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International Journal of Learning, EducationalAndTeachingResearch p1694ISSN:2493 e1694ISSN:2116 IJLTER.ORG Vol.19 No.6

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research

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The International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research is an open access journal which has been established for the dissemination of state-of-the-art knowledge in the field of education, learning and teaching. IJLTER welcomes research articles from academics, educators, teachers, trainers and other practitioners on all aspects of education to publish high quality peer reviewed papers. Papers for publication in the International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research are selected through precise peer review to ensure quality, originality, appropriateness, significance and readability. Authors are solicited to contribute to this journal by submitting articles that illustrate research results, projects, original surveys and case studies that describe significant advances in the fields of education, training, e learning, etc. Authors are invited to submit papers to this journal through the ONLINE submission system. Submissions must be original and should not have been published previously or be under consideration for publication while being evaluated by IJLTER.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research (IJLTER) Vol. 19, No. 6 (June 2020) Print version: 1694 2493 Online version: 1694-2116 IJLTER International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research (IJLTER) Vol. 19, No. 6 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically those of translation, reprinting, re use of illustrations, broadcasting, reproduction by photocopying machines or similar means, and storage in data banks. Society for Research and Knowledge Management

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research

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The main objective of this journal is to provide a platform for educators, teachers, trainers, academicians, scientists and researchers from over the world to present the results of their research activities in the following fields: innovative methodologies in learning, teaching and assessment; multimedia in digital learning; e learning; m learning; e education; knowledge management; infrastructure support for online learning; virtual learning environments; open education; ICT and education; digital classrooms; blended learning; social networks and education; etutoring: learning management systems; educational portals, classroom management issues, educational case studies, etc. Indexing and Abstracting

The International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research is a peer-reviewed open-access journal which has been established for the dissemination of state of the art knowledge in the fields of learning, teaching and educational research. Aims and Objectives

Foreword We are very happy to publish this issue of the International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research. The International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research is a peer reviewed open access journal committed to publishing high quality articles in the field of education. Submissions may include full-length articles, case studies and innovative solutions to problems faced by students, educators and directors of educational organisations. To learn more about this journal, please visit the website Whttp://www.ijlter.org.earegratefultothe

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editor in chief, members of the Editorial Board and the reviewers for accepting only high quality articles in this issue. We seize this opportunity to thank them for their great collaboration. Editorial Board is composed of renowned people from across the world. Each paper is reviewed by at least two blind reviewers. will endeavour to ensure the reputation and quality of this journal with this

issue. Editors of the June 2020 Issue

Burhanettin Ozdemir and Abdulrahman Hadi Alshamrani Oksana P. Bykonia, Iryna V. Borysenko, Tamila L. Gruba, Iurii L. Mosenkis and Dmytro O. Chystiak Marzni Mohamed Mokhtar, Marni Jamil, Rohizani Yaakub and Fadzilah Amzah

Aris Alea Lapada, Frosyl Fabrea Miguel, Dave Arthur Roldan Robledo and Zeba F Alam Malaysian Primary Pupils’ Vocabulary Pocable Game and Pear Deck Chai Kar Ni, Bonaventure Jong, Mary Anne Dison, Sylvia Anak Thomas, Melor Md Yunus and Ashairi Suliman of West African Council Basil C. E. Oguguo, John J. Agah, Catherine U. Ene, Vivian N. ACholonu, Roseline N. Azubuike, Mary A. Okeke and Lourita P. Agbo of Manifold Facets of Analytic Relations to Academic Reading Md Kamrul Hasan, Md. Didar Hossain and Abdul Karim a Principled Use of L1 Observing an EFL Teacher’s L1 Use in Rural Sabah, Malaysia 206 J. W. Ong and A. J. Ahmad Tajuddin

Skills using

Enhancing

Main Approaches of Business English Teaching to Future Lawyers: A Case Study of Ukrainian Higher Institutions 46

Examination

Financial Accounting Questions 161

Assessing the Relationship and Prediction

Towards

and Amelia Abdullah Technology Driven Self Directed Learning of Graduate Pharmaceutists: Adding Value through Entrepreneurship111 Iryna

The Effectiveness of Differentiated Instruction by Streaming: A preliminary Study of Current Practices in the UAE 95 Ibrahim

Ibrahim

Teachers’ Covid 19 Awareness, Distance Learning Education Experiences and Perceptions towards Institutional Readiness and Challenges 127

Debate as a Tool for Learning and Facilitating Based on Higher Order Thinking Skills in The Process of Argumentative Essay Writing 62

Comprehension 179

145

VOLUME 19 NUMBER 6 June 2020 Table of Contents The Emergency Remote Learning Experience of University Students in Indonesia amidst the COVID 19 Crisis 1 Maila D.H. Rahiem Examining the Fairness of Language Test Across Gender with IRT based Differential Item and Test Functioning Methods ................................................................................................................................................................................. 27

Exploring Teachers’ Pedagogical Practices in Teaching Mandarin as a Foreign Language in MARA Educational Institutions, Malaysia ........................................................................................................................................................... 76

Content Validity

Nuraini Jafri, Umi Kalthom Abd Manaf and Fazilah Razali Suleiman Magableh Nizhenkovska, Tatyana Reva, Oksana Chkhalo and Oksana Holovchenko

A Study of Saudi Advanced Academic Writing Students’ Perceptions of Research Essays, and Gaps in Their Knowledge 223 Nida Qayoom and Mohammad Saleem Mass Media Internships in Vocational Training of Students Majoring in Journalism 238 Nataliia A. Tsymbal, Nataliia M. Savchuk, Valentina I. Avramenko, Svitlana A. Sichkar and Iryna A. Denysiuk Assessing the Efficacy of Extensive Reading during Study Abroad: A Time and Place for ER? 251 Byron O'Neill and Christopher Edelman The Extent of Bullying Against Students with Learning Disabilities According to the Age Variable 267 Mohamad Ahmad Saleem Khasawneh Development of Instruments to Measure Mathematical Anxiety of Elementary School Students 282 Hafiziani Eka Putri, Mukhammad Ady Wahyudy, Aan Yuliyanto and Fitri Nuraeni Situating "children supporting children" Platform in the Context of the Inclusive Agenda: A Phenomenological Exploration 303 Princess Zarla J. Raguindin and Li Yan Ping The Impact of Educational Technologies on University Teachers’ Self efficacy ........................................................ 323 Nataliia Saienko, Yuliana Lavrysh and Valentyna Lukianenko UAE Elementary Teachers’ Use of ADHD Referral and Management Strategies 337 Hala Elhoweris, Ahmed Mohamed, Osha Almuhairy, Rachel Takriti, Najwa Alhosani and Abdelaziz Sartawi Exploring Accounting Teachers’ Views on the Quality of Accounting Prescribed Textbooks in South Africa 353 Jabulisile C. Ngwenya and S’khumbuzo H. Mbili Rurality and Exclusion in Ordinary Level Mathematics in Zimbabwe: A Document Analysis 370 Simon Vurayai Emergency Online Teaching in Economic and Management Sciences Necessitated by the COVID 19 Pandemic: The Need for Healthy Relations in a Rural Schooling Context 387 Habasisa Molise and Bekithemba Dube

Understandingtheirexperiencewasachievedthrougharigorousanalysis of the participants’ diaries and reflective essays and an online focus group. Results revealed that the students’ experiences fell into two overarching themes, each with related sub themes. The two identified themes and subthemes were: (a) blended learning, with the subthemes of e learning, m learning and conventional learning, and (b) paradoxical learning, with the sub themes of flexible learning and challenging learning.Bystudyinghowuniversitystudentslearned duringCOVID 19, we could help ensure the efficacy of ongoing ERL and better incorporate similar programs in the future if this ever happens again.

Keywords: emergency remote learning; online learning; higher education; COVID 19 1. Introduction

The COVID 19 global pandemic has created entirely unprecedented situations that have greatly affected people’s lives. With doubts remaining at present over how and when it will end, the question remains whether things will ever go back to the way they were before the pandemic began with many skeptics remaining doubtful (Lee et al., 2010) The World Health Organization (WHO) has warned that COVID 19 is likely to haunt the world for a long time and that the planet will only return to normal once a viral strain vaccine has been discovered. There are currently ten candidate vaccines in clinical trials worldwide and 126 candidate vaccines in pre clinical trials (World Health Organization, 2020b). Anthony Fauci, MD, director of the US National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Disease, said that if all goes well, a vaccine might be available in November or December of this

The Emergency Remote Learning Experience of University Students in Indonesia amidst the COVID 19 Crisis Maila D. H. Rahiem UIN Syarif Hidayatullah Jakarta Jakarta, http://orcid.org/0000Indonesia00025618

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Abstract This study aimed to explore and interpret the lived experience of Indonesian university students in emergency remote learning (ERL) during the COVID 19. Methods of the investigation was a qualitative phenomenological approach involving 80 students from the Social Science Education Program at a public university in Jakarta.

rightsreserved. year (McCarthy, 2020; Reynolds, 2020). However, even after a vaccine has been approved, there remains an immense challenge to generate enough of it for the world's population (Felter, 2020) Presently (Early June 2020), in Indonesia and some other countries, the number of cases is still increasing at an alarming rate. The number of patients nationwide who have tested positive is up to 36,406, with patients who have recovered recorded as 13,213 people, and patients who have died totaling 2,048 people (Task Force for the Acceleration of COVID 19, 2020). COVID 19 has spread to 34 provinces, meaning that it has spread to all of the provinces across the Indonesian archipelago, and 391 out of 514 municipal districts have been infected (National Agency for Disaster Management, 2020). So far, the percentage of Indonesia's death rate, which is above 6 percent, is rated in the high category. The total number of cases worldwide is also still increasing, with 7,127,753 confirmed cases of COVID 19 spread across 216 countries, including 407,159 deaths, reported to WHO (World Health Organization, 2020c) As a result of the threat posed by COVID 19,educational institutionshave hurried to shift courses to virtual classrooms. Many institutions have chosen to cancel all face to face classes, including laboratories and other learning activities, and have required students to study remotely from home to help avoid the spread of the virus that causes COVID 19. The UN Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization(UNESCO, 2020) estimated that 129 countries had implemented national school closures (data fromJune10, 2020).Thesenationwide closures have impacted almost 63.3 percent of the world's student population or 1,109,020 learners. Several other countries have implemented localized closures impacting millions of additional learners (approximately 488,198,235 learners). The total number of affected learners due to nationwide closures and localized closures totals 1,725,082,528. The trend of nationwide closures has decreased from previous figures recorded on April 1 4, 2020, where 1,598,099,000 learners, or 91.3% of total enrolled learners, were recorded as being affected due to the nationwide closures policy in 195 countries. However, the total affected number (nationwide and localized) is relatively the same, starting from March 26, 2020. This data indicates that although the national closures policy has begun to be revoked in some areas and regions, schools and local governments have continued to implement remote learning.

In Indonesia, nationwideschool closures began on March 23, 2020, while localized closures in some provinces, e.g., DKI Jakarta, Central Java, Banten, West Java, and Aceh, started early on March 16, 2020 (Kumparan, 2020). The national school closures have impacted 60.2 million learners and 2.3 million educators who study or teach at 425,451 educational institutions from early childhood to higher education.

School closures are based on the previous studies of influenza outbreaks that resulted from social interactions between students and teachers that disrupted the learning process (Jackson et al., 2016). Cauchemez et al., (2008, 2009) quantified the role of schools in influenza epidemics and predicted the effect of school closures during a pandemic in France. They found that sustained school closures during a pandemic could reduce the total number of cases by 13 17 percent (18 23 percent in children), while during the height of the attack the rate could be as much as 39 45 percent (47 52 percent in children). The effect of school closures would be minimized if it proved difficult to sustain low contact rates among children for a prolonged time. Earn (2012) looked at the associations between the occurrence of H1N1 (pH1N1) pandemic influenza in Alberta, Canada in 2009 and school closures or weather changes, and calculated the impact of school closures and weather changes on the transmission of pH1N1. Mathematical models indicated that school closures decreased transmission among school aged children by more than 50 percent, which was a critical factor in interrupting transmission. The models also showed that seasonal changes in weather conditions had a significant effect on the epidemic's temporal structure.

School closure is one of the critical components of numerous non pharmaceutical prevention strategies in many countries to help reduce the number of cases and slow the spread of the disease, mainly if vaccines or antivirals are not available or are ineffective due to resistance (Glass et al., 2006; Institute of Medicine, 2006; Moscona, 2005; Sadique et al., 2008). School closure policies in various countries occur in quick succession as a measure to contain the COVID 19 virus. Lee (2020) argues that school closures alone may not be enough to stop the outbreak, but that if it continues for at least eight weeks, could delay the outbreak peak by up to a week, providing adequate time for a second more successful intervention, such as Invaccination.thisstudy, the researcher used theterm "Emergency Remote Learning (ERL)" to illustrate the education that took place during school closure, not online or virtual

3 ©2020TheauthorandIJLTER.ORG.All rightsreserved. Table 1: Number of affected academic institutions, learners and educators in Indonesia (Ministry of Education and Culture, 2019, 2020c, 2020a, 2020d, 2020b) Level InstitutionsAcademic Learners Educators Early Childhood Education 202,991 6,543,758 666,678 Elementary School 149,435 25,203.371 556,969 Junior High School 40,559 10,112,022 302,116 Senior High School 13,495 4,976,127 212,715 Vocational School (Equivalent to Senior High School) 14,301 5,242,851 217,986 College/University 4,670 8,043,480 294,820 TOTAL 425,451 60,121,609 2,251,284

rightsreserved. learning, since well planned online learning experiences are substantially different from those thatare delivered online in response to a crisis or catastrophe. Hodges et al. (2020) call it Emergency Remote Teaching (ERT). ERT is a temporary change from instruction delivery to alternative delivery due to crisis circumstances. It requires the use of entirely remote teaching approaches for instruction or education that would otherwise be provided face to face or as blended or hybrid courses, and which will revert to that model once the crisis or emergency has finished. The primary objective in this context is not to re create a stable educational environment, but rather to provide immediate access to education and training in a manner that is easy to develop and easily accessible during an emergency or crisis. Millman (2020) described the situation as emergency remote teaching and learning or "pandemic pedagogy."

Some articles published in peer reviewed Indonesian journals focus on online learning of COVID 19 at the college level. However, they were published in April, where the learning from home experience had only been in operation for a few weeks. Experiences from a short implementation time are unlikely to offer a full picture of home based teaching and learning activities, while there was also minimal use of references. The published articles are “The impact of COVID 19 online learning activities in a Christian university in Indonesia”(Windhiyana, 2020); “Implementation of the performance model of DeLone and McLean Knowledge Systems For Zoom application based learning systems during the COVID 19 pandemic”(Hidayatullah et al., 2020); “Perception of students majoring in Early Childhood Islamic Education towards online Lectures in the COVID 19 pandemic period”(Anhusadar, 2020); and “Variations of models and learning platforms for prospective teachers during the COVID 19 pandemic period”(Gunawan et al., 2020).

There are also several articles on learning in higher education during the COVID 19 pandemic. These articles are written in Indonesian, with limited data and have not been published through peer reviewed processes such as “Students’ learning typology in online learning”(Ramdhan et al., 2020); “Google Classroom online learning of Biology education students during the COVID 19 outbreak”(Suhada et al., 2020);“Ordinal Regressionanalysis toseetheeffectofonline learningmedia on students’ enthusiasm in the COVID pandemic era”(Meiza et al., 2020)

This study focused on understanding how remote learning during COVID 19 pandemic has been conducted in a tertiary education institution by analyzing university students' perspectives and experiences. The limited research was conducted recently in Indonesia during the midst of the COVID 19 pandemic. Most of the existing research conducted is in Indonesian, published in Indonesian journals, focuses on either primary or secondary education, or education in general (the level of education is not explained). Examples of this include, "COVID 19 impact on the implementation of online learning in primary schools" (Aji et al., 2020); "Education during the COVID 19 pandemic" (Khasanah et al., 2020); "Studying Mathematics in the COVID 19 era" (Abidin, 2020); and "Online learning in the middle of the COVID 19 pandemic" (Firman & Rahayu, 2020).

The theoretical model outlined in Figure 1 shows what the related studies have been performed, what this study was intended to do, and the research questions raised by the context analysis and previous research. Recent studies have described school closure as one of the key components of a range of non pharmaceutical prevention approaches aimed at minimizing the number of cases and preventing the spread of disease. Some of the previous emergency remote learning studies concluded that ERL is a temporary learning mechanism, a transition from in person instruction to substitute delivery due to an emergency.

Figure 1. Theoretical Model

Nonetheless, little is known on how to apply remote learning in higher education during the outbreak of COVID 19 and how students perceived and experienced ERL Researchimplementation.ontheimplementation

of home learning during COVID 19 in Indonesia has been listed above. None of those papers use the term remote learning or ERL. The use of the term affects the analysis and understanding that is predicated in these studies. It is crucial to make a distinction, as the term refers to a unique and specific event (Manfuso, 2020). This research filled the gap in knowledge (theory) of ERL at the university level in Indonesia with insights and observations collected from students who had been studying from home for an extended period (more than ten weeks), had undergone an online mid term exam, and was at the end of the semester. Other than that, this research disseminated its findings in English articles in international journals, so that more audiences could read and learn from the research findings.

Phenomenology is equipped to understand the subjective interpretations of the participants of the fundamental object of the study by throwing light on the significance applied to their lived experience and exploring the specific meanings underlying the empiric variants of a given phenomenon rather than merely applying the technique (Casmir, 1983; MacDermott, 2002).

The current study is presented as part of a larger project on ERL in tertiary education in Indonesia during the COVID 19 outbreak. The overall aim of the study was to explore the implementation of ERL in tertiary education in Indonesia. The study employed a qualitative method of the phenomenological approach. This phenomenological analysis aims to collect and examine the lived experience of university students who have learned from home, due to the COVID 19 crisis, for more than two months. These experiences provided a new level of insight into ERL's implementation due to the outbreak of COVID 19.

rightsreserved. This research also filled the practical gap on how to successfully implement ERL in higher education to meet learners' needs. This study's main question is: how university students experienced ERL due to the COVID 19 crisis? Through knowing how university students learned in the emergency COVID 19, we could improve on in going practice. The students' feedback is also critical to improve the learning process in the future if such a situation was ever to occur again. It is unknown how long ERL will continue or what kind of other problems we may face in the future, so educational institutions and students alike must be better prepared for any such eventuality.

A phenomenology is a philosophical approach to the analysis of phenomena that are part of human awareness (Arbnor & Bjerke, 2011) In phenomenology, the researcher attempts to provide a direct description of someone's experience as it is, without consideringhis or her psychological origin and the causal explanations that the scientist may be able to provide (Merleau Ponty & Landes, 2013).

Participants in this research are 80 students who have studied social science education at a public university in Jakarta. The researcher employed a purposive sampling method to select the participants. The researcher understood the purpose of the study in such a way that she relied on her judgment to classify qualified participants in a particular profile. The various explanations why the researcher chose the participants are as follows: the first reason was the ease of access for the researcher to collect data due to the COVID 19 situation, which restricted the researcher's ability to gather data. The second reason, they were semester four students, which means that they were in the middle of their course (undergraduate education usually takes eight semesters). These students already have enough learning experience and were still taking compulsory and additional courses (semester seven students practice teaching, and in semester eight, write a thesis). Third, students at this university come from Jakarta and other provinces and different backgrounds. This diversity will help enrich the data further. Lastly, the researcher intentionally chose students from educational programs because they were prepared to become teachers, and their opinions are important because their answers address how an educator should teach at a time like this.

2. Materials and Methods

Mixing data collection methods was one of the researchers' efforts to avoid non response impact from the sample. The researcher also sought to eliminate bias by designing strategies that would promote the involvement of selected individuals. The researcher used the NVivo program for data management and analysis. NVivo is useful in organizing data and helped the researcher make sense of it throughout the research since the data for this qualitative research was extensive (80 participants). The researcher also made a memo in the NVivo system that allowed for the possibility to document ideas and analyze thoughts, perspectives, and observations of students on online learning. This analytical memo was completed on an ongoing basis, every time data (journal or essay) was submitted. Analytical memos provide a means for the researcher to record their thoughts during the research process and to code memos as additional data for the study (Saldaña, 2016) In analyzing the data, the researcher adopted a two stage coding model conducted by Miles, Huberman and Saldaña (Miles et al., 2014) and Saldaña (Saldana, 2009; Saldaña, 2016). The first cycle coding was initially assigned to the

The complete elimination of non response bias from the study is impossible.

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Data collection was carried outusingcreative methods because the researcher was unable to conduct direct interviews due to the large scale social restrictions that were in place during the research period, data collection was completed by asking participants to write a diary of their daily learning activities for two weeks (4 18 May 2020 See Appendix 1. Students’ Diary). They were then asked to compose a reflective essay about ERL (collected on May 20, 2020 See Appendix 2. Reflective Essay).

These students are in the fourth semester and came from two classes, 4A and 4B. These two groups have different concentrations, 4A is Sociology, and 4B is Geography. The name of the university and the names of the students have been hidden; to protect the identity of the participants and to provide them with the opportunity to speak freely. Participants were aware of the scope and intent of the study, and they were allowed to withdraw from the research anytime they chose if they felt dissatisfied with it.

The researcher paid close attention to data triangulation to develop a comprehensive understanding of the phenomena. Therefore, the researcher used multiple methods or data sources, as suggested by Patton (Patton, 1999) The data source utilized, other than diaries and essays, was focus group discussions using the Google Meet application. These discussions were conducted twice; each meeting was for 120 minutes and 40 participants (on May 26 and 27, 2020). The focus group discussions were also aimed as a member check to increase the precision, reliability, validity, and transferability of the findings. The researcher presented the study's overall findings and then opened a discussion session. Participants were free to question if any incorrect information had been recorded and were allowed to add or remove details. The participants either confirmed that the summaries represented their beliefs, feelings, and experiences or did not reflect their experiences. The researcher concluded that the study seems credible after the participants confirmed the accuracy and completeness of the study.

rightsreserved. data, followed by the second cycle codes in which the initial codes were grouped into meaningful categories, themes, or constructs. The two stages of coding are not a single linear event; the qualitative analytical process is cyclical. In practice, in the first cycle, the researcher coded each essay and journal individually. After that, the researcher compared the data and detailed the code into a sub code if necessary. In the second cycle, the researcher reorganized and re analyzed the data coded in the first coding cycle. The primary aim of second cycle coding was to establish a sense of categorical, thematic, conceptual, and theoretical structure from the first cycle code series. The researcher changed codes, added new codes, and dropped a few codes to conclude themes of research findings. Finally, the researcher made the summative synthesis assumptions and declarative claims. The assertions are based on the researcher's insights and observations, supported by evidence from the data corpus.

LearningBlended e learning m learning ConventionalLearning

Figure 2. Research findings

The researcher classified 25 codes, in the first cycle coding, from the data gathered from 80 diaries, 80 reflective essays, and two focus group discussions. The researcher then grouped related codes into five groups, which included: e learning, m learning, traditional learning, flexible learning, and challenging learning. The researcher summarized two key themes of this study's results in this secondcodingprocess:blendedlearningand paradoxical learning. Theresearcher concluded that during ERL, students experienced blended learning approaches, and their experiences were paradoxical. They enjoyed learning from home, but also saw it as challenging too. The following is an illustration of the process of codification, thematic discovery, and the construction of assertions.

3. Results How did university students experience ERL during the COVID 19 crisis? Results revealed that students’ experiences fell into two overarching themes, each with related sub themes. The two identified themes and subthemes are: (a) blended learning, with the subthemes of e learning, m learning, and conventional learning, and (b) paradoxical learning, with the sub themes of flexible learning and challenging learning.

Emergency Remote Learning during COVID 19 Outbreak

LearningFlexibleParadoxicalLearningChallengingLearning

10 ©2020TheauthorandIJLTER.ORG.All rightsreserved. 3.1 Blended Learning Of the twenty five codes found in the first coding cycle (as shown in Figure 2 above), thirteen are related to the media or methods used during the ERL. The researcher then grouped codes that show similar meaning in categories: e learning, m learning, and conventional learning. The researcher concluded from the categories that learning remotely during the COVID 19 situation involved a mix of technological learning media and conventional methods, or using blended materials. Table 2. Learning media/methods & frequency of being mentioned by participants Media/Methods Frequency Categories Reading E book & E Journal 56 e learning & m learning YouTube & Video 52 e learning & m learning Online Meeting (Zoom or Google Meet) 50 e learning & m learning Browsing Internet 42 e learning & m learning Educational Website 35 e learning & m learning Podcast 33 e learning & m learning Google Classroom 35 e learning WhatsApp 42 m learning Social Media 36 m learning Audio Call 32 m learning Assignments from Lecturers (exercises, quizzes, and exams) 58 Conventional Learning Making Notes 40 Conventional Learning Module/Unit 33 Conventional Learning From the coding of the data in the NVivo program, researchers have discovered how many frequencies a single code of all the existing data appears. Table 2shows which media or methods are most mentioned repeatedly by students. Reading e books and e journals was the most common learning methods experienced by the students. Students also learned from YouTube and TV series or movie documentaries. Usually, lecturers provided students with YouTube links, asked them to study the video, and make a summary report. E Books, E Journals, and YouTube videos were used to help explain learning about the subject or giving instructions. Other platforms used to deliver the lecturers' instructions or explanations were through WhatsApp (the lecturer recorded voice notes and shared them in the WhatsApp group) and through the module or unit of work being studied.

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Three platforms were commonly used for classroom discussions: online meetings in Zoom or Google Meet, WhatsApp, and Social Media. They interchangeably used the term Social Media for WhatsApp also, while a few referred to Facebook when mentioning about Social Media. Not all the lecturers arranged synchronous discussions using online platforms. Many students complained about it; they felt that learning was ineffective without discussion. WhatsApp was the most preferred media for discussion. In WhatsApp, the discussion could be synchronous or asynchronous. The discussion could be made using either voice notes or texts.

In order to enrich learning, students have tried to browse for more reading material online by searching the internet and by visiting educational websites. If they did not understand the subject, they would invariably contact their classmates, asking them to explain the subject. The respondents believe that YouTube videos are a good source of learning. Some listened to podcasts and explained that this was as a result of needing to be more creative in expanding their understanding. In measuring student learning progress, lecturers have delivered assignments and quizzes to students through WhatsApp and Google Classroom. Also, conventional methods were used for evaluation. The most common conventional tasks assigned to students are the memorization of texts and the writing of a summary. The data reveals that emergency remote learning has not always been entirely conducted online using sophisticated information technology; students have often learned using conventional media and methods. The students take notes, use paper, and pens to help them understand learning materials more efficiently. They took notes on the video, sound recordings, e books, PowerPoint presentations, and journals provided by the lecturers. They felt that, in general, they had not learned anything if they did not write it in a book. They seemed to be able tounderstand more quicklywhen they wrote down what they hadlearned in a notebook. Participant 4B24 explained about making a summary of learning using paper and colorful pens and markers: "If the lecturer has given material in the form of power points, modules, and so on. I put together a summary of the material. And if there was a discussion on WhatsApp or Zoom, I try to write notes about things that I thought were important. Just like the previous way of learning (before the COVID 19 crisis), I used colored pens or markers to write notes, so I wouldn't get bored while reading notes." (4B24) Whereas 4B35 said that she had made a mind map of the content she had learned in order to be able to pass the mid term and final exam. She added that she placed her notes on the wall, and every morning she memorized and learned them: “Although the mid term test and end semester exams will be done online, I will still make a mind map to test my understanding of the material... for the final exam, I will make keywords from each material that I have studied, I will make notes in my paper and paste them on the wall, and every morning I will memorize and learn.” (4B35) Students also conventionally learnt using modules or units, not a printed version, but an e module in PDF format. Two lecturers provided these e modules

rightsreserved. containing discussions, quizzes, and a summary. The aim was to help students learn independently. They can test their comprehension by answering the quiz in the module and checkingits accuracy by matchingthe answer key on the last page of the module. The lecturers shared the module every 1 2 weeks. Some students printed the modules or made a hand written summary of the modules. The students also explained that they felt more like they had studied when they have paper, pen, and writing in a book. "In the pandemic from the COVID 19 crisis, my learning is using modules or PowerPoint presentations that I have obtained from lecturers or notes from my colleagues." (4C27) "I try to understand the tasks or modules provided, read all through them, yet I still don't get it." (4C30) Another conventional learning method is lecturers giving students assignments. Students complained they actually had to finish too many assignments. “Lecturers have been giving assignments online, a lot of them. Some lecturers only give assignments continuously.” (4B21) In ERL, blended learning was used for instruction and explanation, discussion, evaluation, and enrichment. The researcher mapped out the thirteen media/learning methodsmentioned bythestudents in diaries and essays and the purpose of their use. Here is the following map: Figure 4. Blended media in ERL and their purpose of use

13 ©2020TheauthorandIJLTER.ORG.All rightsreserved. WhatsApp is a prevalent medium used for all these learning purposes. WhatsApp is used to explain, discuss,evaluate and enhance learning In addition, WhatsApp is also used for almost all courses during the ERL period. Only one of the eight courses in Class 4A and Class 4C did not use the WhatsApp. This assertion is derived from tabulations made on the types of learning platforms used for each subject. Table 3. Courses and learning platforms No CLASS 4A CLASS 4B COURSES PLATFORMLEARNINGS COURSES PLATFORMLEARNINGS 1. The HistoryIndonesianNew • YouTube • Assignment via WhatsApp • Assignment via Email The HistoryIndonesianNew • YouTube • Assignment via WhatsApp • Assignment via Email 2. Study & Learning • Google Classroom • YouTube • Google Meet • WhatsApp Study & Learning • Google Classroom • YouTube • Google Meet • WhatsApp 3. PsychologyEducational • Module • Email • Google Meet PsychologyEducational • Module • Email • Google Meet 4. GeographyRegional of the World • Reading Material • InstructionAcademic System • WhatsApp GeographyRegional of the World • Reading Material • InstructionAcademic System • WhatsApp 5. StrategiesLearning • Assignment • Google Classroom • WhatsApp WhatsAppClassroomGoogleStrategiesLearning • Assignment • Google Classroom • WhatsApp 6. ReadingPracticum the Quran • Assignment • WhatsApp Email ReadingPracticum the Quran • Assignment • WhatsApp Email 7. hipEntrepreneurs • Google Scholar • WhatsApp Group • Voice note shipEntrepreneur • Google Scholar • WhatsApp Group • Voice note 8. Sociology of Religion • Email • Voice Note • WhatsApp • PresentationPowerPoint Cartography • Lecturing in Zoom Meeting • Google Meet • Assignment • WhatsApp During the semester, students from class 4 A and 4 B studied eight courses, seven of which were the same for both classes and taught by the same lecturers. The seven courses taught in Class 4A and Class 4B were: New Indonesian History, Study and Learning; Educational Psychology; Regional Geography of the World; Learning Strategies; Practicum Reading the Quran; and Entrepreneurship. The distinctions were: Class 4A took Sociology of Religion, and Class 4A took Cartography.

and

assignmentswithOverloadedLearningFlexible LearningChallenging

finding materials.

42 Challenging Learning

Table 4, we can see how many times students reported certain insights or observations about ERL paradoxically of all the existing data. The researcher used color codes to show how they saw learning as two polar opposite scales. The two yellow color coded cells are time management and overload tasks. The three orange color coded cells are family time, comfortable and quiet, and noisy and disturbing. The three green coded cells are exercising, break and rest, and are tiring. Four blue coded cells are refreshing, technology barriers, internet costs, trouble The segregated color coded data indicates how students had paradoxical perspectives and insights into learning. On the one hand, students saw ERL as flexible; on the other hand, they also saw it as challenging.

Table 4 Students’ insights & observations on Paradoxical Learning Insights/Observations Frequency Reasons Time Management (Flexibility) 83 Flexible Learning Family Time 52 Flexible Learning Exercising 51 Flexible Learning Comfortable & Quiet Place 42 Flexible Learning Break & Rest 40 Flexible Learning Refreshing 36 Flexible Learning Technology Barriers 85 Challenging Learning Cost of Internet 83 Challenging Learning Overload Assignments 73 Challenging Learning Trouble Finding Materials 51 Challenging Learning Tiring 49 Challenging Learning Noisy

Figure 5. Flexibility versus overloaded managementandFlexibilitytime

The second main theme of the findings is “paradoxical learning.” The researcher used this concept to describe how students had paradoxical perspectives and insights into learning. On the one hand, they saw ERL as flexible, but on the other hand, they also saw it as challenging. & Disturbing

Contradictory to the amount of flexibility, they also argued that the lecturers overloaded them with assignments, and they, therefore, found it difficult to manage their time.

"It's not necessarily online learning or lectures that we were given, but now there are remote assignments (online). And the tasks that were given never stopped every week, we were given assignments by each subject, and we were chased by deadlines. In my view, it can make students frustrated and depressed. As we now know that we need to retain our body's immunity to avoid the virus, and the stress or pressure caused by the assignments may, in my opinion, disrupt the students' immunity from the body." (4C33) Figure 6. Family time, comfortable & Quiet versus noisy & disturbing

“The home environment cannot be controlled when there is a live lecture that uses applications such as Google Meet and synchronous conversation. The situation of the house is crowded. It's very annoying, in my opinion, and it makes me unable to focus.” (4B18) Family &ComfortableTimeQuietPlace Noisy DisturbingandLearningFlexible LearningChallenging

Lecturers and students are increasingly turning to online learning as a viable alternative to study anywhere, anytime.” (4B26)

The students said that during remote learning, they have a lot of family time and could study in a comfortable and quiet place.

“Studying online makes it easy for us to find places that make it easier to think about, such as open spaces, indoor rooms, and family rooms at home.” (4B17) In contrast to this, they also felt disturbed by their siblings and the noise at home.

rightsreserved. Students said that learning remotely at home gave them the flexibility to manage their time. “The flexible learning schedule matches our lifestyle; young people.

LearningFlexible

Figure 7. Exercising, break & rest versus tiring

Because the students were staying at home, they were able to take a break during learning. They did not want to push themselves too hard to study. Their main focus was to keep healthy and not be too tired. “In addition, I also tried not to be too tired and forced to study because of the consequences of the Covid 19 pandemic, I had to be careful not to fall ill. I also don't push myself too much when I'm tired of studying.” (4B15) Other respondents, however, felt that compared to face to face learning, remote was much more tiring. "I want to complain that this distance learning is very ineffective and makes me even more exhausted." (4C20)

“A lot of tasks! The lecturer should consider the fact that a student is staying at home to avoid illness or infection from happening. The lecturer gave us lots of assignments excessively. It kills us. Not because of the coronavirus that causes us to die. May Allah Amen protect us.” (4C18)

RestBreakExercising& TiringLearningFlexible LearningChallenging

"If there are no assignments, I will take the time to exercise and bask in the healthy morning sun." (4B28) "After I wake up, I do regular exercise or aerobic exercise. I'm doing this regularly. Learning from home allows me to exercise more." (4C38)

Some students did some regular exercise at home. They spared extra time for self care.

Figure 8. Refreshing versus problems

Refreshing Technological Costbarriersofthe internet Trouble materialsfinding

LearningChallenging

"It's very pricey to spend money on the internet data plan. I'm a student who gets minimal pocket money, especially on staying at home like this, I don't get any income from being a Scoutmaster. That makes it hard for me to buy a data plan. I'm also envious of campuses that provide a free data plan of up to 150 thousand rupiahs per month." (4B12) "This policy has a side where I don't like it, for example, because I can't go anywhere, so I have trouble finding references that I need to complete my assignments. Learning resources are also limited and can only refer to the internet and journals that aren't always right" (4B19).

4. Discussion Indonesia reported the first two confirmed cases of COVID 19 in a Jakarta suburb on March 2, 2020 (World Health Organization, 2020a). The situation became increasingly dangerous in mid March. President Jokowi, in a press conference at the Bogor Presidential Palace on Sunday, March 15, 2020, called on local governments to issue policies to prevent the spread of the coronavirus. One of the policies recommended was to temporarily halt teaching and learning in schools and universities and encourage students to study at home. As a follow up to the president's direction, on March 20, 2020, the Minister of Education and Culture issued a Circular Number 36962/MPK.A/HK/2020 concerning online learning and working from home in the context of the prevention of coronary disease spread. Following this rule, the campus, which was the focus of this research, began to close on March 23, 2020. Learning was suddenly moved to remote learning. Remote learning has not been anticipated, and most of the course syllabus was not designed to be an online or for a distance learning experience. Without preparation or training, lecturers designed and implemented remote learning programs. Similarly, students did not have the opportunity to be prepared for this transition in learning. Despite all of these limitations, everybody has been trying their best to make the situation a success, quick and reliable temporary access to education in unprecedented time.

rightsreserved.

The students said they tried to manage their time and refresh themselves whenever they were tired. They said this is what made learning from home more flexible. “Learning activities must be interspersed with activities that are fun, refreshing. In order not to be boring, I always prepare fun activities (in my opinion). This activity can also be a reward or reward when I have completed an assignment or studied material.” (4C21) They also complained, however, about technological disruption while studying, expensive internet costs and difficulties in obtaining learning materials during the ERL. "The difficulty of accessing the Internet, I was at home during this distance learning process. This makes me experience delays in getting information because access to the Internet in the village is a bit difficult, the internet connection is bad in my area." (4B18)

In this study, the researcher distinguished between e learning and m learning based on the devices used. E learning means that the educational model used is based on the use of electronic media and devices as tools for improving the availability of training, communication, and interaction, and that helps to accept new ways of understanding and learning (Salloum et al., 2019). An essential element of e learning is the use of electronic media, and e learning is currently explained as learning that is used through various computer devices, such as computers, mobile phones, tablets, and virtual environments. M learning focuses on learning mobility, engagement with portable technology, and learning that represents an emphasis on how society and its institutions could accommodate and sustain an increasingly mobile population (Mehdipour & Zerehkafi, 2013). By using mobile apps, learners can learn anywhere and anytime (Crescente & Lee, 2011). In Indonesia, internet users have reached 150 million people, with a 56 percent penetration spread across the region. There is only a small difference with the number of mobile internet users, which amounts to 142.8 million people, with a penetration percentage of 53 percent (Ministry of Communication and Information Technology Republic of Indonesia, 2020). So, most people are linked to the internet through mobile phones. Many homes do not have laptops or PCs, but they are still connected online using mobile devices. The distinction between e learning and m learning clarifies this phenomenon. In case of emergencies, remote learning students have explained that they are connected using mobile devices or tethered from a cell phone when they need to work from a laptop. Blended learning is supposed to make learning more efficient by integrating technology based learning with traditional style learning. Some research has identified many benefits of blended learning. Many studies have been carried out to compare conventional teaching methods with blended learning, and different results have been obtained. In some research, the participants' test scores did not differ between the two groups (Khan, 2001). Thiele's study showed that the

Lecturers began using the media or the methods they were familiar with and comfortable using. It may not be perfect, but students are resilient, the educator is resourceful, and everyone has to make the most of what they have (Juliani, 2020) This study reveals that learning remotely during the COVID 19situation involved a mix of both conventional and non conventional methods. Technological learning media was used combined with pen and paper methods. The use of blended materials is what the researcher concluded as the first theme. Blended learning is the application of more than one method, strategy, technique, or media in education (Sadeghi et al., 2014; Thiele, 2003). It is a mixture of conventional lectures or tutorials and web based material (Concannon et al., 2005); when delivering information, traditional face to face learning is combined with technology (Farrel, 2006). In line with the government's policy of social distancing, learning has taken place at home. Teachers and students separated by physical distance but connected through technology, equipment, and resources. Nonetheless, the data indicate that learning was not entirely online; students were still studying in conventional ways. Conventional here does not mean that there have been face to face lectures, but conventional learning methods for taking notes, summarizing learning and memorizing notes.

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Another thing to think about is the availability of learning resources in Bahasa Indonesia. Students said that they have trouble getting learning materials since the libraries are closed. Universities have no access to paid online journals. So, students are only using open access materials.

Stephenson, Brown, and Griffin (Stephenson et al., 2008) argued that most e learning seemed to mimic or complement established academic practices, mainly when used in 'blended' contexts. Another study suggests that a combination of face to face training with e learning is more flexible than other methods (Garrison & Kanuka, 2004). This ERL might not have been the ideal one. Blended learning has been questioned as to the best solution to studying during the pandemic when universities are closed. The advantages of blended learning described in the studies, as mentioned above, are in contrast to the experience of students. Afterward, we must remember that this blended learning took place in an emergency with limited resources. As highlighted in the introduction, the researcher refers to it as "emergency remote learning," not just "remote learning" using blended materials. Before COVID 19, the classes studied by the researcher rarely used e learning and m learning. E learning and m learning have emerged as one of the alternatives to the problems of education during an outbreak of coronavirus. E learning and m learning offer expanded opportunities for learning versatility when students and educators are under the stay at home order. However, there were challenges in using technology in learning. Students talked about the technical barriers that hindered their learning due to technical problems or the inability to use technological resources. Students also discussed the shift in learning styles. Students were already accustomed to face to face conventional teaching approaches. They claimed in their writings that they felt that they were not learning since there was no lecturer to guide them to understand the lesson. E learning and m learning involve students working interdependently, in groups or independently to solve problems, to work on projects, to meet individual needs, and to encourage students to speak and choose. Students complained about this kind of independent learning, doing assignments, and reading on their own. They were familiar with the teaching learning model, where lecturers gave learning materials; students listened and took notes.

rightsreserved. student knowledge scores in the blended teaching method were higher than the lecturing method, but that the difference was not statistically significant (Thiele, 2003). Sedeghi et al. contrasted students' learning and satisfaction with teaching and e learning with traditional teaching methods. The results showed that the blended method is effective in increasing the student learning rate (Sadeghi et al., 2014). McPhee and Pickern (2017) concluded how ICT could help international students' learning experience. Kirkwood (2009) claimed that ICT could make doable learning tasks or situations that would otherwise be extremely difficult to achieve and encourage an incremental improvement in learning outcomes.

The findings of this study reveal that university and its community were not well prepared to face an emergency, such as the closure of the campus due to a pandemic. Courses designed for conventional learning, the unusual use of

2. Distributing the teaching content into smaller units to help the student focus. The lecturers should divide the teaching content into several small modules lasting approximately 20 25 minutes.

Anothermaterialsthemethat

Students and lecturers were still adapting and looking for ways of teaching and learning that were much better and easier. Educational planning in times of crisis needs creative problem solving (Hodges et al., 2020). ERL needs much hard work, but this is the only way forward. After some time, it is essential to review, develop the current practice, and plan for future programs.

4. Working with teaching assistants and get online help from them. This arrangement is also missing from the students' courses in this research. There are no teaching assistants for the lecturers. Online teaching includes the technology and professional expertise of thoseinvolved. Mostfaculties at universities in Indonesia are not sufficiently trained or equipped to operate online educational platforms, and support from teaching assistants is especially relevant.

5. Strengthening the students' ability to learn outside the classroom. The faculty has less control over online teaching. As a result, the progress of

arose from this study is ERL during the outbreak of COVID 19 is paradoxical. Paradoxical, according to the Cambridge dictionary 2020), is, "Seeming impossible or difficult to understand because of containing two opposite facts or characteristics." If something is paradoxical, it involves two facts or qualities that seem to contradict each other (Collins Dictionary, 2020). The university moved in classroom learning to online based learning without enough preparation. This rapid change was a test of organizational agility (Wu, 2020)

Learning from home might continue in the next few months, and this emergency could happen again in the future. What are we supposed to do to make the ERL better? Bao (2020) observed online teaching during the outbreak of COVID 19. Bao has identified six educational strategies to improve student concentration and engagement to achieve a smooth transition to online learning:

1. Preparing emergency preparedness plans for unexpected problems. If the teaching plan A is not working because of a technical problem, try Plan B, C, or any other plan.

3. Emphasizing the use of "voice" in online teaching. Body language and facial expressions are restricted in online instruction, and only the "voice" is entirely functional. Therefore, in online teaching, the faculty should properly slow down its speech to allow students to capture critical knowledge points.

rightsreserved. technology in teaching and learning programs, students were not able to study independently, limited access to learning materials in the native language of learners, and lack access to high quality reading resources (e.g., paid e journals and e books). All of these issues need to be highlighted and addressed. Now and in the future, the university should be more involved in information communication technology. University learning should encourage students to learn independently through a wide range of methods and media. Resources for remote learning need to be strengthened, and students should get more access to reading

Bao (2020) also stressed the need to provide psychological support to the university community. In this research, students viewed remote learning in both a positive and bad light. In their diaries, they wrote about confusion, depression, a devastating feeling, and some negative emotions about being isolated and learning remotely. These feelings have to be addressed. The university should provide psychological support to help students and staff manage their emotions. Their anxieties need to be relieved in a variety of ways to ensure that they can engage in online learning actively.

rightsreserved. online teaching and its learning efficiency depends mainly on high level active learning outside the classroom. To this end, the faculty should use various methods to moderately modify students' homework and reading requirements to strengthen students' active learning outside the classroom. Students complained about assignments in this research.

Lecturers and students need a dialogue to address what is currently expected and should be achieved by two parties, students and lecturers, to make learning more productive.

5. Conclusion This study concluded that students experienced an ERL that utilized blended strategies of e learning, m learning, and conventional learning techniques. Their response to the process was paradoxical as they had both positive and negative experiences. Lecturers used significantly limited media and methods to implement learning. Moving instruction online could make teaching and learning accessible anywhere, at any time, but the speed at which this transition to online instruction is expected to happen is unparalleled. After experiencing ERL for almost a semester, and while currently waiting for government policies on how to learn next semester, it is an excellent time to learn from multiple viewpoints, including students, about their experience. Some of the feedback from this research are: preparing teachers and students for emergency learning, training lecturers on using blended resources, designing learning curricula that can be converted into online learning, developing student independent learning skills, and providing access to a wide variety of digital reading materials. This study's findings cannot be generalized because they were based on a relatively small number of university students from one department at one university. However,

6. Efficiently combining online learning and offline self learning. In the offline self learning process, students are expected to read the course specific literature and submit short papers based on their reading of essential materials before class. The faculty should provide feedback on student assignments and learn about students' cognitive learning levels.

In the online teaching phase, the faculty should use the student discussion section to exchange their understanding based on their reading. Thus, students will not learn ambiguous, fragmented, and superficial knowledge. Instead, deep learning will be experienced during the discussion. Students in this research complained that not enough lectures and lecturers had given them too many assignments until they felt overloaded. This should be communicated as to why assignments are part of learning. However, lecturers should give feedback on the work of students, so that they know the progress of their learning.

Funding: This research received no external funding

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Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest in the design of the study; in the collection, analysis, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript, or in the decision to publish the results.

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[Students’ learningtypologyin online learning]. Digilib UIN Sunan Gunung Djati. Retrieved from http://digilib.uinsgd.ac.id/30594/1/Artikel KTI dadan f ramdhan dkk .pdf Reynolds, K. A. (2020). Coronavirus: Fauci says vaccine possible by end of 2020. Medical Economics. https://www.medicaleconomics.com/news/coronavirus fauci says vaccine possible end 2020 Sadeghi, R., Sadaghat, M.M., & Ahmadi, F. S. (2014). Comparison of the Effect of Lecture and Blended Teaching Methods on Students’ Learning and Satisfaction. J. Adv MedEdProf, 2(4), 146 150. Sadique, M. Z., Adams, E. J., & Edmunds, W. J. (2008). Estimating the costs of school closure for mitigating an influenza pandemic. BMC Public Health, 8(1), 135. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471 2458 8 135 Saldana,J.(2009).AnIntroductiontoCodesandCoding.

26 ©2020TheauthorandIJLTER.ORG.All rightsreserved. https://www.who.int/who documents detail/draft landscape of covid 19 candidate vaccines World Health Organization. (2020c). World Health Organization COVID 19 Dashboard Retrieved from https://covid19.who.int Wu, Z. (2020). How a top Chinese university is responding to coronavirus. World Economic Forum. Appendix 1. Students’ Diary Write every day about your daily learning routine. Illustrate and describe your experiences in 300 500 words a day. If you like, you can add a picture. Day/DateName: Learning Activities Monday/4 May 2020 Tuesday/5 May 2020 Wednesday/6 May 2020 Thursday/7 May 2020 Friday/8 May 2020 Saturday/9 May 2020 Sunday/10 May 2020 Monday/11 May 2020 Tuesday/12 May 2020 Wednesday/13 May 2020 Thursday/14 May 2020 Friday/15 May 2020 Saturday/16 May 2020 Sunday/17 May 2020 Monday/18 May 2020 Appendix 2. Reflective Essay Write your thoughts on the implementation of emergency remote learning that has been going on for more than 2 months in 500 1000 words. Write down what you like and do not like about ERL.

Abstract. Test fairness is an important indicator of the validity of test results. The fairness and equity require ensuring that the background characteristics of test takers, such as ethnicity and gender, do not affect their test scores. Differential item functioning (DIF) methods are commonly used to detect potentially biased items that lead to the unfair assessment of the performance of test takers with the same ability levels coming from the different cultural, social, demographic, and linguistic backgrounds. This study aims at detecting potentially biased items across gender and examining their effect on test scores to ensure the fairness of test results for each domain and the entire test. Item response theory (IRT) based Lord’s chi square DIF method at item level and Mantel Haenszel/Liu Agresti differential test functioning (DTF) method at test level were implemented to the English Placement Tests (EPT) administered to high school graduates by the National Center for Assessment. The results show that 6 items of the EPT exhibit DIF for the entire test. Two of them are related to reading comprehension and four to the structure domain, while none of the compositional analysis methods shows DIF. These results indicate the existence of content specific DIF effect. Additionally, two items exhibit uniform DIF, one of which shows DIF favoring male students and the offer favoring female students. The small to moderate DTF effect associated with sub domains and the entire test imply that DIF effects cancel each out, assuring the fairness of results at test level. However, the items with substantially high DIF values need to be examined by content experts to determine the possible cause of DIF effects to avoid gender bias and unfair test outcomes. We also suggest conducting further studies to investigate the reasons behind the content specific DIF effects in language tests.

Burhanettin Ozdemir Prince Sultan University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia https://orcid.org/0000 0001 7716 2700 Abdulrahman Hadi Alshamrani National Center for Assessment, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia https://orcid.org/0000 0002 6560 3422

Examining the Fairness of Language Test Across Gender with IRT-based Differential Item and Test Functioning Methods

Keywords: test fairness and validity; gender bias; language testing; differential item functioning; differential test functioning

27 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 6, pp. 27 45, June 2020 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.6.2

A common definition of differential item functioning (DIF) is that an item is said to exhibit DIF when the probability of correct response to an item differs across subgroups with the same ability level (Hambleton & Rogers, 1989). DIF types are classified into two groups that are uniform DIF and non uniform DIF. An item exhibits uniform DIF when the difference in item performance is consistent and in favor of certain subgroups across the entire range of ability. However, if this difference between subgroups is not consistent, then DIF is identified as non uniform (Hambleton, Clauser, Mazor & Jones, 1993).

1. Introduction

The major concern of the stakeholders in education and test takers is to ensure the fairness tests. The best way to provide fairness regarding the decision made upon a test is to increase the validity and reliability of test results. Therefore, any effort to minimize confounding factors such as random and systematic errors, and increase validity and reliability of test will serve the purpose of developing fair tests and valid test scores for examinees belonging to different groups. Examining the factorial structure of a test and differential functioning at the item level and test level are commonly used methods to assess the reliability and validity of test scores. Differential functioning may occur when items and tests produce different results for different groups consistently and therefore lead to invalid test scores and decisions made based on these scores.

The stakeholders that take part in educational test development and assessment processes explicitly emphasize the importance of fairness in test results regarding different subgroups. They put a substantial amount of effort to detect irrelevant factors threatening the construct validity of the test. They are aware of the necessity and importance of collecting evidence to justify the validity and fairness of the tests and change the testing policies accordingly. Recently, the European Federation of Psychological Association has proposed a model for collecting evidence of construct validity (Evers, Muñiz, Hagemeister, Høstmælingen, Lindley, Sjöberg, & Bartram, 2013; Hope, Adamson, McManus, Chris, & Elder, 2018) in which using differential item functioning (DIF) is considered as an important method for assessing the quality of the test. Moreover, the Test Commission of the Spanish Psychological Association has emphasized the critical role of DIF analysis in the context of test fairness (Hernández, Tomás, Ferreres, & Lloret, 2015; Hope et al., 2018).

The existence of DIF is an indicator of item bias and the presence of the secondary latent trait besides the primary latent trait that an item aims to measure. However, this secondary latent trait does not always imply bias or cause unfair assessment. If the secondary latent trait is related to the primary trait and occurs due to the nature of the measured structure, then the item is not labeled as unfair regardless of the differing performance of sub groups. This situation was illustrated in a study conducted by Drabinová and Martinková (2016). They found that one DIF item related to childhood illness in which females showed better performance than males. However, a detailed investigation of content experts revealed that this performance difference occurred since women are more experienced than men since they spend more time with their children in the Czech Republic (Martinková et al., 2017).

There have been many studies conducted to ensure test fairness across different subgroups and to define the potential source of DIF effects. Drabinová and Martinková (2016) conducted a study to determine the potential sources of DIF effects concerning the presence of the secondary latent trait besides the primary latent trait. They concluded that the existence of the DIF effect for some items did not mean that these items were biased because some of the DIF effects reflected the relationship between the secondary latent trait and the primary latent trait. Thus, they suggested that one should avoid labeling DIF items as biased items without the investigation of the content experts.

The EPT is administered to high school graduates by the National Center for Assessment (NCA) in Saudi Arabia. The results of the EPT has been used by several colleges, universities, and institutes to measure students’ language skills, to screen their improvements across different levels or to determine their required language proficiencies (Education & Training Evaluation Commission [ETEC], 2020). Luo and Al Harbi (2016) examined the factorial structure of the EPT with unidimensional and DIMTEST methods. They found strong evidence supporting the unidimensionality of the EPT which justified the usage of the IRT based models instead of the classical test theory method (CTT).

Although there are many different parametric and non parametric methods to detect DIF, which method to utilize is a main concern of researchers, since each method has advantages and shortcomings (Anastasi & Urbina, 1997; Hunter, 2014). For instance, some methods fail to detect non uniform DIF but effective when the sample size is small, such as the Mantel Haenszel and Rasch methods, while some methods are capable of detecting non uniform DIF but requires large sample size (Ferne & Rupp, 2007; Lai, Teresi, & Gershon,2005) such as IRT based Raju’s area method and Lord’s chi square method. These aforementioned methods are the most commonly used exploratory methods utilized to identify differential item functioning for categorical variables that represent existing subgroups such as gender, nationality, and age groups (Aryadoust & Zhang, 2016). The next step after detecting items exhibiting DIF is to investigate the possible source and cause of occurrence of DIF (Zhu & Aryadost, 2020).

1.1.Literature review

Chubbuck et al. (2016) studied DIF effects in the context of differing contents across gender groups. They employed the Mantel–Haenszel and standardized DIF methods to detect DIF items for each content domain. They found that the males showed better performance than females in reading comprehension items. They also defined the lack of sufficient context in the sentence completion items as a potential source of DIF effects. Finally, they recommended utilizing more than one DIF methods to increase the accuracy of the results. Wedman (2018)

Therefore, the performance difference between women and men in this example reflects the true ability difference and does not cause unfairness. Therefore, an item may display DIF, however, this finding does not provide enough evidence to classify this item as a biased item. Bias is related to systematic error in test administration and contents and relies on both statistical tests and expert opinions (Camilli & Shepard, 1994; Clauser & Mazor, 1998; Wiberg, 2006), while DIF only relies on statistical tests.

In one study, Stage (2005) investigated the SweSAT test items administered in spring concerning DIF across gender groups. The Mantel Haenszel DIF method was employed to detect DIF items and It was found that 21 out of 122 items exhibited DIF across gender groups. Among these DIF items, 10 items related to the quantitative and verbal domains were in favor of female students. However, this study did not find any patterns among DIF items and did not suggest anything about the potential source of DIF effects. Federer and her colleagues (2016) employed the Mantel Haenszel DIF method for detecting potential DIF items in the context of natural selection across gender groups. They specifically focused on open ended questions. It was found that women outperformed men for the items that require applying the knowledge to the new conditions. Admitting the fact that the developed measurement instrument showed gender bias and, they did not suggest anything about the potential source of DIF effects due to the complex nature of DIF structure.

Similarly, Lin and Wu (2003) used DIF and differential bundle functioning (DBF) to detect items that function differently across gender on the EPT administered to Chinese EFL learners. For this purpose, they used the SIBTEST methods to detect DIF items. The results of this study indicated that the testlets (item bundles) containing the listening comprehension items showed DIF in favor of females, while the testlets containing the grammar and vocabulary exhibited DIF in favor of males. Thus, these findings provide strong evidence about content specific DIF. Pae (2012) studied the trends in the magnitude of DIF on the English subtest administered to the Korean students across gender groups for the nine year period. He used the Mantel Haenszel and IRT based likelihood ratio test methods to detect the DIF items. Moreover, the study examined the effects of reading strategies and perceived interest on the magnitude of DIF. The results of this study showed the strong evidence about the relationship between the type of items and DIF, and a substantial interaction between the test takers interest in the items and the magnitude of DIF across gender.

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. examined if the language ability of non native test takers that took the test in a language other than their mother tongue affected their performance compared to the native speakers. It was found that the deficiency in the language skill of non native test takers caused the DIF. Moreover, He defined the failure in wording the content clearly in an item as a potential source of DIF effects. (Siegel, 2007, Wedman, 2018).

It is substantially important to run DTF analyses along with DIF since items are small and unreliable compared to the test (Gierl, Bisanz, Bisanz, Boughton, & Khaliq, 2001) and the total amount of DIF provides an overall effect of DIF on test scores even when there is no item detected as DIF in a test (Hunter, 2014; Shealy & Stout, 1993). Additionally, DTF values can be negligibly small when these DIF items are in favor of different subgroups or in a different direction where DIF effects cancel each out (Borsboom, 2006; Zhu & Aryadoust, 2020).

DTF is also important since decisions about examinees are not made at item level, but test level (Ellis & Raju, 2003; Roznowski & Reith, 1999; Pae & Park, 2006; Zumbo, 2003). More detailed information about the DIF and DTF methods is provided in the following sections.

1.2.IRT based DIF methods

1.3 Differential test functioning (DTF) Differential test functioning (DTF) values correspond to the total amount of DIF for the entire test. Therefore, it is equal to the sum of item DIF statistics in a test (Donovan, Drasgow & Probst, 2000; Ellis & Mead, 2000; Hunter, 2014; Nandakumar, 1993). There are different methods to calculate DTF such as Raju’s DFIT (Raju, van der Linden & Fleer, 1995), and Mantel Haenszel/Liu Agresti method (Penfield & Algina, 2006). Raju’s DFIT estimates DTF through calculating the squared difference between test characteristic curves, while the Mantel Haenszel/Liu Agresti method is based on variance estimates and tend to have higher DTF rates than Raju’s DFIT (Hunter, 2014). Penfield (2005, 2013) developed a program called DIFAS which enables us to calculate both DIF and the Mantel Haenszel/Liu Agresti statistics. In this study, the MH LA method was used to evaluate DTF associated with the EPT tests.

( ) ( ) ( )1 jjRjFjRjF QvvjRjFvv − =−−− 

The IRT based DIF methods are suggested in the case of a large sample size. The latent variable (ability estimate θ) estimated by IRT models is used as a matching variable for subgroups rather than observed scores. There are many different IRT based methods to detect DIF items, some of which are test of b difference, Lord’s chi square, Raju’s area method, likelihood ratio test (LRT method), and item drift method. The Lord’s chi square DIF method (Lord, 1980) is an extension of the test of b difference and takes the other parameters into account. The major shortcoming of Raju’s area method is that the exact areas between ICCs are infinite when guessing parameters are not equal (Hunter, 2014). In this project, Lord’s chi square DIF method was used to detect DIF items, because it takes more than one parameter into account when calculating DIF statistics and capable of detecting both uniform and non uniform DIF in the presence of large sample size. The “difR” package installed in the R program was used to run DIF analyses. The formula for Lord’s chi square DIF methods is as follows: (1) where VjR = (ajR, bjR, cjR) and VjF = (ajF, bjF, cjF) are the vectors of item parameters related to the reference group and focal group, respectively. Besides, the variance covariance matrices of reference and focal groups are denoted by ∑�� and ∑��, respectively. The ��1 statistic has chi square distribution and its degrees of freedom is equal to the number of estimated parameters (Camilli, 2006; Lord, 1980). Previously research show that DIF results obtained from Lord’s chi squared test and Raju’s unsigned area method are highly correlated (Millsap & Everson, 1993; Shepard, Camilli, &Williams, 1985). The most important disadvantage of the Lord’s chi squared test is that it tends to reject the null hypothesis of no DIF even when the discrepancy between ICCs of sub groups is small in the presence of a large sample size (Camilli & Shephard,1994; Wiberg, 2006). Thus, a more stringent criterion should be used in the presence of a large sample size.

32 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. The formula for MH LA DTF method proposed by Camilli and Penfield (1997) is as follows: 22 2111 () II iii s I   == =  (2) where “I” represents the number of items; �� ̂ denotes MH log odds ratio statistics; µ represents mean and �� 2 represent the error variance of ψ. Some studies report weighted ��2 statistics along with ��2 statistics. The formula for weighted ��2 is as follows: 22 2111 1 () II iiii I ii WW W   == = =   (3) where �� is equal to �� 2 .

1. Do the factorial structure of EPT for the entire test and each gender group support the unidimensionaliy?

1.4 The purpose of the study This study aims at examining the presence of items that function differently for the entire test and across different sub domains for gender in English Placement Tests (EPT) to ensure the fairness of the test. For this purpose, item response theory (IRT) based Differential Item Functioning (DIF) at the item level and Differential Test Functioning (DTF) methods at the test level were implemented, respectively, to examine whether items function differently across different Consideringsubgroups.

2. Do items of the EPT function differently across gender (female vs. male)?

1.5 Research questions

4. Do test scores of the EPT exhibit differential test functioning (DTF) across gender (Female vs. Male)?

3. What is the distribution of DIF items across sub domains (Reading Comprehension, Structure, and Compositional Analysis), when each domain is treated as a separate test?

the findings of previously conducted studies, this study aims to test five different hypotheses. The first hypothesis is that the factorial structure of the EPT remains unchanged across gender groups. The second hypothesis is that some of the EPT items are likely to exhibit DIF across gender. The third hypothesis assumes the existence of content specific DIF items at the item level. The fourth and fifth hypotheses are that the existence of DIF items affects the test scores for the entire test and each subdomain.

5. Do test scores of the EPT exhibit differential test functioning (DTF) across gender, when each domain is treated as a separate test?

2.1 The instrument and data

2.2. Statistical analysis

The EPT consist of three sub domains that are reading comprehension, structure, and compositional analysis, respectively. It consists of 85 dichotomously scored items in which 22 items are related to reading comprehension, 43 items are related to structure and 20 items are related to compositional analysis, respectively. After the preliminary IRT based item analyses, 2 items related to the reading comprehension domain, and 3 items related to the structure domain that showed misfit to the test were excluded. The final version of the EPT consists of 80 dichotomously scored items in which 20 items are related to reading comprehension, 40 items are related to structure and 20 items are related to compositional analysis, respectively. The data for this study come from EPT 0105 test forms which were administered to 11,362 high school graduates including 5665 females (49.85%) and 5,697 males (50.15%) in 2017. A relatively small sample data with 1000 cases were randomly drawn from the population and used to conduct the DIF and DTF analyses. The sample data comprise of 506 females (50.6%) and 494 (49.4%) males, respectively. The reason behind using the relatively small sample size is that the chi square statistics are affected by the large sample size that increases the probability of committing Type I error. In other words, some non DIF items might be flagged as DIF items when the sample size is large.

2. Materials and Methods

This study used the quantitative descriptive research design to investigate the structure of the test, to detect the items that function differently across gender groups and the effect of these items on test scores at the test level. The first research question requires examining the factorial structure of EPT data. It is also necessary to see whether the assumption of unidimensionality is met since the IRT based DIF method will be implemented. A test is said to be unidimensional when there is one dominant factor (or latent variable) that underlies the scores obtained from the test. Thus, a one factor CFA model was tested and fit measures of this one factor CFA model were compared to see if the one factor model fits the data. Besides, the one factor CFA model was tested for both males and females to see whether the factorial structure remained the same across gender. A combination of data fit measures (goodness of fit statistics) such as the chi-square statistics, CFI (the comparative fit index), TLI (the TuckerLewis index) and RMSEA (root mean square error of approximation) for CFA models provides insight into the degree of data fit for the pre specified model.

After checking the assumption of the IRT model, Lord’s chi square DIF method was used to detect items that exhibit DIF. The more stringent criterion for detecting DIF was favored and DIF analyses were employed to the sample data Thus, the significance level of 0.01 (α=0.01) was used (rather than 0.05) with the detection threshold equal to 9.210. Along with Lord’s chi square DIF method, the Mantel Haenszel/Liu Agresti differential test functioning (DTF) method was employed to test the effects of DIF items at the test scores that might lead to unfair assessment. Penfield (2013) has suggested a set of criteria to assess the

34 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. degree of DTF for the Mantel Haenszel/Liu Agresti DTF method. Since it is based on the variance of DIF items, DTF statistics (t2) smaller than 0.07 are considered to be negligibly small, while DTF values (t2) between 0.07 and 0.14 indicate medium DTF effect and DTF values larger than 0.14 indicate large DTF effect, respectively. Hunter (2014) claims that the Mantel Haenszel/Liu Agresti DTF method is more stringent in general and shows higher rates of DTF compared to Raju’s DFIT method. Therefore, DTF statistics larger than 0.14 is adopted as an indicator of substantial DTF for the test.

Table 2 presents descriptive statistics and reliability coefficients associated with the entire EPT test and with each subdomain. Two different reliability

CFA results of the one factor model and three factor model, where each domain is treated as a factor, for the entire EPT, and each gender category are presented in Table 1. Table 1. CFA results of the One Factor CFA model of EPT Data Across Gender Models Group χ2 df CFI TLI RMSEA 90% RMSEAfor One Modelfactor LL UL ALL 19376.905 3080 0.964 0.963 0.30 0.30 0.31 Females 10385.585 3080 0.969 0.968 0.28 0.28 0.29 Males 9731.157 3080 0.961 0.960 0.28 0.27 0.29 According to the goodness of fit statistics given in Table 1, both CFI and TLI statistics are above 0.95 indicating a good fit between model and data as Hu and Bentler (1999) suggested for both one factor. Besides, the RMSEA values for the whole data set and each gender group are below the 0.06 criterion, and the 95% confidence interval of RMSEA is also below 0.06 indicating a good fit for both factors. However, chi square values are statistically significant which are expected to be not statistically significant. The main reason behind this significant result might be the large sample size since the chi square test results tend to be significant as the sample size increases. These results indicate that the one factor CFA model shows a good fit to the data. Therefore, the EPT can be considered as unidimensional where all items load on one factor.

3. Results In this section, firstly, CFA results that indicate the unidimensionality of each test are provided. Additionally, descriptive statistics and reliability coefficients of entire EPT tests and each subdomain of these tests are presented. Secondly, the results of the IRT based Lord’s Chi square DIF method used to determine the items that function differently across gender for the entire test and each domain, are presented. Finally, the results of the Mantel Haenszel/Liu Agresti differential test functioning (DTF) method used to examine DIF effects across gender at the test level are provided in the following sections, respectively.

Table 2. CFA results of the One-Factor CFA model of EPT Data Across Gender Test/ Domain Mean SD r Crombach a a LL a UL EPT ALL 49.38 17.68 0.96 0.95 0.95 0.95 12.27 4.51 0.852 0.83 0.82 0.83 Structure 25.07 9.5 0.932 0.92 0.93 0.93 12.04 4.46 0.844 0.83 0.84 0.84

AnalysisCompositional

35 authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. coefficients, that are Cronbach’s reliability coefficient and composite reliability coefficients (or latent variable modeling LVM based reliability) were calculated. Composite reliability is calculated with factor loadings obtained from CFA, provided that the test is unidimensional. It provides more accurate reliability coefficients if essentially tau equivalence does not hold and tends to yield higher reliability results when this assumption is violated.

According to results in Table 2, Cronbach coefficients are substantially high with 0.95 for the entire test, 0.83 for reading comprehension (RC), 0.92 for structure, and 0.83 for compositional analysis. On the other hand, composite score reliability coefficients are somewhat higher compared to Cronbach coefficients. However, the discrepancy between composite reliability and Cronbach is negligible small indicating that the assumption of essentially tau equivalence holds for EPT. Additionally, yielding substantially high reliability coefficients is also an indicator of unidimensionality.

Item

ComprehensionReading

3.1 DIF and DTF results of the EPT Table 3 provides the DIF results of the entire test regardless of different domains. The first column presents item numbers along with “rc”, “st” and “ca” abbreviations that stand for each subdomain that are reading comprehension, structure and compositional analysis, respectively. The second and third column presents Lord’s chi square DIF statistics and corresponding significance test results (p values) for each item. Table 3. DIF statistics of all items in EPT test 0105 no Statistics p value Item no Statistics p value rc1 0.983 0.612 st21 4.383 0.112 rc2 0.030 0.985 st22 1.389 0.499 rc3 1.454 0.483 st23 4.193 0.123 rc4 30.521 0.000 st24 12.239 0.002 rc5 2.054 0.358 st25 0.778 0.678 rc6 0.036 0.982 st26 1.482 0.477 rc7 22.769 0.000 st27 1.487 0.476 rc8 7.114 0.029 st28 2.788 0.248 rc9 2.710 0.258 st29 1.666 0.435

36 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. rc10 4.799 0.091 st30 0.345 0.841 rc11 7.335 0.026 st31 0.241 0.887 rc12 7.093 0.029 st32 1.479 0.477 rc13 2.741 0.254 st33 5.823 0.054 rc14 2.736 0.255 st34 0.681 0.712 rc15 0.330 0.848 st35 6.295 0.043 rc16 4.843 0.089 st36 5.957 0.051 rc17 2.439 0.295 st37 0.706 0.703 rc18 3.727 0.155 st38 8.474 0.015 rc19 1.034 0.597 st39 11.021 0.004 rc20 5.446 0.066 st40 2.700 0.259 st1 0.517 0.772 st41 1.671 0.434 st2 7.003 0.030 ca1 3.237 0.198 st3 12.894 0.002 ca2 0.041 0.980 st4 1.212 0.545 ca3 3.856 0.145 st5 2.028 0.363 ca4 0.593 0.744 st6 4.257 0.119 ca5 3.949 0.139 st7 1.478 0.478 ca6 4.428 0.109 st8 0.129 0.938 ca7 0.816 0.665 st9 0.065 0.968 ca8 1.269 0.530 st10 5.662 0.059 ca9 1.066 0.587 st11 1.397 0.497 ca10 2.331 0.312 st12 0.720 0.698 ca11 2.348 0.309 st13 5.954 0.051 ca12 5.999 0.050 st14 2.261 0.323 ca13 3.566 0.168 st15 2.651 0.266 ca14 7.381 0.025 st16 11.778 0.003 ca15 1.725 0.422 st17 0.338 0.845 ca16 0.566 0.754 st18 2.831 0.243 ca17 1.043 0.594 st19 4.721 0.094 ca18 1.059 0.589 st20 0.054 0.974 ca19 7.728 0.021 According to results in Table 3, six items (rc4, rc7, st3, st16, st24, st39) out of 80 items of EPT had Lord’s chi square statistics greater than DIF detection threshold (9.21) and are detected as DIF items. Although chi-square statistics associated with rc4 and rc7 are substantially high, the other four items’ chi square statistics are around 12 and are close to the DIF detection threshold. DIF results also indicate that 2 out 6 DIF items are associated with reading comprehension, while 4 out 6 DIF items are associated with the structure domain. None of the items of the compositional analysis domain are detected as DIF. Figure 1 depicts item characteristic curves (ICC) of focal (male) and reference (female) groups for each item detected as DIF. The straight line represents ICC associated with the focal group, while the dotted line represents ICC associated with the reference group. The lines in the ICCs represent the probability of answering an item correctly across the ability range (θ) for each gender group. The discrepancy between the lines indicates the existence and the amount of DIF effect. One can observe from ICCs given in Figure 1 that item 4 (rc4) and item 23 (st3) exhibit uniform DIF meaning that the discrepancy of ICCs between males and females is consistent across the entire range of abilities (Hambleton et al., 1993).

Moreover, item 4 shows DIF favoring male students, while item 23 shows DIF favoring female students. On the other hand, the other 4 items exhibit non uniform DIF indicating that discrepancies between ICCs of DIF items are not consistent across the ability distribution. Moreover, one can observe that male students perform better at low ability levels, while female students perform better at high ability level for each non uniform DIF items. 1. Item Characteristic Curves for DIF items of the EPT

Figure

38 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. 3.2 DIF results across sub domains Table 4 provides DIF results of each subdomain: reading comprehension, structure, and compositional analysis. The first 3 columns present item no, Lord’s chi square DIF statistics, and corresponding significance test results (p values) related to reading comprehension. DIF results of structure are followed by reading comprehension and compositional analysis domains Table 4. DIF statistics across sub domains of EPT Structure Reading comprehension Compositional analysis noItem Statistics p value noItem Statistics p value noItem Statistics p value st1 0.542 0.763 rc1 1.249 0.536 ca1 4.305 0.116 st2 7.942 0.019 rc2 0.089 0.956 ca2 0.558 0.757 st3 11.870 0.003 rc3 1.559 0.459 ca3 2.700 0.259 st4 0.346 0.841 rc4 24.107 0.000 ca4 1.110 0.574 st5 1.950 0.377 rc5 0.762 0.683 ca5 3.525 0.172 st6 4.641 0.098 rc6 0.158 0.924 ca6 4.757 0.093 st7 1.052 0.591 rc7 16.801 0.000 ca7 2.479 0.290 st8 0.317 0.854 rc8 6.881 0.032 ca8 0.267 0.875 st9 0.162 0.922 rc9 2.559 0.278 ca9 2.063 0.357 st10 4.603 0.100 rc10 3.028 0.220 ca10 4.878 0.087 st11 0.700 0.705 rc11 5.228 0.073 ca11 0.549 0.760 st12 0.419 0.811 rc12 2.969 0.227 ca12 6.212 0.045 st13 7.077 0.029 rc13 5.676 0.059 ca13 3.670 0.160 st14 2.632 0.268 rc14 2.039 0.361 ca14 2.390 0.303 st15 3.283 0.194 rc15 0.134 0.935 ca15 2.725 0.256 st16 11.177 0.004 rc16 2.469 0.291 ca16 0.747 0.689 st17 0.050 0.975 rc17 1.526 0.466 ca17 2.577 0.276 st18 3.760 0.153 rc18 0.690 0.708 ca18 0.274 0.872 st19 3.601 0.165 rc19 2.021 0.364 ca19 6.162 0.046 st20 0.000 1.000 rc20 4.331 0.115 st21 3.772 0.152 st22 1.390 0.499 st23 5.243 0.073 st24 13.468 0.001 st25 0.770 0.681 st26 1.505 0.471 st27 0.247 0.884 st28 0.941 0.625 st29 0.652 0.722 st30 0.920 0.631 st31 0.433 0.805 st32 1.498 0.473 st33 3.856 0.145 st34 0.390 0.823 st35 7.801 0.020 st36 5.763 0.056 st37 0.779 0.678 st38 8.422 0.015 st39 9.671 0.008 st40 3.021 0.221 st41 0.970 0.616

39 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. DIF results in Table 4 indicate that 2 items (rc4, rc7) in reading comprehension and 4 items (st3, st16, st24, st39) in structure domains are detected as DIF. Additionally, none of the items of the compositional analysis domain are detected as DIF. One can notice that those same items are detected as DIF items for the entire test and each subdomain. Moreover, chi square statistics associated with each DIF item across sub domains tend to decrease somewhat compared to DIF results of the entire test in Table 3. Especially, decrements in DIF statistics are quite obvious for rc4 and rc7 and the DIF statistic of st39 (9,671) is close to the DIF detection threshold (9.21).

3.3 Differential test functioning (DTF) Results

In this study, the Mantel Haenszel/Liu Agresti differential test functioning (DTF) method (Penfield, 2013) which is based on variance estimates of DIF items, was used to examine DIF at test level. Table 5 provides DTF statistics including variance estimates (t2), weighted variance estimates (Weighted t2), associated standard errors (SE), and z scores for each DTF statistic for the entire test and each subdomain. Table 5. DTF results for the entire test and each subdomain Test/domain Statistic Value SE Z EPT All t2 0.068 0.012 5.667 Weighted t2 0.06 0.01 6.000 Reading Comprehension t2 0.097 0.032 3.031 Weighted t2 0.072 0.024 3.000 Structure t2 0.067 0.016 4.188 Weighted t2 0.06 0.015 4.000 Compositional Analysis t2 0.032 0.012 2.667 Weighted t2 0.03 0.011 2.727 According to results in Table 5, the DTF variance associated with the entire test (0.068) is less than 0.07 indicating that the DTF effect of EPT is negligibly small. Moreover, this indicates that test scores do not function differently across gender at test level. Although 6 items detected as showing DIF, DTF results indicate that DIF effect cancels each out at test level, because some of them show DIF in favor of males, while some of them are in favor of females. When it comes to DTF variance associated with sub domains, structure and compositional analysis domains yield DTF variance less than 0.07 indicating that DTF statistics associated with these domains are negligibly small. Moreover, DTF associated with reading comprehension (0.097) falls within 0.07 and 0.14 indicating a moderate DTF effect. However, the weighted variance associated with the reading comprehension domain (0.072) is close to 0.07 and can be considered as negligible small. The DTF variance of the compositional analysis domain (0.032) is relatively small compared to the other two domains since one item is detected as DIF supporting the DIF results at the item level. Thus, both negligible small DTF effects of the entire test and each domain indicate that DIF effects cancel each other at the test level. 4.

DIF analysis results indicate that 6 items (rc4, rc7, st3, st16, st24, st39) in EPT exhibits DIF regardless of test domains. When it comes to the distribution of DIF items across sub domains, two DIF items are associated with the reading comprehension domain and the rest are associated with the structure domain. Moreover, none of the items of the compositional analysis domain is detected as exhibiting DIF. The DIF results across sub domains, where each subdomain is treated as an independent test, yield parallel results with the entire test. Moreover, the number of DIF items, items detected as DIF, and the distribution of DIF items across sub domains are identical with the entire test. However, the chi square statistics associated with each DIF item across sub domains tend to decrease somewhat when compared to the DIF results of the entire test. These results signal the existence of content specific DIF effect for the entire test. In other words, some domains, such as reading comprehension and structure, appear to be more prone to the DIF. These content specific DIF effects might occur due to unintended latent traits (Ercikan et al., 2010) item contents such as cultural background or item properties. These unintended content related factors increase the likelihood of occurrence of DIF (Martinkova et al., 2017).

4. Discussion In this study, the IRT based Lord’s Chi square DIF method was utilized to determine the items functioning differently in the English Placement Test (EPT) across gender for the entire test and each subdomain. Moreover, the Mantel Haenszel/Liu Agresti (MH LA) differential test functioning (DTF) method was used to examine the DIF effect at the test level. The results of DIF and DTF analyses for the EPT were evaluated and compared at the item and test level.

Item characteristic curves (ICCs) related to DIF items given in Figure 1 for focal (male) and reference (female) groups provide information about the type of DIF (uniform or non uniform DIF) and behavior of items across ability levels. The ICCs associated with each gender group reveal that two items (item 4 and item 23) exhibit uniform DIF. For these two DIF items, the male students perform better than female students on item 4, while female students show better performance on 23 compared to male students. Moreover, the other 4 items of EPT exhibit non uniform DIF indicating that discrepancy between ICCs of DIF items are not consistent across the ability distribution. For these non uniform DIF items, male students perform better than female students at low ability levels, while female students perform better than male students at high ability levels for each non uniform DIF items. These types of items require revision of content experts to define the source of DIF and to decrease the unfair effects of DIF on the evaluation process in large scale assessments (Penfield & Lee, 2010; Martinkova et al., 2017). Differential functioning at item level and test level appear to be associated and DTF is considered to be the sum of DIF for compensatory DIF defined by Raju and his colleague (Raju & Ellis, 2003). DTF results for the entire test of EPT show that the DIF variance associated with the entire test is less than 0.07 indicating that the DTF effect of EPT is negligibly small. Although 6 items detected as showing DIF, DTF results indicate that DIF effect cancels each out at test level,

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. because for some of them females outperform males, while males outperform females for the others. For compensatory DIF, there is a cancellation effect in which the DIF effect may cancel each out in the presence of items favoring different subgroups at test level (Flora, Curran, Hussong, & Edwards, 2008; Hunter, 2014; Nandakumar, 1993; Takala & Kaftandjieva, 2000). These results assure that EPT test scores does not function differently across gender and supports the fairness and validity of the test results at the test level.

Chubbuck and his colleagues (2016) examined the performance of gender groups on sentence completion and reading comprehension questions using the Mantel Haenszel and standardized DIF methods. They found out the content specific DIF in sentence completion items in which males outperformed females in reading comprehension items (Wedman, 2018). The findings of the aforementioned studies support the results of this study concerning the occurrence of content specific DIF. Another factor that might cause DIF is the language skills of non native test takers that take a test in a language other than their mother tongue. The deficiency in their language skill or failure in wording the content clearly in the item might lead to DIF between sub groups (Siegel, 2007, Wedman, 2018). The results of DIF and DTF induce item bias and violation of test fairness when a large number of items are in favor of a certain group and when unintended construct irrelevant factors are defined as a source of DIF (Zhu & Aryadoust, 2020). The relatively small number of DIF items and negligibly small DTF effects of the entire test indicate that the fairness of test scores is achieved for the EPT. However, it is of great importance to use methods such as DIF and DTF to examine the fairness of the test across gender groups and to ensure equality between males and females. On the other hand, the results of this study showed that unintended factors, such contents favoring a certain group, might lead to the DIF effects which can only be controlled by content experts. Thus, another way of ensuring test fairness requires selecting the contents that are relevant to each gender group.

When it comes to DTF effects across sub domains, structure, and compositional analysis domains have DTF variance less than 0.07 indicating that DTF effects associated with these domains are negligibly small. However, DTF associated with reading comprehension falls within 0.07 and 0.14 indicating moderate DTF effect, while weighted variance associated with reading comprehension domain is close to 0.07 and could be considered as negligible small. The relatively larger DTF effect associated with the reading comprehension domain might be an indicator of the existence of a construct irrelevant latent factor such as the degree of vocabulary knowledge of test takers that have a benign effect on test results (Jang & Roussos, 2009). Moreover, the relatively larger DTF effects associated with reading comprehension and structure domains reveal that the existence of DIF effects at item level influences the DTF results. These results might also imply the existence of content specific DTF effect.

6. References Anastasi, A., & Urbina, S. (1996). Psychological Testing. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Aryadoust, V., & Zhang, L. (2016). Fitting the mixed Rasch model to a reading comprehension test: Exploring individual difference profiles in L2 reading. Language Testing, 33(4), 529 553. doi:10.1177/0265532215594640 Borsboom, D. (2006). When does measurement invariance matter? Medical Care, 44(11), 176 181. doi:10.1097/01.mlr.0000245143.08679.cc Camilli, G. (2006). Test fairness. In R. L. Brennan (Ed.), Educational Measurement (4th ed., pp. 221 256). Westport: American Council on Education & Praeger Publishers.

5. Conclusion DIF analysis is one of the most important methods employed to ensure the validity of the test and fairness of test score interpretation (Zumbo, 2007). The First step in DIF is to use statistical methods to determine DIF items. This step is followed by deciding whether to remove or to revise these items since statistically significant DIF results do not always indicate biased items. It requires a comparison of differential functioning results at item and test level and involvement of content experts for the final decision. There are different approaches to deal with items detected as DIF. Some researchers suggest removing DIF items to reduce DTF effect (Raju et al., 1995) while others suggest consulting test developers and content experts to examine the structure of test and items before removing DIF items and try to determine what exactly caused differential functioning (Martinkova et al., 2017; Penfield & Lee, 2010). Therefore, items with substantially high DIF values (rc4 and rc7 items) should be examined by content experts. Because, removing DIF items without any evaluation does not ensure the fair test (Clauser & Mazor,1998; Gierl et al., 2001; Hunter, 2014), specifically, when DTF effects of test forms are negligibly small and DIF effects cancel each out at test level.

Some researchers who claim that removing DIF items may lead to weaker tests (rather than fair test) regarding the representation of constructs and variance explained by these items (Roznowski & Reith 1999). Therefore, consulting with test developers and content experts before removing the DIF items is suggested. It is also suggested to investigate the effects of other potential factors on DIF such as item order and mother tongue effects along with unintended content specific factors to explain DIF effect in the context of language testing. It is acknowledged that detecting DIF items might require using a combination of DIF methods to increase the accuracy of the results. This study is limited to detecting items that function differently across the gender groups for each content domain. The existence of DIF across other subgroups, such as native vs non native speakers and across nationalities could be studied. Although this study provided evidence about the existence of content specific DIF effect as a potential source of DIF, it was not possible to examine the content of each DIF item with content experts since the EPT items were not released. Another limitation is that the unidimensionality of test was addressed with the first research question, while the effect of the multidimensionality and the existence of unintended latent factor on DIF and DTF results were not taken into account.

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Academician Stepan Demianchuk International University of Economics and Humanities, Rivne, Ukraine https://orcid.org/0000 0002 9305 9372 Iurii L. Mosenkis and Dmytro O. Chystiak Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv, Kyiv, Ukraine https://orcid.org/0000 0002 9957 0585 https://orcid.org/0000 0003 0081 7806

46 ©2020TheauthorsandIJLTER.ORG.Allrightsreserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 6, pp. 46 61, June https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.20206.3 Main Approaches of Business English Teaching to Future Lawyers: A Case Study of Ukrainian Higher Institutions

Oksana P. Bykonia and Iryna V. Borysenko Academy of the State Penitentiary Service, Chernihiv, Ukraine https://orcid.org/0000 0002 8865 8792 https://orcid.org/0000 0002 1191 3126 Tamila L. Gruba

Abstract The paper examines the difficulties teachers and students face while teaching and learning Business English in Ukrainian higher institutions; identifies and evaluates the problems of teaching English to future lawyers; determines the main methods and methodological approaches in teaching English for Specific Purposes and Business English to future lawyers The authors describe a project recently piloted at the Academy of the State Penitentiary Service (Chernihiv, Ukraine) in which law students participated in the attitude survey toward learning the English language. In this study, feedback and quantitative methods were used to analyse the data of surveys. The teachers’ and students’ responses to survey questions were examined. The results showed a shift from a teacher centred to a student centred approach in university teaching and student preferences in learning English. The study calls for the enhancement of teaching the essential professional skills in English that students need to succeed in making their pathway choices and enable continuous growth throughout a legal career. Research findings are discussed with due regard to the surveyed students’ needs and personality oriented principles in legal education. The results indicate a need for methodological innovations that will support meaningful learning and boost the students’ and cadets’ productivity and efficiency of teaching and learning process. Despite the experimental group involving only the cadets and students majoring in "Law" and "Law enforcement", this methodology could be applied to teaching Business

English and English for Specific Purposes to a number of other specialities, in particular Economics, Psychology, Business, and International Relations.

Contemporary researchers extensively dwell on various methods and methodological approaches as well as autonomy in teaching English for Specific Purposes and Business English context (Belcher, 2017; Bieliauskaitė, 2014; Stefanowicz Kocoł & Djordjevic, 2017; Selama, 2018). The scholars that have studied the problems of teaching English to future lawyers are Harvey (2000), Northcott and Brown (2006), Harper and Widodo (2018), etc. Thus, Northcott (2009) overviews a pedagogical perspective of teaching legal English, giving important insights about developing effective links between the employers and universities. Furthermore, Northcott and Brown (2006) focus on the legal translators and English law teachers, analyse legal seminar discourse, emphasising the high value of collaboration between language specialists and law lecturers that is beneficial for legal English educators in both teaching and law Harvey (2000) points out the legal vocabulary as one instance of specialised language with a special focus on culture specific terminology. Bilová (2016) suggests teaching students to focus on the indispensable parts of the lawsuit and use legal vocabulary practicing the case studies, which can enhance students’ performance and motivation. However, partial issues of the problem of elaborating the efficient methodology for teaching English for Specific Purposes

1. Introduction

1.1. Literature Review

Keywords: approaches; methods; Business English; English for Specific Purposes; teaching future lawyers; student centred learning

In recent years, the educational system of Ukraine is facing the dramatic changes aimed at implementing the agenda of large scale reforms in professional training. The basic functions of the higher educational system are being tailored to suit the needs and expectations of the learner’s personality as the main subject of the teaching process. However, in view of various challenges facing the teaching and learning of Business English in Ukrainian higher educational institutions, the consistent high failure rates in final, entrance or external evaluation examinations has reached a disturbing proportion. Every year an overwhelming number of students consider the English language to be one of the most difficult subjects. Needless to say, the cases of the students’ poor performance at the examinations in English and Business English are not infrequent nationwide. This has obviously become an issue in higher education of Ukraine, as an examination in the English language is an important prerequisite for the students to pass at a certain level (B1, B2, C1) for applying to a higher educational institution and being eligible to be enrolled in the Bachelor’s and Master’s programmes. Our research is based on the principle which the Ministry of Education of Ukraine holds that a particular higher educational establishment has the institutional freedom to decide on its foreign language teaching aims and objectives and to design the optimal curricula to best meet the needs of its circumstances.

and Business English to the law students are not sufficiently addressed, leaving the gaps to be investigated. In this connection, the present paper examines the pedagogically driven urge for the methodological innovations and effective teaching and learning technologies to bring the legal education in Ukraine in line with the worldwide standards. Also, the paper aims to bridge the gap between the collective learners’ framework and the individual framework of knowledge acquisition that teachers’ have to tackle In this regard, the role of the English language in law education is one of the key aspects of the quality training of students majoring in law. The quality training of efficient lawyers empowers them to cooperate with foreign legal entities, integrating the best legal practices into the Ukrainian context This view is supported by the recent research in Nagovitsyn, Saltykova and Maksimova (2018). As for the learners’ needs and incentives to study legal English, the researchers emphasise that the future lawyers study the English language to be competent in their work as to interact with their colleagues, clients, partners, to make use of the appropriate legal vocabulary, to explain legal contents in English, to conduct negotiations on legal issues; to draft contracts, to write claims, letters, emails on legal matters; to listen and watch the court proceedings; to be knowledgeable in English legal system; to process legal documents, papers, bulletins, reference literature in English; to prepare presentations and reports in English (Nagovitsyn, Saltykova & Maksimova, 2018).

Teaching English to future lawyers is grounded on such educationalist approaches as the differential, the synergistic, the axiological, the cognitive, the communicative, the contextual, the professionally oriented, the systemic, the competency based, the reflexive, the psychoeducational (personality oriented), etc. As for the differential approach in teaching English, it provides pedagogical differentiation of teaching, learning and a special way of organising an engaging educational process for the learners. Within the framework of this approach, the educational activity is managed taking into account typological, personality specific, individualised characteristics of the learners, including the interrelation of biological, psychological and socio cultural factors in their dynamic combination. The teachers should assess the students’ preferences and inclinations while organising their educational activity and rely on the learners’ feedback We agree with Yaroshenko (2019), that the main task of differentiation is not to bring all students to the unique standard at the end of the course, but to get them achieve the best possible results according to their abilities, individual peculiarities, interests and needs. Thus, Druzhchenko (2018) in her research shows the efficacy of the system of assignments designed to enhance in law students the English-language monological skills. It is shown that the application of the differentiated approach draws heavily on the personality developing of the law specialists. In fact, our study found that such a perspective concerns a close interplay of the learners’ individual characteristics and their communicative skills, a way of thinking, mentality, motivational sphere, and professional standards.

As maintained by Hall and Howard (2008), the fundamentals of this approach are synergic ideological unity of diversity and uniqueness, the value of the educational research in a sustainable society. This perspective is of a generally scientific nature, because all of its developing systems have the property of synergy, which presupposes a qualitative assessment of information; laying a special emphasis on creativity to promote the integration of knowledge, practical skills, and hands on experience (The Law Society, 2018) So, both Ukrainian and foreign scholars consider that synergistic approach to be of great value in teaching English for Specific Purposes to future lawyers (Stojković, Tošić & Nejković, 2017; Popova & Petrova, 2017).

The axiological approach ensures maintaining, transferring, reproducing and developing culture by experience and education; contributes to the creation of optimal conditions for the integration of cultural, ethical and moral values, raising awareness of the learners’ cultural needs, interests and abilities; contributes to the ability to perceive common features and differences between different cultures (Lehtonen, 2017; Valeev & Kondratyeva, 2015). Within the framework of the axiological approach, the transfer of future lawyers’ value standards as well as preserving their cultural and ethnic diversity in the process of learning the English language is seen as a pedagogically enriching experience The cognitive approach provides students with the comprehension of the English lexical units, the formation of the ability to explain the selection and using words and word combinations in the process of English communication; students' ability to distinguish the techniques they use and evaluate their effectiveness, etc. (Kurbakova, 2015; Sereda, 2017). To this end, Sereda (2017) maintains that this approach makes it possible to carry out the complex analysis of communication in view of the factors, revealing its nationally specific components. It is important to emphasise that the English language plays an essential role in shaping the cognitive structures and their involvement in interaction, while preserving national and cultural identity and language Thediversity.communicative approach involves independent learning activities, aimed at setting and solving students’ specific learning tasks using role/business games, problem situations, using various communication strategies. This approach contributes to expanding the objective of 'real life' interaction in the classroom; enhancing language fluency; generating on the spot language performance; facilitating lifelong language learning. The renowned researchers that contributed to the elaboration of this approach in teaching the English language are Swan (1985), Savignon (1987), Nunan (1991), Ridge (1992), Richards (2006), Richards and Rodgers (2014), and others.

The contextual approach realises the students’ gradual transition from educational activity to a quasi professional activity (through business games, project work, etc.), then to a professional activity (through design and production practice). The strategies of the students’ study help them to focus on problem solving, using the context of law situations such as negotiating on legal issues; drafting contracts, discussing cases in English, etc

The professionally oriented approach takes into account the future profession and interests of students of law specialities in the course of their learning English (Diachkova, 2014). A considerable attention is paid to the professionally oriented texts for speaking, writing, listening and reading to teach Business English to the Itstudents.isimportant

In our research, we refer to the functional components of teaching Business English to future lawyers as organisational (i.e. organisational skills to implement an activity plan), constructive (i.e. constructive skills to create a real model of the planned activity), design (i.e. project skills to predict, to create an object as a certain integrity in the imagination, to determine the prognosis of professional activity), communicative (i.e. communication skills to interact with foreign partners in English), research (i.e. gnostic skills of analysing, studying, evaluating, etc.) and creative (i.e. creative skills to make up oral and written text), which are interdependent for the subjects of the educational activities (Figure 1).

According to this approach, we maintain that the teacher and student interact both directly and indirectly. This interaction is carried out throughout the entire scope of independent mastering of the English language competencies. Thus, the

Figure 1: Functional components of teaching Business English to future lawyers

to stress that the systemic approach is an essential one in our study. This approach in to teaching a foreign language is used in a number of current researches. The systemic approach is oriented on the analysis of methodology as a certain structure. The essence of this approach is that studying Business English is a pedagogical system that incorporates structural and functional components. To successfully solve the problems of the future lawyers’ vocational training, the systemic approach is a relevant one to organise students' curricular activity, which belongs to the category of systems as holistic entities consisting of interrelated elements.

The systemic approach involves the system management of students' independent extracurricular learning activities in improving English. It is possible to plan this activity effectively, introduce and manage new learning technologies. Moreover, it is necessary to take into account the purpose and structure of the entire syllabus of learning English. However, monitoring and assessing the students’ performance in adjusting their Business English speaking and writing competencies to the needs of their future profession should be conducted from the initial stage through the final one.

The fundamental element of the reflexive approach is the concept of reflection, which is interpreted differently in philosophical, pedagogical, sociological and psychological perspectives. It is interpreted as the process of lifelong development; the special ability of the human mind to construct world views; awareness of the personality as perceived by the communication partners, for rethinking the ideas concerning professional activity (Popovska & Pirsl, 2017).

One of the important approaches to addressing the task of teaching English to law students is referred to as the personality oriented approach, which has personal and activity components that are interrelated (Sayitova, 2020). As the researcher maintains, it is crucial to devote more effort to the learners’ individual and psychological features, their age, national peculiarities and interests; developing a system of individualised tasks to enhance the student’s Inperformancesum,with due regard to all of the above mentioned approaches, in accordance with the subject of our research, we aimed at determining what approaches of Business English teaching to future lawyers should be used in the university context of Ukrainian legal higher institutions.

systemic approach allows to consider teaching Business English, in particular, the business rhetoric as a meaningful educational activity.

One of the key concepts of the process of updating the Ukrainian higher education context is the concept of competence as a person's system of knowledge, skills and abilities and personal attitude to the subject of the learning activity. The level of competence of a specialist should ensure his/her harmonious interaction with society. The level of the foreign language competence of a specialist in this area depends on the further development of professional skills to use a foreign language, in particular, English for Specific Purposes, in real intercultural communication.

The competency based language teaching develops in students a set of key competencies through the performance of language activity; it is considered to be one of the key approaches that expands, deepens, and complements the other ones. Thus, Zenya (2011) relates the competency based approach to a personality oriented approach, since the important pedagogical condition for achieving the goal of education is the acquisition of certain competencies in teaching the academic subjects based on individual experience.

1.2. Research Objective

The study was a continuous succession of the three stages: 1) the empirical stage to study the current state how the teachers instruct the future lawyers in Business English at legal higher institutions, the current state of the students’ learning English and Business English; 2) the experimental stage to do questionnaires in needs analysis; (3) the analytical stage to process the collected experimental data. First, we conducted the surveys among the fiftythree teachers of English from Ukrainian legal higher institutions to find out what methods and approaches they use in teaching English, Business English and English for Specific Purposes to future lawyers. A sample Size Calculator (Raosoft, n/d) was used to determine the size of a representative sample to ensure the quality and reability of the experiment results given that n (population size) = 206, confidence interval =2.34, and e = 0.05 if confidence level=95%

The hypothesis of our paper is grounded on the presumption that the utilisation of the specific pedagogically driven approaches and methods outlined in the study and specified in students’ surveys and feedback, will boost the learners’ motivation and performance thus contributing to sustainable growth throughout a legal career

The purpose of the article is to determine the methods and methodological approaches in teaching English for Specific Purposes and Business English to future lawyers in the Ukrainian legal higher educational institutions. To effectively address this purpose, the problem statement is formulated as follows.

From the practical perspective, the paper aims at distinguishing specific methods in teaching English for Specific Purposes at higher educational institutions in Ukraine to enhance the students’ personal performance opportunities and to ensure the future lawyers’ sustainable success in the labour market. From the theoretical perspective, the paper dwells on the range of variables to improve the quality of the future lawyers’ training with due regard to the need to analyse the functional changes in further professional activity. To achieve this objectives, the following tasks were set to outline the approaches of teaching Business English to future lawyers that can be used in the university educational context; to analyse the attitudes and opinions of the future lawyers toward studying Business English using different methods and technologies; to assess the students’ needs and render their opinions towards learning Business English and having obtained the experimental results, to devise the recommendations for a study model sensitive to needs of the future lawyers in higher educational institutions.

2. Methodological Framework

The role of English for Specific Purposes in the development of essential skills for a legal career requires a closer attention to enable the future lawyers’ continuous growth. To this end, the research aims at highlighting what should the educational process in general and the Business English in particular be centred on so as to enable each student choose their own educational trajectory and take into account their feedback.

✓ professionally

✓

The first group consisted of 48 cadets (37 males and 11 females) who studied English at the Law department. The second group consisted of 50 students (34 males and 16 females) who studied English at the Law enforcement department.

✓

100% ✓ systemic

✓ competency

To ensure reability of the observation reports, behavioural code description was developed and three assessors were hired to take records. Data was simultaneously collected be all assessors on each separate session. Kappa Online Calculator (n /d ) was used to assesses the inter rater reliability of three raters drawn from the observation reports, evaluation sheets, student attendance records. The kappa coefficient was 0.74 which was substantial and proved that the measurements were reliable (Raosoft, n/d) The data were calculated in percents as presented in Table 1.

The sample comprised only first year cadets and students at the first (bachelor) level of higher education in the field of "Law" and "Law enforcement" who studied English in the Academy of the State Penitentiary Service. The questionnaire was distributed to the sample of all the first year cadets and students (n=98) in the Academy.

The following stage of our research was to determine what approaches of teaching Business English to future lawyers should be used in the university educational context. Also, it was necessary to analyse the attitudes and opinions of the future lawyers toward studying Business English using different methods and technologies. The sample of this study comprised 98 first year students and cadets studying in the Academy of the State Penitentiary Service (Chernihiv, Ukraine). We surveyed two groups of the cadets and students at the first (bachelor) level of higher education in the field of "Law" and "Law enforcement".

Table 1: Shift in teachers’ preferences in teaching English approaches used teachers/tutors of English, % differential 35% ✓ synergistic 42% axiological 44% ✓ cognitive 47% ✓ communicative 94% contextual 51% oriented 69% based 78% ✓ reflexive 59% ✓ personality oriented 44% ✓ other 35%

1 Do you prefer fulfilling some differentiated tasks, assignments, exercises while learning English and Business English? 59 41 2 Would you rather be taught according to your peculiarities such as creativity, trainability, interests, proficiency, performance, according to which the forms and methods of teaching English are selected and differentiated? 76 24 Do you have any difficulties in the process of adaptation and socialisation at the English classes? 46 54 Do you develop your tolerance to social, cultural, and personal differences while studying English in the Academy? 44 56 Do you develop your ability of teamwork skills and readiness for active interaction with the other students and cadets, especially while interacting in oral and written English? 53 47 Is it important to study the culture of English speaking lawyers? 63 37 Would you prefer to study the differences between English speaking and Ukrainian cultures in the legal sphere at your English classes? 74 26 Should you have the ability to explain the selection and the usage of the words and word combinations in the process of English communication, in particular in professional situations? 57 43 Do you often have difficulties to understand English legal terminology, vocabulary, specialised lexical units? 62 36 Do you frequently use various speech strategies while communicating in English for Specific Purposes? 71 27 Do you often solve problem situations connecting with legal profession in English? 56 44 Do you use the strategies to focus on problem solving? 59 41

Table 2: The attitude of the students to learning English # Items Positive,% Negative,%

We prepared several sets of questions focusing on the students’ interests, challenges, creative ability, proficiency, learning ability, effectiveness, performance and practical relevance regarding English and Business English as academic subjects in the Academy of the State Penitentiary Service. We focused on the attitudes of the students to the English language as an academic subject, and the methods and approaches designated to be applied at the English classes (see Table 2).

To assess the students’ needs and render their opinions towards learning Business English, an attitude scale was used as the main tool of the study. The obtained data of teaching Business English to future lawyers were viewed in the present study as the independent variables, whereas the future lawyers’ achievements were analysed as the dependent variables.

55 ©2020TheauthorsandIJLTER.ORG.Allrightsreserved. 13 Is it difficult to understand the context of legal oral and written situations in English? 68 32 14 Does the contextual instruction correlate your English learning materials and 'real life situations? 67 33 15 Is it important to focus on your future profession during your English language classes? 81 19 16 Would you like to be a participant in business and professional situations at your English classes? 92 6 17 Do you prefer to study English according to a certain system including patterns, units, steps, etc.? 82 18 18 Do you want to be taught English in a structured, creative, and meaningful way? 100 0 19 Does the teacher of English explain how you should develop English competence? 51 49 20 Do you know any English competences? 32 68 21 Do you usually check your homework using keys (if there are keys after the tasks and exercises)? 71 29 22 Can you analyse and evaluate the process of your independent study in English? 43 57 23 Do you prefer doing tasks in English according to your individual and psychological features? 56 44 24 Do you agree that your teacher of English should take into account the individual characteristics of each student in teaching English and Business English? 80 20 3. Results Thus, the questionnaire comprising 24 questions on the 2 point scale ranging from “Strongly agree” to “Disagree” was developed. The survey questions were designed so as to include perspectives on several methodological approaches in teaching English and Business English, in particular, the differential approach (Questions 1 2), the synergistic approach (Questions 3 5), the axiological approach (Questions 6 7), the cognitive approach (Questions 8 9), the communicative approach (Questions 10 11), the contextual approach (Questions 12 14), the professionally oriented approach (Questions 15 16), the systemic approach (Questions 17 18), the competency based approach (Questions 19 20), the reflexive approach (Questions 21 22) and the personality oriented approach (Questions 23 24) (See Table 2).

The sample represents the students and cadets from the Academy of the State Penitentiary Service (Chernihiv, Ukraine) The researchers selected the subjects focusing on the areas perceived as significant to the study of English and Business English. Furthermore, the attitude scale was analysed for the future lawyers studying in Ukrainian higher institutions. While conducting the survey, it was assumed that the students and cadets were able to understand English to a sufficient degree to interpret the attitude scale and maintain academic integrity in answering the questionnaire. The questions on the scale asked the students and cadets to describe their attitudes toward learning English and how they see the syllabus design of this subject in the Academy. The survey was conducted in September and October 2019. A statistically significant difference was found at the level of p< 0.05.

4. Discussion

This research utilises both empirical and statistical methods for the study of what methods and approaches of teaching English and Business English to future lawyers are used in Ukrainian legal higher education institutions. The mixed method approach was utilised in order to fulfill the research objective. With this in mind, we drew on the quantitative features to yield the results as for the overall statistics and obtained qualitative particulars to highlight the details. The research deals with the organisation of teaching English to future lawyers

According to the results of this survey, we found out that a number of students and cadets prefer to be taught according to their individual peculiarities such as: creativity, trainability, interests, proficiency, performance in accordance to which the forms and methods of teaching English are tailored (76%); to develop their ability of teamwork skills and readiness for communication with the other students and cadets, especially while interacting in oral and written English (63%); to study the culture of English speaking lawyers (74 %); to be capable of explaining the usage of English words and word combinations in professional situations (57 %). The surveyed students and cadets pointed out the importance of focusing on their future profession at the English classes (81%) and the desire to engage practicing business and professional situations (92%). The surveyed students and cadets emphasised that they wanted to study English according to a structured system including patterns, units, steps, etc. (82%) and to be taught English in a systemic, creative, and meaningful way (100%). The surveyed students expressed an opinion that the teacher of English should explain how students can develop English competency (51 %). At the same time, they did not know much about English competencies (66%). Fifty four percent of the surveyed supported the idea of the necessity to develop their tolerance to social, cultural, and personal differences while studying English in the Academy. The interviewees mentioned that they had difficulties to understand English legal vocabulary (62%) and the context of legal oral and written proceedings in English (68%) and in the process of their adaptation and socialisation at the English classes (46%). We point out the fact that they usually checked their homework using keys (if available after the tasks and exercises) (71 %). However, we emphasise that only 43 % of them could analyse and evaluate the process of their independent study of the English language Fifty six percent of the students and cadets agreed that their teacher of English should take into account the individual peculiarities of each particular student while teaching English and Business English and assign the learners with individualised tasks in the subject according to their psychological abilities and features (80 %) The results indicated statistically significant differences in being motivated to use differentiated tasks, assignments, exercises while learning English and Business English (59%); various communicative strategies while interacting in English for Specific Purposes (71%) and the strategies to focus on problem solving (59%). Following that, the population size of 98 (e = 05) 100% of confidence level was calculated by the Sample Size Online Calculator (Raosoft, n/d).

drawing on such approaches as the differential (the differentiating content of teaching English, the learning process, aids and products, or the creation of an integrated and intercultural learning environment, monitoring student progress, ongoing assessment, helping students develop the competences to achieve their goals), the synergistic (giving students considerable chances to gather, collate and validate their learning experiences which are realised by various methods and techniques), the axiological (involving the transfer of students value samples in studying foreign language on the basis of cultural values), the cognitive (increasing students' motivation to study professional vocabulary), the communicative (involving in real oral and written communication contexts/situations), the contextual (constructing meaning/definition based on their own experiences, anchoring teaching in the diverse life context), the professionally oriented (supplying the students with professionally oriented texts for speaking, writing, listening and reading in Business English), the systemic (organizing students' learning activity which belongs to the category of systems, as holistic entities consisting of interrelated elements), the competency based (developing a set of key competences through the performance of language activity), the reflexive (personality oriented) (engaging the student and stimulating reflection on their activity).

To compare the study of the teachers’ and students’ opinions about learning and teaching English, we made up Table 3

The present study determined that in teaching English to future lawyers, the teachers predominantly prefer to use professionally oriented, communicative, contextual, systemic, competency based and reflexive approaches. As mentioned above, one of the key goals of teaching legal English is sensitivity to the needs to develop the syllabi aimed at providing a specific group of students with the specifically tailored tools which they need or desire. Presumably, such methodological moves will support meaningful learning and boost the students’ and cadets’ productivity and efficiency of teaching English With this current study, we determine that the students and cadets feel more positive when the teacher of English takes into account the individual characteristics of each student while teaching English and Business English and adjusts the English assignments according to the individual and psychological features of the particular group of students. Besides, the effective and efficient instruction in English calls for the teacher to highlight how to develop English competencies; the course related content should consider the differences between English speaking and Ukrainian cultures in the legal sphere, drawing on the learners’ individual peculiarities, such as creativity, trainability, interests, proficiency, performance, etc. Thus, the surveyed prefer to be taught English and Business English with the application of the differential, axiological, communicative, professionally oriented, systemic, reflexive and personality oriented approaches.

5. Conclusions

Table 3: Shift in approaches to learning and teaching English approaches teachers/tutors of English, % studentscadetsand differential ✓ ✓ synergistic ✓ axiological ✓ ✓ cognitive 47% communicative ✓ ✓ contextual ✓ professionally oriented ✓ ✓ systemic ✓ ✓ competency based ✓ reflexive ✓ ✓ personality oriented ✓ other 35% Overall, the teachers, students and cadets in both groups chose the same approaches as differential, axiological, communicative, professionally oriented, systemic, reflexive and personality oriented ones. Furthermore, the students and cadets’ results indicated the importance of taking into account the individual characteristics of each student while teaching English and Business English and preparing the assignments in English according to their individual and psychological peculiarities; explaining how to develop English competencies; showing the differences between English-speaking and Ukrainian cultures in the legal sphere during English classes.

To fully realise the goals and objectives of the challenges of today's society, the effective functioning of the lawyer in the labour market calls for the search of effective technologies for teaching English. The findings obtained from this study indicate that teachers do not consistently use the differential, synergistic, axiological, cognitive, personality oriented approaches. The surveyed maintained that it was difficult to ensure more attention to individual and psychological peculiarities, age, national specificity and interests of students, and creating a system of exercises and tasks that take into account the students’ individual characteristics to enhance their performance opportunities.

Research findings are discussed with due regard to the surveyed students’ needs and personality oriented principles in teaching law students. The results appeal for certain methodological innovations that will support meaningful learning

and boost the students’ and cadets’ productivity and efficiency of teaching and learning process In the light of the findings of the current study, the training of a modern specialist calls for the adaptation of the syllabus and overall educational process to individual peculiarities of each student, enabling them to choose an educational trajectory. University teachers have to deal with the controversy of conducting the educational process in the collective learners’ framework and the obviously individual framework of knowledge acquisition. Therefore, as our research has showed, the differentiated approach to learning a foreign language is aimed at making the most of the individual psychological, cognitive, motivational characteristics of the future lawyers. Furthermore, the most effective prerequisites for the development of professional determination, self awareness, legal skills and abilities are achieved optimally and consistently by way of applying the personality oriented principles in teaching law students.

6. Limitation and Study Forward

This research design was elaborated with the involvement of the English language teachers from the universities in Chernihiv, Kyiv, Lvyv, Nizhyn, Dnipro, Odesa, and Ternopil (Ukraine). Furthermore, the English language instructors from the Academy of the State Penitentiary Service of Ukraine conducted this research. We maintain that the further study with varied cohorts of participants (junior as well as senior cadets and students, university tutors and lecturers broken down by the study programme, etc.) could yield new representative data. Also, more extensive quantitative research could further enrich this study.

7. Acknowledgements

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62 ©2020TheauthorsandIJLTER.ORG.Allrightsreserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 6, pp. 62 75, June https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.6.42020 Debate as a Tool for Learning and Facilitating Based on Higher Order Thinking Skills in The Process of Argumentative Essay Writing Marzni Mohamed Mokhtar Universiti Putra Malaysia, Selangor, Malaysia http://orcid.org/0000 0002 9689 8235 Marni Jamil Universiti Teknologi Mara (UiTM) Cawangan Pulau Pinang, Penang Malaysia http://orcid.org/0000 0002 6746 7487 Rohizani Yaakub Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang Malaysia http://orcid.org/0000 0003 0046 5425 Fadzilah Amzah School of Educational Studies, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang Malaysia http://orcid.org/0000 0001 7576 9840

Keywords: debate; HOTS; case study; argumentative essay; teaching and learning

Abstract. This study was conducted to examine how teachers carried out teaching and learning (T&L) based on higher order thinking skills (HOTS) in the process of argumentative essay writing. To obtain a holistic overview of the methods used by teachers in T&L, a qualitative case study approach was being employed as the research design of this study. Secondary school teachers were involved voluntarily in this study, and it was conducted at a boarding school in a district in Selangor, Malaysia To collect meaningful data from both research participants, in depth interviews, classroom observations, and document analysis were used until saturated data was achieved. The findings were analyzed to form the criteria and themes in discovering the use of HOTS in T&L of argumentative essay writing. It was found that debate is a viable method to implement HOTS in argumentative essay writing. The method can attract and inspire students to use HOTS in constructing their arguments and in completing their writing assignments.

2. Literature Review

Debate activity is understood as a formal discussion that requires an individual to argue, propose, and oppose verbally. This formal discussion requires the involvement of two sides discussing or debating on a project, with one side going for the proposition and the other side for the opposition. The discussion can be made either in the form of a competition or non competition (Norhasni, 2014). The debate is also defined as the utterance of either proposing or opposing a view on logical grounds conveyed by the use of structured ideas (Nurhidayu, 2012). Debating skills can make an individual reject and refute others’ accusations, reasons, assumptions, and opinions. Debating skills have also been found to enable an individual to be critical, able to present ideas on a case, the weakness of others’ points, and the theoretical debate made by others on a matter (Mohd, 2001). It is vital to cultivate debating skills as part of the teaching methods to enhance students’ cognitive mastery. In the context of the education system, the skills can

The education curriculum in Malaysia is unbalanced due to the neglect of the right brain developmental potential (language, literature, aesthetics, sports, creativity, and artistic talents). This neglect occurred due to excessive inclination towards the left brain developmental potential (the academic part that includes analytical and mathematical logic aspects) that creates an educational curriculum which greatly focuses on abstract facts that are challenging for students’ mastery (Aminah, 2003). The pedagogy practiced by the teachers is found to be didactic (teacher centered) as compared to thematic (student centered). This requires a change in the teacher’s practice by implementing learning elements that encourage students to think and apply the information that may be associated with daily life (Aminah, 2003; Abd Rahman, Scaife & Yahya, 2010). This change in pedagogical practice is in line with the recommendation of Maimunah (2004), which explains that thinking practices need to be continuously embedded in individuals and given early emphasis in schools and tertiary institutions. Cultivation of thinking skills is possible with the support of a conducive environment to provide more excellent opportunities for exploration, experimentation, training, and enhancement and ultimately enabling constant improvement of individual capabilities (Abdul, 2016; Abd Rahman & Scaife, 2012). Among the initiatives in the cultivation of high order thinking is the use of teachers’ teaching methods to produce quality students with quality thinking (Jumaliah & Zamri, 2016; Ibrahim, Ayub, Yunus, Mahmud & Bakar, 2019). Changes in teachers’ pedagogical practices also involve teachers’ efforts to prepare group thinking activities that can enhance students’ cognitive abilities. This can be steered by the preparation of various plans, exercises, and alternatives discussed so that students can comprehend the meaning underlying an issue in question. As a result, students can think in multiple ways by looking at a case from various perspectives. Instead of being knowledge consumers, they are taught to be seekers of diverse knowledge.

1. Introduction

Toulmin's Argumentative Writing Model (1958) consists of six elements which are data, claim, warrant, backing, qualifier, and rebuttal (Toulmin, 1958; Nureeyah, 2015). The key elements that underlie the model’s construction are data, arguments, and assumptions in examining the process of argumentation. Arguments and assumptions usually have a relationship derived from data (Mayberry, 2002). Subsequently, the supporting elements, refutation of evidence, and clarification elements serve as additional elements to support a statement of the premises to be debated. The supporting element plays a role in clarifying the supporting case in the absence of a general agreement. The fifth component, which is clarification, uses the word such as to strongly suggest a concrete idea to reinforce the case made. The final component, which is argument rebuttal is used to reject and clarifies any premise of the argument which it opposes. The relationship between these six writing elements is shown in Figure 1:

be used as teachers’ assessment towards students’ capacity to use their intellectual ability to argue with effects, evidence, and relevant information in making a statement (Mohd, 2001). Furthermore, the debate can serve as a form of training for a group of participants to generally discuss the advantages or disadvantages of an idea and to develop the students’ ability so that they feel comfortable in playing their role, either as the proponent or the opposition to solve an issue or a topic (Norhasni, 2014). This is reinforced by Nurhidayu (2012) who stated that debating skills benefit students, especially high school students, because communication skills can (i) develop practical communication skills; (ii) train students to think quickly and produce thoughts properly and in an organized manner; (iii) master language skills by using the correct sentence structure and appropriate language level; (iv) present argument rationally, critically and creatively and (v) practice listening, analyzing, debating and refuting skills. Looking at the opportunities and benefits of using the debate method in T&L, it is an effective medium for applying T&L based on HOTS especially in encouraging students to think in the process of argumentative essay writing. Students can hone their thinking skills at a high level to generate and develop ideas, insights, or knowledge with classmates that are linked together with relevant arguments, support, evidence, and description (Mohd, 2001) to find standard solutions to issues in argumentative essay writing assignments.

The development of debating skills will lead to the development of language skills, positive mental development, knowledge enhancement, and the development of leadership qualities in the student if the debating skill becomes a part of the T&L process continuously (Nurhidayu, 2012). In this study, Toulmin’s Argumentative Writing Model (1958) and Argumentative Discourse Model (Ali, 2005) were used as necessary frameworks to examine how teachers use the debate method as a tool for T&L based on HOTS in the argumentative essay writing process. The selection of these two models was very coincidental with the context of writing argumentative essays in schools, which often discusses factors, causes, reasons, impact, and steps for an issue explained.

Component

The Argumentative Discourse Constructions Model (Ali, 2005) was built by local scholars. This model is a refined idea from Toulmin's Writing Model to suit local needs. This model has two main constructs, namely argumentative construct language aspects aimed helping teachers to teach argumentative writing procedures in schools. Table 1 details how this model is used in argumentative essay writing. 1: Argumentative Discourse Construction (Ali, 2005) Detailing

Table

Figure 1: Argumentative Writing Model (Toulmin, 1958)

A. EssayArgumentativeConstruct A. Introduction Topic ClosureSupportingsentencesentence B. Main Idea (Main Argument) Detailed supporting sentence PointsExamplesEvidence C. 2nd Main Idea D. 3rd Main Idea E. 4th Main Idea F. 5th Main Idea G. Closure Concluding sentence Suggesting sentence Expressive sentence argumentative closure B. Language Aspect A. Sentence structure: Singular and plural sentences B. Grammar structure C. Semantic structure D. Rhetoric, argumentative and persuasive structure E. Sentence perfection (FN +FN; FN +FK; FN + FA; FN + FS) or (SUBJECT + PREDICATE) Data A1 Backing B1 Warrant A3 Qualifier B3 Rebuttal B2 Claim A2

and

3. The Emphasis on HOTS Elements in Teaching and Learning (T&L)

The issue of teacher pedagogical practice in T&L is not recent to educational research. Teachers play an essential role in planning the T&L process to provide knowledge input to students while providing meaningful experiences for them. It also depends on the ability of teachers to use a variety of teaching methods and approaches to convey knowledge to students and keep their attention in the classroom. The emphasis on HOTS elements also requires teachers to apply effective T&L strategies and methods in the T&L process to develop students’ minds (Wan & Norkhairiah, 2011; Sharifah, Nor, Mohd & Aliza, 2012). However, in terms of implementation, particularly involving HOTS in the Malay language, it is still less practiced (Rahman, Jamaludin & Zamri, 2015). Issues closely related to the implementation of T&L based on HOTS can be realized through two key issues, namely teachers’ teaching practices and students’ mastery of HOTS.

In the context of argumentative writing pedagogy that requires students to think in HOTS manner, it is crucial for teachers need to master and convey this knowledge effectively because, in every phase, teachers need to provide students with the task of designing, translating ideas, revising, refining and perfecting the work repeatedly by engaging in very complex cognitive activities to produce high quality writing (Rajendran, 2000, 2001a, 2001b, 2001c, 2002 & 2008). Apart from that, the mastery of argumentative essay writing skills can enable teachers to overcome constraints in T&L based on HOTS, in the argumentative essay writing process such as students facing difficulties in completing the argumentative essay writing assignments (Wolfe, Britt & Butler, 2009). Students were also found to be confused in choosing the assignment title

F. Has a discourse marker G. Has cohesion and coherence H. Has the beauty of language I. Has strong diction J. Has a smooth continuity

Teachers were found to be less prepared from the aspects of knowledge, pedagogical skills and attitudes to teach HOTS, besides not imparting knowledge according to the level of cognitive taxonomy, feeling more comfortable with conventional teaching practices such as chalk and talk compared to the two-way teaching method recommended by the Ministry of Education. There were issues related to the engagement of students, the utilization of educational resources as well as the quality of training and assignments, which became the contributors to the T&L quality based on HOTS of teacher led practice (Baharuddin, 2006; Yusof, 2006; Nooriza & Effandi, 2015). It was easier for teachers to teach students to remember facts, which was then followed by the assessment of their knowledge through a multiple choice test. It was difficult for teachers to prepare students to analyze, synthesize, and evaluate the content of a lesson (Musliha Salma, 2010). This situation is opposing the set of learning objectives that require teachers to focus on high order thinking that includes levels such as application, synthesis, and analysis, critical thinking, and opportunities to formulate ideas.

The selection of qualitative research design is very relevant in this study. The understanding of a phenomenon can be conducted precisely and in a detailed manner to form a meaning (Faridah & Rohaida, 2013). Qualitative research also offers researchers the opportunity to clearly understand the social and cultural contexts that underlie aspects of personal opinion, experience, and understanding rather than merely trying to bridge the relationship between variables (Denzin & Lincoln, 2008). The selection of qualitative case study design is also based on the consideration that the researcher can perform meaning construction process, is allowed to express feelings of agreement or

(Wei Zhu, 2001) and were confined by the required number of pages to be written for the argumentative essay (Wei Zhu, 2001). Students were also found to face difficulties in structuring and organizing ideas (Hyland, 1990; Abdul et al., 2008; Wei Zhu, 2001), using inaccurate discourse markers for beginning new paragraphs (Wei Zhu, 2001) and facing problems such as the ability to link evidence with arguments and assumptions in an argumentative essay writing (Cho & Jonassen, 2002; Brudvik, Hong & Chee, 2006; Moore & MacArthur, 2011). Moreover, the inability to draw conclusions on the issues debated (Wei Zhu, 2001) or to diversify accurate diction and use grammatical sentences in argumentative writing to support the argument (Wei Zhu, 2001; Abdul et al., 2008 & Yusfaiza & Mohd Isha, 2012) were also the difficulties which they faced. In addition, the format and guidelines were not followed, and the sentences constructed were structured irregularly in the essay writing and required the teachers’ guidance to meet the requirements of the question (Rahman, Jamaludin & Zamri, 2015). Sahlan, Shalinawati & Saemah (2013) also found that some students wrote only one or two statements about the title, but did not elaborate the title with current issues, and wrote an introductory paragraph that was not relevant to the content paragraph. Hence, to address these issues, by using qualitative research design, it is vital for studies related to the exploration of how Malay language teachers conduct T&L based on HOTS in the process of writing an argumentative essay in school in the actual context to be carried out. The qualitative study enables the researchers to get a clear picture of students' different cognitive abilities due to diverse methods of observation, information processing, abstract understanding of lessons, or concrete arguments. The degree of acceptance and cognitive readiness of the students vary based on various socio economic and educational backgrounds.

4. Purpose and Research Questions

This study aimed to explore how Malay Language teachers implement T&L based on HOTS in the process of writing an argumentative essay in secondary school. The following is the research question of this study: How do Malay Language teachers implement T&L based on HOTS in the process of argumentative essay writing?

5. Methodology

5.1 Research Design

Teachers need to use the best techniques in conducting T&L based on HOTS in the argumentative essay writing process. In this study, one of the T&L techniques used by both research participants was the debate technique. The technique was used five times out of 13 T&Ls conducted in the classroom. Two sub themes were constructed as a result of the research finding concerning the use of debate technique as a T&L procedure based on HOTS in the process of

To reach the rich and thick data from the participants, 9 months were allotted to complete the data collection process. The data collection process involved in depth interviews (labeled as TB1) between the two research participants and the researchers, classroom observations (labeled as BP1), and document analysis of students’ essays. Data triangulation occurred in this study through a variety of data collection techniques to ensure the data reached a saturation point before the final theme was developed for the research questions related to how teachers implement T&L based on HOTS in the argumentative essay writing process (Cresswell & Miller, 2000).

6. Research Findings

5.3 Data Collection

5.4 Data Analysis

Researchers generated new information in addition to the existing knowledge and created inherent connections between various objects, the components, and elements in the case study.

disagreement with the views of the research participants, and to express the tension encountered while exploring a subject (Koo, Wong, Kemboja & Mohd, 2011). Thus, the case study design is relevant for this study to answer the research questions about the Malay language teachers’ understanding, their way of implementing T&L based on HOTS in the process of argumentative essay writing, and the importance of HOTS implementation process in T&L.

This study involved the participation of two Malay language teachers who were teaching in a boarding school in Banting, Selangor. The teachers who were labeled as GA and GB respectively volunteered in this study to provide the research data. The researchers used a purposive sampling technique because the research participants are experts as they have valuable information on the topic studied (Mason, 2002; Maxwell, 2008 & Merriam, 2009).

5.2 Research Participant

In this study, some data pilings would be problematic to deal with (Anderson, 2004); hence the researchers analyzed the findings of the study immediately after the completion of the semi structured interview as well as the observation activities and collected all the required documents as secondary data. The process of data analysis performed in this study began with the process of data organization, filtering, and coding, theme construction, data saturation, drawing conclusions, and data exhibition. For findings validation, members checking technique, audit trail, prolonged engagement, and a coefficient of Cohen Kappa were used to validate the constructed themes. Three inter rater were appointed for this purpose.

6.1 Simulation of Debate Competition in the Classroom

Table 2: Research Findings Details for Debate Competition Simulation

Debate Competition Simulation Research Findings Details

Video Show of Debate Competition

The Procedure of Debate Competition

argumentative essay writing. These two sub themes consisted of (i) simulations of the debate in the classroom and (ii) writing the full text of the debate.

The teacher then asked the students to examine the second video show of a friendly competition carried out by the debate group. The teacher also encouraged students to apply the debating method after watching the second video. The teacher then explained that in the debate competition, the debater is required to start the argument session by presenting the definition of the given proposal or title. The teacher then asked the students to try to apply the method, intonation, voice of the debate activity through the example debate text provided. The teacher demonstrated the style before asking the student to use it (BP9GB).

Both participants in this research used the debate method as a T&L tool based on HOTS in the process of writing an argumentative essay. The debate method used involved the simulations of the competition in the classroom. The simulations were conducted to train and provide a platform for students to come up with ideas and defend them before they were formulated in full essay form.

Table 2 shows the research findings of how the teachers conducted simulation competitions in the classroom.

The teacher re explained the number of cases required, which included four cases for essay writing, debate according to the situation: whether it was a parliamentary competition, with two arguments, or an open debate with three cases. The teacher also described the time frame given for the cases to be between 7 to 8 minutes according to the competition, situation to allow the judge to evaluate the debaters’ evidence (BP10GB).

It depends on how well he can deny. If he refutes much, we set him third (TB1GAGB/line 593596) Little refute, we place as a second. If it’s lesser, we place him as the first, but usually, we have a formula, that formula is based on experience. Normally, according to experience, usually the best students, we will place as a second (TB1GAGB/line 598 601).

Debater Turn in Competition

Format of debate essay writing

Table 3: Detailed Research Findings for the Full Text of the Debate Essay Full Text Writing of Debate Essays

Research Participants Debate Essay Title Date of ObservationClassroom(T&L) GA 1. Assume your group has been selected to represent the Association of Malaysian Heritage Friends to debate the following title: Preserving Heritage Cities is More Important Than Building A Modern City. (BP7GA) 24 August 2016

1. The Use of the internet Does More Good Than Harm. As an opposition side, discuss this title. (BP8GB) 25 August 2016

6.2 Writing Complete Text of Debate Essay

The teacher asked students about the form of debate essay writing. Students listed the concerning format, which included the forewords, definitions, bring forth the topic, and closure. The teacher gave a hint to the students about a matter using the letter H. Students answered the argument (BP10GB).

Both research participants, GA and GB chose the topic for the debate essay writing to ensure that students can master the full text debate essay writing.

Details of Study Findings

Both research participants have a strong belief that students needed to understand the question’s instruction first and master the format of debate essay writing before the student can produce a full text of the debate essay. Table 3 elaborates on the findings of the study on how GA and GB guided the students.

2. You have been selected to 25 August 2016

2. Historic Places Encourage Level of Patriotism Among Students. (BP11GA) 7 September 2016

Comprehension of instruction To propose or oppose the proposition

The second sub theme of the debate method is the full text debate essay writing.

Table 4 is a list of debate essay titles discussed during classroom observations.

GA developed a framework for the use of the debate essay writing format in T&L during the observation of BP11GA. The construction of a debate essay format includes the mode of the argumentative essay (facts, comparison, persuasion, and argument); the development of paragraphs (introduction, 5 main ideas, and conclusion); and the way to use words of wisdom, personages, and proverbs in an argumentative essay as an added value in their writing skills.

Table 4: Selection of Debate Essay Titles by GA and GB

Students responded in favor or not of the given issue. The teacher validated the students’ answers to whether or not the student proposed the issue, which is the importance of preserving the heritage city. The teacher then asked what is meant as proposing and opposing. The teacher explained that students were allowed to choose whether to propose or to oppose, but needed to depend on the instruction of the questions of whether students needed to propose or oppose (BP7GA).

7.1 Adaptation of Argumentative Writing Model in T&L

The findings of this study are in line with the ideas presented by Toulmin's (1958) in the Argumentative Discourse Writing Model and Argumentative Discourse Construct Model by Ali (2005). Through the simulation of debate competition, the research finding, which is the debate competition simulation matches the six elements of Toulmin's Model. In the competition simulation, students were found to use the main elements of the model which model, which are data, arguments, and assumptions to discuss the proposition in the classroom. Students then used the support elements, refutation of argument, and clarification elements to respond to the arguments presented by the opponents during the debate in the classroom. This had implications for students’ thinking because students had to find the right facts to support their argument. The findings of this study are in line with the views of Mohd (2001), Norhasni (2014), and Nurhidayu (2012). The high order thinking activities can be applied through debate skills as students can express their ideas as well as defend their ideas and arguments to reach common ground on issues discussed. Debate activities can serve as a medium for sharpening students' minds and talents in defending an argument.

7. Discussions

GB participate in a school debate competition. The title of the debate is The Internet Does More Good Than Harm. State your argument as a proponent. (BP9GB) 3. Assume your group has been selected to represent the Association of Malaysian Heritage Friends to discuss the following title: Preserving Heritage Cities Is More Important Than Building A Modern City. (BP10GB) 6 September 2016

After reviewing all the findings, the researchers found that the justifications of the two research participants in providing the data were based on the knowledge, understanding, and practice as the debate side coach (GA) and the debate side manager (GB). Both participants used the disclosures gained as a result of their involvement in the debate competition as one of the T&L methods to train students in thinking using HOTS. This is because both research participants were actively involved in training their school debate team to participate in debate competitions at school, district, state, and national levels and ultimately being crowned the winner of the Prime Minister Cup in 2016. Both research participants, GA and GB, used the debate as a method to incorporate the elements of HOTS by allowing students the opportunity to express their views in debate form, and debated plans were converted to the full text essay writing form.

Next, the debate method used by both research participants included exposure and guidance made by GA and GB regarding the full text debate essay. Debate essay writing is a formative essay. After the students were given the experience of simulating a debate competition to hone their debating talent, they were then instructed by the two research participants to prepare a complete debate essay. Both research participants repeatedly asked the students to comprehend the essay instruction: they had to either propose or oppose the topic before beginning to write the full text debate essay. The research participants were found to have provided a debate framework format to be made as a guide for students to produce the debate essay. The debate essay preparation was found to be the same as the Argumentative Discourse Construct Structure (Ali, 2005).

8. Conclusion In planning the T&L process based on HOTS, teachers must first understand and live the philosophy and aim of the curriculum, structure, and organization of the curriculum, and the syllabus of the Malay language subject. Teachers also need to have competent knowledge about their option subject and teaching skills including integrating knowledge, skills, and values. Besides, they should be able to teach students with multiple abilities and have positive and creative teacher characteristics to conduct the T&L process (Mok, 2012). Teaching effectiveness depends on the teachers’ ability to facilitate students’ learning activities and create motivation for their learning. Thus, the success of this approach depends mainly on the teachers’ ability in the classroom. Teachers also need to consider the limitations in T&L such as the mastery of students' reading skills, teaching resources and elaborations of the content proposed. Therefore, it is particularly relevant if various studies are conducted regularly to examine the best ways to be applied by teachers in doing meaningful T&L processes and give a positive impact on the formation of student’s high order cognitive abilities in total. Hence, the application of HOTS in T&L teaching of essays should not be overlooked by teachers as HOTS can open up space and opportunities for students to improve their thinking ability. Teachers should make HOTS a major aspect of their attention during the T&L process.

7.2 Acculturation of Debate Methods in T&L Essays

Both research participants emphasized the language aspect because students needed to use appealing language to get readers’ support or approval to accept the views expressed in the debate essay. The use of the debate method was able to engage the students in maintaining as well as increasing their attention and thinking ability. They were expected to be prepared with questions or to clarify questions posed by their teachers or peers during the debate activity in the classroom. The implication of using debate is students are found to be more prepared by making preliminary reading and eager to defend their ideas in a group. To ensure the debate method is successfully carried out as a T&L tool based on HOTS, teachers must choose the topics that follow the students’ cognitive level, and have a close relationship with the students’ environment while tapping on the current issues.

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Abstract. Inrecentyears,ithasbecomeevidentthatpedagogicalpractices used by teachers significantly contribute to ensuring the quality of students’ learning. However, the existing literature on teachers’ pedagogical practice reveals that there are very few qualitative explanatory studies on teaching Mandarin as a foreign language, specifically in Malaysia. Hence, this research aimed to explore teachers’ pedagogical practices in teaching Mandarin as FL, including their perceptions of the research. This qualitative case study collected data through six semi structured interviews with Mandarin teachers working under MARA colleges. These informants were chosen by using a constructionsasticonveniencepurposivesamplingmethod.ThedataanalyzedusingAtlas.revealedthatteachersarestillusingatraditionalteachingstyle,aswellthepreestablishedbeliefsthattheteachershadinknowledgeand21 st century skills. Beyond that, the findings also indicated the Mandarin teachers need professional development opportunities as the majority of them described the signs of job burnout. After careful data analysis, the researcher proposed this research to be furtherexploredfromthe perspectivesof languagelearners.Besidesthat, it is recommended to explore the inculcation of 21st century pedagogy, including grounding the theory of Mandarin teachers’ pedagogical practices.

Keywords: language teacher; pedagogical practices; Mandarin language; foreign language

76 ©2020TheauthorsandIJLTER.ORG.Allrightsreserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 6, pp. 76 94, June https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.6.20205 Exploring Teachers’ Pedagogical Practices in Teaching Mandarin as a Foreign Language in MARA Educational Institutions, Malaysia Nuraini Jafri, Umi Kalthom Abd Manaf and Fazilah Razali Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia http://orcid.org/0000 0003 3833 1895 http://orcid.org/0000 0002 4793 8165 http://orcid.org/0000 0002 1203 1010

1. Introduction “It matters not what someone is born, but what they grow to be!”. This is Albus Dumbledore was berating Cornelius Fudge, the Minister of Magic for blindly ignoring one’s fault because of one’s family background. This particular scene from Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire book (2002) highlighted the nature of a teacher through the role of Professor Albus Dumbledore for treating the students

Throughout the last decade, the existing literature has shown that teachers have significant influences on students’ academic enrichment, including lifelong success (Nye, Konstantopoulos & Hedges, 2004; Chetty, Friedman & Rockoff, 2014). According to a study based in Germany, students’ outcomes are positively associated with the teacher content knowledge (Baumert et al., 2010). It was claimed that teacher quality is a fundamental element in student performance.

equally, without choosing any favorites. A real teacher does not look out for who a person’s parent is, where, or what their lineage looks like, or how much natural talent they may possess. Instead, the teacher will focus more on growing and developing the existing talent that one has because mighty oaks from little acorns grow. Furthermore, there is a countless number of amazing teacher stories that portrayed the importance of astrongteacher student relationship (Marzano, 2003; Baker, 2006; Hallinan, 2008). It is the teacher that makes the difference in a student’s life and not the classroom. The beliefs and practices that the teachers uphold are vital in understanding and improving the educational processes (Ciliers, 2017). These beliefs are very important in teaching the new Generation Generation Z, a generation that surpasses the classical, conventional teaching learning approaches. Teaching the new millennial generation require teachers to explore various ways to apprehend the understanding, interest, and imagination of this “connected” Generation Z.

Problem Statement

Teachers’ pedagogical practices are crucial, especially in addressing the quality of students’ learning. The beliefs that instilled within the teachers are a very compelling force, especially in making the decision and taking actions that also may influence the student’s achievement (Fullan, 2001; 2003). These beliefs may be affected by teachers’ educational background, experiences, certificate credential, leadership expertise, persistence, preparedness course work, etc. (Darling Hammond, 2000; Milanowski, 2004; Kane, Rockoff & Staiger, 2008).

Like any other occupations in the world, including lawyers, doctors, architects, and accountants, teachers also have to understand and master their disciplines to be competent in their careers However, it is insufficient for the teachers to only

Teachers’ responsibilities are beyond academic achievement. By forging a strong relationship, teachers are the most influential persons for developing students’ potentials. It is closely related to the methodologies on how teachers dealt from their general well being to professional daily life, to the extent of shaping students’ learning environment, as well as influencing the students’ motivation and achievement. The teachers can virtually affect their students’ lives in every aspect, particularly teaching them the essential life experience which will help and prepare them to successfully thrive beyond test papers and standardized examinations. According to the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), producing a lifelong learner is the ultimate goal of education in the 21st century (Collins, 2009). All of the scenarios described above are the act of teachers in cultivating and ensuring a lifelong learning environment among the students.

Purpose of the Study and Research Questions

the existing literature on teachers’ pedagogical practice reveals that there are very few qualitative explanatory studies on teaching Mandarin as FL specifically in Malaysia (Siti Martini and Ros Aizan, 2013; Lee & Chow, 2015; Lew, 2020). Without defining the proper role of foreign language teachers who are responsible for arranging cognitive activities and students’ development process, the development of a successful student’s intellectual and creativity cannot take place. Thus, it is pertinent to develop a further understanding of teachers’ pedagogical practices in teaching Mandarin as a foreign language, along with the perceptions that they have in ensuring the success of students’ learning.

This study significantly provides empirical evidence on how non native Mandarin teachers teach the Chinese language to non native learners. This includes the language teachers’ perceptions and understanding of their choices of pedagogical practices. The results of this research may bring about further research on exploring the best practices that a language teacher can use during the processes of teaching and learning.

know and understand their subject matter (Labaree, 2000). The whole language teaching process requiresteachers’ deep understanding of the entire aspects of the curriculum (Richards, 2008). In this context, language teachers are required to equip themselves with various teaching pedagogical competencies, especially in promoting the willingness of students to use the Mandarin language (Jafri & Manaf, Comparatively,2020).

However, this research was constrained by certain limitations. This case study was limited to the data gained from the interview sessions only. The current study did not use any observation and document analysis to collect data. The semi structured interview was conducted with the Mandarin teachers who were willing to participate and share their insights into the study. The consistency of their responses was considered before making the conclusions. In addition to that, this study was restricted to the input of language teachers’ pedagogical practices who teach Mandarin subjects in MARA Educational Institutions only.

The findings of this study are practical It includes the similarity of affective features and strategies used by a language teacher that affecting the learners’ learning experiences and learning environments.

The present study was aimed to describe the perceptions of language teachers in teaching Mandarin as a foreign language in MARA Educational Institutions. The exploration continues deeply in explaining the teachers’ pedagogical practices in teaching Mandarin as a foreign language. In that regard, the mentioned research purposes have led to the formulation of the following research questions, which 1.were:What are the perceptions of MARA Educational Institutions teachers in teaching Mandarin as a foreign language?

Significance and Limitations of the Study

2. What are the MARA Educational Institutions teachers’ pedagogical practices in Mandarin language classroom instructions?

The Nature of Language Teacher According to Cohen (1988), teaching is a practice of human improvement. In the context of educational change, there seems to be an increasing pattern of interest regarding the teachers’ role in classroom settings, and their contribution to the desired success in preparing creative, critical, and humanistic students determined by the curricular guidelines (Borg, 2006; Madeira & Lima, 2010).

This study was designed to focus on MARA language teachers’ perceptions and pedagogical practices through the lens of the ‘actions’ of Mandarin as a foreign language. To explore these propositions, it was essential to take into account different attributes of the nature of a language teacher, along with the aspects of Standards for Foreign Language Teaching and foreign language teaching approaches. The literature review ends with a look at relational approaches to conducting the research.

Although Pedagogical Content Knowledge is not a teaching skill, it, however, influences teachers’ teaching practices. Teaching ability must be nurtured to further develop students’ competencies and dispositions, in a way that will train students to be resourceful, creative, and collaborative life long problem solvers.

Williams and Burden (2007) indicated that: “If the teacher as educator is one who is constantly re evaluating in the light of new knowledge his or her beliefs about language, or about how language is learned, or about education as a whole, then it is crucial that teachers first understand and articulate their own theoretical perspectives” (p. 57) Hence, it is compulsory for the teachers to have an in depth understanding of the subject contents before projecting it through the instructional and pedagogical practices. Teacher content knowledge is categorized into three types, which are Subject Matter Knowledge, Pedagogical Content Knowledge, and Curricular Knowledge (Shulman, 1986). Shulman described Subject Matter Knowledge (SMK) as a teacher’s understanding of their subject’s structures, concepts, and facts. In contrast, Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) illustrates the elements of subject matter knowledge, particularly the necessary features for teaching. Meanwhile, Curricular Knowledge (CK) delineates the needs for teacher’s knowledge to sequence the curricular accordingly based on the concepts or topics, including determining the suitable resources or materials for a particular Whentopic. the focus of education is to enhance students’ learning, the quality of a teacher’s pedagogical content knowledge plays a prominent role. Based on the explanation discussed above, PCK is chosen to answer the research questions. PCKisa mixture of bothcontent andinstructions to develop one’s understanding regarding the particular problems, topics, or how to organize the issues, delineated, including a thorough arrangement to cater students’ multiple levels of abilities and diverse interests (Shulman, 1987; Palanisamy & Marzita, 2014).

2. Literature Review

Foreignlanguageteaching and learning have experienced a dramatic change. There is extensive research that has broadened the theoretical and scientific knowledge base, particularly ways on

Standards for Foreign Language Teaching Principally, language is regarded as foreign under two conditions which are the language is taught in a classroom and is not widely spoken in the society where theteachingtakesplace(Moeller&Catalano,2015).

The concept of communication is divided into three main modes: interpersonal, interpretive, and presentational (American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Language’s National Standards, 1999). Given a situation, a student engages in a conversation (interpersonal communication mode) and interpret the conversation (interpretive communication mode), before presenting his or her viewpoints (presentational communication mode). These three communication modes are in line with the Communicative Language Teaching framework. Through this framework, language is viewed as a means to sustain social interaction in everyday life (Hendrickson, 1991).

Foreign language research is a dynamic, ever changing subject. Throughout the decades, studies on this field continue to evolve particularly in meeting the intended academic goals efficiently, as well as to help the learners to apprehend the language learned in amore comprehend manner (Richards& Theodore,2001; Jafri & Manaf, 2020). The trends in exploring the language pedagogical started by facilitating the learners with cognitive based approaches and the Audio Lingual Approach (Larsen Freeman, 2000). Grounded in behaviorist theories of linguistics, foreign language learning previously involved the activity of repetition and imitation of new knowledge (Skinner, 1957; Chomsky & Skinner, 1959).

Communicative Language Teaching

Nevertheless, in today’s linguistic community, a more prominent study focuses on multilingualism among language learners, including the interplay of various linguistic systems in the language learner (Moeller & Catalano, 2015). Among the approaches is Communicative Language Teaching (Hinkel, 2005). Instead of concentrating on the mastery of structures, several linguists and language teachers emphasized the demand for communicative proficiency among the language learners (Widdowson, 1978; Candlin, 1981; Richards & Rodgers, 1986; Galloway, 1993). Hence, it is imperative for the teachers to provide the learners with the skills to decide when and where to use the language, or with whom to talk about, and by what means (Hymes, 1972; Richards & Rodgers, 2001).

Under the umbrella of Communicative Language Teaching, there are four significant features of communicative competence, which are sociolinguistic competence, grammatical competence, discourse competence and strategic competence (Larsen Freeman, 1986; Brown, 1994; Thompson, 1996; Savignon, 2002, 2006; Burke, 2010; Theisen, 2011). Such a notion embraces the great diversity of learners’ skills, learningalanguageismoretowardsstudent centered language teaching practices, as it focuses on task oriented that will equip the students with extensive use of the language learned (Richards, 2006).

The primary data for this case study were gained from multiple semi structured interviews The researchers used Patton’s approaches (2001) as a guideline in designing the interview protocol. The formulation of the interview protocol was

This case study was carried out in Majlis Amanah Rakyat (MARA) Educational Institutions. Mandarin courses are being offered widely under MARA Educational Institutions, since 2013, from secondary education till higher education (Jafri & Manaf, 2020). Currently, there are six MARA Professional Colleges and three MARA Junior Science Colleges (The Bitara Programme) which offer Mandarin courses. All the students under these colleges are compelled to take up Mandarin subjects throughout their studies. At present, there are thirty eight (38) Mandarin teachers working under these colleges. Through convenience purposive sampling, only six Mandarin teachers were selected as the informant of the current research. The data collection phase stopped at the sixth informant as the data had reached its saturation point. According to Introduction to Educational Research: A Critical ThinkingApproach book (2012), Suter states that the saturation point is achieved when the data is exhaustive and there is little need for more sampling (pp. 350).

This case study aimed at exploring Mandarin teachers’ perceptions and their pedagogical practices during teaching and learning processes. Hence, the current study was conducted qualitatively to obtain an in depth understanding of the scenarios (Denzin & Lincoln, 2003). The researchers also employed the case study design in understanding Mandarin teachers’ perceptions and describing their pedagogical practices in specific circumstances (Stake, 1995; Yin, 2001).

3. Research Methodology

how the students discover new information and apprehend the language learned (Richards, 1978; Ellis, 1994; ACTFL, 2006; De Angelis, 2007; NSFLEP, 2014).

Likewise, language learners are also equipped with fundamental skills to achieve language proficiency. Learners are expected to communicate using the language learned, acknowledge the global issues including multicultural subjects, able to make connections across discipline, and comparing with the pre established beliefs and new information and engaging in global communities. Consequently, foreign language learning allows learners to connect to a real life situation. Hence, language learning should be emphasized on creating and developing meaningful communication (Lightbrown & Spada, 2006).

Data Collection and Analysis Procedures

Back in 1996, the American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages (ACTFL) first released a framework of Standards for Foreign Language Learning in the 21st Century. This framework provides a set of goals for foreign language learning, which are communication, cultures, connections, comparisons, and communities (ACTFL, 2012; 2013) These five standards serve as a guideline for language educators to create and develop a language curriculum, as well as assessing language performance.

A total of six interviews were transcribed for this study. Transcriptions resulted in 42 pages and 35,498 words that were coded, combined into codes, categorized, and thematized using Atlas. ti software version 8.1. Later, the analyzed data underwent a peer examination method in ensuring the credibility of the research, especially concerning the bias issue (Lincoln & Guba, 1985; Creswell & Poth, 2018). Establishing Trustworthiness

guided by the research purposes and questions. The interview protocol was submitted to the expert in ensuring the questions formulated is in line with the research purposes and research questions. The expert also reviewed the interview questions pertaining to its relevance, wording, and language. At this stage, the expert’s review and evaluation also contributed to the validity of this research.

Compared to quantitative research, qualitative research design enables the researchers to comprehend and grasp the phenomenon in specific context settings, in particular “real world setting where the researcher does not attempt to manipulate the phenomenon of interest” (Patton, 2001). With this in view, the researchers are the instrument of this study. The validity and credibility of this case study depend on the capability and efforts of the researchers Thus, it is very critical to establish the trustworthiness of the collected data. To validate the findings, the researchers engaged actively in peer examination, member checks, and providing rich and thick descriptions (Creswell & Poth, 2018).

4. Results and Discussion

Altogether, there are thirty eight Mandarin teachers under MARA Educational Institutions, and eleven teachers responded favorably with interest. From these eleven teachers, only six Mandarin teachers from five colleges were purposefully chosen upon their willingness and availability to participate. The researchers conducted individual semi structured, audio taped interviews at a time that was convenient for each teacher’s schedule and each interview session lasted for 30 to 45 minutes. The interview sessions were conducted privately in the presence of the researchers and teachers. Member checking occurred during the interview session (Creswell & Clark, 2007; Merriam, 2009; Creswell & Poth, 2018).

Based on the initial purposes, the current research intended to explore the perceptions of MARA teachers and their pedagogical practices in teaching Mandarin as a foreign language. Hence, the researchers identified the informant’s criteria that will provide a comprehensive input into the study. Accordingly, based on the data gained from semi structured interview sessions, the researchers constantly referred to the guiding research questions in the development of themes. In exploring teachers’ perceptions in teaching Mandarin, there is one emergent theme which is the role of a language teacher. Meanwhile, under the exploration of teachers’ pedagogical practices in teaching Mandarin as a foreign language, there are three themes developed, which are 1) “chalk and talk” style of teaching, 2) knowledge constructions and 3) the understanding of 21st century skills.

Role of Language Teacher

RI 1: “The students did not feel the need to learn Mandarin language. They don’t understand why they need to learn Mandarin”.

RI 2: “The biggest issue in teaching Mandarin is when the students did not understand why they need to learn Mandarin”.

RI 3: “After for a while, I have no choice but to cultivate the students’ interests from time to time”. Besides, one informant believed that “as a Mandarin teacher, one needs to be a passionate and high spirit to inspire the students to learn a foreign language” (RI 5). Another informant further explained that “creating an environment that loves to learn Mandarin is the ultimate role of a language teacher. Language teachers must converse in Mandarin between them, to encourage the students to apply their knowledge even outside of the classroom setting” (RI 3). The findings above showed that most of the teachers agreed with the primary teaching role they held, especially in encouraging and motivating the students to learn the language, including creating a conducive environment for the learning. These responses were given due to their experiences in dealing with students’ reactions in Mandarin classes.

students questioned why they need to learn Mandarin, I will explain why learning Mandarin is very important nowadays, and I will encourage them by sharing the experiences from graduated students who are currently working”.

RI 6: “The number of students who are interested in learning Mandarin is not many, and many of them did not see the importance of learning Mandarin”. Instead of preparing and focusing to teach the language and its content, the teachers must first deal with the problem faced during the process of teaching and learning. They need to arouse learners’ interest in learning Mandarin, as well as making the learners understand the reasons they must learn the Mandarin language.

Teacher perceptions and beliefs strongly influence teaching, as feelings and attitudes underlie behaviors (Smith & Skarbek, 2013). During the in depth interviews, all six research informants described their beliefs and roles in teaching Mandarin as a foreign language. The main role of a language teacher is to encourage and motivate the learners’ love in learning Mandarin. As three informants explained: RI 4: “It ends up you become a motivational speaker. Instead of teaching, you are more likely need to motivate the students to continue their RIstudies”.2:“Whenever

RI 4: “Sometimes what makes me taken aback is that when the students have no interest in learning”.

RI 5: “Teacher centred because this is a foreign language. In learning Mandarin, students need to listen to the teacher first”.

Knowledge Constructions

Another important theme that emerged during the interview sessions was knowledge constructions. Knowledge construction is a process that relates to the extent how the teachers facilitate the students in understanding, exploring, and determining the cultural assumptions, as well as framing the perspectives, references, and biases across disciplines that might affect the knowledge construction within it (Peter & Armstrong, 1998; Banks, 2002). There are three primary practices highlighted in knowledge constructions. Firstly, the application of “听说读写” (Tīng shuō dú xiě), which is defined as listening speaking reading writing. RI 6: “Students must first listen a lot. Listen to what the teacher said. In learning Chinese, we have tīng listening, shuō speaking, dú reading,

The “Chalk and Talk” Style of Teaching

RI 4: “It is a combination of both teacher centered and student centered. Here, the Mandarin class is 3 hours per week, so usually, the first two hours will be lecturing mood and the last one hour will more towards students’ activities such as games”.

RI 3: “More towards teacher centered. The most common style is “chalk and talk”. 70% of teaching hours will be the lecture based class”.

RI 2: “Usually, I will teach first. The weightage for teacher centered to student centered is 70/30”.

RI 6: “The class will be in lecture mood because of the time constraint. One schooling year, we can only afford to finish up to five chapters. This is due to the school holidays and a lot of school activities throughout the year”. In conclusion, all the informants are comfortable using a teacher centered method during the teaching and learning processes. There are two main reasons why they prefer teacher centered teaching style, which is: time constraint, and theoretically, foreign language requires the students to listen and pay attention to the language teacher.

The analyzed data showed that all the informants use the “chalk and talk” style of teaching, which is more towards teacher centered. They believed that in knowledge transmission, teachers provide primarily frontal instruction to the students. Learning is teacher structured as the teacher is the authority in the language class. Following are the responses given when asked what kind of instructional approaches that are often used during teaching and learning processes:

RI 1: “For the theoretical part, I still traditionally teach the students using a whiteboard lecturing”.

RI 4: “One thing that I will make sure in my class, I will try to cater at least one teaching method to entertain each type of student. For instance, visual learners will be attracted to something they see, so I will make sure I will have prepared a PowerPoint slide or anything physical that they can see. While for the auditory learners, they learn the best by listening to what they hear, so I will give at least a short lecture or singing, and these types of students enjoy group discussions. Lastly is the kinesthetic learners. Sometimes at the end of the chapter, I will ask the students to make a role play or play something physical that they can move around”. Besides, that is the inculcation of Chinesecultureduringthe teachingand learning process. The culture teaching in a foreign language classroom is an essential supplement as it enhances students’ excitement in language learning (Jafri & Manaf, 2019). One of the informants (RI 2) believed that “Mandarin is not just about learning the content only. I prefer the students to immerse themselves in the culture. For instance, when learning Chinese characters, I will prepare the Chinese calligraphy brush and let the students feel how the Chinese people write on paper, especially during the ancient dynasty”.

In summary, language teachers must identify the right approaches with the right students at the right moment. Marzano (2007) stated that teaching is said to be effective when it dynamically combined the expertise of a vast range in pedagogical approaches with a deep understanding of students’ individuality and needs during classes, at a particular point in time.

This type of teaching skills stress on the development of learners’ listening, speaking, reading, and writing skills (Spencer, 2015; Jafri & Manaf 2019). It is from the linguistic perspectives that describe the process of how speaking skills derive from listening, and simultaneously enhance the students’ ability of reading, and later followed by writing skills (Poole, 2015; Jafri & Manaf, 2019). Secondly, is the VAK Learning Styles (Flemming, 1995; 2006). This model emphasized three main learning styles, which are visual, auditory, and kinesthetic. It is claimed that most of the people have dominant or favorite styles of learning, while some others have a combination of two or three learning styles or an evenly balanced blend of these three learning styles.

and xiě writing. Within these four skills, why listening skill must be mastered first? This is because we need to listen first before able to project what we heard. Like a small baby, they listen first to their surrounding before imitating what they heard. Same goes to the learning of new foreign language”.

The Understanding of 21st Century Skills 21st century skills have become inevitably significant in the 21st century. 21st century skills are a set of abilities and skills that needed to be developed within the students for them to succeed in life (Maria & Kamisah, 2010; Yan, Jari & Kirsi, 2018). However, through the data from interview sessions, it seemed that all five informants did not wholly understand the concept of 21st century skills. RI 1: “21st century skills? All I know is technology. Am I right?”.

Language Teachers’ Conflict of Interests

a) The Need for Professional Development Opportunities

Nonetheless, there is only one informant (RI 5) who understands the concept of 21st century skills. Her response was “People always assume that the 21st century is all about ICT and technology. But for me, it is not. If I am not mistaken, it is about 4C’s right? The 21st century is more towards student centered. We act as a facilitator only and let the students direct their learning”. She even added she learned about 21st century skills during her master’s class.

According to Shmitt (2005) and Massey (2011), the researchers are required to apply vigorous synthesizing and data probing during the entire process of analysis, including the theme development from the unintended and emergent theme. Therefore, throughout the data analysis phase, there are two emerging themes identified, which are a) the need for professional development opportunities, and b) burnout symptoms

RI 2: “21st century skills are about technology and the internet”.

From the findings discussed above, it can be concluded that the majority of the informants have less understanding of the concept of 21st century skills. They assumed that 21st century skills are about incorporating technology in teaching pedagogy. Clearly, this is something that needs to be worried about. As a teacher, one needs to have a clear understanding of particular concepts before being able to apply them during the teaching and learning processes.

Research has proved that pre established beliefs in teaching and learning restricted teacher’s capability to generate and embrace new views, and subsequently their grammar based beliefs in education dominate their classroom settings (Horwitz, 1988; Freeman, 2002). This is also in line with the findings of the interview sessions. The data reported that the majority of the informants felt they were inadequately competent. The informants believed that they need to improve themselves, especially regarding teaching techniques and pedagogical practices.

RI 2: “Actually, I am not satisfied with myself. I think I need to improve my teaching technique. I am still figuring which pedagogy is the best and interesting for the students”.

RI 4: “21st century skills is to integrate technology to improve the teaching and students’ understanding”.

RI 6: “21st century skills? Hmm. That is the problem. If the teacher itself did not have a clear understanding of the 21st century, then how to apply during the teaching and learning processes?”.

RI 3: “I am not a tech savvy; till to the point that I’ll be using 100% technology in class”.

RI 3: “I definitely need to improve my teaching. Teaching excellent students is not a big deal; the real deal is when dealing with less bright RIstudents”.4:“For now, I don’t think I am satisfied with my teaching. Because I think I can do better. I definitely need to attend more courses, especially regarding the 21st century learning or any courses related to teaching foreign language”.

The findings demonstrated that language teachers have varying principles about their teaching. Although the majority of them agreed that they need to improve themselves, the reasons behind that issue were varied depending on individual perspectives. In response to the findings, well designed professional development courses or training may affect teachers’ beliefs, and particularly concerning their in class practices. It is also pertinent to consider teachers’ backgrounds and diversify their curricula when designing a course or workshop.

RI 2: “During the early involvement in this teaching field, I keep doing everything that I could for every class. I also continuously preparing all new things just to stimulate students. But then entering the third year, the fourth year, the fifth year, and currently, it is going down. Nowhere to be found. All I did is just prepare the students to score well in the RIexamination”.3:“Inawider

b) Burnout Symptom Burnout is commonly portrayed as a manifestation of emotional, physical, and interactional activities, specifically emotional exhaustion, depersonalization of clients, and a sense of lacking personal accomplishment (Maslach & Jackson, 1981). The authors further explained that burnout consists of three features: ‘emotional exhaustion’, precisely explained as feelings of being emotionally overextended, ‘reduced personal accomplishment’, that is suffered by low spirits achievement teachers, meanwhile ‘depersonalization’ is illustrated as the progress of negative feelings and attitudes towards their careers. During the interview sessions, five informants stated that their job satisfaction has gone as they have reached the job burnout phase. The informants described their job burnout as follows: RI 1: “Actually, I stop wondering. I just teach. I have lost interest in teaching Mandarin. To be honest, I did not see the good ending of this subject. I do not foresee how the students are going to use the knowledge for the future. Usually, when they have to finish Mandarin for a few semesters, it is done. Done. Done. And then it is all gone. And my interest in teaching also gone”.

RI 5: “I think there’s a lot of things that I need to improve. A lot, especially in terms of my teaching pedagogy. I need to be more creative to attract students’ interests”.

context, I did not see the future of Mandarin. Because the students themselves did not foresee the future of Mandarin, when the

When I assigned them homework, they will say they have a lot of other homework, add maths, physics, etc. Since I entered MRSM, I nonstop counting days for retirement. Plus with a lot of work burden that is not related to teaching”.

RI 4: “To be honest, I have been teaching for more than six years. I could not see where I am in the next 5 to 10 years except quitting this job. I feel like my teaching passion is no longer there. I am not what I used to be, not progressing, stagnant at the very same place. Sometimes you lose focus just because of the need to deal with other things such as the homeroom, doing series of intervention sessions with the problematic students, not including all the positions that you have like unit or clubs.

I mean, our students are big enough, why we should treat them like they are still in high school like MRSM students”.

students felt like that, it somehow affecting the teachers which made the teachers feel like… there’s no need to do anything extra for the students.”.

Specifically, in the sense that every teacher is uniquely different individuals that have their teaching approaches; every teacher has different manifestations of their beliefs in teaching, and they engaged in change, as it is proposed to implement innovation towards the language curriculum. Theoretically, from the communicative approaches point of view, learner (student) is the key player in the foreign language process while teachers only act as a facilitator. Nonetheless, the students’ necessities are challenging and demanding that teachers need to play a more active role that of the learners. This kind of scenarios that make teachers withstand stress over the language curriculum, and even worst to meet the expectation from stakeholders over the students’ outcome from the Mandarin language classroom. After a thorough exploration and analyzing the data gained, the result of this study implies that there is a need for a more effective and sustainable teacher education and professional development program. These courses will inform the teachers about their beliefs and practices, which later enable them to develop new sets of beliefs and methods under educational reforms.

It can beconcluded thatthe factor mostdescribedby theinformants as influencing their job satisfaction and instruction planning was the work burden. It is crucially necessary to acknowledge the burnout symptoms among teachers, for the reason that burnout has substantial implications for teacher’s motivation, mental health, job satisfaction, along with students’ learning and behavior (Pyhalto et al., 2011).

RI 6: “This is my sixth year of teaching, and I already burn out. I used to teach diploma students. Although they are not cream students, I love the teaching environment there. Now I am teaching high school students, the chosen and bright students. My teaching satisfaction is no longer here because these students are busy focusing on their SPM examination.

5. Conclusion Although this study involves only six key informants and the findings are, by all means, not generalizable, they, however, are beneficial to other teachers.

Many researchers have investigated the use of technology in teaching, however, there are few research which have explored other 21st century skills in the language classroom environment (Young, 2003; Warwick & Kershner, 2008; Ghavifekr & Wan Athirah, 2015). Therefore, extensive research on the teachers’ understanding of 21st century skills and how they exercise their competencies throughout classroom instructions are very important Consequently, for the interest of improving teacher education programs, qualitative studies are suggested to have a deeper and in depth understanding of the domains that teachers typically hold or incremental beliefs, as well as determining how these beliefs affecting teachers’ pedagogical thinking and practices.

Approaches to accountability which involves a wider scope of active instructional practices and classroom pedagogical are pertinent in ensuring the success of student’s learning. Teachers’ pedagogical practices which are underpinned by the ideas and values that they have in the respective fields provide a valuable contribution role in enhancing the teachers’ quality. Thus, language teachers need to understand their responsibilities, particularly on their active relationship between teaching and learning in producing lifelong learners.

In reference to the outcomes and further discussions, the researchers found a glimpse into the implementation of Mandarin language learning; synthesizes existing research, as well as identifying possible areas for further exploration. The recommendations for future research are issues that might need to be tackled, especially, in enhancing teachers’ pedagogical practices in teaching Mandarin.

Exploring the Practices of Mandarin Teachers’ Pedagogies from the Learners’ Perspectives

An analysis of Mandarin teachers’ pedagogical practices from the eye of the students is an endeavor to reclaim voices in shaping and determining the quality of teachers’ practices that learners thrive in. Input from the students’ perspectives will enhance and improve teachers’ pedagogical practices and quality of teaching, as well as ensuring that the pedagogical practices are relevant and prevalent to the current scenarios.

Grounding Theory for Language Teachers’ Pedagogical Practices

Generally, it requires years of practice and classroom real life experiences to make true expertise. However, it is astounding that the majority of the informants’ reactions were contradictory and opposite the expectation, as most of them have been teaching for more than five years. Too often, the teachers were burdened with non academic and clerical jobs which cause the focus and job satisfaction being ripped off from one’s soul. Simultaneously, studies like the present one reveal theneedfor further classroom based research. The findings provideinsight for the teachers, administrators, teacher educators, and researchers, which later will help them to make decisions on how to improve Mandarin language instructions, language policy, educational training programs, and foreign language research at educational institutions.

The Inculcation of 21st Century Pedagogy

6. Recommendations for Future Research

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Twelve cycle two English teachers, and 20 cycle two EFL students, from four different schools, which are applying differentiated instruction by streaming, participated in a semi structured interview to answer the questions of the study based on a convenience sampling. The study indicated that streaming helps all students’ proficiency levels. The above average students benefit the most from streaming, and some profound benefits were suggested for the below average students. The most apparent advantages were having equal opportunity for participation among all the three levels, having better achievement grades, and the increase of independent learning However, the disadvantages suggested by the respondents were the use of native language, classroom interruption, having negative behavioral issues, and labeling the below average as weak students.

Keywords: differentiation; streaming; mixed ability classroom; differentiated instruction

The Effectiveness of Differentiated Instruction by Streaming: A preliminary Study of Current Practices in the UAE Ibrahim Suleiman Ibrahim Magableh USM, Universiti Sains Malaysia Malaysia USM, Gelugor, Penang 11800 Malaysia https://orcid.org/0000 0001 5983 7145 Amelia Abdullah USM, Universiti Sains Malaysia Malaysia USM, Gelugor, Penang 11800 Malaysia https://orcid.org/0000 0002 4055 699X

Abstract. Differentiated instruction is modifying teaching to suit one, small group, or all learners. There are two ways to classify students into differentiated classes. The first one is grouping students by mixed ability schoolrooms, and the other is to split by streaming. This qualitative exploratory study explored the advantages and challenges of differentiated instruction by streaming in the UAE. The authors aim to search the benefits and disadvantages of streaming in the UAE context because the UAE applied splitting instead of mixed ability classrooms.

1. Introduction

Although distinguished learning is not a new approach in teaching, many teachers are still adopting the traditional approach like the one size fits all

The one size fits all method is no longer acceptable in today’s classrooms (Bondie, Dahnke & Zusho, 2019). Today’s classrooms vary in readiness, interests, learning profile, family support, culture, socio economic status, and the technology that students use. Classroom diversity leads many researchers (Tomlinson & Imbeau, 2010) to call for different trends in education and explicitly call for differentiated instruction to solve the problem of various classroom levels. Tomlinson (2017) defines differentiated learning as the adaptation of curriculum components, in the areas of content, process, and product, based on students’ needs according to their readiness, interests, and learning profiles by the teachers in their classes whenever they want, during the whole course, small groups or individual learners. Wesley Nero (2007) explains that in differentiated classrooms, teachers work to highlight students’ learning styles and academic needs by using various modified instructional structures like the use of small groups, pairs, individual and whole group education Teachers modify the content they are dealing with and the learning process they are following to present the content and the expected outcome to fulfill the best students’ needs (Aysin & Serap, 2017).

In modified instruction, teachers vary their teaching to suit whole learners, small groups, pairs, or individual learners, in the areas of content, methods, product and learning environment based on students’ readiness, interests and learning profiles. Tomlinson (2014) explains the definition of each area. The content is the knowledge, understanding, the principles, and the values that we want students to learn. The content is what students learn and what teachers teach. Differentiating the content does not mean having different content to various learners or change the content itself; instead, teachers sometimes need to go back to prerequisite content or go forward to specific students. The process is the way students learn or the way the teachers teach. Tomlinson states that the word “process” is another word for “activities. ” According to Tomlinson (2014), processes and activities are two terms referring to one thing; the way the students learn, and the way the teacher teaches. The product is how students demonstrate what they have come to know, understand, and able to do after an extended period of learning. The product is what students show after they have learned something. Teachers distinguish the product by giving students various ways to express what they have studied from the lesson or unit (Anderson, 2007). The environment is the place and the atmosphere of learning and teaching, and it is the physical and emotional context in which learning occurs. Readiness is the students’ proximity to knowledge, understanding, and skills; it is the previous knowledge, not the ability (Pegram, 2019). Tomlinson stated that willingness does not mean ability because it can change with the quality of teaching. Interest is tied directly to that which engages the attention, curiosity, and students’ involvement. Learning profile is a preference for taking in, exploring, and expressing content.

2. Literature Review

2.1 Theories of Differentiated Instruction

Differentiated instruction is not a new term or a modern philosophy (Anderson, 2007; Kauchak, 2013; Valiandes & Neophytou, 2018). Anderson (2007) states that it goes back to the one house schoolroom, where all students with different levels used to sit all together, and teachers used to teach and differentiate instruction based on their needs. Distinguished learning is constructed on many theories like Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), Bloom’s Taxonomy, and Gardner’ Multiple Intelligences (Dendup & Onthanee, 2020).

method, all learners studied following the same means of training for all students (Leblebicier, 2020). Planning for separated education would be the most challenging part of differentiated instruction, which might lead many teachers not to implement modified instruction in classrooms (Bondie, Dahnke & Zusho, 2019; Magableh & Abdullah, 2020b). Teachers can execute distinguished instruction in two forms: the first is distinguished learning by setting students in mixed ability classes; students of the same grade are clustered within the same classroom Therefore, teachers have to meet all students’ needs and abilities and modify instruction in the areas of content, process, and product at the same time to suit a small group of learners, one learner or all learners. The second type of differentiated learning is streaming by ability, where each level is disconnected in different classrooms (Spina, 2019). The below average, the average, and the above average students are not reading in the same classes; instead, they are being clustered in different ability classrooms (Hallam & Parson, 2013). There are many advantages when differentiated learning is applied. Students become engaged, interaction increases, classes become more homogeneous and students become responsible of their own learning.

Vygotsky’s ZPD is the distance between what students can do and what they can do with the help of an adult. In differentiated education, teachers provide challenging activities to each level, to the below average, to average, and to the above average (Magableh & Abdullah, 2019, Magableh & Abdullah, 2020b). The below average students would not find the offered tasks too complicated, which might lead them to quit. The above average students would not see the given responsibilities too easy that might lead them to feel unchallenged and disappointed (Anstee, 2014).

In Blooms’ Taxonomy, teachers have to plan and design activities to meet students’ proficiency levels. Teachers have to make tiered activities from various levels of Bloom’s Taxonomy to fulfill students’ levels. There are six levels in Bloom’s Taxonomy; the lower three levels are remembering, understanding, and applying; the upper three are analyzing, evaluating, and creating (Magableh & Abdullah, 2020a). Teachers can prepare activities from recognizing and understanding levels to below average students, applying and analyzing levels to ordinary students, and evaluating and creating standards to meet the above average students (Weselby, 2014). According to Gardner (2018), students learn in different styles or “bits of intelligence.” Gardner identified eight bits of intelligence. The eight bits of styles, as Gardner identifies, are the visual or the spatial, interpersonal, intrapersonal, kinesthetic, logical or mathematical,

musical, linguistic, and natural. Teachers in differentiated direction have to know their learners’ preference style of learning and distinguish instruction based on students’ learning profiles (Kotob & Abadi, 2019; Magableh & Abdullah 2020b). These three learning theories, Vygotsky’s ZPD, Bloom’s Taxonomy, and Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences, form the foundations of differentiated instruction.

2.2 Differentiated Instruction by Streaming

The below average is taught necessary skills following the low level outcomes of Bloom’s Taxonomy of remembering and understanding. The ordinary students are prepared following the middle level of Bloom’s Taxonomy of applying and analyzing. In contrast, the above average uses the upper level of Bloom’s Taxonomy of evaluation and creation. The setting puts putting students in mixed ability classrooms, where all students are in one classroom despite their diversity and ability (Westwood, 2018). In mixed ability classrooms, teachers distinguish instruction to the whole class, small group, pairs, and individual learners at the same time at the same level based on readiness, interests, and learning profile (Robb, 2008). However, in streaming categories, students are separated in different levels and instructed a diverse curriculum, and probably by different teachers. Hallam and Parson (2013) examined streaming effects on students compared to setting students into mixed ability classrooms on both literacy and Math. There were 2500 students participated in the study, which indicated that streaming had many adverse effects on students compared to those who were sitting in mixed ability classrooms. The study stated that the use of streaming helped the high ability students the most, but it has minimal benefits on average or below average students. Besides, the study showed that streaming has adverse social effects on students that the mixed ability classrooms do not have. Richard (2014) indicated that based on the findings of the study, streaming in London had faced many criticisms by parents and many school teachers as well as students; therefore, the government directed to cancel it and apply distinguished education by setting students in mixed ability classrooms instead.

Differentiated instruction is not a method of teaching; instead, it is a philosophy and takes many forms of strategies (Tomlinson, 2015). Separated education is a must and a need in today’s classrooms. But whether to differentiate instruction in mixed ability classrooms or to stream them by ability is still debatable (Mansor, Maniam, Hunt & Nor, 2016). Streaming means grouping students based on their proficiency level in separate classes (Kumar, 2004; Macqueen, 2008). School administrations differentiate students by streaming by taking the last years’ summative results to place students in three levels, or apply a placement test at the beginning of the year Based on the results, students separate. The below average, the average, and above average students are disconnected into three different levels at the beginning of the year in three separate levels, where each group forms a different class (Sisk, 2019). Differentiated learning teachers delivered instruction using three different textbooks that suit the students’ levels. Students at the same level are homogenous in proficiency and stay in this group till the end of the school year.

The current study tries to explore the advantages and disadvantages of this new method of classifying students in the UAE. This study will be different than other studies because it is exploring a new trend in separated learning in this country. Here, there are many opinions about the benefits of this new implementation of this kind of differentiated instruction, so this study aims to find the benefits and disadvantages of applying streaming in the UAE. The study tries to answer the following two questions:

1/ What are the benefits of using streaming to differentiate instruction?

The researchers followed the qualitative exploratory quasi experimental design. The instruments consisted of two semi structured interviews with both English teachers and students who were in cycle two in Al Ain schools, United Arab Emirates (UAE). The authors prepared the interview questions and validated them by a panel of two UAE university lecturers, two English supervisors in Al Ain, and three English teachers. The latter were outside the sample of the study. Amendments were made on particular questions of the interview based on the

The literature of both differentiated instruction by streaming students, or by setting them in mixed ability groups, proved to enhance learning. On whether to stream students by ability in which different grade levels are separated into different classes, or to put them into mixed ability classrooms, where all students of the same grade level are learning together in the same courses is one primary aim of the study. The UAE started the streaming project in 2018. All public cycle two schools have to stream students by ability, and divide them into three levels into separate classes instead of setting them in one mixed ability classroom. The below average students are called literacy students and study Literacy books based on the low level of Bloom’s Taxonomy. The average students are called access and read Bridge to Success, Access Level, which mainly matches the middle level of Bloom’s Taxonomy of synthesis and application. However, the above average students were studying Bridge to Success and named the elite students. All the exams of all levels are also distinguished, whether the ongoing assessments or summative assessments. Each level has a separate and different review

2/ What are the disadvantages of streaming to differentiate instruction?

Mansor, Maniam, Hunt, and Nor (2016) explored the advantages and disadvantages of streaming in Malaysia from students’ and teachers’ perspectives. The authors conducted semi structured interviews with teachers and students to collect data. The study revealed that streaming has many advantages, like the above average can achieve more when they are in separate classes, and they are getting A’s anyway. The teachers expressed that streaming helped them get better results with both: the low level and the high level students. However, many disadvantages appeared, like many complaints from fathers and students like the below average students’ needs were not taken into consideration. The interviewees indicated that streaming helps the above average students, but not the below average ones.

3. Methods 3.1 Design

recommendation of the panel. Later, after the meetings, the researchers discussed the results with the interviewees for results validity.

3.4 Procedures

3.2 Participants

The sample of the study consisted of 12 English teachers based on a voluntary and convenient sample and aging from 26 to 50 years old from both genders teaching grade 8 and of 18 students of both sexes aging from 13 to 14 years old, purposively selected from the three leveled classes of categories eight. The students were chosen from four different public schools in Al Ain, UAE, which are applying streaming in them. They were purposefully selected for convenience to reach and conduct the interviews. There were 22 classes of grade eight in the four schools and 12 English teachers teaching them. As an average, types of grade 8 range between 25 to 28 students. There were six above average classes, eight ordinary levels, and eight below average courses. All the English teachers of grade eight, in the four schools, agreed to participate in a semi structured interview, and they were only 12 teachers in the 1st semester 2019/2020. The researchers interviewed the 12 teachers first and then interviewed the 18 students, six students of each level, two from each gender. The researchers followed the interview protocol to ask the questions of the interview, and they recorded the interviewees’ responses after gaining the consent of the school administrations, teachers as well as students.

3.3 Instrument

Two semi structured interviews were conducted by the researchers to collect data. The first instrument is the teachers’ semi structured interview. It consisted of six open ended questions in which the responses were recorded on tapes and transcribed on the word document file. The students’ semi structured interview also contained six questions. The researcher followed the interview protocol and recorded the responses. For teachers, the conversations were steered using the English language only because all teachers were teaching English and having English language degrees. However, students had a choice on whether to interview in English or Arabic, their mother tongue, because some students were from the below average and could not perform the interview in English. Later, the recordings were sent to a specialist to convert them to word document, and the responses in Arabic were also sent to translators to translate them into English. The responses were transcribed and stored in a word document file with a protected password on the researchers’ computer and could not be reached by anyone, just by the researchers.

The interviews took place during the 1st trimester of 2019/2020. Twelve teachers and 18 students from four different schools contributed to the conversations for over 15 days upon the availability of the teachers and the time of the researchers. The researchers guaranteed Al Ain office consent, established the schools’ administrations’ clearance as well as the teachers’ and the students’ approval to participate. Students’ contributions in the interviews depended on students’ voluntary basis, whether to participate or not. Each meeting took nearly 10 to 12 minutes to answer all the interview questions for both teachers and students. The interview recordings with all the papers were sent to a specialist to translate

Table 1: Interpretation of Kappa. Adopted from Viera and Garret (2005) Kappa Agreement Kappa Agreement < 0 Less than chance agreement 0.20 agreement 0.40 Fair agreement Moderate agreement 0.80 agreement 0.99 Almost perfect agreement

0.01

0.21

0.41-0.60

0.61

0.81

Substantial

and transcribe them on the word document file. The researchers analyzed the data qualitatively using the hand analysis method and used inter rater reliability to compare the results with an external validator using Cohen’s Kappa, K, which was found to be K=0.77, which the authors considered a substantial agreement between the two inter raters. Then, the researchers discussed the results and the findings with the participants for results validation.

Slight

The authors presented the research findings depending on the order of the questions. Question one findings come first and then followed by question two findings. The qualitative analysis depended on the content analysis method, where the hand analysis was developed to analyze the results. First, the interviews were recorded and then transcribed. The Arabic transcripts were translated into English and typed into a word document file. After that, the data were coded, segmented, and categorized into the major themes. Then inter rater reliability was ensured to compare the topics and categories with another external validator who was considered an expert in qualitative data analysis Kappa was found to be 0.77 in Table 2 which is considered substantial reliability as per Table 1 Table 1 shows the rating of Kappa.

The interviews were analyzed qualitatively by the researchers with the help of specialists. In both meetings, the teachers and the students responded to answer the two questions of the study. After careful analysis and comparisons of the sessions, the researchers produced the results of the two items of the research. The process of data analysis depended on the content analysis method where data was segmented, categorized into major themes, and reported The researchers validated the results by showing and discussing them with the participants in focus groups. 4. Findings

3.5 Data Analysis

Finally, after reporting the results, they were validated by taking them back to the respondents to discuss with them whether their responses match the results.

The third theme was that streaming drives classes to be more student centered. Students can direct their learning, and teachers just monitor. Most of the time,

The findings of question one had two parts: first, the benefits of applying streaming as indicated by teachers, and then followed by the advantages of using splitting as signposted by students. There were four themes that appeared on the strengths as specified by teachers. The most common ones were streaming saves time, and planning for modified activities becomes easier; above average students achieve better; streaming helps student centered classes, and streaming gives equal opportunities for students to participate. The first theme was related to planning and saving time. In streaming, teachers are no longer preparing for the three levels simultaneously; instead, they are planning just for one level of students. This way, planning becomes more comfortable, and teachers are no longer consuming most of their time preparing for the three levels. Teacher 1 and 7 talked about saving time. Teacher 7 indicated that “this year we started streaming, one advantage is timing. Streaming saves time in the class because all students are at the same proficiency level.” Teacher 1 explained that “because the students level, now we can finish what we plan and prepare in the same period. Streaming saves time in the classroom.” Teachers 2 and 5 remarked that streaming makes planning easier for differentiated education. Teacher 2 reflects “planning now is easier because we do not have more than one level in each class. The below average students are all together, so one plan is enough for them and the same for the other two levels.” Teacher 5 states that “planning used to take a lot of time at home, now it takes less time and less effort.”

b. Using the asymptotic standard error assuming the null hypothesis.

The second theme was related to above average achievement. Nearly all teachers who contributed to the conversation talked about the advantages of streaming on above average. Teacher 8 stated that “streaming benefits the above average the most because all the students are willing to participate. Their marks are getting better.” Teacher 9 explained that “in order to compare the gains of the three levels, streaming helped the above average students more than the others because they do not hinder classes, and do not interrupt classes like the low level students.” The above average students get the most benefit of streaming because classes are not interrupted. Moreover, teachers can pass the information quickly to the above average students in English without explaining in the mother tongue.

102 ©2020TheauthorsandIJLTER.ORG.Allrightsreserved. Table 2: Cohen’s Kappa Results Symmetric Measures Value Asymp. Std. Errora Approx. Tb Approx. Sig. Measure of Agreement Kappa .77 .208 2.064 .003 N of Valid Cases

a. Not assuming the null hypothesis.

The second theme was streaming enhances students’ scores. Student 3 remarked “coursing helped me and gave me the motivation to move to high ability classes.” Student 9 stated, “We should move to other classes if we get better, so I am working hard so that I can move.” In general, students agreed that streaming affects students’ learning. All students agreed that in some way, separation by streaming affects learning positively. Student 16 reflects, “Definitely, learning in this way affects results.” Student 6 stated that “dividing students into different levels improves students’ marks.” Student 14 remarked, “Distinguished learning helps students progress. Distinction by streaming helps students to increase their marks.” Students 18 noted, “Questions of the exams are easy, and we get good marks.”

The findings of the 2nd question had two parts. The first part was the problems that the teachers indicated, followed by the weaknesses identified by students when applying to stream differentiated instruction. Four significant themes appeared regarding the challenges that teachers face when using “streaming” in differentiated classrooms. The most common issues of the disadvantages, as

students are learning based on their pace. Teacher 10 states that “in high ability classes, learning is more like student centered; rather than teacher centered. Students themselves are directing their learning.” Teacher 4 stated that “streaming is changing the class to be more student centered.” All students are working on activities that make a challenge to them. So, streaming benefits all levels because it is more student centered, especially in the above average classes.

The fourth theme was that streaming has benefits on the below average student, and the other levels, the average and the above average. Teacher 4 indicated that “all students get equal opportunities to participate because they are in separate classes, and there is no dominance from the above average over participation.” The below average students get an advantage from streaming in that they get rid of being shy. Now they can answer the questions as any other student in the same class.

Teacher 12 stated that “because all the students are at the same level in the same classroom, students are encouraged to answer without being afraid that the answers are wrong.”

Streaming has also benefited students according to students’ interviews. Two significant themes appeared from the interviews; streaming increases students’ interaction and participation, and streaming enhances students’ grades. All students agreed that streaming develops students’ engagement and cooperation, and streaming affects students’ learning. The first theme was streaming helps students’ interaction and engagement and promotes cooperation. Students 11, 12, 14, 17, and 18 indicated that splitting enhances participation. Student 18 stated that “being in separate classes allows me to participate more.” Student 17 remarked, “I am in the low level, and I became good and always participated.” Student 14 states that “as an average student, I feel that I work better with students of my level, and we participate more.” Student 11 said, “as an A level student, being with different classes increased our chances to participate more. Students 7 talked about increasing engagement. Student 7 states, “classrooms’ interaction and student engagement increased.

The third theme is issues related to below average classes. It has four sub themes, low self esteem, increased behavioral problems, the use of mother tongue, and little classroom interaction was all significant complications happened because of streaming. Students of below average showed low self esteem. Teacher 8 agreed with 12 on that the below average students showed no self esteem. Teacher 12 stated that “the below average students were not motivated by streaming, even their self esteem was at the bottom.” Most of the teachers talked about classroom communication in below average classes. They agreed that the interaction was at the lowest limit. Teacher 10 said that “streaming prevented the low level students from classroom collaboration because they often do not understand everything. They keep asking about everything, which sometimes hinders learning.”

The fourth theme is streaming by ability in separate classes instead of having mixed ability classrooms increases the misbehavior at schools. Most of the teachers said that streaming increased negative behavior, interruptions, and even misconduct. Teachers 4 and 6 ultimately agreed that streaming has adverse effects on below average students. Teacher 6 stated that” the below average classes misbehave compared to other courses. We did not use to have this issue in mixed ability classrooms.” Teacher 8 indicated that “below average students always interrupt teachers. Fact, streaming does not help the low level students to get better.” Almost all teachers who contributed to the conversation indicated that they sometimes use their mother tongue to explain the tasks to students. While working on speaking tasks, the below average uses Arabic, which is their mother tongue, and little

Concerning the second theme, parents refused to stream their children by ability. Teacher 5 mentioned that “many parents refused to stream their children based on last years’ marks, or just one placement test. It is unfair to separate students like this. Teacher 8 remarked that “many parents came to school, and they were able to shift their children one level up.” Teachers said that parents declined to stream students, and many parents denied putting their children in low ability classrooms. Teacher 1 stated that “many parents refused this streaming and transferred their children to private schools, where streaming is not applied.”

shown by the teachers, were the lack of motivation among average and below average students, parents’ refusal to stream their children by ability, low self esteem among students, and finally increased behavioral issues in below average Concerningclasses.the first theme, splitting increases the lack of motivation among the ordinary and the below average. Teacher 1 remarked, “when streaming students, the below average did not like to be labeled as below average. They did not like to be separated from the average or above average because they learn from them. Streaming prevents them from learning from other students.” Teacher 12 stated that “the below average classes are so weak and students barely answer questions Students lack motivation because they do not have other ability students.” Teacher 10 mentioned that “the below average and even the average classes lack competition inside the classrooms, which affects their motivation.” Streaming affected students’ motivation among the below average and average because they do not have other peers to encourage them to participate or to compete with since all the students in the same classrooms are within the same level.

The fourth theme is related to behavioral issues, as indicated by students. Nearly most students talked about behavioral problems. Students of below average still interrupt classes, and always misbehave in classes. Student 1 stated that “streaming helped students to behave negatively.” Student 12 indicated that “coursing like this helped students to misbehave in classes.” Student 15 mentioned that “the below average students still act negatively and interrupt classes.” Behavior appeared as a significant topic problem related to streaming. The below average students

The second theme was related to remarks mentioned by three students 2, 8, and 14, which states that all students of the same class should take the same book, not different books. If teachers want to differentiate, they modify learning within the same level. Student 2 explained, “we take different books, why? We should take the same book.” Student 8 stated, “I do not like our book; I want a book like the other levels.” Student 14 remarked, “grade eight students have different books, why? We all should get the same book.” When UAE started streaming, the students of the same grade are not taking the same book, which leads them to wonder why they receive different education to the other group of learners.

The second part of the 2nd question presents the disadvantages that the students recognized in streaming classes for differentiated instruction. Five themes appeared from students’ discussions. The problems that the students face were that they do not like to be in separate classes. All grade levels should take the same book but not different books. Teachers do not take care of the below average or even the average So when the bad behavioral students are clustered together, the below average feels embarrassed and inferior to other level groups.

Student 10 stated that “I am a below average student, and I think our teachers are happier with the other levels.” Below average and average felt that students of above average receive better education than they do, and teachers do not give them much attention as the above average

The third theme was that teachers take care only of the above average students, and the below average or the ordinary do not get the same attention from teachers. Student 13 stated, “I am an average student, but teachers do not take care of our level; I hear from the above average that teachers give them much attention.”

The first theme was that students of the same class refused to be separated based on their ability. Student 1, 4, 15, and 18 explained their refusal to be separated from other students. Student 4 explained that “I do not like to be in this class and to learn like this. I want to be with the other students.” Student 15 stated that “I hate this classification; I want to learn with other students.’ Student 18 remarked that neither his father nor his mother liked him to be split from other students. They do not like him to be in the below average courses. He stated, “My mother was angry with the school because of this classification. My dad declined to let me stay with the below average students.” Streaming leads to rejection, especially of the below average students. They do not like labeling them as below average learners.

English. Teacher 2 stated that “the use of Arabic is evident in the below average classes. Teachers sometimes use their mother tongue to explain tasks, and students keep talking in Arabic.”

3/teachers do not take care of the below average or even the average. 4/bad behavioral students are clustered together, 5/the below average feels embarrassed and inferior to other level groups.

Q2 second studentsindicatedDisadvantagespartby

Q1 second viewsfromAdvantagespartstudents 1/streaming increases students’ interaction participation, 2/streaming enhances students’ grades.

The last theme was that all the below average students, who contributed in the meetings, felt embarrassed because they were being labeled as below average all the year. Student 3 said that “we started, and I still feel embarrassed. I want to move to the other level.” Student 5 explained that “I always talk to my friends who are with me in my class, we do not feel happy. I feel embarrassed.” The below average students felt that they were inferior to the other two groups of students because they were labeled weak in English. Student 11 explained that “the other students of the other groups always say that they are better than us, they are with the clever students. I feel inferior; I do not like my class.” Student 13 said that “splitting is not good. Some students feel that they are superior to others. Table 3 summarizes the themes of the two questions.

Q1 first Advantagespart from teachers’ views 1/streaming saves time, and planning for modified activities becomes 2/aboveeasier; average students achieve better; 3/streaming helps student centered classes, 4/streaming gives equal opportunities for students to participate.

1/they do not like to be in separate classes. 2/all grade levels should take the same book but not different books.

5. Discussion Differentiated instruction by setting students into ability groups or streaming them into different class levels seems to improve students’ learning. However, the implementation of streaming has many advantages and disadvantages based on teachers’ and students’ interviews. The study revealed numerous advantages and benefits to streaming. It is easier to prepare for streaming than to plan for a mixed ability classroom because teachers are dealing with one plan per level. Teachers do not have to spend most of their time preparing for separate instruction to meet all students’ standards in one classroom; instead, they expect one lesson plan per level, which saves time. The most benefit of streaming is for above average students. Both teachers and students of all levels agreed that streaming is better for the above average because they can read well, and learn faster than others. Besides, streaming helps classes to be more student centered.

Table 3: Summary of Themes No Theme

Q2 first teachersindicateddisadvantagespartby 1/the lack of motivation among average and below average students, 2/parents’ refusal to stream their children by ability, 3/low self esteem among students, 4/increased behavioral issues in below average classes.

keep making lots of behavioral issues that inhibit them from making many benefits from streaming.

The finding of the study revealed that streaming had various disadvantages indicated by teachers’ and students’ interviews. The teachers signposted that splitting decreased motivation among the below average and the average because they recognized that they were not equal to the above average. The below average felt that the other groups were getting much benefit compared to them because they receive different textbooks or even varied curriculum.

The above average students benefited the most from streaming probably because they worked without interruption from the other groups; they can act independently. Teachers are relaxed when explaining the lesson to them because they understand everything easier. This level of students, the high achievers, can work faster than the other courses that gives them more time to anchor activities, which can be challenging to them. Streaming helps all levels to have equal opportunities to participate. In mixed ability classrooms, it is the above average who always dominates over the class. The below average felt that they could involve and answer questions more when being streamed. When the below average was in mixed ability classrooms, it is the above average and the ordinary who always engage, leaving the below average with no chance.

Teachers, as well as students, thought that both students’ interaction and engagement were not very high in streaming compared to differentiated instruction by setting. The minimal effect is on the below average because both teachers and students agreed that dividing students by ability in separate classes would not help the below average Besides, many behavioral problems occurred in the below average courses that they have not witnessed in mixed ability classrooms. It is evident that teachers who teach the below average encounter a lot of difficulties regarding interruption. Most of the below average students do not understand the component of the lesson when teachers explain in English, so they keep interrupting teachers and talk in the mother tongue, which is Arabic.

The teachers of the below average use the native language to explain lessons in the target language. Students always interrupt teachers using Arabic language, which leads teachers to emphasize certain parts of the experience using their mother Nobodytongue.likedto label him/her as a failure; the below average and their parents refused to divide students in such a way that would leave their children embarrassed by being awkward. The below average expressed that when being in below average classes, it is a kind of classification that allows other children

The students’ interviews also indicated several advantages of streaming. The above average students were happier to be streamed because teachers are using English all the time, and not being interrupted by the below average. Besides, the average and the above average expressed that with streaming, the negative behavioral issues disappeared from their classes because the below average were those who made the undesired behavioral issues. The above average witnessed no bad behavioral issues indicating that streaming is better for their learning more than the mixed ability classrooms. The below average students expressed that with streaming, their scores became higher since they had different questions and different exams, although they are within the same grade level.

6. Conclusion In conclusion, the paper aimed to explore the advantages and the challenges that teachers and students face when applying differentiated instruction by streaming. All agree that students learn differently (Magableh & Abdullah, 2020b). Different students learn in various methods depending on students’ interests, readiness, and learning profiles. Two ways of classifying students are to follow in differentiated instruction: the first is the distinction by setting and the other by streaming. Streaming students by ability is the core of the current study. Like mixed ability classrooms, streaming has many advantages and disadvantages. The most evident power agreed upon by all the respondents was streaming helps the above average student more than the below average or the average. However, the most common disadvantage of streaming was the interruption, and lack of interaction existed in the low ability classrooms. With streaming, participation increases, and grades become higher Like any method of teaching, streaming has many benefits and some challenges as indicated from both students’ and teachers’ sessions. The researchers recommend further investigations like a quantitative as well as a qualitative study to show which has more efficient on student learning, setting students in mixed ability classrooms or streaming. The findings of the current study are limited due to the instrument, which only consists of interviews with both teachers and students. Moreover, the findings are limited due to the small sample size of teachers and students. A Larger number of participants and more instruments would get more reliable and valid results.

to label them as failures. The below average revealed that they did not like to be in separate classes, and returning to mixed ability classrooms would be much better because they would not feel embarrassed since all students are in the same class level. The findings of the students’ interviews were similar to the results of teachers’ meetings. The below average feels embarrassed and their classes became worse than they were before.

The results of the present study were inconsistent with Parson’s (2013) results in that streaming has positive effects on above average students and some adverse impacts on below average students. Moreover, the two studies are similar in that splitting has an adverse social impact on students that the mixed ability classrooms’ students do not feel. Furthermore, the results of the current study were in line with Ritchard’s (2014) study, in that parents refuse to stream their children by ability. The results of the current study were comparable to Mansor, Maniam, Hunt & Nor (2016)’s conclusions in the advantages of streaming on the above average students in that they achieved better when they cluster in separate courses. Moreover, the two studies’ findings were equivalent in that streaming helps all learners to get higher marks than when they were in mixed ability classrooms, and the above average students got the most benefit as indicated by both studies.

Triangulating the teachers’ perspectives regarding the advantages and disadvantages of streaming with students’ perceptions can give a more robust insight on this type of distinction than taking one point of view, students’ or the teachers’ perspectives alone. Triangulation confirms the validity of the results.

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Contemporarytheoriesoflearning

Conflict of interest: The authors witness that there are no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this paper. The researchers received no direct funding for this research that might cause conflict Acknowledgment

The researchers would like to thank the board of education and the teachers involved for their support during the research. The acknowledgment extends to the school administrations and the students who are part of this study.

7. References Anderson, K. (2007). Tips for teaching: Differentiating instruction to include all students. PreventingSchoolFailure,51(3), 49 54. https://doi.org/10.3200/psfl.51.3.49 54 Anstee, P. (2014). DifferentiationPocketbook. Management Pocketbooks. Aysin, S., & Serap, E. (2017). The effects of differentiated foreign language instruction on academic achievement and creativity of gifted students. Online Submission, 5(1), 276 287. Bondie, R., Dahnke, C., & Zusho, A. (2019). How does changing “one size fits all” to differentiated instruction affect teaching? Review of Research in Education, 43(1), 336 362. https://doi.org/10.3102/0091732x18821130 Dendup, T., & Onthanee, A. (2020). Effectiveness of cooperative learning on English communicative ability of 4th grade students in Bhutan. International Journal of Instruction, 13(1) 255 266 https://doi.org/10.29333/iji.2020.13117a Gardner, H. (2018). Multiple approaches to understanding. In K. Illeris (Ed.) (pp. 129 138). London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315147277 9 Hallam, S., & Parsons, S. (2013). Prevalence of streaming in UK primary schools: Evidence from the Millennium Cohort Study. BritishEducationalResearchJournal, 39(3), 514 544. Kauchak, D. (2013). Improving text simplification language modeling using un simplified text data. InACL(1) (pp. 1537 1546). Susan Hallam, Samantha Parsons https://doi.org/10.1080/01411926.2012.659721

Educational Research, 19(3), 20 35. Mansor,https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.3.2A.,Maniam,P.,Hunt,M.C.,&Nor, M. (2016). Benefits and disadvantages of streaming practices to accommodate students by ability. CreativeEducation,7(17), 2547 2558 https://doi.org/10.4236/ce.2016.717241

Tomlinson, C. (2014). The differentiated classroom: Responding to the needs of all learners. ASCD. Tomlinson, C. (2015). Teaching for excellence in academically diverse classrooms. Society, 52(3), 203 209. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12115 015 9888 0 Tomlinson, C. (2017). How to differentiate instruction in an academically diverse classroom. ASCD. Tomlinson, C., & Imbeau, M. (2010). Leading and managing a differentiated classroom. ASCD. Valiandes, S., & Neophytou, L. (2018). Teachers’ professional development for differentiated instruction in mixed ability classrooms: investigating the impact of a development program on teachers’ professional learning and students’ achievement. Teacher Development, 22(1), 123 138. https://doi.org/10.1080/13664530.2017.1338196

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Viera, A. J., & Garrett, J. M. (2005). Understanding interobserver agreement: The Kappa statistic. Fammed, 37(5), 360 363. Weselby, C. (2014). What is differentiated instruction? Examples of how to differentiate instruction in the classroom. TeachingStrategies. Wesley Nero, S. (2007). A study of the effectiveness of an alternative licensure program for urban elementary teachers of English Language learners (Ph.D. Dissertation). George Mason University. Westwood, P. (2018). Inclusive and adaptive teaching: Meeting the challenge of diversity in the classroom Routledge.

Pegram, M. E. (2019). Teachers' perceptions of implementing differentiated instruction for EnglishLanguagelearners Robb, L. (2008). Differentiating reading instruction: How to teach reading to meet the needs of each student. EducationReview/ReseñasEducativas. Richard, A. (2014). School streaming helps brightest pupils, but nobody else, say researchers. The Guardian, Thu 25 Sep 2014. Last modified Friday, March 2016. Sisk, D. (2019). Differentiation: Using teaching strategies that facilitate learning in the inclusive classroom. In Cultivating Inclusive Practices in Contemporary K 12 Education (pp. 43 65). IGI Global. Spina, N. (2019). ‘Once upon a time’: examining ability grouping and differentiation practices in cultures of evidence based decision making. Cambridge Journal of Education, 49(3), 329 348. https://doi.org/10.1080/0305764x.2018.1533525

Keywords: entrepreneurship; higher medical education; Masters in Pharmacy; self directed learning skills; technology mediated learning environment

111 ©2020TheauthorsandIJLTER.ORG.Allrightsreserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 6, pp. 111 126, June https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.6.20207 Technology-Driven Self-Directed Learning of Graduate Pharmaceutists: Adding Value through Entrepreneurship Iryna Nizhenkovska, Tatyana Reva, Oksana Chkhalo and Oksana Holovchenko Bogomolets National Medical University, Kyiv, Ukraine https://orcid.org/0000 0001 5065 3147 https://orcid.org/0000 0002 3367 5931 https://orcid.org/0000 0002 8874 4674 https://orcid.org/0000 0001 9794 2624

Abstract. The purpose of this study was to identify what effect the entrepreneurship technology driven environment has on the self directed learning skills of graduate pharmaceutists. This was quasi experimental research using quantitative and qualitative instruments to collect and process data. The graduate students majoring in Pharmacy were sampled to form the experimental and control groups. The self directed learning skills scale, the integrated achievement test, and a retained knowledge test in Chemistry, the entrepreneurial potential self assessment questionnaire, the questionnaire on computer literacy, and a semi structured interview were the measurement instruments for the study TheIBM SPSS Statisticssoftware andeffectsizecalculator for t test were used to process statistical data yielded from measurements. The results suggested that a technology mediated learning environment combining the professionalism related online course with an online collaboration based entrepreneurship project fosters self directed learning skills bringing substantial educational and professional benefits like developed entrepreneurial skills, computer skills, and better academic performance to the students majoring in Pharmacy.

Measurements resultsof the variablesshowed thatthe participants of the experimental group who received project based online training in entrepreneurship showed ≈20% improvement in self directed learning skills, entrepreneurial potential, computer literacy, and academic achievements The intervention model was also perceived positively by the participants. It is recommended that the teachers were trained in Marketing before the delivery of the course.

Thought indirectly declared in the “Standard of higher education of Ukraine” (specialty ref. 226 “Pharmacy”) (2016) only in the general context like ‘the autonomous search, analysis, and synthesis of information from various sources to solve typical problems of professional activity’ , self directed learning skills are omitted in the context of entrepreneurial and computer competencies that are also included as basic ones in that document (Alieksieieva, 2018). As a result, those skills are underrepresented in the curriculum of medical institutions in Ukraine including Bogomolets National Medical University, State educational institution of Ukraine “Bukovynsky State Medical University”, Vinnytsia National Pirogov Medical University and V. N. Karazin Kharkiv National University that were reviewed in this study. Additionally, the Socratic method (Roth, 2016) used to deliver Chemistry and the students’ feelings of being professionally disadvantaged in the future cause criticisms and the negative perception of the students to Chemistry This brought up the idea to ‘reload’ the pedagogical model of the Chemistry course delivery paying emphasis on the entrepreneurial dimension of self directed learning.

1. Introduction Fostering self directed learning skills in students has become a dominant academic goal in the curriculum at tertiary medical institutions in Ukraine (Meretskyi, 2015; Maslak et al, 2017; Prokopenko & Titunova, 2019; Bobrytska, 2019). This complies with the trend of moving from the teacher driven to the learner centred learning that is aimed at involving the students in the process of creating their knowledge (Ramstedt et al., 2016) The process of training of those skills of self directed learning in the settings of the Chemistry course is strengthened with the use of several pedagogical concepts such as of problem based learning (PBL), context based learning and the technology mediated learning (Bobrytska & Protska, 2019; Burlaka & Fadi, 2016; Lezhenko et al., 2018; Magwilang, 2016; Ramstedt et al., 2016; Solohub, 2019) Due to the bond of the above concepts, the graduates in Pharmacy are expected to succeed in the entrepreneurship driven and digitalisation driven environment in both academic and job settings (Holovchenko, 2020) Moreover, Wang & Huang (2019) proved that the entrepreneurial environment purposefully created at the institution provides a positive effect on the students’ self efficacy and self assessment which are also the components of self directed learning.

The literature review found that training self directed learning skills in the students majoring in Pharmacy from the entrepreneurial perspective using technology is still beyond the research scope. However, there are some studies revealing Chemistry teaching from the perspective of applying the context based approach (Magwilang, 2016; Çiğdemoğlu, 2012) and problem based or project based learning (Seery & McDonnell, 2019). Learning in context is proved to increase students’ motivation better compared to the conventional teaching approaches as it adds meaning to the students’ learning. Majid and Rohaeti (2018) showed that students who are trained in Chemistry using the context based approach have a better understanding of Chemistry concepts than those who are taught using conventional methods of teaching. Seen as ‘side effects’ , self directed

Literature review

This study review also found that the above approaches agree with the principles of the Sustainable Learning and Education (SLE) philosophy (Hays & Reinders, 2020) that suggests integrating a ‘sustainable environment, sustainable society, and sustainable economy’ through the use of technology mediated learning environment. The prerequisite for the SLE is a high degree of the individuals’ computer literacy. They also comply with the concept of 21st Century Skills (2016) (Haryono & Subkhan & Putra, 2017) introducing new trends like fostering entrepreneurship skills and lifelong (self directed) learning skills in the students. They are related to the seamless learning concept (Durak & Çankaya, 2019) in terms of ‘making learning more authentic’, ‘making it more tailored’, and providing an environment for ‘learning via collaboration’. Accordingly, the purpose of this study was to identify what effect the entrepreneurship technology driven environment has on the self directed learning skills of graduate pharmaceutists. The research questions were as follows: 1) how the originally developed technology mediated learning environment influenced self directed learning skills from the entrepreneurial, computer literacy and academic achievement perspectives when teaching Chemistry courses to Masters in Pharmacy; 2) what views, beliefs and experiences the interviewed students associated with the educational intervention model designed for the study.

This was a mixed methods based study of the convergent design relying on quantitative and qualitative data (Creswell, 2014). The data were collected throughout two interventions such as the experiment and the interview. The quantitative data were collected repeatedly before, while, and after the educational intervention. The qualitative data from the interview were collected concurrently to the final stage of the experiment. The variables for the study were students’ self directed learning skills originating from their entrepreneurial potential (comprised entrepreneurial motivation, aptitudes, and attitudes), computer literacy of medical students, and academic achievements in Chemistry courses. The interviewed students’ perceptions of the course delivery approach and experiences were studied through the semi structured interview to increase the validity of the research results

2. Methods and materials

learning skills, and positive attitudes towards Chemistry also develop (Kock et al., Learning2016) through solving problems or doing projects facilitates students to explore the ‘real world’ through either cooperation or individually (Purichia, 2015; Cervantes, Hemmer & Kouzekanani, 2015). Purichia (2015) associates this type of learning with the cross disciplinary integrated learning integrating ‘attitudes, knowledge, and skills into a coherent whole’ forming a new phenomenon This training approach provides the students with the experience related to self planning, self implementation, and self evaluation of the education process. This experience leads to profound and long lasting changes in the students’ learning styles after the project is completed.

Figure 1: The abstract research flow. Before Intervention •Review of the literature from the scientific and practical domains •The designinterventioneducationalmodel •Instruments selection, design and validation •Sampling for EG and CG •Pilot study of the Academic Achievent and KnowledgeRetainedtests •Pre testing While Intervention •Running Chemistry courses conventionalusinge learning model in the CG and the technology mediated learning environment to foster self directed learning skills • For the EG students, the activitiesentrepreneurshipbasedon the use of the web were used. interventionAfter •Post testing •Conducting semi interviewstructured •Data consolidation and processing

The technology mediated learning environment relied on the NEURON information system that was integrated into the MOODLE LMS. It was used to train students in “Analytical Chemistry” through doing self study labs. Additionally, the experimental group students collaborated on the web to design a purchase funnel serving a pipeline for several medical and healthcare products at the request of Ametrin FK Co., Ltd, Ukraine The projects were of information sharing purposes and used social media (copywriting, blogging, streaming, advertising), YouTube, the software for the photo and video content design and development, the platforms for online written consulting, and the Mom’s online Theschool.tutor with both medical and marketing backgrounds supervised the students, provided feedback and assessment of their projects. The representative of Ametrin FK Co., Ltd, Ukraine were involved in the assessment as well.

Research design The study lasted 2 years, from September 2017 to the end of May 2019. The pre test post test quasi experimental design was employed to monitor changes in the above variables. Students seeking a Master’s Degree in “Pharmacy” and “Technology of perfumes and cosmetics production” of Bogomolets National Medical University were chosen to be the experimental population for the study.

The reason being was that according to Classifier of Economic Activities (2020), those graduates are mostly employed for the commercial activities like medical and healthcare products distribution (retail and wholesale sales, B2B), management of chemist’s shops, testing and licensing of newly developed pharmaceutical drugs and cosmetics products.

The population for the study was 154participated in the educational intervention. Sixty three of them were randomly hired from Vinnytsia National Pirogov Medical University and V. N. Karazin Kharkiv National University for the piloting of the achievement and retained knowledge tests. The rest of the students (��=91) were sampled from Bogomolets National Medical University to form the experimental (EG, �� =46) and control (CG, ��=45) groups for the experiment. The results of the pre intervention homogeneity test based on the t test and Fisher’s exact test are presented in Table 1.

Outline of the Intervention Model

This was the originally developed technology mediated learning environment integrating two occupational domains. These were: students’ knowledge and skills in Analytical Chemistry and their entrepreneurship skills and knowledge that were used as a means of training students’ self directed learning skills.

Analytical Chemistry is a core curriculum course for Master’s Degree students. It is a 6.0 credit (ECTS) course including three modules. These are: “Qualitative analysis”, “Quantitative analysis” and “Instrumental methods of analysis”. The content delivery relies on theoretical and practical domains of the discipline. The distribution of hours is as follows: 30 hours are dedicated to the theory, and 140 hours are supposed to be spent on self study laboratory work. It consolidated the students’ knowledge and skills in previously studied courses in “Instrumental methods of analysis”, “Fundamentals of chromatographic analysis”, “Organic chemistry” , “Inorganic chemistry” , “Physical chemistry”, special courses on concentration and separation of micro components, and spectroscopic methods of Bothanalysis.groups received training in entrepreneurship. The course for the CG was delivered conventionally, through Moodle. It was a 1 credit course (30 hours) covering such topics as: “Basics of using social media to form public opinion about certain medical and healthcare products”, “Methods of promotion and advertising of medical goods”, “Creation and design of the sales videos and written content”. The course for the EG was delivered as a practical online training based on a specific order. It also lasted 30 hours and covered the same topics as mentioned above. Compared to the CG, the delivery was shaped as if it was on the job training with some required high standard outcome Sampling

116 ©2020TheauthorsandIJLTER.ORG.Allrightsreserved. Table 1: The results of the pre intervention homogeneity test based on the t test and Fisher’s exact test Test Variable �� EG, �� =46 CG, �� =45 ꭓ 2or �� n (%) or ��± �� n (%) or ��± �� testtAge Males 32 (35.16%) 22.58±1.45 22.45 ± 1.49 0.08 0.627 Females 59 (64.84%) 2218±139 2232 ± 151 SDLS 71.14 73.09 0.157 0.762 EP 23.91 27.21 2.617 0.899 CL 41.63 46.25 1.378 0.693 FET AP Sufficient 7 (15.21%) 5 (11.11%) 0.62 0.789Good 32 (69.56%) 34 (75.55%) Excellent 7 (15.23%) 6 (13.34%) Note: FET Fisher’s Exact Test; AP Academic Performance; SDLS self directed learning skills; EP entrepreneurial potential; CL computer literacy. The scores for the groups were approximately the same for all variables which showed that the groups could be considered homogeneous. Instruments The t test and Fisher’s exact tests were used as the pre intervention test of homogeneity of the EG and CG Quantitative and qualitative research tools were utilised in the study to monitor the variables. Those tools were as follows: the self directed learning skills scale (Aşkin, 2015), the integrated achievement test, and a retained knowledge test in Chemistry, the entrepreneurial potential self assessment questionnaire (n.d.), the questionnaire on computer literacy, and a semi structured interview. The Integrated Achievement Test in Analytical Chemistry (IAT AC) was administered in both groups to monitor the educational value of the course. A Retained Knowledge Test (RKT) was used as a follow up measurement of how occupationally friendly was the educational intervention model. Both drafts of the tests comprised 90 items supposing that the students should take one minute per question to answer. The questions complied with the curriculum learning outcomes. Three experts 1 expert with a Doctorate degree in Chemistry, 1 expert with a Ph.D. in statistics and 1 expert in Languages with a Ph.D. degree were involved in the procedure of examining the content (face) validity, difficulty level appropriateness (construct validity), and criterion validity of both tests Both tests were piloted in Vinnytsia National Pirogov Medical University and V. N. Karazin Kharkiv National University. The pilot study population involved 63 Master’s students who were encoded as S1, S2, Sn, etc. When obtained, reliability studies were performedusing the Kaiser Meyer Olkin Test (KMO), DistinguishingPower Index of the Items (��), ItemDifficultyIndex (��), and the Kuder Richardson 20(KR

The semi structured interview was conducted as recommended by Adams (2015) The respondents for the interview were randomly selected from the EG students. To avoid the biasing effect, the interviewers were hired from the members of the Alumni Association and were instructed beforehand. The interviewees were informedabout the purpose of the interview. Theanonymitywas guaranteed. The interviews were recorded and transcribed. The answers were categorised under

20). The SPSS Statistics software was used to process the above data. The value obtained for the KMO test was 0.83 which is good according to Glen (2016). The mean value for �� of the item difficulty was 0.516. It was interpreted as “Medium (moderately) difficulty” (Thompson, 2017). The �� was 0.371 which was interpreted as “good difficulty level” considering that if the �� = 0.40 or higher it means “Very Good” if �� = 0.30��0.39 is “Good” if �� = 0,20��0,29 is “It must be corrected”, and if �� =0��0,19 means “It must be excluded” (Thompson, 2017)

The originally developed questionnaire on computer literacy was self administered byMastersin Pharmacy(seeAppendix 1). Its structure was partially borrowed from Taher and Ahmed (2014) and comprised four sections: 1) computer skills; 2) application of computer skills; 3) perception of the educational use of computers, and 4) the use of the Internet in medical education. The questionnaire included 20 questions. The first five of them covered elementary computer skills like document processing, making videos or presentation slides, web navigation skills, etc. The next five questions assessed the skills related to the use of such learning management systems (LMSs) as NEURON and MOODLE. Five more questions addressed the skills of using software and information systems of the pharmaceutical enterprise, skills of using electronic communication and electronic marketing (e marketing) of pharmaceutical products and skills of performing statistical analysis of pharmaceutical and medical data of the company. The final five questions were intended to explore the attitudes of the students towards the use of technology mediated learning compared to conventional learning in Chemistry courses. The criterion validity, construct validity, and face validity of the questionnaire was proved by three experts in the field of statistics. The students’ responses were coded and analysed using IBM SPSS Statistics software The differences between groups were analysed using Chi square for qualitative data and the Kruskal Wallis H test for quantitative data. The quantitative data were considered to be statistically significant if ��>0.05

The internal consistency reliability of the tests was measured using the Kuder Richardson 20 method (Allen, 2017). The value of 0,881 was obtained as a result of the measurement, which showed the developed tests were reliable. An entrepreneurial potential self-assessment questionnaire (n.d.) was used to monitor the entrepreneurial potential of the sampled students. The inter rater reliability measurement of the questionnaire was based on judgements of three experts with a background in sociology and psychology. The Krippendorff’s �� was applied to measure their agreement on every item of the questionnaire. The coefficient was 0.8432 (St.Err.=0.1891; Confidence Interval=95%) which showed good reliability (Krippendorff, 2011).

3. What challenged you when doing the course? Explain your reasoning.

Table

3. Results Overall, the originally developed technology mediated learning environment bought a more profound effect on the self directed learning skills of the EG students than on the CG students’ seen from the entrepreneurial, computer literacy, and academic achievement perspectives when teaching chemistry courses to Masters in Pharmacy. The pre test post test measurements of students’ self directed learning skills, entrepreneurial potential, computer literacy, and academic achievements in Chemistry courses obtained through two tests (IAT AC and RKT) are presented in Table 2. 2: The mean results of pre-test post-test measurements of the variables Group Pre test Post test �� Mean SS Mean SS EG 52.44 1706.93 82.61 625.59 2.16362 .036854 CG 54.70 1472.95 65.14 1072.74 0.71678. .250222

��

1. What was your overall impression of the Chemistry course design and delivery? Explain your reasoning.

As can be seen in Table 2, forty six participants of the EG who received project based online training in entrepreneurship showed significant improvement by approximately 20%, the result is significant at �� < .05 in self directed learning skills, entrepreneurial potential, computer literacy, and academic achievements compared to the results of forty five students of the CG that appeared to be not significant at p < .05.

2. What learning experiences encouraged you to succeed in the course? Why?

the topics. The coding procedure was performed. The consolidated data was analysed using IBM SPSS Statistics software The probability value of ≤ 0.05 was considered signiﬁcant.

5. What would you advise to the instructors to do so that the course brought more benefits to the students? Would your suggestions bring a significant improvement or slight improvement? Free online statistical tools like t test calculator (n.d.) and effect size calculator for t test (n.d.) were used to process statistical data yielded from measurements.

4. How did you cope with those challenges? What efforts did you find effective?

Note: SDLS self directed learning skills; EP entrepreneurial potential; CL computer literacy; AA academic achievements. Figure 2: The distribution of mean and SD values for the variables obtained from pre test post-test measurements

The calculation of the effect size (n./d.) also proved that the intervention model had a statistically significant effect on the variables in the EG

��ℎ��′�� = (6514 8261) ⁄ 1649719 = 10589683 ��′�� = (65.14 82.61) ⁄ 1.876 = 9.312367 ��′�� = (6514 8261) ⁄ 1652434 = 10572286

The results of the semi structured interview, (�� =23) Question 1. Seventeen respondents were generally positive about the educational intervention. Their reasons for their approval were as follows: 1) the course was much more engaging than the other ones; 2) the theory was delivered through practical assignments usually performed in teams. 3) it helped to improve computer, search (learning strategies), analytical, and persuasion skills. Three students were neutral in their judgements reporting that the content was useful and the format was challenging. Two students expressed negative feelings related to the increased workload they had when participating in the projects and they felt exhausting.

SDLSEPCLAA

The results in Figure 2 that supplies additional data to Table 2 suggest that the values for self directed learning skills increased in both groups but they were greater by 10 points in the EG. There was a marked increase in the figures for the entrepreneurial potential and computer literacy by 21% in the students of the EG, compared to 13% in the CG students.

Question 2. Twenty students found that they could self plan, self manage, and self reflect their learning activity. Three respondents additionally mentioned the professionalism related knowledge and skills that were gained through the on 0.00 20.00 40.00 60.00 80.00 100.00 120.00 CG after intervention EG after intervention CG before intervention EG before intervention

the job training. The students reported that they had more responsibility for the results and quality of their work.

Question 4. All the students used checklists to comply with the quality requirements of the content. To deal with combining Chemistry with marketing, the students attended additional online courses in SMM, copywriting, and self studied related software, literature, and best practices. All participants used My Study Life App to schedule their work. All the above students considered effective.

Question 5. Five students suggested that incorporating business incubator practice into the curriculum would be helpful and promising. Eleven students advised using the practice of creating international cross functional teams. They were confident that those teams could serve as a kind of benchmarking tool for them to adjust to. Seven students suggested changing curriculum shifting focus from conventional theory driven learning to 21st century learning that is based on self directed learning through technology and entrepreneurship skills.

Limitations The use of the only online format to influence self directed learning skills, the number of sampled students, and institutions involved in the experiment can be considered limitations to the study.

Question 3. Fifteen students mentioned that the felt challenged by the quality requirements of the content when designing a purchase funnel. The respondents confessed that combining knowledge in Chemistry with marketing was quite a problem for them. Five students informed that their computer skills were insufficient for doing assignments in both labs on the NEURON and the entrepreneurship purpose projects. Three respondents faced problems with procrastination. Concerning the reasons, the common one was the inability to work under pressure.

4. Discussion The novelty of the study lies in combining context based and project based learning of the graduate pharmaceutists, and pedagogical tools to implement the entrepreneurship technology driven environment which boosts the existing research in teaching Chemistry to tertiary students of Çiğdemoğlu (2012), Magwilang (2016), and Seery and McDonnell (2019) The study aimed at defining how the originally developed technology mediated learning environment influenced self directed learning skills. The entrepreneurial, computer literacy, and academic achievement perspectives were focused on when teaching Chemistry courses to Masters in Pharmacy The students’ views, beliefs, and experiences the interviewed students associated with the educational intervention model designed for the study were also studied. It

The results of the above interview increased the reliability of this study that proved that the educational intervention improved students’ self directed learning skills, specifically those related to entrepreneurship, and enriched their learning experiences that are of their occupational appropriateness.

The interview was of the confirmatory purpose. It was chosen because the interviews are appropriate for exploring people’s perceptions and experiences (Adams, 2015), to reconstruct the students’ thought processes while dealing with the assignments. The use of the open ended questions was intended to identify the most common views, beliefs, and experiences that could be categorised under certain themes and rated Following that, students’ responses in the interview were used to determine whether they perceived the educational intervention positively or negatively and whether they perceived the model to be appropriate for their future occupation Overall, the interview results showed that the EG students found the Chemistry course much more engaging and practical in terms of computer, search (learning strategies), analytical, and persuasionskills. It meets the students’ demand for incorporating business incubator practice into the university curriculum. The study complies with the previous research. It agrees with the theory of enterprise education (Turner & Mulholland, 2018) advocating embedding enterprise education in university and college programmes. It goes in line with the conclusions of Maloney et. al. (2013), Sirkemaa and Varpelaide (2018) and Gune, More and Supriya (2018) stating that the online resources should be time efficient for both students and instructors, engaging, linked to the students’ professional context and stimulate discussion among the students. The results of the study are also consistent with the views of Toit (2019) claiming that the challenging environment accelerates the process of fostering self directed learning skills that is related to students’ previous learning experience, their learning styles, and their positive attitude towards challenges. Since fostering self directed learning skills in the students majoring in Pharmacy from the entrepreneurial perspective using technology is still beyond the research scope, this study might be considered a noteworthy contribution.

was found that the participants of the EG who received project based online training in entrepreneurship showed significant improvement by approximately 20%, the result is significant at �� < 05 in self directed learning skills, entrepreneurial potential, computer literacy, and academic achievements compared to the results of forty five students of the CG that appeared to be not significant at p < .05. These findings were then supported by the students participating in the interview. They proved that they could self plan, self manage, and self reflect their learning activity better, they gained professionalism related knowledge and skills and had more responsibility for the results and quality of their work. The values for self directed learning skills increased in both groups but they were greater by 10 points in the EG. There was a marked increase in the figures for the entrepreneurial potential and computer literacy by 21% in the students of the EG, compared to 13% in the CG students. The effect size was also statistically significant.

5. Conclusion

The results of the study suggest a technology mediated learning environment combining the professionalism related onlinecourse with an online collaboration based entrepreneurship project foster self directed learning skills bringing

We express our sincere appreciation to those who supported the research team and contributed to the experiment so that the study ran smoothly.

Conflicts of Interest

Further studies are needed in methods of training Master’s Degree Pharmacy students in Marketing.

substantial educational and professional benefits like developed entrepreneurial skills, computer skills, and better academic performance to the students majoring in Pharmacy. It was supported by measurements of the variables showing that the participants of the EG who received project based online training in entrepreneurship showed significant improvement by approximately 20%, the result is significant at �� < .05 in self directed learning skills, entrepreneurial potential, computer literacy, and academic achievements compared to the results of forty five students of the CG that appeared to be not significant at p < .05. The intervention model was also perceived positively by the participants. The reloaded training model in Chemistry engaged students in the students’ professional context learning. They substantially improved their self directed learning skills by doing specifically arranged problem solving purposes activities.

The positive change in students’ perceptions of the Chemistry course occurred due to the pedagogical refinements and refurbishments made to it.

The study implies that a technology mediated challenging environment that combines knowledge in Chemistry with marketing can accelerate the process of fostering self directed learning skills in terms of self planning, self managing, and self reflecting their learning experience. It was found that there are several prerequisites to implementation of the model such as teacher training in Marketing before the course based on this model is delivered, or outsourcing training in Marketing from the alumni network; or buying the online course in Marketing from Udemy (the English language delivered) or Eduget (the Ukrainian language delivered) or any other learning platform. However, the course in Marketing should be tailored to the students’ specialism. It is also important that the students build the Telegram or What’s up or Viber community to share their experiences.

The authors have no conﬂicts of interest associated with this research to declare.

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6 I navigate the course placed on the NEURON or MOODLE easily.

4 I find information on the Internet quickly and easily using at least three web search strategies.

8 I catch up with my computer skills due to learner support.

2 I use more than 75% of all functions of MS PowerPoint when designing presentation slides.

computersuseeducationalofPerceptiontheof

5 I am a confident networking person who purposefully uses social media.

20 Internet based and technology mediated learning better suits my learning styles.

1 I use approximately 65% of all functions of MS Word and 30% of the functions of the computerised spreadsheets (MS Excel) when processing documents

Ibelievethatthestatistical analysisofpharmaceutical andmedical data of the company should be a part of our curriculum.

7 I can use all the materials and linked apps easily/intuitively.

16 The Internet based and technology mediated learning appeals more to me and my friends than the conventional mode of study.

17 Internet based and technology mediated learning has more advantages and brings more benefits than the conventional learning of Chemistry courses.

18 Internet based and technology mediated learning changes improve my academic self efficacy.

19 Internet based and technology mediated learning provides me with access to the latest advances in the medical field.

3 I am a confident user of at least one video editor (producing) software.

14 I am sure that NEURON and MOODLE based courses meet the students’ needs in qualitative occupational training.

15 The use of computers makes my medical education more competitive. The internet in educationmedical

9 I fail to do the assignments because of my computer skills.

skillsofApplicationcomputer

Self administered questionnaire to self assess the computer skills Section Question skillscomputerElementary

10 I need extra training to be more computer literate for the course delivered through NEURON or MOODLE.

11 I am sure that the students should learn how to use software such as Hortor, Ecofin, Expertus used in pharmacy.

12 I am confident that students should learn how to use electronic communication channels and electronic marketing (e marketing) to promote pharmaceutical products.

The initial reliability test obtained 8.9 Cronbach’s alpha. Data gathering procedure was done through Google forms, which, after validation from the respective DepEd divisions and universities, were subsequently sent to the teachers via email. The results show that the teachers were highly aware of the presence and consequences caused by the COVID 19 pandemic. The correlation between teacher’s demographic profiles and awareness to COVID 19 shows no relationship at all. Nevertheless, the length of teaching experience and specialization is very strongly correlated to readiness to distance learning education. Simultaneously, the teachers’ geographic location is strongly correlated to readiness to adapt to distance learning education. Furthermore, only the teachers’ gender has a significant difference in their awareness of the COVID 19 pandemic. In contrast, teachers’ gender, length of teaching experience, and geographic location have significant differences with their readiness to distance learning education. This study can be used as a basis for

Teachers’ Covid 19 Awareness, Distance Learning Education Experiences and Perceptions towards Institutional Readiness and Challenges

127 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 6, pp. 127 144, June https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.6.82020

https://orcid.org/0000 0002 5170 1531 Miguel Frosyl Fabrea Ramon Magsaysay High School, Manila, Philippines https://orcid.org/0000 0001 6866 1102 Robledo Dave Arthur Roldan St Jude Catholic School, Manila, Philippines https://orcid.org/0000 0003 4035 2791 Alam Zeba Farooqi De La Salle University, Manila, Philippines https://orcid.org/0000 0003 1108 576X

Abstract. AmidstthethreatofCOVID 19pandemicinthePhilippines,the educators, students, and the school are still coping and adjusting to the distance learning education. This study explored teachers' awareness about the COVID 19 pandemic and their opinion on their respective schools’ readiness, as well as their response to the challenges of conducting distance learning education in the Philippines. A validated questionnaire was developed to collect the relevant data for this study.

Lapada Aris Alea Eastern Samar State University, Eastern Samar, Philippines

1. Introduction

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. further research particularly in developing institutional plans to better understand the status of their teachers and educational organizations, and schools’ readiness to teach and learn through distance learning approach; hence, preserving and continuing educational mission during the current or future pandemic as well as be prepared for any natural disasters.

Keywords: COVID 19 pandemic; teachers’ awareness; readiness; distance learning education

Responding to the call of WHO, the Department of Education (DepEd, Philippines), created a series of DepEd Memorandum (DM) No. 15, 21, 23, 31 and 34 in the first quarter of 2020 entitled “Creation of a Task Force for the Management of Department of Education Response to Novel Coronavirus Acute Respiratory Disease (2019 nCoV ARD)” (Department of Education, 2020a). The DepEd, Philippines, also created a learning website called DepEd Commons catering for Alternative Learning School (ALS) students, Out of School Youth (OSYA), regular learners from Kindergarten to Grade 8. The online learning hub

The newly identified β coronavirus was first named the 2019 novel coronavirus first occurred at Wuhan,China, in December 2019. On February 11, 2020, the 2019 novel coronavirus was officially named SARS CoV 2 by the World Health Organization (WHO), also known as the COVID 19 (Guo etal., 2020). The COVID 19 is not just causing health crises around the world, but it is also affecting all spheres of life, including the field of education. Educators resorted to online platforms to reach out to students, webinars became a temporary classroom, parents were called for monitoring at home, and students got deprived of social interaction among peers. The WHO advised educators and students to conduct alternative learning due to the COVID 19 outbreak to mitigate school cancellation of classes through providing a resource list of the World Bank’s Edtech teams to provide some online materials that can be used during the pandemic. The program aims to elevate the loss of learning and provide remote learning opportunities while schools are closed. Furthermore, the mandate provides guiding principles and delivery of online classes and approaches to be given by stakeholders like teachers and parents (World Bank, 2020a). Various countriesaround theworld, Colombia,Italy, Japan,Poland etc., including the Philippines, responded to the call of WHO through their respective Ministry of Education. Various educational platforms were utilized like YouTube, learning management system (LMS), digital library, internet streaming or broadcast, repositories like Open Educational Resources (REA), and the like based on their availability in a particular country. Higher education makes use of Zoom and Google Hangouts, while teachers were encouarged to take advantage of various websites, such as Facebook, WhatsApp, Google forms. EdTech Hub, UNESCO Education Alliance, Learning Keeps Going (U.S. consortium), Inter-Agency Network for Education in Emergencies (INEE ), Commonwealth of Learning, and many others (World Bank, 2020b).

The COVID 19 pandemic led educators to online education readiness. According to Phan & Dang (2017), factors such as training, attitude, technical competence, time constraints, pedagogy, and methodology were among the major distance learning education elements. In a study conducted by Ventayin (2018) on the readiness of DepEd Teachers to online teaching, showed that despite the limited experience in distance education such as technical skills, time management, knowledge and attitude in online education, they were still able to cope with the trends in distance learning. Moreover, readiness and satisfaction levels were also found among prospective teachers in other countries like Turkey and Thailand in terms of web based education (Ozturk, Ozturk & Ozen, 2018; and Akarawang, Kidrakran & Nuangchalerm, 2015). Further, in the study on the response from 205 online faculty of higher institutions in the United States in terms of readiness, attitude and ability to teach online in terms of course design, course communication, time management and technical aspects most of the responses were rated high (Martin, Budhrani & Wang, 2019).

The Technical Education Skills Development Authority (TESDA), has recorded 19,598 enrollees in technical vocational courses that use various platforms online in the first three weeks of enforced Luzon wide lockdown (Esguerra, 2020). As the students studying in the major cities moved to the provinces as persons under monitoring or persons under investigation for at least 14 days, the majority of families and households had to adjust to community quarantine that eventually modified into Enhanced Community Quarantine (ECQ). The ECQ became an opportunity for many people to enroll in various technical vocational courses online, such as the overseas Filipino workers (OFW) around the world. The latter was also affectedby massive lockdown. In the global contextof thework stoppage eventually, fast track adoption of digital transformation led to unprecedented changes like work from home and widespread use of online learning applications (Quimba et al. (2018). When the community quarantine started, it was almost the end of the school year among the K to 12 learners; hence, teachers used the Learners’ Information System (LIS) online to finish their classes to submit the last quarter grades of their students. School year and semester had ended within the ECQ, which led the basic education schools and universities to adapt the distance learning education.

Furthermore, another study on distance education readiness found 90% of the total special education and preschool teachers surveyed got motivated to implement distance education despite having diverse students, lack of specialists, home schooled, under long medical treatment, attending short stay with group or family and private school (Fedina et al., 2017). Likewise, in another study, higher education mentors show a positive attitude and motivation to teach university students special needs like hearing and visually impaired despite the risk and challenges in learning materials, pedagogy, monitoring, implementation and

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. is available both for public and private schools all over the country. The website aims to reinforce education anytime and anywhere suitable for learners who have access to the internet using equipment such as smartphones, tablets, laptops, and desktop computers (Department of Education, 2020b)

2. Methodology

The descriptive research design was adapted in realizing this pursuit (Nassaji, 2016). This study assessed teachers' awareness of COVID 19 pandemic, readiness to distance learning education, and the perceived challenges of distance learning education during the ECQ in the Philippines. Data gathering procedure was done through Google forms, which were sent to the respective DepEd divisions and universities and subsequently sent to the teachers via email. The random sampling technique was utilized to gather responses from teachers regardless of their gender, length of teaching experience, location of school (urban or rural), school type (public or private), and level of affiliated institution (Elementary, Secondary, Senior High School and College). A total of 2300 responses were received in two weeks' time from the different schools’ divisions and universities in the Philippines.

2.1 Research Instruments

The instrument, “Questionnaires on Teachers Awareness, Readiness and Online Learning Experience During COVID 19 ECQ,” is a researcher made questionnaire. This instrument was divided into four parts: (1) collecting information about the demographic profile of respondents, (2) teachers’ awareness of COVID 19 tailored from the “Coronavirus Disease 2019 Report” (WHO, 2020), (3) teachers’ readiness and school preparedness to distance learning education tailored from the “Distance Education Models and Best Practices” (Academy Administration Practice, 2011) and (4) challenges in distance learning education during the enhanced community quarantine in the Philippines tailored from the study of Musingafi, Mapuranga, Chiwanza and Zebron, (2015). The questionnaire was face and content validated by the experts in distance learning education and experts in health to ensure that items about COVID 19 are scientifically correct and relevant. The final evaluation was done by five more experts, which consisted of a high school teacher, two university Professors, and two Department of Education Public School District Supervisor (PSDS). The suggestions and corrections were incorporated in the final format of the instrument before disseminating it online. Furthermore, the survey tool got 8.9 Cronbach’s alpha in the initial reliability test conducted two weeks before the study commenced.

This study aimed to find the factors and determinants that can facilitate a smooth transition to distance learning in the Philippines. It is already being predicted that it will be used as a primary mode of imparting education during the pandemic (Dill, et al., 2020).

2.2 Data Analysis

All data collected and tabulated from the Google form within the first two weeks of ECQ was considered part of the study. Descriptive statistics was used to

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. psychological understanding (Movkebayeva et al., 2018). As this pandemic is slated to exist until the preventive vaccine is discovered, it is essential to know how the educators who are the prime facilitators of the education adjusted to this transition and what challenges they faced while adapting to this transition as their preparedness for the coming times.

describe the demographic profile, teachers’ awareness about COVID 19, distance learning education readiness, and its challenges. Non parametric tests were also used to draw inferences on the data collected. The Mann Whitney U test and Kruskal Wallis test were utilized to compare the means of teachers’ demographic profile to awareness of COVID 19 and readiness to distance learning education. Moreover, Spearman Rho was calculated to correlate the teachers’ awareness of COVID 19 and readiness to distance learning education as well as their demographic profile to teachers’ awareness of COVID 19 and readiness to distance learning education. Table 1 shows Spearman’s Rho correlation interpretation adapted from Dancey and Reidy (2004).

3. Results 3.1 Teacher’ demographic profile Around 2300, teachers all over the country participated in this study. As it is shown in Table 2, teachers from Luzon (43%) dominated the population size of the study followed by Mindanao (29%) and the least in number is Visayas (28%); likewise, dominated by teachers who are teaching in urban areas and teachers who are teaching in the high school level. In terms of the gender of the participants, most of the teachers were females and mostly with teaching experience of six (6) to ten (10) years. More responses from female teacher respondents than male teacher respondents were expected because, according to Esplada (2010), DepEd records showed that 86 percent of the total population of teachers in the Philippines are female.

In terms of the teaching specialization, the participants were divided according to strands currently used by the Senior High School program in the Philippines. Most of the participants were teaching subjects under the Science Technology Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) strand, whereas the Technical Vocational Livelihood strand majors were the least in terms of numbers. A few teachers from private and international schools (0.09%) also participated in the study.

Table 1. Interpretation table of Spearman rank order correlation coefficients Spearman p Correlation ≥ 0.70 Very strong relationship 0.40 0.69 Strong relationship 0.30 0.39 Moderate relationship 0.20 0.29 Weak relationship 0.01 0.19 No or negligible relationship

*This descriptor applies to both positive and negative relationships.

132 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Table 2. Teachers’ Demographic Profile Frequency Percentage(%) Teachers’ Schools Location Urban 2104 91 Rural 196 9 School Type Public 2297 99 Private 21 1 Teachers’ Geographic Location Luzon 995 43 Visayas 650 28 Mindanao 656 29 Teachers’ Gender Male 383 17 Female 1917 83 Teachers’ Teaching Experience Belowyears5 299 13 6 10 years 1370 60 11 15 years 496 21 16 20 years 86 4 21 andyearsabove 49 2 Teachers’ Specialization STEM 1134 49 HUMMS 588 26 ABM 439 19 TECHVOC 141 6 Level of Education Taught Elementary 698 60 SchoolHigh 1443 63 College 159 7 3.2 Teachers’ COVID-19 awareness and readiness to distance learning education Table 3 shows the percentage of teachers’ awareness of the COVID 19 pandemic, which consisted of a five statement survey. Most of the respondents acknowledged that they were aware of COVID 19 being a global pandemic that can easily transmit in populated areas like schools. The fact that news and information about the COVID 19 pandemic can be easily accessed through various media such as the internet, TV, radio, and social media; however, 28 out of 2300 teachers are not aware that Luzon is under ECQ.

3.3 Readiness of Educational Institutions and Schools

2 Aware that the government declared the Enhanced Community Quarantine in Luzon. 2256 (99) 28 (0) 16 (0) 3 Aware that the government declared the Enhanced Community Quarantine in Luzon. 2256 (99) 0 (0) 1 (0) 4 Aware of the Dos and Don'ts during the Enhanced Community Quarantine. 2299 (99) 0 (0) 1 (0) 5 Aware of the importance of social distancing to prevent the spread of COVID 19. 2289 (99) 5 (0) 1 (0)

It can be gleaned from these results that almost all of the teachers who accomplished the survey are aware of the COVID 19 pandemic and its effect on the studies of their students. This information is vital as this survey was conducted during the initial stages of pandemic spread and lockdown where a lot of chaos and confusion was rampant not only in the Philippines but all over the World.

1 Aware that COVID 19 is a global pandemic. 2299 (99) 1 (0) 0 (0)

The respondents' schools were also surveyed by asking their opinions on the readiness of their respective institutions. 62% of the respondents answered YES when asked if their school has an information dissemination system to communicate with the parents and the learners during the COVID 19 outbreak (Table 4). However, in terms of the capacity building on distance learning education offered by the school to teachers (40%) and if it has a designated

Table 3. Percentage of teachers’ and schools’ readiness to distance education due to COVID 19 Pandemic Teachers’ Awareness to COVID 19 YES (%) NO (%) Maybe (%)

Table 3 shows the percentage of teachers’ and schools’ readiness to distance education due to the COVID 19 pandemic. This part of the survey was composed of two parcels, the first parcel was the teachers’ readiness to distance learning education. In contrast, the second parcel was the schools’ readiness to distance learning education. Almost 99% of respondents answered “YES” when asked if they were ready to conduct distance learning education during difficult times; however, only 69% confirmed in affirmative when asked if they were prepared to use the printed module as a tool for distance learning. 58% of the respondents were ready to use online modules or learning materials available on the internet, such asYoutube,Ted Talk andKhan Academy and learning managementsystems like Edmodo, Canvas, Google Classroom, and Zoom as means of online or distance learning education. To the question, if they are well equipped and ready for distance learning, the respondents' response was not equally divided, with 51% of respondents giving their answers in affirmative. These results imply that the lack of facilities, equipment, and capacity building to distance learning education hinder the teachers in offering distance learning education.

4. Ready to utilize learning management systems like Edmodo, Canvas, Google Classroom, or Zoom as a means of online or distance learning education.

6. The school has a system of information dissemination to communicate with the parents and the learners during the CoVid 19 outbreak.

workforce for the COVID 19 (45%), only a few answered “YES.” Moreover, 51% of the respondents replied “YES” when asked if their school has provided the regulations and policies on distance learning to protect students' identity and data privacy. Still, only 37% answered “YES” when asked if their school has provided supplementary materials for distance learning such as subscriptions to online libraries and the procurement of online learning management systems.

1331 (58) 526 (23) 443 (19)

7. The school has provided capacity building on distance learning education management for teachers. 917 (40) 744 (32) 639 (28)

Based on the responses regarding their schools' readiness on distance learning education, though most of the respondents are teaching in urban areas, there are still several basic education schools that are not equipped with the facilities, amenities and training to distance learning education during difficult times. Since the education system is going to avoid face to face interaction, the school/institutions will have to play a vital role in this journey of transition since they are the ones who provide training and workshops for the teachers to be equipped with the skills and knowledge in distance learning education. Furthermore, the schools/insitutions are the ones who plan, implement and evaluate a school activity or program like distance learning education to ensure their success.

8. The school has a designated workforce for the COVID 19. 1026 (45) 656 (30) 568 (25)

5. Well equipped and ready for distance learning since I attended a training or workshop on distance learning education management. 1170 (51) 526 (24) 568 (25) Schools’ Preparedness to Distance Learning Education Due to COVID 19 Yes (%) No (%) Maybe (%)

1415 (62) 397 (17) 488 (21)

2. Ready to use the printed module as a tool for learning at home. 1589 (69) 238 (10) 473 (21)

Table 4. Percentage of teachers’ and schools’ readiness to distance education due to COVID 19 Pandemic Teacher’s Readiness to Distance Learning Education Due to COVID 19 YES (%) NO (%) Maybe (%)

3. Ready to use online modules or learning materials available on the internet such as Youtube, Ted Talk, and Khan Academy.

1. Ready to conduct distance learning education to my students in times of COVID 19 2299 (99) 0 (0) 0 (0)

1330 (58) 525 (23) 444 (19)

3.4 Teachers’ Challenges in Distance Learning education

In addition, the respondents also agreed that they encountered challenges in the use of social media, emails and other platforms of distance learning education ( M=2.66; SD= 0.90), giving instruction and responding to queries through email and messages (M=2.68; SD= 0.90), encouraging participation and utilization of features in online classes (M= 2.72; SD=0.89), time management in the conduct of classes, monitoring of responses, availability of students and other online classes issues (M=2.73; SD=0.89) and the sudden shift from face to face to online classes (M=2.69; SD= 0.88). Lastly, respondents also agreed that they faced problems managing the stress caused by community quarantine at home and in between online classes demands (M=2.71; SD=87). As well as beating the deadlines and requirements set by the school administrators (M=2.60; SD=0.88), establishing a network of communication among stakeholders such as parents for support at home (M= 2.74; 0.85), checking and evaluating students output from the email of an online learning Management System (2.67; 0.88) and building a positive environment in online classes through emotional support among students aside from content based teaching and learning (M= 2.70; SD=0.88). Such problems would be easily solved if adequately addressed. The school should carefully plan how they will offer a distance learning education to students. Also, continued monitoring and evaluation of the program would significantly help enhance the system of distance learning education.

1165 (51) 556 (24) 579 (25) 10 The school has provided supplementary materials for distance learning such as subscriptions to online libraries, procurement of online learning management systems. 851 (37) 748 (33) 701 (30)

The mean (M) and standard deviation (SD) were the bases of determining the teachers’ perceptions of the challenges in delivering distance learning education (Table 5). The SD pertains to how the data were spread out. A high standard deviation means that the data looks spread out. The values are interpreted as 0.0 1.0 = Strongly Disagree; 1.1 2.0= Disagree; 2.1 3.0= Agree; and 3.1 4.1=Strongly TheAgree.problems encountered by teachers in offering distance learning education are the challenges on knowledge and skills required in delivering distance learning education classes (M= 2.71; SD= 0.88), problems on establishing communication with students (M=2.75; SD=0.89), challenges on having stable internet access intended for distance learning education (M=2.69; SD=0.99), challenges on the use of phones, laptops, and tablets or any devices for distance learning education (M=2.67; SD= 0.88), and challenges on the use of any Learning Management System (M=2.71; SD= 0.86).

9. The school has provided the regulations and policies on the use of distance learning to protect student’s identity and data privacy.

136 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Table 5. Perceived challenges in distance learning education ITEM (N=MEAN2300) SD InterpretationVerbal 1 Challenges on Knowledge and skills required in delivering distance learning education classes 2.71 0.88 AGREE 2 Challenges on establishing communication with my students 2.75 0.89 AGREE 3 Challenges on having stable internet access intended for distance learning education 2.69 0.99 AGREE 4 Challenges on the use of phones, laptops, and tablets or any devices for distance learning education 2.67 0.88 AGREE 5 Challenges on the use of any Learning Management System (LMS) 2.71 0.86 AGREE 6 Challenges on Use of social media, e mails, and other platforms of distance learning education. 2.66 0.90 AGREE 7 Challenges on Giving instruction and responding to queries through e mail and messages. 2.68 0.90 AGREE 8 Challenges on Encouraging participation and utilization of features in online classes 2.72 0.89 AGREE 9 Challenges on Time management in the conduct of classes, monitoring of responses, availability of students, and other online classes issues. 2.73 0.89 AGREE 10 Challenges on the sudden shift from face to face to online classes. 2.69 0.88 AGREE 11 Challenges on Managing the stress caused by community quarantine at home and in between online classes demands. 2.71 0.87 AGREE 12 Challenges on Beating the deadlines and requirements set by the school administrators. 2.60 0.88 AGREE 13 Challenges on Establishing a network of communication among stakeholders such as parents for support at home. 2.74 0.85 AGREE 14 Challenges on Checking and evaluating students’ output from the e mail of an online Learning Management System. 2.67 0.88 AGREE 15 Challenges on Building a positive environment through online classes through emotional support among my students aside from content based teaching and learning. 2.70 0.88 AGREE

Table 6. Correlation between teachers’ demographic profile and awareness of COVID 19 pandemic and Readiness to distance learning education Category tailed)

Teachers’ ofAwarenessCOVID19 Interpretation Teachers’ toReadinessDistanceLearningEducation Interpretation Length experienceteachingof CorrelationCoefficient .0.39 RelationshipModerate 0.70** Very RelationshipStrong Sig. (2 tailed) .057 .001 School Public)(Private/Type CorrelationCoefficient .029 RelationshipNo .021 RelationshipNo Sig. (2 tailed) .158 .316 School (Urban/rural)location CorrelationCoefficient .004 RelationshipNo .004 RelationshipNo Sig. (2 tailed) .865 .849 Teachers’ Specialization CorrelationCoefficient .039 RelationshipNo 0.72** Very RelationshipStrong Sig. (2

.056 .001 Teachers’ locationGeographical CorrelationCoefficient .029 RelationshipNo 0.62** RelationshipStrong Sig. (2 tailed) .157 .003 * p ≤ 0.05; ** p≤ 0.01; N= 2300

3.5 Testing differences and relationships between teachers’ demographic profile and teachers’ awareness of COVID-19 and readiness in distance learning education Inferential statistics was used in testing relationships and differences among variables. Since the data drawn from this study are not normally distributed and have unequal variances, non parametric tests were used in drawing inferences. Such as the Spearman rho correlation for testing relationships between variables, Mann Whitney U tests for testing difference for two independent variables and Kruskal Wallis test for testing difference for three or more independent variables.

The correlation between teacher’s demographic profiles and awareness to COVID 19 shows no relationship at all (Table 6). This result entails that teachers’ awareness of the COVID 19 pandemic has nothing to do with their demographic profile since the pandemic facts are learned mostly through the media. However, in terms of the correlation between teachers’ demographic profiles and readiness to distance Learning education, the length of teaching experience and specialization are found to be very strongly correlated (“Very Strong Relationship”) to readiness to distance learning education. In contrast, the teachers’ geographic location is moderately correlated (“Strong Relationship”) to readiness to distance learning education.

teachers.

are

Tables7and8showthedifference between respondents’ demographic profile and awareness of the COVID 19 pandemic and the readiness to distance education. Among the respondents' demographic profiles, only their gender (U=358415; p= 0.008) has a significant difference with their awareness of COVID 19. Likewise, teachers’ gender (U= 346415; p= 0.006), length of teaching experience (X2(4)=19.093; p=0.001) and geographic location (X2(2)=10.937; p=0.004) differences with their readiness distance most respondents female it gleaned that female COVID 19 and male

teachers are more aware of the facts about

learning

have significant

learning education. Since

of the

teachers,

between teachers’ demographic profiles and awareness of

19 and readiness to distance education Category Teachers’ Awareness of COVID 19 Teachers’ Readiness to DistanceEducationLearning School (Private/TypePublic) Mann Whitney U 202368.000 196414.500 Z 1.411 1.004 Asymp. Sig. (2 tailed) .158 .316 Gender Mann Whitney U 358415.000 346415.000 Z 2.638 2.528 Asymp. Sig. (2 tailed) .008 .006 School (Urban/rural)location Mann Whitney U 202368.000 196414.500 Z 1.411 1.004 Asymp. Sig. (2 tailed) .158 .316 Table 8. Kruskal Wallis test between teachers’ demographic profiles and awareness of COVID 19 and readiness to distance education Category Teachers’ Awareness of COVID 19 Teachers’ Readiness to DistanceEducationLearning Length of experienceteaching Chi Square 6.035 19.093 df 4 4 Asymp. Sig. .197 .001 Teachers’ Specialization Chi Square 3.688 3.688 df 4 4 Asymp. Sig. .450 .450 Teachers’ Geographic location Chi Square 1.837 10.973 df 2 2 Asymp. Sig. .399 .004 Teachers’ level of education handled Chi Square 2.282 8.061 df 2 2 Asymp. Sig. .320 .068

can be

Table Mann-Whitney U test COVID

its effects on their students' studies than

Institutions can do this by providing sets of training and workshops; likewise, schools should invest more in the facilities and equipment for distance learning. It is continuously evolving; it is a must to be updated to cater to a changing learning environment (Bozkurt, 2019).

This study aimed to gather data on the awareness of teachers in the Philippines on COVID 19 pandemic and the challenges they have faced during the sudden shift from face to face classes to distance learning education. Teachers were aware that the Philippines had declared ECQ due to COVID 19 pandemic as well as the rules and regulations during the ECQ like the social distancing measures, which were strictly observed and implemented in schools and institutions based on observational modeling to alleviate school’s closure (Viner et al., 2020). In the case of China, the “One Stop Learning” was launched during the COVID 19 outbreak which aimed to develop an approach or program about the updates on COVID 19, public health issues, online education announcement, teachers preparation, academic research hub and logistic operation to pursue undisrupted learning (Huang, Liu, Tlili, Yang & Wang, 2020).

Based on the response made by the respondents on the readiness of their schools to distance learning education, and though most of the respondents are in the urban areas, there are still more basic education schools that are not equipped with the facility and training to distance learning education during difficult times.

To keep abreast of distance learning education trends, the teachers should be equipped with the knowledge and skills in distance learning education (Rhini, 2018). The creation of audio visual materials are viewed as very effective in increasing academic performance (Tang & Intai, 2017; and Lapada, 2017).

Today, the DepEd Philippines is slowly providing computers, tablets, and smart boards to schools which are center of excellence or central schools. These innovations are needed for distance learning education and for embracing the trend in education 4.0, which promotes the use of the E instruction system, enabling learners' autotomy achievement and implementing a task based and performance based on a specific learning goal (Chen & Huang, 2018; and Hussin, 2018). With regard to communicating with students, teachers may plan a strategy on how to keep in touch with students like the use of online platforms; however, due to unstable internet connection in rural areas, providing print based modules will also be useful. For elementary teachers, it is possible to communicate with their pupils through their parents. However, for students in high schools, teachers may use online platforms since they are tech savvy using technologies such as email and social media (Uslo, 2018). However, building a positive attitude in doing activities through distance learning should also be taught to students to work at their own pace. The students' activities and homework should also be interactive and suited to the learners to catch their interest (Mascreen, Pai, & Pai, 2012; and Harackiewicz, Smith & Priniski, 2016).

The length of teaching experience affects the readiness to distance learning education since teachers who have taught for several years have more experience dealing with difficult times like the pandemics or natural calamities (Kini &

For these challenging times, teachers have to re think of an intervention to deliver their lessons rather than face to face encounters. The school plays a vital role in this journey since they are the ones who provide training and workshops for the teachers to be equipped with the skills and knowledge in distance learning education (Darling Hammond et al., 2019). Distance learning education could build access for learners in college education. However, distance learning education might be hard to execute in the laboratory classes, yet they can boost technology utilization (Mahlangu, 2018). And lastly, the schools must know how to plan, implement and evaluate a school activity or program like distance learning education to ensure its success.

Almost all the teachers who participated in this study were highly aware of the COVID 19 pandemic andhow it is going to impactthe education oftheir students. The information is essential as the survey for this study was done during the

This pursuit is intended to accumulate information on teachers' awareness in the Philippines on COVID 19 pandemic and the difficulties they have experienced during the abrupt shift from face to face classes to distance learning education.

5. Conclusion

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Podolsky, 2016). However, the teachers with more number of years of teaching experience are by default in the older age group and hence are relatively less tech savy. This group of teachers particulary need more assitance in using the online tools to deliver their lessons. However, teachers who have served for a long time have had the opportunity to attend seminar workshops needed in offering distance learning education. Teachers’ specialization may also affect the teachers' readiness to distance learning education because some specialties under the Technical Vocational Livelihood (TVL) strand have better experiences in using technological materials used in teaching (Yunus et al., 2017). Moreover, the teachers’ geographical location may also affect distance education (Rivza & Bogdan, 2017). Luzon has the highest number of urbanized cities with stable internet connections and accessible roads compared with Mindanao and the Visayas; this is one of the reasons why teachers from urban areas are more ready to distance learning education than teachers from rural areas.

Furthermore, female respondents are more ready to offer distance learning education to their students. These results agree with other studies where it was reported that as per the international technology education standards in higher institutions, female respondents significantly differ in terms of technology literacy, which is a requirement for offering distance learning education (Alwraikat, 2017). Further, teachers with more years of teaching experience were also found to be more ready for distance learning education; moreover, the College teachers were the best in terms of their readiness to offer distance learning education compared to the basic education teachers. Teachers in college and university have more advanced facilities and equipment for teaching and learning. This is commendable as it is already known that support from stakeholders, accessibility, and culture based learning objectives are critical factors in institutional leadership and management among higher educational institutions that are adopting e learning (Singh et al., 2017).

The awareness of educators on the risk posed by the COVID 19 pandemic and the implementation of the enhanced community quarantine dictates a call for action for an alternative mode of learning. The adaptation of various online education institutions in the first two weeks of ECQ is a good indicator of good practices in the teaching and learning process. To prevent the second wave of the pandemic, it is recommended by this study that the schools should opt for distance learning for the coming school year along with providing teachers' capability building for distance learning education.

pandemic's initial period, which points to the overall higher levels of awareness among the teaching community. The teachers expressed their readiness to switch to distance learning education; however, they felt hampered due to lack of facilities, equipment, and capacity building to distance learning education. The correlation between teacher’s demographic profiles and awareness to COVID 19 showed no relationship at all. Nevertheless, the length of teaching experience and specialization were very strongly correlated to readiness to distance learning education while the teachers’ geographic location was strongly correlated to readiness to distance learning education. Furthermore, the teachers’ gender had a significant difference in their awareness of COVID 19. In contrast, teachers’ gender, length of teaching experience, and geographic location had significant differences with their readiness to distance learning education. Overall, the teaching community is mentally prepared to adapt to new and innovative ways of imparting knowledge, provided their institutions well support them.

The authors would like to extend their deepest gratitude to all the teachers in the Philippines who participated in the survey for this study.

Acknowledgement

6. Recommendations

Likewise, investing in the facilities and equipment needed for distance learning is an excellent idea to enhance the institution's capability in delivering distance learning to the students. It is further recommended to restructure the course syllabus that is simple and attainable in the learner's level of limited capacity restricted by social distancing. Specific measures such as adopting remote (Dixon & Kirmes, 2020) and flexible learning (Huang, Liu, Tlili, Yang & Wang, 2020) be considered for those who lack access to the internet connection and other resources. The feasibility of the delivery of printed materials through the local courier should also be taken into account. It will be beneficial to harness various media to feature academic lessons in audio, printed, and visual like TV and radio with schedule and monitoring based on conducive learning time. In terms of on the job training and practical laboratory works, contextualization of learning design and output can be considered. It will also be an advantage if there will be parent line communication or a portal (Miguel & Abulon, 2016) for the interest of completion, progress, and mental health monitoring at home. Furthermore, continued monitoring and evaluation of the distance learning education program would be a great help to enhance the system of delivering education.

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Abstract. The importance of teaching English as a second language has been given emphasis as stated in the Malaysian Education Blueprint (2013 2025). Previous studies had proven that it was extremely draining to teach vocabulary to pupils using conventional chalk and talk methods. Pupils were demotivated and they could not remember the words learned. Hence, this research was carried out to enhance and encourage pupils to learn vocabularies. Pocable is a form of game based learning and is initiated based on the concept taken from two popular games known as “Scrabble Board Game” and “Chinese Play Card Game”. Pear Deck was incorporated as an interactive online platform used to engage pupils in individual and social learning. In this quasi experimental research, pre test, post test, and survey questionnaire were applied to collect data from 40 Year Four pupils of four rural schools in Sarawak ranging from Subis and Bintulu districts. The data collected were analysed descriptively. The findings of the research showed that majority of the respondents had improvements in their vocabulary skills and 4C’s (cooperation and collaboration, communication, creative and critical thinking skills) and 1V (value). They were also encouraged to learn more vocabularies. This research had also shone some light on the potential use of Pocable Game as ESL learners had better memory retention of the vocabularies learned.

Keywords: Pocable Game; education; vocabulary; game based learning; primary pupils

145 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 6, pp. 145 160, June https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.6.92020 Enhancing Malaysian Primary Pupils’ Vocabulary Skills using Pocable Game and Pear Deck Chai Kar Ni, Bonaventure Jong, Mary Anne Dison, Sylvia Anak Thomas, Melor Md Yunus* and Ashairi Suliman Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia https://orcid.org/0000 0003 0258 3273 https://orcid.org/0000 0003 0754 6914 https://orcid.org/0000 0003 3150 2989 https://orcid.org/0000 0002 9576 8877 https://orcid.org/0000 0001 7504 7143 https://orcid.org/0000 0003 2796 9965

1. Introduction English language is the lingua franca of the modern world as it is the dominant language in international affairs (Thirusanku & Yunus, 2012). In fact, English is the lingua franca for different levels such as local, regional, national and international. English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) is also the study of the type of language that is used when different second language speakers interact (McKay, 2018). English as a lingua franca (ELF) is the teaching and learning of English language as the medium of communication for different native languages speakers. However, English is the second language in Malaysia. Lie and Yunus (2018) also mentioned that English is the global language of interaction. It is crucial for a person’s competencies development. This is because when a person is well proficient in English, this will enable them to excel in the Fourth Industrial Revolution. According to Reddy (2016), the market for English as a Second Language is booming. This is seen from the increased demand from the whole world towards both literacy and proficiency in the English language According to Yunus and Ek Hern (2011), due to globalisation in the world today, the Malaysian government has taken different steps to maximise the usage of English in our education system. Thus, the learners opt to take English to enable them to become part of the global economy who can communicate effectively with others. In Malaysia, the nation must acquire and learn English as a second language starting from the pre school level. In fact, vocabulary is one of the core elements of language aptitude and reflects how well listeners listen, speak, read and write (Kunnu, Uiphant & Sukwises, 2016). The importance of teaching English as a second language had been given emphasis in Malaysia so that pupils who are able to read and understand different English texts for information and enjoyment can be produced. Bakhsh (2016) stated that vocabulary is fundamental to learn any language. With these vocabulary words, pupils are able to read and understand a reading passage in their textbook. However, it was undeniable that the pupils were demotivated and they were unable remember the spelling and meaning of the words learned. As asserted by Lim, Yunus and Amin (2017), the academic performance and dominant use of mother tongue language had undeniably limited the pupils’ experience in learning English and thus, affected their vocabulary exposure. Since the use of English vocabulary is limited within the school period, the pupils of Primary 4 had limited opportunity to use and learn the language naturally. Therefore, this had indirectly impacted the learning of English vocabulary, especially in remembering the spelling of the vocabulary. In the Primary 4 English Language textbook and Dokumen Standard Kurikulum dan Pentaksiran (DSKP), pupils are targeted to master and learn a list of High Frequency Words which are crucial for their language development within the six years of primary schooling. These stipulated words are vital in assisting pupils to acquire the necessary vocabulary insights that are related to the various themes and contents introduced in the syllabus.

2. Literature Review

to Indriyani and Sugirin (2019), vocabulary is imperative to be acquired by the learners. Recent studies in second and foreign language acquisition emphasised that non native speakers need a good foundation of vocabulary knowledge in order to become successful English language users (Viera, 2016). Within the Malaysian context, the teaching and learning process of vocabulary in English language begins as early as Primary 1 and onwards to Primary 6 (Ministry of Education, 2017). The English language textbook has been the main source to teach and learn vocabulary through the different learning skills of listening, speaking, reading and writing. One of the criteria to teach and learn vocabulary is highlighted in the Standard Document for Primary School Curriculum, where after six years of primary schooling, pupils will be able to talk to their friends fluently in both formal and informal situations. They are also expected to be able to read and understand various English texts for information (Ministry of Education, 2017). Through vocabulary, pupils will be able to comprehend and express language in better form. Learning vocabulary helps pupils to know words and use them in the correct context. Pupils must acquire vocabulary skill in order to get other skills such as listening, speaking, reading and writing. Even though pupils realised the importance of vocabulary, most of them find it challenging to acquire this skill due to the difficulties in remembering and retaining the new words learned. For a primary school English learner, acquiring vocabulary

2.1 Teaching and Learning of Vocabulary Vocabulary is an important aspect in English language learning. It is the component that connects the four skills which are listening, speaking, reading and writing skill. In order to communicate well in the target language, pupils need to have enough number of words and they need to know how to apply them. Undoubtedly, it is a challenging task for English language teachers to equip primary pupils with adequate vocabulary even though many teaching strategies have been used to assist them in learning vocabulary (Yunus et al., According2020).

Thus, games would help the pupils to memorise and utilise new vocabularies more efficiently. According to Chirandon, Laohawiriyanon and Rakthong (2010), learning vocabularies through games could provide opportunities for target language practice, encourage the pupils to communicate by using all four language skills and create a real life situation for using language. The learning process could be enhanced through the use of technology. Incorporating Information and Communications Technology (ICT) in pupils’ learning is undoubtedly a better teaching method as compared to the conventional chalk and talk method as learners were able to focus more through a fun and relaxing atmosphere of learning (Hashim, Rafiq & Yunus, 2019). Hence, our aims for this research were to enhance Year Four pupils’ vocabulary skills and to encourage learners to learn vocabularies using Pocable Game and Pear Deck.

Currently, the use of technology in the field of education has brought great impact to the process of teaching and learning. According to Yunus et al. (2014), the use of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in education varies the teaching methods used in the class. In Malaysia, the use of technology has helped educators to adapt and develop several learning materials for the pupils to enrich their vocabulary. According to Noureddine (2017), the use of technology in a language classroom would contribute to positive language learning among learners. Therefore, many educationists have started using ICT to complement their teaching and learning activities. Similarly, many researchers agreed that technology provides children with a chance to learn four English skills not only within the class but also outside it by social interactions (Gee, 2005; Wang et al., 2008). In this paper, Pear Deck is used as a reinforcement tool to assist pupils in acquiring vocabulary skill. Pear Deck is an online learning site which was created by educators in order to support active learning among the pupils. It would also help to maximise the pupils’ achievement and to improve interpersonal relationships as well as their self esteem. The use of Pear Deck has been tested in thousands of real world classrooms. Pear Deck has eased teachers’ burden in creating active and collaborative learning environments in a language classroom. Thus, in this context, Pear Deck is used to support vocabulary learning in a fun and meaningful way.

2.3 Using Game in Vocabulary Learning

past researchers also believed that games can help teachers to create various meaningful contexts in which pupils can apply the usage of the language for communication in terms of exchanging information and expressing their own ideas especially in the spelling of new vocabularies (Derakhshan & Khatir, 2015). Therefore, it is evident that by combining learning and playing through games and using other technologies in their learning environments,

The use of games can facilitate the learning activities that teachers bring into their classroom. According to Taghiadeh et al. (2017), the use of games enables children to learn vocabulary better than using traditional ways. Shahriarpour and Kafi (2014) stated that using games makes pupils participate actively in the 21st century technological society. Playing games which are educational to pupils would give a chance for them to experience a more positive and encouraging learning environment (Takeuchi & Vaala, 2014). This is supported by Pomerantz and Bell (2007) who asserted that introducing educational games to pupils would create a fun and creative environment in the classroom. In fact, these elements are utterly important, especially in the case of language learning sessions where learners could easily lose their concentration due to short attention span. This is commonly seen during long periods of second language learning classes. Thus, using language learning games that contain detailed linguistic contents can be helpful. This can also motivate pupils who are driven by external components to use these games in proper contexts (Godwin Jones, Moreover,2014).

2.2 Integrating ICT in Language Classroom

3.2 Research Respondents

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. great impacts on pupils can be seen in their learning process. Kalaycioglu (2011) clearly stated that games used are always pupil centered and they can be adjusted to be in sync with the learning objectives, age of learners and the children’s level of proficiency. In short, through vocabulary games, learners will be more enthusiastic in learning vocabulary as games provide a multimedia context that engages the learners in vocabulary and key sentences (Derakhshan & Khatir, 2015; Segal Drori et al., 2010).

Besides, the usage of games is also effective in learning vocabulary because they usually involve friendly and healthy competition among learners and create a cooperative learning environment for the pupils (Calvo Ferrer, 2015). Hence, using games in teaching vocabulary is more attractive for children and motivates them to improve their English vocabulary. In fact, games help young learners to learn vocabulary with more motivation compared to traditional teaching ways (Tüzün et al., 2009). Al Neyadi (2007) stated that motivation is one of the important factors in learning a language A supportive environment that stimulates and engages the pupils in the learning process can ensure active participation in the learning of new vocabularies. Furthermore, Tsai (2012) mentioned that games can also enable children to overcome their learning problems and increase their motivation and confidence. Therefore, the Pocable game is used to enhance vocabulary skills among English language learners

According to Etikan, Musa and Alkassim (2016), purposive sampling is one of the sampling techniques in which the samples are not given equal chances of being included in the research. In fact, purposive sampling is a technique of selecting a sample of a population in order to determine the parameters of the whole population. It is an intentional selection of a respondent based on the characteristics the respondent possesses. Meanwhile, purposive sampling is also a non random technique which is not restricted to a set number of respondents and includes any underlying theories. Purposive sampling was used as the respondents were only chosen from low to intermediate level of English proficiency. By implementing purposive sampling, 40 Primary 4 pupils were selected for this quasi experimental research. This small sample size is effective to monitor the implementation process of the Pocable Game. The schools involved were SK Sungai Setulan, Bintulu, SK Sungai Selad, Bintulu, SK Kampung Bungai, Subis and SK Kampung Selanyau, Subis. The number of respondents in each school was ten pupils. The pupils chosen were of “Low Language Proficiency” to “Average Language Proficiency” of four different rural schools in Sarawak ranging from Subis and Bintulu

3.1 Research Design

3. Methodology

This is a quasi experimental method type of research design. It incorporated the pre test and post test design to evaluate the effectiveness of a treatment or any educational intervention towards the respondents.

3.4 Research Procedure

150 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. districts. Their level of proficiency was determined by their English language performance recorded in the School Based Assessment in the year 2019. Table 1: Number of respondents The School (District) Male Female Total number of respondents A (Bintulu) 4 6 10 B (Bintulu) 3 7 10 C (Subis) 6 4 10 D (Subis) 2 8 10 Total 40

Before the intervention was implemented, a pre test was conducted towards the respondents and the results were gathered and analysed. All the 20 targeted vocabularies were introduced by the researchers to the respondents using flash cards and word cards. In fact, all the 20 targeted vocabularies were introduced in four periods of lesson, where 5 vocabularies were introduced in each period of the lesson. After the 4th period of lesson, the pupils have covered all the 20 vocabularies by using flash cards. Then, the respondents were given 13 random Pocable Game cards. They were required to form a word of at least four letters that they have learned. Respondents were then required to read, spell and explain the meaning of the words that they had formed. Marks on the top right corner of the card were added and respondents had to jot down all vocabularies formed in their mini vocabulary book. The game would end once a single respondent had placed all of their cards and the respondent with the highest score wins. As enrichment activities after Pocable Game, the respondents were introduced to Pear Deck; an interactive online platform used to actively engage pupils in individual and social learning. Pear Deck was integrated to assist the pupils to remember better the vocabularies that they had learned using the Pocable Game.

3.3 Research Instrument

Three research instruments were used in this research. They were pre test, post test and followed by a survey questionnaire. Similar 20 spelling test and 20 matching words with their meanings were included in the pre test and post test (Appendix 1). After the implementation of the Pocable Game and Pear Deck, respondents were given a survey questionnaire (Appendix 2) regarding the intervention that they had experienced. The survey questionnaire consisted of five statements and each respondent was required to tick “agree” or “disagree” based on their personal experience of using Pocable Game and Pear Deck. The questionnaire was set to measure the pupils’ learning motivation on vocabulary. It was adapted from the measures developed by Pintrich and DeGroot (1990), which also focuses on evaluating the learners’ learning motivation.

Figure 7: All the vocabularies formed were jotted down in the vocabulary booklet.

Figure 8: The game ended when one respondent had placed all of his cards. Respondent with highest score won.

Figure 1: Pre test was conducted before the intervention. Figure 2: Teacher introduced 20 targeted vocabularies using flash cards and word cards.

Figure 5: Respondents read, spelled and explained the meaning of the word to obtain marks.

Figure 3: Each respondent was given 13 cards at random. Figure 4: Respondents formed at least four letters of words that they have learned.

Figure 10: Post-test was conducted after four weeks of intervention.

Figure 6: Respondents added up their marks on the top right corner of the card.

Figure 9: Pear Deck was used as an enrichment to help the respondents to retain the vocabularies learned.

The survey questionnaires were analysed descriptively. There were five statements in the survey questionnaire and respondents were required to tick “Agree” or “Disagree” based on the statements. The number of respondents who “Agree” or “Disagree” with the statements were counted and converted into percentage form. 4. Findings

3.5 Data Collection and Analysis

Table 2: Criterion Referenced Assessment (CRA) Score Grade Descriptor 80 100 A Excellent PASS 65 79 B Good PASS 50 64 C Satisfactory PASS 40 49 D Achieve Minimum Level (Adequate) PASS 0 39 E Below Minimum Level (Poor) FAIL

The three research instruments, mainly the pre test, post test and survey questionnaire were used to collect data. All of the data collected were tabulated and analysed descriptively. The scores of all 40 pupils in their pre test were compared to their scores in the post test. The scores were calculated according to the percentage score formula. The scores were then analysed and placed with reference to the Criterion Referenced Assessment (CRA) which was used in the Malaysian Primary School Achievement Test to determine the comprehension level of respondents based on the scores collected through the pre test and post test. The CRA was first introduced in the United Stated in 1960s as a demand in determining the grade of a learner against a set of qualities or criteria, without reference to other individuals’ achievement (Hambleton & Li, 2014; Lok, McNaught & Young, 2016). Pupils with test scores of 80 to 100 were categorised as Excellent and had successfully attained the highest level of vocabulary comprehension, followed by the test scores from 65 to 79 in the Good level, 50 to 64 in the Satisfactory level and 40 to 49 achieving Minimum level. Lastly, the scores from 0 to 39 indicated Failure and the lowest level of vocabulary comprehension. Table 2 shows the Criterion Referenced Assessment (CRA) used for both the pre test and post test.

The data had been collected through pre test, post test and survey questionnaire. After identifying the pupils’ scores, the scores were then analysed and placed with reference to the Criterion Referenced Assessment (CRA). CRA had been accepted world wide and for this research, CRA based on the Malaysian Primary School Achievement Test would be used to determine the vocabulary skills of the pupils based on the scores collected through the pre test and post test. Table 3 and Figure 11 showed the descriptive statistics of the data collected from both the pre test and post test.

Figure 11: Respondents’ scores in the pre test and post test In Table 3 and Figure 11, there was an improvement in the results of the respondents’ post test. As for grade A, there was one respondent who managed to obtain grade A but in the post test, there were 30 respondents managed to get grade A. As for grade B, only two respondents obtained the grade in the pre test, while in the post test, there were 10 respondents who managed to obtain the grade. This showed an increase by 8 respondents, who had grade B. There was one respondent who got grade C in the pre test, whereby in the post test, none of the respondents got grade C. This implied that the use of Pocable Game and Pear Deck managed to enhance the vocabulary skills among the learners. 30 respondents scored grade D in their pre tests while none of the respondents received this grade in the post test. This is the same for grade E, where six respondents had grade E in the pre test, but none of them obtained the same grade in the post test. The results showed that the Pocable Game and Pear Deck were able to enhance the vocabulary skills among the learners. All the respondents obtained a good grade and they showed improvements in their vocabulary learning.

153 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Table 3: Results of the Pre test and Post test Score Grade Number of Pupils Pre-test Post-test 80 100 A 1 30 65 79 B 2 10 50 64 C 1 0 40 49 D 30 0 0 39 E 6 0

Moreover, Table 4 describes the descriptive statistics of the data collected from the survey questionnaire gauging on the improvement in vocabulary skills, collaboration and motivation aspects after the implementation of Pocable Game and Pear Deck. of the Pre-test and Post-test Pre-test Post-test

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 A B C D EParticipantsofNumber Grade Results

On the aspect of collaboration, 90% of the respondents agreed to the statement of “I help my friends who cannot give the meaning of the vocabularies that they have formed”. This showed that the respondents were willing to collaborate with their peers in learning vocabularies through Pocable Game and Pear Deck. Through collaborative learning, the pupils would be able to develop 4C’s (cooperation and collaboration, communication, creative and critical thinking skills) and 1V (value) in this 21st century education system as stated in the Malaysia Education Blueprint 2013 2025 (Ministry of Education, 2015).

4. I can remember the meaning of the vocabularies learned. 40 (100) 0 (0)

1. I have fun while playing the Pocable Game and Pear Deck. 38 (95) 2 (5)

2. I help my friends who cannot give the meaning of the vocabularies that they have formed. 36 (90) 4 (10)

5. I am interested to play the Pocable Game and Pear Deck. 40 (100) 0 (0)

3. I know how to spell the vocabularies that I have learned. 40 (100) 0 (0)

Table 4: Data Collected from the Survey Questionnaire (n=40) NO. STATEMENTS AGREE n (%) DISAGREE n (%)

As illustrated in Table 4, Question 1 and 5 focused on the respondents’ motivational level while Question 2 focused on the respondents' collaborative skills throughout the Pocable Game and Pear Deck. On the other hand, Question 2 and 3 emphasised on the improvement in vocabulary skills after the implementation of Pocable Game and Pear Deck. Based on the motivational level as per implementation of the Pocable Game and Pear Deck, 95% of the respondents agreed with the aspect of “I have fun while playing the Pocable Game and Pear Deck” while 100% of the respondents agreed with the statement of “I am interested to play the Pocable Game and Pear Deck”.

The two statements highlighted that the learners were highly motivated and enthusiastic while learning vocabularies through Pocable Game and Pear Deck as compared to the traditional chalk and talk method.

For the aspect of improvement in vocabulary skills, 100% of the respondents agreed to both the statements of “I know how to spell the vocabularies that I have learned” and “I can remember the meaning of the vocabularies learned”.

Thus, these statements showed that through Pocable Game and Pear Deck, the respondents were able to remember the spelling and meanings of the vocabularies learned better. All in all, the five statements from the survey questionnaire indicated that the learners gained positive and constructive experiences in enhancing their vocabulary skills and they were encouraged to learn more vocabularies using Pocable Game and Pear Deck.

5.1 Enhancing the Vocabulary Skills among Learners

From the pre and post test result, it can conclude that the use of Pocable Game and Pear Deck managed to enhance the vocabulary skill among the Year Four respondents from four different schools. In the pre test, majority of the research respondents scored less than 45%. This indicated that the previous methods and techniques in teaching vocabulary were not effective. After the implementation of the Pocable Game and Pear Deck, the post test showed a significant increase in the score of the research respondents. All 40 respondents had scored 100% in their post tests. This showed that the incorporation of the Pocable Game with Pear Deck managed to reinforce the vocabularies learned among the pupils, which also adhered to the aim of this paper. Undeniably, according to Takeuchi and Vaala (2014), playing games which are educational to pupils would give a chance for them to experience a more positive and encouraging learning environment. Through the post test, it was also found that using the Pocable Game could enhance the pupils’ ability in memorising new vocabularies and encourage the pupils’ interaction in remembering the spelling and the meaning of the vocabularies. Vygotsky (1978) mentioned that games help in developing problem solving skills and enhances the creativity and communication among primary pupils. The pupils have to put in effort to remember not only the spelling of the vocabularies but the meanings too. Past researchers also believed that the use of games could help teachers to create various contexts in which pupils can use the language for communication, exchange information and express their own opinions especially in the spelling of new vocabularies (Derakhshan & Khatir, 2015). Besides, the survey questionnaire showed positive responses from the research respondents. It showed that all of the pupils agreed that they know how to spell and remember the meanings of the words that they had learned. This showed the effectiveness of using games in developing the pupils’ vocabulary skill. Moreover, Taghiadeh et al. (2017) also supported that the use of games enables children to learn vocabulary better than using traditional ways. Therefore, it could be concluded that the use of Pocable Game and Pear Deck is effective in enhancing the learners’ vocabulary skills.

Apart from that, it was also found that most of the respondents collaborated with their peers by helping them in giving the meaning of the vocabularies

5.2 Encouraging the Learners to Learn Vocabularies

From the survey questionnaire, it showed that the Pocable Game and Pear Deck had achieved its potential in encouraging learners to learn vocabularies. The research respondents showed positive responses as majority of them agreed to the statements in the survey questionnaire. The research respondents agreed that they were interested and had fun playing the Pocable Game and Pear Deck. This showed that learners were motivated to learn new vocabularies after the implementation of the Pocable Game and Pear Deck. According to Al Neyadi (2007), motivation is one of the important factors in learning a language and a supportive environment that stimulates and engages the pupils in learning will ensure active participation in the learning of new vocabularies.

As for teachers, it provides a platform for a pupil centred learning environment where pupils can carry out the activities through hands on activity. This reduced the teacher’s involvement in the learning process and allowed more autonomy for the pupils in learning the new and unfamiliar vocabularies. As independent word learners, pupils will learn best by making sense of their own vocabulary and internalising it. Through the usage of the Pocable Game, the teacher is only required to monitor the pupils’ learning. Thus, Pocable Game and Pear Deck shows the relevance to the improvement in the methodology of teaching vocabulary in a fun, interesting and meaningful way. As suggestions for future researches, it would be interesting to see the incorporation of other various technology based applications such as Quizizz, Kahoot, and Quick Response (QR) codes alongside open ended written questions, observations and open ended interviews.

formed. Games are effective in learning vocabulary because they “usually involve friendly competition and create cooperative learning environment to the pupils” (Derakhshan & Khatir, 2015). The communication between the learners showed that they were interested and participated actively in the learning process. It was a learner centred activity and provided a meaningful experience to the pupils as they interacted with each other and as a result, the acquisition of language vocabulary was encouraged (Segal Drori et al., 2010). Therefore, it could be concluded that Pocable Game and Pear Deck managed to encourage pupils to interact with each other and to participate actively in the learning of new vocabularies. This is supported by Shahriarpour and Kafi (2014) who stated that using games makes pupils participate actively in this 21st century technological society. Another distinct game based learning vocabulary activity which was conducted by Shabaneh and Farrah (2019) also supported that the learners were exposed with learning vocabulary through games to improve their reading and spelling of the vocabularies. Findings showed that the learners were able to enjoy while learning and show great improvements.

6. Conclusion and Implications

The use of Pocable Game and Pear Deck can help to enhance the pupils’ vocabulary skills. In this research, it was proven to be effective as the data collected from the pre test, post test and survey questionnaire showed that majority of the respondents had positive experiences in learning vocabulary through the Pocable Game and Pear Deck, aside from having better memory retention of the vocabularies learned; in which promoted the learners’ interest in expanding their vocabulary bank. The pupils’ level of motivation was observed to be improving and they provided positive feedbacks to the use of Pocable Game and Pear Deck in learning new vocabularies. For pupils, the use of Pocable Game incorporated with Pear Deck is a fun and interactive way in learning new vocabularies without fully depending on memorising and drilling In fact, the 4C’s and 1V could also be enhanced among pupils, in line with the current 21st century learning system.

British Journal of Educational Technology, 48(2), 264 278. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.12387

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159 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Appendix 1: Pre-test and Post-test (A) Spelling Test 1. 2. ________________ 3. ________________ 4. 5. 11. ________________ 12. ________________ 13. ________________ 14. 15. 6. ________________ 7. ________________ 8. 9. 10. 16. ________________ 17. 18. 19. 20.

160 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Appendix 2: Survey Questionnaire Instruments NO. STATEMENTS AGREE DISAGREE 1. I have fun while playing the Pocable Game and Pear Deck. 2. I help my friends who cannot give the meaning of the vocabularies that they have formed. 3. I know how to spell the vocabularies that I have learned. 4. I can remember the meaning of the vocabularies learned. 5. I am interested to play the Pocable Game and Pear Deck.

https://orcid.org/0000 0002 0723 2248 https://orcid.org/0000 0001 9076 0887 https://orcid.org/0000 0001 5837 2147 Vivian

https://orcid.org/0000 0002 6497 9460 Roseline

Basil C. E Oguguo, John J. Agah and Catherine U. Ene of Science Education, University of Nigeria Nsukka, Nigeria N. ACholonu of life Science Education, Imo State University, Nigeria N. Azubuike of Business Education, University of Nigeria Nsukka, Nigeria 0003 2647 Mary A. Okeke and Lourita P. Agbo of Science Education, University of Nigeria Nsukka, Nigeria The study sought to ascertain the content validity of West African Examination Council Multiple Choice Test Items in Financial Accounting from 2016 2018. The researchers assessed how spread taxonomically the content of the core curriculum in the WASSCE Financial Accounting questions were. The population of the study included all the West African Senior School Certificate Examination (WASSCE) multiple choice question papers in Financial Accounting set by the Council. The sample covered multiple choice test items from 2016 2018. Two research questions and two hypotheses guided the study. The Financial Accounting curriculum and the WASSCE Financial Accounting questions were the main instruments used for data collection. A total of 150 WASSCE objective questions papers were categorized in line with the various cognitive levels. The results revealed that some topics were overemphasized while others were underemphasized. Some topics like introduction to accounting were ignored. The spread of the questions to different cognitive levels did not comply with the required standard; therefore, the WASSCE questions within the period have low content validity. The curriculum should * Corresponding author: Roseline N. Azubuike, Email: roseline.azubuike@unn.edu.ng

* Department

Department

2420

https://orcid.org/0000 0001 9950 8039 https://orcid.org/0000 0002 4209 6667 Abstract.

Department

161 ©2020TheauthorsandIJLTER.ORG.Allrightsreserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 6, pp. 161 178, June https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.6.202010 Content Validity of West African Examination Council Financial Accounting Questions

https://orcid.org/0000

from time to time be scrutinized alongside the WASSCE syllabus in order to make the two agree in both content and objectives.

Keywords: content validity; curriculum validity; examination; multiple choice tests; financial accounting

The Nigerian system of Education has gone through tremendous changes and innovations over the years. These changes were targeted towards achieving the educational goals set by the government in power. At the junior level, the curriculum design adopted is mainly the broad field design; though some subjects were taught as compartmentalized disciplines such as Igbo language, Home Economics and Mathematics, et cetera. Some other subjects related are organized in broad or large fields such as Commerce, Book keeping, Shorthand and Economics which were all integrated to form Business Studies. Also, Biology, Physics and Chemistry were organized to form Integrated Science at the Junior Secondary School level. This is the case with some other subjects at the Senior Secondary School level. A close look at the National curriculum will reveal that the design adopted at the senior secondary level is subject centered Thecurriculum.recently introduced 9 3 4 government policy in education in Nigeria requires a child to complete a nine year basic education at the age of 14 to 15 years before proceeding to a three year secondary education. In the view of Oparaku (2005), the three year secondary education terminates after the students must have written the West African Senior School Certificate Examination (WASSCE) which is presently conducted in Nigeria by the West African Examination Council (WAEC). WASSCE is among the standardized examinations in Nigeria by which students are assessed to ascertain how much they have achieved after being exposed to the secondary school curricula (Adewuyi & Oluokun, 2001). The WAEC is a Board established by law to determine; the examinations required in the public interest of the English speaking West African countries, to conduct examinations and to award certificates that are comparable to those of other equivalent examining authorities internationally. The board was established in 1952, and since then, the council has contributed to education in Anglophonic countries in West Africa (Ghana, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Liberia, and Gambia) based on the numbers of examinations they have coordinated and the certificates they have issued. The Board also founded an endowment fund that is responsible for contributing to educations in West Africa with the help of lectures and provisions of aids to those who cannot afford education (Akinbolati, 2003). The Board is responsible for conducting four different categories of examinations; these are International Examinations, National Examinations, Examinations conducted in collaboration with other examining bodies, and Examinations conducted on behalf of other examining bodies. The International examinations imply the examinations written in the five countries

1. Introduction

• WASSCE for private Candidates (Main GCE) September October

Financial Accounting topics are designed very well according to their importance. From the weights attached to them, one who acquires the theoretical aspect in school should be able to fit into different aspects of life. Since the senior school certificate is an essential requirement for academic advancement and

The National Examinations are written in each country; and Financial Accounting is one of the subjects undertaken by students at the senior secondary school level. Nevertheless, Alimi, Ehinola and Alabi (2012) opined that there is low level of enrolment of students in this subject in the senior school examinations conducted by West African Examination Council in Nigeria. Financial Accounting has been defined by many authorities. Okereke (2000) referred to Financial Accounting as the collection, review and adjustment of financial data for the main purpose of presenting final Accounts (income statements, sources and uses of funds statements and Balance Sheet). Many people mistake Financial Accounting for Book keeping which is referred to as the act of recording business activities or transactions in an orderly manner in order to enable the books show at any time the financial position of the business. According to Eneja (2013), the concept of Book keeping is smaller; as a result, it can be referred to as a unit or branch of Financial Accounting. Accounting is concerned with the acquisition of knowledge for recording, analyzing, interpreting and summarizing the financial data of an organization or enterprise (Obidile, Amobi, Uzoekwe & Akuezilo, 2017). Amadi (2002) stated that financial accounting is that branch of business accounting that deals with the collection, accumulation, adjustment and presentation of financial information for the use of both internal and external parties. Financial Accounting, as earlier mentioned constitutes part of subjects offered at the senior secondary schools; it has a curriculum that has been designed to specify the contents and behavioral objectives needed to equip one for efficient financial management ability. Asaolu (2002) defined Accounting from a traditional perspective, the author sees the subject as the process of collecting, analyzing, interpreting and communicating the financial information of a business. The traditional perspective view of accounting as a mechanical process that does not interact much with the business environment as opined by Chinweike (2011). On the other hand, Chinweike (2011) using modern business perspective views financial accounting as a lens through which makers sees through the clouded business world. This is to say that accounting has seized to be an almost automated process that it used to be and is now highly scalable; by scalable, it means that accounting process is now robust enough to accommodate any unforeseen event that turns out. The learning of the subject offers one the opportunity of becoming an accountant and financial expert in the financial market (Bob, 2012).

with the WAEC ordinance. These include West African Senior School Certificate Examination (WASSCE) that is administered as follows:

• WASSCE for private candidates (first series) January February

• WASSCE for (School Candidates) March May

employment; it is therefore, pertinent to ascertain the content validity of the test instrument of WAEC as one of the bodies saddled with the responsibility of conducting senior school certificate examination in various subject areas which equally includes Financial Accounting (Igben, 2009). The Federal Republic of Nigeria in her National Policy on Education (2004) stipulate that financial accounting is an elective course in the senior secondary schools while the Nigerian Educational Research and Development Council NERDC (2007) summarized the objectives of studying the subject in secondary schools to: equip secondary school students with the necessary knowledge about the various reforms; changes and adjustments in the country’s economic and financial system; to enable secondary school students understand the rudiments and fundamentals of the Nigerian financial system and the public sector accounting; which will inculcate in them the spirit of transparency and accountability in public financial management; and to inculcate the interest and the needed foundation in the students that will encourage them to become professionally qualified accountants (Uwameiye & Ogunbameru, 2005).

A test can be defined as an instrument of measurement which connotes a structured situation comprising a set of questions administered to an individual to respond to from which his behaviors or traits are quantified. According to Donna (2011), examination is a deliberate attempt at obtaining a sample of one’s behaviour, knowledge, skills and ability or performance in a particular field of study, verbally, in written form or in a practical term. Achievement in the school context is seen as an increase in knowledge, skills and dispositions the learner acquired from exposure, teaching and instruction as opposed to the endowment inheritance (Illeris, 2014). It is concerned with the mastery of the general or specific knowledge areas to which the teacher exposes his learners. Examination means different things to different people; some sees it as a true test of knowledge others as an entrustment of social discrimination whereby the less fortunate feels inferior to the more privileged. As of today, it is believed, that there is no better index for evaluating students’ achievement in school. Therefore, examination is an integral part of our educational system. The results of examinations are used for placement, selection, promotion and certification. Nigeria, seeing the enviable positions of some countries like America, Germany, Britain, France, Australia and even some countries in the far East that have occupied the world socio economic affairs, had made attempts to improve the education system. The 6 3 3 4 system of Education was altered in favour of 9 3 4 system of education giving rise to a 9 years Basic Education Programme, 3 years senior secondary, and 4 years of university education. Presently, the 6 3 3 4 system of education is now changed to 9 3 4 system of education; this implies nine years of primary Education, three years of secondary Education and four years of university education respectively These changes are all targeted towards improving the standard of education in Nigeria (Ambaliyu, 2008).

In all these changes, one of the reoccurring factors which have been a matter of great concern to policymakers, educators, and parents is the issue of poor achievement of students in the standard examinations conducted by external

examination bodies like WAEC. Our present school system (9 3 4) has placed a high premium on the senior school certificate Examination. The certificate obtained is seen as a foundation for academic, political and economic progress in our society. Admissions into universities and job opportunities are based on some levels of performance of students in this standardized examination as conducted by WAEC and other examination bodies. The result of the senior school certificate examination can be used for academic planning and career choice; this indicates that the examination has far reaching implications on the life of the examinees.

In this regard, the senior school certificate is a testimonial to one’s ability and aptitude. Then, this examination has to be valid, reliable and usable as an evaluation instrument. All valid evaluation instruments are relatively reliable and usable however, not all reliable instruments may be valid; therefore, validity takes precedence over the other qualities possessed by good evaluation instruments. Validity is referred to as the extent to which a test instrument measures what it is designed to measure accurately. It is a concept that questions the relevance of a test. In affirmation, Ibe (2004) opined that an examination is invalid likewise the result if the items of the examination are not drawn from all the content areas of instruction. The representativeness of the course content by the items of the test should not only be in terms of coverage of topics but, it should reflect the categories of domains at which performances may be expected to occur. A test is said to be fair to all concerned, if it appraises both low and high cognitive ability; secondly, if the language of the test items is unambiguous and not open to several interpretations (Charles & Brian, 2012).

Content validity refers to the extent to which the items on a test are fairly representative of the entire domain the test seeks to measure. One of the strengths of content validation is the simple and intuitive nature of its basic idea, which holds that what a test seeks to measure constitutes a content domain and the items on the test should sample from that domain in a way that makes the test items representative of the entire domain (Salkind, 2010). Content validity is the extent of a measurement tool represents the measured construct and it is considered as an essential evidence to support the validity of a measurement tool such as a questionnaire for research. Content validity is defined as the degree to which elements of an assessment instrument are relevant to and representative of the targeted construct for a particular assessment purpose (Yusoff, 2019). The purpose of content validation is to minimize the potential error associated with the instrument operationalization in the initial stages and to increase the probability of obtaining supportive construct validity in the later stages. Content validity helps the researcher gain invaluable feedback from panel of experts and develop and assess dimensions and subdimensions of the construct intended to be measured (Shrotrvia & Dhanda, 2019). Ukwuije and Orluwene (2009) opined that content validation determines what proportion of the test items reflects the required content of the subject matter. The greater the percentage, the more content valid the test becomes and the smaller the percentage, the smaller content valid the test becomes (Kpolovie, 2010). Content validity measures the degree to which items of an instrument measure a

The teaching learning process mainly involves the teacher and the students and the certification of the students is done by external examination bodies like WAEC. A different body prepares the Curriculum through the teachers and the examination bodies make inputs. The syllabus is developed by WAEC and the teachers who implement the curriculum do not participate adequately in developing the curriculum, and also in the certification of the students However, the introduction of the continuous assessment in the school system has increased the teachers` participation in the evaluation but it is still doubtful if the records of the continuous assessment are incorporated in the summative examination result as conducted by WAEC. There have been general outcries on the poor performance of Financial Accounting students in the senior school certificate examination as conducted by WAEC (WAEC 2018, chief examiners report in financial Accounting). Therefore, one wonders if the test items of the examination are drawn from what the students have been exposed to in the subject. Furthermore, a situation where a student rated below average by his/her teacher obtains a credit in an examination set by WAEC is also a course of concern to stakeholders in the education system such as teachers. In these regards, some pertinent questions such as: Do multiple choice test items reflect the subject content? To what extents do WASSCE multiple choice test items cover the various levels of objectives in the cognitive domain? To what extent are the cognitive behavioural outcomes of WASSCE multiple choice test items representative of the content?

In attempts to answer these questions, this study was necessitated Generally, this study ascertained the content validity of WASSCE multiple choice test item of Financial Accounting question papers for the periods of three years. Specifically, the study determined: i. the extent to which the test items on the question papers are representatives of the various topics in the syllabus of Financial Accounting. ii. the extent to which the spread of the test items on the question papers covered the various levels of the cognitive domain alongside the content area over the years of study

The following research questions were posed to guide the study:

representative sample of the subject matter content and the instructional objectives. Therefore, the questions that can be asked are: Do WAEC test items cover adequately what the students are expected to learn? Do they appraise appropriately the learning outcomes the students should exhibit with respect to the content, their relative weights with the levels of the cognitive skill as designed in the syllabus on Financial Accounting?

(ii) To what extents are the WASSCE multiple choice test items in Financial Accounting a representative sample of the cognitive behavioural objectives?

(i) To what extent are the WASSCE multiple choice test items a representative sample of the content of Financial Accounting over the years of study?

HHypotheses

01. The number of WASSCE multiple choice test items in Financial Accounting drawn from the various topics is not significantly different from the number of questions expected to be drawn from them (P<0.05).

2.2 Reliability of the Instrument

Thus, the researchers calculated the number of weeks allotted to each topic by the scheme of work. The number of weeks assigned to a particular topic was converted to the proportion of the total number of weeks used in teaching all the topics in the curriculum expressed in terms of the 150 questions involved in the study. The value obtained is the expected weight of the topic required to be tested by the WASSCE (May/June) Financial Accounting.

2. Materials and Methods

H02 The spread of the WASSCE multiple choice items in Financial Accounting drawn in the various cognitive levels is not significantly different from the spread expected (P<0.05).

2.1 Research Design

The design employed in this study is the analytic survey research design Analytic survey research according to Asim, Idaka and Eni (2017) involves the identification and interpretation of data already existing in documents, pictures and artifacts. The design is considered appropriate because the researchers collected and analysed data already existing in documents. This study used the WASSCE financial accounting question papers administered in Nigeria. The population of this study includes all the 150 multiple choice question papers in Financial Accounting set by West African Examination Council. The sample of the study comprised all the multiple choice questions (May/June) in West African Senior School Certificate Examination conducted by WAEC from 2016 2018. The study employed purposive sampling technique. The purposive sampling techniques was used for the study because only the more recent WAEC Financial Accounting question papers were purposively selected to ensure current coverage over time.

One hundred and fifty (150) objective questions comprising fifty (50) questions from each year were tabulated and given to three experts in measurement and evaluation for classification. The researchers’ own classification was also compared to that of the experts. The inter rater reliability coefficient between the researchers’ classification and that of the experts were also calculated; the values obtained were 0.89 and 0.91 respectively using Kendal’s Coefficient of Concordance. Each multiple choice test item on the question papers were assessed by some experts to indicate the levels of cognitive domains which they belong to and also the topics to which the items belong to. The researchers assigned weights to the topics in the curriculum for Financial Accounting based on the emphasis placed on each topic by the curriculum. This emphasis depends on how broad a topic is, with respect to the number of weeks spent teaching each topic. The researchers adopted the provisions of the scheme of work on financial accounting for higher secondary schools where weeks expected to teach each topic were specified.

Finally, each question in the WASSCE (May/June) Financial accounting question papers was classified by the researchers against the particular level of the cognitive domain it tested. The sum of a particular cognitive level is therefore the observed weight of that cognitive level tested by WASSCE (May/June) Financial Accounting over the three years. Chi square was used to test the significant difference at (<0.05) from the observed frequency result. The extent of the content coverage was determined using percentages.

3. Results Table 1: Number of questions and percentage spread in WASSCE Financial Accounting question papers from 2016 to 2018 S/N Topics in the Core Curriculum For Financial Accounting Number of Questions and Percentages 2016 2017 2018 No.Qs.of %Qs.of No.Qs.of %Qs.of No.Qs.of %Qs.of 1 Introduction 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 Principles and practice of double Entry 10 20 12 24 9 18 3 The final accounts of sole trader 11 22 5 10 2 4 4 Reserves and provisions 3 6 2 4 7 14 5 Manufacturing Accounts 3 6 3 6 6 12 6 Control accounts and self balancing ledger 7 14 5 10 6 10 7 Single entry and incomplete records 1 2 1 2 0 0 8 Accounts of nonprofit making organization 2 4 1 2 2 4 9 Accounting concepts and convention 3 6 3 6 2 4 10 Partnership 3 6 3 6 2 4 11 Company’s account 4 8 7 14 7 14 12 Departmental and Branch Account 0 0 3 6 1 2 13 Public Sector Accounting 1 2 3 6 4 8 14 Introduction to Data processing 2 4 2 4 3 6 Total 50 100 50 100 50 100 Qs = Questions

2.3 Method of Data Analysis

The researchers also classified the entire behavioural objectives stated in the curriculum for financial accounting against the cognitive levels they tested. Thus, the sum of a particular cognitive level was converted to the proportion of the total number of all the cognitive levels emphasized in the curriculum expressed in terms of the 150 questions involved in the study. The value obtained is taken as the expected weight of the cognitive level required to be tested by the WASSCE (May/June) Financial Accounting.

Table 1 above shows the number of questions and percentage derived from each topic for the three years under review. A close observation of Table 1 shows that:

169

f) In 2018, the final account of sole trader had 4% which is a deviation from 2016 and 2017 respectively.

b) The trend was also observed in 2017 and 2018. In 2017, the numbers of questions from the respective topics were 12, 5, 5 and 7 while in 2018 the numbers of questions from each topic were 9, 2, 6 and 7 respectively.

Number of questions expected and

a) In the year 2016, the principles and practices of double entry, final accounts of a sole trader, control accounts and self balancing ledger and company’s accounts were emphasized more.

c) In 2016, no question was derived from departmental account and branch account respectively.

e) Emphases were placed only on four topics: Principles of double entry, final Accounts, control accounts and self balancing ledger and company’s account with 20%, 22%, 14% and 8% respectively.

Table 2: observed from each topic

S/N Topics Number of questions according to (Expected)scheme Number (WASSCE)questionsofobserved 1 Introduction to Financial Accounting 8 0 2 Principles and practice of double entry 13 31 3 The final account of sole trader 12 18 4 Reserves and provisions 13 12 5 Manufacturing accounts 13 12 6 Control accounts 10 17 7 Single entry and incomplete records 7 2 8 Accounts of nonprofit making organization 7 5 9 Accounting concepts and convention 8 8 10 Partnership 15 8 11 Company’s account 17 18 12 Departmental accounts 10 4 13 Public sector accounting 10 8 14 Introduction to data processing 7 7 Total 150 150 The results in Table 2 showed that: 1. Questions were not drawn from introduction to accounting for the years as against 8 questions which are the number of questions expected to be drawn from the topic. 2. Topic 2: principles and practice of double entry attracted 31 questions as against 13 based on the weight assigned to the topic in the scheme of work.

d) For the years under review, WAEC did not test students in introduction to financial accounting. This accounted for the 0% shown in the table.

170 ©2020TheauthorsandIJLTER.ORG.Allrightsreserved. 3. The number of questions expected from topics 4,5, 11, and 13were not significantly different from the numbers of questions observed. 4. For Topic 9 and 14, the number of questions expected were also the same as the numbers of questions observed from the question paper. 5. A difference was observed from the numbers of questions expected as against the numbers of questions observed in topics 3, 6, 7, 10 and 12. Table 3: Number of questions derived from each cognitive level for the three years S/N Cognitive Levels 2016 2017 2018 No.Qsof %Qsof No.Qsof %Qsof No.Qsof %Qsof 1 Knowledge 9 18 13 26 26 52 2 Comprehension 14 28 11 22 8 16 3 Application 17 34 17 34 12 24 4 Analysis 4 8 3 6 3 6 5 Synthesis 3 6 2 4 1 2 6 Evaluation 3 6 4 8 0 0 Total 50 100 50 100 50 100 Qs =

TableQuestions3aboveshowed that:

a) In 2016, 2017 and 2018 the numbers of questions from knowledge level were 9, 13 and 26 respectively.

c) For the three years under review, much emphasis was placed on knowledge, comprehension and application.

b) The students were tested at comprehension level in 2016, 2017 and 2018 with 14, 11 and 8 questions respectively out of 50 questions for each year.

d) There was a consistent trend as analysis in 2016, 2017 and 2018 had 4, 3 and 3 questions drawn from that level within the three years under review.

e) Synthesis and evaluation were less emphasized as shown in the table with synthesis having 3, 4 and 0, in the three respective years. A close observation of Table 3 shows that WASSCE multiple choice test items for the three years had many questions from knowledge, comprehension and application level. In 2016, 18% of questions were drawn from knowledge, 28% from comprehension while 34% arose from application compared to 8%, 6% and 6% for items on analysis, synthesis and evaluation respectively. The same trend was repeated in 2017 when knowledge, comprehension and application got 26%, 22% and 34% respectively compared to analysis, synthesis and evaluation that had 6%, 4% and 8% items respectively. In 2018, the same was also observed with knowledge, comprehension and application getting 52%, 16% and 24% respectively while analysis, synthesis and evaluation was 6%, 2% and 0% respectively. This means that questions were not drawn from evaluation level of cognitive domain in 2018.

171 ©2020TheauthorsandIJLTER.ORG.Allrightsreserved. Table 4: Number of Questions Expected from each Cognitive Level as against the Observed Number S/N Cognitive levels Number of questions expected from each cognitive level Number of questions observed from each cognitive level 1 Knowledge 23 48 2 Comprehension 37 33 3 Application 30 46 4 Analysis 37 10 5 Synthesis 15 6 6 Evaluation 8 7 Total 150 150 Table 5: Summary of Chi square analysis for weights of topics in the Financial Accounting curriculum and in WAEC syllabus S/N Topics workschemebyofWeightstopicsof(E) Weights of topics by numbers (O)questionsof O-E (O-E)2 (O-E)2 E 1 Introduction 8 0 8 64 8.00 2 Principles and practice of double entry 13 31 18 324 24.92 3 The final accounts of sole trader 12 18 6 36 3.00 4 Reserves and provisions 13 12 1 1 0.08 5 accountsManufacturing 13 12 1 1 0.08 6 Control accounts and self balancing ledger 10 17 7 49 4.9 7 Single entry and incomplete records 7 2 5 25 3.57 8 Accounts of nonprofit making organization 7 5 2 4 0.57 9 Accounting concepts and convention 8 8 0 0 0 10 Partnership 15 8 7 49 3.27 11 Company’s account 17 18 1 1 0.06 12 Departmental and branch account 10 4 6 36 3.6 13 Public sector accounting 10 8 2 4 0.4 14 Introduction to Data processing 7 7 0 0 0 Total 150 150 52.45 X2 = 52.45

Levels ExpectedWeightsE ObservedWeightsO O E (O E)2 (O E) 2 E 1 Knowledge 23 48 25 625 27.17 2 Comprehension 37 33 4 16 0.43 3 Application 30 46 16 256 8.53 4 Analysis 37 10 27 729 19.70 5 Synthesis 15 6 9 81 5.4 6 Evaluation 8 7 1 1 0.13 150

The result revealed the fact that the calculated X2 (52.45) is greater than the tabulated X2 of 22.36 at 0.05 level of significance and degrees of freedom (df) of 13. Since the calculated value of X2 = 52.45 is greater than the tabulated value of 22.36; the null hypothesis which state that the number of WASSCE multiple choice test items in Financial Accounting drawn from the various topics is not significantly different from the number of questions expected to be drawn from them is therefore, rejected. The implication of this is that there is a significant difference between the weights assigned to the topics in the curriculum for financial accounting to the weights assigned by West African Examination Council (multiple Choice Items) from 2016 2018. 6: Summary of Chi-Square Weights Assigned to the levels of Cognitive domain in the Curriculum and the Weights Assigned to them by West African Examination Council Accounting Cognitive 150 X2 = 61.36 The results showed that, the calculated value of 61.36 is greater than the tabulated value of 11.07 at 0.05 level of significance and degrees of freedom (df) of 5. This implies that, there is a significant difference between the spread of the WASSCE multiple Choice Items in financial accounting drawn in the various cognitive levels from the spread expected. The null hypothesis which state that the spread of the WASSCE multiple choice items in Financial Accounting drawn in the various cognitive levels is not significantly different from the spread expected is thus, rejected at 0.05 level of significance with degrees of freedom of 5. This means that, there is significant difference from the spread expected in the various cognitive levels.

Financial

Table

4. Discussion In the WAEC syllabus, there are 14 topics. These 14 topics were spread over three years in the scheme of work. The weight assigned to each topic is based on the numbers of weeks used in teaching the topic. This is in line with the view of Gronlund (1976) opined that the weights of topics should depend on personal judgment as guided by the amount of time devoted to each topic during instructions. In view of the above, the numbers of questions expected from each topic and the numbers of questions drawn from each topic for the three years under review are shown in Table 2. The number of questions expected from topic 1; that is, from “introduction” are 8 questions, whereas no question was drawn from the topic. In topic 2, 13 questions were expected while 31 questions were drawn from the topic. Topic 3 the final Account of sole trader attracted 18

S/N

Table 4 presented an overview of the numbers of questions expected from each level and the numbers of questions observed. This is very pertinent in answering research question 2. The number of questions expected from knowledge for the three years is 23 while 48 was observed, for Comprehension, the questions

questions as against 12 questions expected. This trend was also observed in topics 6 control accounts, 7 single entry and incomplete records, 10 partnership account and 12 departmental accounts. The variation between the expected and observed in the above topics was significantly different. These findings agreed with the result of other researchers such as, Offor (2001), Ibe (2004), Amajuoyi (2004) and Nwana (2007).

The findings revealed that topic 4 reserves and provisions, 5 manufacturing accounts, 8 accounting of nonprofit making organization, 11 company’s account and 13 public sector accounting, the numbers of questions expected from these topics were not significantly different from the numbers drawn. For topic 4, 13 questions were expected while 12 questions were drawn; topic 5 manufacturing account, 13 questions were also expected but 12 were drawn; topic 8 accounts of nonprofit making organizations, 7 questions were expected while 5 were drawn. Also, in topics 11 and 13 company’s account and public sector accounting, 17 and 10 were expected respectively while 18 and 8 were observed. Co incidentally, in topics 9; 14 accounting concepts and conventions and introduction to data processing, 8 and 7 questions were expected and 8 and 7 questions were drawn respectively.

Table 3 presented the number of questions observed from each cognitive level for the three years. In 2016, out of the total of 50 questions, 9 came from Knowledge, 14 from Comprehensive, 17 from Application while Analysis, Synthesis and Evaluation got 4, 3 and 3 respectively. In 2017, Knowledge, Comprehension and Application got 13, 11 and 17 respectively while Analysis, Synthesis and Evaluation were 3,2 and 4. This trend also was observed in 2018 where Knowledge, Comprehension and Application were given priority with 26, 8 and 12 with less emphasis on Analysis, Synthesis and Evaluation having 3, 1 and 0 respectively. This finding is in agreement with the study of Buba and Kojigili (2020) which reported that performance objectives were highest at the comprehension level of cognitive domain followed by application and knowledge levels. The result of the study revealed that Knowledge level got 18%, 26% and 52% for three years under review. Comprehension got 28%, 22% and 16% for 2016, 2017 and 2018. At Application level for 2016, 2017 and 2018, the percentages were 34, 34 and 24 respectively. The findings also show 8%, 6% and 6% for Analysis level for the three years. Synthesis and Evaluation got 6% respectively for 2016. In 2017, 4% and 8% while in 2018 it was 2% and 0% respectively. This finding is in agreement with the finding of Buba and Kojigili (2020) who found out that comprehension level of cognitive domain has the highest percentage followed by application and knowledge. The other three levels of cognitive domain have percentage spread decreasing as they go to higher levels.

expected is 37 while 33 was observed; for Application 30 questions were expected while 46 questions were observed; for the higher levels of Analysis, Synthesis and Evaluation, 37, 15 and 8 questions were expected but we observed questions were 10, 6 and 7 respectively. This implies that the Knowledge and Application levels were overemphasized; Analysis and Synthesis were underemphasized while the coverage on Knowledge and Evaluation has a pass Themark.spread of the WAEC multiple choice items in Financial Accounting drawn in the various cognitive levels is not significantly different from the spread expected (P<0.05). The result clearly shows that some levels were overemphasized while others were underemphasized. Knowledge and Application levels were overemphasized while analysis and synthesis were underemphasized. Comprehension and Evaluation were fairly tested. This finding agrees with the findings of Ijeoma, Eme and Nsisong (2013) who found that some topics were overemphasized and others underemphasized in WASSCE chemistry question from 1999 2002.

The results of the finding revealed that WAEC did not maintain the weights assigned to levels in the Financial Accounting Curriculum and the scheme of work. There was a significant difference in the various cognitive levels from the spread expected. This shows that WAEC Financial Accounting questions have low content validity. This result corroborated with Nwana (2007) and, Dike (1998). In their work, they confirmed that WAEC tests possessed low degree of content validity. This is in line with the findings of Nwana, Onah and Nwokenne (2012) who opined that teachers predominantly test lower levels of the cognitive domain and ignores the higher levels. At secondary school level of education, students are supposed to be tested more at the higher levels of cognitive domain. This view is supported by Nwana (2007: 47) who opined that “if the examination is knowledge centered, the students will tend to study the subject for its factual content and pay little or no attention to understanding these facts, ideas etc., applying them in novel situations, analyzing them into new wholes and evaluating them, then the examination evaluates subject being examined”. The exposition of the students to the higher level of cognitive domain is beneficial to the students as postulated by Grossman (1971). The predominant use of high level questions is an effective way of trying to move the students forward with high and low understanding but low questions strategy will not facilitate high level understanding. The study prominently shows that some topics were not adequately covered while some other topics were overemphasized. Only few topics were fairly tested. The topic “introduction to accounting” was not tested at all. Principles and practice of double entry was overemphasized, same as the final account of sole proprietors, control accounts and self balancing ledger. Some of the topics underemphasized include single entry and incomplete records, partnership, departmental and branch accounts. While WAEC needs to be commended on their efforts in some topics such as reserves and provisions, manufacturing accounts, accounting concepts and conventions, company’s account, public

sector accounting and introduction to data processing, these topics were fairly Whentested.emphasis is much on some topics over a period of time and less emphasis on others, this constitutes a danger to the Educational sector as students and teachers will concentrate on areas with high emphasis. WAEC being the leading examination body in West Africa is expected to set a standard that others can follow. This is because, when any of the above complications happens, it will have a triple implication in the society (1) to the Education system as a whole (2) to the teacher; and (3) to the students. When some topics are overemphasized, the implication is that the teachers will direct all their efforts toward those topics; this encourages laziness among the teachers as they already know the areas of concentration. This system also affects the students’ attitude to study. They only concentrate on few topics and anytime there is a deviation, their performance level will drop. To the educational system, this pattern of overemphasizing or underemphasizing on some topics is very dangerous because students who passed through such turnout to be half baked. This is in agreement with Nwana (2007) who opined that teachers tend to emphasize the importance of those topics which reoccur in examinations, and students tend to study those topics which reoccur in examinations and leave out those which do not, even if these topics appear on the prescribed syllabus. In view of the above, one can equally state that the poor performance of students in Financial Accounting within the period under review might not solely be as a result of ignorance of the students but also be largely attributed to error in test designs. Nwana (2007) rejected the idea of setting questions on only few topics from the syllabus. The author opined that setting questions on a section of the syllabus means that the examination will only favour those pupils who by chance concentrated on those restricted areas. The others would appear failures. Here, it is shown clearly that the examination is at fault and not the pupils/students.

5. Conclusion

Findings within the periods under review show that the WASSCE Financial Accounting multiple choice test items have a low content validity. For a child to achieve all round education, effective implementations of the curriculum content have to be administered. This can only be achieved by well qualified and dedicated teachers with the provisions of adequate instructional materials to effect changes in the behaviours of the learners. The WAEC examiners most probably did not use test blueprint in developing the entire examination tests they used in examining the students in financial accounting for the three years under study. This is evident as the distribution of the questions did not reflect or represent proportionally the topics contained in the curriculum for financial accounting. Also the various levels of the cognitive domain were not proportionately tested either. Some topics and levels of cognitive domains were overemphasized while some were underemphasized. Therefore, the WASSCE questions 2016 to 2018 in financial accounting have a very low degree of content validity. West African Examination Council should insist on their chief examiners using a table of specification in order to master the weights attached

to the content areas as indicated in the senior secondary school curriculum in financial accounting

We are deeply grateful to all our colleagues who assisted in this study and all the authors whose works were consulted during the process of this study.

7. References Adewuyi, J. O, & Oluokun, O. O. (2001). Introduction to test and measurement in education. Oyo: Odumatt Press. Akinbolati, K. B. (2003). Teacher’s and learner’s factors as determinants of senior secondary school student’sachievement inschool certificateMathematics (Unpublished master’s thesis). University of Ibadan, Ibadan. Alimi, O. S., Ehinola, G. B, & Alabi, F. O. (2012). School types, facilities and academic performance of students in secondary schools in Ondo State, Nigeria. InternationalEducation Studies,5(3). https://doi.org/10.5539/ies.v5n3p44 Amadi, K. K. (2002). Theory and practice of financial accounting Owerri: Joe Mankpa Amajuoyi,Publishers.I.J.(2004).

Content validity of May/June West African Senior School Certificate Examination Questions in Chemistry 1999 2002 (Unpublished master’s thesis) University of Port Harcourt, Port Harcourt. Ambaliyu, A. O. (2008). Availability and utilization of material resources as correlates of students learning outcomes in secondary school chemistry (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Ibadan, Ibadan.

Handbook on measurement, assessment, and evaluation in higher education New York: Taylor and Francis Publishers. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203142189

176

When some topics are overemphasized, the implication is that the teachers will direct all their efforts toward those topics; this encourages laziness among the teachers as they already know the areas of concentration. This system also affects the students’ attitude to study. They only concentrate on few topics and anytime there is a deviation, their performance level will drop. This might be as a result of WAEC not using table of specification and the non involvement of experts in the selection of questions from their question bank or in the constructions of questions. WAEC examiners should be made to understand through training, workshops, seminars and conferences the implication of over emphasising and under emphasising some topics and lower cognitive levels when generating questions.

Acknowledgments

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6. Implication of the Study

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Education

https://doi.org/10.21315/eimj2019.11.2.6

6206 Abdul Karim BRAC Institute of Languages, BRAC University Dhaka, https://orcid.org/0000Bangladesh00032488

Keywords: academic reading comprehension; analytic relations; correlation; vocabulary knowledge; prediction

8297

Md Kamrul Hasan English Language Institute, United International University, Dhaka, https://orcid.org/0000Bangladesh00032353

179 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 6, pp. 179 205, June https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.6.112020

Abstract. A thorough investigation of analytic relations and their different dimensions by lexical researchers plays a prominent role in language learning and teaching. The current study aimed at investigating the association and prediction of multifarious dimensions of analytic relations of vocabulary knowledge to reading comprehension among 155 English as a Foreign Language (EFL) students at the tertiary level, employing standard multiple regression analysis under a quantitative approach. Ninety one students from Business School and sixty four Engineering students took part in six components, namely member collection, stuff object, component integral, portion mass, place area, and feature activity of one analytic relations test, and three multiple choice passages of one academic reading comprehension task.

The results showed that inter correlations among all six aspects of analytic relations were positive and statistically significant; except correlation between stuff object and reading comprehension, associations between the other five facets of analytic relations and academic reading comprehension were strong, positive and significant. Not only the component integral analytic relations feature made statistically the most significant unique prediction but also it had the largest effect on academic reading comprehension.

Assessing the Relationship and Prediction of Manifold Facets of Analytic Relations to Academic Reading Comprehension

4673 Md. Didar Hossain English Language Institute, United International University Dhaka, https://orcid.org/0000Bangladesh00029509

More than three decades ago, vocabulary acquisition was treated as a neglected dimension of language teaching and learning (Meara, 1980). Recently, it has plausibly become one of the most substantial research niches in the second language (L2) acquisition, assessment, and instruction (Schmitt, 2010; Zhang & Yang, 2016). Up till now, research on L2 vocabulary knowledge has evidenced a clear polarity regarding its multidimensionality (Zhang & Yang, 2016). The significant role of vocabulary knowledge in L2 learning has been well documented (Choi & Zhang, 2018; Nakata, Tada, Mclean & Kim, 2020; Nation, 1983; Schmitt, 2008; Zhang, Lin, Zhang & Choi, 2017). In other words, vocabulary knowledge is highly significant for reading comprehension performance (van den Bosch, Segers & Verhoeven, 2020). A number of studies (Cain, Oakhill & Bryant, 2004; Cheng & Matthews, 2018; Hadley, Dickinson, Hirsh Pasek, Golinkoff & Nesbitt, 2016; Masrai, 2019; Noreillie, Desmet & Peters, 2020; Quinn, Wagner, Petscher & Lopez, 2015; Vellutino, Tunmer, Jaccard & Chen, 2007) have demonstrated that a significant association exists between vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension. For example, vocabulary researchers have primarily stressed on the important role played by vocabulary size or breadth (i.e. how many words one knows) in reading comprehension (i.e. Jeon & Yamashita, 2014; Laufer, 1992, 1996; Milton, 2013; Na & Nation, 1985; Nation, 1990, 2001; Read, 2000). Nevertheless, far less about vocabulary depth or different dimensions of the depth of vocabulary knowledge (i.e. vocabulary knowledge that pertains to the quality of words) have been investigated by researchers (Schmitt, 2014). According to Qian (2002), both breadth and depth dimensions deserve equal merit for examining the important role vocabulary knowledge has in reading comprehension. Existing researchers that encompassed depth of vocabulary knowledge put stress on mainly syntagmatic (synonymy and polysemy) and paradigmatic (collocation) relation of vocabulary depth knowledge and their relationship with reading comprehension in English as a Second Language (ESL)/English as a Foreign Language (EFL) contexts (Li and Kirby, 2015; Qian, 1999, 2000, 2002; Read, 1993, 1998; Zhang, 2012).

1. Introduction

Moreover, according to Read (2004), that there are three essential associations between the target words and associates; they are analytic relations (that express a vital constituent of the meaning of the target word), syntagmatic relation (collocates), and paradigmatic relation (which is comprised of superordinates and synonyms). Besides, Winston, Chaffin, and Hermann (1987) proposed that analytic relations could be considered as a significant category/kind of semantic relation. According to Schmitt and Meara (1997), word association knowledge plays a significant role in the field of language learning. Thus, analytic (part whole) relations is reckoned as one important constituent of vocabulary depth knowledge. To the best knowledge of the researchers, employing quantitative investigation, little is known about empirical studies that investigated the correlations and prediction of dissimilar constituents of analytic relations to reading Greidanuscomprehension.andNienhuis

(2001) conducted a study on three types of associations, namely paradigmatic, syntagmatic and analytic (defining characteristics, such as

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. those used in dictionary definitions) relations, and they found that for both higher proficiency learners and lower proficiency learners, the scores for both paradigmatic association and analytic association were significantly higher than those for the syntagmatic association. Their study included 54 learners of French from two Dutch speaking universities without considering learners from English as a foreign language (EFL) context. Their study investigated only association among paradigmatic, syntagmatic, and analytic relations, and did not examine any prediction of paradigmatic, syntagmatic or manifold dimensions of analytic relations to academic reading comprehension. Moreover, the study of Horiba (2012) included Chinese and Korean learners who were learning Japanese, and her study did not include any learners from any ESL or EFL context. Her study found that analytic relations accounted for only a little (i.e. 4%) variance in text comprehension. Finally, her study did not include different parts of analytic relations and their prediction to reading comprehension. Additionally, the study of Read (1993) included analytic relations in his study, but he tried to justify the validity of the test of the Word Associate Test (analytic relations is one component of the test). He did not conduct an empirical study that related the prediction of analytic relations to reading comprehension. The authors of this research paper have not come across any more study that deals with the prediction of analytic relations to academic reading comprehension. This aspect of a research gap has been delved into the present research project. As previously mentioned, there has been a lack of empirical research that dealt with different dimensions of analytic relations (part whole relation) and their correlations and prediction to academic reading comprehension. To this end, employing an adapted analytic relations test, this study investigated the correlations and prediction of six dimensions of analytic relations to academic reading comprehension among EFL students of Business and Engineering Schools at the tertiary level in Bangladesh.

1.1. Theoretical Framework 1.1.1. Analytic Relations

1.1.2. Parts of Analytic Relations

According to Schwartz and Katzir (2012), academics consider another type of lexical hierarchy which is partonomic Generally, partonomic is known as a part whole hierarchy (holonymy or meronymy). An example of meronymy is body parts (head nose). According to Read (2004), meronymy comes under analytic sense relation. The diagram below is given to show the part whole relationship Face mouth cheek nose eye (Source: Finegan, 2008: 191) It is apparent from the above diagram that the nose is a ‘part of the face’.

Their work was conducted taking the ‘cognates’ (cognitive) perspective, not considering the classifications as aspects of vocabulary knowledge and their (dimensions’) correlation and prediction to reading skill, not even in any English as a Second Language (ESL) or English as a Foreign Language (EFL) contexts. This aspect of the research gap has been delved into the present research project.

•place area (i.e. the relation between areas and special places and locations within them; e.g. Everglades Florida, Oasis desert, baseline tennis court).

1.questions:Howare member collection, portion mass, component integral, stuff object, place area, and feature activity analytic relation dimensions related to academic reading comprehension?

The types were

•member collection (i.e. a collection is fixed based on spatial proximity or by social connection; e.g. ship fleet, tree forest, card deck, juror jury),

•stuff object (i.e. a relation that is most often expressed, employing the ‘is partly’ frame; e.g. steel car/bike, gin martini, hydrogen water),

•portion mass (i.e. including parts that are identical to one other and to the whole that they consist of; e.g. slice pie, grain salt, yard mile, hunk clay),

•‘component integral’ (i.e. a relation between components and the objects that they belong; e.g. pedal bike, handle cup, punchline joke, wheels car, refrigerator kitchen, chapters books, Belgium NATO, Phonology Linguistics, engine car),

1.1.3. Theory Relating Vocabulary to Comprehension

Researchers and teachers are perplexed about determining the exact nature of vocabulary knowledge (Schmitt, 2014) because a lexicon consists of thousands of words, and each comprises various, innumerable links with other words in terms of the lexical network. Furthermore, the nature of vocabulary knowledge is not identified and defined clearly (Li & Kirby, 2015). As a result, there is a lack of definition, which shows that the definition is ‘clearly theory driven’ (Li & Kirby, 2015, p. 614). To address the research gap in previous studies and based on the discussion in the literature review, the current study investigates the following research

2. To what extent do member collection, portion mass, component integral, stuff object, place area, and feature activity analytic relation dimensions contribute to predicting the performance of EFL learners’ academic reading comprehension?

•feature activity (i.e. a relation that is pointed out by the use of ‘part’ to designate the features or phases of activities and processes; e.g. paying shopping, dating adolescence, bidding playing bridge, ovulation menstrual cycle),

Winston, Chaffin, and Hermann (1987, p. 421) in their study provided a taxonomy of analytic relations, and they proposed six types of analytic relations

2.2.1. Analytic Relations Test

Analytic relations test for the current study was adapted based on the idea of part whole relations propagated by Winston et al. (1987), and the test aimed to measure the part whole relations of words. Analytic relations test of the current study comprised 30 items (refer to Appendix A), and under each item, there were two groups, and each group contained words. Each different column had four words, and out of the eight words, four words were associates to the stimulus words whereas the other four words worked as distractors. An incorrect selection of the answer was given 0; four correct answers of each item constituted 1 point (0.25 x 4=1); as a result, the maximum achievable score of the analytical relations was 1 x 30 =30.

2.2. Measures

2. Methodology

2.1. Participants

One analytic relations vocabulary measure consisted of six dimensions and one academic reading comprehension test comprised of three multiple choice passages were employed in the present study.

3. Which constituent of analytic relations, i.e. component integral, member collection, portion mass, stuff object, feature activity, and place area, is the most contributing predictor of academic reading comprehension?

The participants of the study were a sample of 155 Bangladeshi EFL students (five sections) in the first year of their graduation from a mid level private university in Dhaka, Bangladesh. A total of 91 participants from three sections of Business School, namely Bachelor of Business Administration in Finance or other majors (n =36) and Bachelor of Science in Economics (n =25) and Bachelor of Business Administration in Accounting (n =30) was included in the present study. Out of them, 51 were female (56%) and 40 were male (44.0%), with an average age of around 20.54 (Standard Deviation=1.241, range 18 24). Moreover, a total of 64 students, studying Engineering participated in the current study. Out of them, 20 were female (31.3%) and 44 were male (68.8%), with an average age of about 20.16 (Standard Deviation=1.027, range 18 23). One section consisted of 31 students who were pursuing studies in Bachelor of Science in Electrical and Electronic Engineering, and the other section comprised of 33 students who were under the Department of Computer Science & Engineering. All of the students were selected based on their passing Basic English Skill (Credit course 1) course which was approximately at the A2 B1 level on the Common European Framework of Reference. Bengali was the mother tongue of students of both Business and Engineering Schools. The students of the study used English as a foreign language. Participants of the study had at least 12 years of learning English, i.e., all the students who participated in the study had an average of 12 years of exposure to English learning. They had no experience of staying in any native English speaking country.

4. To what level do dissimilar constituents of analytic relations, i.e. member collection, portion mass, component integral, stuff object, place area, and feature activity affect EFL learners’ academic reading comprehension?

2.2.2. Reading Comprehension Test

2.3. Research Design and Data Collection Procedures

The current study followed a multiple regression analysis of the correlation design under quantitative research. In other words, the quantitative approach was selected, and correlation design was used to describe the potential associations and predictions among the variables. Before administering the two instruments, namely the analytic relations and academic reading comprehension test, a printed ‘letter of informed consent’ and a ‘background questionnaire’ were provided to the students. In the letter of informed consent, there was an option (tick √ or ×) where students were asked whether they would participate or not. The participation of the students for the tests measure was voluntary. Purposive sampling in the first place and random sampling as the second step were employed for the present study. One reading comprehension test and an analytic relations test were administered in one session in the students’ regular English class Students were provided 25 minutes to complete the reading comprehension test and another 30 minutes to perform the analytic relations test.

Reading comprehension test of the study was a standard multiple choice academic reading comprehension test, and this reading comprehension test was adopted from Longman Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL) (Philips, 2006, pp. 343 345) and Berita English (2014). Out of several passages, three texts were selected for the current study, and the total number of multiple choice questions was 20. The maximum possible score for the reading comprehension test was 20 as there was a total of 20 questions (refer to Appendix B). The stipulated total time for each class of the university where the present study was conducted was one hour and 20 minutes (80 minutes). Conducting the two tests, including the five original TOEFL passages would take more time (85 minutes) than the total class time, and the time for filling up the consent form and making the students comprehend the instructions for the two tests would add five minutes As a result, the researchers shortened the original reading passages into three.

In addition, the test takers were required to encircle either part or whole meaning of the words in each item. In scoring analytical relations, 0.25 point was given for each appropriate answer, so the highest score for the test was 30. Six types of analytic relations were investigated under the analytic relations test for the current study. The example of the first one, ‘component integral object’ relates ‘handle cup’ or ‘punchline joke’ type of analytic relation; secondly, ‘tree forest’ or ‘card deck’ is an example of ‘member collection’ analytic relation. The third category of analytic relation encompasses ‘portion mass’, and ‘slice pie’ or ‘grain salt’ is an example of the ‘portion mass’ category of analytic relation. An example like ‘gin martini’ or ‘steel bike’ is classified under ‘stuff object’ analytic relation. The fifth category, ‘feature activity’ of analytic relation incorporates examples like ‘paying shopping’ or ‘dating adolescence’. The last and the sixth category of analytic relation was ‘place area’, and ‘oasis desert’ or “Everglades Florida’ is an example of ‘place area’ type of analytic relation.

The r values (reliability coefficients) of the two tests showcased in Table 1 were moderate. Even though K R 21 employs less information to compute, it always provides a lower reliability index than produced by other methods (Alderson et al. 1995). In general, a score above .50 is considered reasonable. Salvucci, Walter, Conley, Fink, and Saba (1997, p. 115) propose that concerning the extent of reliability scale, the reliability is reckoned low if the value of r is to a lesser degree than 0.50; the reliability is considered as moderate if the value of r is in the middle of 0.50 and 0.80; on the other hand, the reliability is considered as high when the value of r is more than 0.80. K R 21 most often renders a lower reliability index compared with other methods although K R 21 uses less

Table 1: K R reliability coefficients of the study Test K R Reliability Coefficients Analytical Relations 0.631 Reading Comprehension 0.63

To find out the level of intercorrelations among six dimensions of the analytic relations and academic reading comprehension, the two tailed Pearson Correlation (Pearson’s r) was selected as the key instrument for analysing the data. To determine the level of prediction of different dimensions of the analytic relations to academic reading comprehension, a standard multiple regression analysis was carried out. In other words, force entry multiple regression (not stepwise) analysis was applied to find out the significant role played by different dimensions of the analytic relations in explaining the variance in academic reading comprehension. For analysing the data, the researchers employed SPSS version 24 (Statistical Package for Social Studies) as the main statistical program 2.4. The Validity of the Instruments of the Study Before conducting the main study, the researcher piloted the instruments, namely an analytic relations test and an academic reading comprehension test in order to measure the reliability and validity of the adapted items used for the depth of vocabulary knowledge test for EFL learners. Kuder Richardson Formula 20 or K R 20 is used for measuring the reliability of a test which consists of right or incorrect answers, and it is designed to investigate how well a test measures that a researcher intends to measure (Alderson, Clapham & Wall, 1995). Considering K R 21 as a method of rational equivalence for examining the internal consistency (Alderson et al. 1995) of the two tests, K R 21 was employed to calculate their reliability coefficients. The computing of K R 21 was performed, following the formula which is [n/(n 1) * [1 (M*(n M)/(n*Var))] where ‘n’ stands for ‘sample size’; ‘Var’ stands for ‘variance for the test’, and ‘M’ stands for ‘mean score for the test’. Table 1 shows the reliability coefficients of the two tests that were conducted to identify the validity and reliability of the adapted or adopted content or construct, (i.e. analytic relations and academic reading comprehension)

2.5. Normality Test

3. Results Research question 1 relates ‘How are member collection, portion mass, component integral, stuff object, place area, and feature activity analytic relation dimensions related to academic reading comprehension?’ To answer the research question 1, a two tailed Pearson Correlation was conducted, and the results are presented in Table 3

186 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. information to compute (Alderson et al, 1995). In conclusion, it can be said that all the items incorporated in the two instruments under the current study showed an acceptable level of internal consistency while assessing their respective measures. In other words, the r values of the two tests prove that the tests are both reliable and valid.

Table 2: Tests of Normality Kolmogorov Smirnova Shapiro Wilk Statistic df Sig. Statistic df Sig. StudentizedResidual .038 146 .200* .996 146 .942

* This is a lower bound of the true significance. a. Lilliefors Significance Correction As shown in Table 2, the ‘sig’ or probability value (p = .200) of Kolmogorov Smirnov was more than 0.05 (p ˂ .05), and here the ‘sig’ value was 20% which was more than 05 percent; as a result, the null hypothesis could not be rejected rather the null hypothesis would be accepted. This means that the Studentized Residual was normally distributed. On the other hand, after an observation of the ‘sig’ value (p =.942) of Shapiro Wilk, it can be found that the ‘sig’ value was about 94.2%, and the value was more 05% (p ˂ .05), so the null hypothesis could not be rejected as well; instead, the null hypothesis was accepted. This means that residuals were normally distributed, and that was desirable for the estimated regression model of the study.

One of the assumptions of Pearson's R is that the data needs to be normally distributed. The following discussion shows that the data of the present study were normally distributed. Thus, the assumption of Pearson’ R allowed the researcher to use it as an analysis method. A normality test can be done in various ways to check out whether a data set possesses normal distribution. One way to test the normality can be done by checking the values of Kolmogorov Smirnov and Shapiro Wilk normality tests. In order to accept a regression model, it is known that a perfect regression model should have a residual which is normally distributed. The null hypothesis apprises that residuals are normally distributed to have a well fitted regression model. The alternative hypothesis suggests that residuals are not normally distributed. Table 2 shows the values of the normality tests of both Kolmogorov Smirnov and Shapiro Wilk.

187 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Table 3: Correlations among six components of analytic relations with each other and academic reading comprehension IntegralComponent CollectionMember PortionMass ObjectStuff ActivityFeature AreaPlace CollectionMember 0.481** MassPortion 0.500** 0.398** ObjectStuff 0.581** 0.300** 0.273** ActivityFeature 0.477** 0.370** 0.331** 0.278** Place Area 0.416** 0.330** 0.222** 0.414** 0.257** RC 0.499** 0.225** 0.373** 0.098 0.280** 0.221** ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2 tailed) As shown in Table 3, inter correlations among the scores of six independent variables (i.e. dimensions of analytic relations) were all statistically significant. A significant and positive correlation at the 0.01 level (r= .481; p = .001) was found between component integral part of analytic relations and member collection part of analytic relations. According to Cohen (1988, p. 80), in behavioural sciences, a correlation of r about 0.50 generally indicates a ‘large correlation effect size’. This suggests that those students who learned component integral part of analytic relations also learned the member collection dimension of analytic relations. Also, a significant and positive correlation at the 0.01 level (r =.500; p =.000) was found between the component integral part of analytic relations and the portion mass part of analytic relations. This suggests that those students who learned component integral part of analytic relations also learned the portion mass aspect of analytic relations. The same can be observed regarding the correlation between component integral and stuff object facet of analytic relations. A significant and positive correlation at the 0.01 level (r=.581; p= .000) existed between component integral and stuff object features of analytic relations. This indicates that those students who learned component integral part of analytic relations also learned the stuff object feature of analytic relations. Out of the inter correlations among the six dimensions of analytic relations, the significant correlation between component integral analytic relations component and stuff object analytic relations dimension was the highest (r = .581).

Moreover, component integral analytic relations part correlated in a significant way at the 0.01 level (r = .477; p = .000) with feature activity facet of analytic relations. This suggests that the growth of students’ learning of the component integral part of analytic relations was positively proportionate to students’ learning of the feature activity dimension of analytic relations. Besides, the component integral dimension held a significant, positive correlation at the 0.01 level (r =.416; p =.000) with the place area feature of analytic relations. This suggests that the growth of students’ learning of component integral part of analytic relations was positively proportionate to students’ learning of place

Results presented in Table 3 show that the stuff-object segment of analytic relations held positive and significant correlation with both feature activity and place area analytic relations dimensions. The significant positive correlation at the level of 0.01 (r = .278; p = .000) between stuff object analytic relations aspect

As shown in Table 3, looking at inter correlations between member collection analytic relations part and other dimensions of analytic relations, it was found that inter correlations among the scores of portion mass, member collection, place area, and feature activity analytic relations elements were positive and statistically significant. Member collection analytic relations part correlated (r =.300; p =.000) significantly with stuff object analytic relations dimension. This shows that the students who learned the member collection part of analytic relations also learned the stuff object aspect of analytic relations. Member collection analytic relations part had positive, significant correlation at the 0.01 level (r = .398; p = .000) with portion mass analytic relations part. This highlights that those students who learned the member collection part of analytic relations also learned the portion mass aspect of analytic relations. Besides, member collection analytic relations dimension bore a significant positive correlation at the 0.01 level (r = .370; p = .000) with feature activity analytic relations part, and this entails that learners who learned member collection analytic relations also learned feature activity aspect of analytic relations. Furthermore, a positive, significant correlation at the 0.01 level (r =.330; p = .000) was located between member collection analytic relations part and place area dimension of analytic relations. This implies that learners who gained knowledge about a member collection part of analytic relations also learned the place area dimension of analytic relations. As presented in Table 3, correlations between portion mass and stuff object, and between portion mass and feature activity, and between portion mass and place area analytic relations dimensions were positive and significant. The positive and significant correlation at the 0.01 level (r =.273; p = .001) between portion mass and stuff object signifies that students who learned portion mass aspect of analytic relations also learned equally well the facet of the stuff object segment of analytic relations. In addition, the significant positive correlation at the level 0.01 of (r =.331; p = .000) between portion mass analytic relation feature and feature activity facet of analytic relations suggests that students’ learning of portion mass analytic relations aspect had an identical proportion of learning of feature activity analytic relations component. Also, the significant positive correlation at the level of 0.01 (r =.222; p = .006) between portion mass and place area element of analytic relations suggests that learners who gained knowledge about a portion mass part of analytic relations also learned place area dimension of analytic relations.

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. area facet of analytic relations. From the above discussion, in terms of the correlation between component integral analytic relations and the other five independent variables, it can be inferred that inter correlations among the scores of member collection, portion mass, component integral, stuff object, place area, and feature activity were all significant statistically.

ComponentIntegral PortionCollectionMemberMass ObjectStuff FeatureActivity Place Area 481 .500 .581 416477 398 .300 330370 273 .331 .222 .278 .257 .414

189 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. and feature activity analytic relations part suggests that those students who learned stuff object analytic relations also learned feature activity analytic relations dimension. Furthermore, the significant, positive correlation at the level of 0.01 (r =.414; p = .000) between stuff object and place area analytic relations dimension suggests that the growth of students’ learning of stuff object analytic relations aspect was positively proportionate to students’ learning of place area dimension of analytic relations. Finally, as shown in Table 3, positive, significant correlation existed at the level of 0.01 (r = .257; p = .001) between feature activity and place area aspect of analytic relations. The results of Table 3 show that inter corrections among all six variables were positive and significant. In light of the above discussion, the significant, positive correlations among all independent variables have been provided in Figure 1. Figure 1: Correlations among the six independent variables

In order to address the other part of research question 1, as presented in Table 3, the inter correlations between the scores of all independent variables and academic reading comprehension, except between stuff object and reading comprehension were found positive, and statistically significant. As shown in Table 3, a statistically significant, positive, and high correlation at the level of 0.01 (r = .499; p = .000) was found between the component integral part of analytic relations and academic reading comprehension. The correlation between component integral and academic reading comprehension was the highest compared to associations with other independent variables and

190 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. academic reading comprehension. Moreover, portion mass analytic relations part bore positive and statistically significant correlation at the level of 0.01 (r= .373; p = .000) with academic reading comprehension. Furthermore, the inter correlations between the scores of the other three independent variables, namely member collection (r= .225; p = .006), feature activity (r= .280; p = .001) and place area (r =.221; p = .007), and dependent variable, academic reading comprehension were positive, and each correlation with reading comprehension was significant at the 0.05 level (p ˂ .01). This suggests that those students who learned component integral analytical relations part performed better in academic reading comprehension compared to other dimensions of analytic relations. In addition, those Business and Engineering EFL learners who learned portion mass, member collection, place area, and feature activity analytic relations aspects performed well in academic reading comprehension. In other words, all five constituents of analytic relations, namely member collection, portion mass, component integral, place area, and feature activity analytic relations aspects helped learners perform better in academic reading success. The inter correlations between five independent variables and academic reading comprehension are presented in Figure 2.

Figure 2: Correlations among five independent variables and reading comprehension Component Integral Reading Comprehension Member Collection .499 .225 Place Area .221 .280 .373 Feature PortionActivity Mass

mass,

Tables 4 and

and feature

analytic relation parts

The second research question alludes to: ‘To what extent do member collection, portion mass, component integral, stuff object, place area, and feature activity analytic relation dimensions contribute to predicting the performance of EFL learners’ academic reading comprehension?’ and the third research question relates: ‘Which constituent of analytic relations, i.e. component integral, member collection, portion mass, stuff object, feature activity, and place area, is the most contributing predictor of academic reading comprehension?’ questions two and three were developed to determine the most significant, unique predictor of academic reading comprehension and to address the extent prediction member collection, portion component integral, stuff place area, activity to academic reading comprehension. 5 prediction value, Business

show

object,

school and Engineering school. Table 4: Prediction and ANOVA Values of Six Components of Analytic Relations of all Students’ Score R R2 Adjusted R2 EstimateErrorStd.ofthe ANOVA Sum Squaresof df SquareMean F Sig. .576 .332 .303 2.758 526.185 6 87.698 11.526 .000 A. Dependent Variable: Reading Comprehension, B. Predictors: (Constant), Member Collection Analytic Relation, Portion Mass Analytic Relation, Stuff Object Analytic Relation, Feature Activity Analytic Relation, and Place Area Analytic Relation Table 5: Coefficients of All Six Variables of Analytic Relations of Students of Business and Engineering Schools IVa Correlations Sig. Collinearity Statistics Partial Part Tolerance VIF integralComponent .423 .382 .000 .446 2.244 Member Collection .068 .055 .425 .700 1.429 Portion Mass .168 .139 .047 .711 1.406 Stuff Object .284 .242 .001 .626 1.597 Feature Activity .043 .035 .611 .739 1.353 Place Area .090 .074 .290 .760 1.315 Dependent Variable: Reading Comprehension; aIndependent Variable For checking the validity of the multiple regression model, the value of ANOVA in Table 4 can be looked into. Since the ‘f’ statistics were found to be significant at the 0.001 level (R2 = .576), F (6, 139) = 11.526, p= .000, the run regression model

Research

ANOVA, and coefficient values of all six dimensions of the analytic relations on academic reading comprehension in terms of the scores of students from both the

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. was found to be well fitted for the data. Table 5 shows the prediction value, coefficient values of all six independent variables on the dependent variable and the significance value of the model’s fitness in terms of the scores of students from both the Business school and Engineering school.

As shown in Table 4, the value R, multiple correlation coefficient, of .576 shows an acceptable level of prediction for students of Business and Engineering Schools. As Table 5 shows, component integral part of analytic relations uniquely explained about (.382)2=14.5924% of the variance in the dependent variable, academic reading comprehension; member collection alone explained ( .055)2=.3025% of the variance in academic reading comprehension; portion mass alone explained (.139)2 =1.9321% of the variance in academic reading comprehension; stuff object alone explained ( .242)2=5.8564% of the variance in academic reading comprehension; feature activity alone explained (.035)2=.1225% of the variance in academic reading comprehension, and place area alone explained about (.074)2=.5476% of the variance in academic reading comprehension. The highest unique variance (14.5924%) in academic reading comprehension was explained by component integral part of analytic relations, and followed by stuff object (5.8564), portion mass (1.9321%), place area (0.5476%), member collection (0.3025), and feature activity (0.1225%) dimension of analytic relations respectively. Furthermore, component integral had (.423)2=17.8929% shared variance with the five other independent variables in academic reading comprehension. On the other hand, the stuff object facet of analytic relation had ( .284)2 = 8.0656% shared variance with five other independent variables in academic reading comprehension. The portion mass dimension of analytic relations had (.168)2= 2.8224% shared variance with five other independent variables in academic reading skill, and place area facet of analytic relations had (.090)2 = .81% shared variance with the five other independent variables in academic reading skill. Apart from them, the member collection component of analytic relations had ( .068)2 = .4624% shared variance with the five other independent variables in academic reading skill, and the feature activity aspect of analytic relations had (.043) = .1849% shared variance with the five other independent variables in academic reading skill.

The present research dealt with research question four, which is: ‘To what level do different constituents of analytic relations, i.e. member collection, portion mass, component integral, stuff object, place area, and feature activity affect EFL learners’ academic reading comprehension?’ Table 5 puts forward the effects of six components of the analytic relations on academic reading comprehension.

Portion Mass .165 2.004 .047 Stuff Object .305 3.486 .001 Feature Activity .041 .0510 .611

a. Dependent Variable: Reading Comprehension; 1Independent Variable

Place Area .084 1.061 .290

Based on the above discussion, it can be implied that (i) regarding the scores of students of the Business school as well as the Engineering school, the relationship between component integral analytic relations part and academic reading comprehension was the highest and was found to be both positive and significant; (ii) Students who knew component integral, portion mass, member collection, place-area, and feature-activity analytic relations dimensions performed better in the academic reading comprehension than stuff object part of analytic relations, (iii) For Business and Engineering school students, component integral part of analytic relations had the highest unique (significant)

t Sig β Component Integral .572 5.505 .000 Member Collection .066 0.801 .425

As presented in Table 6, the largest Beta value of the component integral analytic relations (β =.572; t = 5.505, p = .000 (very significant) (p ˂.01)) shows that component integral part of the analytic relations had the largest effect on the outcome variable, academic reading comprehension compared to the variance was explained by the other five variables jointly. The Beta values of other independent variables, namely portion mass and stuff object analytic relations indicate that portion mass analytic relation (β =.165, t = 2.004, p = .047 (significant; p ˂.05 ) and stuff object (β = 0.305; t = 3.486, p = .001 (significant; p ˂.01) analytic relation facets made larger effect on explaining outcome variable, reading comprehension than place area (β = .084, t =1.061, p = .290 (not significant), member collection (β = 0.066, t = 0.801, p = .425 (not significant)), and feature activity (β = .041, t =1.061, p = .290 (not significant) analytic relation Frompart. the discussion of Beta values of all the six dimensions of analytic relations, it can be inferred that component integral, stuff object, and portion mass analytic relation dimensions had a significant (statistically) effect on academic reading comprehension. Moreover, the other three analytic relations dimensions (i.e. member collection, feature activity, and place area) had an effect on the outcome variable, but they did not have a statistically significant effect on explaining the outcome variable (i.e. academic reading comprehension)

4. Discussion

Even though the reading comprehension tasks in the current study were designed, particularly for basic English comprehension in academic settings, it can be restated that for university level EFL speakers, component integral, portion mass, member collection, place area, and feature activity analytic relations aspects of vocabulary depth knowledge are not only closely,

Concerning the scores of learners of Business and Engineering schools, as presented in Table 3, the correlation between component integral analytic relations part had the highest, positive and significant correlation with the stuff object analytic relations part (r =.581, p ˂.01). Moreover, this suggests that the two aspects are interconnected, and the development of component integral analytic relations part contributes to the growth of their stuff object analytic relations part of the vocabulary knowledge or vice versa. An identical positive and significant correlation (r = .500, p ˂.01) was found between portion mass and component integral analytic relations part of the vocabulary knowledge. In the light of the above discussion, it appears that teachers should incorporate, particularly component integral, portion mass, feature activity, place area, and member collection analytic (part whole) relations aspects in their vocabulary teaching materials to help students build up knowledge of the deeper meaning of the vocabulary knowledge, which would lead them to have greater success in academic reading comprehension.

As presented in Table 3, except one independent variable (i.e. stuff object analytic relations aspect), the rest of other five independent variables, namely component integral, portion mass, member collection, place area, and feature activity analytic relation facets were positively, either strongly or moderately correlated with the dependent variable, academic reading comprehension. This result was expected because all the six dimensions of analytic relations investigated in the study showed that they formed a cohort under the same construct, i.e., part whole relation of lexical knowledge. The obtained result of close, positive and significant inter correlations among the independent variables and dependent variable proved the point that the investigated six dimensions of analytic relations components needed to be considered substantially as indispensable parts of analytic relations.

As presented in Table 5, statistically significant way, three independent variables, i.e. component integral, stuff object, and portion mass analytic relation dimensions were found to have a more unique contribution in explaining the dependent variable, academic reading comprehension, as well as they, had a larger effect significantly (statistically) on explaining the outcome variable, academic reading comprehension than the other independent variables. This result augured well for the run regression model since at least three of the independent variables statistically significant way contributed to the prediction to the dependent variable, academic reading comprehension.

To the researchers’ best knowledge, little is known about studies that included different dimensions of analytical relations jointly and their correlation and prediction to academic reading comprehension, and conducting the present

By evaluating the knowledge, particularly, of component integral, portion mass, member collection, stuff object, feature activity, and place area analytic relations parts in place of target words’ merely one meaning, analytic relations draws on in depth nuances of vocabulary knowledge. As a result, a productive positive influence on teaching and learning new vocabulary can be achieved.

Analytic relations parts of the present study included component integral, member collection, portion mass, stuff object, feature activity, place area aspects. The results of the study would help teachers to come to know how much vocabulary knowledge in EFL is adequate, and the role vocabulary knowledge would play in EFL reading comprehension of academic texts. Also, English language teachers could be able to make students conscious of the importance of the analytic relations aspect of the knowledge of vocabulary. Thus, awareness amidst learners would successfully help them learn and develop other English language skills as well.

A positive and significant association between analytic relations parts of vocabulary knowledge and academic reading comprehension was found which determined that learners with a higher level of analytic relations showed a propensity to have better academic success. In other words, the above analytic relations aspects that are related to each other are recommended to be highlighted and included in teaching and learning vocabulary since they have a stronger association with reading comprehension.

Nonetheless, the context of teaching English as L1 (native language) in western countries is different from the oriental perspective, and the current study corroborated significant different analytic relations dimensions in academic reading success by providing empirical evidence between different dimensions of analytic relations and academic reading comprehension in EFL context.

Many language teachers recognize that vocabulary depth knowledge plays a crucial role in learners’ academic success (Choi & Zhang, 2018; Nakata, Tada, Mclean & Kim, 2020; Nation, 1983; Schmitt, 2008; Zhang, Lin, Zhang & Choi, 2017), yet it is still ignored in teaching English in an EFL context. However, in Bangladesh English teachers have a propensity to seemingly irrationally adopt the subscribed curriculum and/or prescribed texts books from western countries. This is a result of a variety of local, national, and global EFL factors.

significantly and positively related with one another but also with the performance on reading comprehension tasks We can thus infer that vocabulary, particularly analytic relations of vocabulary knowledge is a vital factor in reading success, and different analytic relations dimensions of vocabulary knowledge as predictor variables prove to be useful to academic reading comprehension.

5. Conclusion

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. research with comprising different dimensions of analytical relations to figure out their association and prediction to academic reading comprehension under quantitative research investigation has added to the body of lexical knowledge.

Vocabulary instructors in general have put greater stress on different ways that can maximize learners’ vocabulary size. In the process of doing so, the learners are offered with a long list of vocabulary items to be remembered, and the list of vocabulary items often comprises only plain dictionary meanings. This practice is fallacious since imparting only a restricted definition of a word might hinder students from developing an in depth knowledge of the words, and this process, in turn, might impede learners’ reading performance. Therefore, in their vocabulary instruction, vocabulary instructors should include words that show that learners possess an in depth understanding of words, encompassing semantic relations, particularly analytic relations which represent vocabulary depth knowledge.

5.2. Limitations To conclude, the current study added to the understanding of association and prediction between different dimensions of analytic relations and academic reading comprehension, but limitation remains. Participants included in the study were from the same university, so more learners from different levels of educational sectors would make this study more comprehensive. Moreover, any impact of the native language (i.e. Bengali) or background knowledge of the learners on the test results was not explored. Concerning participants’ study of programmes or major subjects, the study has limited the scope for generalisations of the research findings.

Language teachers and practitioners would be able to make use of the results from the correlation and prediction of different types of analytic relations to reading comprehension to gain a better understanding of the significant associations and prediction between the component integral type of analytic relations and other constituents of analytic relations and reading comprehension that the findings of the current study have shown, which can, in turn, endorse their pedagogical decisions. When language instructors would support learners in paying attention to the most significant components of analytic relations, namely component integral and other types of analytic relations, the reading comprehension content will be easier to handle and the amount of work less challenging. This fosters an avenue for learning and teaching to become more effective. Since analytic relations constitutes a significant part of the depth of vocabulary knowledge, the findings of the present study might suggest that EFL learners would be benefitted more in their EFL reading when they are equipped with the deeper knowledge of words, namely component integral category of analytic relations and other categories of analytic relations.

5.1. Pedagogical Implications

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Weixia, W. (2014). Assessing the roles of breadth and depth of vocabulary knowledge in Chinese EFL learners’ listening comprehension. Chinese Journal of Applied Linguistics, 37(3), 358 372. https://doi.org/10.1515/cjal 2014 0022 Winston, M. E., Chaffin, R., & Herrmann, D. (1987). A taxonomy of part whole relations. Cognitive Science, 11(4), 417 444. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15516709cog1104_2

Vellutino, F. R., Tunmer, W. E., Jaccard, J. J., & Chen, R. (2007). Components of reading ability: Multivariate evidence for a convergent skills model of reading development. Scientific Studies of Reading, 11(1), 3 32. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10888430709336632

Note: In this example, there are three correct answers on the left and one on the right, but in some other items, there will be either one on the left and three on the right, or two on the left and two on the right. Read the following and encircle the four correct words:

Appendix 1 Analytic Relations Test

In the left box, “wheels”, “mirrors’ are the meanings of parts of a car. In the right box, ‘engine’ and ‘brakes’ share the meaning of parts of a car.

1. Head (A) beautiful (B) department (C) game (D) body (E) intelligence (F) coin (G) noise (H) school

Directions: In this test, there are 30 items. Each item looks like this: Car (A) wheels (B) mirrors (C) mud (D) engine (E) solid (F) temperature (G) brakes (H) dance

3. Petal (A) home (B) national (C) flower (D) smooth (E) animal (F) plant (G) tree (H) bouquet

There are eight words in the two boxes, but only four of them are correct. You have to choose which the four correct words are (A) (B) (D) (G)

2. Pistons (A) complete (B) car (C) helicopter (D) wheel (E) vehicle (F) circle (G) name (H) party

On your answer sheet, you should mark the answers by encircling the corresponding letters by a pen like this: (C) (E) (F) (H)

4. Bicycle (A) bell (B) wheels (C) crooked (D) punctual (E) time (F) pedal (G) beginning (H) seat

Please Note: Some of the words here in the left box show meaning parts of a car. Some of the words in the right box denote meaning parts of a car.

5. Pedal (A) tandem (B) helpful (C) bicycle (D) rickshaw (E) error (F) event (G) boat (H) estimate

201 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. 6. Tea Cup (A) ceramic (B) handle (C) compact (D) thick (E) saucer (F) view (G) foottip (H) material 7. Joke (A) punchline (B) irritating (C) laughter (D) bothersome (E) favour (F) entertainment (G) weeds (H) comedyshow 8. Kitchen (A) changed (B) burner (C) important (D) separate (E) stove (F) sink (G) ideas (H) oven 9. Books (A) chapters (B) uncultivated (C) pages (D) disappointed (E) paper (F) mob (G) index (H) berries 10. Linguistics (A) phonology (B) inexpressible (C) language (D) syntax (E) discontented (F) phonetics (G) amount (H) need 11. Tree (A) clear (B) leaves (C) important (D) rough (E) wood (F) trunk (G) time (H) branches 12. Disease (A) symptom (B) quiet (C) pain (D) tired (E) fever (F) day (G) infection (H) person 13. Play (A) another (B) chorus (C) actor (D) raw (E) plots (F) dialogue (G) element (H) water 14. Fleet (A) ship (B) famous (C) warship (D) shinning (E) cruisers (F) hand (G) squadrons (H) taste 15. Forest (A) empty (B) trees (C) shrubs (D) useful (E) vines (F) feet (G) birds (H) tool 16. Pie (A) slice (B) often (C) lump (D) chunk (E) angle (F) apiece (G) illness (H) stones 17. Mile (A) yard (B) fundamental (C) unit (D) measure (E) issues (F) quantity (G) wealth (H) duration 18. Motorbike (A) angry (B) steel (C) necessary (D) aluminium (E) argument (F) alloy (G) patterns (H) carbonfibre 19. Martini (A) alcohol (B) (C) juicy (D) wide (E) night (F) gin (G) drink (H) smile 20. Water (A) full (B) hydrogen (C) Oxygen (D) wide (E) night (F) liquid (G) fluid (H) smile 21. Road (A) awake (B) sidewalk (C) knowing (D) laughing (E) route (F) pavement (G) lane (H) student 22. Salad (A) numerical (B) tomato (C) lettuce (D) body (E) liquid (F) cucumber (G) chilli (H) switch 23. Government (A) minister (B) constitution (C) coalition (D) clear (E) help (F) parliament (G) tool (H) approach 24. Organisation (A) short (B) employee (C) quick (D) employer (E) salary (F) employment (G) tool (H) approach 25. Adolescence (A) immaturity (B) dating (C) friendship (D) clear (E) help (F) chatting (G) tool (H) approach

Text 2 Carbon tetrachloride is a colorless and inflammable liquid that can be produced by combining carbon disulfide and chlorine. This compound is widely used in industry today because of its effectiveness as a solvent as well as its use in the production of propellants. Despite the widespread use in industry, carbon tetrachloride has been banned for home use. In the past, carbon tetrachloride was a common ingredient in cleaning compounds that were used throughout the home, but it was found to be dangerous: when heated, it changes into a poisonous gas that can cause severe illness and even death if it is inhaled. Because of this dangerous characteristic, the United States revoked permission for the home use of carbon tetrachloride in 1970.The United States has taken similar action with various other chemical compounds.

26. Shopping (A) cloudy (B) paying (C) nice (D) entertainment (E) spending (F) knife (G) purchasing (H) rock

27. Eating (A) easy (B) fresh (C) near (D) chewing (E) swallow (F) bite (G) munch (H) vegetable

Reading Comprehension Test

28. Desert (A) honest (B) oasis (C) duststorm (D) sand (E) route (F) camel (G) heat (H) river

29. Country (A) baseline (B) principal (C) land (D) mountain (E) scientist (F) sea (G) work (H) producer

Appendix 2

1. In line 4, the word “unswerving” (bold) is closest in meaning to--(A) moveable (B) (D)(C)insignificantunchangingdiplomatic

30. World (A) country (B) bold (C) people (D) upsetting (E) nature (F) continent (G) problem (H) sleep

Text 1 Read the following texts and answer the following questions: John Quincy Adams, who served as the sixth president of the United States from 1825 to 1829, is today recognized for his masterful statesmanship and diplomacy. He dedicated to his life to public service, both in the presidency and in the various other political offices that he held. Throughout his political career he demonstrated his unswerving belief in freedom of speech, the antislavery cause, and the right of Americans to be free from European and Asian domination.

Directions: In this section, you will read several passages. Each one is followed by a number of questions about it. You are to choose the one best answer, (A), (B), (C), or (D), by ticking (√) to each question. Answer all questions about the information in a passage on the basis of what is stated or implied in that passage.

. It is stated in the passage that when carbon tetrachloride is heated, it becomes (A) harmful (B) (C)colorlessacleaning compound (D) inflammable

2. The main point of this passage is that (A) carbon tetrachloride can be very dangerous when it is heated (B) the government banned carbon tetrachloride in 1970 (C) although carbon tetrachloride can legally be used in industry, it is not allowed in home products (D) carbon tetrachloride used to be a regular part of cleaning compounds.

7. The word “inhaled” (bold) in line 7 is closest in meaning to (A) warmed (B) breathed in (C) carelessly used (D) blown

8. The word “revoked” (bold) in line 8 could most easily be replaced by (A) gave (B) (D)(C)grantedinstitutedtookaway

4. The word “banned” (bold) in line 4 is closest in meaning to (A) forbidden (B) (D)(C)allowedsuggestedinstituted

9. It can be inferred from the passage that one role of the U.S. government is to (A) regulate product safety (B) prohibit any use of carbon tetrachloride (C) instruct industry on cleaning methodologies (D) ban the use of any chemicals

10. The paragraph following the passage most likely discusses (A) additional uses for carbon tetrachloride (B) the banning of various chemical compounds by the U.S. government (C) further dangerous effects of tetrachloride (D) the major characteristics of carbon tetrachloride

3. The word “widely” (bold) in line 2 could most easily be replaced by (A) grandly (B) (D)(C)extensivelylargelyhugely

5. According to the passage, before 1970 carbon tetrachloride was (A) used by itself as a cleanser (B) banned in industrial use (C) often used as a component of cleaning products (D) not allowed in home cleaning products

Whistler worked in various art forms, including etchings and lithographs. However, he is most famous for his paintings, particularly Arrangement in Gray and Black No. 1: Portrait of the Artist’s Mother or Whistler’s Mother as it is more commonly known. This painting shows a side view of Whistler’s mother, dressed in black and posing against a gray wall. The asymmetrical nature of the portrait, with his mother seated off center, is highly characteristic of Whistlers’ work.

11. The paragraph preceding this passage most likely discusses (A) a survey of eighteenth century art (B) a different American artist (C) Whistler’s other famous paintings (D) European artists

14. The word “majority” (bold) in line 2 is closest in meaning to (A) seniority (B) (D)(C)maturitylargepieceshighpercentage

The next artist in this survey of American artists is James Whistler; he is included in this survey of American artists because he was born in the United States although the majority of his artwork was completed in Europe. Whistler was born in Massachusetts in 1834, but nine years later his father moved the family to St. Petersburg, Russia, to work on the construction of a railroad. The family returned to the United States in 1849. Two years later Whistler entered the U.S. military academy at West Point, but he was unable to graduate. At the age of twenty one, Whistler went to Europe to study are despite familial objections, and he remained in Europe until his death.

12. Which of the following best describes the information in the passages? (A) Several artists are presented (B) One artist’s life and works are described (C) Various paintings are contrasted (D) Whistler’s family life is outlined

Text 3

15. It is implied in the passage that Whistler’s family was (A) unable to find any work at all in Russia (B) highly supportive of his desire to pursue art (D) working class (D) military 16. The word “objections” (bold) in line 7 is closest in meaning to (A) protests (B) (D)(C)goalsagreementsbattles

13. Whistler is considered an American artist because (A) he was born in America (B) he spent most of his life in America (C) he served in the U.S. military (D) he created most of his famous art in America

(A)

(B) Whistler’s Mother is not the official name of his painting.

(A) Whistler worked with a variety of art forms.

205 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. 17. In line 9, the “etchings” (bold) are (A) a type of painting (B) the same as a lithograph (C) an art form introduced by Whistler (D) an art form involving engraving 18. The word “asymmetrical” (bold) in line 13 is closest in meaning to (A) proportionate (B) (D)(C)unevenbalancedlyrical 19 Which of the following is NOT true according to the passage?

(D) Whistler’s Mother is painted in somber tones. Where in the passage does the author mention the types of artwork that Whistler was involved in? Lines 1 3 (B) Lines 4 5 (C) Lines 6 7 (D) Lines 8 10

20.

J. W. Ong and A. J. Ahmad Tajuddin University of Malaysia, Terengganu, Kuala Terengganu, Malaysia

Keywords: foreign language teaching; rural education; Sabah, Malaysia

1. Introduction For a learner to develop proficiency in a foreign language, there is a need to develop multiple abilities, knowledge, as well as utilising and using various strategies, such as using their first language (L1) (Butzkamm & Caldwell, 2009; Cook, 2017). It was found that a significant figure of Malaysian English teachers admitted that they employ L1 when they teach (Lim, 1994). Reasons for doing so range from helping students to comprehend English and to develop a better rapport with students (Darmi et al., 2018; Mohamed, 2011). Many researchers supported the notion of using L1 to teach foreign languages; they do not see L1 as impeding to second language (L2) learning, but as a useful cognitive and efficient linguistic tool that can be used to improve and enhance the learning of L2 learners (De La Campa& Nassaji, 2009; Liao, 2006; Sali, 2014; Storch

Abstract. The article described a study to understand a teacher’s usage of first language (L1) in rural Sabah, Malaysia. Literature findings discovered a growing understanding that L1 should be used to assist a learner in learning L2 and that despite some studies done in Malaysian schools, none are based on English Language classrooms in rural Sabah, East Malaysia. Approximately 400 minutes of the teacher’s classroom sessions were recorded, and any use of L1 is coded, and then categorised, based on the coding system developed by Sali (2014). The codes revealed that L1 is primarily used for academic and managerial purposes, with more efforts made on giving instructions, talking about learning, and eliciting objectives in mind. There was also the use of languages other than L1, primarily the students’ ethnic tongue. Findings were compared against Principled Use of L1 (Cook, 2001), and suggestions were made to assist and further enhance the L1 use of the teacher, keeping in mind the contextual uniqueness of rural Sabah, Malaysia. A larger scale study could be replicated to confirm the findings further, and to develop a principled use of L1 for rural Sabah ESL/EFL teachers to follow.

https://orcid.org/0000 0002 6107 6354 https://orcid.org/0000 0003 3261 0877

Towards a Principled Use of L1 – Observing an EFL Teacher’s L1 Use in Rural Sabah, Malaysia

& Wigglesworth, 2003). Some even supported the use of L1 in communicative classrooms (Auerbach, 1993; Cameron; 2011, Cook, 2010, Nunan; 2003). However, the previous studies do notify that their support for L1 does not mean English Language Teaching (ELT) practitioners could use it freely it should be guided and used only when necessary. Macaro (2001), as well as Butzkamm and Caldwell (2009), suggested that L1 should be utilised to its full potential. Cook (2001) even proposed a list of principled use of L1 to guide foreign language teachers on the subject. Therefore, in addressing both the needs of the teachers and the Ministry of Education, Malaysia, it is essential to discover how L1 is being used in rural Sabah, and to equate the practice with Cook’s (2001) recommendations so that a middle, principled way could be developed. This study aims to discover the use of L1 of an English teacher teaching in a rural area of Sabah. The findings will then be compared against the Principled Use of L1 developed by Cook (2001), and any discrepancies will be reviewed upon, and suggestions to improve them will be made. The results of the study could also be used as a basis for a larger, multi subject study.

Thisclassrooms.studyis undertakento explore theuseof L1by a teacher asheteachesEnglish to students in rural Sabah. As such, thequestions guiding the study are as follows:

Malaysia based research, although sufficient, did not provide adequate coverage of the rural Sabah context. There is a gap in the body of knowledge, which creates an opportunity to explore the situation on the usage of L1 in rural Sabah

2. Literature Review Reasons supporting and against L1 During the initiation of study on L1 use in L2 teaching, scholars like Chaudron (1988), Krashen (1982), and Macdonald (1993) have seen that exposure is significant the more L2 they are exposed to, the better they stand a chance to be proficient in the target language. This view automatically assumes that L1 decreases the exposure to L2, and is an impeding factor in L2 learning. Such an assumption also draws inspiration from the popular understanding during that period that language is best taught through a ‘natural’ approach, such as the Direct Method. Such an approach is also the basis behind the terminology ‘monolingual fallacy’ described by Phillipson (1992), i.e., the most suitable way to teach L2 is by teaching it alone, without L1. Many language teachers supported

1. How does this teacher use L1 in teaching English to students in rural Sabah?

Many field studies performed on the use of L1 in language instructions were completed and published, with a variety of results (Canagarajah, 1995; Carless, 2007; Forman, 2012; Liu, Ahn, Baek & Ahn, 2004; Qian, Tian & Wang, 2009). As much as these field studies provide valuable and insightful perspectives that could guide this study, their findings do not shed adequate and sufficient light on ELT situations beyond the context in which they work. Some findings are sufficient only to explain English teaching in post colonial contexts (Canagarajah, 1995; Lin, 1996), or university settings (Forman, 2012; Littlewood & Yu, 2011).

2. What is the purpose of this teacher using L1 when teaching English?

Code switching between L1 and L2, when utilised well during an interaction, has been proven to be a useful tool in a multitude of studies. Anton and Dicamilla (1998) reported that L1 could add value in the process of L2 learning by being a useful tool to support learners, whereby it provides cognitive scaffolding for students, as they work on tasks towards achieving their learning objectives. Donato (1994) concluded that utilization L1 helps learners of L2 in bridging their understanding in the target language by negotiating their understanding in L1 with their interlocutor, and that learners face a significant ‘handicap’ if they are to be denied opportunities to use L1 as they learn. The authors’ claim was based on the interactionist learning theory by Ellis (2008), who proposed that relying solely on the input would not be sufficient to achieve language acquisition, except for input delivered over ‘exchanges of meaning’ between L2 learners and other interlocutors. Ellis saw that the ‘magic’ or learning and proficiency development happened over interaction, whereby learners and their tutors negotiate over the meaning and syntax content of the ‘input’ (Long, 1996), and then further negotiating over how the ‘output’ should be produced (Swain, 1995).

Developments and innovations in ELT have led to various new approaches to language teaching, and soon the widely assumed understanding of ‘natural approach’ and L2 exclusivity is challenged. Pointing to discoveries brought forward by Dulay and Burt (1973), Turnbull (2001) concluded that teachers maximising the use of L1 is probably not as harmful as previously thought. Some see L1 not as an impeding factor to L2 learning, but as a useful tool that can be used to assist and scaffold the learning of L2 (Cummins, 2007; Macaro, 2001; Qian et al., Macaro2009).(2001 in his study observed that reducing the use of L1 induced a substantial surge in the usage of input modification techniques, for example, repetition, reducing speech speed to the point of losing naturalness, and syntax reduction. This could potentially lead to a decline in the quality of interaction, as these modification techniques reduce the realistic nature of the discourse, not to mention radically reduce the lexical diversity and complex syntax that a learner needs to be exposed to. Macaro (2001) supports the notion that input modification can support exchanges in L2, but warns against using it frequently —as it does not do much in assisting students acquiring competence on the more complex linguistic knowledge, such as vocabulary, phrases, and grammar, which are highly crucial in L2 proficiency.

the notion and tried to suppress L1 use. However, based on the study on second language acquisition, scholars agree that L1 is not to be fully blamed over learning challenges, as well as the errors learners make while learning L2 (Dulay & Burt, 1973; Johnson & Newport, 1994). For instance, Dulay and Burt (1973) reported that Spanish interlocutors who were learning English made only a mere 3% of mistakes due to L1 interferences.

The use of L1 is also seen as a way to assist learners in cutting down their affective barriers, as well as developing their belief in their ability to successfully communicate in L2 (Cook, 2001; Kang, 2008; Meritt et al., 2004). A study done by

Several studies have proven the benefits of using L1 on both L2 instructions (Anton & Dicamilla, 1998; Borzogian & Fallahpour, 2015; Cohen & Brooks Carson, 2001; Kang, 2008; Storch & Wigglesworth, 2003;). Anton and Dicamilla (1998) observed five pairs of Spanish native speaking English as Foreign Language (EFL) learners engaging in writing activities, and described several ways L1 may potentially help in L2 learning, i.e., by fostering and keeping learners’ interest in the task, and by motivating learners to perform challenging tasks in their L2 learning. Lally (2008) revealed that learners obtained higher credits for the organisation when using L1 to assist in writing based lessons. Storch and Wigglesworth (2003) described that L1 expanded the quality of communications in classrooms, as well as the quality of the structure of the composition. Closer to the research context, studies conducted in Asia also seemed to support the usefulness and positive values that L1 could add into L2 classes. Liao (2006) observed how L1 supports Taiwanese college students, whereby he discovered three significant roles. Firstly, to memorise words, grammar, as well as syntax structures; secondly, as an anxiety reducer; and finally, in assisting learners to interact with each other, as well as with their teacher. Borzogian & Fallahpour (2015) also found that L1 supports learners as they learn L2, and that L1 should not be seen as ‘evil’, or removed from classrooms.

Seng and Hashim (2006) provided a clearer example of this viewpoint they described how a lower proficiency student faces challenges in producing L2 with confidence and accuracy, as they lack the linguistic competence to do so. Therefore, they should be allowed to employ their proficiency in L1 to bridge the understanding gap with the L2. Such decision will increase their confidence, as well as reducing the difficulty these learners face as they learn the L2.

Principled use of L1 (Cook, 2001) Cook (2001) proposed four major mental anchors that teachers should be aware of when usingL1 as theyteach L2 efficiency,learning,naturalness, and external relevance. To explain efficiency, Cook elaborated that L1 may assist in explaining abstract concepts, as well as complex vocabulary in a more time saving and efficient way. Naturalness ensures that teachers could build rapport by using L1 than it would be in the L2. For external relevance, Cook asked the L2 teachers to consider using L1 if the use of it will assist the learners to develop mastery on specific L2 structures that they may need in the environment outside of the classroom. All four elements, according to Cook, should serve as guidelines for helping teachers to decide whether they should use L1 as they teach. It is anticipatedthat theteachers incorporate ajudicious, principleduse of L1into their teaching practice that will support their learners’ L2 learning.

Figure 1: Principled use of L1 (Cook, 2001) How are teachers using L1 as they teach L2?

•Can something be done more effectively through the L1?Efficiency

•Can L1 help learners to learn specific L2 abilities for the real world?External Relevance

Kang (2008) conducted a similar study as Liao (2006), but with a change in context (Korean, instead of Taiwanese students), and that he decided to focus on the teacher instead of the learners. Kang found that the teachers used L1 for pedagogical purposes, i.e., explaining language features, organising tasks, and implementing tests. Learners expressed appreciation in the teacher’s use of L1, as it helps them to develop L2 proficiency faster, and keeping their interest and motivation high. Sali (2014) explored the L1 use of three EFL teachers in Turkey. She reported that the teachers used L1 in their effort to explain content (academic) and to manage procedures in class (managerial). She also found that teachers employ L1 to develop rapport, albeit ata frequencylesser offindingsfrom Liao(2006) andKang (2008). Forman (2012) also investigated teachers’ usage of L1 in a Thai university. He concluded that L1 is mainly used for six purposes; to animate, translate, explain, create, prompting, and dialoguing. He also found that research subjects often ‘string’ their strategies in a specific order; animate, and then explain before creating meanings. These findings could shed some light into the possible situation in interior rural Sabah classrooms, as the contexts have some proximity, where the research was conducted in South East Asia. De La Campa and Nassaji (2009) embarked on an observation study, looking at several German native speaking teachers teaching German in university classes as an L2, and discovered that L1 is used mainly to translate, provide instruction, give personalised feedback, and to show instructor as bilingual.

•Will L2 learning be helped by using L1 alongside L2?Learning

•Will L1 make learners more comfortable to learn some L2 functions/content?Naturalness

Students were informed before recording that they were involved in the study. The learners were told that the study contained only classroom interactions and that their responses and behaviour would not be evaluated in this study. All they

The study took place in two selected classrooms in government secondary schools in a rural area in Sabah, for a month. Data for the research was collected by an audiorecordingof10teachingsessions.Aseveryteachingsessionwas 40minutes, 400 minutes of audio interactions were recorded.

Data Collection

The results of this study were derived from analysis of data collected through an audio recording, as well as the personal reflections from the research subject — the researcher himself. The datawas then analysed and reflectedupon, taking into account the findings, as well as the local ELT situation. The reflection was then further interpreted into teaching considerations, establishing a principled L1 use in rural Sabah ESL/EFL classrooms.

Participant The respondent is a Malaysian English teacher. His teaching experience involved working with students with excellent, almost native like proficiency of English, as well as students whose English skills are just evolving. Most of his ELT career was spent with the students learning English in the interior and rural regions of Sabah.

3. Methodology Due to the study’s exploratory and experimental nature, data is best collected in both numbers, as well as in narration. This study emphasises on the quantitative data (frequency and types of L1 usage), with the qualitative data (utterance style and choice of words) playing a secondary role. As much as this study wished to go deeper into the richer corpus data recorded in this research, the study was more interested in discovering the teacher’s use of L1 in his English instruction. Hence, the description and discussion of frequency and types of L1 used will take precedence, with the qualitative data used as a supplement to provide stronger evidence for the findings.

Ahmad and Jusoff (2009) discovered that almost three fourths of teachers code switched into L1 when making simple difficult concepts, elaborating classroom management, as well as explaining and highlighting contrasts between English and Malay grammar. They also discovered that teachers use L1 up to 60% at a time when establishing rapport with learners and giving instructions for tasks. The learners, when asked, expressed positive support for their teachers to use L1, with 69% of the learners enjoying their teachers’ approach. A study done by Lee (2010) was perhaps, contextual wise, the closest to the conditions of this paper Lee investigated how EFL teachers in Sabah used L1 as they teach, not in the rural area, but the urban area in Sabah. He reported that teachers use L1 to address anxiety in learners, explain new words, explain new grammar items, and to save time.

L1 in Malaysian ESL/EFL Classrooms L1 use has been reported in Malaysia,with some of it conductedin rural Malaysia.

Figure 2: Coding system for L1 used by Sali (2014)

•Explaining aspects of English •Eliciting •Reviewing •Translating words and sentences •Talking about learning •Checking comprehension Academic •Giving instructions •Managing discipline •Monitoring •Drawing attention Managerial •Establishing rapport •Drawing upon shared cultural expression •Praising CulturalSocial/

have to do was act naturally. Throughout the recording, the teacher taught, as usual, carrying out lessons as planned. The use of L1 and English from the teacher was neither controlled nor managed. Procedures The recording was transcribed, whereby the transcription of the audio recording followed the recommendations and method by Walsh (2011). The method was adopted for this research because it is suitable for the classroom condition, where overlapping conversation and simultaneous utterances were normal. All utterances were transcribed into text, with L1 utterances italicised. Transcription did not begin until after all 400 minutes of recording was made. This is to prevent the researchers from discovering the patterns in the earlier recordings it is of concern that thenew understanding could indirectly restrict in future transcribing and coding process.

Once completed, the transcription was analysed and coded, following a specific coding system, adapted from Sali (2014) who developed hers from other previous studies (Canagarajah, 1995; Macaro, 2001). The coding system adopted provides a list of 14 L1 functions, organised into three major categories; Academic, Managerial, and Social/Cultural (Figure 2). The researchers read through the transcription, identify L1 utterances, consider the context of its use by looking at the utterances before and after the L1 utterance, and then decide the actual intended use. A code was then be assigned to the L1 utterance. An utterance consists of a ‘stream’ of linguistic output that occurs within one intonation, starts and ends with pauses, and forms a single semantic unit (Sali, 2014). The coding process was repeated twice to encourage more accurate coding. Findings from both coding sessions were then averaged.

4. Results and Discussion Presentation of quantitative data Analysis of the 400 minute audio recordings revealed a total of 1253 L1 utterances. Academic use of L1 emerged as the majority, with a frequency of 527. L1 use for managerial purposes came second with 477 uses, and L1 use for rapport was the least, at 249. Table 1: Use of L1 by functions. Categories of L1 Use Occurrences Percent Academic 527 42.0 Explaining aspects of English TranslatingReviewingEliciting Words and sentences Talking about learning Checking Comprehension 1371529269048 127.0.00.47.07.04.0 Managerial 477 38.0 Giving DrawingMonitoringManaginginstructionsDisciplineAttention 2062111644 1617.01.0.04.0 Social/Cultural 249 20.0 Establishing Rapport Drawing upon shared cultural expression Praising 1974210 16.03.00.7

The finalised coding from the transcription was analysed quantitatively. The outputs (numbers) were then used as the basis for comparison with the findings from other studies.Patterns anduniquefindings from quantitative data were then analysed deeper, using qualitative data obtained from the transcription.

Another researcher was requested to help analyse up to half of the transcription in the study. This is to introduce another input in the data analysis, i.e., encouraging triangulation and also to establish external and inter rater reliability. Any discrepancies were discussed upon until an 85% agreement was reached, a percentage adapted from the study done by Sali (2014). Miles, Huberman, and Saldana (2014) as well as Cresswell & Clark (2011) supported such an approach, seeing it as a way to develop accuracy with the data.

Reflections and considerations of L1 use were then proposed, based on the recommendations by Cook (2001).

To increase validity and reliability, several steps were taken. First, the recording of the classroom sessions was done in 40 minute blocks, randomly selected over 30 days. This study also ensures the emergence of a stronger set of analysis by ensuring that the process of transcription coding done twice by the researchers. The figures were then added up and averaged. Averaging is a strategy supported by Berg and Lune (2012), as it takes out the extreme ends of the data; thus, ensuring further validity and reliability.

2 …Jadi pagi itu ad…jective. [so, the word ‘morning’ is an ad…jective].

1 …subject ini biasanya orang, object ini biasanya benda tidak bernyawa… [Subjects are usually human beings, objects are usually inanimate objects]

Table 3: Eliciting No Excerpts 1 …Memakai, wear ini adalah kata ker? ja. [‘wear’, this word is a… verb].

2 kenapa kata kerja, sebab berjalan itu boleh dilakonkan [Why is this a verb, because ‘walking’ is an action that can be acted out] Eliciting. Eliciting is one of the most recorded function of L1 usage, where it is used to prompt and encourage more reaction and output from the learners;hence, has a direct effect on increasing learner’s engagement, as can be seen in Table 3. The teacher employed L1 in the classroom to bridge the students’ difficulty when they faced challenges to produce L2 output. It could be possible to say that such a prompting strategy made learning less intimidating for his learners.

The quantitative findings were in agreement with the studies by Sali (2014), Forman (2012), and De La Campa and Nassaji (2009), whereby some of their descriptions of L1 use were consistent with the findings here. Sali, in her research, found that the use of L1 for academic purposes recorded the highest frequency, with the managerial second, and rapport the least frequent. Forman (2012) found that teachers animate, translate, explain, create, prompt, and converse the most when they teach in EFL classes in Thailand. All six techniques described by Forman are part of the academic use of L1 in the category system introduced by Sali. Similarly, De La Campa and Nassaji (2009) reported that 54% of EFL teachers used L1 for academic purposes. The findings were also consistent with reports from Ahmad and Jusoff (2009), who stated that the highest usage of L1 is for actions such as ‘checking comprehension’, ‘describing new words’, and ‘explaining difficult concepts’, whereby all these actions are part of L1 use for academic purposes in this study. The report will now describe the top 5 of 15 functions of L1 use, together with examples extracted from the transcript of the audio recording. L1 use for academic purposes Explaining aspects of English. This function primarily deals with purposes such as explaining grammar in the target language, correcting mistakes, giving examples or guiding, as indicated in Table 2. The teacher uses L1 to simplify complicated areas of English for the learners by reducing the difficulty in their learning process. Table 2 shows the use of L1 by the teacher to explain complex grammatical issues, such as differentiating between subject and object.

Table 2: Explaining aspects of English No Excerpts

Table 4: Translating words and sentences No Excerpts

1 …Robber is steal, ok. Perompak mencuri. [robber is stealing].

Table 6: Drawing upon shared cultural expressions No Excerpts 1 Mana pincil saya? Adui, obolou sudah matoku. [where’s my pencil? Oh, I must be blind]

2 …No Folding, Jangan ada lipat lipat. [Don’t fold (the task sheets)].

L1 use for managerial purposes

L1 use for rapport purposes

2 …Kamu potong keluar task five ini... bagi balik dengan saya. [Cut out task five (from the task sheet), and give it back to me].

Translating words and sentences. This strategy is also employed by the teacher, as shown in Table 4. The teacher used L1 to provide the translation of certain words and sentences to assist comprehension. He also used L1 to translate the classroom instructions frequently, especially in the sections where he guides the learners to a specific part or element of the content they are learning. All translations were an attempt to increase the efficiency of the classroom, where the teacher can use less time explaining to each student, allowing him to assist more students within a short period.

Drawing upon shared cultural expressions. The subjects at times used discourse markers or expressions in the dialects of Sabahan Malay, Sungai, Rungus, and Suluk, which were a shared cultural characteristic in the classroom. Excerpts from Table 6 indicate such L1 usage. This could be seen as more of an effort to build on shared linguistic, social and cultural identity between the teacher and his students, with less focus on language learning.

2 Mikirayou juga kamu ini kan? [you can be amusing and annoying too right?]

Giving instructions. The teacher used a lot of L1 when starting a new task with the students, briefing his students what to do or to keep the students focused and engaged. In Table 5, the teacher directs the students to remain focused and how to manage their workbook in L1. In the example below, L1 supports and makes the teacher’s instructions clearer; hence, improving efficiency. It also supports learners who are struggling to understand instructions in L2.

Table 5: Giving Instructions No Excerpts 1 Cari isi dulu, jangan sibuk sambung. [Look for the points first, don’t be busy joining (the sentences) yet].

Higher use of L1 in ‘non-conventional’ areas (Giving instructions and monitoring)

When compared against prior studies, the findings from this study are uniquely different, where other studies did not record higher usage of L1 for managerial purposes, as this study does. Sali (2014) discovered that the top three uses of L1 with Turkish teachers were to explain, elicit, and give instructions, while similar L1 category in this study such as ‘giving instructions’ or ‘monitoring’ only recorded 14% and 3% respectively. A study done by Forman (2012) highlighted the top three uses of L1 as animating, translating, and explaining a usage much more academic than managerial. Meanwhile, De La Campa and Nassaji (2009) described that the top three L1 uses were to translate, give instructions, and provide personalisedfeedback. Even when compared to studiesof closercontexts, the results are different. Ahmad and Jusoff (2009) found that teachers use L1 to explain difficult concepts, elaborating on classroom management, and explaining differences between English and Malay grammar. Lee (2010) discovered that the top three uses of L1 of the teachers whom he studied were to address anxiety in learners, explain new words, and explain new grammar items. When scrutinised, the most prominent use of L1 in previous studies are related to academic use, not Perhapsmanagerial.one way of explaining such differences in the findings are due to the differences in contexts. Since it is possible to claim that the same research methodology, if applied in different settings and contexts, would yield different results (Berg, 2009), it is also possible to lay such claim here as well. Differences in settings often involve variance in ideas and expectations towards instruction and acquisition of L2 amongst teachers and learners; thus, explains the difference in results. Sali (2014) based her research in Turkey, where she observed the ethnic Turkish English teachers teaching Turkish high school students, whereas De La Campa and Nassaji (2009) observed German L2 teachers teaching university students. These two studies were based on contexts very different from the current study; therefore, it is not surprising that the findings were also different. Closer to the current research context were the studies by Forman (2012), who focused on Thai university lecturers; Ahmad and Jusoff (2009), who worked with West Malaysian English teachers; and Lee (2010), the closest of them all, studied Sabahan English teachers, albeit urban school settings. Principled L1 use, as described by Cook (2001), indicated that any L1 usage in a language classroom should assist the learning of L2. Although she supports the use of L1 for other purposes like managerial or rapport building, the focus should always goback to academic purposes it is where L1 use is much more beneficial to learners’ acquisition of L2. Therefore, it is best for the teacher to look for ways

5. Discussions

The quantitative analysis into the transcripts discovered that the top three uses of L1 of this teacher were giving instructions, monitoring, and establishing rapport. L1 was used for giving instructions at 17% of all L1 uses, monitoring was also at 17%, and establishing rapport at 16%. When combined, these three uses comprised of a total of 50% of all L1 use of the teacher.

Usage of students’ ethnic tongue to build rapport

Learner Apa mister mau Tanya? [What would Mr. like to ask?]

to first minimise L1 use in rapport building the least helpful in learners’ acquisition of L2. High use of L1 for managerial purposes

L1 use for managerial purposes in this study comes up to 38% of L1 use.

Teacher Aduina, mamut aku. Umos? [oh my, im hot. Sweat?]

Previous studies reviewed in this research (Ahmad & Jusoff, 2009; De La Campa & Nassaji, 2009; Forman, 2012; Lee, 2010; Sali, 2014) did not make any reference to the usage of languages other than L1 in their study. Therefore, this particular

The high use of L1 for managerial purposes, to the degree that it constitutes 38% of all L1 uses, does not fit well with the principled use of L1, as espoused by Cook (2001). Cook has opined that despite L1 could be used for four major situations, it is still imperative for teachers to keep in mind that their main task is to teach L2, and the usage of L2 should be made a priority. L1 use should always contribute to the learning of L2. The subject could consider reducing L1 use and attempts to manage his learners more in L2.

Thequantitative dataalsorevealedanotherfindingworthyofadeeperdiscussion. Of the 197 rapport building utterances in L1, 47 of them were done in the students’ native tongue of Sungai, Rungus, Dusun, and Tausug. These native tongues are the languages spoken within the ethnic community of the students and are not to be considered part of Malay language, as the first three are Dusunic, and the latter Visayan (Smith, 1984). There was an instance where the teacher was learning how to speak Rungus from his students, as detailed in Table 7.

Teacher Kalau peluh itu apa? [how do you say sweat?]

Compared to reviewed previous studies, the findings were found to be different, whereas other studies did not report such high percentages of L1 usage for managerial purposes. Sali (2014) stated that 27% of the Turkish teachers whom she observed used L1 for managerial purposes when all four categories of L1 were totalled up. De La Campa and Nassaji (2009) reported a total of 19.9% L1 use in managerial purposes of all L1 uses. Whereas Ahmad and Jusoff (2009) revealed that teachers use the least L1 when performing managerial tasks. Lee (2010) showed that the teachers he studied mostly selected ‘sometimes’ when using L1 for managerial purposes, which is lesser than the findings of this study.

Learner Umos [sweat]

Learner Umos, umosana [sweat, sweating] Teacher Adoina. Mamut aku, Umosana aku… [oh my. Im hot, I am sweating]

Table 7: Usage of L1 to build rapport Person Excerpts

Another point to highlight in the teacher’s use of his learners’ L1 is the error he makes. As much as it is humorous to his students, it also shows that learning a language involves making mistakes, and constantly making corrections. This reduces the pressure in the learners to be perfect in their L2 use, and thus build up their confidence to speak English, as they would have less fear of making Asidemistakes.from the findings above involving high usage of the native tongue, it was also found out that the teacher frequently uses L1 to bring humour into the classroom. Quantitative analysis of the study revealed that 89% of humour throughout the recordings were made in L1 and that these humorous utterances constitute 37% of the total use of L1 for rapport. The jokes ranged from employing local expressions, as well as telling analogies. Table 8 presents some of the few samples of humorous utterances made in L1 by the teacher: Table 8: Usage of L1 for humour No Excerpts 1 Mana pincil saya? Adui, obolou sudah matoku. [where’s my pencil? Oh, I must be blind] 2 Aik, fikir siapa mengelamun? Cowok di Kampung Taka sana? [Hey, dreaming about who? Your boyfriend from Taka village?]

finding has no other previous studies to be compared with. This finding could well be a distinctive breaking characteristic of this study. One possible explanation for the high usage of native tongues in the classroom could be down to a simple reason modelling. The teacher has no prior knowledge of his students’ native tongues. However, the teacher, after interacting and learning the native languages of his students, is now able to utter sentences or phrases in Rungus, Sungai, or Dusun. This serves as a showcase and example to his learners that it is possible to learn and be proficient in a new language, not to mention the rapport the teacher stand to gain with his students.

L1 humour serves to relieve the tension and strain in the classroom. L1 humour was chosen as the students could comprehend humour in their L1 better, besides the teacher having an excellent grasp of the language, as well as the speech community too. Perhaps the more important points to explore are; how far should the teacher go with the practice of these methods and when will these methods start to impact the learners’ learning of L2 negatively. It is essential to seek a balanced approach to these practices, as it is very easy for the teacher to be overzealous at learning the learners’ native tongue and spent too much time learning from his students, resulting in a ‘coup d’état’, where the students ended up teaching the teacher instead of the other way round. Perhaps a simple suggestion of using only the final five minutes of each learning session for the teacher to learn native languages should suffice that way, the teacher has a solid and clear approach to the process of learning the learners’ native tongue, and he could still model the process of

7. References Ahmad, B. H., & Jusoff, K. (2009). Teachers’ code switching in classroom instructions for low English proficient learners. English Language Teaching, 2(2), 49 55 https://doi.org/10.5539/elt.v2n2p49 Anton, M., & Dicamilla, F. J. (1998). Socio cognitive functions of L1 collaborative interaction in the L2 classroom. The Modern Language Journal, 83(2), 233 247. https://doi.org/10.1111/0026 7902.00018

This study attempted to analyse the use of L1 of a teacher as he teaches English to his learners in the rural of Sabah. The analysis drew the conclusion that thesubject used L1 for mainly academic purposes, i.e., Giving Instructions and Managing. Besides answering the research questions, the study has also unearthed several findings on the use of L1 that are worth discussing. The study also compared the findings to principled use of L1, as suggested by Cook (2001), and proposals were made to bring the L1 use in rural Sabah closer to the suggestions put forward by Theher.

study also generated several directions for future studies. First, the same model of study could be replicated, but on a larger scale. The current study recorded 400 minutes of classroom interaction of a single teacher. Future research could consider expanding the scale of the study, such as increasing the number of teachers and the minutes of interaction. It is also possible to further study this area through teachers groupings such as pre and in service teachers, and also how usage of certain teaching materials affect a teacher’s use of L1.

Themotivation.sameis suggested to the practice of use L1 for jokes and humour. It is suggested that the teacher starts using several L2 jokes and gauge the students’ understanding. If the students could not comprehend, the teacher could then employ L1 to explain the jokes. This allows the teachers to introduce jokes and expressions in English to the students slowly, as well as acknowledging that the class is an English classroom, where students should be exposed to as much English as possible, though L1 could still be employed (Butzkamm & Caldwell, 2009; Macaro, 2001). Since L1 humour is found to be very effective, it is suggested that the teacher keeps using L1 humour, but to slowly bring in L2 jokes and expressions as well.

6. Conclusion

Finally, this study has also discovered that more languages other than L1 were used in the classroom. This in itself is a breaking feature of the study — indicating the unique context in which this study is based on. So far, there has been little, if any literature, that discusses on the usage of languages other than L1 in the classroom, where most studies and discussions were focused on the usage of a single L1 in EFL instruction. It could be a worthy endeavour to embark a similar study in similar contexts a classroom of learners from rural, multi ethnic, multi tongue society that learns English as an L2 to see if similar results emerge. The findings could then be used to make an informed description, and arrive at the suggestion on how to use more than a single L1 in classrooms judiciously.

language learning to his learners, providing a much needed boost to his learners’

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1. Introduction Academic writing is an essential component of university students’ training in writing in English since it’s a decisive factor in their success in further studies as well as in jobs. It is a common observation that many university students in Saudi Arabia regard academic writing, especially research writing, a challenging task. Although English Major students are taught Academic Writing as a compulsory course for one semester, students lack practical knowledge to locate appropriate academic sources on/offline, build a convincing argument, find

Knowledge Nida Qayoom and

and Gaps in

2478

Abstract. The primary objective of the present research was to test the hypothesis that despite being trained in academic writing for one semester, there remain gaps in Saudi undergraduate English Major students’ academic writing, especially pertaining to research essays. The secondary objective was to know how these students perceived academic writing. A mixed methods empirical research using triangulation approach for results validation was conducted to identify gaps, if any, in students’ knowledge in academic writing and to ascertain their perception of research essay writing, involving twenty undergraduate English Major students as research participants. Test and interview were used as data collection instruments, and the obtained data were analysed statistically. The results show that Saudi university English Major students regard academic writing tough, and acknowledge that for them it is the weakest area of competence in English. They have only a basic idea of how to find suitable sources for their research topics, to review relevant literature to contextualize their study, and to prepare notes and references for the study. The study is very significant since it highlights a major area of university students’ weakness in studies and offers constructive suggestions.

Students’

Keywords: research writing; academic essays; students’ perceptions on research essays; gaps in knowledge in writing

King Abdulaziz University Rabigh branch Rabigh, https://orcid.org/0000KSA0003 1621 0646 https://orcid.org/0000

Department of

A Study of Saudi Advanced Academic Writing Perceptions of Research Essays, Their Mohammad Saleem English, 0002 6709

1.2. Research Problem As a pre requisite to Academic Writing, students in English Major stream do take a course in research methodology for a semester in which they learn incorporating the fundamental elements of ‘writing for research’ in their academic essays. But it has been noticed that the majority of them are found lacking in translating their theoretical knowledge into practice (Alkutbi, 2018; Ankawi, 2015; Shukri, 2014). Their greatest challenges in writing research oriented academic essays are observed to be in reviewing the existing literature (what the sources relevant to their research essays are and how to write a review of previous research), citing academic sources and compiling the list of works cited (Alharbi, 2019; Fadel & Rajab, 2017). In Saudi Arabian contexts there is very little research in this area of academic inquiry, though researchers working in second language writing issues have identified several aspects of writing weaknesses and the ways to improve students’ writing (Al Badi, 2015; Alharbi, 2019; Ansari, 2012). There is still less research work on the experimental use of teaching writing for research essays to encourage the students to grasp the fundamental principles of academic writing. The issues in academic writing persist with Saudi students and cause other performance related drawbacks after they enrol at western universities in English speaking countries (Alhojailan, 2015). In the opinion of Alhojailan (2015), the problem is related to Saudi students’ poor understanding of the purpose of academic writing, “the participants might have a limited understanding of the meanings and of the purpose of academic writing” (p. v). Often students are not encouraged to write long answers to test questions; they vomit the little they swallow for the exams,

1.1. Research Background

One of the ways to teach adult students writing focused essays is to introduce them to the style of research article/writing for publication (Amerian & Marefat, 2019; Bailey, 2011; Crème & Lea, 2000; Goalty, 2000; Hogue & Oshima, 2006; Joseph, 1998). With this caveat in view, to teach academic essay writing to 3rd year English Major (Academic Writing) students, the researchers incorporated in their teaching the elements of advanced research writing, especially the methods of compiling short literature reviews to situate the essay in the given academic context, locating the sources for materials, summarizing the published research findings, and building one’s arguments (Ahmed, 2016; Al Badi, 2015; Al Khairy, 2013). Moreover, the students in the course are supposed to learn how to incorporate the essential elements of research in their academic essay writing as they need to conduct a mini research project on a selected topic (The observation is based on the course description for Academic Writing’ course at the King Abdulaziz University Rabigh branch [KSA]) Although it is not exactly oriented towards writing a research paper for publication, yet the work on the project is a great way to learn writing essays modelled on a research paper in focus, on a concise specialized topic, finding materials on/offline, preparing a review of literature for contextualization of the essay, formatting, organizing, argument building, documenting in text citations, compiling notes, learning different referencing styles, and preparing the list of works cited.

supporting research studies, and compile a list of references, etc. Thus, a strong need was felt to address the perceived gaps in students’ knowledge.

Based on the background information, the research problem identified in the process and the preliminary review of existing literature, the researchers have designed the present research to test the following hypotheses:

1.5. Research Objectives

Academic writing, as defined in the Research Guide section at the University of South Carolina website, “refers to a style of expression that researchers use to define the intellectual boundaries of their disciplines and their specific areas of expertise” (USC Libraries, Research Guides, 2020, para 1).i Accordingly,

RH 1: Saudi Academic Writing (English Major) course students perceive academic essay writing an extremely difficult task.

The hypotheses stated above are to be tested in the study by seeking answers to the following research questions: RQ 1: How do Saudi Academic Writing (English Major) students perceive academic essay writing?

RQ 2: Are there gaps in Saudi Academic Writing students’ knowledge in research essay writing?

2.1. Academic Writing

The primary objective of the intended research was to identify gaps, if any, in Saudi Academic Writing students’ knowledge in academic (research essay) writing. The secondary objective of this research was to gather documentary evidence on Saudi adult students’ perceptions regarding academic writing, which includes recording their views on writing a review of existing literature, using in text citations, and compiling notes and bibliography. Both these objectives were aligned to students’ present academic needs since the students are required to work on a mini research project prescribed in their study programme.

1.4. Research Questions

nothing more. As a result, students in Saudi Arabia commonly perceive writing as the most difficult task, and it is still harder to bring them round to write for research (Al Mudhi, 2019; Alkutbi, 2018; Ahmed, 2016; Al Badi, 2015; Al Khairy, 2013; Huwari & Al Khasawneh, 2013). The gaps in their knowledge in academic/research writing need to be bridged to prepare them for further studies, in English as well as in other subjects.

1.3. Research Hypotheses

2. Literature Review

Academic writing is a very significant area of research in English language teaching, and therefore, a good body of research literature exists in this field. The studies most relevant to the present topic of research, and studies conducted in Saudi Arabian context, have been reviewed for contextualization and justification of the present research.

RH 2: There are gaps in Saudi Academic Writing students’ knowledge in research essay writing.

The main aim of the course is to polish students’ skills in academic writing conventions and equip them with a firm understanding of the process of writing a research paper at the graduate level The main orientation of the course is that students (i) understand that academic writing is a process and a skill which needs to be acquired through practice, (ii) recognise that reading and thinking skills are two key factors in improving writing, (iii) develop writing skills and strategies that are necessary for a research paper at the graduate level, (iv) identify the writing process of planning a research paper; from writing the outline to proofreading the final draft, and (v) be familiar with the most common research process problems that graduate students face. Thus, comprehending the fundamental principles of academic writing is essential for undergraduate students for excellent performance in (i) further studies, if they continue university studies for masters’ degree courses or research studies, (ii) studies abroad, and (iii) jobs where academic style writing skills are required, such as journalism, editing, teaching, etc. Excellent academic writing skills are the fundamental key to success not only in writing related jobs but also for studies in various disciplines not directly related to writing. The basic tenets of English for Academic Purposes (EAP) are formulated keeping in mind the development of academic writing skills of students in various disciplines as Paltridge and Starfield (2013) observe that, “EAP courses in various disciplines are designed as a conduit between academic research and practical applications” (p. 175). For example, Surratt (2006), highlighting the need for an academic writing course for students in the pharmaceutical profession, says: There are 3 compelling reasons for a pharmacy school to insist that its graduate students acquire excellent oral and written communication skills before receiving the MS or PhD degree: to ensure that doctor of pharmacy (PharmD) student training by these teaching assistants is of the highest quality, to fully prepare the graduate student for employment, and to enrich the pool of future pharmacy faculty candidates (Surratt, 2006, p 2)

Advanced sentence structures, summarizing, paraphrasing, correct use of citations, proofreading skills, and critical reading are addressed in the course.

The Academic Writing course at the King Abdulaziz University, Rabigh branch where this research has been conducted, also has been designed keeping in view the essential features of academic writing requirements of learners. The course focuses on the content, structure, and organization of academic essays. The learners are expected to work to correctly incorporate research into their essays.

academic writing is characterized by a formal tone, use of the third person perspective, a clear focus on the research problem under investigation, and precise word choice. Hartley’s (2008) opinion on the nature of academic writing squares well with the guidelines provided here, especially concerning directness, simplicity, and clarity in academic writing (p. 8).

Research studies show that undergraduate learners need support in developing academic writing, but in most cases, this support is found missing in undergraduate programmes (Bacon & Anderson, 2004; Chittum & Bryant, 2014; Fischer & Zigmond, 1998). As a result, writing can become a painful exercise and a task causing much anxiety in many graduate students (Pfeifer & Ferree, 2006; Singleton Jackson, Lumsden & Newsom, 2009). Rose and McClafferty (2001), for instance, enumerate several issues learners usually have in a graduate course in professional writing, such as problems in style, grammar, logic, and voice, that lead to writing anxiety 2.2. Research on Academic Writing in Saudi Arabia

Studies on the problems faced by international students at universities in English speaking countries show that numerous students enrolled in various study programmes fail to perform well only because they do not have sufficient preparation in academic writing skills, along with other drawbacks in comprehending academic English (Al Mudhi, 2019; Alzaharani, 2016; Chittum & Bryant, 2014). Evans and Morrison (2011), in their study conducted with international students, observe that “The evidence suggests that the students’ principal sources of difficulty were comprehending and using specialist vocabulary, understanding their professors’ academic requirements and processing and producing key disciplinary genres” (p. 387). The case might be even a little worse with Saudi students since Saudi students admit that they consider writing as the most challenging area of language learning, as report Grabe and Kaplan (2014). The researchers show that their quantitative (skill ratings) and qualitative (responses to open ended questions and interviews) data suggest that both students and instructors view writing as a challenging area for Saudi English language learners. Though the situation may be found to be similar in other contexts as well. For instance, from Turkey, Altinmakas and Bayyurt (2019) in their research findings report that undergraduate writing is influenced by an array of interrelating educational and contextual factors, such as the amount of L1 and L2 pre university writing instruction and experience, students’ perceptions of academic writing and disciplinary specific text genres, prolonged engagement with the academic context and discourse, and expectations of faculty members.

In the Saudi Arabian context, there is very little research in this area of academic inquiry, though researchers working in second language writing issues have identified several aspects of writing weaknesses and the ways to improve students’ writing in general (Ahmed, 2016; Al Badi, 2015; Alharbi, 2019; Al Khairy, 2013; Alkubaidi, 2014; Ansari, 2012; Huwari & Al Khasawneh, 2013; Khan, 2011). The focus of ESP/EAP practitioners, too, in Saudi Arabia is on the socialization of specific course students, like doctors, engineers, lawyers, etc. into their respective academic fields using English language (Ezza & Al Jaralla 2015) rather than on developing specific skills, such as reading or writing. There exist no research works on employing writing for research and publication to enhance learners’ academic writing skills.

The present study uses triangulation method to validate the obtained results.

3.1. Data Collection

3.1.1. Assignment

The assignment given to participants to prepare a focused academic essay on a given topic was used as a quantitative data collection instrument. The assignment was based on an academic observation and the participants were asked to prepare the outline of a research essay under the following sections: research problem, hypothesis and research questions, research aims, relevant existing literature, significance of the research, summary of three previous research articles relevant to the study, research argument, citation of the sources, and list of references. Each research variable was assigned 4 marks, making a total of 40 marks. The variables were set in accordance with the standard organizational structure of research articles, that is, IMRAD (Introduction, Method, Results, and Discussion (Hartley, 2008)). The validity and reliability of the sections were determined by calculating Chronbach’s Alpha for the test, which measured .716, a quite satisfactory value (the minimum acceptable value being .61). The objective of the assignment was to identify gaps in the knowledge of participants on the idea and format of a research essay.

Therefore, the present study is encouraged by ideas from other settings. For instance, Doyle (2008) notes that utilizing a practice based approach that enables graduate students to participate in the publication process is ideal for the development of their academic writing. Kamler (2008) believes that greater attention to writing for publication in higher education is needed since the process provides a sharp edge to students’ academic writing. Although Kamler (2008) is primarily speaking from the vantage point of research scholars working towards their PhD dissertations, his views are equally valid for graduate students’ academic writing.

3. Research Methodology

The data have been collected through two sources (i) an assignment given to the students to solve, and (ii) an interview structured on the points similar to assignment questions. The study employs mixed methods, i.e., quantitative and qualitative analysis methods. The assignment and interviews supplied numerical data as both were marked using a marking scheme. Both the assignment and the interview were structured around ten research variables, framed into ten different questions. Each question was assigned four marks, making a total of forty marks each for the assignment as well as the interview format. The numerical data obtained thus were interpreted qualitatively to present a narrative analysis of results. The last question in the interview format was meant to gather students’ perceptions of academic writing (research essay), thus, it was also meant to collect qualitative data.

The data for the study were collected through two different instruments (Appendix A and B), viz., assignment and interview. In the sub sections that follow is provided the detailed description of the instruments, the research participants and the data collection procedure.

For the purpose of triangulation, data were collected on the same topic through yet another instrument, i.e., structured interviews. Data were collected from the same set of participants on the same set of research variables, except that the last question in the interview format was meant to gather qualitative data on participants’ perceptions of academic writing. Again, each variable was assigned 4 marks, making a total of 40 marks for the interview. In this case too, the validity and reliability of interview questions were determined through Chronbach’s Alpha, the obtained value of which was .877, a good value to start with Kvale and Brinkmann’s (2009) suggestions on conducting semi

Twenty students were selected to take part in the study. In fact, the total number of students in the Academic Writing class was 20, so, all were encouraged to take part in the research study. They are 3rd year (5th semester) students in a 4 year (8 semesters) undergraduate course majoring in English. The participants have already studied several core modules offered in English Major study course. These students are supposed to write a mini research project in the final year of their study, which requires training in research methodology. All the participating students were female, aged between 21 24 years.

3.1.4. Procedure

4. Discussion and Analysis

The quantitative results obtained from the assignment and interviews were analyzed statistically to calculate Chronbach’s Alpha, Means of scores, Standard Deviation, and Variance. The values obtained from the analysis were used to make a qualitative association for narrative interpretation. Students’ responses to the last question in the interview format were analyzed to judge students’ perceptions of academic writing Marks obtained by participants in assignment and interviews were analyzed to identify the gaps in the knowledge of

The assignments were printed with clear instructions and enough space to write answers to questions. Students were asked to complete the assignment in the class, just like a class test, to avoid any malpractices. Full marks (4) were given for each complete and correct response, and in accordance with errors and incomplete responses, marks were deducted. Thus, students’ obtained marks ranged from 0 to 4. Similarly, the interviews conducted orally were marked on a printed format. The interview format, being structured, contained similar questions for all the participants to avoid bias in data collection. Since the interview questions also tested students’ knowledge of research writing, 4 marks were allotted to each full and correct answer, and marks were deducted for errors and incompleteness.

3.1.2. Interview

3.1.3. Participants

structured/structured interviews were also followed to a large extent in preparing the interview format. The participants were interviewed on their perception of research essays and academic writing in general, and their understanding of what research in English language or literature is. The objective of the interview was to evaluate students’ awareness of research writing as part of learning academic English.

230 ©2020TheauthorsandIJLTER.ORG.Allrightsreserved. participants (marked by any discrepancy between the knowledge the participants actually have and the current requirements of Academic Writing, i.e., the knowledge the participants are supposed to have at this stage) 4.1. Results For the assignment, the participants were given the task to 1. identify the research problem correctly, 2. form research hypothesis and research questions, 3. choose an appropriate research methodology, 4. set the aims and objectives of the research, 5. find appropriate sources to contextualize the research, 6. write appropriate significance of the research, 7. summarize the relevant materials (at least three articles), 8. build research argument, 9. cite the sources (in text citation) in the style of participants’ choice, and 10. prepare a reference list in the chosen style Scores obtained by each participant are given in Table 1 below: Table 1: Mean, standard deviation, variance, and Cronbach’s Alpha for the test assignment R Prob Hypo. & Q. R. Meth. Aims Source Signifi. Summary Argument Citation Refer. Total 1 2 1 4 2 2 4 1 2 4 1 23 2 2 4 4 4 2 2 2 4 4 4 32 3 4 4 4 2 4 4 4 1 2 2 31 4 1 2 1 1 2 4 2 2 1 2 18 5 4 2 4 2 1 2 4 4 3 4 30 6 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 2 2 2 34 7 2 4 2 3 2 4 4 4 4 4 33 8 2 2 2 2 4 2 1 4 2 1 22 9 3 1 3 1 3 4 0 1 2 2 20 10 2 4 1 4 1 3 1 4 4 2 26 11 2 4 4 4 2 1 1 2 1 1 22 12 4 2 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 38 13 3 3 3 4 2 3 1 4 2 2 27 14 4 2 2 1 4 2 2 2 4 4 27 15 2 4 4 4 2 4 4 4 4 2 36 16 2 2 3 2 2 1 2 1 1 1 17 17 4 2 4 4 2 4 4 2 4 2 32 18 1 3 4 4 1 4 4 4 4 4 33 19 4 2 2 1 2 3 2 1 1 2 20 20 3 2 4 2 2 4 2 2 4 4 29 MeanTotal 2.75 2.7 3.15 2.75 2.4 3.15 2.45 2.7 2.85 2.5 27.5 SD 1.069 1.080 1.089 1.25 1.046 1.089 1.394 1.260 1.268 1.192 6.25 Var. 1.0875 1.11 1.127 1.48 1.04 1.12 1.847 1.51 1.527 1.35 37.15 K 10 Σ var 13.205 Var. 37.15 α 0.716 Where SD = Standard Deviation Var. = Variance K = Number of variables ΣVar = Sum of Variance

231 ©2020TheauthorsandIJLTER.ORG.Allrightsreserved. Thus, Cronbach's Alpha (α) is: α = (k / (k 1)) x (1 ΣVar/Var) α = (10/(10 1)) x (1 13.205/37.15) α = .716 The results may be graphically presented as in Figure 1 below: Figure 1: Means of scores obtained by students in each variable in the test assignment The scores obtained by participants in the interview are given in Table 2 below: Table 2: Mean, standard deviation, variance, and Cronbach’s Alpha for interview responses R. Compo R. Meth. Context. Hypo. & Q. Sources Citationsourcesof In citationtext Format. Refere. Notes Total 1 3 3 1 2 1 3 2 4 2 4 25 2 3 3 2 4 1 4 3 4 2 4 30 3 4 3 1 3 1 4 4 4 2 4 30 4 2 3 2 3 2 4 3 2 2 2 25 5 4 3 1 4 2 3 4 3 1 3 28 6 4 4 2 3 2 4 4 4 2 3 32 7 4 4 2 4 2 3 4 4 2 3 32 8 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 3 2 4 25 9 1 2 0 2 2 3 1 2 1 1 15 10 3 3 2 3 2 4 4 3 2 4 30 11 3 3 2 3 1 3 2 3 2 4 26 12 4 4 3 4 2 4 4 4 3 4 36 13 3 3 2 3 0 3 2 2 2 2 22 14 3 4 2 3 1 4 4 2 1 3 27 15 3 3 2 4 1 4 4 4 2 3 30 16 2 2 0 2 0 2 2 3 2 2 17 17 3 4 1 4 2 4 3 4 2 3 32 18 2 4 2 4 2 4 4 4 3 4 33 19 3 3 2 3 2 4 3 4 3 4 31 20 3 3 1 2 2 3 2 3 2 2 23 MeanTotal 3.0 3.2 1.6 3.1 1.5 3.45 3.05 3.3 2.0 3.15 27.45 SD .794 .615 .753 .788 .688 .686 .998 .801 .561 .933 Var. .60 .36 .54 .59 .45 .4475 .9475 .61 .30 .827 K 10 Σ var 5.667 Var. 26.947 α .877 2.72.75 3.15 2.75 2.4 3.15 2.452.72.852.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 Research Problem Hypothesis & Questions Research MethodAimsSources Significance of ArgumentSummarystudyBuildingCitationReferencesVariablesResearch Mean Scores

The results may be graphically represented as in Figure 2 below:

3 3.2 1.6 3.1 1.5 3.45 3.053.3 2 3.15 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 Research HypothesisResearchComponentsMethodsContextualization&QuestionsSourcesCitationofSources In-Text Citation ReferencesFormattingNotes VariablesResearch Mean Scores

The obtained results indicate that Saudi students in Academic Writing (English Major) programme find it hard to locate sources to collect materials relevant to their writing on/offline. The second source of their difficulty is to prepare a summary of relevant research articles to contextualize their writing even if they succeed in locating them. They are equally at a loss to prepare a reference list in proper format and build a strong argument for their research writing. The obtained results provide sufficient support to answer research question 2, “Are there gaps in Saudi Academic Writing students’ knowledge in research essay writing?” The answer to the question is in the affirmative. Saudi Academic Writing students lack proper training in locating on/offline sources relevant to their mini research writings, preparing a summary of relevant articles to contextualize their writing, preparing a well formatted reference list, and building a convincing thesis argument. Therefore, the research hypothesis 2, i.e.,

Figure 2: Means of scores obtained by students in each variable in the interview questions 4.2. Research Findings

A glance at Table 1 shows that the mean scores of participants are the highest in describing the research methodology (3.15) and describing the significance of the study, followed by the citation of sources (2.85) and describing the aims and objectives of the study (2.75), whereas, the lowest means of scores are observed in: locating the sources (2.4), writing a summary of previous research (2.45), preparing the reference list (2.5), and building the argument for the study (2.7) The results obtained from the assignment are corroborated by the results obtained from the interview responses. A look at Table 2 reveals that the highest means of scores are observed in the citation of sources (3.45), followed by formatting of the article (3.3) and describing research methods (3.2), whereas, the lowest means of scores are recorded in locating sources for materials collection (1.5), contextualization of the study (1.6), and preparing reference list (2.0).

Participant 6 opines that students need more time to learn academic writing because it is special kind of writing, not like writing a simple essay. Choosing the right tone in research essay poses a challenge to me, and I find difficult to prepare a good references list because I am not sure which authors to take and which to reject for my study.

Participant 4 has similar observations on writing: Academic research essay writing is not an easy job for me. I have little idea how to find relevant source material. Then I have to put my writing in a research context and use some format for within the text citation of source materials. I find it very difficult.

‘There are gaps in Saudi Academic Writing students’ knowledge in research essay writing’ is proven by numerical evidence gained from data analysis The research finding also corroborates findings from previous research studies in Saudi Arabian contexts, such as Alzaharani (2016), Chittum and Bryant (2014), and Al Mudhi (2019). But, such a state of affairs may not be confined to only Saudi Arabian students as Evans and Morrison (2011), in their study with international students’ writing difficulties, report that the students’ principal sources of difficulty were comprehending and using specialist vocabulary, understanding their professors’ academic requirements and processing and producing key disciplinary genres, though Grabe and Kaplan (2014) pinpoint Saudi students facing specific issues with writing.

To answer research question 1, we need to turn to participants’ responses to the last question in the structured interview format, i.e. “How do you feel about writing a research essay? Do you find the task easy or difficult?” The participants’ responses indicate that the majority of them perceive writing a difficult task and writing a research essay is still more difficult for them. The major, common difficulties enlisted by most students pertain to materials collection, contextualization of the essay, summarizing the findings of previous researchers, and compiling a bibliography. For example, participant 1 says that: To me, writing is the most difficult task. It is difficult because it requires using a particular type of vocabulary, sentence structure, and build an argument for what you are writing Participant 2 says: Writing in English is the hardest part of learning the English language. Grammar, spelling, punctuation and sentence structure, all prove to be very difficult to me In the opinion of Participant 3, Writing is difficult for me because first I have to collect ideas, then supporting ideas, then format the writing in a particular style. All this is so challenging

Participant 5 echoes the opinion of participant 4 when he says, Writing a research essay is not simple. Apart from good grammar and suitable vocabulary, I have to learn different in text citation styles and the methods of compiling notes and bibliography. But more than that, it is not easy to find materials that are suitable for my purpose

To sum up, the answer to research question 1, “How do Saudi Academic Writing (English Major) students perceive academic essay writing?” is that to Saudi Academic Writing students, research writing poses tough challenges, and to most of them it is their weakest area of competence in English. Thus, it can be stated that research hypothesis 1, i.e., ‘Saudi Academic Writing (English Major) course students perceive academic essay writing an extremely difficult task’ is supported by research. As has been noted in the literature review, in Saudi Arabian contexts there is very little research on students’ difficulties in academic writing, but still, the findings from the present study are found to agree with the findings of those researchers who have worked on second language writing issues, such as Al Badi (2015), Alharbi (2019), Al Khairy (2013), Alkubaidi (2014), Ansari (2012), Ezza and Al Jaralla (2015), Huwari and Al Khasawneh (2013), and Khan (2011).

6. Limitations of the Study and Suggestions for Improvement

5. Conclusion To conclude, the present research study was taken up to identify potential gaps in Saudi Arabian English Major undergraduate students’ knowledge in academic writing, and to gather documentary evidence on Saudi adult students’ perceptions regarding academic writing. Analysis of the obtained results reveal that there do exist certain gaps in students’ mastery in academic writing, especially in research essay writing. In addition, the students are found to regard academic writing their weakest spot in English language competence. In conclusion, both the research hypotheses have been accepted and the research questions have been answered. Although, since the current topic of research has been least explored in Saudi Arabian contexts, the findings of the present research could not be situated in a comparative perspective, yet it is hoped that they will prove to be of much help to forthcoming researchers. Taking the findings of the present research into cognizance, teachers of academic writing at Saudi universities may take some steps at their own level to help learners overcome the perceived difficulties.

The study is very significant in its settings, for two reasons: (i) The research findings suggest that academic writing is perceived to be a difficult task by Saudi Arabian university students. Academic writing is an extremely important component and a decisive factor in students’ success in further studies, at home or abroad, as well as in jobs. To encourage students to write more, the examination pattern emphasizing long answer questions needs to be adopted in subject specific situations. (ii) The findings reveal that there are gaps in Saudi English Major students’ knowledge in academic writing, especially pertaining to locating academic sources on/offline, summarizing previous research studies, and compiling the reference list. All these are not only their current requirements but future requirements as well. The suggestion is that students should be given more assignments to write mock research papers for publication, with incentives such as including the name of the student whose paper is adjudged the best with the name of the faculty as co author, if the paper is contributed to a research journal.

Two limitations have been noted during the course of the present study which might have affected the obtained results: (i) Owing to limited resources and constraints of time, the present study has been conducted with a smaller set of participants. Further researchers may conduct similar studies with a larger number of participants and check whether they obtain similar results, and (ii) Due to segregated campuses for male and female students, the researchers could not include male students as participants in the study, which might have affected the results on students’ perceptions. Further research works may record male students’ opinions as well and see if the perceptions differ.

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The research problem Research hypothesis and research question(s) Research Hypothesis Research Question(s)

Appendix A: Assignment Name: Note:MarksDepartment/Faculty:Participant_________________________________________________No.:_____________________________________________________________________________Obtained:________________________________________Readthefollowingobservationcarefully.

Many Saudi students going to foreign countries for higher studies, like the US, the UK, New Zealand, and so on, face problems and difficulties in their education because they are not well prepared to receive education in English medium. The reason for this lies in their lack of proper training in academic writing. Most of them are very good at their chosen fields of study such as, natural sciences, mathematics, engineering, medicine or law, but they achieve low marks because of major drawbacks in academic writing. More specifically, their writing skills are found to be unsatisfactory, especially in writing for research, owing to which they fail to write excellent academic essays and publishable research articles. It is suggested that universities in Saudi Arabia should offer English for Academic Purposes (EAP) program to all undergraduate students to train the students in the skills of academic writing, not only for studies in foreign countries but also for universities at home. Based on the information provided in the passage above, prepare the outline of a research essay in accordance with the sections given below:

Research methodology Aims and objectives of the research Titles of five research articles related to the topic Significance5.4.3.2.1. of the research (for the university)

Summary of three articles chosen as sources Introduction,3.2.1. including your main argument for research Sample in text citation of the selected sources in the chosen style 2.1.List(APA/MLA/Chicago)ofReferences

5.4.3. Appendix B: Interview format Structured Interview Dear Research Participant, Please write answers to the following questions in the space provided, according to your understanding. Your answers will be assessed for your knowledge of the topics, therefore, please do not consult any online or offline materials to answer the questions. Thank you. 1. What are the essential components of a well-researched, publishable essay? Components of research essay: Introduction, Method, . 2. What are different research methods? Briefly explain one of the research methods. . 3. How are research essays contextualized in their area of research?

. 4. What is research hypothesis, and how is it related to research questions? 5. What are the different sources of collecting materials in support of the main argument in a research essay? Write as many sources as possible. . 6. What do you understand by ‘citing the sources’ in a research essay? . 7. What is in text citation? . 8. What do you understand by ‘formatting’ of an essay?

9. Write the names of three prevalent citation and formatting styles. 10. What information is to be provided in the References/ Bibliography section of a research essay? 11. What is the purpose of ‘Notes’ section in a research essay? How do you feel about writing a research essay? Do you find the task easy or difficult?

238 ©2020TheauthorsandIJLTER.ORG.Allrightsreserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 6, pp. 238 250, June https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.6.142020 Mass Media Internships in Vocational Training of Students Majoring in Journalism Nataliia A. Tsymbal, Nataliia M. Savchuk, Valentina I. Avramenko, Svitlana A. Sichkar and Iryna A. Denysiuk Pavlo Tychyna Uman State Pedagogical University, Uman, Ukraine https://orcid.org/0000 0002 1223 8476 https://orcid.org/0000 0002 8835 3921 https://orcid.org/0000 0003 4859 041X https://orcid.org/0000 0001 6262 2831 https://orcid.org/0000 0001 8641 3444

Abstract. The purpose of this research was to answer the questions of how and to what extend the internship programme, seen as a part of their vocational training, could contribute to students’ learning process and professional growth and how the students perceived the internship programme. This was a quasi experimental study utilising quantitative and qualitative methods. Such statistical tools as a cumulative grade point average, the career motivation test, and Mettl’s aptitude online test for journalists, the semi structured interview for the focus group, and references from internship host company were used for calculations of the variables. The dependence of variables on the internship was analysed using a two way ANOVA. The study found that mass media internships significantly improve vocational training system of students majoring in Journalism. Due to involvement in this programme, students’ academic performance and career motivation increased, journalism skills developed and the quality of this education rose. This internship programme fosters students’ job related skills like working in a team and fast paced environment, time management, editing and publishing, communication, and social networking, using software to create digital and printed content. This study implies that university based journalism education is likely to soon become a secondary process. This study implies and experimentally proves that university based journalism education should soon become a secondary thing as de institutionalised education is emerging laying the basics for “entrepreneurial journalism”.

Keywords: journalism; mass media internships; vocational training; tertiary students; quasi experiment

1. Introduction

Mass media internships (MMI) bridges the gap between vocational training of tertiary students majoring in journalism and their job realities which gradually enhances MMI’s reputation for bringing benefits to both journalism students, as they experience their future professional role (GraduateJobs, 2018; Maben & Edwards, 2015), and employers, as they gain access to the pool of ‘up and coming’ talent (Ismail, 2018; Ojomo, 2015). The challenges that the students are facing when applying or doing internships in Ukraine are a limited number of companies that can host the students, a limited number of the employees who are willing to supervise the student interns, the copyright issues related to the publications made by interns and their supervisors cooperatively, and students’ digital awareness of using new media technologies (Dovzhenko, 2018) However, these challenges are overweighed by the benefits internships provide. According to the study completed for the Committee on Employment and Social Affairs (EMPL) (Broek, Hogarth, Baltina & Lombardi, 2017) on apprenticeships, internships, and volunteering which is in line with the Communication Department at George Mason University (Internships and Careers, n.d.), the internships provide triangular benefits the student, the training institution and the employer. Moreover, internships are to meet the challenges of global journalism education in the 21st century (Goodman & Steyn, 2017; Hurst, Thye & Wise, 2014).

There is a strong trend in developing a more critical journalist or reporter that can adjust to a rapid technological change (Donsbach, 2015; Josephi, 2019; Keel, 2019). However, it is emphasised that conventional training in Journalism still lacks provision for the students with hands on experience. It is considered to be insufficient in enabling students to learn in an appropriately equipped environment that addresses the deficiencies in the current training system (Breit, 2018; Valencia Forrester, 2020). Internship programmes, either paid or unpaid, strengthen journalism education with what is missing in current vocational training of the journalists to be (Gessesse, 2020; Reed, Walsh Childers, Fischer & Davie, 2020). According to the survey conducted amongst journalism and communication college graduates by Rosenstiel et. al. (2015), the internships were rated fifth (out of 12) important learning after self study, tutoring, mentoring, and specialism-related courses. According to Goodman (2020), the internship programmes are the ways to provide students with both experiential learning and early job placement experience in journalism (Goodman, 2020; Goodman & Steyn, 2017). Gillmor (2016) claims that the intern students who can work with the relative autonomy are of value as they fit into the company’s costeffectiveness policy. Senat, Ketterer and McGuire (2019) suggested that internship programmes bring benefits to three parties: students, host company, and training institution that helps to improve the reputation of the latter.

Previous studies have also reported that the curricula of institutions were not fully aligned with the demands and trends in the job market and industry (Goodman & Steyn, 2017; Josephi, 2019; Senat et. al., 2019).

2. Literature review

The Media Mobility Hub offers 15 day tuition fee free internship for student journalists in the editorial offices of the leading media in Kyiv. The participants of the journalism internship are supposed to master their skills in the production of information products for convergent newsrooms, radio, TV, social networks, and the theoretical foundations of the work of a modern universal journalist. The VoxUkraine offers an unpaid internship with a further employment opportunity to the students. They are supposed to specify trends and stories in data, work with Python, pandas, BeautifulSoup, Highcharts, be skilled in infographics (visualisation) and fluent in spoken and written English.

The literature review found that internship programmes correlate with convergent journalism (Killebrew, 2002) based on the technology mediated methods of delivery information. It brought a shift in journalism educational paradigm. Additionally, the above concept met the journalism job market demand in an employee with certain knowledge and personality profile who skilfully use different outlets to deliver news or stories. It was found that paid journalism internships have been a common practice in the European and American universities, but those programmes are still of a limited offer in Ukraine. For example, we found just nine media related unpaid and paid internships for undergraduates in Ukraine in 2019 2020 (Studway Opportunities, n.d.)

Nevertheless, the literature review found a limited number of sources in both international and Ukrainian databases revealing assessment approaches of the practice of student engagement, mentoring, and student and programme effectiveness which created a gap for this study. Thus, the research questions

2) How did the students perceive the internship programme?

The hypotheses for this study were:

The above suggests that the requirements are quite tough.

3. Methods

This study utilised both quantitative and qualitative research instruments to answer the research questions (Trigueros, Juan & Sandoval, 2017). The quantitative method tools like records of students’ grades presented through the calculated Cumulative Grade Point Average (CGPA), the results of diagnostics of a career motivation (CMT), and Journalism skills online test to assess the basic verbal and quantitative aptitude of journalists were given the priority. The qualitative research instruments like the focus group semi structured interview

Given the above, the benefits of the internships seem to be admittedly obvious.

1)were:How and to what extent could the internship programme, seen as a part of their vocational training, contribute to students’ learning process and professional growth?

H0: There is no dependence of academic performance, career motivation, and journalism skills development on the participation of the students in the internship programme.

240

H1: There is the dependence of academic performance, career motivation, and journalism skills development on the participation of the students in the internship programme.

Focus group interview Data processing Data interpretationandconclusion

This was a 30 day part time or flexible schedule programme. It was aimed at involving the student interns in assisting and performing typical tasks related to broadcast/digital news production, assisting (or ‘shadowing’) in the on going projects, scriptwriting and editing video for a newscast.

After the above, the focus group interview was conducted, the data were processed and analysed followed by conclusions made (see Figure 1).

The first stage was intended to examine the literature and best practices, sign agreements with the potential host company and design the internship guide for the host company and get it approved by the Board of Academics for Kyiv National University of Culture and Arts. At the experimental stage, sampling was performed, mentors were appointed, induction courses were delivered, the internship programmes were launched, run, and supervised. Here, the experimental group students received internship based training, and the control group students were trained traditionally at a “Journalist’s Lab” at university.

ExperimentalPoststage

Experimentalstage Sampling appointmentMentors Inductioncourse programmeInternship

and secondary data like references from internship host company were used to have an in depth picture of the effectiveness of mass media internships (Zohrabi, 2013). The above were employed to control over the variables which were consolidated academic grades of sampled students, career motivation and perception of this approach to their vocational training boosted with the mass media internship programme. The experiment was followed by numerical and qualitative data analysis to validate the statistical significance of the experiment outcomes.

3.1. Research Design

Source: designed by the authors 3.2. A brief outline of the unpaid Internship Programme run at Media Holding “Media Group, Ukraine” Host Company

Figure 1: Visualised research design

This was a quasi experimental study It used mixed methods and convergent design (Creswell, 2014). The study completed in November 2019 and lasted half a year (Thyer, 2012). This study comprised three stages like a preparatory, experimental, and post experimental (data analyses and interpretation) stage.

Objectives: to foster students’ job related skills like working in a team and fast paced environment, time management, editing and publishing, communication, and social networking, using software to create digital and printed content. Assessment: a two part assessment of a supervisor and a mentor was supposed to be performed. Preperatory stage Literatureandbestpractices examination agreementsSigning internshipDesigningthe guide approvalGetting

3.4. Instruments This study relies on Cumulative Grade Point Average (CGPA), Career Motivation Test (CMT) (PsychTests, n./d.), Mettl's Aptitude Online Test for Journalists (Mettl, n./d.), semi structured interview for the focus group and references from the internship host company. The dependence of variables on the internship was analysed using a two way ANOVA. Career Motivation Test (CMT) comprises 102 questions that are supposed to be answered within 20 min. The test covers the topics as follows: achievements, structure and order, ambitions, responsibility, mobility, power, recognition, work environment. Three experts proved the criterion validity, construct validity, and face validity of the test. Mettl’s Aptitude Online Test for Journalists has three major sections as follows: verbal ability, logical reasoning, and quantitative aptitude. The test lasts 60 minutes. It comprises 60 multiple choice items that cover the topics such as formal logic, seating arrangements, syllogism, deduction, analogies, number matrices, language coding, data sufficiency, statistics and probability, combinatorics, work rate, travel, polynomials, reading comprehension,

3.3. Sample A two stage cluster sampling approach was used as it was possible to consider the students obtaining education in the same field of specialism were mutually homogeneous (Levy & Lemeshow, 2011). At the first stage, 53 students of two groups in their third year of study seeking the Bachelor’s degree in Journalism at Kyiv National University of Culture and Arts were purposefully sampled for this experiment. The above students formed the experimental and control groups. At the second stage of sampling, Cumulative Grade Point Average (CGPA) based academic grades (The European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System (ECTS)) of sampled students distributed on the 5 point scale (from 1 to 5) was calculated, and a career motivation test was administered. The experimental group (EG) involved 26 students (14 females and 12 males aged between 20 and 22) and the control group (CG) comprised 27 students (11 females and 16 males aged between 20 and 22). The CGPA scores, Mettl’s Aptitude Test for Journalists (MATJ), and the results of a Career Motivation Test (CMT) are presented in the table 1. Table 1: The CGPA scores (based on a 5 point scale), MATJ scores and the results of a CMT for EG and GE before the experiment Group CGPA CMT MATJ �� SubtractionVariances �� value EG, �� =26 3.91 3.34 3.47 3.5733 1.14821 0.092 0.821CG, �� =27 4.05 3.31 3.61 3.6566 1.13731 Note: �� arithmetic mean; �� standard deviations. As can be seen, both groups might be regarded homogeneous according to the figures in the table and students’ demographic features like age and year of study. They had approximately the same academic grades, the level of career motivation (EG = 3.34 and CG = 3.31), and journalism skills (EG = 3.47 and CG = 3.61). Eleven students from the EG were randomly selected to be interviewed as the focus group.

1. How would you describe your impressions of (participation) in the internship programme?

2. What exactly caused you to think positively or negatively about the programme?

3. Was the course useful for your career as a journalist? Suggest your reasoning.

Table 2: The CGPA scores (based on a 5-point scale), MATJ scores and the results of a CMT for EG and GE after the experiment Group CGPA CMT MATJ �� SubtractionVariances �� -value EG, �� =26 4.61 4.22 4.32 4.3833 1.22112 0.086 0.779CG, �� =27 4.21 3.76 3.83 3.9333 1.13641 Note: �� arithmetic mean; �� standard deviations.

It included 5 open ended questions to comply with a stage wise questioning approach that relies on such questions as opening, introductory, transition, core and ending The semi structured interview was conducted as recommended by Adams (2015). The EG respondents were randomly selected for the interview. To deal with the biasing effect, the Alumni Association members were hired to conduct the interviews. This was followed up by instructing. The informed consent was obtained from the interviewees. The interviews were recorded and transcribed. The answers were rated. The coding procedure was performed. The consolidated data was analysed using IBM SPSS Statistics software. The probability value of ≤ 0.05 was considered signiﬁcant.

4. Results

Quantitative data were drawn for the measurement based on Cumulative Grade Point Average (CGPA), Career Motivation Test (CMT), and Mettl's Aptitude Online Test for Journalists. The qualitative data were obtained from the interview. 4.1. Quantitative results

4. Would you become a referee for this programme? Why?

Both tangible and intangible improvements in the EG and CG students could be observed and identified after the data collected had been processed. However, the dynamics of improvements in academic performance, journalism skills, and career motivation were greater in the students of the EG. Thus, the EG group students showed better results in the CGPA and a career motivation that had been administered in both groups (see Table 2). This was due to participation in the above internship programme run at Media Holding “Media Group, Ukraine” Host Company.

5. What, do you think, could improve this programme? Suggest your reasoning. The responses of the focus group participants were processed in accordance with the guidelines for the focus group research (Onwuegbuzie, Dickinson, Leech & Zora, 2009).

grammar, writing skills, vocabulary, spelling. Three experts proved the criterion validity, construct validity, and face validity of the test.

3.5. Semi-structured Interview Questions for the Focus-group Students

244 ©2020TheauthorsandIJLTER.ORG.Allrightsreserved. A two way ANOVA was used to define whether the above improvements were due to the students’ participation in the internship programme (see Table 3). Table 3: Two way ANOVA results to define the dependence of academic performance and career motivation on the participation of the EG students in the internship programme Variance Source �� F value �� ErrorGroupBetweengroups(Experimental/control) 21896.3932.4422103.31 5713 434.3431.67 .079 .769 0.001 53 EstimatedInsidegroupsparameters /Before /After TotalErrorGroup*Parametertheexperiment) 21112.0311001.01191.341.1911991.63 121531164 163.167157.2710.36 .891.049 .391.778 0.0210.001 53 Note: SS total mean square error; df degrees of freedom; MS mean square; F value; η2 mutual coupling factor; p>.05; n number of students. The statistically significant difference in the Estimated parameters (Before /After the experiment) with a figure of .778 and group*Parameter (.391) can be seen in Table 3 which suggests that there is the dependence of improvements in the students’ grades, journalism skills and their career motivation on the participation of the EG students in the internship programme. The relation between the internship based training of the EG and traditional training of the students of the CG at a “Journalist’s Lab” at university was established through the descriptive statistics (see Table 4). Table 4: Relationship between the internship based training of the EG and traditional training of the students of the CG at a “Journalist’s Lab” at university Variables 1 2 3 1. Academic performance 1.12 2. Journalism skills .47* 1.12 3. Career motivation .69* .46* 1.12 Mean (Likert scale) 69.43 (4.12) 128.12 (4.78) 16.77 (4.11) Standard deviations 10.32 23.87 4.09 *��>.05. The figures for students’ academic performance, journalism skills, and career motivation are positively and significantly correlated as they can be seen in Table 4. The academic performance positively correlates with journalism skills (�� = 47; ��>.05), academic performance well correlates with a career motivation (�� =.69; ��>.05), and journalism skills positively correlate with a career motivation (�� =46; ��>.05). As every correlation figure is positive, it suggests that the internship based training is effective when used in vocational training of the students majoring in journalism.

Question 4. Would you become a referee for this programme? Why? Eleven students agreed to advise this programme to their peers as it proved optimal for their future careers. The reasons for this were students’ increased job motivation, enhanced networking contacts, progress in their studies.

Question 2. What exactly caused you to think positively or negatively about the programme? Eleven focus group students expressed positively about the programme. they proved that the programme met their professional needs, enhanced their professional credo, and improved their professional profile, became better at generating new ideas. Seven students confessed that they would do better in the programme if it was paid.

5. Discussions To address the first research question, mass media internships proved to be the pedagogic booster for vocational training of tertiary students majoring in journalism. If introduced regularly, those internships could upgrade the journalism curriculum and raise the quality of journalism education. Additionally, it fitted each students’ intellectual type, conceptual tempo, problem solving, and learning styles. The latter is consistent with the findings of Valencia Forrester (2020) who proved that equips a future journalist with necessary knowledge and skills so that the one could succeed in ‘a dynamic media landscape’. This was due to the fact that the researcher sees internships as a work integrated learning model. The results of this study supported findings of Gessesse (2020) and Reed, Walsh Childers, Fischer and Davie (2020) who revealed that the internship programmes, either paid or unpaid, add much value

Question 5. What, do you think, could improve this programme? Suggest your reasoning. Seven students found the programme too short and suggested prolonging it. Ten students responded that such a programme should be paid as a requirement for the experienced employees and the students are identical.

4.2. Qualitative results Results of Semi structured Interview Questions for the Focus group Students (��=11)

Question 3. Was the course useful for your career as a journalist? Suggest your reasoning. Ten students agreed that the programme contributed to their professional background, challenged them in terms of deadlines, creativity, and being stress proof. Two students often felt the tasks impossible to manage to comply with requirements. The reasons for the above were a weak link between journalism education at university and a real job, and out of dated equipment used at university which prevented the students from acquiring up to date digital skills.

Ten students responded that it was a fruitful experience. One student reported having her stereotypes broken. Those were about her future job like “lots of travelling within the country and abroad”, “funny colleagues”, “interesting topics”, “objectivity of one’s opinion”.

Question 1. How would you describe your impressions of (participation) in the internship programme?

several contributions to the theory and methodology of vocational training of the students majoring in journalism. First, this study adds to the theory and practice of journalism education. It boosted the research of Anderson, Glaisyer, Smith and Rothfeld (2011), Coombes (2019), Greenberg (2007) and Josephi (2016) who revealed the journalism education seen as a phenomenon. It enhanced the methodology of journalism teaching and training

to journalism education with such things as the integrated view of the occupation and learning from the very best. The study findings were in line with Steeves (2005) stating that (international) internships enhance the quality of journalism graduates. They engage the student in more in field experience and specialised training in writing, reporting, photography, blogging, etc. They prepare graduates for tougher graduation requirements and job placement. According to Ojomo (2007), internships help graduates ‘step out of the academic cocoon and into a professional arena’. They can apply their knowledge and skills and build up friendly in field relationships. The results of the study fit the concept of convergent journalism produced by Killebrew (2002). It is referred to as the cooperation of the staff from print, broadcast, and online news who use recent technological advances to distribute content.

To address the second research question, the most illustrative students’ responses about their perception of the intervention are presented below: […it was awesome and exhilarating to work with someone who inspires you by her/his own actions, way of approaching things, and professional […thelifestyle…]university training seems far behind the real job. The teachers just make us believe that we are on the track but we aren’t… It is […disappointing…]Iwassomuch willing to do my best in the projects that I hardly could sleep at night… I feel how rewarding this project was…]

The internships create a convergent journalism environment for the students to gain marketable cross media skills like digital design, copywriting, and video or photojournalism. Though the programme was based on the increased cognitive and creative load, the students evaluated it positively and showed growth as both as a future staff member and a self efﬁcient personality. The programme made it possible to employ different extracurricular type contents, accelerate journalism skill formation, and increase learning effectiveness through more job related tasks and assignments. The results supported the previous research conducted by Gillmor (2016) It draws attention to the fact that there is a need for journalists who are good at statistics, business, engineering/computer science, political science, law, design. There is also a need for journalists who can work with different computer programmes. The above scientist claims that the educational programmes accompanied by internships can satisfy those needs. Though it was beyond the scope of this study, the programme reduced imbalance between the excessive teacher efforts in fostering writing and speaking skills in student journalists and teacher underperformance in fostering student digital skills which the focus group students reported while Thisinterviewed.papermakes

7. Recommendations

It might be argued that it seems the limitation that the experiment was a single institution experience with only one host company involved. Quasi

Mass media internships significantly improve vocational training system of students majoring in Journalism. They contribute substantially to students’ learning process and professional growth. Due to involvement in this programme, students’ academic performance and career motivation increase, journalism skills develop, and the quality of this education rises. This internship programme fosters students’ job related skills like working in a team and fast paced environment, time management, editing and publishing, communication, and social networking, using software to create digital and printed content. The students perceive the internship programme positively. The reasons for students’ positive perceptions of the programme were the increased job motivation, enhanced networking contacts, progress in their studies. This study implies that university based journalism education is likely to soon become a secondary process. The interview suggests that the teachers should put greater effort into fostering student digital skills than training students’ writing and speaking skills. Though the unpaid programme like this indirectly raises competition in the journalism job market, it raises the quality of the mass media product as a whole. The study had demonstrated the need for a shift to visual communication in the journalism curriculum. Further study is needed in the field of ‘entrepreneurial journalism’ theory and methodology.

Given the fact that the employees of the host company might behave hostile (unfriendly) to the students doing internships for the reason being that the students might be perceived as competitions, it would work if the students as a separate team were assigned to create some new project under the supervision of the experienced employee. Before launching the project, the staff might be involved in evaluating and providing feedback to that project. The internship programme would be more effective if it was run as a paid summer job. The student journalists could travel locally and internationally to collect news at the source. However, the Academic Board’s special approval is needed because the summer time is considered to be extra curriculum.

8. Limitations and implications for the research

highlighted by Fourie (2005) and Harro Loit and Ugur (2018). The study contributed to the theory of reflective practice in journalism education (Burns, 2004). It accelerated the introduction of media education and new technology in journalism education (Berkeley, 2009; Nkomo, Chidyagwayi & Munikwa, 2016) It revealed the need for a shift to visual communication in the journalism curriculum (Blom & Davenport, 2012). The study also added to best practice of journalism skills training (Larrondo Ureta & Peña Fernández, 2018; Takahashi & Parks, 2018). Secondly, the results of this study help better understand the importance of establishing a link between journalism education at university and a real job, upgrading university computer infrastructure, and doing internships at the host brick and mortar company but university lab.

6. Conclusions

Fourie, P. (2005). Journalism teaching and training: Journalism studies: The need to think about journalists' thinking. Ecquid Novi African Journalism Studies, 26(2), 142 158. https://doi.org/10.3368/ajs.26.2.142

248 ©2020TheauthorsandIJLTER.ORG.Allrightsreserved. experimental research design and a number of variables studied were also limitations to this research. This study implies and experimentally proves that university based journalism education should soon become a secondary thing as de institutionalised education is emerging laying the basics for “entrepreneurial journalism”. There might be stated that unpaid internships indirectly lead to the rise of the unemployment rate amongst qualified journalists. Acknowledgement

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We express gratitude to all people involved in the research and to Media Holding “Media Group, Ukraine” Host Company for their support in the research so that it ran smoothly.

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Attitudes and Practices of Mass Communication Programs Regarding

Byron O'Neill Ritsumeikan University, Shiga, Japan https://orcid.org/0000 0002 0632 1265 Christopher Edelman Kwansei Gakuin University, Hyogo, Japan https://orcid.org/0000 0002 0177 2059

251 ©2020TheauthorsandIJLTER.ORG.Allrightsreserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 6, pp. 251 266, June https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.6.120205 Assessing the Efficacy of Extensive Reading during Study Abroad: A Time and Place for ER?

Abstract. This paper describes a study that combined two practices widely recognized as being beneficial to foreign language acquisition: Extensive Reading (ER) and Study Abroad (SA). Two groups of university undergraduate students majoring in either science, technology, engineering, or mathematics participated in an elective study abroad program to the United States, with a treatment group having ER as a required course component while abroad and a control group that did not. A survey that measures attitudinal variables towards reading in English was administered to each group as pre, post, and delayed post measures. The data was analyzed by comparing the change of attitudinal constructs. The results show that ER had a negative effect on reading affect, providing evidence against its use during SA.

Keywords: extensive reading; short term study abroad; second language 1. Introduction Extensive Reading (ER) is an approach to foreign language learning in which large amounts of material that are at or slightly below a learner’s current language level are read for pleasure. This is often done with graded readers, which are books that are either adapted versions of native speaker literature or are purposely written for ER. There are many proven benefits to including ER as part of a language curriculum. It has been shown to improve reading proficiency (Nakanishi, 2014; Robb & Kano, 2013; Suk, 2016), deepen grammar internalization (Aka, 2019; Sakurai, 2017), and expand vocabulary knowledge (Nation, 2015; Waring & Takaki, 2003). Because of these benefits, graded readers are now commonly

1) What are the immediate effects of including Extensive Reading as a supplementary component of a short term study abroad on student attitudes toward reading in English?

2) What are the long term effects of including Extensive Reading as a supplementary component of a short term study abroad on student attitudes toward reading in English? As opposed to measuring language gains, which would be difficult to attribute to the presence or lack of ER in a short term program, only the effects of ER on affective variables will be examined in this study. By comparing the degree of difference and change between pre, post, and delayed post measures among two groups of students, one that engages in ER, and one that does not during the same study abroad program, it will be possible to isolate the effect of ER as part of the curriculum.

No previous studies have investigated the affective influence of ER on SA participants while abroad. Students who elect to study abroad are motivated foreign language learners. This being the case, they may be more willing to recognize the benefits of ER and be more inclined to engage themselves in it during the program and after its completion. This study, therefore, seeks to answer the following research questions:

found in Japanese high school and university libraries, and more teachers have begun to include them in their courses. Short term study abroad (SA) programs are becoming increasingly popular in Japan. The most popular short term programs for Japanese university students, which are defined as being less than a month in duration, emphasize foreign language acquisition and cultural exchange (Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, 2018). Typical programs feature language study in the morning, with either guided educational excursions or free time in the afternoons and weekends. Students might have homestay arrangements with local families or reside in dormitories with local students. Studies have shown that these types of programs improve speaking, listening, and communicative abilities (Dewey, 2007; Isabelli Garcia, 2003; Wood, 2007; Yashima, Zenuk Nishide & Shimizu, 2004). Additionally, cultural knowledge is also acquired (Talbert & Steward, 1999; Wang, Peyvandi & Moghaddam, 2009). Because of the brief nature of these programs, they are appealing because they have lower costs and conflict less with student schedules compared to long term SA programs.

2. Methodology

Participants. Two groups of undergraduates from the same college of science and engineering in Japan participated in this study. Each group was comprised of all students who together participated in a specific short term study abroad program offered by the college in a particular year. The Treatment group studied abroad in 2017 and consisted of 17 second year students (11 male, 6 female) with an average TOEIC® L&R score of 590. The Control group studied abroad in 2018 and consisted of 11 second year students (9 male, 2 female) with an average TOEIC® L&R score of 575. The two groups were randomly assigned

to be either the Treatment or Control group. Because our participants were not randomly selected from a population, our design methodology would be characterized as quasi experimental. For the intents and purposes of this study, both groups are considered to have an equivalent English ability and to be representative of the student population, i.e., science and engineering majors interested in a specific academically based month long study abroad program in the United States.

All participants resided in an on campus dormitory alongside regularly matriculated students while studying abroad. The same faculty leader accompanied each group from Japan and met the students on days when classes, lectures, and field trips were held. With the exception of administrating the ER program for the Treatment group, the faculty leader was not directly involved with classroom instruction. Materials. The students participated in an elective short term SA program at a large university in the United States. The program consisted of three parts, each comprising approximately one third of the curriculum. One component was science based. It consisted of lectures and field trips that appeal to science, technology, engineering, and math majors. All lecture topics were not offered at their home institution, and the excursions were unique to the SA environment. Lectures included astrobiology and geology, and field trips included visits to a marine biology laboratory and a weather station. In addition, all students were allowed to audit any undergraduate lecture courses offered by the university. Another element of the program was culture based. These lectures and field trips were chosen for students to better understand the cultural aspects of the SA location. Lectures included art history and indigenous languages, and field trips included visits to museums and national monuments. The third part of the programs was English language focused. This involved workshops on research (library search, questionnaire design) and presentation skills. The students researched an aspect of one of the lectures they had that particularly interested them and made a final presentation on their topics at the end of the program. There were also numerous opportunities to interact with other university students through structured language exchange programs and sports and cultural events. Neither group had any previous exposure to Extensive Reading. With the exception of ER, the content of the short term SA programs was identical for both groups. The control group was not exposed to ER at any time, and no additional content was added to replace it. No mention of ER was ever made to the Control group, and they were unaware of its inclusion in the previous year’s

Theprogram.survey instrument used in this study measures the reading attitudes of Japanese students (Yamashita, 2007, 2013). It is a 22 item Likert scale questionnaire (see Appendix 1 and 2) that reliably measures five attitudinal variables: Comfort (degree of comfort felt while reading in English; questions 3, 9, 15, 18, 20, 25), Anxiety (feelings of anxiety felt towards reading in English; questions 5, 10, 19, 23), Intellectual Value (reading in English as a means to

The faculty leader, an experienced ER practitioner, thoroughly and enthusiastically described the language learning benefits of ER and explained how it was to be included in the SA program at a pre departure orientation with the Treatment group. The entire ER component was conducted at the overseas institution through the requirement to read two Oxford Bookworms Library® level 2, 3, or 4 books a week during each week of the four week program. The difficulty level of the graded readers and the quantity of reading are in accordance with accepted best practices for ER programs at Japanese universities for students with similar backgrounds. Fifty books, which consisted of one set of the Level 2 Bestseller Pack®, three sets of the level 3 Bestseller Pack®, and one set of the Level 4 Bestseller Pack® were purchased in Japan for the study and participants were allowed to choose two or three books at a time from whichever level they wanted to read. Each student completed a paper based book report twice a week and submitted it directly to the faculty leader. These eight book report forms were slightly different, with each asking students to answer three questions about each book they read. One question, ‘What is the story about?’ appears on all of the book report forms, but the other two questions varied. Writing prompts included, ‘Think of a situation that happened to a character in the story. Would you have done the same thing he/she did or something different?’ and ‘Do you think this story should have a sequel?’ Each question contained space to write a two to three sentence response. All of these book reports were acknowledged, read, and commented on individually by the faculty leader, who also advised on book selection. All students in the ER Treatment group completed the biweekly reading and reporting requirements diligently and can be considered to have engaged in ER in the manner initially planned for this study. All graded readers were recollected at the end of the program and gifted to the participants.

The survey was taken by both groups a total of three times. The first time was at the end of the initial pre departure orientation session held four months before the sojourn abroad. The questionnaire was distributed to students in the Treatment group after the explanation of what ER was and how ER was going to be a part of the program. The second time the survey was given was at the end of the final class students had while abroad. The survey was distributed a final time precisely one calendar year after the second survey was conducted. During the one year period between the post and delayed post survey, the participants did not take any required English courses. As this period was their entire third year of undergraduate studies, they had already completed all survey and prerequisite courses for their fields of study by this time. They therefore had schedules comprised of content courses and seminars directly related to their specific science, technology, engineering, and mathematics majors. While

develop intellectually; questions 1, 2, 8, 16, 26), Practical Value (reading in English as a means for educational and future professional success; questions 4, 7, 12, 21), and Linguistic Value (reading in English as a means to improve English language ability; questions 6, 11, 17).

3. Procedure

printed versions of the survey were used the first two times, and an online version using Google Forms® was used the third time because the authors were no longer in frequent contact with the participants. The online version was distributed through a link embedded in an email, and all students responded within two weeks of receiving it. Response rates for both groups to all three surveys was 100%, which is considered to be exceptionally high (Ingraham & Peterson, 2004) 4. Results All data was analyzed using JASP version 0.10.2. Answers for item numbers 3, 5, 10, 13, 16, and 17 were inverted because they were reverse ordered items. A principal component analysis with a Varimax rotation was conducted using the responses of the treatment group (n = 17) and the control group (n = 11) from the first measurement to investigate whether items had correlations consistent with the original constructs proposed by Yamashita (2013). The results of the analysis can be found in Table 1. The analysis was set to isolate factors with an Eigenvalue greater than 1, and correlation coefficients smaller than .4 were not included. 1: Principal Component Analysis Affect Cognition Q11 M 4.21 2.29

Table

Q1 .839

Q2 .829 4.32 Q3 .795

Q4 .739 4.50 Q5 .757 2.96 Q6 .698 4.21 Q7 .628 4.46 Q8 .708 4.25 Q9 .693 1.79 Q10 .634 .448 2.46 Q11 .429 .446 .633 3.86 Q12 .851 3.68 Q13 .872 2.68 Q14 .828 4.11 Q15 .762 4.64 Q16 .826 1.89 Q17 .750 3.39 Q18 .789 .405 2.14 Q19 .846 4.11 Q20 .794 1.96 Q21 .449 .660 3.61 Q22 .525 .617 4.18

Comfort Anxiety EducationalValue PracticalValue ExpandedView Q4

256

The analysis isolated five factors based upon the strongest correlations for each question item. The Cronbach’s Alpha was .78, which indicates a high level of reliability. Only question numbers 4, 6, and 11, were not found to fit smoothly within the constructs. New constructs have been created by examining totals from the item questions that loaded into each variable. An independent sample t test was conducted using the construct measurements as the independent variables, and the groups as the grouping variable. No statistically significant differences between the groups were found.

Practical Value 10.15 5.08 .81 .45

GroupEffects Comfort ✻ Group 12.11 6.05 .67 .52 Anxiety ✻ Group 6.13 3.06 .25 .78

ConstructEffects Comfort 86.92 43.46 4.77 .01 Anxiety 152.41 76.21 6.22 .00

To assess any changes in attitude that may have occurred between the three points of measurement, repeated measures ANOVA were conducted using the pre, post, and delayed post totals of the five constructs that were created as the independent variables. The output can be found in Table 2. Subject group was entered as the between subject factor. Construct effects were calculated by comparing the change of all participants over the three measurement periods.

Practical Value ✻ Group 12.01 6.00 .96 .39 International Posture ✻ Group 13.50 6.75 2.64 .09 Educational Value ✻ Group 22.05 11.02 2.41 .10 No significant interaction was found between the grouping variable and any of the other variables. However, four of the constructs (comfort, anxiety, expanded view, and educational value) were found to have experienced statistically significant change between the periods the questionnaire was administered for both groups. We conducted a comparison of the change in the variables between the points of measurement. In the figures provided, the Treatment group is represented as Group 1, and the Control group is represented as Group 2. Our investigation of the results led to a rather unexpected outcome: although not statistically significant, there was a noticeable depression of response scores from the treatment group on the post test. Comparisons from this point forward referring to the constructs examine the combined response scores of all participants. All comparisons between groups are made by comparing the mean scores between the treatment group and the control group unless otherwise specifically stated.

International Posture 23.31 11.66 4.56 .02 Educational Value 35.05 17.52 3.83 .03

Table 2: Group and Construct Effects Sum Squaresof Mean Square F p

Changes in affect levels between the groups are displayed in Figure 2. Both the treatment group and the control group started with nearly identical averages, M = 10.65 and M = 11, respectively. The control group maintained nearly the same

Constructs Originally, the constructs of comfort and anxiety were combined into an umbrella construct of affect, and the same was done with the remaining three constructs to create the construct of cognition. However, we found no statistical difference between these large constructs at any point in the testing. Additionally, by creating these constructs, we felt that the data was oversimplified. Therefore, in our analysis, we focused on the five constructs created within the principal components analysis and the changes between groups and periods of testing.

Comfort. The new construct of comfort was created by combining reported responses of items 3, 9, 13, 16, and 18. The difference between measurements of pre and post (p = .05, t = 2.02, SE = .83) as well as delayed and pre, post (p = .02, t = 2.34, SE = .72) were statistically significant. Changes in affect levels between the groups are displayed in Figure 1. There was a continuous increase in levels of comfort between each period of measurement for both groups. The Treatment group had the highest average on each measure; the pre test (M = 11.65) increased to 12.53 on the post test, and 13.29 on the delayed post test. The Control group started with a slightly lower average than the treatment group on the pre test (M = 9.46), increased to 11.9 on the post test, and finally 12.81 on the delayed post test.

Figure 1: Plot of the variable comfort among groups

Anxiety. The construct of anxiety was recreated by combining reported responses of items 5, 10, 17, and 20. The difference between group measurements of pre and post (p = .81, t = .24, SE = .96) were not significant. However, significant differences were found between comparison of the delayed post test with both the pre test and the post test (p < .001, t = 3.52, SE = .83).

Practical Value. The construct of practical value was recreated by combining reported responses of items 7, 12, and 19. The difference between measurements over time was not significant between any of the points of measurement. Changes in affect levels between the groups are displayed in Figure 3. Both the treatment group and the control group started with nearly identical averages, M = 12.29 and M = 12.18, respectively. The control group maintained nearly the same average on the post test (M = 12.09) and increased slightly to 12.55 on the delayed post test. However, the treatment group experienced a sharp decrease on the post test (M = 10.65) and rose slightly to 10.94 on the delayed post test.

average on the post test (M = 11.18) and increased to 13.55 on the delayed post test. The treatment group experienced a slight decrease on the post test (M = 10) but then made a strong upward increase to 13.71 on the delayed post test.

Figure 3. Plot of the variable practical value among groups

Figure 2: Plot of the variable anxiety among groups

Educational Value. The construct of educational value was created by combining reported responses of items 1, 2, 8, and 15. The difference between the pre and post test (p = .09, t = 1.73, SE = .59) was not significant. However, significant difference was found between comparison of the delayed post test with both the pre- and post-test (p = .04, t = 2.16, SE = .51). Changes in affect levels between the groups are displayed in Figure 5. Averages for both groups followed a v pattern similar to the construct of expanded view. The treatment group and the control group started with slightly different averages, M = 18 and M = 16.55, respectively. The control group maintained a constant increase from the pre test to post test (M = 16.82) and increased to 17.73 on the delayed post test. Again, the treatment group moved in a v shaped pattern; there was a sharp decrease to 15.71 on the post test, then reversed and increased to 18 on the delayed post test the same as on the pre test.

Figure 4. Plot of the variable expanded view among groups

Expanded View. The construct of expanded view was created by combining reported responses of items 14, 21, and 22. The difference between group measurements of pre and post (p = .15, t = 1.47, SE = .44) were not significant. However, significant differences were found between comparison of the delayed post test with both the pre test and the post test (p = .01, t = 2.64, SE = .38).

Changes in affect levels between the groups are displayed in Figure 4. The treatment group and the control group started with slightly different averages, M = 12.53 and M = 10.91, respectively. The control group maintained a constant increase from the pre test to post test (M = 11.27) and increased to 12.1 on the delayed post test. The treatment group moved inversely to this in a v shaped pattern; the average level dropped sharply to 10.88 on the post test, then reversed and increased to 12.71 on the delayed post test.

Figure 5. Plot of the variable educational value among groups 5. Discussion Questionnaire. Although the questionnaire used in the study by Yamashita (2013) was broken into four constructs comfort, anxiety, intellectual value, practical value, results from the principal components analysis on responses from the pre test of the current study found five distinct factors comfort, anxiety, educational value, practical value, and expanded view. Additionally, we found that items 4, 6, and 11 poorly correlated with the factors originally created. These questions focused on the benefit for a future career (4), of increasing vocabulary (6), and developing reading ability (11). Because these items share close relationships in their wording to other items on the questionnaire, their misfit within the principal components analysis was an unexpected anomaly. None of the items were reverse order items, the descriptive analysis found no significant difference between groups, and the items were not significantly higher or lower than any of the other items. Upon closer inspection, we found that item 4 was the only item to use the word キャリヤ (kyariya career). A career can be interpreted to have a more professional long term application. Students might have difficulty imagining this scenario given their limited life experience, causing inconsistency in item response. Item 19 is a statement touting the usefulness of English in gaining employment; however, this might have been interpreted by students as the initial entry of a company a reference to the TOEIC® test or other similar qualifications. This would explain why this item strongly correlated with the construct of practical value In the principal components analysis, item 6 did not positively load onto any of the other factors; however, it did have a very strong negative correlation with item 4. This implies that participants who answered positively on item 4 English is useful for my future career, had an inverted response to item 6 I can

One reason for this could be that participants were third year students who were nearing graduation and had possibly already secured employment. It is possible that they placed a strong emphasis on employment and that their careers were based more on standardized test scores such as the TOEIC® or on practical skills (e.g., writing emails, making presentations, or communication).

The control group appears to be relatively unchanged as well. The only difference between the two groups appears to be the negative influence of ER on the Treatment group, which reduced their average affect level below that of the Control

of the data point to a negative influence of ER, which is contradictory to most of the other research conducted on the positive influence of ER on student affect (Stoeckel, Reagan & Hann, 2012; Yamashita, 2007, 2013), the most immediate reason is the simplest: ER was in direct opposition to the purpose of the students who participated in the study abroad program. Possibly for the first time in their lives, the students were immersed in a foreign culture in an overseas location. Because of their volition to enter a SA program, they most

Effects of ER. Both SA and ER have been shown to have a positive influence on the acquisition of a second language. We hypothesized that the Treatment group would experience positive short term and long term increases in each of the constructs that were measured when constructing the research questions. This would have been observable as an increase of construct totals from the pre test to the post test and possibly between the post test and the one year delayed post test. The results of the repeated measures ANOVA revealed that the results were contrary to this expectation. Apart from the construct of comfort, every other construct experienced a marked decrease in positive affect between the pre test and the post test. The results clearly display a difference between the Treatment group and the Control group in their affect levels on the constructs of anxiety, practical value, expanded view, and educational value. Construct levels were reduced in the treatment group and did not increase until one year later on the delayed post test. The construct of practical value was the exception to this and remained depressed at roughly the same level as it was one year earlier on the post test. This implies that the opinions of participants in the Treatment group remained negatively influenced regarding the practical value of ER even a year after the completion of the treatment.

Althoughgroup.theresults

acquire vocabulary if I read English. Item 11 had both negative and positive loadings within the constructs but had the highest loading within its own factor. Upon further consideration, we realized that the 2013 study by Yamashita originally observed five constructs but had eliminated the construct of Linguistic Value because of ceiling effects. Its construct consisted of three items: 6, 11, and 15. Although item 15 was found to have a high correlation with the construct of educational value, items 6 and 11 would appear to be consistently misfitting items, and it is our recommendation that they be modified or excluded in future studies.

This is common in examinations of highly customized short term SA programs (An, Hong & Fuentes, 2017). The small number of participants in the present study created a large degree of overlapping variance between the groups, which can be seen in Figures 1 to 5. A larger sample size would decrease the variance and more clearly display any systematic difference between the two groups.

6. Conclusion Despite Extensive Reading and Study Abroad being beneficial to students, combining the two together at the same time is not desirable. Students study abroad on short term programs for many reasons, but improving English reading ability may not be one of them. Including an ER component in an SA program, even one with an academic emphasis like the one described in this study, clearly has a negative effect on reading affect, which is an undesirable Whileoutcome.the main stated benefit of SA programs is to learn new things more efficiently while abroad, of equal importance is the ability to experience life in the overseas destination (Cadd, 2015; Reinders & Benson, 2017; Richards, 2015).

While this study provides evidence of the consequences of combining ER and SA, the authors firmly believe that Extensive Reading and Study Abroad should each continue to have their respective places in university curricula and implemented in a manner that will maximize their exclusive benefits.

likely placed a high priority on being able to speak with the local people, experience the lifestyle, and enjoy the pleasure activities of the location.

Students do not want to have adventures vicariously through characters in books when they can have real life experiences by simply stepping outside and interacting with their immediate environment. While abroad, they do not want to read about foreign cultures. They want to be immersed in it first hand. SA program participants also want to meet new people and speak foreign languages while in a foreign country, not read dialogs in graded readers. With such limited time, ER takes away from these opportunities by forcing students to read for several hours a week. Despite the good intentions, it has the possibility to create negative attitudes towards reading in English when conducted in this, or in any other manner in which foreign language learners may perceive ER to be an unnecessary burden (Chien & Yu, 2015) Instead, ER can be included as part of the preparation process for SA programs. Students might not feel as pressed for time in the months leading up to studying abroad and might be more receptive to the idea of reading extensively if they were aware that it would help them make the most of their time while overseas.

One of the weaknesses of this study was the small sample sizes for each group.

Another weakness of the study was the lack of follow up interviews with participants to gauge the reason for their answers on the post test and the delayed post test. Without a qualitative measure of investigation, we are left to speculate as to the mindset of the students. Future studies should follow a mixed methods design that allows for less constricted input from the participants.

Nation, P. (2015). Principles guiding vocabulary learning through extensive reading. Reading in a Foreign Language, 27(1), 136 145. Retrieved from Reinders,http://nflrc.hawaii.edu/rfl/April2015/discussion/nation.pdfH.&Benson,P.(2017).Researchagenda:Languagelearning beyond the classroom. Language Teaching, 50(4), 561 578. Richards,http://doi.org/10.1017/S0261444817000192J.C.(2015).Thechangingfaceoflanguage

An, H., Hong, C. E., & Fuentes, D. (2017). The benefits and limitations of a short term study abroad program to prepare teachers in a multicultural society. In H. An (Ed.), Handbook of Research on Efficacy and Implementation of Study Abroad Programs for P 12 Teachers (pp. 361 382). http://doi:10.4018/978 1 5225 1057 4.ch020 Cadd, M. (2015). Increasing the linguistic and cultural benefits of study abroad. In D. Nunan & J. Richards (Eds.), Language Learning Beyond the Classroom (pp. 253 262). New York: Routledge. Chien, C. C., & Yu, K. (2015). Applying extensive reading to improve unmotivated learners' attitudes toward reading in English. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, 13(2), 1 25. Retrieved from https://www.ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter/article/view/356/193 Dewey, D. P. (2007) Language learning during study abroad: What we know and what we have yet to learn. Japanese Language and Literature, 41(2), 245 269. Ingraham,http://doi:10.2307/30198037E.C.,&Peterson,D.L. (2004). Assessing the impact of study abroad on student learning at Michigan State University. Frontiers: The Interdisciplinary Journal of Study Abroad, 10(1), 83 100. http://doi.org/10.36366/frontiers.v10i1.134

learning: Learning beyond the classroom. RELCJournal,46(1), 5 22. http://doi.org/10.1177/0033688214561621

This work was supported by JSPS KAKENHI Grant Number 16K02862. References Aka, N. (2019) Reading performance of Japanese high school learners following a one year extensive reading program. Reading in a Foreign Language, 31(1), 1 18. Retrieved from http://nflrc.hawaii.edu/rfl/April2019/April2019/articles/aka.pdf

Isabelli Garcia, C. (2003). Development of oral communication skills abroad. Frontiers: The Interdisciplinary Journal of Study Abroad, 9, 149 173. Ministryhttp://doi.org/10.36366/frontiers.v9i1.119ofEducation,Culture,Sports,Scienceand Technology (2018, March). Nihonjin no kaigairyugaku no koukasokutei ni kansuru shousakenkyu [A report on measuring the effectiveness of study abroad on Japanese], Retrieved from Nakanishi,11/22/1411310_1.pdfhttp://www.mext.go.jp/a_menu/koutou/ryugaku/__icsFiles/afieldfile/2018/T.(2014).Ametaanalysisofextensivereadingresearch. TESOL Quarterly, 49(1), 6 37. http://doi.org/10.1002/tesq.157

Robb, T., & Kano, M. (2013). Effective extensive reading outside the classroom: A large scale experiment. Reading in a Foreign Language, 25(2), 234 247. Retrieved from http://www.nflrc.hawaii.edu/rfl/October2013/articles/robb.pdf

Talburt, S., & Stewart, M. A. (1999). What’s the subject of study abroad?: Race, gender, and "living culture." The Modern Language Journal, 83(2), 163 175. http://doi.org/10.1111/0026 7902.00013 Wang, J., Peyvandi, A., & Moghaddam, J. M. (2009). Impact of short study abroad programs on students’ diversity attitude. International Review of Business Research Papers, 5(2), 349 357. Retrieved from Waring,&type=pdfhttp://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.518.1921&rep=rep1R.,&Takaki,M.(2003).Atwhatratedolearnerslearnandretainnewvocabularyfromreadingagradedreader?

http://doi.org/10.37546/JALTJJ29.2

3 Yamashita, J. (2007). The relationship of reading attitudes between L1 and L2: An investigation of adult EFL learners in Japan. TESOL Quarterly, 41(1), 81 105. http://doi.org/10.1002/j.1545 7249.2007.tb00041.x Yamashita, J. (2013). Effects of extensive reading on reading attitudes in a foreign language. Reading in a Foreign Language, 25(2), 248 263. Retrieved from Yashima,http://www.nflrc.hawaii.edu/rfl/October2013/articles/yamashita.pdfT.,ZenukNishide,L.,&Shimizu,K.(2004).Theinfluencesofattitudes and affect on willingness to communicate and second language communication. Language Learning, 54(1), 119 152. http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467 9922.2004.00250.x

Reading in a Foreign Language, 15(2), 130 163. Retrieved from https://nflrc.hawaii.edu/rfl/October2003/waring/waring.html Wood, D. (2007). Mastering the English formula: Fluency development of Japanese learners in a study abroad context. JALT Journal, 29(2), 209 230.

Sakurai, N. (2017). The relationship between amount of extensive reading and the writing performance. The Reading Matrix, 17(2), 142 164. Retrieved from http://www.readingmatrix.com/files/17 tc71343e.pdf Stoeckel, T., Reagan, N., & Hann, F. (2012). Extensive reading quizzes and reading attitudes. TESOLQuarterly, 46(1), 187 198. http://doi.org/10.1002/tesq.10

264

Suk, N. (2016). The effects of extensive reading on reading comprehension, reading rate, and vocabulary acquisition. Reading Research Quarterly, 52(1), 73 89. http://doi.org/10.1002/rrq.152

266 ©2020TheauthorsandIJLTER.ORG.Allrightsreserved. Appendix 2 English translation of Yamashita (2013) survey questions 1. I can become more sophisticated if I read English. 2. I can get various forms of information if I read English. 3. Reading English is troublesome. 4. Reading English is useful for my future career. 5. I feel anxious if I don’t know all the words. 6. I can acquire vocabulary if I read English. 7. Reading English is useful to get a good grade in class. 8. I can acquire broad knowledge if I read English. 9. I feel relaxed if I read English. 10. When I read English, I sometimes worry that I may not understand it. 11. I can develop my reading ability if I read English. 12. Reading English is useful to get credit for class. 13. Reading English is dull. 14. I get to know about new ways of thinking if I read English. 15. I can improve my sensitivity to the English language if I read English. 16. I feel tired if I read English. 17. I feel anxious when I’m not sure whether I understood the book content. 18. I feel refreshed and rested if I read English. 19. Reading English is useful for getting a job. 20. I don’t mind even if I cannot understand the book content entirely. 21. Reading English is enjoyable. 22. I get to know about different values if I read English.

https://orcid.org/0000

Bullying is a negative behavioral aspect that is spreading in schools to an extent that has exceeded parents’ and teachers’ expectations. Bullying is a form of unbalanced aggression inflicted repeatedly upon victims; it occurs irrespective of culture, language, race, or gender, and relies on dominance, control, and hegemony over the victim who is hurt physically, socially, and emotionally.

Abstract. Bullying is a common behavior among school students and a serious problem addressed by many relevant stakeholders. The Ministry of Education puts plans to address this issue, but need more feedback from the field to feed its strategies and programs. Therefore, this study aims at` investigating the degree of bullying among students with learning disabilities (LD) in the Asir Region and exploring the relationship between bullying and age The study used the survey methodology to collect data, and for which a questionnaire was developed and distributed to a sample of 350 families of children with LDs enrolled in schools of Asir General Directorate of Education The sample responses to the questionnaire were analyzed using the SPSS statistical package. The study revealed that bullying behavior was at a low level among the sample of the study. The results showed no statistically significant differences in the level of bullying among children with LDs at the basic educational stage due to the variable of age. The study concludes that awareness programs should be developed for teachers to help them identify indicators associated with bullying, in addition to future studies on the phenomenon and its relationship to other variables, such as social anxiety and emotional intelligence.

Variable Mohamad Ahmad Saleem Khasawneh King Khalid University, Saudi Arabia 0002 1390 3765

The Extent of Bullying Against Students with Learning Disabilities According to the Age

Bullying among school students is an increasingly widespread phenomenon. It is a very serious social and personal problem that leaves negative consequences on the general school environment. It also affects the cognitive, emotional, and social development of students, and their right to learn within a safe school environment. Effective learning takes place only in an environment that

Keywords: learning disabilities; bullying; aggression; Saudi Arabia

1. Introduction

Interest in bullying started in the early seventies of the twentieth century when Dan Olweus investigated the problems faced by bullies and their victims. He pointed out that most bullies suffer from control of aggressive motives and lack of sympathy for others, and they usually look to control and not for attracting attention (Olweus & Limber, 2010). If their behavior is neglected, they rarely stop it. Bullying behavior occurs when a child or an individual is constantly exposed to a negative behavior that causes pain resulting from an unequal power between two individuals, where the first is called a bully and the other is a victim (Starr, 2000). Bullying may take physical, verbal, or emotional forms. It also has a hidden nature, as it occurs in most schools and is difficult to perceive and discover due to the secrecy that surrounds it. Most school bullying victims

provides its students with psychological security while protecting them from violence, danger, and threat In addition, social factors play an important role in nurturing individuals and shaping their behavior using multiple methods in the process of growth. These methods differ from one family to another, as some families are characterized by softness and tolerance, so parents deal with their son with tolerance and acceptance of his/her ideas and aspirations. Therefore, such a child is social, cooperative, loyal, gentle, stable emotionally, and joyful while facing life with confidence (Unnever, 2005)

2. Literature Review

Some families raise their children to be authoritarian and cruel, as parents impose their opinion on children without caring about their desires and inclinations. Parents may use corporal punishment and threats as a basic method in social growth, in addition to demeaning and underestimating the child, which leads to the formation of a shy, fearful character who feels insufficient. The child’s sense of rejection threatens parents’ feelings of security and stimulates feelings of helplessness and frustration, which can hinder the child’s interaction and compatibility with life. On the other hand, some parents may raise their children on dependence and ready made solutions, while others may raise their children to depend on themselves (Al Kitani, 2000). Moreover, Bullying usually occurs inside and outside the school. Schoolyards are the most common place where bullying behavior is common. It also takes place in school corridors, restrooms, and classrooms. The bullies choose their victims from students who are close to their age or younger (Vieno et al , 2011) Bullying is increasing steadily and is becoming a dangerous educational, social, and personal problem with negative effects on the general academic environment. It also harms the cognitive, emotional, and social growth of individuals. Furthermore, it violates students’ right to learn in a safe environment, which can only happen in a setting where students have a sense of psychological security against violence, danger, and threats that influence their academic achievement. This study is an attempt to assist in identifying signs of bullying against students with learning disabilities (LDs) in the Asir Region in Saudi Arabia for developing appropriate educational strategies and providing adequate materials to overcome this problem.

Fourth, social bullying, such as underestimating the victim, reducing his/her sense of self and include ignorance, isolation, the victim's removal from peers, and exclusion from school or social activities outside the school such as recreational, sports, and artistic activities (Frisen & Holmqvist, 2010) Fifth, property damage, such as tearing clothes, damaging books, stealing and then sabotaging them, and damaging colleagues' tools such as pens and notebooks, and personal belongings were also examples of these forms (Heino et al., 2010).

Finally, sexual bullying, which takes a variety of forms including sexual comments, perversions, spreading sexual rumors, direct sexual contact, and displaying sexual material such as movies and photos (Fox & Boulton, 2005).

are male and female, and they never tell anyone what happens to them (Kandemir & Özbay, 2009) Bullying and Students with LD The literature presents different findings on bullying against students with LDs, which is similar to any kind of bullying practiced against regular students. One of the main determinants of the degree of bullying is age differences, as reports show that bullying against younger children is common and starts to decline when the victim id over e 8 16 years old (Fox & Boulton, 2005) The sex difference also important in studying bullying, as boys are more inclined to behave as bullies, but both genders receive equal treatment as bullied. However, boys tend to use physical bullying while girls use bullying indirectly or in what is known as relational bullying (Duncan, 1999). Students with LDs or any kind of disability are more vulnerable to being victimized by bullies (Sharp & Smith, 2002, 1994; Dawkins, 1996). The disabilities or the learning difficulty this category have made them an easy target for bullies. Students with LDs who study in regular schools are less protected socially, and therefore, could suffer from bullying more than other victims (Dawkins, 1996). According to O’Moore and Hillery (1989), students attending special education classrooms are easily bullied. Ziegler and Rosenstein Manner (1991) reported that in Toronto, the rates of bullying among students with LDs are twice higher than among their regular beers. Forms of Bullying Bullying is prevalent in all schools with high rates that exceed the expectations of parents and teachers. Most students practice bullying, whether they are bullies, victims, or bystanders; they replace the roles of the bullied and the victim according to the different circumstances and balances of power among students (Jenkins et al , 2017) Research into bullying behavior in individuals yielded different forms (Fox & Boulton, 2005). First, there was verbal bullying, such as insulting, cursing, threatening, and rumors. Second forms were psychological bullying, which is like ignoring, isolating the individual psychologically and socially, not paying attention, and marginalizing. Third forms include physical bullying such as severe beating, pulling hair, wounding others, breaking their organs, biting, and slapping. In most cases, physical bullying does not cause significant harm to the victim because this leads to sympathy for the victim, and thus to blaming the bully (Al Subaihin, 2007)

bullying and harassing students with disabilities through school compliance in order to avoid referring the matter to the judiciary. The study adopted the method of extrapolation of previous studies on this subject and historically from the fifties until 2018, as well as reviewed several judicial rulings relating to the prosecution of students for abuse, bullying behavior, and

Few studies tackled the issue of bullying among students with LDs. However, some research from Arabic speaking (and other) countries have touched upon this issue among non LD students. Bradshow (2018) examined the differences in the responses of adolescents of spectators to bullying. The study used the stratification analysis to analyze if the patterns of pedestrian responses differ as a function of each of the characteristics of the student and school level. Data from 18863 high school students from 58 schools, who witnessed bullying, were used to identify five underlying categories of pedestrian behavior. Three of the categories were identified parallel to the categories that were generally identified by researchers (defender = 20.4% and submissive = 9.7%, and contributor = 3.4%), while two categories were also identified for pedestrians that were not previously described (limited = 64.8% and inconsistent = 1.7 %).

Laftman et al. (2018) analyzed whether bullying related harm is associated with an increased likelihood of reporting a pessimistic future trend among school students. Data were collected from the Stockholm School Study conducted in 2016 on ninth graders (ages 15 16 years) (n= 5144). Orientation and future intervention in school bullying and cyber bullying were based on self reports. The study used a dual logistic regression method. The results indicated that victims and vulnerable victims of school bullying and cyber bullying were more likely to report a future pessimistic trend compared to students not involved in bullying. These links were also displayed when spotting control among school bullying and cyber bullying in a mutual fashion. The results confirmed the importance of anti-bullying measures that target both school bullying and

3. Previous Studies

Kingcyberbullying.(2018)measured

The results indicated that the responses of the defenders were relatively low and suggested that school level contextual factors and youth perceptions of other pedestrians' behavior and their involvement in bullying all underpin our understanding of the behavior of pedestrians from adolescents. In Nepal, Mishra et al. (2018) investigated the level of control of bullying behavior (bullies, victims) and their contribution to symptoms of frustration and psychosomatic symptoms. The study analyzed a descriptive cross sectional sample that consisted of students of the eighth, ninth, and tenth grades in the Municipality of Buthan in the western center of Nepal, and 405 students responded to the questionnaire. The results of the study indicated a high control of bullying (55.8%) over the most fortunate students from the Gangati tribe, and the victims (64.86%) belonged to the smaller Janjati tribe. It was found that bullying students were more in eighth and tenth grades while ninth grade students were mostly victims. Bullying behavior is more prevalent in private schools than in public schools.

sexual harassment. The study concluded that it is the duty of school officials and attorneys representing the school to safeguard students' right to quality education, and that judicial translation of the Education Law will undoubtedly represent a challenge for schools. The results also showed that despite the increasing difficulty of this task, leaders in education could meet these needs through diving deeply in all dimensions of special education laws and use of the internal and external sources available to them.

Jenkins et al. (2017) investigated the relationship between bullying experiences (e.g., bullying, victims, and advocacy) and social, emotional, and perceptual factors. The perceptual element was represented by social skills (empathy, cooperation, responsibility), the emotional aspect by emotional difficulties (personal adjustments, internal issues, and school problems), and the perceptual component by effective executive skills (self monitoring, resilience, emotional self regulation. Data were collected from 246 students in grades 6 8; their social/personal skills, emotional difficulties, and behavior as bullying students were assessed. The findings showed that emotional difficulties had a positive, significant relationship between boys and girls as targeted victims. Emotional difficulties were also positively and significantly linked to girls defending themselves against bullying Social skills had a positive, significant connection with boys and girls defending themselves. In Denmark, Talts et al (2017) explored parents’ communication with teachers and their evaluation of the values dominating the classrooms of second grade students by using the Free from Bullying program. The theory underlying the program sought to develop children’s social skills, in which parent teacher partnerships play an important role. The program was launched in 2007 and was applied in Estonia in kindergartens starting in 2010 The application of the program yielded positive results as shown in topics of parent teacher discussions, which focused on combining activities and bullying among students. The findings also showed that parents who were more active in enrolling their children in the Free from Bullying program were more likely to discuss aspects of the classroom’s social structure with the teacher16

In Saudi Arabia, Sakran and Alwan (2016) investigated the factorial structure of bullying as a concept, the prevalence of this phenomenon, and its justification by students that commit bullying. The study used a scale to measure bullying among a sample of 352 students from three school stages in Saudi Arabia. The results revealed that students who bully others try to find justification for their behavior. The intermediate stage had higher rates of bullying than other elementary and secondary stages.

Another study conducted in Egypt, Mahmood (2016) investigated the effectiveness of a counseling program for developing social intelligence in decreasing bullying among students at the elementary school stage. The study used a quasi empirical method based on the pre post tests, which was applied to a sample of 20 elementary school students with low social intelligence and high bullying behavior. The findings demonstrated the effectiveness of the counseling program for developing social intelligence skills in decreasing bullying behavior.

In the Italian context, Menesini et al. (2015) examined the effects of individual and collective moral norms on the prediction of exposure to bullying at school. The sample consisted of 1,009 students at the secondary educational stage, who were randomly selected. The study used the individual and collective moral norms scale and exposure to bullying scale to collect data. The results suggested a positive correlational relationship between exposure to bullying in the classroom and the school environment, and a low level of individual and collective moral norms. The outcomes also imply that an increase in students’ level of moral norms was a statistically significant predictor of students not bullying their peers.

By reviewing relevant studies, we see that bullying is associated with many variables. Some studies dealt with bullying behavior, family, school patterns in academic achievement and discipline, gender, age, and parents’ immigration status. Other investigations addressed the academic concept of the self and academic performance. This review showed the need for investigating bullying behavior among students with LDs in order to provide insights for educators and decision makers when addressing the issue of bullying in Saudi Arabia.

4. Significance of the study

Deniz and Ersoy (2016) investigated the relationship between bullying and students’ level of social skills and problem solving among teenagers. The study administered a questionnaire on bullying and the Turkish version of the Matson Evaluation of Social Skills with Youngsters (MESSY) on a sample of 392 students (210 males and 182 females) The findings showed a positive link between social skills and the sub categories of confidence and avoidance. Furthermore, the findings showed no connection between negative degrees of social skills and the sub categories of problem solving, confidence, self control, and avoidance.

Finally, Catone et al (2017) conducted a systematic review to investigate the findings of different studies that have jointly investigated the relationship between bullying and mental disorders (including people who are fully affected by the latter). The study also aimed at framing this relationship, as well as the primary theoretical reasons for such a relationship. The result of this analysis revealed that bullying of special education students requires careful study of the developmental trajectories involved, and that research should now focus on how personal, social, and biological factors interact 21

The scientific significance of this study stems from its attempt to shed light on a vital phenomenon that is increasing in public schools in the Asir Region. In addition, this study explored the connection between bullying and its consequences on students with LDs The practical significance of this study comes from the insights it provided for future research concerned with alleviating bullying behavior. The results are expected to benefit interested scholars by providing them with a theoretical background on the relationship between bullying and LDs, as well as a critical measure used by researchers and specialists to identify problems that students experience.

2) Are there statistically significant differences due to age regarding the degree of bullying among students with LDs at the basic educational stage in the Asir Region?

Bullying: It is an unwanted, aggressive behavior resulting from a lack of balance in power between the bully and the victim This is repeated overtime where the bully exercises direct or indirect aggression without concern or discomfort, and with an internal desire for aggression. It is defined in this study as the control of an individual or group over another individual or a group for the purpose of exercising authority and dominance, which may involve verbal or physical abuse. Bullying is defined operationally by the total score obtained by students through their responses to the questionnaire used in the study

Students with LDs: These students show a disorder in one or more psychological processes involved in understanding and using spoken or written language, which may manifest in hearing, thinking, speech, reading, spelling, and arithmetic. These conditions are due to causes pertaining to minimal brain dysfunction, but not relating to mental, hearing, visual, or other handicaps (Assarayreh, 2007) Students with LDs are defined in the current study as those students who have been officially diagnosed and identified by the Ministry of Education as students with LDs and are enrolled in LD (resource) rooms at schools in the General Directorate of Education in Asir Region.

Some studies have pointed out the role of the family in bullying behavior (Bidwell, 1997) Students that commit bullying behaviors are usually victims at home and come from families that suffer from challenges regarding the parent child relationship, as well as social and financial hardship (Smith & Low, 2013)

Families who use bullying often lack warmth, tenderness, order at home, and have trouble sharing their feelings with others. They also describe themselves as not close to their families Parents of bully students rarely control or monitor their children and exercise harsh, punitive measures to do so (Al Rousan, 2016)

1) What is the degree of bullying among students with LDs at the basic educational stage in the Asir Region?

Definition of Concepts

Despite the abundance of studies that address bullying both locally and universally, they often pay attention to its causes, consequences, or to methods of prevention and treatment. Studies on bullying among students with LDs are few in number, as well as research on social anxiety and its relationship to bullying. Therefore, this study examined the problem by exploring the rates of bullying among this category of students. Research Questions

This study tries to answer the following two questions:

Sampling

5. Methodology

Content Validity

The authors verified the scale’s validity by content and construct validity.

Content validity was confirmed by presenting the scale to 10 experienced, competent arbitrators from the faculty members at King Khalid University, Jeddah University, and the Hashemite University. The authors relied on the consensus of 80% of the arbitrators for each item; that is, the observations of more than 20% served as a sufficient criterion to modify, delete, or add some paragraphs. The final version of the scale contained 26 paragraphs.

Construct Validity

Validity

The population of the present study consisted of all (350) students with LDs enrolled in the resource rooms from 4 6 grades at schools in the General Directorate of Education in the Asir Region The sample consisted of the same research population. The authors distributed 350 questionnaires to measure the level of bullying behavior. Due to the reading and writing difficulties experienced by students with LDs, the author obtained information on the students’ reading and writing difficulties with the help of the special education teacher, the Arabic language teacher, and the physical education teacher in each school.

The authors developed a scale to measure the bullying phenomenon among students with LDs. This scale took the form of a questionnaire prepared after reviewing the theoretical literature on bullying behavior, and also after reading Arabic language and foreign studies on issues (Talts et al , 2017; Mahmood 2016; Jaradat, 2008; Abu Ghazal, 2009). The author conducted an exploratory study that included a question for schoolteachers in Asir Region: What are the anti social (bullying) practices observed in students with LDs? The answers were used to tailor the content of each paragraph of the questionnaire about bullying In light of the above mentioned details, the authors prepared the dimensions and items of the questionnaire. The questionnaire consisted of 26 paragraphs distributed over two dimensions: verbal and physical bullying.

Instrument

The authors verified indicators of the construct validity by conducting an exploratory study on a sample of 40 students from a population similar to that of the research population. After applying the questionnaire to the sample, the correlation coefficients between the scale items, as well as to the total score, were calculated. The coefficient of discrimination for each item was also calculated. The discrimination coefficient represents an indicator of validity for each item and the extent that each item/paragraph of the questionnaire is correlated to the dimension it attempts to measure. The paragraphs’ correlation coefficients with the dimension ranged from (0.402 0.854) as displayed in Table 1.

0.01%;

indicators for

Based

Dimension

The Test retest method was used to check the scale’s reliability by conducting a pilot study on a sample of 30 students with LDs. The two week interval between the two applications was carried on Pearson Correlation Coefficient between the scores for the two applications was calculated. The correlation coefficient obtained through the test retest method for the scale was 0.864. The stability coefficient was calculated using Cronbach’s alpha, and the stability coefficient via internal consistency was 0.841, indicating that the scale had an appropriate level of reliability, as shown in Table 2. 2: Reliability coefficient via internal consistency, Cronbach’s alpha, and the test retest method for the study’s dimensions and the whole score of the scale Test retest reliability Reliability of internal consistency Physical bullying 0.792 0.816 Verbal bullying 0.853 0.835 The scale as a whole 0.864 0.841 on the through which the authors extracted validity and reliability it is clear that the scale has acceptable and suitable the current study.

of acceptable degrees,

was deleted. Reliability

methods employed,

275 ©2020TheauthorandIJLTER.ORG.Allrightsreserved. Table 1: Correlation coefficients between the items and the dimension in question on the scale of perceptions of bullying Physical bullying Verbal bullying Item Correlation coefficient with the dimension Item Correlation coefficient with the dimension 1. **0.694 14. **0.804 2. **0.738 15. **0.783 3. **0.688 16. **0.754 4. **0.811 17. **0.402 5. **0.541 18. **0.854 6. **0.584 19. **0.749 7. **0.768 20. **0.813 8. **0.816 21. **0.792 9. **0.726 22. **0.832 10. **0.771 23. **0.753 11. **0.754 24. **0.781 12. **0.814 25. **0.790 13. **0.724 26. **0.786 **Statistically significant at the level of significance (0.01%)

Table 1 demonstrates that all correlation coefficients were and of statistical significance at the level of thus, no item of the scale

Table

indicators,

Table 3: Mean scores and standard deviations of the level of bullying behavior among students with LDs at the basic educational stage in Asir Region, ranked in descending order (Rankorder) Number Domain Mean Score DStandardeviation Degree

1 7 He pushes his classmate and sits down in his place. 2.32 1.247 Low 2 6 He hinders his classmate, who passes in front of him 2.31 1.036 Low 3 4 He twists his classmate’s arm and shoves him into a corner 2.30 1.063 Low 4 3 He creates a reason to argue with a classmate who is less powerful than him. 2.29 1.149 Low 5 13 He bites a classmate. 2.26 1.96 Low 6 2 He pinches a classmate and pulls his hair tightly 2.23 1.126 Low 7 1 He hits his classmates. 2.17 1.126 Low 8 12 He spits on a classmate 2.15 1.071 Low 9 11 He scratches a classmate with a sharp instrument. 2.14 1.096 Low 10 10 He tears the shirt of a classmate. 2.14 1.127 Low 11 9 He holds his classmate by the neck and tries to stifle him. 2.10 1.121 Low 8 He throws his classmate down and 2.06 1.106 Low

The first question of this study was “What is the degree of bullying among students with LDs at the basic educational stage in Asir Region?” To answer this question, means and standard divisions of the level of bullying behavior among children with LDs were obtained as illustrated in Table 3.

Table 4: Arithmetic means and standard deviations of the level of physical bullying behavior Rank Paragraphno Paragraph MeanScore DeviationStandard Degree

6. Findings

Table 3 shows the mean scores and standard deviations of the level of bullying behavior among children with LDs at the basic educational stage in the Asir Region. The overall level of bullying behavior was low The mean score of bullying, in general, was 2.12, and the physical bullying dimension was in the first rank, with the highest mean score of 2.19, followed by the verbal bullying dimension, with a mean score of 2.05. The mean score and standard deviations of both dimensions of the questionnaire were calculated. Table 4 presents the results related to the first dimension, which is physical bullying.

1 1 Physical bullying 2.19 0.321 Low 2 2 Verbal bullying 2.05 0.313 Low The total score of the bullying scale 2.12 0.263 Low

The total score of physical bullying 2.19 0.321 Low Table 4 shows the mean scores of the paragraphs related to the physical bullying behavior Paragraph (7) came in the first order with a mean score of 2.32 and paragraph (5) came in last, with a mean score of 2.00. To detect the level of verbal bullying, the mean scores and standard deviations of the level of verbal bullying behavior among children with LDs at the basic educational stage in the Asir Region were obtained, as displayed in Table 5.

Table 5: Arithmetic means and standard deviations of verbal bullying items, arranged in descending order according to the arithmetic mean Rank Paragraphno. Paragraph MeanScore DeviationStandard Degree 1 19 He always threatens his classmates. 2.32 0.890 Low 2 18 He tells lies and rumors to a classmate. 2.21 0.911 Low 3 22 He blackmails a student in front of his classmates. 2.15 0.937 Low 4 17 He deliberately reveals others’ personal secrets 2.12 0.969 Low 5 15 He makes a classmate look foolish in front of others 2.09 0.974 Low 6 14 He curses his classmates, using obscene words 2.06 0.974 Low 7 20 He disturbs a classmate by phone calls. 2.05 0.990 Low 8 26 He makes up stories to incite students against each other 2.02 0.779 Low 9 16 He calls a classmate an obscene name. 2.00 0.934 Low 10 25 He spoils a team game for his classmates. 1.97 1.061 Low 11 24 He accuses a classmate of actions he did not commit to keep others away from him. 1.95 0.913 Low 12 23 Encourages rebellion against the teacher among a group of students to incite a quarrel. 1.92 0.919 Low 13 21 He incites some students against other students. 1.88 0.823 Low

steps on his stomach 13 5 He swoops down on his classmate and hits him with instruments such as a stick or a ruler 2.00 1.138 Low

277

The total score of verbal bullying 2.05 0.313 Low Table 5 shows the mean scores and standard deviations of paragraphs related to verbal bullying Paragraph (19) came in the first order with a mean score of 2.23,

7. Discussion The first research question: “What is the degree of bullying among students with LDs at the basic educational stage in Asir Region?”

The results of the mean scores and standard deviations regarding the level of bullying behavior among students with LDs revealed that bullying behavior was low. In terms of bullying as a whole, the mean score was 2.12. Physical bullying came in the first order with the highest mean score of 2.19, followed by verbal bullying in second place, with a mean score of 2.05. The low level of bullying among students with LD could be explained by the extensive counseling programs run by the Ministry of Education (represented by the General Directorate of Education in the Asir region). The Ministry is keen to provide different schools in the area with LD specialists to handle the various psychological and behavioral disorders experienced by students with LDs. Such specialists contribute to the treatment of many behavioral disorders, including bullying, which led to a decline in its level among the participants in the sample. This low level of bullying can also be explained by the use of modem educational disciplinary techniques (which are free from physical punishment)

followed by paragraph (18), with a mean score of 2.21. Paragraph (21) came in the last order with a mean score of 1.88. The second question this study was “Are there statistically significant differences due to age regarding the degree of bullying among students with LDs at the basic educational stage in Asir Region?” To answer this question, the authors used a t test for independent samples as shown in Table 6.

Table 6: The results of the t test to identify the difference insignificance in the degree of bullying due to age among children with LDs at the basic educational stage in Asir Region Domain gAgeroup Number scoresMean dStandardeviation t value fDegreeofreedom Level significanceof bPhysicalullying From69 150 2.17 0.338 1.149 348 0.252 From1012 200 2.21 0.307 bVerbalullying From69 150 2.07 0.308 0.964 348 0.336 From1012 200 2.04 0.317 sBullyingcaleasawhole From69 150 2.12 0.272 0.123 348 0.902 From1012 200 2.12 0.257 Table 6 indicates no statistically significant differences in the extent of bullying due to age among children with LDs at the basic educational stage The value of the significance level for the dimensions of the questionnaire was 0.252 and 0.336 for physical bullying and verbal bullying, respectively, and 0.902 for bullying as a whole.

• Supporting counseling programs directed toward students in primary schools in general, and resource room students in particular.

This study aimed at investigating the levels of bullying among students with LDs in the basic stage in the Asir region in Saudi Arabia. The study concluded low levels of verbal and physical bullying among students. The researchers attributed this conclusion to the extensive counseling programs prepared and implemented by the Ministry of Education to support LDs students and prevent bullying. In light of the findings, the authors recommend the following:

8. Conclusion and Recommendations

Acknowledgments

This study was sponsored by the Research Group Program of the Scientific Deanship at King Khalid University, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (R.G.P.IL34L40).

in different schools. Such techniques have deterred many students from bullying their classmates

Limitations

The second research question: “Are there statistically significant differences due to age regarding the degree of bullying among students with LDs at the basic educational stage in Asir Region?”

The results of the T test on the impact of age on the extent of bullying revealed no statistically significant differences in the degree of bullying among children with LDs at the basic educational stage. The high attention given to students with LDs, through counseling programs in different schools in the Asir Region helped in reducing the level of bullying in general without differences in age groups. It is indicated that such programs provided to students treat age groups equally and without discrimination between students, which contributed to reducing bullying among this sample.

The study was limited to students with LDs in grades 4 6 enrolled in resource rooms at schools in the General Directorate of Education in the Asir Region in the second semester of the academic year 2017/2018.

• Developing awareness programs for teachers to identify the educational and demographic indicators that accompany bullying.

• Conducting more studies on bullying and its relationship with other variables, such as social anxiety and emotional intelligence.

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1. Introduction It is well known that mathematics is fundamental to children development and communication in future life. Basic numeracy skills assist children to have satisfactory achievement and further becoming a competent adult. A broader acknowledgment of this would lead to more parity with literacy. However, developing a strong foundation of early math skills is vital for children’s later educational success as well as economic, health, and employment outcomes.

ThisstudyusesResearch and Development (R&D) method with a quasi experimental design on geometry topic. The sample is 100 sixth grade students in an elementary school located in Karawang Regency. The instrument developed in this study is in the form of a questionnaire with closed ended questions. The validity test analysis implies that 23 out of 30 items on the instrument are valid. This data is supported by Cronbach’s Alpha test results, where all item has reliability value higher than 0.80 indicating that the instrument being tested has a very high test reliability. Therefore, 23 items out of 30 items were developed into instruments for measuring mathematics anxiety that applicable in Mathematics learning activities. Thus, it leads to the conclusion that this mathematics anxiety questionnaire can be utilized as an instrument for future research.

Keywords: mathematical anxiety instrument; validity; reliability

282 ©2020TheauthorsandIJLTER.ORG.Allrightsreserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 6, pp. 282 302, June https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.6.172020 Development of Instruments to Measure Mathematical Anxiety of Elementary School Students Hafiziani Eka Putri, Mukhammad Ady Wahyudy, Aan Yuliyanto and Fitri Nuraeni Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia, Indonesia https://orcid.org/0000 0002 1325 1306 https://orcid.org/0000 0001 9046 7875 https://orcid.org/0000 0001 6257 127X https://orcid.org/0000 0002 2685 9812

Abstract. To generate high quality research, a reliable instrument is required. This study aims to develop an instrument that can measure mathematical dimensions of elementary school students appropriately, for use in mathematics learning on spatial geometry. Each statement item in Mathematical Anxiety Instrument was developed based on 3 learning aspects,namelyAttitudinal,Cognitive,Somatic.

Moreover, such instructions make students perceive mathematics as a subject that is difficult to understand and frightening. This condition is contrary to the expected competencies in mathematics subjects for elementary school levels (grades 1 to 4), which includes: (1) Conceptual understanding, which refers to understanding connected and operational mathematical concepts. Students with conceptual understanding able to understand mathematical facts and methods in depth. Understand the function of and how to use a mathematical concept; (2) Procedural fluency, namely procedural knowledge, knowledge of when and how to use them appropriately, and skills in doing so flexibly, accurately, and efficiently; (3) Strategic competence, which refers to the ability to formulate, describe and solve mathematical problems. Strategic competence plays an important role in every stage of procedural fluency development related to calculation. Strategic competence involves learning to replace complicated procedures with a more concise and efficient way; (4) Adaptive reasoning competence. It is interpreted as the ability to think logically about the relationship between concepts and situations; and (5) Productive disposition or the ability to be aware of the value of mathematics. It includes awareness that mathematics is useful and beneficial and believing that a great effort in learning mathematics will lead to excellent results and to see oneself as an effective learner and mathematician (National Research Council, 2001). If students want to develop conceptual understanding, procedural fluency, strategic competence, and adaptive reasoning abilities, they must believe that with diligent effort mathematics can be understood and can be used to overcome problems in daily life. These competencies can be developed well if students are comfortable and enjoy learning mathematics, instead of feeling afraid or anxious. Anxiety is included in the realm of attitude in mathematics that must be well developed. In line with this, one of the four objectives of the Mathematics learning is currently used curriculum is related to attitude development (Yuliyanto et al., 2019). Students’ are afraid of mathematics because the way they understand the material is not appropriate, especially at the beginning of the lesson. This fear might lead to difficulties in understanding mathematics and difficulties to focus on learning. Unfocused behavior is one of the mathematical anxiety indicators that include into cognitive aspect at a medium level (Putri, Muqodas, et al., 2019). There are many obstacles experienced by students in learning mathematics, one of which is mathematics anxiety (Afrianti & Prabawanto, 2020). The significance of understanding mathematical anxiety lies in its potentially limiting effect on self esteemandperformance(Cropp,2017).Therefore,students’ mathematical anxiety can be defined as students’ fear of mathematics. Anxiety appears when someone

Children entering school with strong mathematics skills have a greater likelihood of success in mathematics during kindergarten and in later grades. In Indonesia, Mathematics is formally taught at kindergarten until university. Currently, many teachers still teach mathematical topics using a teacher centered approach, making the learning process seems to be rigid and boring. On the other side, deficient teaching of mathematics in kindergarten hinders the consolidation of basic mathematical knowledge, which is useful to children during their following school course. The absence of which, according to many researchers, is responsible to the extent of failure in mathematics (Papadakis et al., 2017).

Mathematical anxiety also can affect students’ daily life, academic performance, and even contribute to increasing students’ stress, and if this condition continues, various problems might eventually happen (Shishigu, 2018). Math anxiety impacts students as early as the first grade by affecting their working memory (Aosi et al., 2019). Similarly, a study explains that mathematical anxiety is a problem that might give a negative effect on learning achievement and job prospects in the future. As compared to others with no or little mathematical anxiety, students with higher mathematical anxiety were lower in the following aspects: Socioeconomic status, teacher student relationship, self efficacy, and mathematical problem solving ability (Zhou et al., 2020). There are consequences for the students’ anxiety inmathematics, and this interferes with their academic achievement. Students who experience mathematics anxiety typically refuse to enroll in mathematics courses or attending courses with important mathematical components that will influence their future career options (Alves et al., 2016).

Furthermore, the negative relationship among mathematical anxiety and learning achievement in mathematics are possible because mathematical anxiety leads students to avoid Mathematics subject and might disrupt students’ performance in solving particular mathematical problems (Ramirez et al., 2016). In this condition, it is assumed that there is a particular barrier that prevents knowledge transfer thus making students difficult to understand the materials being learned. One of the biggest constraints in mathematics learning is when students cannot understand the materials that are presented abstractly. In line with that, the word “abstract” in a question may also have encouraged slightly higher anxiety scores (Levere & Kahlon, 2019). Handling student’s anxiety is one of the mental health rehabilitation efforts that can overcome various obstacles in learning (Ardi et al., High2019).mathematical

anxiety includes fear, tension, and discomfort emotions felt by several individuals regarding mathematics and might interfere with one’s performance in doing mathematics (Ashcraft & Moore, 2009). Higher level

is in a particularly threatening situation. The same thing applies to children, where students might have high mathematical anxiety due to their prior experiences on the mathematics subject (Suarjana et al., 2017).

anxiety has an impact on mathematics learning achievement. Longitudinal research indicates that low attainment in mathematics can have significant long term consequences, affecting later school achievement, employment, criminality, mental health, and future earnings. In many countries, underachievement in mathematics is strongly associated with social, cultural, and economic disadvantages. Yet, if the issue is settled it will lead to the opposite effect. Prior studies examining the longitudinal relations between number sense skills (e.g., counting, number knowledge, and number transformation) and later mathematics learning has shown promising results about the effect of mathematical anxiety on elementary and middle school mathematics achievement (Papadakis et al., 2018). Ashcraft and Kirk also said that individuals with high mathematics anxiety demonstrate smaller working memory spans, especially when assessed with a computation based span task (Sevindir et al., Mathematical2014).

Low Feeling confused

According to TIMSS results for Indonesian fourth grader, it is found that there are only23% of studentshave ahigh confidencelevel in mathematics(TIMSS& PIRLS Study Center, 2016). The average performance of these students is 440 placings in Indonesia in the bottom 8 out of 49 countries. The improper method in mathematics learning could make students difficult to understand the materials being learned, has negative experience during learning math, develop negative perspective toward mathematical things, and eventually resulting in mathematical anxiety (Kristanti & Widyawati, 2009).

Aspect Level ofanxietymathematical Indicator

285

Medium Has an empty mind

Attitudinal High Afraid of what being done

Moreover, particular physiological symptoms are somehow related to students' anxiety, which includes cardiovascular system (heart palpitations), breathing (shortness of breath, and a sense of strangulation), neuromuscular system (insomnia, and taut face), gastrointestinal system (loss of appetite, and diarrhea), urinary tract (cannot hold pee), and skin (facial blushing, and feeling chills on the skin) (Sunardi et al., 2019). It was also found that mathematics anxiety could affect the capacity of pre service teachers to develop inclusive learning environments in their classrooms (Mizala et al., 2015). A study done by Cavanagh and Sparrow (2010) divide mathematics anxiety into 3 domains, those are: 1) somatic; 2); cognitive and 3) attitude. Each domain was further broken down into three levels of mathematical anxiety (high, medium, and low) as seen on Table 1: Table 1: Aspects, levels, and indicators of mathematical anxiety

Low Expecting difficulties in doing particular thing Cognitive High Worry of being judged by others that she/he cannot do things well

Somatic High Difficult to breath Medium Heart beats rapidly Low Feeling uncomfortable

Similarly, Tobias and Weissbrod (1980) describe mathematical anxiety as panic, helplessness, paralysis, and mental disorders that arise when solving mathematical problems. In line with that, mathematical anxiety can be defined as uncomfortable feelings arising from unstable emotional conditions that are characterized by fear, worry, anxiety, panic, etc. when someone is facing an unwanted task (Annisa & Ifdil, 2016)

Medium Has no intention to do things that should be done

mathematics probably relies even more heavily on working memory, so may show a far greater impact of mathematics anxiety. As students dealing with challenging mathematical problems, then we can distinguish clearly the effects of high mathematicsanxietyandlow mathematicscompetence(Sevindiretal.,2014).

One of the mathematical anxiety contributing factors is the type of instructional method used by teachers. Appropriate application of the teaching method can be in the form of an instructional approach that promotes mathematical problem solving and decrease students’ mathematical anxiety. Students prefer mathematics teachers who enable them to exploit their misunderstanding of particular mathematics concepts. Teacher’s patience and connection with students will greatly affect students’ success in learning mathematics (Sofiatun et al., 2018). Therefore, mathematics instructions should change its image from mechanistic learning into enjoyable humanistic learning (Hendriana, 2012). Fun and enjoyable learning could make the learning process more effective. However, before lesson implementation, it is important to arrange instruments that will be used in learning activities. The success of mathematical abilities enhancement and students' negative attitudes reduction towards Mathematicsbeginswith thesuccess of theresearcher in making and analyzing instruments that will be given during the research takes place. The lack of consistency in prevailing mathematics anxiety theory is rectifiable by using modern measurement theory for measure construction (Sevindir et al., 2014). One way to do measurement is by questionnaires filled by a number of required samples. Questionnaires may be administered individually or in a group, and typically include a series of items reflecting the research aims (Ponto, 2015). A questionnaire is a tool that can be used in many measurements in any type of research. Questionnaires should always have a definite purpose that is related to the objectives of the research, and it needs to be clear from the outset how the findings will be used (Roopa & Rani, 2012). The main indicator of measurement is the feasibility of its validity and reliability (Mohajan, 2017). In this case, the validity and reliability of an instrument are important. An instrument is said to be valid if the instruments are used to measure the corresponding object to be measured. The instrument is said to be reliable if the results are relatively similar even though it is used repeatedly (Ghofur et al., 2016). Validity and reliability can enhance transparency and reduce the bias possibility of qualitative research (Singh, 2014). Valid instruments indicate that it can be used to measure behavior that is meant tobe measured (Haryeni & Yendra, 2019). Instruments that have reliability can be used many times but produce similar data (Pramono et al., 2016). Instruments have a high reliability if the source of the error in the measurement can be minimized (Fiangga & Sari, 2017). Good quality instruments should be valid, reliable, standard, economical, and practical (Azwar, 2011). The instrument should be able to reveal particular facts and transformed them into data. Thus, the instrument that will be used should have good quality. Conversely, invalid, and unreliable examination results often failed to meet the purpose of examination and mislead decision making (Oluwatayo & Fajobi, 2015). If the obtained data is not valid or is not appropriate with the facts, it might lead to the wrong conclusion (Arifin, 2017). The quality of research can be identified from the quality of arranged and developed instruments, in which it should be valid and reliable (Manongko, 2016). Other studies describe good instrument requirements as instruments that have high validity and reliability or meet psychometric requirements (Kartowagiran, 2018). An instrument has validity if the drawn conclusion is meaningful and inferences

This research taken place from November 2018 to April 2019. Since this is developmental research, the method used in this study is Research and Development (R&D). R&D as a systematic process to develop, improve, and assess education programs and materials (Gall et al., 2010). This definition implies that research and development method in education is actually a process of developing research product, and eventually validate the product. All sixth grade students in elementary schools in West Java were the population in this study. Participants included in the sample were 100 elementary school sixth graders in Karawang Regency. In this research, the product that will be developed and validated is learning materials, which are designed in such a way according to the CPA approach. The learning materials will then be used to measure the mathematical anxiety of elementary school students. There are three methods used in R&D implementations which include descriptive, evaluative, and experiment (Sugiyono, 2016). In this study, the descriptive method is used to gather data that is required in arranging research instruments to measure the mathematical anxiety of elementary school students. The questionnaire given to students is in the form of a mathematical anxiety questionnaire using a Likert scale. Four responses can be chosen for each statement in the questionnaire which includes strongly agree (SA), agree (A), disagree (D), strongly disagree (SD). The mathematical anxiety instrument that is used is the modification of the mathematical anxiety instrument indicator developed by Cavanagh and Sparrow (2010), and it is combined with the learning using the CPA approach. As the next step, the evaluative method is used to evaluate the trial process of mathematical anxiety instrument development which is arranged according to the CPA approach to reduce the mathematical anxiety of elementary students. On theother hand, in this study, the experimental method is used to test the feasibility of research products by using instrument validity and reliability test. The product refers to the instrument that has been developed and run through the trial process using a quasi experimental method. Obtained data is processed by using MicrosoftExcel 2013andSPSSVersion 25.MicrosoftExcel 2013is usedtocalculate instrument validity, while SPSS version 25 is used to calculate instrument reliability using Cronbach’s Alpha method. As the next step, the calculation result is analyzed based on a particular category. Validity value is interpreted based on the validity coefficient classification by Guilford (Putri, Isrokatun, et al., 2019) as shown in table 2.

are valid based on the scores on the instrument (Creswell, 2009). Apart from the validity and reliability, an instrument also needs to meet the ability to measure samples in a large population and cost effective (Rahman et al., 2019). Therefore, to support optimum research findings, before mathematics lesson implementation, the researcher has carefully analyzed the feasibility of instruments that have been developed. If the assumptions can be proven empirically, the instruments developed in a study have good predictive validity (Laliyo et al., 2019).

2. Methods

The development of students' mathematical anxiety instruments is carried out through several stages including, a preliminary study that is analyzing the definitions, factors, problems, and findings in mathematical anxiety of elementary school students through a literature review. The next stage of the instrument development is to analyze aspects, indicators, and items of mathematical anxiety based on the level of success in the form of a questionnaire blueprint. The last stage is the testing phase that is done by verifying the blueprint which is compiled to become a questionnaire. Lecturers of elementary school teacher education, and

Table 2: Guilford’s Validity Coefficient Classification r value Interpret 0,90< r xy 1,00 Very high 0,70< r 0,90 High 0,40< r 0,70 Moderate (sufficient) 0,20< r 0,40 Low 0,00< r 0,20 Very low r 0,00 Not valid

The research participant involved in this research is as much as 100 elementary school students throughout Purwakarta, Subang, and Karawang, West Java, Indonesia. The sampling was done through a purposive sampling technique. The selected sample should fulfill a particular requirement, in which samples must be a sixth grader. Such sampling is done because the research will be implemented in grade 5 elementary school. Thus, the sample for instrument development should be those who have learned the topic. 100 participants were selected from three different areas. A greater number of samples will give more power and strength to the validation process (Lima Rodríguez et al., 2015). The analysis technique used in this research is descriptive analysis in the form of a validity test and inferential analysis in the form of a reliability test using Cronbach’s Alpha.

Reliability value is interpreted based on Guilford’s reliability classification (Putri, Isrokatun, et al., 2019) in table 3: Table 3: Guilford’s Reliability Coefficient Classification r value Interpretation r ≤ 0,20 Very low 0,20<r ≤ 0,40 Low 0,40< r ≤ 0,60 Intermediate 0,60< r ≤ 0,80 High 0,80< r ≤ 1,00 Very high

Attitudinal Fear he/shewhatof is doing 1. I often skip school when there is mathematics subject, especially when the learning isaboutgeometry thathasa lotof calculations. High 2. I always present in Mathematics subject because in my opinion Mathematics is a challenging subject, especially when High

3. Results

elementary school teachers whose focus on mathematics were asked to become expert assessors in determining the questionnaire feasibility and giving suggestions for its improvement. Then a readability test was conducted by asking some students randomly to fill in the questionnaire

Several changes and improvements were taken by considering suggestions for experts and readability test results. Furthermore, empirical validation through validity and reliability tests were performed to ensure that it really can measure mathematical anxiety and can produce similar results even though being used repeatedly. As Wright et al (2019) said, the development of instruments was based on a process of theoretical review and empirical validation.

The quality of mathematical anxiety instruments can be measured using validity and reliability test. The validity of an instrument indicates measurement results illustrating a particular aspect that is measured. On the other hand, reliability is related to the consistency of measurement. A reliable instrument provided a consistent measure of important characteristics despite background fluctuations. It reflects the true score one that is free from random errors (Tsisiga et al., 2018). Therefore, it is undebatable that validity and reliability is a significant research instrument (Taherdoost, 2018). The first step is done before the instrument validity and reliability test was developing indicators into statement items in the questionnaire with regard to the literature review. As explained earlier, the indicator of the mathematical anxiety questionnaire in this research referred to (Cavanagh & Sparrow, 2010) Table 1. As seen in Table 1, three elements can influence the level of students’ mathematical anxiety. Each element is further broken into three levels (low, medium, high). Based on Table 1, researchers developed the instrument by analyzing each element and identifying its indicators as the basis for developing a questionnaire item blueprint. It is in line with Sabri et al. (2019) who imply that to construct instruments with proper content validity it is necessary to do the following activities: (1) document analysis or pre survey; (2) making the specification table (lattice); (3) consultation with experts (mentors); (4) writing the instrument. Each element and level have an indicator and become the basis for developing statement items that were used in the research. Those statements can be seen on the table of instrument blueprint (Table 4): Table 4: Blueprint of Mathematical Anxiety Questionnaire Instrument Element Indicator Statement Level

6. I never answer questions about geometry, which is difficult for me. Medium 7. geometryNomatterhowdifficultthequestionaboutis,Ialwaystrytodoit.

High 13. I am aware of my failure in the previous scoreMathematicstestandIwilltrytogetbetterinthefuture.

High mindEmpty

Medium somethingindifficultiesnexpectatioTheofdoing

14. When working on geometry test, I remember another thing that, making the time runs out.

Medium 15. Mathematics is a difficult subject, so the geometry formula is hard to remember. Medium 16. I always remember the things that I have to do even though the learning material is difficult to understand. Medium 17. I cannot focus working on the geometry problems that I do not understand. Medium 18. I always focus when working on all questions about geometry. Medium 19. I am not sure with my answers to geometry question. Low

discussing geometry with many calculations.

High 4. byIIalwayswanttositinthefrontrowsothatcanlistentothegeometrymaterialtaughtmyteacher.

8. Every time I get a question about geometrical volume, it always difficult to solve because there are many numbers that I have to calculate. Low 9. I have no difficulty in doing questions about geometrical volume because I always careful in calculating the numbers. Low Cognitive Worry to be thingscannotshe/hethatbyjudgedothersdowell

3. In every Math lesson, I prefer to sit at the verybackrow,because the backseatis not visible to the teacher so I am sure I will not be appointed to come forward.

10. I always refuse every time the teacher appoints me to go forward to answer questions about geometry in front of the class because I am afraid my friends will laugh at me if my answer is wrong.

High 11. I answered the question in front of the class with confidence even though my answer was wrong. By doing so, I came to understand how to do it correctly. High 12. andIalwayshidequestionpapersfromfriendsparentswhenthescoreisbelow70.

High 5. I always ask my teacher, if there is geometry material that I do not understand. High Do wantnotto bethatsomethingdoshoulddone

Somatic Difficult to breath 23. My heart beats rapidly every time the teacher distribute marked test papers. Medium 24. My heart beats rapidly every time the teacher asks me to explain my answers to geometry questions in front of the class. Medium 25. I feel calm every time the teacher asks me to explain the answers to geometry questions in front of the class. Medium fastHeartbeats

26. My feet tremble every time the teacher asks me to clarify the answers to geometry questions in front of the class. Low 27. meIdonotfeelnervouswhenteacherappointtoanswergeometryquestion.

21. My chest feels tight when I get a math score below 70. High 22. My chest feels tight when a friend teases me because of the mistake I made when answering Math problems. High

Low 28. If there is a geometry test tomorrow, then tonight I will be difficult to sleep because I will be thinking about the questions that will come out on the test tomorrow. Low feelingableUncomfort 29. I will sleep well even though tomorrow there will be geometry test. Low 30. tomorrow.solvebecauseIoftengobackandforthtothetoilettopeeIamworriedthatIwillnotbeablegeometryproblemsinthetest

Low Statements that meet the requirements were further included in test trials. A sample of students’ responses to the mathematical anxiety instrument developed in this study can be seen in Appendix 1. Students’ responses in the form of ordinal data were converted into nominal data. The ordinal data in question is a collection of student responses for each item. Further processes to determine the score described by Azwar (2010) are: 1) classify items according to their nature (favorable/unfavorable); 2) if the item is favorable, then SD response category is placed at the leftmost side and the SA response category is placed at the rightmost side; 3) classify the number of students according to their choice of responses. The frequency of students’ response in each item should be the same; 4) Find the proportion value with p=f/N where p is proportion, f is frequency, and N is the number of respondents; 5) determine the pk score (cumulative proportion) that is the proportion in a category plus the proportion of all categories to the left; 6) determine Tpk score (Midpoint of cumulative proportion) by adding half proportion in the relevant category to the cumulative proportion in the category to the left. It can be formulated by Tpk= 1/2 p+pkb where Tpk is the midpoint of cumulative proportion, p is the proportion of its category, and pkb is the cumulative proportion in the category to the left; 7) determine z deviation value obtained by consideringz value for each Tpk. In this study, to determine the value for z normal deviation table can be used or use the formula ‘= NORMSINV

20. I am sure that my answer to geometry questions are correct. Low confuseFeeling

Calculation for Positive Statement Item StatementItem Responsechoices f p pk Tpk Z z+z* Rounding 2 SD 2 0.020 0.020 0.010 2.326 0.000 0 D 2 0.020 0.040 0.030 1.881 0.445 0 A 43 0.430 0.470 0.255 0.659 1.667 2 SA 53 0.530 1.000 0.735 0.628 2.954 3 Table

for a more

Z z+z* Rounding 30 SD 5 0.050 0.050 0.025 1.960 0.000 0 D 11 0.110 0.160 0.105 1.254 0.706

Statement StatementItem Responsechoices f p pk

Table 5 clearly illustrates that item number 2 of mathematical anxiety questionnaire has a positives scale and the score to be used can be seen in the rounding columns for SD, D, A, and SA categories. Those are 0, 0, 2, and 3 respectively. Meanwhile, Table 6 shows a mathematical anxiety scale questionnaire for negative items which is represented by item statement number 30. The score to be used can be seen in the rounding column as much as 0, 1, 2, and 3 for SA, A, D, and SD respectively. The data obtained is used for calculating the validity and reliability of students' mathematical anxiety scale instruments. Once the student answers collected, we convert them into nominal figures.

3.1. Validity Test Analysis After mathematical anxiety instruments constructed, sixth grade elementary school students filled it in for trial. Results obtained from the trial are further be used in the validity test. Table 7 presents the validity test results.

all

for

See

Table

(probability)’ when using Microsoft Excel 2013 software. Probability in the formula can be filled with cells that show Tpk values; 8) shift the response category with the smallest value close to 0 (zero), i.e. make the price of z for the leftmost category equal to 0. This is done to determine the price of z z * and can be found by adding the absolute z value at the most left category on existing z so that z values in the other response categories will be positive. table and 6 detailed scheme: 5: The example of Mathematical Anxiety Scale 6: The example of Mathematical Anxiety Scale Calculation Negative Tpk 1 A 51 0.510 0.670 0.415 0.215 1.745 2 SA 33 0.330 1.000 0.835 0.974 2.934 3

values

293 ©2020TheauthorsandIJLTER.ORG.Allrightsreserved. Table 7: Recapitulation of Validity Test Results for Mathematical Anxiety Instrument Correlationbetween CorrelationValue(r) rcountvalue r table value (k=n 2, α=5%) Note Conclusion Number 1 with Total 0,57 6,81 0,198 r positive, rcount>rtable Valid Number 2 with Total 0,52 6,07 0,198 r positive, rcount>rtable Valid Number 3 with Total 0,43 4,65 0,198 r positive, rcount>rtable Valid Number 4 with Total 0,31 3,25 0,198 r positive, rcount<rtable Valid Number 5 with Total 0,29 3,03 0,198 rpositive, count<rtable Valid Number 6 with Total 0,46 5,11 0,198 r positive, rcount>rtable Valid Number 7 with Total 0,52 6,03 0,198 r positive, rcount>rtable Valid Number 8 with Total 0,50 5,73 0,198 r positive, rcount>rtable Valid Number 9 with Total 0,60 7,38 0,198 r positive, rcount>rtable Valid Number 10 with Total 0,58 7,02 0,198 r positive, rcount>rtable Valid Number 11 with Total 0,64 8,31 0,198 r positive, rcount>rtable Valid Number 12 with Total 0,48 5,45 0,198 r positive, rcount>rtable Valid Number 13 with Total 0,48 5,36 0,198 r positive, rcount>rtable Valid Number 14 with Total 0,39 4,15 0,198 rpositive, count<rtable Valid Number 15 with Total 0,48 5,35 0,198 r positive, rcount>rtable Valid Number 16 with Total 0,48 5,37 0,198 r positive, rcount>rtable Valid Number 17 with Total 0,42 4,60 0,198 r positive, rcount>rtable Valid Number 18 with Total 0,56 6,62 0,198 r positive, rcount>rtable Valid Number 19 with Total 0,41 4,50 0,198 r positive, rcount>rtable Valid Number 20 with Total 0,46 5,08 0,198 r positive, rcount>rtable Valid Number 21 with Total 0,31 3,25 0,198 rpositive, count<rtable Valid Number 22 with Total 0,37 3,90 0,198 rpositive, count<rtable Valid Number 23 with Total 0,44 4,85 0,198 r positive, rcount>rtable Valid

Number 24 with Total 0,53 6,15 0,198 r positive, rcount>rtable Valid Number 25 with Total 0,63 7,94 0,198 r positive, rcount>rtable Valid Number 26 with Total 0,56 6,74 0,198 r positive, rcount>rtable Valid Number 27 with Total 0,22 2,25 0,198 rpositive, count<rtable Valid Number 28 with Total 0,52 6,05 0,198 r positive, rcount>rtable Valid Number 29 with Total 0,32 3,35 0,198 rpositive, count<rtable Valid Number 30 with Total 0,57 6,87 0,198 r positive, rcount>rtable Valid Table 7 indicates 23 items that have valid values. While items number 4, 5, 14, 21, 22, 27, and 29 show weak correlation value. The item is valid if the correlation value is at least in the medium category based on the comparison of r count and r tables. According to Guilford correlation value categories, the value of r count> r table of the 23 items is classified as moderate. Therefore these 23 items were further included in the mathematical anxiety instruments.

294

Table 8: Test Results of Mathematical Anxiety Reliability Instruments

Cronbach’s Alpha Cronbach’s Alpha Based on Standardized Items No Itemsof 0,874 0,877 30

Aside from the validity test resulting in 23 valid items, reliability tests were performed as well. The test used Cronbach’s Alpha calculation using SPSS type 25 software. The selection of Cronbach’s alpha as a measure of instrument reliability for mathematical anxiety instruments is because Cronbach’s Alpha can test a questionnaire type instrument that has more than one answer. As Yusup (2018) suggests, Cronbach’s Alpha test is suitable for instruments in the form of essays or questionnaires. Table 8 presents the reliability of mathematics anxiety instruments.

4. Discussion Research using questionnaire as its instrument require validity and reliability insurance before collecting data from participants. Validity and reliability are key indicators of measuring instrument quality (Kimberlin & Winterstein, 2008). The validity test implies that there are 23 valid items with the lowest rxy value is 0.29 and the highest is 0.64. It has been suggested that correlation coefficients below 0.3 should be considered as low, 0.3 to less than 0.5 as moderate, while 0.5 and

3.2. Reliability Test Analysis

From the reliability test results as illustrated in the table 8, Cronbach’s Alpha values for the instrument are 0.874. This number implies that instrument reliability is high. Thus, this student mathematical anxiety instrument is considered consistent to be used many times in further research.

above as a high (Tsang et al., 2017). We can look at some information in Table 7 that 13 items have high correlation value. This shows that 43,33% or almost half of all items in the questionnaire is sure can be used. In particular, we should stop considering moderate correlations as evidence of reliability or validity (Post, 2016). Even for purposes of applied decision making, reliance on criterion validity or content coverage is not enough (Taherdoost, 2018). If pulled back into the validity classification table (Lodico et al., 2006), these figures indicate the level of validity is in the position of low to medium. The validity coefficient values range from 1.00 to 1.00. The coefficient value of 1.00 indicates that individual test items and test criteria have relatively the same results. Whereas zero validity coefficient indicates that there is no relationship between the instrument and its criteria. Generally, a higher validity coefficient indicates the higher validity of the instrument (Buchan et al., 2005). However, the basis for decision making on the validity test can also be determined through rcount and rtable. If rcount is greater than rtable, then the instrument can be declared significant and valid (Mahendra, 2015). Furthermore, the reliability test is a continuation of the validity test, where the items included in the test are only valid ones (Fridayanthie, 2016). The reliability test using Cronbach's Alpha calculation results showed the reliability value of the mathematics anxiety instrument was 0.874. as it is analyzed through the reliability classification proposed by Guilford (Suherman, 2003), it is found that this value classified as high reliability. Cronbach’s alpha of at least 0.70 has been suggested to indicate adequate internal consistency and could be considered acceptable reliability (Bolarinwa, 2015; Lima Rodríguez et al., 2015; Tsang et al., 2017). A rule of thumb that α = 0.7 indicates acceptable, and α = 0.8 represents good reliability (Wells et al., 2011). In conducting research, aside from performing proper data collection, ensuring that the instrument can function correctly is also essential (Dikko, 2016). In this case, the instrument can work properly only if the instrument is valid and reliable. As an example, a study performed an instrument trial in seventh grade students, resulting in correlations between the two items ranged from 0.46 to 0.60. Cronbach’s alpha for this scale ranged from 0.63 to 0.75, indicating acceptable internal reliability (Wang et al., 2020). Whereas if the value of instrument correlation is less than 0.40 like the seven items found in Table 7, then it is considered invalid because the correlation is weak. High or strong correlation means that two or more variables have strong validity with each other, while low correlation means that the variable is almost unrelated or invalid (Dalvi & Kant, 2018).

5. Conclusion Research to develop Mathematical Anxiety instruments for elementary school students is carried out comprehensively. This study involved 100 elementary school students in Indonesia. Mathematical anxiety instruments have been created and arranged based on instrument modification (Cavanagh & Sparrow, 2010). The results showed there were seven invalid items due to weak correlation. Therefore, these items considered unable to measure students' mathematical anxiety. Meanwhile, the other 23 of the 30 items are valid and reliable. Hence, we claim that these 23 items are proper to use in measuring the mathematical anxiety of elementary school students. Mathematical anxiety instrument developed

through this research is expected to give contributions to teachers, parents and even researchers to solve mathematical anxiety problems experienced by elementary school students as early as possible. To conclude, mathematicsanxiety items developed through this study can be used as a questionnaire type instrument for future research.

8. References Afrianti, N. F., & Prabawanto, S. (2020). On surveying of fifth grade mathematical anxiety in term of gender. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 1521(3). https://doi.org/10.1088/1742 6596/1521/3/032079 Alves, M., Rodrigues, C. S., Rocha, A. M. A. C., & Coutinho, C. (2016). Self efficacy, mathematics’ anxiety and perceived importance: an empirical study with Portuguese engineering students. European Journal of Engineering Education, 41(1), 105 121. https://doi.org/10.1080/03043797.2015.1095159 Annisa, D. F., & Ifdil, I. (2016). Konsep Kecemasan (Anxiety) pada Lanjut Usia (Lansia) [The concept of Anxiety (Anxiety) in the Elderly (Elderly)]. Konselor, 5(2), 28 36. https://doi.org/10.24036/02016526480

This work is supported by Research, Partnerships, and Business, as well as the management of the Research and Community Service Institute (LPPM) of Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia (UPI) who provide opportunities for authors toresearch mathematical anxiety instruments development, especially to measure mathematical anxiety of elementary school students. We would also like to thank students and teachers who made this study possible.

0 00 Aosi, G., Metrianis, & Rifma. (2019). STEM Based Learning to Overcome Math Anxiety. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 1387(1). https://doi.org/10.1088/1742 6596/1387/1/012053 Ardi,Z.,Rangka,I.B.,Ifdil,I.,Suranata,K.,Azhar,Z.,Daharnis,D.,Afdal,A.,&Alizamar,A.(2019).Exploringtheelementarystudentslearningdifficultiesrisksonmathematicsbasedonstudentsmathematicanxiety,mathematicsselfefficacyandvaluebeliefsusingraschmeasurement. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 1157(3). https://doi.org/10.1088/1742 6596/1157/3/032095 Arifin, Z. (2017). Kriteria Instrumen dalam Suatu Penelitian [Instrument Criteria in a Research] Jurnal Theorems (The Original Research of Mathematics), 2(1), 28 36. http://dx.doi.org/10.31949/th.v2i1.571 Ashcraft, M. H., & Moore, A. M. (2009). Mathematics Anxiety and the Affective Drop in

7. Acknowledgments

Students assume mathematics as the learning that is difficult to understand and always requires high attention. This condition leads to students’ fear and anxiety in learning mathematics. It is necessary to measure elementary school students' mathematical anxiety so that teachers can design meaningful learning approaches/strategies to generate students’ interest in learning and reduce students' anxiety when learning mathematics. It is expected that when students are not anxious in learning, students are more motivated to learn, which leads to bettermathematical learningachievement. Teachersandresearchersshouldavoid ambiguous statements in the questionnaire to obtain a valid and reliable instrument.

6. Limitation

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1. Ioftenskipschoolwhenitisamathematicsschedule, especially when the learning is about geometry that has a lot of calculations.

5. Your response to this questionnaire will not affect your grades.

1. Read each statement carefully. Please kindly ask the teacher if you have difficulties in understanding the statement.

8. Every time I get a question about geometrical volume, it always difficult to solve the question because there are many numbers that I have to calculate

9. I have no difficulty in doing questions about geometrical volume because I am always careful in calculating the numbers.

5. I always ask my teacher, if there is geometry material that I do not understand.

4. Once you are sure of your response, you can submit this questionnaire to your teacher.

Response choices are: SA = Strongly Agree A = Agree D = Disagree SD = Strongly Disagree

4. I always want to sit in the front so that I can listen to the geometry material taught by my teacher.

10. I always refuse every time the teacher appoints me to go forward to answer questions about geometry in front of the class because I am afraid my friends will laugh at me when my answer is wrong.

11. I answered the question in front of the class with

2. I always present in Mathematics subject because in my opinion Mathematics is a challenging subject, especially when discussing geometry with many calculations.

3. In every Math lesson, I prefer to sit at the very back row, because the back seat is not visible to the teacher so I am sure I will not be appointed to come forward.

3. Do the questionnaire on your own.

Appendix 1 Sample of mathematical anxiety instrument filled by a respondent.

Statement Response SA A D SD

6. I never answer questions about geometry, which is difficult for me.

Name : Revan Class : VI.A Name of school : Wantilan National Elementary School Instructions:

7. No matter how difficult the question about geometry is, I always try to do it

2. Put a check mark ( ) on the response that corresponds to what you experience and feel.

22. My chest feels tight when a friend teases me because of themistake I made whenanswering Math problems

18. I always focus when working on all questions about geometry.

25. I feel normal every time the teacher asks me to make clear the answers to geometry questions in front of the class.

19. I am not sure about answers to geometry question that I wrote 20. I am sure that the answer I wrote for geometry questions is correct

12. Ialwayshidequestionpapersfromfriendsandparents when the score is below 70.

29. I will sleep well even though tomorrow there will be geometry test

14. When working on the geometry test, I remember another thing that made the time running out.

21. My chest feels tight when I get a math score below 70

confidence even though my answer was wrong, that way, I came to know the right way.

16. I always remember the things that I have to do even though I have dealt with material that is difficult to understand

17. I cannot focus on when working on the geometry materials that I don’t understand.

15. Mathematics is a difficult subject, so the geometry formula is hard to remember

13. I am aware of my failure in the previous Mathematics test and will try to get a better score in the future

23. My heartbeat fasts every time the teacher distributes test papers that have been marked

28. Iftomorrowthereisageometrytest,thentonightIwill be difficult to sleep because I will be thinking about the questions that will come out on the test tomorrow.

24. My heartbeat fasts every time the teacher asks me to describe the answers to geometry questions in front of the class.

30. I often go back and forth to the toilet to pee because I am worriedthat I will not be able to domath questions about geometry for daily test tomorrow.

27. I do not feel nervous when teacher appoint me to answer geometry question

26. My feet tremble every time the teacher asks me to clarify the answers to geometry questions in front of the class.

303 ©2020TheauthorsandIJLTER.ORG.Allrightsreserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 6, pp. 303 322, June https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.6.120208 Situating "children supporting children" Platform in the Context of the Inclusive Agenda: A Phenomenological Exploration Princess Zarla J. Raguindin Sirib Educational Consulting, Manila, Philippines https://orcid.org/0000 0002 2090 8660 Li Yan Ping Shaanxi Normal University, Xi’an, China https://orcid.org/0000 0001 5872 320X Abstract. Theincreasingpluralityofthe schoolpopulationtodaycallsfor a mandate to promote inclusion in the educational systems by removing grounds that excludes and discriminates One powerful means of promoting inclusion is through the "children supporting children" platform. As such, learners should be guided in the development and enhancement of social skills as a pre requisite to a society that bars exclusion; however, less is known about it This paper bridges this research gap by contributing to the intensive understanding and important realization on how children can become co implementers of the inclusive agenda. A transcendental phenomenological approach was used to analyze how the teacher participants experience and understand the context of "children supporting children" in the inclusive agenda as transpired in their early grade classrooms. A semi structured interview, focus group discussion, and class observation was conducted to gather data inclusivethereinterventionsexpressions.emergingthatidentifystructuredandemergingto(1)identifyandestablishtheirmeaningsandunderstandingoftheinclusiveexpressionsandconceptsexhibitedbytheirpupils(2)classroomstrategiestheyemploytoreinforcetheconstructsAandinductiveanalysiswasperformedtorefinethedataandemergingcodesandthemes.ThefindingsofthispapersuggestpreschoolersarecoconstructorsofinclusiveculturethroughexpressionsandthatschoolsareanavenuetoenhancesuchThereislimitedresearchonspecificstrategiesandinanearlychildhoodsettingtopromoteinclusion;fore,insightsinthispaperarerelevantinimplementingproactivepedagogiesastheyareaccountsofthosewhoareinthefield. Keywords: inclusive education; social emotional learning; early childhood and inclusion; teaching strategies

1. Introduction

The call to implement inclusive education equally involves children with a perceived difference andtheir typically developing peers (UNESCO, 2016) In the last few decades, there has been a surge of interest in how the inclusive agenda can be effectively implemented by policy makers, school administrators, and teachers (Forlin, 2012). Recent developments in the field have led to a proliferation of studies that focuses on "pupil participation" and "voice of the child" (Pearson, 2016, p.8) in achieving inclusive goals This forms perceptions that children have their views and agencies, which makes them powerful co implementers of the inclusive agenda. As such, inclusion should be implemented "with children" and not "to children" (Pearson, 2016) Hence, those in the "regular curriculum" are potent levers in the promotion of a just and high quality Theinclusion.tenet

of inclusion, as enshrined in the Salamanca Statement, calls for appropriate action to educate children with special needs (CSN) alongside their peers. The statement is anchored on the premise that inclusion and participation are inherent human rights (UNESCO, 1994). Inclusive education was established to deconstruct the medical model of disability or the "Defectology" framework (Baglieri & Shapiro, 2017; Thomas & Loxley, 2007), which is focused on the person with disability and not on challenges confronting the individual. Conversely, the social model framework calls the society to redefine social policies and re shape attitudinal barriers and social arrangements (Baglieri & Shapiro, 2017) to sustain equal opportunity and this includes school communities Additionally, the Policy Guidelines on Inclusion in Education (UNESCO, 2009a) states that inclusive schools should ensure that all learners are acknowledged and valued in the learning community. The policy adheres to the idea that all stakeholders even the typically developing peers of the children with perceived differences are co creators of the inclusive school community. In the classroom context, increasing the learners’ presence, participation, and collaboration are fundamental aspects of inclusion (Ahmmed, Sharma & Deppeler, 2012, 2014; Artiles, Kozleski, Dorn & Christensen, 2006; Booth, Ainscow & Vaughan, 2011; Farrell, 2002; Florian, 2012; Florian & Spratt, 2013; Forlin, 2010; Forlin, Loreman & Sharma, 2014; Loreman & Deppeler, 2002; Sharma & Sokal, 2015). Among the viable options in involving learners' collective in upholding and sustaining the inclusive agenda is deconstructing marginalization and instilling inclusive values and principles through the development and refinement of children's social competencies(Raguindin, 2020)."Superskills" lumped as social competence allow an individual tocreateandsustain adaptable behaviorin theirenvironment(Halle & Darling-Churchill, 2016; Han, 2014; Han & Kemple, 2006; Jones, Greenberg & Crowley, 2015; Kennedy, 2018; Odom, McConnell & Brown, 2019; Visnjic Jevtic, Lapat & Galinec, 2019), which is significantly developed and refined during "children to children" interaction.

The central thesis of this paper is in the same vein with the works pursued by Pearson (2016), UNESCO (2016) and Baglieri and Shapiro (2017)that the most critical form of support to learners with perceived differences in an inclusive

1.1. On expressions and concept of inclusion among young learners

classroom is the context of "children supporting children" platform; however, less is still explored about it. The support children can extend to their peers contributes effectively to the inclusive approach. For example, the development of children's positive attitudes about diversity is pivotal in creating inclusive values (Pearson, 2016; UNESCO, 2016). Several inclusive indicators are emerging during early grades (Haslip, Allen Handy & Donaldson, 2019) and have to be developed and enhanced if schools are to affirm cultures, values, and principles that promote acceptance, belongingness, participation, collaboration, and Thisdiversity.qualitative

The "Diversity Wheel" (Loden, 1996) is a framework on the understanding of diversity and promoting respect, inclusion, cooperation, and responsibility. The model establishes a strong association of grounds that create exclusion and constructs like beliefs, class, gender and sexuality, physical abilities and characteristics, age, race and ethnicity, and income. The constructs are dimensions that an individual has no control; however, they are mostly thereason for discrimination and marginalization (Loden, 1996). Loden's framework is as a deductive argument, challenges institutions to create platforms for diversity conversations about mitigating exclusion and this includes school communities When the framework is translated to the context of inclusive education, by far, the most comprehensive facilitator of the inclusive school community is the children's adaptable skills. This paper takes the seminal works of Piaget (1936), Erickson (1950), Sullivan (1953), Bowlby (1969), and Kohlbergb (1969) as a basis for the extension of children's rolein the inclusive agenda. Although differing in practice, the authors' carried a similar emphasis that the most sensitive period in the development of social competencies in a person's life is during early childhood (McCartney & Phillips, 2006). The claim is exhibited with how young children independently interact with peers and big groups when schooling comes. Conversely, the overlapping difficulties they experience in this domain is crucial in their adjustment and development to later adult life. Hence, guide and support should be provided during this time of transition (Denham, Bassett & Zinsser, 2012;

paper investigated how children in the early grades classroom value and celebrated diversity Through an interview, focus group discussions (FGD), and classroom observation, this paper captured the lived experiences of early grade teachers and their tacit understanding of how their learners' interdependence and support adequately achieve inclusive goals Further, it explored the teaching strategies they utilize to co opt children as collaborators of the inclusive agenda. Critical investigations should be done to determine essential practices that uphold a welcoming and flexible educational environment (Baglieri & Shapiro, 2017, p. 104), consequently, enriching educational experience for all. Specifically, making collaboration and a sense of community palatable to young children creates shared classroom experiences, high standard learning outcomes, and later in life, a society that nurtures and affirms plurality these are all hallmarks of a high quality inclusion.

As peer interaction increases during toddlerhood, social skill significantly expands during early childhood (Han & Kemple, 2006; Han, 2014). The literature agrees that children should become skilled in expressing their actions and feelings with others, capable of controlling, adjusting and exhibiting their emotions and behaviors appropriately during social interaction (Halle & Darling Churchill, 2016; Han, 2014; Haslip et al., 2019; D. Jones et al., 2015; McCartney & Phillips, 2006; Odom et al., 2019; Visnjic Jevtic et al., 2019). Socially competent young children exhibit positive interaction among peers and can build and maintain a good relationship with others at the present and in their later adult life (Halle & Darling Churchill, 2016; Han, 2014; Han & Kemple, 2006; Haslip et al., 2019; D. Jones et al., 2015; Kennedy, 2018; Odom et al., 2019; Visnjic Jevtic et al., 2019)

1.2. On classroom strategies to reinforce expressions of inclusion With the increasing heterogeneity in society, there is a challenge to introduce and implement new and emerging interventions, so children have opportunities to develop and refine their adaptive social behaviors. Children's social skills do not

Fabes, Hanish & Martin, 2003; Halle & Darling Churchill, 2016; Han & Kemple, 2006; Haslip et al., 2019; S. M. Jones, Zaslow, Darling Churchill & Halle, 2016; Kennedy, 2018; Odom et al., 2019; Visnjic Jevtic et al., 2019; Yoder, 2014)

Social skills provide the ability for an individual for reciprocity and propriety in their social relationship (Haslip et al., 2019; Odom et al., 2019; Visnjic Jevtic et al., 2019), acceptance of diversity, capacity to thrive in a bigger group (e.g., showing empathy, participating in group activities, generosity, helpfulness, communicating with others, negotiating and problem-solving) willingness to take turns, deep respect of other's rights, and awareness and sensitivity of one's needs and others (Halle & Darling Churchill, 2016; Kennedy, 2018; Odom et al., 2019).

Additionally, social skills are not merely behaviors but are aspects of a persons' behavior that facilitates awareness and understanding of one's environment (Kennedy, 2018; Lynch & Simpson, 2010; Steedly, Scwartz, Levin & Luke, 2008).

Children's social skills can be grouped into competencies, like interpersonal knowledge and skills, cultural competence, and adaptive social values (Han & Kemple, 2006; Kennedy, 2018; Lynch & Simpson, 2010; McCartney & Phillips, 2006; Sendil & Erden, 2012; Yoder, 2014). These "super skills" are quintessential skills that create an "inclusive culture" as they are instrumental in establishing inclusive values and inclusive communities (Booth et al., 2011; Odom et al., 2019) It is imperative to note that the relationship formed with peers is fundamentally different from what is developed at home. The former being freely chosen and the latter being necessitated (McCartney & Phillips, 2006). As the nature of relationships in the schools' community is fluid, facilitators of learning should create mechanisms to support school children to develop positive learning social skills. The development of social skills entails deliberate planning and implementation of pedagogies. Subsequently, a high learning standard through the participation of learners in the "inclusive curriculum" and "standard curriculum" is facilitated and is attained(Kennedy, 2018; Odom, Buysse & Soukakou, 2011; UNESCO, 2016).

Thus, the experiences children have in their formative years set a positive or negative development that will be pre-requisite to later effective interaction in their environment. Moreover, teachers as collaborators of children's learning are potential facilitators of an enhanced emotional competence for an effective societal integration (Denham et al., 2012).

Children supporting children platform in the context of inclusive education is a powerful means of attaining durable inclusion. The literature discussed suggests that children in the early grades are potential partners in the

only address the need to establish positive social practices but also equip the children to unlearn maladaptive behaviors like aggression and other anti social conduct (Kennedy, 2018; McCartney & Phillips, 2006) Previous documents showed that effective social skills instruction facilitates the emergence and refinement of social skills among young children (Han, 2014; Han & Kemple, 2006; Haslip et al., 2019; D. Jones et al., 2015; Kennedy, 2018; Odom et al., 2019). The school environment is a critical platform through which children must learn to navigate socially. It does situate schools in two different levels a training ground for the development of the social skills and arena to utilize those skills (Darling Churchill & Lippman, 2016; Halle & Darling Churchill, 2016; Haslip et al., 2019; S. M. Jones et al., 2016; Kennedy, 2018; Odom et al., 2019; Rose Krasnor & Denham, 2009; Steedly et al., 2008; Visnjic Jevtic et al., 2019).

There is an endless list of teaching strategies that can be utilized in the school setting as social interaction is extensively integrated into classroom experiences and collaboration. For example is direct training which involves explicit instruction, play strategies, problem solving, andemotion understanding which is the most pervasive approach in facilitating the development of social skills among children (Kennedy, 2018; McCartney & Phillips, 2006) Additionally, the schools' social skills curricula should strike a balance in facilitating learning individually and collaboratively. Most strategies like modeling social skills through activities, games, role play, and feedback provided by the teacher allow interaction (Kennedy, 2018; Steedly et al., 2008) Also, strategies like direct instruction, learning from a peer, prevention of problem behaviors, and children's books are useful techniques to promote social learning (Kennedy, 2018; Lynch & Simpson, 2010) Fox, Dunlap, Hemmeter, Joseph, and Strain (2003) proposed a hierarchy of strategies in supporting children's emerging social competence. The framework encourages teachers to begin with natural strategies such as creating meaningful relationships and facilitating a supportive classroom environment. After this, the teacher can proceed to more specific plans to provide opportunities for young learners to internalize the skills and extend these super skills to the varied social setting (Steedly et al., 2008) Social behaviors show evidence of stability during early childhood (Denham et al., 2012; Halle & Darling Churchill, 2016; Kennedy, 2018; McCartney & Phillips, 2006; Rose Krasnor & Denham, 2009; Yoder, 2014).

1.3. The study

implementation of inclusive education through the cultivation of inclusive values and expression; however, it is a part of the inquiry that is mostly overlooked.

2.1. Design Qualitative inquiry is used in this paper to address the research question as it provides answers about the real world (Marshall & Rossman, 2016) through data which are gathered from places, events, and narrative of people (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). Specifically, this study utilized a transcendental phenomenological approach to analyze the lived experience of the participants. Transcendental phenomenology is a variant of phenomenological approach which is focused on how the participants describe and create their meaning and understanding of the phenomenon (Moustakas, 1994 ) in this case, the emerging inclusive concepts and expression of their early grade learners and the strategies they employ to reinforce the construct The inclusive agenda is a research interest that the authors pursue and advocate The need to problematize viable options in implementing inclusion, such as co opting children as co constructors and collaborators of an inclusive community, is of interest.

This qualitative study set out to better understand the role of children in the inclusive agenda. Children in the early childhood stage have agencies that potentially promote inclusive values and cultures. Drawing upon the lived experiences and tacit understanding of early grades teachers, this study investigated the emerging inclusive expressions and concepts in their early childhood classroom and the strategies they utilized to reinforce these concepts and expressions.

From the perspective of EST, multiple means of data gathering were employed to collect sufficient and reliable information that addresses the purpose of this study.

2. Materials and Methods

The author made use of standard open ended interviews, focus group discussion (FGD), and classroom observation in gathering data. In the semi structured interview, all the participants were asked the same basic questions in an open ended format. Further, follow – up questions and probing questions were asked to clarify the participants' account of the phenomena being described. Each interview lasted approximately 24 26 minutes. Secondly, afocus group discussion was utilized, as it provides interaction among key actors (Creswell & Creswell, 2018; Maxwell, 1996) The FGD influences participants' ideas, thereby enriching the description of their experiences (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). The interview and FGD were conducted at the time and place agreed by the participants. The interview and FGD were audiotaped and transcribed for the accuracy of the accounts. To capture highlights of the responses and summary of key insights, the researcher made use of aid memoirs. Lastly, an observation was conducted to gather meaning, perspectives, and tacit understanding of the theory in use of the participants that were not obtained by relying exclusively on the interview and focus group discussion (Maxwell, 1996) The researcher utilized a comprehensive observation template as described by Cohen, Manion and Morrison (2002), which

2.2. Data gathering procedure

2.3. Ethical standards

One of the hallmarks of a durable inclusive education is the participation, engagement, and high quality learning outcomes for every member of a diverse class. In the context of an early childhood classroom, identifying the emerging inclusive concepts and expressions becomes lever in the promotion of the

To employ an ethical research standard, number codes for privacy and utmost confidentiality to practice research ethics were used (i.e., Teacher 1 is tagged as P1, Teacher 2 as P2, Teacher 3 as P3, and so on). Consent forms were distributed and collected to establish a clear relationship between the researcher and the participants. Further, permission to conduct a study was obtained from the gatekeepers of the schools where the participants are connected. To ensure validity and reliability in the data gathered, the researchers conducted a "member check," where the transcribed information was returned to the participant to solicit feedback about the data and conclusions derived (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). In this way, the possibilities of misinterpretation of the meaning of the respondents' perspective, understanding, and experiences are ruled out (Maxwell, 1996). For the class observation, an after class checking was done by the teacher of the classes observed (Cohen et al., 2002). Similarly, the informants were informed of the final themes identified in the study for review.

gives structure to the researcher's field notes for a full description of the observed phenomena There were four observations conducted from different classes.

The qualitative data were analyzed and refined following the structured method of inductive data analysis (Creswell & Poth, 2017; Hall et al., 2016; Moustakas, 1994). Initially, the researcher immersed deeply into the transcripts and observation matrix to internalize the data. Next, a horizontalization was conducted to give equal weight to the sentences and quotes provided by the informants on how they experienced the phenomenon. Thirdly, the author performed a reduction to eliminate statements that were not relevant in the understandingof theinformants' experiences. Additionally,a cluster ofmeanings was determined, and themes were assigned labels. Several clustering was done to refine the categories. Lastly, writing of textual, structural, and textual structural descriptions was done by rereading the transcripts and cluster of meanings to determine the essence of the informants' experiences of the phenomenon.

2.4. Participants Through purposive sampling, participants who have experienced the phenomenon were selected. This paper selected 35 early grades teachers from public and private schools from the National Capital Region of the Philippines as informants to provide data to answertheresearch questions. The inclusioncriteria in selecting the participants of this study are (a) early childhood education background,(b) taughtin an earlychildhood setting for aminimumofthreeyears, and (c) is teaching in a class with a minimum class size of 15 pupils

3. Results

2.5. Data Analysis

Acceptance (Respect for diversity and flexibility)

3.1. Emerging inclusive expressions of learners in the early grades

The most frequent response generated from the participants is on the children's ability to show a degree of acceptance with other people in the school community. Children come to school with different personalities, clothes, and even physical appearance.Itis duringthis stagethattheir emergent expression aboutacceptance of diversity and flexibility is observed. According to the participants, this skill is very much highlighted in the classroom, as evident in the following statements: P14: "They have a classmate whose ears were not completely developed during birth. I observed, nobody laughs at her, neither ask her about it. […..], everybody ignores her physical defect".

Four themes emerged on the inclusive concepts and expressions of children in the early grades as experienced by their teachers (a) acceptance (b) sympathy (c) sharing and (d) collaboration with other children. The informants were assigned code in the statements presented to practice confidentiality.

Figure 1. Dynamics of Children – supporting – children context in the inclusive agenda

inclusive agenda. Figure 1 provides a diagram on how the context of the "children supporting children" platform is a powerful means of promoting inclusion.

P26: "I have two Muslim students and one with atypical behavior […..]they accept the presence of their classmates in the class".

P8: "When we have parties, my students would always say, "Teacher, I will not bring pork." […..] In one of our discussions, we talked about the Muslim culture".

P29: "When somebody is bullied, automatically most would say, "stop it!" Then I do not need to step forward and play the sergeant at arms. Automatically, the class become great defenders and protectors (laughs)

The research participants described evidence of resource sharing among their pupils in varied expressions sharing their food, toys, and other things, as reported as follows: P7: "[…..] pupils are self centered regarding their things and toys or blocks [….] as classmates share, they learn to be giving most of the time."

The two social skills discussed above (i.e., acceptance and sympathy) are antecedents of the skill sharing (Malti et al., 2012). Fundamental to the developmentof sharingis the "ownershipunderstanding" asit entailstransferring of ownership either temporarily or permanently, which significantly takes place during early childhood and middle childhood (Brownell, Iesue, Nichols & Svetlova, 2013; Brownell & Pajares, 1999). Thus, while ego centrism is apparent during toddlerhood (Feeny, Moravcik & Nolte, 2018), sharing as a pro social behavior emerges during early childhood (Malti et al., 2012)

P3: "[…] they treat each other with care […] when someone starts to bully her […..] Classmates would stand behind her and advocate for her. I can see tolerance from them."

P12: "It is so amazing how children consistently forgive and forget (laughs). [….] they know how to say sorry, with almost no verbal prompt from the teacher.

The accounts from the key informants described how they experience the essence of acceptance as exhibited by their pupils. While in the early childhood stage, children can internalize the essence of being together in a group even when classmates have physical deformities, different religious orientations, and varied cultures. Sympathy (Concern for other children) Malti, Gummerum, Keller, Chaparro, and Buchmann (2012) opined that sympathy is a pro social behavior that entails feelings of concern and understanding of other people based on the comprehension and apprehension of the person's circumstances. Kienbaum (2014) further claimed that sympathy in early childhood is often expressed through comforting behaviors. Most participants agreed that sympathy is an emerging behavior of their pupils. There are notable instances when their pupils express some degree of sympathy with others as narrated below:

Sharing (Taking turns, giving and receiving)

P27: "I have students whom I believe are born leaders […] through collaboration, and peers were motivated by their leaders […] The next thing I know; they all want to be leaders."

As children collaborate in an activity, they develop their ability to form a balanced relationshipwith other people to achieve a common goal. Collaboration promotes the communication of ideas and knowledge (verbal and non verbal) among children at a level that everybody comprehends (Goncu, 1993). Peer interaction facilitates a deep understanding of the child's social environment. This learning experience allows them to share their perspective and accommodate others' in a comfortable and nurturing ways (Goncu, 1993) This is an important skill which possesses inclusive merits. The participants reported accounts of collaboration among young children in their shared social world. To put it succinctly, collaboration in their observation is when children actively participate and guide each other towards a shared goal. Thus, they are reported below:

P29: "Sharing has already been a part of our everyday interaction. My pupils know they should share what is inside the classroom."

Collaboration with other children (Play, collaborative classroom activities)

P26: "[…] a student who would only have boiled eggs and water for snacks, and his classmates have a lot [….] Nobody laughs at his poor snacks. Instead, they start to share and go around […]."

P13: "I have a cute student. She would always say, "Peacher (Teacher), I will help my classmate." And other class members will follow P17: "I always have little teachers in my class […] they work as team members." It can be inferred from the accounts above how children guide other children through monitoring their peers on how to achieve a specific task. Child to child support overcomes almost all forms of barriers to participation in the class. Thus, it creates an optimal learning environment for every member to thrive and succeed (UNESCO, 2016). Inclusion seeks to embrace differences in others. Learners in the "standard curriculum" should be prepared to acquire and develop competencies that mitigate exclusion. This is being achieved by providing diversity in conversations, group collaborations, and opportunities to refine adaptive social skills.

3.2. Classroom strategies employed to develop and refine expressions of inclusion among children in the early grades This paper clustered three macro strategies that teacher participants utilize to reinforced inclusive concepts and expressions among their learners. The strategies emanated from the informants are (a) structured learning environment, (b) spontaneous strategies, and (c) structured classroom strategies.

P20: "The words sorry, please, thank you, and you are welcome are golden words in our classroom."

Structured learning environment

P29: "We have rules to follow in the use of learning areas like share a toy, know when to say sorry, clean as you go, have fun with classmates."

Participants described how they utilize environmental context in reinforcing inclusive expressions among their pupils, as reported below. As defined, this context includes physical structure and organization of the classroom, routines, and the emotional environment (Han & Kemple, 2006)

P18: "[…]when I see actions and hear words that will give the negative impact on other children, I am alert to process it [….] I heard my pupil say, "We do not want to play with you. You belong to another table". So I should be quick in talking to the group and make them understand the negative behavior."

P10: "I am always intentional in supporting my pupils to learn the values of being a good classmate. So even during snack time, […] I go around and observe. During playtime, I observe. During choice time, I mingle with the kids." Well defined learning areas (e.g., block area, art area, science area, drama and creative corner, playhouse, among others) make the classroom for the young children an exciting place to stay while learning. Most classes observed have learning areas, especially among kindergarten classrooms. It is in these areas where turn taking, sharing, and collaboration take place. The teachers also note that during choice time, they go around and observe small groups to ensure that the routine is instrumental in implementing the curriculum in general and targeting the multi domain development of the learners in particular. The teacher also shared how they implement classroom rules for meaningful interaction Simple and basic rules like using polite words, listening when somebody is talking, staying silent when needed, using quiet hands and silent feet when asked, using friendly voice, and showing friendly behaviors are among the top rules implemented in the classroom. Spontaneous Classroom Strategies

This section is a corollary to the previous strategy. Spontaneous strategies are those that teacher employ that is naturally integrated into the whole process of learning and interaction Strategies here are implemented during routines, choice times, and instructional time. Accounts shared by the teacher also describes a strategy where they target self regulation amongchildren. There are timeswhen children in their class exhibit self centeredness. As the behavior is observed, they approach the child and explain classroom rules and regulations, more so, the relevance of displaying and expressing positive emotions. Most participants believe that this helps their pupils control their emotions and later cope with situations that bring frustration. Social reinforcement like gestures and oral language (e.g., verbal praise, smile, pat on the back, wink, high five) are effective

The following accounts are shared by the participants to reinforce inclusion in a structured strategy:

Structured activities can be (a) group affection activities group activities like games, plays, and songs; and (b) peer assisted learning strategies (Han & Kemple, 2006)

P10: "Role playing is always part of lessons. It is in this way that their self esteem is developed and, more importantly, their values."

P15: "I always let my students work with a pair or small group. I observed that they are learning to work well with their classmates. They become responsible for their groupmates."

P2: "I facilitate meaning making in their work. We do an art activity, and I make sure we have time to discuss their work. [….] When we do an art activity, it is either individual, by a pair or small group."

P13: "My favorite is "Learning Barkada (group/cell) " Every week, we have a new cell group. […] they learn to monitor each other. Everybody is also cooperative.

All participants reported that group affection strategies are effective means to increase the likelihood of enhancing social skills among children in the early grades.

P32: ". I try to use positive language consistently. I avoid saying "NO," "DON'T," or "STOP." Instead, I would say, "Class, thank you for not laughing at your classmate "

P9: "When there is a heated situation in my class, we do not just talk about it. I do a scenario building with my pupils. I let them answer the question, "What if..?" What if you were the one who got hurt? You were the one who gets bullied? […] And my pupils know what to do next."

Structured Classroom Strategies

means to support the development of social values. The following are vignettes from the participants on naturalistic strategies.

This strategy is more structured as compared to the strategies discussed above. The former allows the teacher to intentionally integrate the concepts and expression in several strategies in the whole process of learning while the latter puts the teacher in reasonable anticipation of situations to reinforce the concepts and expression. The teacher plans classroom management strategies together with the learning objectives for optimal learning success (Han & Kemple, 2006).

P8: "I am always careful with our worksheets. They should always be inclusive. When we talk about places in the community, I do not just put conventions. I have a Muslim pupil; I tell him to decorate the church that it will look like a mosque. So having a Muslim classmate is already a natural situation in my class."

4. Discussion To be a successful member of a diverse environment, there are different competencies one should possess (Denham et al., 2012; Han & Kemple, 2006; S. M. Jones et al., 2016; Kennedy, 2018; Rose Krasnor & Denham, 2009) like acceptance, sympathy, sharing, collaboration. Katz and McClellan (1997) posited that competent social individuals are those who engage in a meaningful relationship with peers and adults. Thus, social competence is a parameter of successful human interaction and integration and thus a pre requisite to a community that removes pressures to exclude (UNESCO, 2016). In the early childhood context, there is a need to decide and orchestrate strategies on how to develop and enhance the social skills of young children toward creating and sustaining meaningful relationships. Enhancing the culture and value of acceptance in a diverse group is a prelude to a community that bars any form of marginalization. This data further confirms that early childhood is a transition from infancy and toddlerhood where children experience solitary play and almost slim chances for social interaction (Han, 2014; Jones et al., 2015; Odom et al., 2019). As children approach early childhood, their repertoire of social skills such as acceptance of other people emerges (Jones et al., 2015; Kennedy, 2018; Odom et al., 2019). It is stated from the scripts that differences are so much evident in their classes, but children exhibit recognition with the way they relate with their peers.

Pro social skills like acceptance and sympathy are directly related to the person’s ability to express skills of sharing. The experience of a child being around with other children is not enough to develop social skills. It is essential that they build

Although the children's expression of acceptance may not significantly remove all tensions in the class, there are notable high level of acceptance with their peers (Kennedy, 2018; Visnjic Jevtic et al., 2019), which is integral in sustaining welcoming classroom environment (Baglieri & Shapiro, 2017). On the other hand, this notion of acceptance is collective as it is manifested with peers and even reinforced by the classroom teacher (Odom et al., 2011; UNESCO, 2016). From the foregoing, one could deduce that social value often included in early childhood development research is the value of community. Being part of a wider community, a school for this matter requires that children bring with them emerging awareness that they are part of a larger group. Thus, being considerate of others become a skill that is beneficial to the group, themselves, and of others (Baglieri & Shapiro, 2017; Han, 2014; Han & Kemple, 2006; D. Jones et al., 2015; Kennedy, 2018; Odom et al., 2019; Pearson, 2016). Acceptance strongly coincides with the active call to promote inclusive communities. Next, sympathy as a pro social skill is a pre requisite to the development of perspective taking skills in middle childhood, and eventually, throughout the life span. Perspective taking is when the feeling of negative emotions when someone else is experiencing distress is shared and felt by another person (Malti et al., 2012). Thus, sympathy removes pressures to exclude (Malti et al., 2012) as children learn to value others' feelings and circumstances (Kennedy, 2018; Odom et al., 2019)

A wide variety of strategies are warranted to support the development of social competence like acceptance, sympathy, sharing, and collaboration among young children. Fox et al. (2003) provided a hierarchy of strategies to support a meaningful and supportive classroom environment. Han (2014) also presented models to organize the strategies used by the teachers to reinforce expressions of inclusion environmental arrangements, natural strategies, and planned routine activities. While concepts and expressions of inclusion are still emerging in the early grades, it is also an opportune time to reinforce these expressions as children refine their social skills. Strategies under the domain of environmental arrangement are among the crucial strategies because it is here that children interact with other children beyond the watch of an adult. It is during this time when they do not need to modify their language and actions to meet the expectations of adults. Thus, these are times when there are no inhibitions, and the teacher can intensively observe their actual behavior during peer interaction (Han & Kemple, 2006) Further, spontaneous strategies necessitate the teacher's awareness, quick thinking, and thoughtful, intentional use of strategies but only involves a minimum amount of time and effort from the teacher to implement managerial role in the classroom conflict mediation and on the spot support (Kemple, 2004) Han and Kemple (2006) defined "conflict meditation" as the process where the teacher provides the much needed scaffolding to support children's development and enhancement of their ability to resolve conflict through spontaneous verbal arguments without aggression. Further, "on the spot support" (Ramsey, 1991, 2008) deals with coaching and modeling, which takes place in a very natural context. These are strategies where a verbal prompt is utilized by the teacher to reinforcea specific social skill. Conroy and Brown (2002) claimed that this strategy calls for "incidental teaching.”

rapport with each other to establish meaningful reciprocal interactions. Opportunities to interact with classmates early on in the early childhood setting is an avenue to refine values of sharing (National Scientific Council on the Developing Child, 2004). Sharing promotes the community asit is aform of other oriented value, thereby highlighting inclusion in the diverse community.

Collaboration with other children provides an opportunity for the children to stretch their cognitive and social skills (Haslip et al., 2019; Kennedy, 2018; Visnjic Jevtic et al., 2019). They facilitate social skills that later would become significant in promoting a classroom that celebrates diversity. The social skills sharing, sympathy, collaboration, acceptance of diversity are all social skills in early childhood that directly appeals to the value of community (Odom et al., 2019) Building a sense of appreciation, acceptance, and participation in the classroom community requires children to have an emerging awareness that they are part of a large group (Han, 2014; Han & Kemple, 2006; Odom et al., 2019). Thus, they represent critical factors like acceptance, participation, and achievement, which are relevant standards of a pro active inclusive practice.

5. Conclusion In a diverse community, themes, and pressures that excludes are becoming ubiquitous and evolving (Brown & Palaiologou, 2016). One means to combat exclusionary cultures and values is to promote the concept that "everyone belongs to a group, no matter what." For Brown and Palaiologou (2016), leading children in the process of inclusive pedagogical practices and embedding cultural relativism (p.75) is a powerful means of achieving inclusion and combating exclusion in the early childhood classroom. The claim can be supported by targeting the development and enhancement of children's social skills to promote inclusive cultures and promote diversity. This study adds to the growing body of evidence that suggests that there are emerging inclusive concepts and expressions in an early childhood setting (e.g., acceptance, sympathy, sharing, and collaboration). The findings surfaced new ways of claiming that "children supporting children" context is a powerful platform in the implementation of inclusion (Baglieri & Shapiro, 2017; Pearson, 2016; UNESCO, 2016). Children, who were once regarded as a passive part of the inclusive agenda, are co-constructors of inclusive communities as they are considered valuable experts in their culture (Brown & Palaiologou, 2016, p. 75) who have agency and voice. Therefore, it is essential to plan and implement learning experiences that promote the development and refinement of social skills among young children to support them to promote an inclusive culture and celebrate diversity.

Meaningful group work presents different gains. Central to the completion of a task is the active participation and significant contribution of each member in the group and that one member cannot succeed without the success of others. This then produces the need for each member to contribute and interact with the whole group in positive ways (UNESCO, 2016). Participation, and achievement of each member in a group are reflective of an acceptable standard of inclusion

Structured activities promote peer interaction and collaboration bycreating a non threatening atmosphere through fun activities (Han & Kemple, 2006)

This study produced results which corroborate the findings of a great deal of previous work in the development of children's social skills in sustaining and upholding th tenets of inclusion (Baglieri & Shapiro, 2017; Han & Kemple, 2006; D. Jones et al., 2015; S. M. Jones et al., 2016; Kennedy, 2018; Malti et al., 2012; McCartney & Phillips, 2006; Odom et al., 2019; Pearson, 2016; UNESCO, 2009b, 2016, 1994). To promote inclusive culture and values in the society through the classroom, it is an imperative for educational institutions to (a) integrate cultures like acceptance, sympathy, collaboration, & celebration of diversity, and (b) put high regard on intentional, appropriate and meaningful use of instructions, prompts, rehearsals, feedback mechanisms, discussions, diversity conversations, and specific combinations of these procedures. Moreover, classroom experiences improve young children's useful establishment of a social relationship with their peers a pre requisite to a culture that upholds and sustains inclusion amid increasing heterogeneity.

This paper addressed the research problem through the lenses of early childhood Filipino educators and did not attempt to gather insights from the early graders themselves. Also, findings cannot demographically represent the experiences of teachers from other geographical locations, and learners from different grade levels. To develop a full picture of the claim of this paper, additional studies are needed to determine what are other concepts and expressions children from other contexts (geographical location, culture, and grade levels) possess, which can be a potential facilitator of inclusive school communities. Further, studies that will take the variables in this paper into account will need to pursue the possibility of advancingtheteachers'competencein developingandenhancingchildren'ssocial skills.

6. References Ahmmed, M., Sharma, U., & Deppeler, J. (2012). Variables affecting teachers' attitudes towards inclusive education in Bangladesh. Journal of Research in Special Educational Needs, 12(3), 132 140. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471 Ahmmed,3802.2011.01226.xM.,Sharma,U., & Deppeler, J. (2014). Variables affecting teachers' intentions to

5.2. Limitations of the Study

5.1. Significance of the Study

The combination of findings in this study provides some support for the conceptual premise that early childhood is the onset of the development of social skills including expressions of inclusion and that they are potent levers in achieving inclusive goals Hence, strategies that enhance this "super skill" should be carried out in the school curriculum. For example, social skills should be integrated into a systematic and well defined curricular framework and practice to ensure support in the positive social development of children. Second, teachers should consistently reflect, plan, implement, and evaluate intentional strategies by which inclusive expressions are reinforced in the early grade. Child to child interaction provides significant potential in refining pro social behaviors, more so, in the attainment of a just and inclusive community of learners. On the other hand, teacher and staff collaboration facilitates pro active and consistent modeling of pro social skills among children and the whole school community.

Finally, the findings might help educators to prioritize play as a context for the development and refinement of social skills that is beneficial to children, especially in early childhood. Types of play like exploratory, constructive, creative, pretend, fantasy, socio dramatic, physical, and language play provide meaningful and spontaneous experiences to children, which has a direct relationship to the development and refinement of their social competence. In an era where plurality significantly increases, and educational agency pushes towards pro active inclusive practices, regular classrooms must implement effective school strategies and orchestrate the development and enhancement of inclusive expressions. The process of expanding the participation and interaction of all members of the school community reduces pressures to exclude (Baglieri & Shapiro, 2017; Pearson, 2016; UNESCO, 2016) thereby, promoting a positive learning environment where all children, with or without perceived differences, learn, thrive and experience optimal success in the teaching learning process.

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https://doi.org/10.15516/cje.v20i0.3323

Nataliia Saienko, Yuliana Lavrysh and Valentyna Lukianenko Technical University of Ukraine “Igor Sikorsky Kyiv Polytechnic Institute” Kyiv, Ukraine 5198 7713 0003 3748 2616

Keywords: educational technologies; self efficacy; classroom management; engagement 1. Introduction The process of digitalization in education refers to the areas of socialization and human development. It is indisputable that the use of information technologies in education opens up new opportunities for both teachers and students to upgrade their creativity, acquisition and consolidation of professional competencies. Consequently, this process might increase the level of self education and professional self efficacy that will positively impact teacher’s

https://orcid.org/0000 0001 8898

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Abstract. The teaching profession is always evolving. Teachers have to upgrade their knowledge and skills to be in line with students’ and employers’ needs. The challenges teachers are facing are the continuously changing conditions of the teaching process and technological innovations. Unsuccessful and numerous attempts to overcome these challenges negatively affect teachers’ self efficacy. The purpose of the study was to investigate the impact of educational technologies on university teachers’ self efficacy level changes using quantitative (pre and post self efficacy test) and qualitative (peer observation, interviews) research methods. The study involved 60 in service ESP teachers with different length of teaching experience. Teachers were exposed to a short practical course on technologies integration into the teaching process, and after that, they had to demonstrate the practical application of the knowledge obtained. The findings showed that educational technologies integration had positive influence on four components of teachers’ self efficacy: classroom management, instruction strategies design, students’ engagement and technologies integration. During the course delivery, we dealt with two problems: computer anxiety (senior teachers), as well as technology and pedagogical content knowledge framework (novice teachers).

National

323 ©2020TheauthorsandIJLTER.ORG.Allrightsreserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 6, pp. 323 336, June https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.6.120209 The Impact of Educational Technologies on University Teachers’ Self-efficacy

creativity, will create conditions to foster the professional development and self realization (Abbitt, 2011; Paraskeva et al., 2008). Analysis of the world trends in the field of vocational education shows increasing requirements to pedagogical professionalism and personal qualities of a teacher. The main challenges teachers encounter with are a constant complication of the education content that enhances educational standards; the need for continuous professional development in terms of continually arising new educational technologies or innovations; adaptation of curricular to employers’ and society changing requirements; performance in the information environment that implies a rational use of information technology in the educational process (Stavytskyi & Urazgaliyeva, 2018; Istifci, 2019; Saienko & Lavrysh, 2020; Stefancik & Stradiotová, 2020; Saienko, Semyda & Akhmad, 2020; Synekop, 2020). To become a facilitator of educational technologies integration, educators should demonstrate their positive perception about technologies, high level of professional self efficacy ‘and self confidence (Brinkerhoff, 2006; Kim et al., 2013; Ocak & Baran, 2019). In Ukraine, teachers still demonstrate some technology anxiety, especially comparing with students who are “technology native”. Teachers are afraid of making mistakes or admitting their lack of knowledge or skills. It prevents the integration of technologies and creation of facilitating an environment for studying that leads to students’ loss of interest and, consequently, motivation to study. This gap between students’ expectations and teachers’ abilities leads to poor academic performance and teachers’ disappointment in their profession and personal consistency. On the contrary, an adequate level of teachers’ professional self efficacy would lead to higher levels of job satisfaction and lower levels of job related stress which will result in the enhancement of student learning achievement (Caprara et al., 2003; Fackler & Malmberg, 2016). Thus, the problem of studying the impact of educational technologies on university teachers’ personal and professional characteristics is relevant, as a successful teacher should facilitative interaction with students by means of relevant and understandable for them tools. The specific objective of the study was to assess the impact of teachers’ educational technologies integration skills on professional self efficacy. The hypothesis of our research was to verify the assumption that if teachers employed educational technologies at their classes, it would increase the level of professional self efficacy.

2. Literature review Theory of self efficacy was developed by Bandura (1999) in the seventies years of the last century. He believes that main factors of self efficacy are the experience of previous success and failures, cognitive, emotional and physiological personal components, observation of others achievements and the ability to achieve one’s personal goals (Bandura, 1999). He also states that the more pronounced sense of personal effectiveness and identity is in a person's perception, the more a person is internally motivated, because external

motivation cannot compete with internal motivation in terms of personal influence. Bandura (1999) believes that the expectation of success is not sufficient to trigger the person’s motivation. The key idea of the concept of self efficacy is the assessment of personal ability to cope with a particular activity that previously seemed impossible. It may enhance the motivation level because self efficacy is a crucial determinant of motivation.

While studying the literature sources, we singled out the most common for many researchers definition of self efficacy. Some of the experts (Banoglu, Vanderlinde & Yildiz, 2015) understand it as a judgment about people's ability to organize and perform some action required to achieve predefined output. The concept of "self efficacy" is regarded as a combination of competences, necessary to achieve success, and confidence in his or her abilities to organize and perform specific actions to achieve the goal (Bandura, 1999). Teacher’s self efficacy might be demonstrated via analytical, prognostic, projective and reflexive cognitive skills. According to Bandura (1999), judgments on self efficacy are based on four sources of successfulinformation:implementation of activities; observation for people who have successfully mastered the skill; social approval; low level of anxiety associated with the action.

With a view of the successful combination of self efficacy and digital competence, the scholars Tschannen Moran and Woolfolk Hoy (2001) state that methods of self efficacy development and assessment should be included into the educational programs for pre service teachers as well as into the programs for continuous in service teacher professional development. Prior studies on teachers’ self efficacy (Zajacova, Lynch & Espenshade, 2005; Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2007) reveal a strong correlation between knowledge, skills, attitude and beliefs towards professional activity. On the contrary, a low level of perceived teacher self efficacy leads to job stress and burnout (Schwarzer & Hallum, 2008). However, these factors should be regularly updated on the demands of society, students and employers. In case it does not happen, students do not achieve curricular outcomes and teachers’ self efficacy level Odecreases.nthebasis

of the resources studied, we define pedagogical self efficacy as a belief, which is reflected in the teachers’ confidence in their own professional competence, the ability to carry out pedagogical activity by choosing relevant tools, which will result in the achievement of the educational process outcomes. From the other side, Bandura (1999) defines factors that lower personality’s self efficacy. One of them is the loss of control over the process due to poor awareness of its nature. Teachers’ inability to use and implement educational technologies might lower their self esteem The complicated educational technologies that are not subjected to the complete control might be a trigger for the process of self efficacy falling. The issue of teachers’ self efficacy connection with educational technologies integration is supported by researchers who study the problem of “computer anxiety”. Behavior in this state is characterized by the

Measures of both knowledge and beliefs independently can lead to obtaining valuable results regarding the preparation of instructors to use technology to create attractive and efficient classroom environments.

To sum up, all mentioned above, we consider self efficacy as the leading regulatory setting that influences the alteration of personal behavior and thinking. Furthermore, we support the idea that one of the possible and promising ways to stimulate and motivate teachers to carry out an efficient pedagogical activity independently and creatively is the development of professional self efficacy.

excessive caution when using computer or technologies, negative comments about information technology, and attempts to avoid technologies penetration into the professional area. Various authors (Howland, Jonassen & Marra, 2012) highlight several ways to overcome computer anxiety: the formation of relevant motivational structure; preliminary practical training; the use of accelerating methods for the formation of skills necessary for working with technologies; familiarity with the technology as a tool for successful professional friendlyactivity; and creative learning environment; correspondence of the nature of information technology tools of the assigned pedagogical task.

Self efficacy beliefs regarding computer use impact teacher's ability to create technology friendly learning environment. In this context, it is important to mention the research by Sahin, Akturk and Schmidt (2009) who investigated the relationship between pre service teachers' perceived knowledge in Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) domains and their self efficacy beliefs regarding classroom teaching. The results showed that the high level of knowledge in TPACK will increase the level of pre service teachers’ self efficacy. These results are in line with other research (Abbitt, 2011). It was proved that knowledge of technology increases self efficacy beliefs about technology integration. Among the factors that influence the use of technology in the classroom, are self efficacy beliefs, pedagogical beliefs, and cultural contexts (p.140). These results are important for us and in this paper we will focus on the issues of technology integration into education process and its impact on teachers’ professional self efficacy beliefs.

Ertmer and Ottenbreit Leftwich (2010), in their study regarding the influence of self efficacy beliefs on technology integration point out on the connection between knowledge and self efficacy beliefs by stating that "although knowledge of technology is necessary, it is not enough if teachers do not also feel confident using that knowledge to facilitate student learning"(p.261).

Sample The sample consisted of 60 in service English teachers selected from the Department of English for. The duration of their teaching experience was different: 18 teachers with less than two years of experience, 20 teachers with more than five years of experience and 22 teachers with more than 15 years of experience. Among other variables were educational materials of field related orientation (humanities or engineering), number of students in groups, students’ language level that caused mixed ability instructions, different technologies for integration according to planned syllabus outcomes. Among common conditions were: all teachers had insufficient skill in technologies integration, student centered approach to teaching, ESP related syllabus, 1 class of ESP (90 min) per week. The study aim and outcomes were explained to the participants. The respondents were not obliged to participate in the study. Test results and interviews answers were kept strictly confidential and were not identified by name.

Instruments The most well known tools for assessing efficacy are Schmitz and Schwarzer (1999)’s test and Bandura (1999) Teacher Self efficacy Scales. These instruments are extensive and aimed at assessing the efficacy for teachers considering teachers’ attitude towards their decision making skills, instructional and disciplinary self efficacy, parental and community involvement. However, we wanted to focus on teachers’ efficacy regarding the successful and meaningful combination of such pedagogical skills as interaction with students and technological pedagogical content knowledge provision during formal education for students of universities. We consider these two pedagogical skills are the background for teachers to become closer to students, to test their needs, to get more positive feedback because teaching is a two sided process and teachers‘ self confidence and self efficacy depend on the skills of smart communication with students. Therefore, we adapted a short version of a test

3. Methods Research Design

In order to verify the hypothesis of our research, we chose a mixed research methodology framework (Creswell, 2014) for the research performance. As it was necessary to know the level of teachers’ efficacy, we employed a test with close ended statements that represented us quantitative statistical data. Thus, we could merge, compare and connect the data with participants’ apprehension of the researched question. As a tool for qualitative method we applied interview with open ended questions to understand participants’ attitude and perception of the issue. The combination of these tools supported the holistic approach to the research data analysis and provided us with general statistical and more personalized data. In the follow up phase of the study, we carried out the confirmation and analysis of qualitative data with quantitative results, providing an understanding of results by consolidating the perspectives of individuals. Therefore, our research was conducted according to the following scheme: quantitative data collection and analysis followed up with qualitative data collection and analysis producing meaningful interpretation.

(12 questions) developed by Tschannen Moran and Woolfolk Hoy (2001) and added four items regarding education technologies implementation (Appendix 1). The original version of the test includes the assessment of three factors (four questions each): efficacy in student engagement, efficacy in instructional practices and efficacy in classroom management. Respondents assess their self efficacy level using a 5 point scale answering the same question “How much can you do….?” (1 = nothing; 5 = a great deal of). We carried out the test twice before and after the experiment to note the changes. To see qualitative changes, we used one performance based peer observation of a technology enhanced class and an open ended interview with teachers at the end of the experiment discussing reasons for changes, teachers’ opinion about the experiment. The class peer observation instrument was a rubric that measured if the content, the proposed educational instructional strategies, and selected technology fitted together within the overall instructional plan and learning outcome. The rubric was an adaptation of a Technology Integration Assessment Rubric developed by Harris, Grandgenett and Hofer (2010) and involved the following factors for assessment: correspondence to curricular outcomes, matching the technology and instructional strategy, correlation of pedagogy and technology, students’ engagement, effective technology operation. We chose this rubric as its assessment factors correlated with those ones that are assessed by self efficacy test, namely: engagement, instructions, management and technology operation and correspondence to content and pedagogy. The interview addressed issues that emerged from the observations and allowed teachers to reflect on their actions and thoughts. Research Procedure and data analysis Before entering the experiment, teachers assessed their self efficacy level employing our test. The results have been processed using the Fisher criterion (Sidorenko, 2000, pp.158 163). The second step was participation in a short introductory course on Educational Technology integration in terms of TPACK framework that combines pedagogical content knowledge, technological content knowledge and technological pedagogical knowledge (Schmidt et al., 2009; Koh, 2013; Kiray, 2016). The course goals were to help teachers redefine and reshape their perspectives and opinion regarding the use of educational technologies and to increase the awareness of technologies concepts to facilitate language learning and professional self efficacy. The course included four topics: classification of educational technologies according to necessary skills development, designing activities and assessment, collaborating and personalized educational technologies for mixed ability classes, applying project based learning through educational technologies. The course involved two lectures (1.5 hour duration) on general information about technologies and five practical classes (2 hours each) where teachers could train their skills with chosen technology. The next step teachers conducted 3 ESP technology enhanced classes, and one class had to be peer observed. The last step was retaking self efficacy test followed up with open ended individual interviews focusing on the changes and their causes.

The first set of analyses examining the initial and final levels of self efficacy revealed significant differences in data. For example, analyzing the dynamics of self efficacy in novice teachers after the experiment (Table 1), we observed a significant increase in all factors of teachers’ self efficacy: Engagement, by 38% (φ= 4,68, p≤ 0,01); Instructional strategies, by 44% (φ= 6,14, p≤ 0,01); Classroom management, by 36% (φ= 4,68, p≤ 0,01); Technologies integration, by 53% (φ= 6,27, p≤ 0,01).

Table 1. Self efficacy in teachers with less than five years’ experience (n=18) before and after taking the course Factors of teachers’ self efficacy Initial (max.5points)level % Final level (max.5 points) % φ* Student engagement 2,4 48 4,3 86 4,68* strategiesInstructional 2,5 50 4,7 94 6,14* managementClassroom 2,2 44 4 80 4,1* integrationTechnologies 2 40 4.8 96 7,27* *p≤ 0,01

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The analysis of the dynamics of self efficacy in teachers with more than 5 years of teaching experience before and after the experiment has also revealed a considerable difference by all the factors (Table 2): Engagement, by 30% (φ= 4,89, p≤ 0,01); Instructional strategies, by 8%; Classroom management, by 12%; Technologies integration, by 56% (φ= 5,72, p≤ 0,01).

Table 2. Self efficacy in teachers with more than five years of experience (n=42) before and after taking the course Factors of teachers’ self efficacy Initial (max.5points)level % Final level (max.5 points % φ* Student engagement 3,2 64 4,7 94 4,89* 4 80 4,4 88 managementClassroom 3,5 70 4,1 82 integrationTechnologies 1,5 30 4,3 86 5,72* 0,01 Regarding the peer observation of a technology enhanced class, the results presented the following data: all teachers integrated technology at their classes; 20 participants (33,3%) used technologies for developing of language competences; 10 participants (16,7%) used technologies for classroom

strategiesInstructional

*p≤

The overall results of the peer observation indicated the positive assessment of technology enhanced classes: 90% of participants exhibited meaningful integration of technology, pedagogy and content knowledge; 94% of observed demonstrated strong correlation of the technology and curricular outcome; 85% teachers used technology that supported instructional strategies; 88% of teachers succeeded in combining content, pedagogy and technology; in 96% of observed classes students were fully engaged into the class; 73% of teachers operated the technology without technical problems. Among the problematic issues, we noted technical problems (Internet access, platforms compatibility, not suitable device settings ) 15%; poor students’ engagement due to low students’ technical or language background 7%; weak correlation of pedagogy and technology 8%; over usage of technology that affected classroom management Another6%.

management, engagement and assessment; 12 (20%) teachers used technologies for collaboration skills development; 18 teachers (30%) applied technologies for project based learning.

research analysis tool was an interview with teachers followed immediately after the class peer observation. The questions were mainly the same: what do you consider as the most beneficial strategy of the lesson? What was wrong? What would you change next time? Was technology integration supported with pedagogical strategy? What curricular outcome was achieved by the technology application? Did you feel more confident while conducting a technology enhanced lesson? Describe the challenges you encountered while preparing or conducting the class. The questions presupposed open answers, and we used content analysis to interpret the data.

All responders (n=60) agreed that technology integration facilitates communication with students and engagement as well as their motivation to study. Novice teachers (n=18) admitted that due to technologies, they felt more confident dealing with classroom management by personalizing tasks according to students needs or background. Another benefit they indicated was the possibility to keep activities running smoothly by providing clear and meaningful instruction. Among teacher with professional experience, 17 participants admitted that their skills of instruction performance did not change much with technology integration. Majority of responders (n=41) confessed that the most challenging issue was to produce meaningful pedagogy and technology combination relevant to the field related content and teacher would like to have more training on this issue. A significant number of teachers (n=52) found technologies efficient for the assessment as it became more objective, clear for students and provided immediate feedback or grading that was very important for students. Taken together, these results suggest that there is an association between educational technologies integration and professional self efficacy level rising. The next part of the paper, therefore, moves on to discuss the challenges and perspectives for teachers’ self efficacy development.

5. Discussion

Among other challenges mentioned by teachers are the same as were discussed in the study of Ertmer et al. (2012): Internet access problems, price for devices, Web facilities, technical problems, lack of training. However, our experiment proves that all these problems can be solved if teachers feel inner motivation and get stimuli for professional development. After attending the course, visiting the classes of colleagues with followed up discussions, teachers got some ideas on how to create technology friendly environment in the classroom. And the perception of this knowledge and successful implementation of their insights contributed to the self confidence and self efficacy levels elevation. As it was mentioned by Howland et al. (2012), five factors demonstrate meaningful pedagogy and technology integration: duration, knowledge expression and reflection by means of technologies, authenticity, learning autonomy and development of cooperative skills, which is in line with our results. During the interviews, the majority of teachers reported the enhancement of students’ academic achievements. Thus, students used technologies to articulate their reflections on subject matter, simulated real world problems solutions via technologies, employed skills of self learning to enrich their knowledge, realized interdisciplinary collaborative projects. All these positive changes impacted the general academic students’ achievements and, as a consequence, led to the raising of teachers’ self efficacy level. Teacher self efficacy is an umbrella term for variables that might comprise its meaning depending on the subjects of teaching, institution type, personal characteristics etc. Moreover, recent works (Depaepea & König, 2018) have shown positive correlations between teachers’ self efficacy and a range of instructional outcomes. In a view of modern educational trends, we consider the technology self efficacy as a constituent that empowers teachers with confidence and bridges the gap between teachers and digitally native young generations. It is worth mentioning the difference in self efficacy tests results between inexperienced teachers, and experienced ones. Initial levels were higher among experienced teachers and it is explained by their self confidence, minor cases of students’ academic failures and skills gained through years of practice. However, they demonstrated the high level of technology anxiety and some extend of resistance to implement technologies not to lose the self confidence and control over the educational process, which is in line with other studies (Manoj, Sanjay & Aakriti, 2019; Setyarini, 2018). Another identified problem was connected with the low level of students’ engagement. In contrast, novice teachers demonstrated the low level of classroom management and instructional strategies development. Teachers with less than five years of experience applied

One of the skills that teachers must acquire is how to integrate modern technology into teaching and learning in their classrooms. According to the data collected with respect to the barriers to technology integration, there occur difficulties in finding pedagogically sound technology for specific content and specific skills due to lack of professional development and constant development of new technologies (Schmidt Crawford, Tai, Wang & Jin, 2016).

The key transformation novice teachers admitted during the interviews was the evidenced results of technologies and pedagogy content combination stimulating methodological changes in the use of technologies. The priority was to determine the outcome and pedagogical strategy to achieve it, and only then to find technology relevant to the chosen pedagogical strategy. This transformation led to changes in instructions design and classroom management. New instructions implied using critical and creative thinking as well as the teamwork. It also made easier to manage the mix ability groups as all students participated in activities according to their educational background and personal needs. All students got immediate feedback on their performance, so,

As we see from the quantitative data obtained by the self efficacy test, the introduction of educational technologies impacted all components of teachers’ self efficacy. Analyzing the results of experienced teachers, we can state that two components were significantly changed: students’ engagement and more meaningful and interactive pedagogical strategies application enhanced by relevant technologies. These components are interrelated due to interactivity, personalizing and student centered nature of technologies (Martin & Bolliger, 2018; Sawang, O'Connor & Ali, 2017). Students demonstrated a higher level of confidence when they successfully performed tasks according to their educational background, were not afraid of subjective assessment and participated more actively in activities. A significant amount of authentic information suggested by the Internet stimulated ideas for projects and enabled students to feel like partners with teachers because both participants of the learning process had the knowledge to share. During the interviews, teachers told that when they observed these changes, they felt empowered by the increased personal value and self efficacy that appeared due to the experience of having a real influence on students’ motivation and behavior. The classroom management and instructions development did not change much significantly; however, on the interviews teachers noted that the meaning of these components changed. By using technologies experienced teachers accepted the idea that they were not a unique source of information anymore, and students were more knowledgeable in some professional areas. So, the key transformation of classroom management was the idea to use students as a source of information about technologies and turn students to partners aimed at achieving a common outcome. Therefore, we evidenced positive changes in all components and, as a result, total positive change in assessing self efficacy.

different technological tools but without any pedagogical support, just for the sake of using some interesting and interactive methods. Frequently such application did not correspond to any curricular outcome but stimulated students’ motivation and engagement. The key problem novice teachers indicated was complete misunderstanding why these technologies did not lead to any sound results. Consequently, both groups of teachers felt professional disappointment and poor self efficacy. Therefore, the key objectives of the course suggested to teachers, were to demonstrate experienced teachers how to combine technologies with their extended pedagogical knowledge, and what pedagogical content should be supported by technologies for novice teachers.

All mentioned above facts allow us to claim that novice teachers’ self efficacy level increasing was proved by quantitative and qualitative results.

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the assessment did not take much time and even stimulated self corrective work.

6. Conclusions

An initial objective of the research was to assess the impact of teachers’ educational technologies integration skills on professional self efficacy level. The research findings confirmed the hypothesis of the research, and we can state that technologies integration increased teachers’ professional self efficacy level. This correlation might be explained by the holistic nature and extended influence of technologies on crucial components of a teaching process: interaction with students, instructions design, assessment, students’ engagement, classroom management, application of a wide range of educational strategies for the development of linguistic, field related and twenty first century skills. Overall, the successful and meaningful employment of these tasks determines the level of teachers’ self efficacy. This study is limited by the number of respondents and geographical region, but in any way, this research showed the positive tendencies and might attract more interest to further study of this issue. In our future research, we intend to concentrate on broader spectrum of teacher beliefs regarding the use of education technologies in teaching foreign languages.

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336 ©2020TheauthorsandIJLTER.ORG.Allrightsreserved. Appendix 1 Teachers’ Self efficacy test 1. How much can you do to control behavior in the classroom? 2. How much can you do to motivate students who show low interest? 3. How much can you do to get students to believe they can do well in studying? 4. How can you integrate the instructional strategies with technology? 5. How much can you do to help your students value learning? 6. To what extent can you craft good questions for your students? 7. How much can you do to improve your technology skills? 8. How much can you do to get students to follow classroom rules? 9. How much can you do to calm a student who is disruptive? 10. How well can you establish a classroom management system with each group of students? 11. How well do you select the technologies that you plan to use? 12. How much can you use a variety of assessment strategies? 13. To what extent can you provide an alternative explanation or example when students are confused? 14.To what extend does technology impact your classroom management? 15. How much can you do to get students to work together? 16. How well can you implement alternative strategies in your classroom?

Efficacy in Student Engagement: 2, 3, 5, 15 Efficacy in Instructional Strategies: 6, 12, 13, 16 Efficacy in Classroom Management: 1, 8, 9, 10 Efficacy in Technologies Integration: 4, 7, 11, 14

337 ©2020TheauthorsandIJLTER.ORG.Allrightsreserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 6, pp. 337 352, June https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.6.202020 UAE Elementary Teachers’ Use of ADHD Referral and Management Strategies Hala Elhoweris, Ahmed Mohamed, Osha Almuhairy, Rachel Takriti and Najwa Alhosani United Arab Emirates University, UAE https://orcid.org/0000 0002 1461 4404 https://orcid.org/0000 0002 8225 2310 https://orcid.org/0000 0002 2284 7419 https://orcid.org/0000 0002 7920 3198 https://orcid.org/0000 0002 1487 9496 Abdelaziz Sartawi Dar Zayed for Care Family https://orcid.org/0000 0001 6837 8745 Abstract. The purpose of this study was four fold: to identify factors teachers perceive to contribute to their referral of students with attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder (ADHD); to examine management strategieselementaryteachersintheUAEuse;toexaminetheeffect years of teaching experience, domain (general versus special education teachers) and experience teaching children with ADHD have on their use of referral and management strategies, and; to explore the relationship between teachers’ use of referral and management strategies. The ADHD Referral Scale and the ADHD Management Strategies Questionnaire (AMSQ) were completed by 52 elementary special and general education teachers. The results of the study revealed that inattention/distractibility was perceived by both the special and general education teachers to be a home/parentinterventiongeneralcontributingservices.contributingfactorforreferringstudentswithADHDtospecialeducationThegeneraleducationteachersalsonotedhyperactivitytobeafactor.Thefindingsfurtherrevealedthatwhilespecialandeducationteachersemployedbehaviourandacademicstrategies,specialeducationteachersfrequentlyusedinterventionstrategies.Finally,theMANOVAanalyses showed a significant main effect of teaching experience and teachers’ experience with ADHD. Keywords: ADHD; elementary school teachers; management strategies; referral; UAE

The number of students with attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) varies among countries (Salehi, Noah & Jaafar, 2011). Globally, according to Liu, Xu, Yan and Tong(2018),the prevalence rates of ADHD vary between 1% toabout 20% among children and adolescents across the world. The number of children diagnosed with ADHD around the world is increasing and it has changed over time. According to Bu Haroon, Eapen and Bener (1999), the prevalence rate of ADHD in Al Sharjah elementary schools is approximately 14.9%. Although the prevalence rate of ADHDamong Sharjah elementary school children is high, there is no valid standardized rating scale to diagnose children with ADHD in the UAE.

Furthermore, it is unclear how school teachers identify and/or manage the behaviours of students with ADHD in the UAE (Elhoweris, 2014).

1. Introduction

Identifying children with ADHD is complex because young children who are naturally energetic may become even more active when they are tired, hungry, and/or exposed to a new environment. Although such children may not have ADHD, they may be labelled as having ADHD. Fabiano et al. (2013) noted that teachers define ADHD loosely and have a tendency of overestimating the number of children with ADHD. It is common for challenging children to be incorrectly labelled as having ADHD. On the contrary, many children who do have ADHD are not diagnosed as such. However, early and effective identification is imperative to ensure that children are given the opportunity to realise their full potential. Consequently, an understanding of the referral process in the UAE is Thenecessary.impact of ADHD on an individual's psychological development, education, relationships, and family is immeasurable. Attention problems are prevalent among students with ADHD (Salend, 2015). Findings gleaned from a previous study suggested that approximately 16% of elementary school children have difficulty in concentrating and paying attention during class activities (Rabiner & Malone, 2004). Additionally, Bener, Al Qahtani and Abdelaal (2006) found that students with higher symptoms of ADHD perform lower at school in comparison to those children with lower symptoms of ADHD. In addition to the negative

ADHD is a developmental disorder that is defined by the American Psychiatric Association (2013) as a continuous pattern of specific behaviours, including inattention, overactivity,and impulsivity. Children with ADHDhave asignificant poor attention span in comparison to their peers. Recently, various changes have been evident in the diagnosis of ADHD. According to the 5th edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM V), for a diagnosis of ADHD, symptoms must occur by the age of 12 years. Furthermore, it is imperative that several symptoms are present in more than one setting. Also, the 10th revision of the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD) defined ADHD as a state of overactive restlessness, particularly in children, marked by extreme excess of motor activity, restlessness, fidgeting, aggressive like behaviour and impulsivity. According to the ICD 10, school children withADHDcannotsit still andcomplywith rules,andalsoexhibit low frustration levels (Doernberg & Hollander, 2016).

Furthermore, child mental health problems are more closely related to student teacher conflict than to closeness (e.g., Drugli, 2013; Ewe, 2019; Portilla, Ballard, Adler, Boyce & Obradovic, 2014).According to Rushton et al. (2019), children who exhibited higher ADHD symptoms in their early school years, they felt less positive about their school and learning in the later elementary school grades

impact of poor attention span among children with ADHD on academic achievement (Faraone et al., 2015), attention problems are also associated with behavioural issues and poor engagement with school related activities (Rushton, Giallo & Efron, 2019). Students with ADHD engage in several high activity behaviourswhen in class, including fidgeting with their hands and objects, calling out, not sitting when they should, talking excessively and interrupting others (Salend, 2015). From a social perspective, students with ADHD often exhibit several inappropriate behaviours including stubborn, unhelpful, destructive, insensitive, hostile, impulsive, unpleasant, and bossy behaviours that result in their being rejected by their peers and adults (Friend & Bursuck, 2018).

Although considerable evidence related to the academic and social difficulties children with ADHD experience abounds, not much is known about teachers’ actions and knowledge. Previous studies have revealed that because of a lack of training, primary school teachers experience difficulties understanding and managing ADHD behaviours (Arcia, Frank, Sanchez-LaCay & Fernaindez, 2012) Öner, Vatanartiran and Karadeniz (2019) found that teachers reported ADHD symptoms 2.5 to 3.6 times more often in students who were young for their grade. Furthermore, previous studies have demonstrated that teachers usually lack knowledge of ADHD and how it may affect the social and academic achievement of students with ADHD (Gwernan Jones et al., 2016; Ljusberg, 2011). However, Ohan, Visser, Strain and Allen (2011) found that teachers who had considerable knowledge of ADHD had healthier attitudes towards children with ADHD and

Throughout the years, several studies on various types of interventions for children with ADHD have been conducted. Although the prescription of psychostimulant medication is the most common intervention for students with ADHD (Barkley, 2020), academic and behavioural interventions have demonstrated to be very effective (DuPaul, Eckert & Viladro, 2012; Miranda, Jarque & Tarraga, 2006; Salend, Elhoweris & VanGarderen, 2003; Schultz, Storer, Watabe, Sadler & Evans, 2011). Literature has shown that ADHD does not only affect the sufferers, but also the people around them, especially, family members, teachers, and friends. Accordingly, it is widely accepted that the most effective treatment for ADHD comprises a combination of strategies rather than only one single course of action. Miranda et al. (2006) noted the necessity of expanding the intervention repertoire to meet the unique needs of children with ADHD by considering a multimodal intervention, which includes different types of interventions. The multimodal intervention frequently includes medical intervention in conjunction with parent intervention, school intervention, and child intervention. Classroom management is a complex skill that comprises employing academic, behavioural and/or combined intervention strategies to address students’ inappropriate behaviours (Epstein, Atkins, Cullinan, Kutash & Weaver, 2008; Korpershoek, Harms, de Boer, van Kuijk & Doolaard, 2016).

Martinussen, Tannock and Chaban (2011) investigated the level of in service training in ADHD among general and special education teachers, as well as the relationship between teacher training in ADHD and the use of instructional and behaviour management approaches. They found that the participating teachers, including general and special education teachers, had no or hardly any in service training in ADHD. Furthermore, the general education teachers with moderate to extensive in service training in ADHD noted significantly higher use of the management strategies than the general education teachers with hardly any or no training in ADHD. Vereb and DiPerna (2004) found that there is a significant positive correlation between ADHD training and teachers’ awareness of ADHD and behaviour management strategies. More specifically, the teachers who participated in ADHD training demonstrated more knowledge about ADHD and acceptability of the management strategies for ADHD children. Additionally, findings from recent studies that examined the impact of training programs on teachers’ knowledge of ADHD and ADHD intervention and attitudes toward students with ADHD revealed that teachers who participated in training programs showed higher scores on ADHD knowledge, attitudes and behavioral interventions for ADHD students (Alabd, Mesbah & Alboliteeh, 2018; Lasisi, Ani, Lasebikan, Sheikh & Omigbodun, 2017). Sciutto et al. (2016) conducted a study with teachers from four different continents comprising Europe, America, Asia, and Africa to examine the relationship between teachers’ prior experience with ADHD and receipt of ADHD training and teachers’ knowledge of ADHD. Findings of this study indicated that some form of ADHD training and prior experience with ADHD students’ variables were associated with more teachers’ knowledge of ADHD in the majority of the participating countries in this study.

Furthermore, in a U S national study, in service teachers reported that they used low intensity behavioural support such as praise and reprimands and antecedents control to manage their students’ behaviours (cited in Poznanski, Hart & Cramer, 2018). In a study, in Africa, that examined teachers’ knowledge about ADHD, the use of management strategies and the relationship between teachers’ knowledge and management strategy use it has been found that although teachers knew about ADHD diagnosis and symptoms, teachers were found to have less knowledge about ADHD evidence based interventions. Additionally, there was no significant correlation between teachers’ knowledge about ADHD and classroom practices (Blotnicky Gallant, Martin, McGonnell & Corkum, 2014). Findings of a research study that examined Saudi teachers’ knowledge of ADHD characteristics, causes, and appropriate interventions revealed that Saudi teachers had some knowledge about general characteristics of ADHD and little knowledge about the causes and appropriate treatments for ADHD (Abed, Pearson, Clarke & Chambers, 2014).

treated them more positively. In a study that examined in service teachers’ knowledge of classroom management procedures, Owens et al. (2017) found that in service teachers lack the awareness to meet the behavioral demands of children with ADHD. Reinke, Stormont, Herman, Puri and Goel (2011) revealed that early childhood and elementary in service teachers lack the necessary knowledge and skills to address the needs of those students with mental health problems.

Students with ADHD in the UAE are placed in general education classes. Therefore, the inputs from general and special education teachers are imperative for identifying ADHD and addressing the sufferers’ needs. Although diagnosing children with ADHD is complex, there is an unexpected lack of empirical evidence related to teachers’ referral decisions and their reasons thereof for students with ADHD in the UAE. Furthermore, it is unclear what types of interventions have been employed for children with ADHD in the country. Accordingly, the purpose of this study was four fold: first, to identify factors teachers perceive to contribute to their referral and management of students with ADHD; second, to examine management strategies elementary teachers in the UAE use; third, to examine the effect years of teaching experience, domain (general versus special education teachers) and experience teaching children with ADHD have on their use of referral and management strategies; and finally, to explore the relationship between teachers’ use of referral and management strategies.

2. Methodology 2.1 Participants

Random sampling was employed to maximize the demographic and geographic diversity across the sample. The participants included 52 teachers (71% general educators and 29% special educators) who taught in UAE government schools. The participants were recruited from six elementary schools from different Emirates. Of the 52 teachers who completed the questionnaire, 15 were special education teachers and 37 general education teachers. Furthermore, the majority of the participants had a bachelor’s degree. Of the participants, 44 were female and 8 were male. Finally, the majority of the participants indicated that they had been teaching for more than ten years. The participants’ demographic information is displayed in Table

1. Table 1: Study Sample Demographic Variables Variable Category N Years of experienceteaching 1 3 years 13 4 6 years 6 7 9 years 8 10+ years 25 Gender Male 8 Female 44 Educational level high school 1 Diploma 1 Bachelor 45 Higher education 5 Domain Special education 15 General education 37 Experience with ADHD No experience 14 Moderate 22 High 16

The initial examination of the sample size was performed by employing Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity. The results of this analysis indicated that the sample was adequate. Furthermore, correlation matrix analysis showed that all the items were positively inter correlated. Exploratory factor analysis with oblique rotation was performed by employing SPSS. Factors were identified in accordance with Kaiser’s rule of Eigenvalue greater than one and confirmed by an examination of the scree plot. The items had to load on a single factor with an absolute value of .50 or higher. Principal components factor analysis with oblimin rotation was performed to identify which items loaded onto similar factors. Three factors emerged, which accounted for 70.16% of the total variance. In Table 2, the items that loaded onto each factor are displayed. The items were employed to create a scale and reliability analysis was performed for each factor. Cronbach’s alpha exceeded .70 and thus, the scales were deemed to be reliable. This information is also presented in Table 2. The three scales measured the following referral behaviours: inattention/distractibility, hyperactivity and disruptive behaviours.

The questionnaire comprises 36 items, which are assessed on a four point Likert scale, ranging from 4 (Always) to 1 (Rarely). To develop the scale, several sources were examined, including the diagnostic criteria for ADHD specified in the DSM V, ICD 10, various instruments, well known books and scholarly articles on ADHD (e.g., Salend, 2015; Tannock & Martinussen, 2001). To ensure thecontent validity of the scale,four academics from special education and psychology departments of universities rated the domains and the items included in the scale. These specialists rated each item based on the degree it reflects the skill it is supposed to measure, precision of the language and ability to observe the skill targeted. The percentage of agreement amongst the specialists was 80%, which provided evidence of each item’s level of content validity. The participants were also required to provide their demographic information, including the number of years they had taught, whether they were trained as special needs or general education teachers and their gender. They were subsequently asked to indicate their level of experience with ADHD students by classifying themselves into one of three categories’ namely, highly experienced, moderately experienced and inexperienced.

The ADHD Referral Scale comprises items that assess the likelihood of teachers referring students with ADHD. The scale assesses whether students who should be referred for special education needs assistance typically display particular behaviours.

Table 2: Sub scales, Cronbach’s alpha of the ADHD Referral Questionnaire Scale 1: Inattention/Distractibility Cronbach’s alpha .86 N Item 1 Quiet often does not seem to listen when talking to him 2 Most of the time cannot complete his/her homework on time 3 Often has difficulty organizing tasks and activities 4 Often forgets the necessary school supplies 5 Always makes trivial or careless mistakes in homework

2.2 Instruments 2.2.1

The ADHD Referral Scale

343 ©2020TheauthorsandIJLTER.ORG.Allrightsreserved. 6 Often cannot focus on task for a long time 7 Often cannot pay attention while performing class assignments 8 Often has difficulty in following directions 9 Often fails to finish assigned task in class 10 Often gets distracted by external stimuli 11 Often has difficulty concentrating in class activities 12 Often moves from one activity to another without completing the first activity 13 Does not show enthusiasm in learning new skills 14 Often avoids doing the work that requires mental effort 19 Always has difficulty remembering everyday activities 26 Often acts before thinking 27 Often has difficulty in turn taking 28 Often interrupts others when they are talking 34 Often rushes through work 35 Often has hard time following directions Scale 2: Hyperactivity Cronbach’s alpha .79 N Item 15 Achieves below academic expectations 16 Always on the move in or outside the classroom 17 Always on the move in and outside the classroom 18 Often has difficulty sitting quietly for a long time compared to his/her peers 20 Often jumps in situations in which it is inappropriate 21 Often fidgets with hands and moves his/her feet constantly 22 Often speaks and is noisy in the classroom 23 Often overtly expresses distress 24 Talks excessively in the classroom 25 Often plays with things in the classroom 32 Often he/she cannot control his/her reaction to various situations Scale 3: Disruptive Behaviours Cronbach’s alpha .81 N Item 29 Often breaks or damages things inside the classroom 30 Often breaks or destroys things outside the classroom 31 Always fights with others 33 Often blurts out 36 Lacks social skills

Principal components factor analysis with oblimin rotation was employed to identify which items loaded onto similar factors. Three factors emerged, which accounted for 62.03% of the total variance. In Table 3, the items loaded onto each factor are displayed. The items were employed to create a scale and reliability analysis was conducted for each factor. Cronbach’s alpha exceeded .60 in each instance and thus, the scales were deemed to be reliable; this is presented in Table 3. The following types of management were measured by the three scales: behavioural intervention, home/parent intervention and academic intervention.

16 Frequently reinforce the classroom rules through visible modes of presentation.

The ADHD Management Strategies Questionnaire (AMSQ).

10 Encourage mystudentsto useself management strategiestodealwith their high activity behaviours.

The AMSQ, the second instrument employed, was developed to identify management strategies used by elementary school teachers to reduce ADHD children’s disruptive behaviours. The questionnaire comprises 19 items, which are assessed on a four point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (rarely) to 4 (always).

All the items in the AMSQ were derived from the literature to ensure content validity. The researchers also used their clinical judgment to select the items. The content validity of the AMSQ was assessed by three specialists in the field of special education who were asked to determine the intended content. The percentage of agreement amongst the specialists was 75%. The researchers tested the two questionnaires to determine whether the instruments were clear and appropriate. The reliability of the AMSQ instrument was established by administering the Referral Scale and AMSQ on 20 elementary teachers and re administered two weeks after its initial administration. The correlation between individuals’ first and second scores was high (r = .88, p ˂ .01).

6 Minimize classroom tasks or assignment for students with ADHD.

7 Assign responsibilities (e.g., a trip to the office, turning on the computer) for students with ADHD to use their excessive amount of energy.

Scale 1: Behaviour Intervention Cronbach’s alpha .85 N Item 1 Use positive words, smiles and gifts in reducing hyperactivity, impulsivity, and/or inattention behaviours.

2.2.2

11 Give students with ADHD an opportunity to have a choice of classroom activities.

Table 3: Sub scales, Cronbach’s alpha of the ADHD Management Strategies Questionnaire

12 Use positive and negative reinforcement to reduce hyperactivity and/or inattention problems.

9 Use technology in my teaching to help children with ADHD focus in my classroom.

5 Allow children with ADHD to play quietly and with educational games in my classroom.

17 theirHelpparentsidentifyallavailablecommunityresourcesthathelpthemdealwithchildrenwithADHD.

6 Minimize classroom tasks or assignments for students with ADHD.

4 Advise parents to allow their ADHD child to move around and give them reasonable chores at home

Scale 2: Home/Parent Intervention Cronbach’s alpha .71 N Item 3 Advise parents to use drugs to treat ADHD

Scale 3: Academic Intervention Cronbach’s alpha .63 N Item 2 Use several strategies such as time out, ignoring inappropriate behaviours, and punishment to reduce hyperactivity.

13 Minimize irrelevant stimuli from the student's environment. 14 otherTieupastudentwithADHDtohis/herchairduringthelessontostopdistractingstudents.

18 Keep students with ADHD away from irrelevant activities that distract their attention.

8 Advise parents that diet plays a significant role in attention deficit and impulse control.

19 Write the classroom rules with clear consequences on board and review it every day with my students with ADHD.

To determine what management strategies UAE general and special education teachers use primarily when dealing with students with ADHD, a one sample t test was conducted to examine the statistical difference between the sample mean and a hypothesized or virtual mean (2.5). The results revealed that the management strategies that were frequently used by special education teachers included behaviour intervention, t (14) = 4.28, p < .01, home/parent intervention, t (14) = 2.76, p < .01 and academic intervention, t (14) = 2.15, p < .01, general education teachers frequently used behaviour intervention, t (36) = 8.45, p < .01 and academic intervention, t (36) = 3.95, p < .01.

15 Advise parents to train their children with ADHD to follow their daily schedule.

3. Results To determine what factors teachers perceive to contribute to referring students with ADHD to special education services, a one sample t test was conducted to examine the statistical difference between the sample mean and a hypothesized or virtual mean (2.5). This hypothesized mean was obtained by dividing the sum of the Likertcategories (1to 4) by four. The resultsare presentedin Table 4.Special education teachers perceived inattention/distractibility to be a contributing factor for referring students with ADHD, t (14) = 2.65, p < .01. However, general education teachers perceived inattention/distractibility, t (36) = 3.90, p < .01 and hyperactivity, (t (36) = 6.18, p < .01) to be contributing factors.

346 ©2020TheauthorsandIJLTER.ORG.Allrightsreserved. Table 4: Means, Standard Deviations, and One Sample t test results of the ADHD Referral Questionnaire General TeachersEducation( df = 36) Special Education Teachers (df = 14) M SD t M SD t Behaviour intervention 3.20 0.50 8.45 ** 3.28 0.69 4.38 ** Home/parent intervention 2.59 0.64 0.90 2.92 0.59 2.76 ** Academic intervention 2.83 0.51 3.96 ** 2.84 0.62 2.15 ** Inattention/distractibility 2.87 0.58 3.90 ** 2.94 0.65 2.65 ** Hyperactivity 3.00 0.49 6.18 ** 2.83 0.67 1.90 Disruptive behaviours 2.70 0.64 1.88 2.59 0.84 0.40 To determine the effect of years of teaching experience, domain (general versus special education teachers), and teachers’ experience of ADHD on the referral and management subscales, a multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was conducted. Whereas the independent variables included teachers’ experience, domain, and teachers’ experience with ADHD, the dependent variables comprised the subscales of the referral and management questionnaires. The use of MANOVA allowed for the control of type I errors. Levene’s test of equality of error variances for the dependent variables was not statistically significant (p ˃ .05). The means, standard deviations, F values, and eta squared values are displayed in Table 5. The results revealed a significant main effect of years of teachingexperience; Wilks’ Lambda F (6,21) = 14.16, p< .01, η2= .35for behaviour intervention and Wilks’ Lambda F (6, 21) = 5.30, p < .05, η2 = .20 for home/parent intervention. To analyse the main effect, Bonferroni tests were employed as post hoc measurements. Effect sizes were interpreted as follows: .01 = small, .06 = medium, and .14 = large (Cohen, 1988). The results revealed that the effect size of the main effect of teachers’ experience for the two subscales was large. Post hoc analyses revealed that those who had ten years or more experience scored significantly higher than those who had taught between one and three years in both the behaviour intervention subscale, F (1, 26) = 14.66, p ˂ .01, η2 = .35 and the home/parent intervention subscale, F (1, 26) = 5.30, p ˂ .05, η2 = .17. The MANOVA results also revealed a significant main effect of teachers’ experience with ADHD; Wilks’ Lamda F (12, 42) = 3.58, p < .05, η2 = .28 for the inattention/distractibility subscale and Wilks’ Lamda F (12, 42) = 4.95, p < .05, η2 = .22 for the hyperactivity subscale. The effect size of this main effect was large. Post hoc analyses showed that the group with moderate experience of ADHD scored significantly higher than the group with much experience in the hyperactivity subscale, F (2, 26) = 3.57, p ˂ .05, η2 = .22. The group with moderate experience also scored significantly higher than the inexperienced group, F (2, 26) = 4.95, p ˂ .01, η2 = .28. The main effect of the domain (special versus general education teachers) was not statistically significant.

347 ©2020TheauthorsandIJLTER.ORG.Allrightsreserved. Table 5: Means, Standard Deviations, F values, and eta Squared Values of Years of Teaching Experience, Domain, and Experience with ADHD Subscale Teachers’ experience F (6, 21) η2 Behaviour intervention 14.16 ** .35 Home/parent intervention 5.30 * .20 Academic intervention 2.66 .09 Inattention/distractibility 1.01 .02 Hyperactivity .003 .001 Disruptive behaviours .074 .009 Domain F (6, 21) η2 Behaviour intervention 1.07 .04 Home/parent intervention .01 .00 Academic intervention .41 .02 Inattention/distractibility .23 .01 Hyperactivity 1.37 .05 ADHD Experience F (12, 42) η2 Behaviour intervention .47 .04 Home/parent intervention .91 .07 Academic intervention 2.74 .17 Inattention/distractibility 3.58 * .22 Hyperactivity 4.95 * .28 Behaviour intervention .47 .04 Pearson product moment correlation was used to explore the relationship between the referral and management subscales. The results showed that there was a positive correlation between the academic intervention subscale and the inattention/distractibility subscale, r = .46, p ˂ .01. The relationships among the subscales of the two scales are presented in Table 6. Table 6: Correlations among the Subscales of the Two Questionnaires ioninterventurBehavio ioninterventparentHome/ ioninterventcAcademi lityDistractibin/Inattentio vityHyperacti ursBehavioveDisrupti interventionBehaviour .54** .56** .24 .13 .07 interventionHome/parent .39** .08 .03 .03 interventionAcademic .46** .26 .19 tibilityInattention/Distrac .70** .57** Hyperactivity .65** BehavioursDisruptive

4. Discussion

The purpose of this study was to explore how teachers in the UAE identify children with ADHD and to examine the management strategies elementary school teachers in the UAE use to reduce ADHD behaviours. These research findings provide empirical support in relation to the factors teachers perceive contribute to their referral of students with ADHD. The results revealed that both general and special education teachers in the UAE perceived inattention/distractibility to be a contributing factor for referring students with ADHD to special education services, but not disruptive behaviour. This finding concurs with previous research (e.g., Gwernan Jones et al., 2016; Ljusberg, 2011) that revealed that teachers lack knowledge of ADHD and the possible effects on the social and academic achievement of students with ADHD. Additionally, special education teachers in this study did not perceive hyperactivity to be a contributing factor. This could be because they feared that they might refer students with behavioural problems for special education services too quickly. In relation to the management strategies that are frequently employed by special education and general education teachers in the UAE, the findings of this study revealed that in service teachers often employed behaviour intervention and academic intervention management strategies. However, the home/parent intervention management strategy was commonly used only by special education teachers.

The fact that general education teachers know less about intervention management strategies for students with ADHD corroborates findings of previous studies conducted in Africa (Blotnicky Gallant et al., 2014) and Saudi Arabia (Abed et al., 2014). Besides, the MANOVA results revealed that the more experienced teachers used different management strategies, including behaviour intervention and home/parent intervention than the less experienced teachers. This finding concurs with Vereb and DiPerna (2004) who found a positive significant relationship between teachers’ knowledge of ADHD, years of teaching experience with ADHD and medication acceptability. Additionally, post hoc analyses indicated that teachers with moderate experience with ADHD scored higher than inexperienced teachers in the hyperactive scale, which suggests that teachers with moderate experience perceived hyperactivity to be a contributing factor to refer students with ADHD to special education services. This finding is consistent with a previouscross nationalstudy’s findings,which foundthat priorexperience with ADHD was associated with more teachers’ knowledge of ADHD (Sciutto et al., 2016). With respect to the relationship between teachers’ responses to the referral and management scales, the results revealed that there was a positive correlation between the academic intervention subscale and the inattention/distractibility subscale Thus, the frequent use of academic intervention management strategies was positively related to in service teachers’ perceptions of the inattention/distractibility scale as a contributing factor to referring ADHD students to special services. This finding concurs with previous research, which revealed that appropriate classroom management strategies are linked to in service teachers’ knowledge base (Han & Weiss, 2005).

5. Conclusion Findings of this study revealed that general and special education teachers lack knowledge of all contributing factors for ADHD referral. More specifically, general and special education teachers in this study did not perceive disruptive behaviour asacontributing factor.This findingmay suggest that elementary school teachers in the UAE do not have adequate knowledge about the symptoms of ADHD. It is thus recommended that teacher training programmes may need to include more aspects of ADHD symptoms in their curriculum to equip teachers with the necessary knowledge to refer students to special education services.

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Previous researchers indicated that teacher training programs have a positive impact on increasing teachers’ knowledge of ADHD and appropriate interventions forADHD students (e.g., Alabd et al., 2018; Lasisi et al., 2017;Sciutto et al., 2016). Additionally, this study revealed that general education teachers in the UAE do not use home/parent intervention management strategies. It is imperative that all teachers in the UAE utilize multimodal intervention including advising parents, teacher intervention and child intervention because students with ADHD are a heterogeneous group. Thus, there is no single intervention that will enhance the functioning of all of these students in classrooms. It is also imperative that general education teachers in the UAE elementary schools know that research has revealed that advising and training parents on how to deal with their children with ADHD respond very positively to reducing these children’s inappropriate behaviours. Additionally, managing students with ADHD behaviours is a complex issue that should take into account the students’ academic, behavioural and home intervention strategies to address students’ inappropriate behaviours when they emerge. The relationship between teachers’ knowledge ofADHD and teaching experiencehas alwaysbeen an important issue to consider as more experienced teachers have the ability to control inappropriate behaviours. In this study,probably the more experiencedteachers’ werelesslikely to refer children with attention deficits and hyperactivity symptoms because they are more skilful in managing and changing students’ behaviours. It is recommended that future research addresses the various limitations of this study such as the small sample of elementary school teachers from six schools so that the findings can be generalized.

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Keywords: Accounting teachers; Accounting prescribed textbooks; quality textbooks 1. Introduction The quality of the education system depends on the quality interaction between students and teachers through the use of learning and teaching resources. Teachers regard textbooks as one of the significant resources that they need to deliver content effectively. Studies globally show that the majority of teachers routinely used textbooks since they provide them with teaching strategies, activities and assessment tasks (Chirwa & Naidoo, 2016; Freahat & Smadi, 2014; Swanepoel, 2010; Tarmana & Kuran, 2015). Textbooks are regarded as an essential instructional material used for teaching and learning. The implication is that in

353 ©2020TheauthorsandIJLTER.ORG.Allrightsreserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 6, pp. 353 369, June https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.6.202021 Exploring Accounting Teachers’ Views on the Quality of Accounting Prescribed Textbooks in South Africa Jabulisile C. Ngwenya and S’khumbuzo H. Mbili University of KwaZulu Natal, South Africa https://orcid.org/0000 0001 8256 8174 https://orcid.org/0000 0002 9012 1820 Abstract Textbooks are regarded as the primary conduits for delivering knowledge content to the students. As a result, teachers base their lesson plans on the material given in textbooks to ensure the effectiveness of instruction. This study focuses on teachers’ views on the quality of grade 12 Accounting prescribed textbooks. An interpretive, qualitative case studydesignwasemployedtogetanin depthunderstandingof teachers’ views. We used semi structured interviews to obtained data from ten purposively selected Accounting teachers. What emerged from the findings is that, although textbooks are aligned with the curriculum in termsoftopicscovered,teachersfound textbookswantinginguidingand supporting teachers with regard to teaching new content and assessment relianceteachingconsultationprescribedprescribedprescribedtoactivities.Alackofsupportandguidanceintextbookscompelledteachersuseothersupportmaterialstocompensatefortheshortfallsinthetextbooks.Thestudyrecommendedthatmorethanonetextbookshouldbeboughtforstudents.Inadditiontothetextbooks,teachersshouldbeprovidedwithmorebooksforduringlessonpreparationsandteaching.Otherlearningandsupportmaterialsshouldbemadeavailabletoavoidheavyontextbooks

many countries textbooks are used by teachers as the predominant source of teaching and learning activities. As a result, they have turned out to be the curriculum on which teachers rely (Freahat & Smadi, 2014; Morales & Baker, 2018; Tarmana & Kuran, 2015). Thus what is taught in the classroom is predominantly guided, organised and restricted to what is contained in the textbook.

The prominence of textbooks is also apparent in Accounting. Accounting is a discipline that requires consistent practice due to its practical nature (Barac & du Plessis, 2014; Erasmus & Fourie, 2018; Myers, 2016). As the subject requires frequent application exercises, textbooks are expected to support teachers and students in the learning process with suitable activities and a wide range of examples that support students’ reflection (Adeoye & Olabiyi, 2011). Furthermore, the Accounting curriculum requires students to participate in effective learning that enhances creative, problem solving and critical thinking skills (Barac & du Plessis, 2014; DBE, 2011). These skills are expected to be delivered by the textbooks that are being used in schools. However, in many schools in South Africa, teachers are likely to rely heavily on textbooks as they are the only source of information for content to be taught. While the practical nature of the subject compels Accounting teachers to give students a variety of assessment tasks, teachers often find it challenging to use

In South Africa, the Minister of Basic Education emphasised the critical role of textbooks in schools as a dominant resource to maintain the implementation of the Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS). In its attempt to improve the quality of education in South Africa, textbooks were being reintroduced in classrooms as a crucial resource for students and teachers as one of the ways of improving teaching and learning. This is supported by Yang and Sianturi (2017), who stressed that during the process of educational reform textbooks are used to support teachers in the enactment of the curriculum as they offer appropriate pacing and weighting of content Consequently, textbooks are regarded by the Department of Basic Education (DBE) as an ‘effective tool that is being used to ensure consistency, curriculum and assessment scope, suitable pacing and better quality in terms of teaching in implementing a curriculum’ (Department of Education (DoE), 2009, p.9). As such, textbooks strongly influence what students learn because they help teachers decide what to teach, how to teach it, and what types of exercises to assign to students As textbooks are viewed as the most effective tools through which to deliver the curriculum and support assessments, textbooks need to be aligned with the recognised curriculum (Sunday, However,2014).while the Department of Basic Education stresses the use of textbooks as the primary resource for teachers, shortage of textbooks still persists in South Africa Despite the DBE recommendation that teachers should use of a minimum of three textbooks in planning and teaching (DBE, 2011), in several schools, especially in the disadvantaged context, only one textbook is prescribed for both teachers and students due to financial constraints. As a result, teachers often depend excessively on the prescribed textbook.

While there is substantial literature on textbooks internationally (Cho, 2017; Morales & Baker, 2018; Liang & Cobern, 2013; Lin & Yang, 2015; Sunday, 2014; Tarmana & Kuran, 2015; Yang & Sianturi 2017), few studies have been embarked on textbooks in South Africa (Arek Bawa & Dhunpath, 2017; Bargate, 2012; Bharath, 2015; Chirwa & Naidoo, 2016). Furthermore, literature shows that there is a shortage of research on the quality of Accounting textbooks. This consequent paucity makes the findings reported in this paper particularly remarkable as the study adds to knowledge by filling in the gap in the current literature in Accounting, especially on teachers’ views on the quality of prescribed textbooks.

textbooks sparingly or supplement with other materials due to a shortage of adequate resources. As a consequence, most teachers, including new teachers, treasure textbooks as their sole teaching and learning resource. This is because textbooks provide teachers with class activities and homework to allow students to practice different skills learned in class (Davidson & Baldwin, 2005; Myers, 2016; Terblanche & de Clercq, 2020). Because textbooks are likely to be the critical definers of what is taught and learnt, teachers are more likely to follow closely what is offered in the textbook. In addition, the subject Accounting has been overwhelmed with recurring curriculum changes due to global changes in Accounting standards. As the Department of Basic Education regards textbooks as useful tools for curriculum delivery, textbooks should provide teachers with adequate support and guidance in teaching the new topics effectively. Although textbooks are an integral element in the educational process, there is still considerable debate on the quality of prescribed textbooks. Since Accounting teachers are known to rely on textbooks (Terblanche & de Clercq, 2020), it is imperative that quality of textbooks be investigated to ascertain the extent to which they contribute to attaining the desired learning objectives.

The research is guided by the following question: What are the Accounting teachers’ views on the quality of the grade 12 Accounting prescribed textbooks?

In order to shed light on the teachers’ views on the quality of Accounting textbooks, the relevant literature on the importance of textbooks in teaching and learning, the nature of the Accounting subject and the use of textbooks and the quality of textbooks and characteristics of a quality textbook will be reviewed. Furthermore, literature on the preceding studies on teachers views on the quality of textbooks will be provided.

2.1 Importance of textbooks in teaching and learning Fan (2013) and Gök (2012) view a textbook as a pool of the knowledge, ideas, concepts, and values of a particular topic which is usually written by education specialists who are experts in a particular field. Literature shows that textbooks assist in the implementation of curriculum reforms because textbooks support teachers in the interpretation and execution of the curriculum (Chirwa & Naidoo, 2016; Freahat & Smadi, 2014; Yang & Sianturi, 2017; Tarmana & Kuran, 2015).

Textbooks are often used as a curriculum guide and the primary organiser of the content that students are required to learn. Therefore, textbooks convey thorough explanations of topics to be taught. In other words textbooks link the planned

2. Literature review

curriculum to the enacted curriculum or implemented curriculum (Fan, 2013; Swanepoel, 2010). This implies that the utilisation of the textbook in teaching and learning will ensure that the objectives of the curriculum are reached and the students understand the content of the subject.

2.2 The nature of the Accounting subject and the use of textbooks In Accounting, textbooks are regarded as the most commonly used teaching and learning support material as it entails a specific form of practice and instruction (Abbott & Palatnik, 2018; Erasmus & Fourie, 2018; Pereira & Sithole, 2020). This is because learning in the subject occurs mostly through the regular practice of different skills due to the practical nature of the subject (Erasmus & Fourie, 2018; Myers, 2016). Accounting textbooks provide an important source of material for reviewing and recapping the lessons taught in the class. It therefore, encourages self study and independent work among the students which is of utmost importance in a practical subject like Accounting. Consequently, Accounting textbooks provide extra opportunities for students to do their work independently at their own pace to cover the complex nature of the subject and to expand conceptions of the discipline (Abbott & Palatnik, 2018).

According to Barac and Du Plessis (2014), students should be given a range of assessment tasks to equip them with a variety of skills. In Accounting, the first skill that learners should acquire is the understanding of concepts. Mastering concepts serves as a basis for application, analytical and evaluation skills in each Accounting topic (DBE, 2011). The textbooks provide clear definition of such key concepts and core knowledge while providing clear learning progressions. This encourages students to understand financial concepts and increase their knowledge by providing activities that promote critical thinking skills. The implication is that frequent exposure to financial problems and scenarios is essential for students to develop capability and the skills. This entails teaching approaches that stimulate active student learning through projects, problem solving, case studies and authentic scenarios (Pereira & Sithole, 2020; Tarmana & Kuran, 2015). It is assumed that prescribed Accounting textbooks should have these activities. As the subject Accounting is hierarchical in nature, textbook provides insight to the teacher in planning lesson as it helps him to decide about the limits and depth of coverage of the content to be presented to the students while teaching. The

Students’ opportunities to learn are largely determined by textbooks as they often directly influence teachers’ choice of content and instructional strategies (Fan, 2013; Lin & Yang, 2015). The textbooks help teachers to organise their teaching by identifying the topics and also attempt to specify how classroom lessons can be structured with suitable exercises and activities. In this way, textbooks give teachers the opportunity to provide their students with more content knowledge, examples and assessment activities It is therefore important for teachers as facilitators of learning to be conscious of the quality and limitations of the prescribed textbooks because the quality of textbooks has a significant influence on the quality of teaching

2.3 Teachers views on the quality of textbooks

logical and psychological sequencing followed in a textbook helps the teachers in presenting the subject matter in an orderly and systematic sequence. This further shows the importance of the textbook in Accounting as a subject. It is for this reason that the teachers’ views regarding the quality of these textbooks need to be explored.

Extensive research has been conducted to investigate the quality of textbooks from the teachers’ viewpoint in History, Geography Biology, Science, Mathematics and English. Fan (2013), Lin and Yang (2015); Kimmons (2015), Salam and Shahrill (2015), Sunday (2014), and Yang and Sianturi (2017) conducted studies on teachers' views and perceptions of quality of Maths textbooks. Kimmons (2015), in his study teachers indicated that the textbooks they used in teaching Mathematics in Turkey do not have a good quality of activities for examination preparation. He found that textbooks provided insufficient activities to prepare the students to pass exams. Similarly, in Yang and Sianturi’s (2017) study, most teachers in Singapore felt that Maths textbooks do not have enough activities for learners to practice and this was having an impact on learning. Salam and Shahrill (2015) in Singapore found that Maths textbooks had more higher order level questions on linear function topics. On the contrary, Yang and Sianturi (2017) found that teachers were concerned about the level of cognitive demand for assessment in mathematics textbooks. While the textbooks covered all the content and concepts adequately, trigonometry textbooks contain questions that largely entail lower levels of cognitive demand. The concern was that such textbooks do not enhance student learning since students are seldom asked to tackle challenging problems Janko and Knecht (2013); Lee and Catling (2016); Tarmana and Kuran (2015); Yang, Wang and Xu (2015) did studies on Geography textbooks. Tarmana and Kuran (2015) conducted a study on Social Studies textbooks. They found that textbooks contained insufficient higher order cognitive level questions. Similarly, Lee and Catling (2016) found that there was a scarcity of assessment tasks in Junior Geography textbooks in the United Sates. Teachers were worried that a shortage of activities in textbooks is probably restricting students' opportunities to improve different abilities and skills unique to Geography. Like Lee and Catling, in Yang, Wang and Xu’s (2015) study, Geography teachers in secondary schools in China had difficulties in assigning extra classwork or homework to nurture and reinforce what learners have learned in class due to a shortage of activities. Janko and Knecht (2013) examined the visuals included in Czech geography textbooks and found that realistic visuals were dominant in Czech geography textbooks. However, Lee and Catling (2016) found that there were few visuals in geography textbooks. Furthermore, there were no connections between subject matter and visuals like pictures that are meant to help learners understand new Moralescontent.andBaker (2018) conducted a study on teachers' views on Open Science textbooks. They found that science textbooks were lacking severely in terms of content coverage. Although topics were mentioned, textbooks content had not

A good textbook is one that has the characteristics and features that allow it to support both students and teachers during the process of learning and teaching (Chirwa & Naidoo, 2016; Terblanche & de Clercq, 2020). Because textbooks have a strong influence on the effectiveness of instruction, a textbook is of good quality if the students who use the textbook achieve the learning outcomes they are supposed to attain (Swanepoel, 2010). In this regard, the availability of good textbooks is one of the key elements in the effective implementation of curriculum transformation (Chirwa & Naidoo, 2016; Swanepoel, 2010). Furthermore, research has shown that textbooks should comply with the curriculum with regard to content, learning activities and assessment, layout and teacher guidance (Aggarwal, 2001; Swanepoel, 2010). According to Aggarwal (2001), the quality of textbooks could be evaluated on organisation and presentation of content, verbal and visual communication. For this article, teachers’ views were explored on the guidance and support provided by textbooks in teaching and learning in terms of how they reflect the requirements of the CAPS curriculum as regards to topics coverage, explored on the guidance and support provided by textbooks in teaching and learning in terms of sequencing of topics, background information, learning objectives, motivational strategies and learning and assessment activities.

3. Methodology

been covered thoroughly. Contrary to Morales and Baker, Cho (2017) investigated teachers' beliefs about Biology textbooks and found that textbooks were aligned to the curriculum in terms of content. Although the end of chapter assessments were according to students’ mental development level, teachers found textbooks lacking in terms of real life activities.

The interpretive qualitative case study approach was considered suitable for this study as we were interested in understanding the meaning teachers have constructed in making sense of the quality of their prescribed textbooks (Cohen, Manion & Morrison, 2018). We believe that there are multiple meanings to a phenomenon that are socially constructed The researcher construct meaning of data from his viewpoint (Marshall & Rossman, 2014). We adopted a qualitative case study design since the aim was to gain an in depth understanding of

2.4 Characteristics of a quality textbook

Liang and Cobern (2013) investigated the teachers' perceptions on the quality of the New Interchange English textbook. They found that the teachers were of the same opinion that the content of the textbook was challenging, inspiring and pertinent to students' development. However, they were not satisfied with the layout of the textbooks since they were not organised appropriately (Liang & Cobern, 2013). Their study is in line with Freahat and Smadi’s (2014) study on teachers’ perspectives on the English textbooks in Jordan who found that textbooks appeared to be wanting in terms of layout. They suggested that textbooks need to be revised regarding its layout and design. The literature reviewed shows that there is a shortage of studies on teachers’ perceptions and views on the quality of Accounting textbooks.

The study aimed to explore teachers’ views on the quality of prescribed Accounting textbooks. Duringtheprocess of analysing the data gainedfrom semi structured interviews, the literature on characteristics of quality textbooks were used to develop the themes. To discuss the findings in this paper, we draw on three themes that emerged during data analysis These themes are as follows: Textbooks’ alignment with the curriculum, the support provided by textbooks in teaching new concepts and guidance and support in terms of assessment

3.3 Data analysis

The data set obtained from semi structured interviews was analysed using thematic analyses (Cohen et al., 2018). The process of analysing data began by write out audio data to textual data. We then read the transcripts numerous times to identify units of meaning, in order to access the deeper meaning of the responses received. During the process of open coding, categories were identified, revised and gathered into particular themes that were used to report the findings Reflective journals were then analysed using themes that were developed from the interviews

4. Findings

Accounting teachers’ views (Cohen et al., 2018; Marshall & Rossman, 2014). In the case study, the main assumption is that the phenomenon is investigated as a bound system (Creswell, 2014). In this study, the bound system was a group of ten Accounting teachers.

3.1 Sampling

3.4 Ethical consideration

The ethical code of conduct was adhered to by acquiring permission to conduct the research from the university where the authors are based. Other ethical procedureswhich includedinformedconsent,confidentialityandanonymity,and voluntary participation were explained to the participants and adhered to throughout the duration of the study. All participants were kept anonymous by giving them pseudonyms.

3.2 Data generation

In this study, ten teachers who were teaching Accounting in Grade 12 were purposively selected from ten schools that were conveniently sampled in the Hibiscus coast District in KwaZulu Natal. The number of participants is supported by Schulze (2003), who writes that in a qualitative research study only a few participants are involved because it aims at understanding and describing a phenomenon as it develops in a natural setting.

Semi structured one on one interviews were used to probe the Accounting teachers’ views on the quality of textbooks. The participants’ workplace was used to conduct interviews during their free periods. Each interview took approximately 45 minutes. These interviews were recorded and transcribed verbatim to ensure that the participants’ views were captured correctly during transcribing. Participants’ views on the quality of textbooks were supplemented through teacher reflective journals. Teachers were asked to write their views in their personal journals.

Teachers indicated that the information that is provided in the textbooks in outdated and deceptive Some of the scenarios found in the textbooks are based on the old information Teachers added that some prescribed books are ragged and fallingapart as theywere boughtwhilethe new curriculum was implemented in 2013 and schools are struggling financially to replace textbooks.

4.1.1 Topics and content coverage

While teachers were content with the alignment of the textbooks with the curriculum in terms of coverage of the main topics, teachers voiced concerns regarding the coverage of content within the main topics. Teachers indicated that some other textbooks did not have sufficient content, and as a result, they find it problematic to prepare lessons. Miss Gusha expressed her dissatisfaction regarding inadequate information in her prescribed textbook. This shortcoming forced her to use more than one textbook to teach: ‘Textbooks do cover all the content, but in some cases, you will find that a certain textbook explains much better than the other textbook.’

Teachers were apprehensive about insufficient content on the new topics found in the textbooks. They believed that Accounting textbooks should give students a detailed background to lay a solid foundation during the introduction of new topics. Mr Nyathi indicated that while the new topics appear in the textbooks, the information provided is not comprehensive enough for students to understand the topic. In addition, textbooks do not give the teachers sufficient content required to explain the topics thoroughly in class: ‘The topic is there; the buyback of shares is not explained clearly.’ Furthermore, while teachers are expected to prepare students for examinations, some new topics do not appear at all in the Accounting textbooks.Miss Nala expressed her disappointment: ‘We were told that Shareholding would be examined, but it is not in the textbooks. We use exam guidelines.’

Teachers were asked about their views on the alignment of the Accounting textbooks with the Accounting curriculum. The findings revealed that the main topics in the textbooks are covered according to the curriculum stipulation. Teachers, therefore, viewed textbooks as the supplementary resources to the curriculum However, they were concerned with sequencing and inadequate information in other textbooks

The teachers’ views were unanimous concerning how topics were covered in their textbooks about the specification in the Accounting curriculum. They were all satisfied with the coverage of topics in their prescribed textbooks. Miss Nkomo indicated that her textbook contains all topics as stipulated in the Accounting curriculum: ‘Most textbooks cover all the topics that are in the Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS) All topics are listed in the table of content like in the CAPS’

4.1 Textbooks’ alignment with the curriculum

activities. In the presentation of our findings, verbatim quotes are given to ensure that the views of teachers are not lost.

Due to the absence of specific learning outcomes in the textbooks, teachers often resorted to their own experience and understanding of the subject when teaching particular topics

4.1.2 Sequencing of topics

The sequencing of topics in textbooks supports the learning of new knowledge by helping teachers present the learning material in a logical order. However, teachers found most textbooks to be misaligned with regard to the structure, as they do not follow the same sequence as the Accounting curriculum Most of the textbooks were found elusive in terms of helping teachers with the sequencing of their teaching. Miss Ndlovu said that: ‘In other textbooks the topics are mixed. Topics are not arranged according to the CAPS and this is not helping us when teaching. That is why we use examination guidelines’

4.2.2 Information on new concepts In Accounting, understanding of concepts is essential for students to be able to interpret financial information. Teachers felt that understanding of Accounting concepts depends on the information found in the textbooks. What is remarkable is that prescribed textbooks do not provide a detailed explanation of the unique concepts. Mr Gama confirms this: ‘Textbooks should give students depth knowledge about new Accounting terminology. Definitions are there but are not giving full

4.2 1 Learning outcomes and introductory information

Teachers indicated that some books have a checklist at the end of the chapter to summarize the learning outcomes. Teachers were of the view that there is a huge relationship between the learning objectives of the chapter and the checklist. They firmly believed that textbooks should have objectives at the beginning of the chapter and checklist at end of the chapter to guide and assist in verifying and ensuring that all subtopics have been taught

Teachers believed that chronological presentation of information is vital for students' ability to understand what they are learning. Without a sequence in the delivery of information, students could miss important details and remain confused 4.2 Support provided by textbooks in teaching new concepts

. Mr Ndlovu said that: ‘If textbooks do not have checklists at the end of the topic, it disadvantages both students and teachers because you need to check if you have covered everything in the topic. We end up using CAPS and the ATP’

The absence of learning outcomes and checklist in the textbooks is misleading because teachers could not verify the content coverage within the topic. Hence teachers relied heavily on the CAPS and the ATP.

While a textbook is expected to assist students achieve the learning objectives they are required to reach, teachers were concerned about their textbooks because they failed to provide learning outcomes. They expressed their dissatisfaction that they have to constantly consult with the curriculum because textbooks do not give them guidance in terms of depth of topics by outlining explicit learning outcomes. This is what Miss Nyoka said: ‘There are no learning outcomes and there is nothing in the textbook that guides me on how deep I must go with the teaching. I use my experience’

Teachers believed that graphics assisted students in better comprehending what they are learning because a picture stays much longer in memory and this helps students to recall new content, especially if they understand the meaning of the graphics 4.2.3 Linking new content to students’ experience and prior knowledge

It is imperative in Accounting to relate unique concepts to students’ experience when introducing and clarifying new knowledge. Teachers encountered difficulties when introducing new chapters as the textbooks had insufficient

Some teachers pointed out that their textbooksuse differentvisuals, although they were not introduced at the beginning of the textbook to give clarity on its meaning and how they are used in the textbooks. Because they have been using the textbooks for a long time, they know that essential concepts or information were emphasised in small boxes and sometimes written in bold. Additionally, Miss Nkomo revealed that her textbook also has graphics in the form of pictures. These pictures assisted in explaining important information However, they were blurry since they were in black and white: ‘There are pictures in my book, sometimes they give me more information, but they are in black and white’

information.’ While textbooks were expected to provide detailed information on concepts, they fall short in providing teachers with adequate information on the new concepts.

They usually consulted other textbooks when preparing the new topic as they cannot rely on the prescribed books only because they have limited information on different topics. Mr Ndlovu added that using more textbooks in addition to the prescribed one allowed him to formulate diverse strategies when explaining in class: ‘The information is there but I think it is not sufficient for my teaching and that is why I sometimes combine all of them during the introduction of the new topic’

Other teachers added that in their textbooks there were cartoons that reminded them about the new terms. Mr Josephs further alluded to the type of cartoon that was found in one of his textbooks that highlighted the important information: ‘In the format of cash flow statement, there is a cartoon of an elephant. That on its own makes me know that this information is important’ .

4.2.3 The use of visuals in teaching and learning of new concepts

Textbooks shoulduse different types of visuals toassist in reminding teachers and students of the critical information on the topic. Teachers stated that textbooks gave them less support concerning signifying the important information. Miss Nene added that their textbooks have little indicators like bold words that caution them with respect to the important concepts or information: ‘In my textbooks there is a very minimal indication, if the concepts are written in bold, it sends a message to the learner that this word is important’ Miss Jobe indicated that her textbook has key or word boxes that alert her of essential concepts. Teachers specified that if the information or concepts are written in boxes on the side of the text, it draws the students’ attention

information to allow them to use students’ experiences to expand on their explanations. Teachers’ felt that other topics in Accounting are not easy to relate to students’ experiences as a result they use examples that are not familiar to students. They believed that it depends on the topic they were introducing. To confirm this, Mr Gama responded: ‘Other topics are complicated to introduce using what students know. Even in the textbook, there is no simple clarity on Debtors and Creditors reconciliations in the textbooks’

Teachers shared the same sentiments concerning the support given by textbooks in preparing the students for external examination. They were worried that

However, teachers expressed concern that the textbook which gives them adequate support and guidance is expensive and the schools cannot afford to prescribe it for students because of financial constraints.

Teachers believed that it hinges on the textbook that is used by the individual teacher. They made mention that this particular textbook gave good support and guidance compared to all other prescribed textbooks they are currently using. The textbook provides a detailed introduction that gives an outline of what is covered in each topic. The textbook also offers in depth background information about the sub topic. Furthermore, at the beginning of each topic, teachers are reminded of the prior knowledge that a learner is expected to have before attempting the new topic. Ms Nene also enunciated that the textbook also provided revision activities to remind students of the previous knowledge and to assess their readiness for the new chapter: “In the introduction of financial statements, you will find that textbooks start with activities on theory to remind students that in Grade 10 and 11, they were introduced to the financial statement. I have to buy my copy. ”

4.3 Guidance and support in terms of assessment activities

Teachers raisedconcerns about information that is provided by textbooks in terms of prior experience that a learner is expected to have before attempting the new topic. Teachers’ responses revealed that textbooks fell short in providing support regarding previous knowledge required in learning new knowledge Miss Nala further outlined that textbooks are not the same. Some textbooks allow students to use their experiences as they use examples from what students see or practice almost every day: ‘The textbook gave an example of sand and cement in the manufacturing of blocks when teaching manufacturing’ .

Teachers specified that prescribed textbooks did not have enough activities to allow students to review what has been learnt in class. Teachers expressed their worries about the shortage of activities. Further, they mentioned that the textbooks were incompatible with the requirements of the Annual Teaching Plan in terms of the number of assessments for each topic: “The activities are not enough, you will find that CAPS requires you as the teacher to give students eight activities but the textbook has five activities. That is why I use previous question papers” . (Miss Gusha)

The Accounting curriculum emphasises conceptual coherence, sequence and progression of knowledge in a manner that assists the teachers with planning and teaching and to facilitate ease of comprehension (Arek Bawa & Dhunpath, 2017; Bharath, 2015; DBE, 2011). However, in this study teachers indicated that textbooks were misleading in terms of helping teachers in structuring teaching in a logical order. This finding is supported by the views of teachers in Yang and Sianturi, 2017 who found that the content or the topics in the instructional materials were not properly arranged or sequenced. They believed that a disarray of topics hinders students' ability to understand what they were learning.

Findings revealed that prescribed textbooks were unsuccessful in supporting teachers in introducing new topics and providing learning outcomes. In this regard, Freahat and Smadi (2014) assert thattextbooks are expected toconsistently provide a detailed introduction with clearly stated learning outcomes at the beginning of the topic to focus all instructional and assessment and to consolidate learning. This gives guidance on how deep the teachers are expected to go when teaching the topic.

Research shows that effective learning happens when students are able to use existing knowledge to learn the new concepts (Arek Bawa & Dhunpath, 2017; Freahat& Smadi,2014; Ngwenya& Arek Bawa,2019). In this study,teachers were of the view that most prescribed textbooks were silent in terms of reminding studentsoffoundationalknowledgeneededtolearn new knowledge. This finding is similar to Sunday (2014) study who found that mathematics teachers often struggled when introducing new topics because of insufficient background information on some topics in textbooks.

Findings revealed that most textbooks have creative and problem solving activities that allow students to make evaluative judgements using the financial information provided, although they were insufficient. However, teachers were concerned that textbooks do not have creative real life problem solving questions that require students to identify problems from a range of financial information.

activities found in their textbooks did not match the standard of questions in the NSC examination papers in terms of level of challenge “In the exam you will find that students are expected to fill in the missing figures in the balance sheet and such activities are not there in the textbooks, the standard of the activities is very low” . (Miss Nyoka)

Findings revealed that prescribed textbooks were aligned with the curriculum in terms of topics coverage.While teachers viewed textbooks as complements for the curriculum, teachers found them deficient in terms of information required to teach the new content adequately In Accounting it is crucial that regular revision of teaching resources and textbooks are done to incorporate current Accounting standards and legislations in order to familiarize students and teachers with the authenticities (Bargate, 2012; Ngwenya & Arek Bawa, 2019). However, findings revealed that most textbooks had insufficient information on the new topics.

5. Discussion

Teachers were of the view that most textbooks succeeded in providing suitable graphics and other features to motivate learning and stimulate thinking while guiding the teacher, although pictures were not clear. This findings is supported by Sunday (2014) and Tarmana andKuran (2015),whofound that graphicsshould be included in textbooks in a manner that attracts, engages meaningfully and stimulates the imagination to promote students’ understanding Accounting as a practical subject requires more activities to equip students with relevant skills. This means that assessment activities found in textbooks must cover the content of the subject as well as the range of skills to cater for students’ different abilities (Barac & du Plessis, 2014; Freahat & Smadi, 2014). Teachers indicated that textbooks were lacking in providing enough activities. However, most textbooks had appropriate activities that allow students to engage in problem solving and creative thinking. This is contrary to Yang and Sianturi (2017) who found that mathematics textbooks had activities that mainly involve lower order level questions. Furthermore, findings revealed that teachers were concerned that students were only involved in less structured problems as textbooks had no unfamiliar open ended questions that require students to use deep processing critical thinking skills. Such questions often fail to expose students to unstructured and challenging financial problems. Although textbooks were compatible with the curriculum, they fell short in guiding and supporting teaching and learning. However financial limitations hampered teachers from prescribing the textbooks with all the parameters of quality textbook. Furthermore, teachers found it hard to use only one textbook as they had flaws. Teachers ultimately relied on other resources like examination guidelines, annual teaching plan and past examination papers that encourages teachers to teach to test

According to Tarmana and Kuran (2015), relating new knowledge to students’ experiences assists students to understand the new concepts It is therefore, imperative in Accounting to relate unique concepts to students’ experience, and this is regarded as the fundamental strategy when introducing and clarifying new knowledge. Teachers pointed out that most textbooks fell short in guiding students by relating the content to their daily real life experiences. Consequently, it was challenging to introduce unfamiliar topics due to unique concepts and complex knowledge found in the subject. According to Terblanche and de Clercq (2020), students find it very difficult to master new knowledge if it is not related to their experiences as they may be unaware of the key learning points on each topic This impacts negatively to students’ conceptual understanding of the new content. As a result, teachers had to devise their own strategies of introducing the particular topics.

The use of visuals is crucial in emphasising new Accounting concepts and to understanding and retaining information (Stephenson, 2017; Sunday, 2014).

The recommendations offered to the writers of the textbooks are that it is better to modify or revise textbooks based on the characteristics of quality textbooks. To meet this requirement and overcome the above mentioned deficiencies viewed by teachers in Accounting textbooks, the textbook writers must have an additional responsibility to ensure that the textbooks reflect the basic characteristics of quality textbooks. Since teachers seem to rely heavily on textbooks as teaching resources, textbook scrutiny is needed to analyse the contents of the textbook and to know the extent of quality of their textbooks. Teachers should also be included during evaluation process to identify issues related to textbooks effective use and suggesting strategies for improvement.

6. Conclusion This article sought to explore teachers’ views on the quality of Accounting Grade 12 textbooks. Despite the teachers’ views that all prescribed textbooks are compatible with the Accounting curriculum in terms of topic coverage, textbooks were found wanting in supporting and guiding teaching and learning of Accounting. While learning in Accounting is developmental and underpinned by the notion of a hierarchy of knowledge and skills, teachers revealed that the sequencing of content in the textbook is incompatible with the Accounting curriculum. This discrepancy may deny students the opportunity of learning everything that they should be learning. This mayalso confuse thenovice teachers who often rely heavily on textbooks Furthermore, teachers viewed some of the textbooks as unsuccessful in allowing students to grow gradually within the subject. As a result, teachers found it challenging to tailor lessons to the knowledge and interestsof students. There was an outcryfrom teachersregarding the shortages of activities and poor questioning styles that do not cohere with the question style found in the external papers. In conclusion, it could be said that while textbooks continue to contribute to effective teaching and learning of Accounting, teachers also acknowledge their constraining or limiting factors in supporting teaching and learning. All participants expressed common views in terms of the deficiencies in the quality of Accounting grade 12 prescribed Thistextbooks.study is limited in that the findings only represent the views of only ten teachers. Therefore findings cannot be generalised beyond this sample. Furthermore, the interview schedule or questions for interviews are likely to influence the findings as any inferences are circumscribed by and restricted to the information contained in them. From the research findings, it may be noted that there is a potential for further research, especially a study in which teachers will be observed using textbooks in class. Moreover, more research will be needed to shed light on the broader scope of views on the quality of textbooks which could yield diverse results There is a need to conduct a quantitative study with a large number of Accounting teachers. Subsequent research could include the views of Accounting learners to determine how they view their prescribed textbooks in terms of assisting them to achieve the learning outcomes they supposed to attain.

Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2018) Research methods in Education (8th ed). New York: Routledge. Creswell,J.W.(2014). Researchdesign:Qualitative,quantitative,andmixedmethodsapproaches (4th ed). London, England: Sage. Davidson, R. A., & Baldwin, B. A. (2005). Cognitive skills objectives in intermediate accounting textbooks: Evidence from end of chapter material. Journal of AccountingEducation, 23(2), 79 95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaccedu.2005.05.001 Department of Basic Education. (2011). CurriculumandAssessmentPolicyStatement.Grades 10 12.Accounting. Pretoria: Government Printers. Department of Education. (2009). Report of the task team for the review of the implementation oftheNationalCurriculumStatement. Pretoria: Government Printers.

The lacking guidance and support given to teachers and students by the prescribed textbooks, coerces teachers to rely heavily on other support materials that encourage teachers to teach to the examination. In trying to refraining from this habit, the teachers should be trained on teaching materials development This will increase their knowledge of developing supplementary materials and adapting materials to suit their needs. This suggests that experienced teachers should develop their own resources, especially assessment activities, or turn to other sources such as the Internet to supplement textbooks. Teachers can also share materials and information with their colleagues from neighbouring schools or clusters. This may help teachers curb shortcomings identified in the prescribed textbooks. In addition, if the identified gaps in the textbooks can be addressed accordingly, teachers will gain more confidence in their prescribed textbooks and it will support their teaching greatly.

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The current structure of a six year secondary education in Zimbabwe is two years of general education at Junior Level, two years leading to Ordinary Level Certificate in which students sit for examinations at the end of the fourth year, then two years of Advanced level with national examinations in the sixth year. Students’ mathematical proficiency in Zimbabwe is normally used for making decisions regarding further schooling and job opportunities (Channon, McLeish Smith, Head, Macrae & Chasakara, 2011), yet most pupils underperform in the subject particularly in the rural areas. I argue that rural learners have always been marginalized and excluded in education due to various factors such as poverty, language, cultural experiences, technological divide, and others (Mupa, 2015).

Keywords: mathematics; Ordinary level; rural areas; language; cultural capital; social exclusion

Rurality and Exclusion in Ordinary Level Mathematics in Zimbabwe: A Document Analysis

1. Introduction

Simon Vurayai University of Johannesburg, South Africa 0001 9395 8880

Abstract. This conceptual paper fuses literature review and document analysis in examining the nexus between rurality and social exclusion in Ordinary level mathematics education in Zimbabwe. The paper utilizes Bourdieu’s cultural capital theory to examine the content and context of mathematics problems in textbooks and examinations focusing on language and cultural experiences. Globally, rural education has been neglected and Zimbabwe is no exception. I argue that the role of nonmaterial deterrents like lack of cultural and language capital in achievement in mathematics education has not been accorded due attention. I conclude that the context of mathematics problems in textbooks and examinations is alien to rural learners. The readability of textbooks is also beyond the reach of many rural learners. I recommend that the mathematics curriculum should be inclusive of the diverse cultural experiences of learners and the language used should be intelligible to all. The mathematics educators and related stakeholders should know that every child is capable of doing mathematics hence all forms of social closure should be eradicated.

https://orcid.org/0000

Oscar Lewis, the founding father of the culture of poverty theory laments on the state and plight of a poor rural learner and admits that “…his environment is not only poverty stricken in economic terms but also cultural terms. The catalogue of deficiencies of the culturally deprived child includes linguistic, experiential, cognitive, and personality deficiencies, and a wide range of substandard attitudes” (Haralambos & Holborn, 2008, p. 632). I agree that beyond deficient material requirements, rural students are also subject to nonmaterial cultural deterrents in the teaching and learning of mathematics.

2. Background to the problem

The government of Zimbabwe, in 1980, was unfortunate to inherit from Britain a system thatwas skewedin favourof thewhite minority population in sectors such as economics, politics, and technology. A dualistic socio economic system had a dominating white population that occupied the rich sectors such as mining, manufacturing industries, and commercial farms. Economically, there also existed, African peasants that lived in abject poverty, disease, and undeveloped infrastructure (Protracted Relief Programmes, 2012). In other words, Zimbabwe had rural areas that were characterized by peasant agriculture, and the urban income was characterized by large scale industries and transport services.

Following independence, Zimbabwe introduced corrective measures of

Considering that I am overwhelmed by the burden of rural learners, I am going to examine the possible impact of language and cultural experiences as factors of socialexclusion in mathematicseducation. Specifically,this conceptual paper uses document analysis in which I examine the role of textbooks and past examination question papers in reinforcing the social exclusion of rural learners. I agree that there has been an attempt to promote equality of educational opportunities in Zimbabwe but mathematics education is still riddled with inequalities (Mupa, 2015). I examine whether those students also have access to mathematics education, particularly those in poor rural schools. Following the idea of Education for All (EFA), the National Council for Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) (1998) advocates for the implementation of the Equity Principle in which all learners are given a chance to do Mathematics. I am motivated by the need to establishing the state of mathematics for all in poverty stricken rural schools, particularly at Ordinary level (‘O’ level), concerning the principles of inclusivity. Why specifically focusing on ‘O’ level mathematics? ‘O’ level mathematics proficiency in Zimbabwe is used as the basis for decisions regarding further schooling and job opportunity (Mupa, 2015; Nziramasanga, 1999). With specific reference to the value of mathematics in entrepreneurship, NCTM (1998) notes that employment opportunities in fields such as health care, construction, auto manufacturing, and fashion design require a more sophisticated knowledge of mathematics. The learners who are enrolled and succeed in ‘O’ level mathematics have the advantage of getting more access to highly rewarding occupational opportunities as compared to those who would have failed the subject(Channon et al , 2011). In this theoretical paper, I start by presenting the background and statement of the problem of rurality and exclusion in mathematics education. Bourdieu's cultural capital theory as the bedrock of this study is discussed together with brief existing literature on the effects of language and cultural experiences on learners’ performance in mathematics education.

Towards the end of the first decade of independence, the Zimbabwean economy nose dived as shown by most indicators such as the primary health care and education sectors whose standards were on the decline. The economy of Zimbabwe suffered a serious deterioration in the mid 1990s (Murisa, 2010).

Previous studies (Nziramasanga, 1999; Mavhunga et al , 2009) reveal that pupils’ academic performance in rural areas in Zimbabwe has been an area of concern. In mathematics education, Mupa (2015) notes that poor rural learners find it difficult to pass without adequate textbooks because they will not be able to see examples and can hardly share experiences on their own. Mupa (2015) further adds that Mathematics is a subject that requires material resources for the students such as graph books and mathematical sets which they struggle to afford. Studies on poverty and mathematics education in Zimbabwe have been broad and general and focusing on deficient tangible material resources(textbooks, graph books, calculators, etc) as the major cause of dismal performance (Chattaraj, 2020; Mupa,2015; Rammala, 2009). Very few studies have been focusing on non material resources like language and cultural experiences and this makes this study unique. Most previous studies have been centred on primary data, hence this study distinguishes from the rest as it relies on literature review and documentary analysis to draw inferences that can be added to existing findings. The study also utilised the benefits of document analysis as discussed in the methodology section of this paper.

According to Nzingo (2010), the declining economy and the political crisis in the country gave rise to abject poverty. The social decline in rural areas entailed deterioration in the provision and quality of social services such as education and Thehealth.Zimbabwean

Students’ mathematics proficiency in Zimbabwe is often used for decisions regarding schooling and job opportunity (Channon et al., 2011), yet the pass rate in the poverty stricken schools in rural areas is persistently catastrophic (Mupa, 2015).Given that rural learners are prone to variousforms ofinequalities (material and nonmaterial), I am motivated to examine how textbooks and past examination question papers reinforce social exclusion particularly through language and cultural experiences.

centralised economic planning and socialist oriented policies. The government embarked on a programe of improving the lives of the population that was marginalized previously (Mavhunga, Madondo & Phiri, 2009). The previously marginalised population refers to the socially excluded poor Zimbabweans who had limited access to education, particularly those in rural areas.

4. Pierre Bourdieu and the cultural capital theory

Pierre Bourdieu is a neo Marxist Frenchman who developed the cultural capital theory. Bourdieu argues that education in a capitalist society secures cultural continuity and barricades poor children’s access to higher learning. Rather than

3. Statement of the problem

rural areas, as has been previously captured (Mavhunga et al., 2009), are the most affected by poverty. They have challenges in areas such as road networks, health, safe water, sanitation, and food supply (Robertson, 2011).

Verbal skills and mental processes that give privileged children an advantage (Applebaum & Chambliss, 1995) referred to by Bourdieu as cultural capital, enables learners to decode education and show flair and excellence due to prior conditioning assimilated in the earliest years of life during primary socialisation (Blackledge & Hunt, 1985). The less privileged class experience disorientating culture shock when exposed to the ‘normal’ educational world of their privileged peers. The disorientation of cultural shock naturally accompanies entry into an unfamiliar world (Macionis, 1989). Assuming, therefore, that Bourdieu is right ‘it stands to reason’ (i.e. mutatis mutandis) that less privileged learners are bound to find mathematics difficult. According to Bourdieu (Haralambos et al , 2014), the affluent groups effectively oppress their less privileged peers by dictating their understanding of the world as final and inarguable, and, therefore, arrogantly imposing penalties on less privileged groups for not deferring (whether willfully or by default) to their self proclaimed preconception of the world (Haralambos & Holborn, 2008). As noted above, besides securing middle class cultural continuity, the function of education is to barricade the less privileged from entering higher levels of education (cf. Bourdieu; (Bilton, Bonnet, James & Sheared, 1989). Barrier mechanisms are examination failure and self elimination (Haralambos & Holborn, 2008). The barriers may be depicted by high low pass rates and high dropout rates in mathematics in rural areas. The efficacy of the first of these barriers resides in the lack of cultural capital by the bulk of learners in rural schools who are less privileged. The second, related barrier is the dropout rate, which makes failure self induced, again for lack of cultural capital, which imparts the appearance of an unscalable height to the prospect of entering the realm of higher education. In these circumstances, failure at mathematics examinations seems preordained for the less privileged who are conditioned to believe that the system will not tolerate their entry into higher levels of mathematics education (Haralambos et al., 2014). The point is driven home by Bourdieu in the following statement: “As pupils move up the ladder, those from the dominated class are progressively eliminated and shunted into less prestigious forms of knowledge. On the other hand, the primary socialization of those from the

culture in totality, regardless of class as claimed by functionalists (Haralambos & Holborn, 2008), it is an exclusive vehicle for middle class culture as a definitive, overriding construct (Haralambos, Holborn & Heald, 2014). If Bourdieu is right that affluent children bring relevant cultural capital to school, I infer that mathematics instruction may be doing exactly the privileging exercise postulated by his theory. It attempts to make mathematics more assimilable to ‘less privileged’ classes and does the exercise while slightly disguised. It leaves the less privileged worse offsince the gap between them and the privileged may even widen in the process of remediation. This is because it is more than likely that the privileged class has developed a natural aptitude, aided and abetted by a large array of acclimatising/facilitating mechanisms at its disposal that naturally tend to put it in the lead. Bourdieu’s theory was helpful in the choice of documentary analysis as a data gathering technique to ascertain the nexus between mathematics teaching and learning and rural learners’ cultural experiences.

I apply Bourdieu’s assumptions to mathematics by logical extension, with the result that these views could be applied towards determining the influence attributable to the language and cultural capital on mathematics teaching and learning in rural schools. Although Bourdieu did not specifically refer to mathematics education and rural contexts in his theory, I assume that this claim may mean that mathematics education is tilted in favour of the culture of the dominant groups and marginalizes the culture of the poor rural children.

5. Cultural experiences of learners and access to mathematics education in rural contexts

Learning in mathematics education depends on the ability of students to connect new ideas with what they already know or experience. New knowledge will hardly make meaning unless it connects or relates well the existing knowledge (Crawford, 2001; Compton, Fielding & Scott, 2007; Zengin, 2019). Richard Skemp identifies two types of understanding in mathematics as instrumental and relational (Compton, Fielding & Scott, 2007). Instrumental understanding entails learning and comprehending the rules of mathematics and being able to apply them while relational understanding means connecting new ideas with existing ones. Mwakapenda (2008) acknowledges the importance of relational understanding in that; “…connections are at the heart of the definition of mathematics. These connections are concerned with what mathematics is: where it comes from human activity, a construction, development and contestation that is time and socially dependent and what it does: problem solve and understand the world and daily living. Mathematics is not about the reasoning for its own sake. It is concerned with reasoning, symbolizing, and thinking processes that are connected to activities and problems of the social, physical, and mathematical worlds involving human practices in all cultures”. (p190).

Snowman, McCown and Biehler (2001) observed that middle class children are exposed to a variety of experiences and these experiences accumulate and make school learning more familiar and easier than it would be otherwise. For instance, Smith and Noble (1995) cited in Haralambos and Holborn (2008) observe that working class children fail to afford shopping or educational trips, and, as a result, they may fall behind their school work. The common observation here is that learning also takes place beyond the classroom. As such, affluent children bring to school relevant experiences that aid their learning of mathematics than their non affluent counterparts. The curriculum is designed in such a way that it alienates the rural learner who cannot use the local examples to relate to the curriculum context (Rammala, 2009). As a result, rural children may fail to understand the context in which some mathematics problems are presented leading to failure.

dominant class provides them with cultural capital which translates into academic and eventually occupational success “(Bilton et al , 1989, p.33).

By implication, I argue that it is relational understanding which is more important to the learners since they can make meaningful connections between what they know and what they learn in mathematics.

In a more recent observation, Siregar and Siagian (2019) confirm that; In learning mathematics mathematical connections ability is one of the mathematical abilities that must be possessed by students. The strong connection between concepts in mathematics implies that mathematical connections ability also contains other mathematical aspects or vice versa.

Viewing mathematics as a whole is very important in learning and thinking about connections between topics in mathematics. (p1).

Bourdieu cited in Haralambos et al. (2014) aver that the affluent children have familiar cultural experiences and the progress in education is directly influenced by the culture the child gets from the family. On the other hand, working class children underperform in education. After all, they experience culture shock because they lack related experiences. Bourdieu cited in Bol and Berry (2005) further states that there is a mismatch between poor student, home culture, and the culture valued by the school. According to Bush (2005), mathematics education has virtually ignored rural contexts. Graven (2014) observes that irrespective of corrective reforms and innovations in mathematics education, rural learners still experience social exclusion in mathematics education that matters. The mathematics that many students learn is connected to neither them nor their communities. From the studies above, I theorize that the language and contexts of some mathematics problems are not related to the experiences of the rural learners and as a result, they underperform.

also acknowledges that parents from middle socioeconomic status are important role models in the education of their children. I infer that those parents who speak and understand English well have their children better placed for success in mathematics education. A good understanding of the English

6. Language and access to mathematics education in rural contexts Language, which the child brings from home is an important resource in learning. Durkin (1991) cited in Nziramasanga (1999 p. 331) puts forth that “mathematics education begins and proceeds in language, advances and stumbles because of language and its outcomes are often assessed in language”. An earlier study by Ezewu (1983) reveals that fundamental to the learning of all other subjects is the mastery of good English as it is the language of instruction in English speaking nations. Bourdieu’s cultural capital theory states that the language of education is closer to that of the dominant class than that of any other class. The relevant language is a key in which children from the dominant class internalize during primary socialization and they use it to unlock the message transmitted in the classroom (Haralambos & Holborn, 2008). Children with high socioeconomic backgrounds have a linguistic advantage which they will use in learning (Nurul & Yunus, 2020). These studies note that in English speaking nations, those students from affluent background have an advantage in that they are fluent in the English Language which is also a language of instruction. As a result, it becomes very easy for them to master mathematics concepts when they are taught in BernsEnglish.(2010)

In Zimbabwe, Nziramasanga (1999) admits that: “For the average Zimbabwean child, the use of the English language in mathematics education is far more complex than an education system has cared to admit. Many pupils have problems with English. If mathematics is intricately related to language, in this case, English, there can be no doubt that many pupils’ mathematical development is being retarded on account of language and not lack of mathematical ability.” (p337).

In more recent studies, Robertson and Graven (2020) put forth: “…the power of language to either include or exclude certain groups of students from genuine opportunities for mathematical sense making. Should not be underestimated…because English is widely perceived as the language of opportunity, it is, by grade 4, overwhelmingly the chosen language of learning and teaching. The epistemological and pedagogical consequences of this choice are evidenced in the poor performance of the country’s students on national and international assessments of mathematical proficiency. The dominance of a single language of power as the medium for education has major implications for access to learning for those who do not speak this language at home and who are often already marginalized in terms of access to social and economic goods…In this respect fluency in the dominant language of learning, teaching, and assessment is a key issue for inclusivity and equity.” (p1).

language helps learners to engage in complex tasks and understand word problems and instructions in textbooks and examinations (Sao, 2008; Musaisia, Nakhanu & Wekesa, 2012; Bethel 2016; Magableh & Abdullah, 2020) In other words, the English language can be a tool for inclusion or exclusion in mathematics education for rural learners (Mtisi & Maposa, 2016). Ledibane, Kaiser and Van der Walt (2018) acknowledge that: “We teach through the medium of language. It is our major means of communication. Learners build understanding as they process ideas through language. We diagnose and assess learners’ understanding by listening to their oral communication and by reading their mathematical writings.” (p1). In a related observation, Graven (2014) avers that the language used in mathematics textbooks is far removed from non affluent students’ everyday speech and this becomes a major force of alienation in its own right. Berns (2010) also notes that children from a higher socio economic background with good language also a good mastery of the English language which aids them in understanding word problems and several tasks in mathematics instruction. A poor command of the English Language results in challenges in performing mathematics tasks. Teachers may also hold low expectations on those learners with a poor command of the English Language to the extent that they are given less attention during instruction (Kaur, 2013; Chattaraj, 2020)

I infer that has the power to influence performance and pedagogy. It is a tool that can determine who is to be included or excluded in mathematics education It is therefore important to consider the point that the language that the learners bring from home is a key factor on which further learning will rest upon.

(d) Can classify the content based on these themes or categories. (p38). With the main objective of examining the extent to which the rural learners are excluded in mathematics education, I selected a sample of O’ level mathematics textbooks and past examination question papers. I skimmed through the content which I classified focusing on themes related to the exclusion of rural learners based on language and cultural context. The detail is presented in the next Isection.utilised

several advantages by choosing document analysis as an approach in this study. It is important to note that document analysis offers the following advantages as simplified by (Bowen ,2009);

• Efficient method: Document analysis is less time consuming and therefore more efficient than other research methods. It requires data selection, instead of data collection.

7. Methodology In this study, I used document analysis. I found it important to conceptualise document analysis and discuss its benefits concerning this study. Document analysis entails “…a systematic procedure for reviewing or evaluating documents both printed and electronic (computer based and Internet transmitted) material. Documents that may be used for systematic evaluation as part of a study take a variety of forms. They include advertisements; agendas, attendance registers, and minutes of meetings; manuals; background papers; books and brochures; diaries and journals; event programs (i.e., printed outlines); letters and memoranda; maps and charts; newspapers” (Bowen, 2009, p. 27).

• Availability: Many documents are in the public domain, especially since the advent of the Internet, and are obtainable without the authors’ permission. This makes document

It is important to note that document analysis is a process that involves skimming (superficial examination), reading (thorough examination), and interpretation of content to provide answers to research questions (Parveen & Showkat, 2017). In this study, I examined the content and context of O’ level mathematics and came up with an interpretation of the state of social exclusion it presents to rural students. I followed the steps below as suggested by Parveen and Showkat (2017);

(a) Identify your research question/objective. (b) Select your sample (c) Skim the material selected through the aforementioned procedure and make a list of main themes you plan to analyse.

From the above, I argue that English Language proficiency is a critical element in teaching and learning of mathematics. In this study, I examine the contexts of mathematics problems in textbooks and examinations concerning their cultural and language experiences of poor rural learners. I further establish the extent to which the experiences of rural learners are connected to the teaching and learning of various mathematics topics in the ‘O’ level syllabus. I also examine the specific mathematics topics in the ‘O’ level syllabus and textbooks that are presented in a difficult language, in which children living in rural poverty may find it difficult to comprehend.

• Lack of obtrusiveness and reactivity: Documents are ‘unobtrusive’ and ‘non reactive’ that is, they are unaffected by the research process.

8. Document analysis: Cultural experiences and the context of mathematics problems A documentary analysis in this section focuses on the nexus between the context of mathematics problems in main textbooks and past examination question papers and the experiences of rural learners. Specifically, I analyse the main textbooks used in the Zimbabwean schools studied which are: Focus on Mathematics Book 4, and New General Mathematics Books 4 and 3. These are the main textbooks that are used for teaching and learning at ‘O’ level mathematics in Zimbabwe. These textbooks have been approved by the ministry of education as the best in line with the requirements of the current syllabus. From the textbooks, my interest is the context in which the problems are presented concerning whether the students from poor rural schools could comprehend them given their poverty and cultural deprivation. I also analyse the past examination question papers using the same approach with the textbooks. I classify the questions in such a way that those from the textbooks are presented first followed by questions from past examinations papers. In my document analysis (scrutiny of textbooks and exam papers) I note that settings of mathematics problem formulations are foreign to students’ experiential world (poor rural settings), and this places them at a significant disadvantage, compared to the more culturally privileged and affluent suburban, and peers(see the 8 examples).

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• Cost effectiveness: Document analysis is less costly than other research methods and is often the method of choice when the collection of new data is not feasible. The data (contained in documents) have already been gathered; what remains is for the content and quality of the documents to be evaluated.

• Exactness: The inclusion of exact names, references, and details of events makes documents advantageous in the research process.

• Coverage: Documents provide broad coverage; they cover a long period, many events, and many settings (p31). Document analysis proved to be very effective in this study especially when travelling and contact with the respondents was difficult due to the global measures to curb the spread of the COVID1 19 pandemic. I simply collected the data which I analysed concerning the existing literature and the research questions to come up with the findings for the study.

analysis an attractive option for qualitative researchers. Locating public records is limited only by one’s imagination and industriousness.

• Stability: As a corollary to being non reactive, documents are stable. The investigator’s presence does not alter what is being studied. Documents, then, are suitable for repeated reviews.

Solution:a.Tennis matches are either won or lost. They are never drawn. Probability of a draw = 0.

Example 1: i. Thomas and Sam have played each other at tennis 12 times. Thomas has won 10 times. They play each other in a competition. Find the probability that a) The match will be drawn b) Tendai will win c) Either Tendai or Samuel will win

[Source: The New General Mathematics Book Four page 158, example 1]

Again, the formulation of this problem does not fall within the range of relevant parents’ experiential world since most do not qualify for credit transactions, thus leaving children at a loss as to relate to the particulars of the transaction presupposed in the problem formulation, and therefore unable to provide an answer to the question. In this instance, the setting places children in poor rural settings at a disadvantage. Most parents of the students in rural schools are unemployed, therefore, do not qualify for higher purchase terms and conditions. By implication, they cannot purchase big furniture sets such as the lounge suite, suggesting that their children rarely interact with statements of account. Such lack of experience could imply problems in interpreting statements of accounts on the part of the children. Given such a problem, poor rural students may struggle to interpret the context to understand the concepts behind hire purchase terms and conditions, before providing a correct solution.

(b) What is the difference in price between a transaction on terms (installment plan), and a cash transaction if the price is calculated less deposit?

Tennis courts are unknown in the vicinity of rural students with the result that effectively, the question is misleading in that it calls for some familiarity with the rules of the game. Students would, therefore, understandably be at a loss to provide the correct answer. But even so, knowing the answer would say nothing about their mathematical ability or insight since knowing the answer required familiarity with rules, not mathematical insight (Siregar & Siagian, 2019; Mwakapenda, 2008). Usually, the game is associated with rich elite and urban schools in Zimbabwe. Since most students in rural areas do not play tennis, they do not know the rules, that for example, tennis matches are never drawn, they are either won or lost. Due to a lack of relevant experiences with tennis matches and related rules, most rural students are more likely to face challenges in providing the solution. In another context taken from Focus on Mathematics Book 4 page 307, example 4, read as: Example 2 A furniture firm offers a lounge set for $21 000 cash or a deposit of $ 6 000 and 12 monthly installments of $1 500 each.

(a) Determine the total amount due and payable if the suite is bought on credit (installment plan).

[Source: New General Mathematics Book 3 page 280 number 8]

Thestudentshaveprobably never been exposed to water units and water bill statements. Such a lack of prior knowledge of concepts like fixed monthly charge, unit charge, and rates work could cause problems in their interpretation of water bill statements. In their impoverished areas, most rural learners would not be able to conceptualize this and other related questions. Example 4: The following graph represents the acceleration of a car that starts from rest in 1st gear and then changes to second gear at an appropriate speed.

(a) Give the acceleration rate and distance covered in 1st gear.

Most students in rural schools have no cars at home, suggesting that they have no prior knowledge of how gears work. Those who have cars at home have prior experience of how car gears work and are better placed to interpret this question. When applied to kinematics as in the problem above, the students would struggle with the context before the concept and the doing of mathematics. Unfamiliarity with motor vehicles and their performance characteristics (car ownership is rare among rural poor) would leave students unable to relate intelligently to the question and, therefore, at a loss as to answer it correctly.

(b) If the car travels 54m in 2nd gear, find the value of v and the acceleration rate achieved in that gear.

Example 3 a) Mr. Moyo’s water meter reading for the end of March and April was 15674 and 15718, respectively. Given that there is a fixed monthly charge of $12.50, the unit charge is 62 cents and rates work were charged at 10 %/dollar, find the amount Mr. Moyo will be charged for water used in April [Source: Focus on Mathematics Book 4 page 328, example 4]

Again, students in rural areas are not exposed to the concepts of paying for water use at all, let alone at a fixed monthly charge. Therefore, they would again be at a disadvantage caused by unfamiliarity, this time with the conceptual framework of municipal services and routine payments made to the supplier. Unfamiliarity, might, therefore, tend to derail their attempts to deal with the problem. Most rural schoolsdonothavetappedwaterwithmeterreaders.

The examples above are a small sample of numberless questions of the same kind that are beyond the ken of the rural poor, who need to understand the context to visualize the situation successfully and apply their minds to the particulars of the question within the parameters of the envisaged context. As noted (Graven, 2014; Zengin, 2019) students from a poor rural background are disadvantaged by the task of overcoming the hurdle of understanding the context or setting first, and only then, within the relevant contextual parameters, address the mathematical particulars of the problem at issue. In a sense, therefore, questions such as those considered above are coded, and the rural poor lack the key to the code, unlike their privileged peers, because they are unfamiliar with the contextual framework of thequestions putto them. Theyare, therefore, effectivelylocked out of the inner

Example 5: The diagram shows a swimming pool of uniform cross section ABCDEF, length 50m, and breadth 40m. AB = 50m, BC = 3, 5 m, DC = FE = 20 m, AF = 1, 5 m, and BÂF = A�� ̂ E = B�� ̂ D = A�� ̂ C = 90o

Calculate (i) Total area to be painted [2] (ii) Number of containers of paint required; [3] (iii) Financial consideration implied. [1] [Source: Mathematics Paper 2 June 2010 number [11] Most rural schools nor the communities surrounding them have no swimming pools, which are status symbols in Zimbabwe. Students would, therefore, be contextually be confused with the question since swimming pools are not part of their experiential world. The learners who have never seen a swimming pool have no obvious understanding of the context and the related concepts as compared to the affluent children who have the day to day experiences with swimming pools. Such lack of prior experience or knowledge of swimming pools could imply problems in their interpretation of the cross sectional area of the swimming pool and other related questions above, for example, they might mistakenly include the top of the figure representing the pool as a surface to be painted merely because they are unfamiliar with the phenomenon as a whole.

(a) Calculate (i) The cross sectional area ABCDEF [3] (ii) Swimming pool capacity in kilolitres [1] (iii) The length of DE [2] (b) The vertical walls of the pool area to be painted. Given that 7 litres of paint are needed to cover 10m2 of wall surface and that the paint is sold in 5 litre containers at $27each.

9. Documentary analysis: Language demands in mathematics education.

(i) Calculate his monthly repayment.

Repayment started recently so the amortisation of capital is still negligible. It would be advisable to answer this question with the aid of a calculator.

The documentary analysis also indicates several long and wordy questions from textbooks and past examination papers which demand proficiency in the English Language (see examples 6 8).

(iii) If the interest goes up to 18%, calculate the new monthly repayment if the loan is still to be paid off in 20 years.

(ix) Calculate the percentage increase in monthly repayments from 17% over 20 years to 18% over 25 years.

(viii) Calculate the total amount repaid over 25 years in this case.

(iv) Calculate the new total amount he will pay for 20 years at 18%.

[Source: Focus on Mathematics Book 4 page 341 number 21]

sanctum of the contextual world of their privileged peers. Hence, their underperformance at mathematics is not because of an innate incapacity but is because of poverty, a factor beyond their control.

(ii) Calculate the total amount he would pay during 20 years at 17%.

Example 6 i. The mortgage rates go up from 17% to 18%. What difference is this going to make to someone who has a mortgage? Answer the following questions to obtain some idea of the difference it will make and the different ways of coping with the increase.

(v) Compute the percentage increase in the monthly repayments.

(vii) If he decides that rather than pay the whole monthly increase he will reschedule his loan so that it is now repayable over 25 years, calculate the monthly repayment at 18% over 25 years.

The question above is too long and wordy to the extent that the students with a poor command of the English language are more likely to get confused. Eventually, such students would fail to solve the questions in the problem (Magableh & Abdullah, 2020). Aspects of this question on mortgage and amortization of capital are unfamiliar to the students from poor rural backgrounds. Students are declared incapable of coping with the level of formulation from the viewpoint of English proficiency, exacerbated by the

(a) A man has a loan of $40 000. At present he is paying it off over 20 years and the interest rate is 17%.

(vi) Compute the percentage increase in the total amount repaid.

(x) Calculate the percentage increase in total payment from 17% over 20 years to 18% over 25 years.

(a) Using the above information, write down the inequalities which satisfy these conditions. [4]

(b) For Mr. Hove to make a profit, he should manufacture more than 2 tables and at least 4 chairs. State the two inequalities which satisfy these conditions. [2]

(d) Write down all possible combinations which give the maximum number of[2]tables.

[Source: Mathematics Paper 2 June 2008, number 12]

proceedfromawrongpremisein

(b) The profit on a can of Kula is 3c and on a can of Sundown is 2c. Use your graph to estimate the number of cans each that the shop keeper should order to maximise his/her [Source:profit.

(c) The point (x; y) on the graph represents x tables and y chairs manufactured. Using a scale of 2cm :2 tables on the x axis and 2cm:2 chairs on the y axis, draw the axes for 0 ≤ x ≤ 16 and 0 ≤ y ≤ 16 indicate the regions in which (x;y) should lie. [4]

(a) The part (x; y) represents x cans of Kula and y cans of Sundown. Using the scale of 1cm to represent 100 cans on each axis construct and indicate clearly by shading the unwanted regions, the region in which (x; y) must lie.

Example 7 A shopkeeper has two brands of soft drinks namely Kula and Sundown, which are packed in cans of identical size. He intends to order fresh supplies and finds that he has room for up to 1 000 cans. He knows that Sundown is more popular and so proposes to order at least twice as many cans of Sundown as Kula. He wishes, however, to have at least 100 cans of Kula and not more than 800 cans of Sundown. Taking x to be the number of Kula and y to be the number of cans of Sundown which he orders, write down the four inequalities involving x and/or y which satisfy these conditions.

New General Mathematics Book 4 page 147 number 10] Example 8 You should answer this question on a sheet of graph paper. Mr. Hove manufactures tables and chairs using softwood and hardwood. A table requires 5m of softwood and 3m of hardwood. A chair requires 3m of softwood and 4m of hardwood.

multifaceted, or rather hierarchical nature of the problem. For example, the successive steps in answering the question depended on producing a correct answer in dealing with the preceding step, so an error at the first step precluded the possibility of earning marks for subsequent steps which, perforce, would

eachinstance.Besidesthat,the studentisdoubly disadvantaged because the context of the problem is alien to the student’s experiential world, with the result that unfamiliarity would tend to throw him/her mentally off balance.

Mr. Hove has 45m of softwood and 40m of hardwood. Consider x to represent the number of tables made and y to represent the number of chairs made.

The examples cited above typify previous ‘O’ level examination papers from which they were taken, therefore, the poor rural students to whom they are presented typically perform poorly at mathematics education.

10. Mapping way forward

Examples 7 and 8 above are also too long and wordy, as such, could confuse those students with a weaker comprehension of the English language. The evidence has been shown before from the studies by Bethel (2016), Magableh and Abdullah (2020) and Nurul and Yunus (2020) By implication, students could experience problems in interpretingthe question into accurate graphical work. The examples cited above are just but a few from ‘O’ level mathematics past examination question papers and ‘O’ level mathematics textbooks in current use. As noted above, such long and wordy questions are more likely to pose a challenge to most poor rural students who have weaker comprehension of the English language.

11. Summary and conclusion

The problem affecting rural students is the fact that besides having to deal with the bare facts of mathematical problems that severely challenge their mathematical skills and proficiency in the first place, they are wildly unfamiliar with the language and contexts in which mathematical problems are presented to them. This unfamiliarity, therefore, presents a mental barrier that had to be overcome in addition to the challenge to their mathematical ability a double burden, compared to their more fortunate peers. I proffer the suggestion that mathematics textbooks and examinations should have multicultural and diverse contexts to cater for the heterogeneous society. The readability of texts and questions should also be accommodative so that learners from diverse contexts of the multilingual society equally enjoy the opportunity to do mathematics.

The foregoing paper employs Bourdieu’s cultural capital theory to guide in document analysis on how language and cultural capital influence achievement in mathematics education by rural learners. The cultural capital theory was considered to determine the possibility that, in the instances under review, the education system is biased in favour of the dominant culture, thus, foregrounding that culture at the expense of socially eliminating the lesser culture (ie. representatives who lack ‘cultural capital’). It seems reasonable to conclude that mathematics education in the chosen setting conforms essentially to the position of Bourdieu, namely, that where mathematics education is concerned, middle class children routinely find themselves on familiar territory. The rural students lack the relevant cultural experiences that place them in a privileged context in which mathematics problems are presented. Rural learners bear a double burden in their quest for mathematical knowledge because they have to come to terms with the shockingly unfamiliar context and language first, and then assimilate within that context, the mathematical knowledge presented to them. In these circumstances, they are likely to learn by rote without truly internalising the conceptual framework at issue, with the result that their knowledge is not operationalised and cannot be applied in practice or linked to prior knowledge. Learning that cannot be applied is meaningless to the learner. Rural learners’ problems in comprehending the English language could lead to difficulties in learning mathematics because the readability of ‘O’ Level Mathematics textbooks and examinations word problems were found to be too high for them.

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387 ©2020TheauthorsandIJLTER.ORG.Allrightsreserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 6, pp. 387 400, June https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.6.220203 Emergency Online Teaching in Economic and Management Sciences Necessitated by the COVID 19 Pandemic: The Need for Healthy Relations in a Rural Schooling Context Habasisa Molise Sol Plaatje University, South Africa https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3971-0718 Bekithemba Dube University of the Free State, South Africa https://orcid.org/0000 0003 4327 7838 Abstract. TopreventthespreadoftheCOVID 19 virus,thepandemic has necessitated new ways of teaching that favour online learning. Emergency online teaching (EOT) was adopted to address various challenges, such as a lack of competence in teachers for teaching online using digital learning management systems, shortcomings regarding internet connectivity, and resistance by teachers to using EOT. Relational leadership couched the study, with an emphasis on constructing positive relationshipstoforgesustainablelearningconditions. A Whatsappgroup was created to facilitate focus group discussions. The study found that constructinisthroughteachingforneedEOTandlearningisdesirableanddoable,eventhoughvariouschallengestobeovercome,especiallyinruralschools.Therefore,thereisaneedteacherstoadjusttheirsubjectteachingplans,assessmentdetailsandmaterials,andtoadoptnewwaysofinteractingwithlearnersEOTduringtheCOVID19pandemic.Theargumentofthepaperthat,inthecontextofCOVID19,educationstakeholdersshouldinvesthealthyrelationshipstofacilitatetheadoptionofEOT,inordertoconducivelearningconditionsinruralcontexts. Keywords: emergency online teaching; teaching and learning; COVID 19; economic and management sciences; rural schools 1. Introduction The world has been hit by an outbreak of the acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS CoV 2), the highly infectious virus that causes COVID 19. At the time of writing this paper, 14,348,8581 people had contracted the disease, 1 This data was provided by World Health Organization on 21 July 2020.

Sintema (2020) reports that few developing countries are ready to implement online education. Lack of training and experience is exacerbated by inadequate resources to support online teaching and learning. Teachers of economic and management sciences (EMS) experience a variety of challenges in infusing EOT in their teaching (Amadi, 2013). Bradley and Stewart (2002, p. 250) define EOT “as a collective term for a wide range of software, telecommunications and information management techniques, applications and devices, that are used to create, produce, analyze, process, package, distribute, receive, retrieve, store, and transform information”. In the context of this paper, EOT refers to EMS teachers using computers and cell phones to share information or to exchange ideas, thereby making human interaction and teaching easier and more convenient.

The problems of using online teaching as an alternative to face to face teaching are not unique to South Africa. Countries such as Nigeria faced a similar challenge, even before the outbreak of COVID 19 (Ogunyinka, Okeke & Adedoyin, 2015). In Zimbabwe, as argued by Musarurwa (2016), despite computers being donated to some schools, neither teachers nor learners were capacitated to use computers. African schools, particularly those in rural areas, such as Thabo Mufatsanyana, where this study was based, should increase their use of EOT (Olugbeko & Izu, 2013); perhaps it is a new normal that will continue to be used, even post COVID 19.

Social distancing, self isolation, and prohibiting people from gathering in large numbers (Krishnakumar & Rana, 2020) have become the new normal, thus, affecting the education sector too. Consequently, the global COVID 19 pandemic has reconstructed the teaching and learning terrain, causing many schools and teachers around the world to look into how they can continue teaching their learners remotely to compensate for lost face to face learning time (Aboderin, 2015; Adedeji, 2011; Afolabi, 2015). Many schools have turned to online learning as an alternative to traditional ways of teaching, and mini videos, online consultation time and live streaming (Afolabi, 2015; Bir, 2019) have become the new normal. According to Mwakyusa (2016), online learning is defined as the conducting of learning activities across various information and communication technology (ICT) platforms, such as computers, software and the internet. According to Amry (2014), online learning goes beyond the classroom walls, and allows the lecturer and the student to interact in spite of distance and time constraints. While the idea of online learning is good, and seen as a way to save the academic year, many countries are under the mistaken impression that their schools are ready for emergency online teaching (EOT), despite teachers and learners having little or no experience or training in the use of the new mode of learning (Krishnakumar & Rana, 2020).

While the government of South Africa has realised the importance of developing EOT for teaching purposes, in practice, little has materialised regarding the provision of EOT technology, especially in rural areas, the capacitation of

and over half a million people have died (World Health Organization, 2020). In response to the pandemic, many countries have resorted to locking down their citizens, thereby halting the production of economic services and products – also in the Global South (Ebrahim, Ahmed, Gozzer, Schlagenhauf & Memish, 2020).

Using EOT provides flexible teaching and learning, which can take place anywhere and at any time (Dube, 2020). We argue that, while the idea of going online seems to be a good one, one that will help teachers to learn about and

2. The conception of emergency online teaching in the rural context during the COVID 19 crisis The COVID 19 pandemic presents ambivalence for most schools in rural settings (Cristobal Fransi, Montegut Salla, Ferrer Rosell & Daries, 2020) in terms of the execution of curriculum packages. According to Dieltiens (2008, p. 40), “rural schools certainly have problems particular to them; predicaments which require systemic effort and creative ideas”. Despite the trajectories facing them, teachers are expected by the Department of Basic Education to hit the ground running and save the academic year, while the Department ignores the challenges teachers face with regard to online teaching despite calls by governments that EOT must be carefully designed and planned to facilitate learning (Czerniewicz et al., 2019; Krishnakumar & Rana, 2020). We argue that the threat posed by COVID 19 affects teaching and learning at rural schools worst, yet, there are expectations that learning should continue through EOT. EOT requires a shift of “instructional delivery to an alternate delivery mode due to crisis circumstances” (Du Plessis & Mestry, 2019, p. 9) though these modes of delivery may continue to be used in schools, even after the COVID 19 pandemic. The primary objective in these “circumstances is not to re create a robust educational environment but rather to provide access to instruction and instructional supports in a manner that is quick to set up and is reliably available during an emergency or crisis” (Hodges, Moore, Locke, Trust, & Bond, 2020, p. 1).

teachers, or the provision of free or cheap data. In South Africa, data is expensive and poor connectivity is a common constraint at rural schools (Dube, 2020; Du Plessis & Mestry, 2019). What we have observed is that, even though there is evidence that more computers are available in schools in South African townships today, problems, such as lack of skills and training needed for computer use, persist. We argue that, for progress to promote learning during the COVID 19 pandemic, there is a need for teachers in rural contexts to adopt online learning with rational, calm, cautious and optimistic attitudes, and without panic. The outbreak is a reminder that we are part of a global community that shares an uncertain future and that no one can meet common challenges alone (Czerniewicz, Trotter & Haupt, 2019). Therefore, teachers need to be capacitated to revise their subject teaching plans, assessment details (Mtetwa, Chabongora, Ndemo & Maturure, 2015) and teaching materials, and to adopt new ways of interacting with students. EOT teaching and classroom teaching differ in terms of methods and skills needed (Keskin, 2019),hence, teachers need to change learning styles, from those suitable for a traditional classroom setup, to virtual learning. Teachers have to adapt to EOT, and fully integrate ever emerging technology, contents and pedagogies. Using video to simulate human interactions in a classroom is one of the factors that makes video teaching successful. In addition, teachers should take note of issues relating to learners’ privacy, their home environment, whether they have access to good quality Wi Fi connections at home, their network speed and stability (Basilaia & Kvavadze, 2020), cybersecurity and time differences for students in different regions.

implement online teaching, support for teachers is undoubtedly more available at urban than at rural schools. We argue that, in the present COVID 19 crisis, learning facilitators will not be able to offer the same level of support to all teachers, considering a narrow preparation window. Our argument is informed by theunderstandingthat teacherswhoarenear the centre or city often gain better skills than those on the periphery, such as rural teachers, which affects performance at rural schools. Therefore, this paper advises considering the availability of infrastructure or learning devices around EOT that have been set up to support teaching and learning, such as computers/laptops, internet access, and counselling in rural contexts. We argue that EOT is an instructional component of an overall teaching and learning environment, which was specifically designed to support learners, and which, in the spirit of curriculum justice, should also be accessible to rural learners. Ultimately, effective EOT requires an investment in an environment that is geared to provide support to both teachers and learners, an environment that takes the time to identify the needs for rural schools (Vilppu, Södervik, Postareff & Murtonen, 2019).

3. Relational leadership in the context of COVID-19 We couched this paper in relational leadership, in order to interrogate effective EOT and to enhance curriculum delivery at rural schools during the COVID 19 crisis (Akrama, Leia & Haidera, 2016). We grounded this study in relational leadership because “it shifts attention from leadership, being what leaders do and instead” (Cleary, Du Toit, Scott & Gilson, 2018, p. 11). The theory sees “leadership as an emergent relational accomplishment that seeks to help in the acclimatization of educators in EOT crises and forges alternatives to problem solving techniques through nonthreatening and in respectful ways” (Moona, Choib & Armstrong, 2018, p. 44). Relational leadership can “contribute to enhancing curriculum processes and reducing unnecessary resistance in executing curriculum packages” (Breedt & Niemandt, 2013, p. 20). Relational leadership offers an “overarching social influence process (a desire to change for the better) through which emergent coordination and change of values, attitudes, behaviours and ideologies construct a conducive milieu” (Cleary et al., 2018, p. 19) for teaching and learning in the time of COVID 19. We chose relational leadership since it is “purposeful and builds commitment towards positive change which is inclusive of people with diverse points of view and empowers those involved in the curriculum implementation process” (Wong, Ramalu & Chuah, 2019, p. 5). Relational leadership “represents the influencing processes wherein school leaders connect people, purpose and practices in order to improve efficiency and effectiveness” of EOT process. Furthermore, relational leadership emphasises the “reciprocal interrelating between workers and managers to make sense of a situation, to determine what is to be done and how to do it” (Karaaslan, 2015, p. 22). Moreover, relational leadership creates the “concept of reciprocal control, a

Therefore, this paper supports the use of EOT during the COVID 19 crisis, but cautions that its implementation should be sensitive to different school contexts, since rural schools struggle with technology infrastructure and capacitation, and cannot, therefore, ensure expanded instructional opportunities. Furthermore, healthy relations between teachers, learners and department officials are essential for the success of learning during the COVID 19 crisis.

4. Problem statement

form of control that is not coercive but attempts to coordinate all functions collectively, underpinned by self control” (White, 2015, p. 22). Moreover, relational leadership enables “participation and collectively creating a sense of direction [as opposed] to control and exercising authority” (Zhang & Yao, 2019, p. 11). Informed by relational leadership, EOT implementation can be a satisfactory journey, which will involve teachers and school administrators travelling together to construct new learning spaces that are not common in rural contexts.

5. Research method and design

The “emergency online teaching (EOT) requires careful thinking about how learners and teachers are equipped for the shift and serious consideration about whether the teaching style is still effective when taken from the classroom and transposed to technological devices” (Basilaia & Kvavadze, 2020, p. 5). Most learners in rural areas lack internet connectivity, laptops at home, and supportive parents (Dube, 2020, p. 8), while teachers lack skills for teaching using technology, and access to resources to support online learning.

This qualitative study used focus group discussions to gather data. The groups comprised 10 teachers in Thabo Mofutsanyane district in the Free State province of South Africa. Focus group discussion “is frequently used as a qualitative approach to gain an in depth understanding of social issues. The method aims to obtain data from a purposely selected group of individuals rather than from a statistically representative sample of a broader population” (Nyumba, Wilson, Derrick & Mukherjee, 2018, p. 1). “[F]ocus group discussions are relevant for this study because it is made of relatively homogeneous groups of participants have the opportunity to stimulate, support and build on each other’s ideas on the topic” (Balch & Mertens, 1999, p. 276). For sampling, we used purposive sampling (Onwuegbuzie, 2007), which enables the researcher to locate knowledgeable individuals who can contribute to the study of thephenomenon under discussion. To complement the purposive sampling, the study alsousedthesnowball or chain method to achieve a good representation of the population. Snowballing helps to complement purposeful sampling, and involves interviewees giving the researcher the names other potential interviewees, to enrich the composition of the research team with knowledgeable people (Kirchherr & Charles, 2018). The study comprised 10 participants, each with more than five years teaching experience in rural contexts. This experience was important for providing deeper perspectives of the realities faced by rural teachers, and the alternatives they have used over the years to address crises. Due to the need for social distancing as a measure to contain COVID 19, we created Whatsapp focus group discussions (Reeve & Partridge, 2017). The Whatsapp group provided fast and effective discussions among the participants. The participants responded to two questions: What are the COVID 19 EOT challenges experienced by economic and management sciences teachers in the rural context? How can healthy relations enhance learning in the context of COVID 19? To collect data, the researchers and participants discussed and responded to the research questions for an hour twice a week. The entire research took three weeks to complete. The research adhered

7. Findings

For data analysis, the thematic approach proposed by Laws, Harper and Marcus (2003, p. 59) was used. The seven steps of the approach are the following: Step 1: Reading and rereading all the collected data; Step 2: Drawing up a preliminary list of themes arising from the data; Step 3: Rereading the data; Step 4: Linking the themes to quotations and notes; Step 5: Perusing the categories of themes to interpret them; Step 6: Designing a tool to help discern patterns in the data; and Step 7: Interpreting the data and deriving meaning.

6. Data analysis and ethics considerations

Mr Mofokeng (a participant) confessed that, “For me using EOT is a great challenge as I am technologically challenged. I didn’t grow up having a computer at home; I did not use it during my training of becoming a teacher. So due to the lack of competency I have in EOT, I prefer to use the old method that I know. Because these new things are making my lesson planning harder”.

The data collected through the Whatsapp group discussion was transcribed, coded and arranged into themes that emerged as a response to the research questions (Birt, Scott, Cavers, Campbell, & Walter, 2016; Gunawan, 2015). To ensure that data reflected the views of participants, member checking was done, thus, we returned the themes that had been generated to the participants to verify if they reflect the discussions. Member checking is used to validate, verify, or assess the trustworthiness of qualitative results (Doyle, 2007). Furthermore, member checking is ideal for qualitative research, sinceit explores whether results resonate with participants’ experiences (Birt et al., 2016, p. 1807). During the member checking process, the themes were identified, and these themes will be discussed in detail in the findings section.

The following themes emerged as findings from the data that was analysed: teachers’ capacitation for EOT in a rural context, maximising internet connectivity in a rural context, and reducing teachers’ resistance to using EOT during the COVID 19 crisis. Teachers’ capacitation in a rural context for emergency online teaching Despite various efforts to promote online learning, it appears that rural teachers are left behind compared to urban teachers, which impedes efforts by teachers to integrate EOT in the school curriculum. Groundwork to ensure that teachers are computer literate must be done at the pre service teacher education level.

to ethics considerations and was covered under the University of the Free State ethics protocol UFS HSD2017/0998. The research participants consented to participate in this research, and pseudonyms were used to protect the identities of the participants. The participants were also assured that the data collected would only be used for academic purposes, with the specific aim of enhancing online learning in the context of COVID 19.

The literature found that teachers complained about how difficult it was to gain access to computers (Dube, 2020). Devices remain a serious challenge that hinders the success of online learning. In this regard, Letuka said, Mr Moloi: Honourable Sebeko, the materials and resources play a vital role in the implementation and infusion of EOT with the teaching and teaching and I am sure you know that. I as Moloi realize that the motivation and confidence to infuse EOT in the teaching and teaching can only come from having an access to EOT equipment, material or resources.

Other participants added to the discussion: Mr Dipadi: Ms Matsikane our situation here in rural places is so sad. It is hard for us to apply for jobs online or at the internet because of the thing on our computers that always says “no internet access” and poor Msconnectivity.Matsikane: Mr Dipabi I hear you complain about internet and poor connectivity. Can you use a computer?

hinderstheinfusion ofEOTatrural schools fordeliveringEMSlessons.According to Amadi (2013, p. 10), the “lack of personal access, technical problems, or a lack of teacher competence can lead directly to a lack of teacher confidence”

From the words of the participants, it is evident that the lack of internet connectivity in rural areas compromises the opportunities for effective online teaching. Most rural schools “continue to lag behind compared to urban ones, while (internet) connectivity is quite inferior compared to the availability of computers in all schools and geographic contexts” (Cristobal Fransi et al., 2020, p. 33).

Mrs Lesiba added, “These children are intelligent; they catch fast compared to us technologically challenged old women. They even help us in preparing the lesson after school during the afternoon studies. Slowly but surely we will get there and utilise EOT effectively at our poor school will be of a great transformation”.

Mr Dipadi: Khidik! Hell mme waka ke mobe haholo [I am too good]. When I get to towns visiting my step father, where there is internet access I download and download these novels internet and print them out because I read them when I am back at the villages because I get bored.

It is apparent from this extract that teachers’ lack of competence in operating EOT

Mrs Lesiba’s words show that teachers need to be capacitated on how to facilitate their lessons online. Capacitation can be successful if teachers are receptive to change and embrace the new way of teaching. Through this, rural teachers can become confident about using EOT effectively in their teaching. Maximising internet connectivity in a rural context for effective emergency online teaching

Mrs Morobi added, “The problem I have is that I trained as a teacher long back before the computers were introduced so adjusting to this online thing is rather very difficult. Sometime I feel I should just do nothing and wait for schools to open”. These comments show that some teachers resist change, because they are attached to the traditional or old ways of teaching and learning. By introducing EOT as a new mechanism of teaching, we realise that humans, including parents and educators, tend to be reluctant to adapt new methods, as they feel comfortable with the traditional habits they have used for many years. Mr Moreki had this to say: “I think this is the reason why they are not showing any interest to use computers for online learning. They think that it is so hard to learn how to use a computer or they might do something wrong and break something.”

Reducing teachers’ resistance to emergency online teaching during the COVID-19 crisis The literature found that, “teachers’ attitudes and beliefs toward the use of technology in their classroom play a major role in the extent to which they will integrate computers into their classrooms and provide their students opportunities to engage with technology for educational purposes” (Du Plessis & Mestry, 2019, p. 11).

Adedeji (2011, p. 45) reports that “participants complained of being burden with teaching load, planning duties and other school work such that they had no time to learn, to keep up with and plan to use new software”.

There is a need to demystify and reduce fear of using technology that some teachers have. Encouraging teachers to invest more time in interacting with technology and online learning packages can assist in demystifying their fear. According to Tarusikirwa (2016, p. 12), “lack of time is a factor that hinders technology integration in schools”. To illustrate this, Mrs Selepe explained: “Time is very precious and should and should be utilized as productive as much as possible. In infusing EOT, time remains jealous. It is going fast, so that leaves our teachers no time to be equipped with needed skills. When we concentrate on the equipping learners and teachers in terms of EOT, we lag behind with regard to the syllabus and department official are always on our case. It is really hard to make provision as nowadays we are compelled to even work on Saturdays. There is really no time to practice and be equipped because the implementation of our curriculum doesn’t really make a provision for such activities. Time is not enough”

To this end, the participants reported the following. Miss Moloi said, “in my times I was doing very well at school, I used to write the notes the teachers wrote for us on the chalkboard and study them when I got home… I don’t think teachers have to be put under pressure to get EOT training because they know how to teach well using chalk and chalkboards“.

9. Discussion of findings

Another finding of the study is that, to ensure the success of curriculum during the COVID 19 pandemic, there is a need for education stakeholders to set aside their differences, and to embrace and invest in ensuring healthy relationships.

8. Need for healthy relationships in curriculum implementation during COVID-19

COVID 19 is now a new normal, which requires people to work collectively with the aim of ensuring that curriculum packages are executed in a way that assists learners, especially those from deprived contexts, like rural schools. With healthy relationships, the study found that teachers, department officials and learners could share useful learning information and ideas about using various gadgets to support learning in times of crisis. Based on this finding, we agree with Komives, Lucas and McMahon (1998, p. 104), who argue that, “when school leaders, curriculum planners and politicians frame relations in respect, there is the possibility of collaboration, reflection, feedback, civil confrontation, community building, and a level of profound understanding called meaning making”. Alsubaie (2016, p. 11) agrees, and states that “teachers and other stakeholders need to create a culture of continuous improvement of relations underpinned by respect, justice, hard work and a desire for the successful execution of curriculum packages”. This finding resonates with the study’s theoretical framing, which emphasises good relations as the best way to forge curriculum in the context of crisis. This confirms James’ (2010, p. 11) argument, that “healthy relations offers an opportunity that allows the containment of emotions, and restrains anger and victimisation”, which is necessary for creating conducive learning environments during the COVID 19 crisis.

The findings discussed above suggest that implementing EOT during COVID 19, while schools are closed because of the pandemic, can be successful if different school contexts (including rural contexts) are considered, and if teachers are capacitated on executing EOT ( Dube, 2020; Shenoy, Mahendra & Vijay 2020). To achieve these prerequisites, “there is a need for extensive preparation, adequate time, and ongoing support for teachers to ensure they have the knowledge, skills, and confidence in teaching” with EOT systems (Schaefer, Rahn, Kopp, Fabian & Brown, 2019, p. 2). The likelihood of success lies in the leadership of schools, and whether they offer moral support to teachers who have to adjust to the new normal. By ensuring inclusivity, the department of basic education ensures that rural areas are considered as deprived sites for learning that require more assistance than urban areas. In addition, many rural teachers suffer from a form of digital inequality, as they lack connections and devices for teaching remotely (Mitchell, 2014). Therefore, to avert disaster in rural schools, the government of South Africa must reconsider support given to rural teachers; the support must be given in the spirit of emancipating teachers to adjust to the new working environment. Accordingly, the work required of teachers must be adjusted, to be more reasonable and flexibility with deadlines for assignments (Hodges et al. 2020) in a friendly though professional manner, which takes the new life of many rural teachers into consideration. In essence, the school management team must understand the school context in which EOT has to be executed, and the reasons for teachers’ resistance toadapting to the digital space requiredby EOT, especially

10. The way forward on emergency online teaching during the COVID19-crisis Informed by the foregoing, we conclude that school management teams need to take into consideration relationships with teacherswhen planningfor EOT during the COVID 19 pandemic, so that teachers have clear guidelines and the necessary capacitation when they enter the digital learning space. We argue that framing EOT or, broadly, digital learning spaces, in relational leadership safeguards against teacher anxiety, and victimisation,which could characterise embarking on EOT during the COVID 19 crisis. In addition, as proposed by Mahlomaholo (2013), relational leadership enables education stakeholders to unleash their human power and potential to transform an otherwise transient situation, such as the COVID 19 pandemic, permanently. Rethinking EOT from the lens of relational leadership offers an opportunity for positive change change that can improve rural school contexts, and which does not intend to expose teachers’ lack of preparedness for EOT, but is aimed at emancipating them.

We remain hopeful that the COVID 19 threat will end someday, and that the skills acquired during the pandemic can continue to be utilised to support effective learning it is likely, considering future public health and safety concerns, and schools being closed due to public protests and natural disasters, such as wildfires or hurricanes (Vilppu et. al., 2019), and now COVID 19. Thus, learning about EOT must become part of teachers' professional development, so that teachers are equipped to use online teaching and learning, instead of being forced by circumstances to engage in EOT.

in rural contexts. In the same vein, teachers should be willing to learn new things and to accept change and implement it accordingly. This mutual willingness to change could be made possible by enacting healthy relationships that are buttressed by the adoption of relational leadership.

The distinctiveness of this article is that we used relational leadership theory in the EOT space. The article’s view is that relationships are essential to ensure success in the teaching and learning of EMS. Again, we make the case that relations should remain framed in collegiality and professionalism, to emancipate education stakeholders in curriculum implementation during and after the COVID 19 crisis. The paper emphasises that school leaders must play a role in “creating relations that capacitate teachers for EOT as well as promote social justice and emancipation to enable teachers to confront new realities with a sense of confidence” (Dube & Jita, 2018, p. 13). In addition, the article departed from common EOT narratives that “teachers cannot effectively implement the EOT, but has argued that when relations are healthy, collaboration and effective implementation are facilitated because teachers feel part of the digital learning space” (Dube & Jita, 2018, p. 12). Finally, the paper exposed how the EOT space can cause anxiety due to unpreparedness, and can create misunderstandings between rural teachers and the school management team in the preparation and execution of EOT.

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11. Concluding reflections In this paper, we highlighted various opportunities for implementing EOT during the COVID 19 crisis. The study reveals that capacitation and support of rural teachers could reduce anxiety and prepare teachers to implement EOT, to safeguard continued teaching during the lockdown period caused by the COVID 19 pandemic. The paper is couched in relational leadership, a theory that emphases the need for good relationships to champion and facilitate curriculum adoption among all stakeholders working together to achieve efficiency in education.Thepaperwas qualitativein nature,with 10 participantsbeing selected using random sampling and snowballing. The study adhered to ethics considerations and hid the identities of the participants, who consented to participate in the study. The main argument is that education stakeholders need to invest in building capacity for EOT in stakeholders at rural schools. By doing so, educators are more likely to cooperate in implementing EOT, as a way to address instructional challenges caused by the COVID 19 pandemic, effectively and efficiently, and to the benefit of teachers and learners in rural contexts.

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Chief Editor Dr. Antonio Silva Sprock, Universidad Central de Venezuela, Venezuela, Bolivarian Republic of Editorial Board Dr. Fatima Zohra Belkhir Benmostefa Dr. Giorgio Poletti Dr. Chi Man Tsui Dr. Fitri Suraya Mohamad Dr. Hernando Lintag Berna Dr. Charanjit Kaur Swaran Singh Dr. Abu Bakar Dr. Eglantina Hysa Dr. Mo'en Salman Alnasraween Dr. Hermayawati Hermayawati Dr. Selma Kara Dr. Michael B. Cahapay Dr. Bunmi Isaiah Omodan Dr. Vassiliki Pliogou Dr. Meera Subramanian Dr. Muhammad Kristiawan Dr. Wahyu Widada Dr. Som Pal Baliyan Dr. Reem Khalid Abu Shawish Dr. Froilan Delute Mobo Dr. Mohamed Ali Elkot Dr. Anabelie Villa Valdez Mr. Teody Lester Verdeflor Panela International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research

Port RepublicLouisof www.ijlter.orgMauritius

PUBLISHER Society for Research and Knowledge Management

IJLTER.ORG Vol 19 No 6 June 2020

Articles inside

Emergency Online Teaching in Economic and Management Sciences Necessitated by the COVID-19 Pandemic: The Need for Healthy Relations in a Rural Schooling Context

Rurality and Exclusion in Ordinary Level Mathematics in Zimbabwe: A Document Analysis

Exploring Accounting Teachers’ Views on the Quality of Accounting Prescribed Textbooks in South Africa

Situating "children-supporting-children" Platform in the Context of the Inclusive Agenda: A Phenomenological Exploration

Assessing the Efficacy of Extensive Reading during Study Abroad: A Time and Place for ER?

Development of Instruments to Measure Mathematical Anxiety of Elementary School Students

The Extent of Bullying Against Students with Learning Disabilities According to the Age Variable

Knowledge

Mass Media Internships in Vocational Training of Students Majoring in Journalism

UAE Elementary Teachers’ Use of ADHD Referral and Management Strategies

The Impact of Educational Technologies on University Teachers’ Self-efficacy