of conceptual terms that teachers often refer to in their teaching. Questions related to the term are commonly repeated by teachers to help students understand and then form a coherent mental framework based on their understanding. The participants also explained that the terms related to the mathematical concepts being discussed were the fundamental concepts that students had to understand before proceeding to the next concept. Teacher Ada told this during the stimulated recall interview on the teaching that she had conducted earlier on: Teacher Yes, the purpose of the question is to give students an understanding of the mathematical terms and what the 'perimeter' really means before continuing to teach.

students to the aspects of mathematics language and important words that students need to understand in learning mathematics” [Azah, SRI1/2117 2991].

Teacher: A typical square has…? Student: Same long side [Ada, P1/5427 5493]

d) Asking students using verbal cloze questions

Teacher No…7 means seven point….? Student Zero [Ana, P1/13269 13333]

c) Restate in own words

It was also noticed that some teachers restated mathematical phrases in their own words. They used some other words/terms for the mathematical terms that they are teaching. For example, in Teacher Azah's teaching, the word ‘mole’ replaced phrases such as ‘decimal point' and the phrase 'moving decimal point' was replaced with the word 'worm' [Azah, NL / 16102018]. Teacher Ana used the word 'a yo yo' to replace the phrase unknown number and the multiple ten phrases with the words 'special number' [Ana, NL / 09082018]. Teacher Azah expressed her view that using her own words to explain the mathematical concepts could help students to understand them more effectively while assisting the students in remembering the terms more easily: “… The words I use or rephrase in my own words are meant to make it easier for students to understand and remember. Because it's a bit difficult for them to remember using the term moving the decimal point." [Azah, SRI 1/1190 1768]

Based on the observation and verbatim analysis of the teaching, there were also questions based on terms and keywords that teachers asked students in the form of 'verbal cloze' which is a ‘fill in the blank’ question. The question is a short form question that allows students to fill in the blank orally to complete the sentence. Emphasis on the correct vocabulary of mathematics is vital to help students better understand the content of learning.

Researcher Oh, okay. So in Year 4, the student did not know what the perimeter meant? Teacher They may know but a year has passed, and perhaps most of them have forgotten the mathematical concepts they have learned. So teachers need to stimulate their thinking to help them recall essential terms in math. [Ada, SRI 1/10419 10532]

The verbatim excerpts from the lesson above are examples of ’fill in the blank’ questions posed by Teacher Ada and Teacher Ana in their teaching sessions. In the example given by Teacher Ada, the students emphasized on the concept of ‘same long side’ for a square. Verbal cloze questions also serve as a reflection for students to provide the teacher's desired answer [Ana, NL / 09082018]. This is evident when Teacher Ana also used the ‘fill in the blank’ question to explain the decimal using the keyword 'zero'.

Based on the above excerpt, the questions were asked repeatedly to ensure that students fully understand the new word that was introduced by the teacher and was supported by diagrams to help students’ understanding. This was stated by Teacher Nadia, "so that students can really remember the words or concepts that are explained to them and they will also understand better when teachers use diagrams as visual support" [Nadia, SRI2 / 3746 4118]. Besides, questions such as these are often asked in the form of oral quizzes to increase students’ interest and participation. Questions such as mathematics formulas and basic facts are frequently asked by teachers to ensure students are familiar with the words and to facilitate students to solve a variety of mathematical problems. Teacher Well. I will ask questions. Who can answer, please raise your hand? Okay. Please name the fraction I will mention. The first question is 3 4 ?

Student Proper Fraction Teacher Good. 8 3 ?

Based on the above excerpt, teachers give quizzes to help students remember important mathematical terms related to these types of fractions. Teacher Ana explained, "teachers need to ask students regularly and frequently so that they can remember the math terms. Thus, they will be familiar with the words in the exams." [Ana, SRI1 / 3617 3718].

The study also showed that teachers often emphasized mathematical language by repeating terms, phrases or concepts through oral questions. In this context, teachers often ask questions about new facts or words introduced in mathematics teaching. The following excerpt shows examples of how teachers repeat questions to emphasize words in their application of mathematical language: Teacher What is the name of this line? (Teacher shows students the parallel lines drawn on the whiteboard) Student Parallel lines. (students answered as a group) Teacher Okay again. What's the name of this line? Student It is a parallel line Teacher Okay, Adib. What is the name of this line? (The teacher directs a student to answer the question) Student Parallel line. Teacher Okay. Good. [Nadia, P2/4718 4790]

Student Improper fraction Teacher Good … 2 4 9 ? Student Mixed fraction Teacher Okay. Good

e) Ask questions repeatedly

“This is a time when students can try to speak and practice the mathematical language. So, when they get used to it, they will be more fluent in using the mathematical language.” [Roza, SRI3/1166 1400]

f) Using seeking clarification questions

In helping students improve their fluency in mathematical language, the participants had also frequently asked questions to help clarify student thinking and explore the origins of students’ thinking, mathematical concepts and the content of the lessons being taught. In this way, students will try to explain their answers to teachers using the correct mathematical language. Here is an example of how teachers use questions to ask for clarification in mathematics teaching: Student 15 meters.

Teacher How do you get 15 meters? Please explain. Student 1.5 meter multiply by 10, so we get 15 meters. Teacher Okay good. The answer is 15 meters. [Roza, P2/3049 3422]

Also, questions asking for clarification can play a role in helping teachers gain information and understand the extent to which students are developing and understanding the content of the lessons discussed [Azah.NL/18102018]. The information is used by teachers as assessment information to make decisions about the teaching process, as explained by Teacher Azah, "... so we can assess the students' knowledge, and from there, we can make the decision to continue or to repeat.” [Azah, SRI 1/2570 2953].

The findings showed that there were a variety of approaches used by a mathematics teacher to encourage fluency of mathematical language to students through oral questioning. As discussed earlier, oral questioning plays a significant role in helping students to improve their skills and understanding of mathematics learning (Mahmud et al., 2019; Wong, 2015). Thus, it is not surprising that oral questions are also used by teachers in improving students' mathematical language skills. The findings showed that teachers asked students to extract information contained in the text of the question by emphasizing on the correct pronunciation of the mathematical terms and vocabulary. The ability

Teacher So, how we can find length MR, RS, SN? Student We have to divide by 3. Teacher Okay. Please explain? Student Because we have three equal parts. [Nadia, P1/9672 9831]

4. Discussion

Based on the examples of the quotations in the verbatim transcriptions of Teacher Roza and Teacher Nadia’s teaching, the researcher found that teachers used questions to ask for clarification, by asking students to explain how they got the answer and to encourage students to provide a sound mathematical explanation. Teacher Roza said that by asking students to explain their answers, students would try to use mathematical language to explain their answer to teachers.

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. to correctly pronounce the terms and vocabulary in mathematics is one of the essential things to be acquired before students are provided with the explanation on the meaning of the words. This helps students to understand the mathematical concepts they have learned. For example, teachers asked students on how to state decimal numbers correctly. There may be students who state decimal number '2.56' (two point five six) as 'two point fifty six'. This allows teachers to correct the mistakes of the students and at the same time, the teacher can also help students to recall previous lessons. This indirectly fulfills one of the learning standards that teachers need to meet during the mathematics teaching process, which is the ability to pronounce the correct math phrase (Ministry of Education Malaysia, 2014). Teachers were also asking keyword related questions specifically in text related questions in teaching mathematical language to students. This is in line with a study by McAninch (2015) that found that teachers also used questions related to mathematical terms and keywords as one of the ways to apply mathematical language to students. The emphasis on keywords in mathematical problem solving is one of the essential criteria in the language of mathematics that helps students understand the needs of a given mathematical problem in solving a problem. A good understanding of mathematical keywords can have a significant impact on the development of students' mathematical language skills as well as the development of mathematical comprehension itself (Mohamad et al., 2009). Vocabulary for keywords such as 'amount', 'balance', 'difference', 'more than' and 'less than' will help students better understand mathematical problems. Thus, continually asking students about the keywords and terms used in a mathematical question can provide students with guidance in solving the mathematics questions and at the same time, improve students' understanding and skills in mathematics. This is supported by Riccomini et al. (2015) who stated that the ability to effectively communicate (expressively and receptively) through the language of mathematics requires mathematical understanding; a robust vocabulary knowledge base; flexibility; fluency and proficiency with numbers, symbols, words, and diagrams; and comprehension skills. However, students' difficulty in understanding mathematical language can have a significant impact on mastery of mathematical concepts encountered by students (Mohamad et al., 2009). This is because the findings of this research showed that there are teachers who restated terms in their own words in mathematics teaching. Marzano (2004) also stated that restating in own words can help in students understanding of vocabulary. For example, Teacher Azah used the word 'mole' for ‘decimal point’ and the word 'moving decimal point' was replaced with the word 'worm'. Besides, replacing mathematical terms with other words is also seen as a form of communication support in the mathematics teaching process (Riccomini et al., 2015).

However, the researcher thinks that, in helping students to develop fluency in mathematical language, teachers should use standard mathematical language or mathematical terms in a more dynamic, flexible and creative way so as not to confuse students understanding. In this case, teachers need to be wise in

Studies have also found that teachers frequently ask questions to improve students' memory and understanding of math terms. Joseph et al. (2012) emphasized that by regularly stimulating students to repeat new words, students can enhance their fluency in mathematical language. This will allow students to be more prepared for the essential things to be tackled in solving various math problems, as well as instilling their confidence, as they are already familiar with the mathematical terms that are regularly repeated to them (Mahmud et al., 2020b). However, repetition should also be supported by visual stimuli, such as using diagrams or various concrete materials to help students create a clearer picture of the mathematical terms being emphasized. It indirectly strengthens students' visualization skills in solving mathematical problems where visualization skills are the cognitive or mental processes of an individual that connects internal constructs with things that are happening in their environment. Applying visualization skills can help students understand mathematical concepts and help students solve various mathematics problems (Tambychik & Meerah, 2010) The study also found that teachers also asked questions that require students to clarify their answers. The asking questions approach requires the teacher to ask the student to explain further the answer given to the teacher. This finding is in line with the results of McAninch (2015) and Paul and Elder (2007) who had found similar findings. In this context, the teacher asks the students to think again and justify the answer. This indirectly provides the opportunity for students to practice the use of mathematical language by trying to explain the answer given. Thus, when students can inform teachers in the correct language of mathematics, it will help them to understand the mathematics questions or problems better and to plan for the solutions. Not only that, by asking questions

selecting techniques that are appropriate to the students’ ability to apply standard mathematical language to students so that students' relational understanding can be better stimulated. Ahmad et al. (2006) explained that confusion about mathematical terms is a problem that students face, and this makes it difficult for students to understand and use mathematical terms. This is because mathematics term is the standard term used in any mathematics curriculum. This should be taken seriously because in global mathematical assessments such as TIMSS and PISA, standard language and mathematical terms are used. This may create difficulty for students in understanding the terms Teachersused.also used verbal cloze questions as a hint if students cannot express using the correct vocabulary. This is a short form question in the middle of a sentence to allow students to fill in the blank orally to complete the sentence. This is in line with the oral questioning framework introduced in Chin's (2007) study in which teachers reflect on oral questions posed to encourage students’ response. Thus, by trying to guess the words through the teacher provided reflections, they can train students to try to recall the math term that they had previously learned. Therefore, it can prepare students to strengthen their proficiency and ability in the language of mathematics.

5. Conclusion

It is found that oral questioning plays a significant role in helping students develop their comprehension of mathematical terms, based on the discussions that have been made. This study highlighted the various approaches used by mathematics teachers in primary schools to help students improve their mathematical language skills through oral questioning. It also provided an overview of the impact of mathematical language mastery on students to ensure that students can better understand mathematical concepts. This indirectly provides a new perspective about the role that oral questioning plays in mathematics teaching. Thus, oral questioning is not only used to enhance students' thinking but also plays a significant role as an effective means of helping students improve their mastery of mathematical language. This study also seeks to expand the literature of the research by providing a deeper understanding of how teachers in mathematics can develop the language skills and mastery of mathematics for students. This is important because oral questioning takes up most of the mathematical teaching processes that have been implemented (Wilen, 1991). Rich development and understanding of mathematical language are essential for students to actively engage with the planned teaching activities and help them develop meaning about mathematics Teachers should always use oral questioning to provide students with the best possible support for their understanding of mathematical language, rather than simply providing them with direct explanations during the teaching and learning activities. Consequently, the researcher proposes further studies to be conducted on how oral questioning process can be successfully implemented in improving students' mathematical language skills.

to ask for clarification from students, it also promotes high level thinking and communicative competencies such as clarification, submission and justification, as well as a need for students to participate in meaningful and genuine conversation and teaching exchanges between students and teachers (Gaspard, 2013; Kaya et al., 2014; Shahrill & Clarke, 2014). It is also an application of mathematical language elements in which students' communication skills in mathematics can be improved. Thus, teachers can develop students‘ mathematical language through the implementation of oral questioning in mathematics teaching in many ways. Students need to be exposed to a better understanding of mathematical language in order to ensure a better understanding of mathematical concepts. Failing to apply mathematical language skills will make it difficult for students to solve more complex mathematical problems and impede their ability to think at a higher level. The traditional method of providing students with a direct explanation of the standard mathematical language does not encourage students to think and even lessens interaction between teachers and students. The use of oral questioning to improve students ' mathematical language is, therefore seen as a more meaningful approach as it works more effectively to encourage students to think and increase student’s involvement in the mathematics teaching process.

6. References Ahmad, S., Zawawi, T., & Omar, A. (2006). Isu isu dalam pendidikan matematik [Issues in mathematics education]. Utusan Publications. Chin, C. (2007). Teacher questioning in science classrooms: Approaches that stimulate productive thinking. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 44(6), 815 843. Creswell, J. W. (2013). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches. California: SAGE Publications, Incorporated. Desli, D., & Galanopoulou, E. (2017). Questioning in Primary School Mathematics: An Analysis of Questions Teachers Ask in Mathematics Lessons. 3rd International Symposium on New Issues on Teacher Education, 97. Gaspard, C. (2013). Secondary Mathematics Student Teachers’ Questions and Responses in Whole Class Discussion: Influences on Instructional Decisions (Doctoral thesis). University of California. Idris, N. (2005). Pedagogi dalam pendidikan matematik [Pedagogy in mathematics education]. Utusan Publications. Joseph, L., Eveleigh, E., Konrad, M., Neef, N., & Volpe, R. (2012). Comparison of the Efficiency of Two Flashcard Drill Methods on Children’s Reading Performance. Journal of Applied School Psychology, 28(4), 317 337. Kanapathy, G. (2016). Kemahiran Visualisasi Dalam Mata Pelajaran Matematik Dalam Kalangan Murid Tahun 5 Di Sebuah SJKT Daerah Kuala Muda Yan, Kedah [Visualization Skills in Mathematics Subjects Among Year 5 Students at a Kuala Muda Yan District SJKT, Kedah]. International Seminar on Generating Knowledge Through Research, UUM UMSIDA, 1(October), 909 916. https://doi.org/http://dx.doi.org/10.21070/picecrs.v1i1.629 Kaya, S., Kablan, Z., & Rice, D. (2014). Examining question type and the timing of IRE pattern in elementary science classrooms. International Journal of Human Sciences, 11(1), 621 640. https://doi.org/10.14687/ijhs.v11i1.2730 Kolb, S. M. (2012). Grounded Theory and the Constant Comparative Method : Valid Research Strategies for Educators. Journal of Emerging Trends in Educational Research and Policy Studies, 3(1), 83 86. Lasiun, M. (2016). Keberkesanan Kaedah Visualisasi: Meningkatkan Keupayaan Menyelesaikan Masalah Matematik Berayat [The Effectiveness of Visualization Methods: Improving the Ability to Solve Lifetime Mathematical Problems]. International Seminar on Generating Knowledge Through Research, UUM UMSIDA, 1(1), 687 698. https://doi.org/10.21070/picecrs.v1i1.542 Mahmud, M. S. (2019). The Role of Wait Time in the Process of Oral Questioning in the Teaching and Learning Process of Mathematics. International Journal of Advanced Science and Technology, 28(16), 691 697. Mahmud, M. S. (2020). Level of Oral Questions Used by New and Experience Teachers in Mathematics Teaching in Primary Schools. International Journal of Psychosocial Rehabilitation, 24(8), 3533 3541. Mahmud, M. S., Yunus, A. S. M., Ayub, A. F. M., & Sulaiman, T. (2020a). The use of oral questioning in inculcating values in mathematics for primary school students. Universal Journal of Educational Research, 8(3), 1 8. Mahmud,https://doi.org/10.13189/ujer.2020.081601M.S.,Yunus,A.S.M.,Ayub,A.F.M.,& Sulaiman, T. (2020b). Types of Oral Questions Used by Teachers in Mathematical Problem Solving Teaching in Primary School Mathematics Teaching. International Journal of Psychosocial Rehabilitation, 24(06), 2278 2292. Marzano, R. J. (2004). Building background knowledge for academic achievement. Alexandria: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Okafor, C. F., & Anaduaka, U. S. (2013). Nigerian School Children and Mathematics Phobia: How the Mathematics Teacher Can Help. American Journal of Educational Research, 1(7), 247 251. https://doi.org/10.12691/education 1 7 5 Paul, R., & Elder, L. (2007). Critical Thinking : The Art of Socratic Questioning. Journal of Developmental Education, 31(1), 36 37. https://doi.org/10.1037/027900 Purpura, D. J., & Reid, E. E. (2016). Mathematics and language: Individual and group differences in mathematical language skills in young children. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 36, 259 268. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2015.12.020 Riccomini, P. J., Smith, G. W., Hughes, E. M., & Fries, K. M. (2015). The Language of Mathematics: The Importance of Teaching and Learning Mathematical Vocabulary. Reading and Writing Quarterly, 31(3), 235 252. https://doi.org/10.1080/10573569.2015.1030995

Ryve, A., Nilsson, P., & Pettersson, K. (2013). Analyzing effective communication in mathematics group work: The role of visual mediators and technical terms. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 82(3), 497 514. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10649 012 9442 6 Shahrill, M., & Clarke, D. J. (2014). Brunei Teachers’ Perspectives on Questioning: Investigating the Opportunities to “Talk” in Mathematics Lessons. International Education Studies, 7(7). https://doi.org/10.5539/ies.v7n7p1

Sulaiman, T., Kuppusamy, S. K., Ayub, A. F. M., & Rahim, S. S. A. (2017). Relationship between Critical Thinking Disposition and Teaching Efficacy Among Special Education Integration Program Teachers in Malaysia. AIP Conference Proceedings 1795, Tambychik,020025.T.,& Meerah, T. S. M. (2010). Students’ difficulties in mathematics problem solving: What do they say? Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences, 8(5), 142 151. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2010.12.020 Wilen, W. W. (1991). Questioning Skills For Teachers what Research Says to the Teacher. (3rd Edition). Washington: National Education Association. Wong, K. Y. (2015). Use of Student Mathematics Questioning to Promote Active Learning and Metacognition. In S. J. Cho (Ed.), Selected Regular Lectures from the 12th International Congress on Mathematical Education (pp. 877 895). https://doi.org/10.1007/978 3 319 17187 6_49 Zhang, X., & Lin, D. (2015). Pathways to arithmetic: The role of visual spatial and language skills in written arithmetic, arithmetic word problems, and nonsymbolic arithmetic. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41, 188 197. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.01.005

408 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. McAninch, M. J. (2015). A Qualitative Study Of Secondary Mathematics Teachers ’ Questioning, Responses, And Perceived Influences (PhD thesis). University of Iowa. Miller, T., Birch, M., Mauthner, M., & Jessop, J. (2012). Ethics in qualitative research Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications. Ministry of Education. (2014). Dokumen Standard Kurikulum Dan Pentaksiran Matematik: Tahun Enam [Curriculum and Assessment Standard Document: Year Six]. Putrajaya: Ministry of Education Malaysia. Mohamad, B., Esa, A., & Warman, M. Y. A. H. J. H. S. (2009). Komunikasi Dalam Matematik Dalam Kalangan Kanak Kanak [Mathematical Communication Within Children]. Persidangan Kebangsaan Pendidikan Sains Dan Teknologi 2009 [National Conference on Science and Technology Education 2009], 1 17. Morin, J. E., & Franks, D. J. (2009). Why Do Some Children Have Difficulty Learning Mathematics? Looking at Language for Answers. Preventing School Failure: Alternative Education for Children and Youth, 54(2), 111 118. https://doi.org/10.1080/10459880903217861

409 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Appendix 1 INTERVIEW QUESTIONS Initial Interview: Background Information and Philosophy of Questioning I. IntroductionA.Explain why participant was selected II. FocusA. To obtain a general philosophy of their purpose(s) of questioning in the classroom III. Interview Questions

B. Tell me about the students you are currently teaching.

H. Do you think about your questions or question asking anytime outside of class? When and in what ways?

I. How do you respond to student answers? What types of feedback do you give? How do students expand upon correct answers? How do students interact with one another and initiate questions?

A. How long have you been teaching?

a. Is your classroom student centered? What are the student and teacher roles in your mathematics classroom?

a. How does the culture of your classroom support quality questioning?C.Howwould you describe your teaching philosophy?

D. What do you know about teacher questioning as an instructional E.practice?How would you describe your philosophy of questioning in the F.classroom?Doyou have any sort of classification of questions in your mind?

G.Explain.What are your criteria for judging whether or not your questioning is eliciting the desired outcomes?

J. What experiences have influenced how you ask questions in the (Questionsclassroom? were taken from McAninch, M. J. (2015). A Qualitative Study of Secondary Mathematics Teachers’ Questioning, Responses, And Perceived Influences University of Iowa.)

(Questions

B. Did anything that occurred in class influence your decision to ask that question? Explain. What information did you base that decision on? How did you decide which responses were appropriate? Was there anything else you thought of doing at that point but decidedWhatagainst?influenced this decision? Would you like to share anything else about this teaching episode?

VI. Thank participant again for their time and interest. were taken from McAninch, M. J. (2015). A Qualitative Study of Secondary Mathematics Teachers’ Questioning, Responses, And Perceived Influences University of Iowa.)

410 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Stimulated Recall Interview: Reflective Interview on Instructional Decision Making I. IntroductionA.Explain what an SR interview is II. FocusA. Question asking during the videotaped teaching episode III. SR RulesA.Can stop video at anytime B. Distinguish between actual recall and new observations IV. OrientA.Participant gives brief description of purpose of teaching episode B. SR addresses following issues: 1. Teacher’s perspective on what happened in the episode 2. What teacher was trying to accomplish 3. What information were choices based on V. Questions (asked each time tape is stopped) A. Can you recall any of your thoughts when you asked that question?

Keywords: STEM; science curriculum; structural equation modelling (SEM); careers; Malaysia 1. Introduction Reeve (2015) has defined the elements of Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics in the education system as follows: science is a study related to nature, while technology serves as a tool to change the natural world to meet the needs and wants of society. Engineering uses mathematics and science to produce technology in which Mathematics represents the language of numbers, patterns,

411 ©2020TheauthorsandIJLTER.ORG.Allrightsreserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 5, pp. 411 422, May 2020 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.5.25 STEM Education in Malaysia towards Developing a Human Capital through Motivating Science Subject Fazilah Razali, Umi Kalthom Abdul Manaf and Ahmad Fauzi Mohd Ayub Universiti Putra Malaysia Selangor, Malaysia https://orcid.org/0000 0002 1203 1010 https://orcid.org/0000 0002 4793 8165 https://orcid.org/0000 0002 4313 2922 Abstract. istailoredStudentQuestionnairestudyTechnology,directgrade,encompassingThispaperfocusesonthemotivationalfactorinlearningsciencetheelementsofselfefficacy,selfdetermination,intrinsic,andcareer.ThesefactorsidentifiedfrompreviousresearchhaveainfluenceontheconceptionofcareersrelatedtoScience,Engineering,andMathematics(STEM)amongstudents.Thisisaquantitativestudyusingtwosurveys:MotivationalScience(MSQII)andcareerinterestinSTEMfromtheSTEMQuestionnaire(SSTEM).Thequestionnairewasmodifiedandtothepurposeofthisinvestigation.Theobjectiveofthisresearchtodeterminemotivationasthemainfactorinsciencetodevelop

students’ interest in a STEM career among secondary students in Malaysia. A total of 419 Form Four students were the respondents of this study. The results show that motivation of indirect science learning can influence the development of Form 4 students’ interest in STEM careers. The data were analyzed using the Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) method which is in line with the self determination theory to determine the strong influence of motivation on students’ career. The result shows a very high influence of motivation towards science with a significantly high variance of 51% on the development of interest in STEM related careers among Malaysian students.

2.1 Self-determination theory Self determination theory is a macro motivational theory of humans that is essential across domains including parenting, education, physical activities, and work management or tasks (Deci, Olafsen & Ryan, 2017). The self determination theory is also a comprehensive framework which stresses on the students’ tendency towards doing something of their interests based on their knowledge

The formation of a new and established curriculum will only be meaningful if it is in line with the students’ readiness to master knowledge in science. At the same time, students can use the knowledge to build up their interest in STEM and directly will fulfil students' career aspirations (Li et al., 2020). STEM needs to be translated in teaching and learning holistically to students' so that they develop a positive attitude towards STEM as well as to increase 21st century learning skills among them (Bergeron & Gordon, 2015; Zeynep, Dokme & Unlu, 2016). Besides, the ability of teachers to understand students' needs can also help develop the students’ motivation and potential (Dare, Ellis & Roehrig, 2018).

and relationships that relate to science, technology, and engineering as a whole.

2. Literature Review

Although there are various definitions used to translate STEM into the education system, the goal of the STEM education system is to build the capacity of every student to meet the needs of the STEM industry and is an ongoing process (Halim, 2018). The awareness of the importance of science has been given the necessary attention, especially in the education system to produce more labour who are skilled in STEM to support the country’s economy. This effort will bring about a positive impact on students’ involvement as a result of early exposure to the importance of scientific knowledge and its relation to STEM careers, if channelled in a more transparent and structured manner. Due to the emphasis of STEM careers, the Ministry of Education (MOE) seriously took up the suggestions of the National Education Blueprint (PPPM) 2013 2025. The idea to change the existing curriculum to the Standard Secondary School Curriculum (SSSC) is by strengthening and introducing STEM in the education system of Malaysia as one of the pillars in the new curriculum. Students' motivation for science is more meaningful when students have an awareness of science for everyday life necessities. The motivation for science among students plays an essential role in enabling the consistency of students’ career choice in the field of STEM (Duschl, 2019). Motivation is also an essential element of the long term need for science learning based on self determination theory that includes elements of self efficacy, self determination, achievement, and intrinsic motivation to achieve learning goals (Lee, 2017). Furthermore, Guan et al. (2016) emphasize that motivation can provide ongoing internal support throughout STEM students' exploration. The motivation for high science also provides students with the opportunity to develop an ongoing interest in STEM careers (McFadden & Roehrig, 2020). Therefore, the importance of motivation in refining students' needs in the learning process of STEM career development is essential for the unity of students’ knowledge and preparation in the STEM industry sector.

Also, motivation is essential to influence choice and students’ consistent involvement in science stream and careers in STEM related fields (Duschl, 2019) Thus, the importance of motivation will always be the primary matter in the learning process to achieve the actual curriculum goals. Moreover, high motivation will not only help students to succeed but also will assist students in seeing the value in science curriculum learnedwith the direction of forming career interest for the future (Beerenwinkel & von Arx, 2016; Hamjah, Ismail, Rasit & Rozali, 2011; Khong, Hassan & Ramli, 2017).

Motivation in learning science is needed to ensure students can use the science knowledge capacity andskills in forming careers that are in line with the students’ interest. Furthermore, this research investigates motivation in science among

and skills (Beerenwinkel & von Arx, 2016). Therefore, motivation to study science is the ability of students that will also influence the formation of positive reinforcement which influences autonomous motivation and controlled motivation (Nguyen & Deci, 2016).

Autonomy involves behaviours that are followed by will based on the environmental pressures which influence motivations towards a more positive outlook. Intrinsic motivation is autonomous motivation that when students are interested in a particular matter, they will try to pursue it. On the contrary, controlled motivation involves behaviours to reach on pressure or influence that concern a specific action and the hope on students’ performance. Autonomous motivation and controlled motivation are both components in motivation that influence students’ interest and motivation in choosing a preferable career (Olafsen et al., 2017). In conjunction with the importance of theory to encourage the formation of positive motivation, especially towards a more specified Science curriculum by correlating it with careers in the scientific field (Dare, Ellis & Roehrig, 2018).

2.2 Motivation towards Science and STEM Career

Motivation in learning refers toways of students think about themselves bytaking account of students’ preparedness in process and self learning activities which are also able to give students consistency towards focused learning (Hora & Oleson, 2017). Motivation to learn has two categories which are 1) intrinsic motivation related to self perception and environmental influences, 2) extrinsic motivation is controlled by performance, rewards, and learning objectives of students (Adegboyega, 2018; Gagné & Deci, 2005). Therefore, students need to know the relationship between Science curriculum which is learned with the needs to achieve career aspiration among students to increase their motivation to continue learning Science (Sheldrake, 2016; Soni & Kumari, 2015). Besides, motivation is the element of self determination to make efforts in learning science and have the potential to encourage the formation of interest better towards a science career (Leung, 2020). Therefore, motivation is vital in ensuring that input received by students is used to see science to the needs of producing STEM skilled labour.

414

Table 1: Population Distribution and Secondary School Students in Selangor

The study was conducted in a densely populated state in Selangor, Malaysia. Through random selection, ten districts (Hulu Selangor, Gombak, Petaling Perdana, Petaling Utama, Hulu Langat, Sepang, Klang, Kuala Langat, Kuala Selangor dan Sabak Bernam) are represented. The study covered 419 Form 4 science stream students in Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan in Selangor using the Proportionate Stratified Random Sampling. This method is suitable to describe the population of science students in Selangor into sub populations. The location was selected based on the information sought from Table 1, in which it reported that Selangor was the first state in the country to be exposed to STEM information.

Form 4 students of Science stream in a national secondary school situated in Selangor for the Malaysian context. The emphasis of students’ STEM related careers (a) determines science motivation is significant towards the formation of STEM associated careers, (b) whether the influence of science motivation gives impacts and its contribution towards the establishment of STEM related careers among science stream students in Malaysia. Methodology

Table 2: Result of the descriptive analysis based on the gender of a sample of students

3.1 Research and Respondents

Gender Frequency Percentage Male 196 46.8 Female 237 53.2 Total 419 100.0 3.2 Research Instrument

Distributionpopulationof Total Number of Secondary Schools Number of Secondary School Students 6,140.1 272 404,835

The research respondents were random selected from these schools (Table 2). However, this research does not substantiate further on gender since it is merely additional information in the study to observe a balanced sample of Malaysia, especially Selangor students who took a science stream in secondary schools.

The Science Motivation Questionnaire II (SMQ II) (Appendix 1 & 2) is a psychometric tool used to assist students in identifying motivation in learning science to achieve good mastery in scientific knowledge. Students will be able to see the importance of motivation in learning science on the formation of their future careers (Glynn et al., 2011). This survey aims to measure students’ motivation in science. The questionnaire had 25 items encompassing five sub constructs: intrinsic motivation, self efficacy, self determination, achievement, and career in order to measure students' motivation in pursuing a STEM career.

Based on Nunally & Bernstein (1994), the correlation value that is over .25 has a high validity. Therefore, SMQ II instrument is valid because it shows the correlational mean value of each item with the total score according to the construct of each instrument over .25 and can be measured appropriately in Table 3 The Cronbach's alpha value instruments presented in this research have high reliability and validity (Table 3) as well. According to Sekaran (2013), an alpha value over .80 is considered good, and therefore the instrument is reliable.

Each construct consists of 5 items. This survey measures every single scope of STEM career fields such as engineering, science, technology, space, agriculture, and mathematics The survey has been adapted in the Malay language to suit the items with the students’ environment which is the primary language of instruction in the Malaysian education system. The questions are presented in an interval scale of 1 (strongly disagree) to 10 (strongly agree). Respondents need to choose answers by checking the range based on the accuracy of the question and their abilities. This study is a full fledged quantitative research. After the data were collected, the researchers analyze it using the Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) method.

4.1 Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA)

The data will then be analyzed using Structural Equation Model (SEM) to measure the direct influence and effects of motivation in science which is also a latent factor in the formation of interest in STEM related careers. Before looking at the direct impact of the science motivation, a Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) is used to determine the data of science to fulfil the fixed indices. In general, the measurement model satisfies the majority index compatibility value of a model for each category, thus, this measurement model is suitable and a good model (Schreiber et al., 2006).

4. Results

Table 3: Summary of Validity and Reliability Report for the instrument Instrument Correlation of Mean Value between Scores of Each Item with Total Score CronbachAlpha Science QuestionnaireMotivationII (SMQ II) .591 0.972 S STEM (Career STEM) .543 0.811

3.3 Procedures Before the fieldwork, the instrument must go through the reliability and validity procedure through a pilot study to ensure reliable and valid data to the next analysis step. Expert validation for the questionnaire was carried out in terms of the scale used and item content to represent construct implementation prior to the pilot study. Three experts from the teaching profession and STEM have validated the SMQ II and S STEM (STEM Career) instrument. From the pilot study analysis based on the correlation of minimum value scores of each item with the total scores is in accordance with the constructs in this study. This validating method is in line with the theory introduced by Nunally (1967).

indexes

Figure 1 shows the measurement model in CFA on the data of science motivation through the SMQ II and shows that science motivation can fulfil at least one index for each category. The figure shows the symbol KERSTEM (STEM career) and MOTIVASI (motivation) with the element of EFI (self efficacy), KEN (self determination), INT (intrinsic), GRE (grade) and KER (career). The modification process has been implemented on the measurement model to ensure the items that have a low loading factor and the only question (item) with the necessary loading factor to fit the indexes measurement model (Awang, 2015).

*Motivation (Motivasi) and STEM Career (KERSTEM)

TLI, Chisq/df,

Table 4: Index of Measurement Model Compatibility based on Hair Index et al. (2010) Category Name of Indexes AcceptableIndexes Index MeasurementofModel 1. Absolute fit Chisq > 0.05 942.880 RMSEA < 0.08 .067 GFI > 0.90 .854 2. fitIncremental AGFI > 0.90 .824 CFI > 0.90 .912 TLI > 0.90 .901 NFI > 0.90 .870 3. fitParsimonious Chisq/df < 0.50 2.806 4. The goodness of fit index CFI > 0.90 .912 TLI > 0.90 .901 GFI > 0.90 .854

Figure 1: Measurement Model on Science Motivation and STEM Related Career

Based on the analysis result, it shows that the measurement model passed the majority fit index value that involved all three categories which were Chisq, RMSEA, CFI, and the value of p (Figure 1). As stated by Schreiber et al., (2006), a measurement model that fulfils the majority of the model fit value shows that it is a good and acceptable model.

Table 4 shows that the measurement model can fulfil the majority of fixed indexes.

Table 6: Confirmatory Factors Analysis for Scientific Motivation Construct Construct Discardeditems Alpha(>Cronbach0.7) CR ( ≥ 0.6) AVE ( ≥ 0.5) Scientificmotivation M23M13,M16,,M24 .956 .96 .54 InterestinSTEM related careers K1, K5, K8, K11, K12 .807 .89 .50 The value of average extracted variance (AVE) and composite reliability coefficient (CR) were related to the quality of measurement. To avoid misconceptions, it is necessary to understand the AVE and CR along with their relation to validity and reliability. The formulas of CR and AVE for scientific motivation and interest in STEM related career are: CR = (ΣK)2 / [ (ΣK)2 + Σ1 K2)]; AVE = ΣK2 / n.

4.2 Validity and Reliability of the Measurement Model

Validity needs are achieved based on the following criteria: convergent validity AVE ≥ 0.50 (Table 6); construct validity to fulfil the level of indexes required; discriminant validity there are no overlapping items (MI) discarded or “free parameter” for all the research constructs (Table 6) Reliability requirements occur during specific processes, as follows: internal reliability Alpha Cronbach ≥ .70 (Table 6) and composite reliability CR ≥ 0.6 (Table 6).

Based on Hair et al. (2010), compatibility indexes to evaluate the model needs to achieve one of the indexes from the category in Table 5. Therefore, the study has made a majority of index values, at least one index, fit into each index category, which is the value indexes based on Chisq (X2), RMSEA, CFI, TLI, and Chisq/df. However, the index value is advisable to measure the compatibility index on the measurement model in CFA which is RMSEA, CFI, and Chisq/df for continuous data (Hooper, Coughlan & Mullen, 2008; Hu & Bentler, 1998). Research involves continuous data and has fulfilled the majority of the index needed for the compatibility measurement model to analyze the determining factors.

As soon as the CFA procedure for a particular measurement model is completed, it is essential for several steps to be conducted as a procedure for the validity and reliability of constructs. The evaluation of uni dimensionality, validity, and reliability of the measurement model is needed before the formation of the model structure. Uni dimensionality is achieved by discarding items which have a low loading factor. The new model in the modification process and the item discarded the operation until the fitness indexes achieve the desired levels

Table 5: Category for each index Category Index Absolute fit RMSEA or GFI Incremental fit CFI or TLI Parsimonious fit Chisq/df Goodness of fit index CFI or TLI or GFI

Figure 2 shows the result of objective testing to determine the influence directly on motivation towards the formation of interest in STEM related careers. The Constructs Science motivation STEM career interests Motivation *.734 **.731 STEM career interests **.731 *.707

The coefficient values shown in bold in Table 7 are the square root of two AVE values for each construct. The model achieved the discrimination validity when the coefficient values in bold are high in values compared to the values in the rows and columns that represent correlational values for each construct based on the measurement (Awang, 2015).

The structural model connects the two independent variables to the dependent variable. This structural model represents the magnitude and direction of influence between two sets of the latent variable by enabling the researcher to evaluate the relationship between variables based on the impact measured in the model. The structural model is defined as the relationship between the latent variables by using the maximum likelihood method (Hair et al., 2010). The structural model serves tocreatespecifications relatedtolatent variable influences on other latent variables in the model directly. The structural model can also contribute specifications regarding how a latent variable can predict other latent variables in a similar model. Besides, the strength of SEM is to analyze the relationship amongst other latent constructs that are involved in the SEM technical model with the SEM techniques that can give more accurate solutions (Hair et al., 2014). *Motivation (MOTIVASI) and STEM Career (KERSTEM)

4.3 Structural Model

Table 7: Correlation between measurement constructs of the instrument * Square root of AVE ** Correlation between constructs (<.85)

Figure 2: Structural Model between Motivation to Learn Science and STEM Careers

Science

Table 8: Standardized Regression Weights

5. Discussion The analysis conducted showed that science motivation has a significant direct influence in explaining the importance of science motivation towards the formation of STEM related careers among students. Besides, motivation in learning science directly influences the environmental adaptability of students’ learning process in choosing study programs related to STEM careers (Fazilah et al., 2020). The results have also shown that the combination of elements such as self efficacy, self determination, intrinsic motivation, grades, and career are needed to measure science motivation more thoroughly to inform students’ interest towards STEM related careers. Therefore, it is essential to integrate the element of science motivation in lesson planning to provide new inputs to the students through the knowledge of science for the future (Khodabakhszadeh et al., 2018). The finding for effects of the direct influence also showed high impacts and the immense contribution of science motivation towards the formation of interest in STEM related careers. The variance of 51% shows the strong influence of science motivation on the formation of interest in STEM related careers among Form 4 science stream secondary schools’ students in Malaysia. This study has been able to explain precisely the validity and the importance of science motivation to improve students’ tendency to join learning programs in the STEM fields when they will enroll for tertiary education. Nevertheless, further studies need to be done to address more variables that can attract students’ interest in STEM careers. Constructs Estimate S.E. C.R. P KERSTEM < MOTIVATION .713 .062 9.612 ***

screening to answer the objective measurement which is to assess the significance of scientific motivation on students’ interest in STEM related careers and either the scientific motivation influence and its contribution to the formation of students’ interest in STEM related careers among science stream students in Malaysia. In response to the study objectives (a) of the Standard Regression Standard (Table 8), the high standard deviation of .713 as well as the influence of scientific motivation also significantly directly influence students' interest in STEM careers with p value = .001. Additionally, the direct impact of independent variable and determination of moderator influence is significant at p < 0.05 as well as the foundation of the rows in Science Social fields (Aytekin et al., 2016).

The second objective was to study the influence of motivation in science and its contribution to the formation of interest in STEM related careers among science stream students in Malaysia. This objective can be explained through the variance obtained for the Squared Multiple Correlation (R2) which is .509 or 51%. The general effect of the R2 variance is estimated to be significant when R2 is 0.30 or 30% contribution (Kline, 2011). This estimation is by the independent variable to the dependent variable. Thus, it is agreed that science motivation has a strong influence and can expect a large contribution towards the formation of interest in STEM related careers among Form 4 science stream students in Selangor.

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6. Conclusion These findings can become a reference for different streams as well as STEM fields especially to determine students’ motivation towards science to develop an interest in STEM careers because the questionnaire used in this study focuses on self determination, grade, efficacy, intrinsic motivation, and career. STEM is a broad field, but some modifications must be done in terms of content, demographic questionnaires, and theories to adapt it the environment or research issues. The STEM field impacts unlimited model usage among science stream students. Other streams such as Technical Communication Graphics, Supplementary Science, Agriculture, Home Science, Design, Computer Science, and Sports Science are also considered a STEM field at the secondary level. Research on the needforscientific motivation using Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) analysis of students' interest in STEM careers provide a new dimension in science curriculum research. The addition of predictive variables based on students’ needs influence the model's consistency index and can contribute significantly to the impact of curriculum innovations for student commitment towards increasing STEM engagement.

AMOS. MPWS Rich Publication. Beerenwinkel, A., & von Arx, M. (2016). Constructivism in Practice: an Exploratory Study of Teaching Patterns and Student Motivation in Physics Classrooms in Finland, Germany and Switzerland. Research in Science Education, 1 19.

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Recommended citation for this survey: Friday Institute for Educational Innovation (2012). Middle and High School STEM Student Survey. Raleigh, NC: Author.

The Friday Institute grants you permission to use these instruments for educational, non commercial purposes only. You may use an instrument as is, or modify it to suit your needs, but in either case you must credit its original source. By using this instrument you agree to allow the Friday Institute to use the data collected for additional validity and reliability analysis. The Friday Institute will take appropriate measures to maintain the confidentiality of all data.

Appendix 1Student Attitudes toward STEM Survey (S-STEM) Middle and High School Appropriate Use The Middle/High School (6 12th) S STEM Survey is intended to measure changes in students’ confidence and efficacy in STEM subjects, 21st century learning skills, and interest in STEM careers. The survey is available to help program coordinators make decisions about possible improvements to their program.

The development of this survey was partially supported by the National Science Foundation under Grant No. 1038154 and by the Golden LEAF foundation. The framework for part of this survey was developed from the following sources: Erkut, S., & Marx, F. (2005). 4 schools for WIE (Evaluation Report). Wellesley, MA: Wellesley College, Center for Research on Women. Retrieved April 5, 2012 from Bureauhttp://www.coe.neu.edu/Groups/stemteams/evaluation.pdfofLaborStatistics,U.S.DepartmentofLabor,Occupational Outlook Handbook, 2010 11 Edition.

DIRECTIONS There are lists of statements on the following pages. Please mark your answer sheets by marking how you feel about each statement. For example: Example 1: DisagreeStrongly Disagree AgreeNeithernorDisagree Agree StronglyAgree I like engineering. ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ As you read the sentence, you will know whether you agree or disagree. Fill in the circle that describes how much you agree or disagree. Even though some statements are very similar, please answer each statement. This is not timed; work fast, but carefully. There are no "right" or "wrong" answers! The only correct responses are those that are true for you. Whenever possible, let the things that have happened to you help you make a choice. PLEASE FILL IN ONLY ONE ANSWER PER QUESTION

5. Mathematics: is the science of numbers and their operations. It involves computation, algorithms and theory used to solve problems and summarize data. (accountant, applied mathematician, economist, financial analyst, mathematician, statistician, market researcher, stock market analyst)

○ ○ ○ ○

Your Future Here are descriptions of subject areas that involve math, science, engineering and/or technology, and lists of jobs connected to each subject area. As you read the list below, you will know how interested you are in the subject and the jobs. Fill in the circle that relates to how interested you are. There are no “right” or “wrong” answers. The only correct responses are those that are true for you Not at Interestedall Not InterestedSo Interested InterestedVery

4. Veterinary Work: involves the science of preventing or treating disease in animals. producer,(veterinaryassistant,veterinarian,livestockanimalcaretaker)

3. Biology and Zoology: involve the study of living organisms (such as plants and animals) and the processes of life. This includes working with farm animals and in areas like nutrition and breeding. (biological technician, biological scientist, animalplantbreeder,croplabtechnician,scientist,geneticist,zoologist)

○ ○ ○ ○

2. Environmental Work: involves learning about physical and biological processes that govern nature and working to improve the environment. This includes finding and designing solutions to problems like pollution, reusing waste and recycling. (pollution control analyst, maintenancecontrolenvironmentalengineerorscientist,erosionspecialist,energysystemsengineerandtechnician)

○ ○ ○ ○

1. Physics: is the study of basic laws governing the motion, energy, structure, studyingandinteractionsofmatter.Thiscanincludethenatureoftheuniverse. (aviation engineer, alternative energy technician, lab technician, physicist, astronomer)

○ ○ ○ ○

10. Chemistry: uses math and experiments to search for new chemicals, and to study the structure of matter and how it behaves. (chemical technician, chemist, chemical engineer) ○ ○ ○ ○

○ ○ ○ ○

6. Medicine: involves maintaining health and preventing and treating disease. (physician’s assistant, nurse, doctor, nutritionist, emergency medical technician, physicaltherapist,dentist)

9. Medical Science: involves researching human disease and working to find new solutions to human health problems. (clinical laboratory technologist, medical scientist, biomedical engineer, epidemiologist, pharmacologist)

○ ○ ○ ○

8. Computer Science: consists of the development and testing of computer systems, designing new programs and helping others to use computers. (computer support specialist, computer programmer, computer and network technician, gaming designer, computer software engineer, informationtechnologyspecialist)

○ ○ ○ ○

12. Engineering: involves designing, testing, and manufacturing new products (like machines, bridges, buildings, and electronics) through the use of math, science, and computers. (civil, industrial, agricultural, or mechanical engineers, welder, auto mechanic, engineering technician, constructionmanager)

○ ○ ○ ○

7. Earth Science: is the study of earth, including the air, land, and ocean. (geologist, weather forecaster, archaeologist, geoscientist)

○ ○ ○ ○

11. Energy: involves the study and generation of power, such as heat or electricity. (electrician, electrical engineer, heating, ventilation, and air conditioning orengineer,(HVAC)technician,nuclearengineer,systemsalternativeenergysystemsinstallertechnician)

Appendix 2 SCIENCE MOTIVATION QUESTIONNAIRE II (SMQ-II) © 2011 SHAWN M. GLYNN, UNIVERSITY OF GEORGIA, USA In order to better understand what you think and how you feel about your science courses, please respond to each of the following statements from the perspective of “When I am in a science course…” Statements Never 0 Rarely 1 Sometimes 2 Often 3 Always 4 01. The science I learn is relevant to my life. 02. I like to do better than other students on science tests. 03. Learning science is interesting. 04. Getting a good science grade is important to me. 05. I put enough effort into learning science. 06. I use strategies to learn science well. 07. Learning science will help me get a good 08.job.It is important that I get an "A" in science. 09. I am confident I will do well on science 10.tests.Knowing science will give me a career 11.advantage.Ispend a lot of time learning science. 12. Learning science makes my life more 13.meaningful.Understanding science will benefit me in my career. 14. I am confident I will do well on science labs and projects. 15. I believe I can master science knowledge and skills. 16. I prepare well for science tests and labs. 17. I am curious about discoveries in science. 18. I believe I can earn a grade of “A” in 19.science.Ienjoy learning science. 20. I think about the grade I will get in 21.science.Iam sure I can understand science. 22. I study hard to learn science.

23. My career will involve science. 24. Scoring high on science tests and labs matters to me. 25. I will use science problem solving skills in my career. Note. The SMQ II is copyrighted and registered. Go to http://www.coe.uga.edu/smq/ for permission and directions to use it and its discipline specific versions such as the Biology Motivation Questionnaire II (BMQ II), Chemistry Motivation Questionnaire II (CMQ II), and Physics Motivation Questionnaire II (PMQ II) in which the words biology, chemistry, and physics are respectively substituted for the word science. Versions in other languages are also available.

Chief Editor Dr. Antonio Silva Sprock, Universidad Central de Venezuela, Venezuela, Bolivarian Republic of Editorial Board Dr. Fatima Zohra Belkhir Benmostefa Dr. Giorgio Poletti Dr. Chi Man Tsui Dr. Fitri Suraya Mohamad Dr. Hernando Lintag Berna Dr. Charanjit Kaur Swaran Singh Dr. Abu Bakar Dr. Eglantina Hysa Dr. Mo'en Salman Alnasraween Dr. Hermayawati Hermayawati Dr. Selma Kara Dr. Michael B. Cahapay Dr. Bunmi Isaiah Omodan Dr. Vassiliki Pliogou Dr. Meera Subramanian Dr. Muhammad Kristiawan Dr. Wahyu Widada Dr. Som Pal Baliyan Dr. Reem Khalid Abu Shawish Dr. Froilan Delute Mobo Dr. Mohamed Ali Elkot Dr. Anabelie Villa Valdez Mr. Teody Lester Verdeflor Panela International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research

The International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research is an open access journal which has been established for the dissemination of state-of-the-art knowledge in the field of education, learning and teaching. IJLTER welcomes research articles from academics, educators, teachers, trainers and other practitioners on all aspects of education to publish high quality peer reviewed papers. Papers for publication in the International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research are selected through precise peer review to ensure quality, originality, appropriateness, significance and readability. Authors are solicited to contribute to this journal by submitting articles that illustrate research results, projects, original surveys and case studies that describe significant advances in the fields of education, training, e learning, etc. Authors are invited to submit papers to this journal through the ONLINE submission system. Submissions must be original and should not have been published previously or be under consideration for publication while being evaluated by IJLTER.

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