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International Journal of Learning, Teaching And Educational Research
Vol.20 No.5
International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research (IJLTER) Vol. 20, No. 5 (May 2021) Print version: 1694-2493 Online version: 1694-2116
IJLTER International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research (IJLTER) Vol. 20, No. 5
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research The International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research is a peer-reviewed open-access journal which has been established for the dissemination of state-of-the-art knowledge in the fields of learning, teaching and educational research.
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Foreword We are very happy to publish this issue of the International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research. The International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research is a peer-reviewed open-access journal committed to publishing high-quality articles in the field of education. Submissions may include full-length articles, case studies and innovative solutions to problems faced by students, educators and directors of educational organisations. To learn more about this journal, please visit the website http://www.ijlter.org. We are grateful to the editor-in-chief, members of the Editorial Board and the reviewers for accepting only high quality articles in this issue. We seize this opportunity to thank them for their great collaboration. The Editorial Board is composed of renowned people from across the world. Each paper is reviewed by at least two blind reviewers. We will endeavour to ensure the reputation and quality of this journal with this issue.
Editors of the May 2021 Issue
VOLUME 20
NUMBER 5
May 2021
Table of Contents A Review of Standardised Assessment Development Procedure and Algorithms for Computer Adaptive Testing: Applications and Relevance for Fourth Industrial Revolution ......................................................................................... 1 Jumoke I. Oladele, Mdutshekelwa Ndlovu The Development and Use of Improvised Science-Teaching Models: A Case of Natural Science Pre-Service Teachers ................................................................................................................................................................................. 18 Wiets Botes Digital Literacy and its Acquisition by Teachers and Principals at Educational Workplaces .................................... 38 Ahmad A. S. Tabieh, Mohammad Hamzeh, Basel Kh. S. Abu-Foudeh, Niveen Jarrar, Sahar Al-Manaseer, Aysha AlShawabkeh, Rania Seikaly Chronometric Constructive Cognitive Learning Evaluation Model: Measuring the Consolidation of the Human Cognition Schema in Psychology Students' Memory ...................................................................................................... 56 Guadalupe Elizabeth Morales-Martinez, Maria Isolde Hedlefs-Aguilar, Janneth Trejo-Quintana, Yanko Norberto MezquitaHoyos, Miriam Sanchez-Monroy Research Supervision as an Antecedent to Graduate Student Progression in the Public Higher Institutions of Learning in Uganda .............................................................................................................................................................. 73 Paul Netalisile Malunda, Juliet Atwebembeire, Proscovia Namubiru Ssentamu Exploring Match Plate's Potential in Aiding Pupils' Writing Skills ............................................................................... 96 Finola Iba anak Iba anak Patrick, Azlina Abdul Aziz Teachers' Classroom Management Styles and Student-Teacher Connectedness and Anxiety................................. 123 Ray T. Obispo, Gilbert C. Magulod Jr., Darin Jan C. Tindowen Pre-service Social Sciences Teachers' Reflections on a Teacher Preparation Program .............................................. 159 Paul Nwati Munje, Thuthukile Jita 'Don't Delay Learning': Igniting Promotion of Pedagogical Transformation Strategies in Early Childhood Care Education ............................................................................................................................................................................. 177 Shawe Thulebona, Nhase Zukiswa, Dube Bekithemba Online Learning in the Quran Reading Class during Covid-19 Pandemic ................................................................. 142 M. Wildan Bin H. M. Yahya, Taqia Rahman, Asep Ahmad Siddiq, Parihat . Connecting Theory and Practice: Pre-service Science Teachers' Adoption and Implementation of the Demonstration Method ...................................................................................................................................................... 189 Rose Atieno Mutende, Winston Akala, Rosemary K. Imonje Gamification in Higher Education (Case Study on a Management Subject) .............................................................. 211 Andrea Bencsik, Adriana Mezeiova, Bernadett Oszene Samu
Untangling Constructs of Characteristics of Effective Teaching at the Higher Institute of Sport and Physical Education (Tunis)................................................................................................................................................................ 232 Aymen Hawani, Anis ben Chikha, Ghazwa ben Maaouia Problem-Based Learning and Capstone Course Teaching Strategies for University Social Responsibility: The Case of a Packaging Design Course ........................................................................................................................................... 249 Chinlon Lin, Hui Tu Teaching Young Children Early Mathematics through Music and Movement.......................................................... 271 Kamariah Abu Bakar, Mohamad Azam Samsudin The Impact of Contextual Factors on Learning of Agricultural Programmes in Technical and Vocational Education Training Colleges, South Africa ..................................................................................................................... 282 Ramongwane Daniel Sephokgole, Sylvia Manto Ramaligela, Moses Makgato The Effect of 'box-and-bead' Analogy versus Retrieval-based Learning on Retention in Chemical Kinetics among First-Year Chemistry Students .......................................................................................................................................... 300 Taurayi Willard Chinaka
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 5, pp. 1-17, May 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.5.1
A Review of Standardised Assessment Development Procedure and Algorithms for Computer Adaptive Testing: Applications and Relevance for Fourth Industrial Revolution Jumoke I. Oladele and Mdutshekelwa Ndlovu University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, South Africa https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0225-7435 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1187-0875
Abstract. Teaching and learning have gone online in response to the pandemic, which reveals the need for accurately tailored educational assessments to ascertain the extent to which learning outcomes or objectives are achieved. Computer Adaptive Testing (CAT) is a technology-driven form of assessment that tailors items to a candidate's ability level with empirically proven benefits over the fixed-form computer based test. A systematic review was employed which shows that item bank is a key requirement for CAT and the items must through a rigorous item development process to ensure and maintain quality in terms of content, criterion constructs and internal consistency, determining the psychometric validation of behavioural measures while leveraging on variances of Item Response Theory (IRT). Following the item development stage is the need to compile validated items into administrable forms using advanced computer software for automatic test assembly and administration, such as FastTest which allows specifying empirically tried algorithms for CAT from start to termination of the test. This helps to ensure that assessment properly leverages the advantages that CAT holds. Furthermore, the review revealed that CAT has been widely applied with large-scale testing in various fields by educational, health and psychological professionals utilising different IRT models; however only in developed countries. This brings to bear the need for adoption in other parts of the world, for improvements in educational assessments. The interjections of 4IR with AI considering emerging technology aids the CAT algorithm for achieving expert and knowledge-based systems, being a requirement for survival in today’s world. Keywords: item bank algorithms; CAT; 4IR
development;
test-forms;
administration
©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).
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1. Introduction The world is battling with Covid-19 pandemic which has impacted the continents in unimaginable ways. First reported in Wuhan City, Hubei Province, China, on December 31, 2019, the virus has spread like wildfire worldwide with 106,673,989 recorded cases and a death toll of 2,326,773 as of GMT 01.31 on February 8, 2021 (Worldometers, 2021). Statistics show that the virus has spread into 58 African countries, having over four million recorded cases and a death toll of one hundred and twenty-two thousand, one hundred and three, (122,103); 53,757 of which was recorded in South Africa as reported on April 19, 2021 (COVID-19 South African Online Portal, 2021; APO Group, 2021). With over 1.602 m, South Africa remains the worst-hit African country with about 34% of the continent’s recorded cases and 44% of its death toll (Worldometers, 2021). Efforts to flatten the curve in South Africa necessitated the adoption of a fivelevel lockdown approach starting from Level 5 in March 2020 with severe measures to curb the spread of the virus. The country moved gradually down to (adjusted) Level 1 by September 2020 whereby day-to-day activity could recommence, while adhering strictly to Covid-19 safety guidelines (The Presidency, Republic of South Africa, 2020; South African Government Disaster Management Act, 2020 Staff Writer, 2020). The ease of lockdown restrictions that started in May 2020, despite the rapid rise of Covid-19 cases, by South Africa's President was necessitated to salvage the country's deteriorating economic situation, as experienced in other parts of the world (BBC News, 2020; Vecchiatto et al., 2020). The pandemic has resulted in national and international lockdowns to curb the spread of the virus. The lockdown has impacted the educational sector just like all other sectors of the economy with learning having gone virtual in most technologically advanced countries of the world applicable to higher learning institutions (Li & Lalani, 2020; The World Bank Group, 2020a, 2020 b). With virtual learning comes the need for virtual assessments, also known as off-site assessments, which requires the use of high-end technology, such as ComputerBased Testing (CBT). CBT is a method of administering tests where examinations are deployed through a computer terminal, and the responses are recorded and assessed electronically, which can be fixed-form or adaptive (Alabi et al., 2012). A fixed-form CBT is an examination in which the computer presents all items to candidates regardless of their performance, usually presented from the easiest to most difficult items with a limited number of parallel forms (Alabi et al., 2012; Becker & Bergstrom, 2013, Oladele et al., 2020). The adaptive CBT, also known as Computer Adaptive Testing (CAT), is a testing procedure that employs on-the-fly techniques aligned to candidates’ ability levels to enhance the accuracy of testing while reducing test length by up to 50% (Han, 2018; Kimura, 2017, Reckase, 2010). As such, examinees are served items according to their ability levels (difficult/easier), thus guaranteeing a personalised assessment format (Aybek & Demirtasli, 2017). With CAT, a large bank of administrable test items categorised by content, difficulty and parallel forms is required. This review centres on item development, test-forms and CAT algorithms while considering its broad applications and relevance for the Fourth Industrial Revolution. The limitation of the review was identified while giving directions for future research.
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2. Item Bank Development for CAT Item bank for CAT is a collection of calibrated test items based on the parameters of difficulty, discrimination and pseudo guessing having gone through rigorous item development procedures while indicating the history of the items developed. Also, an initial CAT item bank could start with existing paper-and-pencil items while adding new ones, which guarantees that items maintain their psychometric properties while impacting the cost implication of an additional number of items (Linacre, 2000; Thompson & Weiss, 2011). Germain (2006) stressed that quality in item development must be valid in terms of content, criterion constructs and internally consistent, determining the psychometric validation of behavioural measures such as a test. A typical test consists of items carefully developed to ensure that the test is valid, testing what it purposes to test and reliable; that is, tests are consistent over multiple administrations. Preliminary activities for item banking are discussed below: Planning leads to decision-making: planning is necessary before drawing an item bank for CAT, which is premised on a range of decisions arrived at based on the test's purpose. Planning entails determining the test's objectives for curriculum evaluation, students' motivation, placement and selection, remedial work diagnosis, and formative and summative evaluation. Also, it is necessary to consider the likely decisions based on the test results. Another major decision for planning item bank development rests on the available resources considered regarding resources needed in the test development, such as expertise and personnel as well as the technology needed for test administration (Cella et al., 2007). Content analysis and test blueprint: provides a summary of curricular objectives designed by a subject-specific expert in selecting testing domains. The content is supposed to provide the learning experiences that will enable the test to achieve its stated objectives. This analysis of the content helps the test planner determine the relative importance of the content's various aspects and the emphasis on the specifics. Based on this, a test blueprint, also known as Table Of Specification (TOS), can be constructed. As provided by Bloom’s Taxonomy, a TOS aligns with test content rather than the curriculum content and, as such, the latter may be narrower than the former in scope (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001). It is a practical word given to the plan for scripting items for a test. TOS is a two-dimensional table relating instructional objectives to course content and specifying what proportions of these are to be sampled by the test items. The table of specification enables test experts to gauge examinees over knowledge (cognitive), skill (psychomotor) and attitude (affective) depending on the domain of testing interest. It provides the operational guides to ensure that a test addresses what it sets out to address. The preparation of a table of specification requires: 1. The total number of items that will constitute the test. It is important to note that a large item bank is required with adaptive testing and this should have been adequately catered for at the planning stage in terms of expertise as well as personnel engagements; and
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2. The proportion of items developed per content areas, depending on the emphasis placed on it during instruction and the amount of time spent, as illustrated below drawn from topics in a statistics course: ❖ Frequency Distribution 10% ❖ Measure of Central Tendency 15% ❖ Measure of Variability 15% ❖ Measure of Relationship 40% ❖ Relative Standing 20% 3. Deciding on the proportion of items in each process objective depending on the level of the cognitive behavioural objectives. The illustration is as follows: ❖ Remembering (Recall of facts from short-term memory) 20% ❖ Understanding (Recovering appropriate knowledge from long-term memory) 30% ❖ Applying (Using a procedure in a given situation) 15% ❖ Analysing (Breaking instruction into its constituent parts, how it relates to one to another and to an overall structure) 15% ❖ Evaluating (Making judgments based on criteria and standards) 10% ❖ Creating (Placing components of instruction together to form a new, lucid whole) 10% 4. Deciding on the quantity of test items to be constructed in each of the content areas by finding out the respective percentage of the total number of items (see Table 1). 5. Deciding on the quantity of test items to be written in each content area of the cognitive behavioural objectives (see Table 1). It is good to ensure that the sum of the approximated numbers of items should be equal to the total number of the items desired in each of the content areas. This is shown in Table 1. Table 1: Test Blueprint for a Test in Statistical Methods
Evaluating (10%)
Creating (10%)
Total
1
1
1
1
1
6
B (15%)
2
3
1
1
1
1
9
C (15%)
2
3
1
1
1
1
9
D (40%)
5
7
4
4
2
2
24
E (20%)
2
4
2
2
1
1
12
Total
12
18
9
9
6
6
60
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Analysis (15%)
Application (15%)
1
Remembering (20%)
A (10%)
Content Areas
Understanding (30%)
Cognitive Learning Domains
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A: Frequency Distribution; B: Measure of Central Tendency; C: Measure of Variability; D: Measure of Relationship; E: Relative Standing (Revision of Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives)
Table 1 provides a framework for organising information about the students' instructional activities (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001). The foundation of the practice of educational assessment is the extent to which students’ learning outcomes are achieved guided be a table of specification when writing test items, especially with standardised tests. Item writing for CAT: this is activity-centred which entails preparing assessment tasks for gauging students’ knowledge and skill gained from exposure to teaching and learning. It is required that assessment tasks be precise and aligned to learning objectives important for CAT leveraged on using the item information function in terms of difficulty, discrimination and guessing (Veldkamp & Verschoor, 2019). As such, professionalism is required for item writing, which is germane to the effectiveness of CAT. Steps identified for CAT item writing procedure were literature search, formulation of new items or acquiring items from existing test forms where available, field-testing conducted through a computer terminal, and psychometric analyses for the final items selection (Cella et al., 2007; Petersen et al., 2016). Expert evaluations should be carried out to ascertain face and content validation leading to field testing. Thompson (2018) also outlined a four-step procedure for item writing; however, it uses tailor-fit software. The first stage consists of feasibility and planning studies using CATSim, and this precedes the item bank development using FastTest, a comprehensive assessment ecosystem (Thompson, n.d.). In the third stage, items are pilot tested using FastTest while, at the fourth stage, item analysis is performed and other due diligence using Iteman or Xcalibre. Xcalibre provides item response theory calibration for a wide range of assessment types, using all the major dichotomous and polytomous models. Its unique features allow for automatic report generation, with full result tables and figures (item response functions and standard error functions) already embedded. While reiterating that CAT is not easy, the goal is to ease the task using clean software with no need for code writing while aligning with best practices and international standards. Zhang et al. (2019) developed CAT to assess internet addiction while investigating related validity issues. The standardised scales used had a total of 59 carefully calibrated polytomous scored items and satisfying the IRT assumptions of unidimensionality, as well as a good item-model fit. Also, items did not function differentially. According to Downing (2006), specialised training on item writing is as important as content knowledge. Quality item writing skills can be ascertained by constant practice and critical reviews from experts (Jozefowicz et al., 2002). Item Review: High expertise is required in writing test items after which item review is mandatory. Item review ensures clarity to all and gives evidence about the quality of the items carried out by test and subject experts for content
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quality; items void of ambiguity; identifying unintended clues to the correct answer; items with no correct or multiple answers plausible distracters; language difficulties; redundant words; grammatical faults; and sensitivity to issues that could bring bias to the test, such as cultural and gender among others. Item review is essential in the item development process leading to the empirical trial, also known as face validity, which is geared towards ascertaining that a test measures only the intended. The gold standard is to have independent subject experts’ evaluatively correlate test items with instructional objectives and blueprint (National Research Council-NRC, 2004). Izrad (2005) reiterated that item review is central to the test development process, assessment approaches and curriculum intentions. The author also stressed the benefits of having a team of item reviewers as it provides the benefit of interaction with colleagues to avoid the possibility of idiosyncrasy and limited view of the topic to be assessed. As such, selecting an appropriate sample of evidence will foster accuracy on decisions made from educational assessments and enhance efficiency. Other relevant aspects of the item review process are items scoring, availability of practice items, need for separate answer sheet, the appropriate time for the actual test, score key to be used as errors in score keys will create interpretation problems and test administration information to be provided at the trial test stage (Izrad, 2005). Trial/Pilot Testing: this is a means of subjecting proposed test items to testing with a comparable group of students to the target group as a selection criterion. Data generated from this exercise are used to assess test item quality based on the item parameters of difficulty (denoted by b), discrimination (denoted by a) and guessing (denoted by c) in alignment with the test model fit (Oladele et al., 2020). Pilot testing in the item development process is essential before use with the target group and requires sound planning concerning gender, age and schooling level group required for the trials and administration modes. Generally, Izard (2005) explained that trial testing would help establish item parameters, the appropriate number of final test items, ascertain the administration instructions' adequacy and if practice items would be required, adequacy of testing time and students' responses pattern analysis. Item Analysis: students' responses are analysed using a variety of methods. It is a systematic evaluation of the effectiveness of each test item. Zhang et al. (2019) explained that developing an item bank for CAT requires evaluation for ascertaining unidimensional assumption of the item pool, a measure of only the main latent trait; selecting the test IRT model-fit, assessing local independence of the item pool for ensuring that within and across examinee response on an item will not be influenced by other test items; assessing item pool monotonicity, connoting that examinees with higher latent trait levels have a probability of higher scores and that items functions at par for examinees who are of the same ability level, also known as Differential Item functioning (DIF) (Aybek & Demirtasli, 2017). According to Izard, 2005, item analysis is aimed at determining:
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Item difficulty: this index is a function of the skill level required by items administered to a particular group and reported for a particular test. Therefore, item difficulty is a measure of the proportion of examinees that answers an item correctly, and so it is a direct function of examinees’ ability level. An achievement test aims to have at least 90% of students completing all the items unless the purpose is to test speed. Item discrimination power: is the correlation between the item responses and correct responses. It is a measure of how a single item separates high from low ability level examinees. At worst, items analysis aids the identification and deletion of items that do not fulfil this role and at best calls for necessary amendment. Pseudo Guessing: this connotes that examinees with very low ability levels have some probability of answering one item correctly. For example, an examinee with no requisite knowledge on a multiple-choice item with four options still has a 25% chance to answer it correctly, based on guessing. There are various models in testing, and the IRT model is commonly used with CAT. IRT models the relationship between examinees’ performance on the test of their ability levels. It is a theory that focuses on the item level of performance. As such, IRT models examinees' performance at each ability level to each item on the test. Standard unidimensional models are the one-parameter logistic (1PL) model (difficulty parameter- b), the two-parameter logistic (2PL) (difficult and the discrimination parameters- b, a) and the three-parameter logistic (3PL) model (pseudo guess parameter- c to b and a)(Aybek & Demirtasli, 2017; Oladele et al., 2020). Some benefits IRT brings to the educational testing table include putting the examinees and items on the same scale: sample independent score equating enables score correspondence between two tests expressed as the item’s characteristic curves; examinee specific Standard Error of Measurement (SEM) is based on individual ability levels computed as a reciprocal of the test information across different ability levels. So the more information a test provides at an ability level, the lesser the SEM and the features of examinees and item on the scale enables the selection of items that provide full information for examinees at theta ability level on which CAT rests as an advanced passing scheme (Wang & Thompson, 2020). Theoretical Models for CAT Item Analysis Items analysis for CAT can be approached with dichotomous Item Response Theory (IRT) deployed as the one, two or three-parameter logistic model (Oladele et al., 2020). With the one-parameter logistic model, (Rasch model), the probability of getting an item (i) correct at an ability level (θ) is expressed as: 𝑃𝑖 (𝜃) =
1 1+𝑒 −𝐷(𝜃−𝑏𝑖 )
Eq. 1
e in the equation is an exponential constant with the value 2.718 (approximately) while D is a scaling factor with the value 1.7 regarded as the “normal metric”. However, the common practice is to set D to 1.0 as the "logistic metric” since the normal ogive model is seldom used in real testing situations. Considering D's
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value is paramount when studying or generating item parameters to ensure that items are tailored to provide maximal information in examining examinee proficiency using the IRT modelled unidimensionally and determinant of the response model adopted (Wise & Kingsbury, 2000). With the 2PLM, each item has its discrimination parameter denoted as a in the equation as against fixing as ‘1’ across all items as practised with 1PLM. Thus, the model is mathematically expressed as: 𝑃𝑖 (𝜃) =
1
Eq. 2
1+𝑒 −𝐷𝑎𝑖 (𝜃−𝑏𝑖 )
Lastly, the 3PLM allows an Item Characteristic Curve to have non-zero lower asymptotes; this is suitable for response data with high likelihood for guessing, such as multiple-choice items, and is expressed as: 𝑃𝑖 (𝜃) = 𝑐𝑖 + (1 − 𝑐𝑖 )
1 1+𝑒 −𝐷𝑎𝑖 (𝜃−𝑏𝑖)
Eq. 3
The ci is the pseudo-guessing parameter which signifies the likelihood of low ability examinees responding to item i correctly. Segall (2005) stressed that the 3PL is commonly used to model multiple-choice items scored dichotomously. Using any of the IRT models permits the comparison of the examinees' ability level based on item parameters used to estimate the probability of the individual’s response to that item (Aybek & Demirtasli, 2017). For CAT, employing IRT models, only suitable examinee ability level is selected from the item pool in an iterative cycle from item selection to stopping criteria until the individual's θ level is estimated accurately. A large items pool is required for each theta level with uniformly distributed difficult, highly discriminating items and low guessing parameters, which can provide greater measurement efficiency (Segall, 2005; Wainer et al., 2000). Carrying out item analysis concurrently with test administration is highly recommended (Linacre, 2000).
3. Test Forms and Administration The next activity is to assemble the test into administrable forms, having carefully undergone item writing. Through reviews to trial testing and analysis, the test assembly process also impacts the final test's validity and score interpretation for effective quality control (Izard, 2005). Test administration is then carried out publicly in the test development process, as a way of striking a balance between theory and practice (McCallin, 2006). Therefore, there is a positive correlation between the standardisation of testing conditions and test administration quality. Proctoring is also germane with off-site testing to curb examination malpractices (Downing, 2006). According to Wise and Kingsbury (2000), a CAT administration is a two-stage process. At the first stage, a test item with an average level of difficulty is administered after which the response is scored, and this forms the basis for the next item selected. At the second stage, candidates’ responses are scored leading to updating the examinees’ proficiency level. These stages go through a cyclic pattern until some stopping criterion is met for a fixed or variable-length test
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(predetermined number of items and a desired level of measurement precision, respectively). The CAT algorithm follows an iterative process until the test converges on a final proficiency estimate for a candidate. The author stressed that, while adaptive testing administration is relatively simple in theory, the practice is more complicated; as discussed under the CAT algorithm section of this literature review. Administered as a CAT, advanced computer software for automatic test assembly such as FastTest is a tried-and-tested enterprise platform for high stakes assessment which leverages on Artificial Intelligence for creating equivalent test forms (Luecht, 2006; Thompson, n.d., 2018). Worthy of note is that such technologies can provide greater ease for the test construction and administration process while also enhancing the items' quality.
4. Algorithm for CAT CAT has mainly been tagged with advantages that give it an edge over the fixed-form of the test. Some of these advantages are shorter tests leading to reduce testing time by 50% or more, equi-precision, examinee experience as CAT provides appropriate challenges for each examinee leading to increased motivation, and much greater security with item-set specific test administration, all these being possible by leveraging on computer technologies (Thompson, 2011). While the advantages of CAT are appealing, there are strict procedures that must be adhered to in ensuring that assessment properly leverages the advantages that CAT brings to the table. Starting point/Item selection: the starting point for CAT is taken as given, it could be based on fixed values, randomly chosen values within a range or mean items parameters. Using a pre-defined IRT models, candidates’ previous response determines item selection from a calibrated bank, which is usually large. With CAT, for candidates a small number of ability-appropriate items is required for accurate ability compared to the fixed-form test, which presents the full length of items to all candidates (Cella et al., 2007). Cella et al. (2007) further stressed that initial item selecting should cover as much of the concept's continuum being measured as possible. Item selection has three significant components, which are item selection, item exposure control and content balancing (Han, 2018). Item selection is driven by item information, with a preference for the most appropriate items. CAT administration combines item selection and ability estimation concurrently with little or no human intervention as the test adapts to the examinee’s ability level (van der Linden & Pashley, 2009). For example, administering easy items to a high ability level examinee makes no sense with passing guaranteed, and vice-versa (Eggen, 1999; Eggen & Straetmans, 2000; Thompson, 2009). Score estimation: with CAT, psychometricians must select on the initial, interim and final score estimates methods (van der Linden & Pashley, 2009). Some modern score estimation methods are Maximum Likelihood Estimation (MLE), Maximum Likelihood Estimation with Fences (MLEF), Bayesian Maximum a Posteriori (MAP) and Bayes Expected a Posteriori (EAP) (Han, 2018). At the initial stage, Bayesian methods are advised over maximum likelihood estimates
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for a dichotomously scored test as it is not capable of producing accurate estimates with related response patterns. At the interim score estimation stage, it is expected that ability estimates converge quickly, which is satisfied by an appropriate combination of ability estimator and item-selection criterion; a popular choice being the EAP estimator combined with maximum-information item selection. At the final stage of CAT, the goal is to provide the candidate with an accurate estimate of their performance. Performance estimation can be resolved using Bayesian methods such as EAP estimator, which aids in fixing the ability estimate until accurate estimates are obtained. This shows that scores estimation methods should be made carefully considering that these methods all have their drawbacks. Other aspects that impact score estimates are the quality of item pool, use of candidates’ collateral information, issues concerning on item exposure, and item selection constraints (van der Linden & Pashley, 2009). Van der Linden (2005) explained that, with CAT, the candidate's ability estimate is updated after each new response, leading to the next item selected based on the full information of the updated estimate. Although there are a variety of item selection methods, Han (as cited in Oladele et al. 2020) stressed that modern methods requiring less computer time are the Maximised Fisher information, the b-matching, a-stratification with or without b-blocking, Kullback-Leibler information, weighted likelihood information, and efficiency balanced information. The choice of an item selection method with the highest measurement precision is crucial to the assessment process. Adopted the MonteCarlo simulation approach for CAT feasibility studies is necessary to determine the viability of method selection. Oladele et al. (2020) reported a-Stratification/bBlocking an empirically proven method for CAT leading to accurate ability placement. Termination criterion: algorithms for CAT should be specified as fixed-length where all candidates receive an equal number of items adaptively selected from the bank or variable-length tests items and needed number are adapted to the candidate. Termination criteria could be the candidate ability level (θ estimate), standard error of measurement (SEM) or item bank to be evaluated. While the first two methods are premised on the candidates' parameter, the third method is premised on item parameters. CAT is terminated when the ability estimate stops varying significantly by administering additional items and which hinges on the minimum information criterion. Therefore, a test terminates when there are no items left in the bank, which provides a minimal level of information, as specified by the item selection algorithm. Most utilised of these termination criteria is SEM (Thompson & Weiss, 2011). With a carefully calibrated item bank in place with the appropriate technological integrations, a simple CAT begins by presenting an item with average difficulty to a candidate as practised using the maximum likelihood approach to itemchoice early in the Adaptive Sequence (Segall, 2005). Although the starting point of the test may not be critical to measurement, it could impact the psychological state of the candidate wherein administering an item with high difficulty may immediately lead candidates into despair while administering an item with low difficulty may result in the candidate not taking the test seriously and so making
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careless mistakes (Linacre, 2000). IRT is clearly at the heart of CAT in which modern algorithms concepts are taken from and maximum likelihood and Bayesian statistical estimation theories. It is pertinent for test development to be based on a sound scientific basis and that evidence of the scientific approach should be documented (NRC, 2004). Downing (2006) reiterated that, although creating useful test items is greatly improved by constant engagement, there are well-established item writing ethics. This goes a long way to ensure the writing of cognitive appropriate items in the process of test development. Psychometric testing is broad in its potential application cognitive and non-cognitive measures. The outlined stages provide an appropriate organisational structure for validating a testing program and maintaining relevant educational testing standards (Downing, 2006).
5. Applications of CAT CAT has been extensively applied in various fields by educational, health and psychological professionals utilising different IRT models with over four decades of practice. Weiss and Kingsbury (1984) examined the application of CAT to educational problems, which were Adaptive Mastery Testing (AMT) using the 1, 2 and 3PL models in a simulated study to compare the average items used to reach a mastery/non-mastery decision for the conventional and adaptive AMT procedures. Findings revealed that the adaptive test results in higher ability estimation precision than fixed-form tests with fewer items. Eggen and Straetmans (2000) employed CAT for classifying candidates through simulation studies. Computation procedures used were based on statistical estimation and statistical testing with five item selection methods (Maximum Information (MI) at the candidate's current ability estimate, MI with content control, MI with exposure control and MI with both content and exposure controls). The effects of adding content and item exposure control based on the 1PL model were also investigated, and real data from a mathematics placement test for adult learners were used. Findings revealed that the item bank's quality is satisfactory for adaptive testing with a maximum of 25 items for each test administration, reducing the number of required items to between 22-44% of the required number with paper-and-pencil versions. Ware Jr. et al. (2003) applied CAT to assess the impact of pain as a simulated study using real data to select the most informative items for each candidate and estimate impact scores according to pre-set precision standards. Findings revealed that adaptive-based administrations impacted achievement without compromising testing validity over time. Also, Kane et al. (2020) and Theunissen et al. (2020) applied CAT in developing more concise Patient-Reported Outcome Measures (PROM) using the Veterans RAND 12 Item Health Survey (VR-12) deployed adaptively to decrease patients’ question burden, a 33% decrease. Therefore, the CAT model was termed efficient in improving PROM as well as patient experience. CAT has also been applied to large-scale language testing programmes for placement purposes such as The Quick Placement Test (QPT), Test of English as
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a Foreign Language (TOEFL), Computerised Oral Proficiency Instrument (COPI) and Basic English Skills Test (BEST) Plus. Others are Scholarship Aptitude Test (SAT), the Test of Standard Written English, Student Description Questionnaire, and ATP Achievement Tests, all under the College Board Admissions Testing Program (ATP), Graduate Records Examination (GRE) and Graduate Management Admission Test (GMAT) (Cella et al., 2007; Giouroglou & Economides, 2004). These testing programmes are full-scale paper-and-pencil testing before being implemented adaptively (Eignor et al., 1993). Way et al. (2006) examined practical questions needed to be adequately answered before the transition of testing programmes to online delivery forms using CAT concerning K-12Assessments. CAT has also been implemented extensively in licensing health professionals in the United States, such as the National Council Licensure Examination-Registered Nurses and the National Registry of Emergency Medical Technicians (Han, 2018; Seo, 2017).
6. Fourth Industrial Revolution and CAT The Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR) occupies a digital sphere driven by the merging of technologies that makes it almost impossible to distinguish between the physical, digital and biological divides. Some of the possibilities brought to bear by the 4IR include the ease of connecting people by mobile devices, with high processing power, large storage volume and a knowledge economy, rapidly influencing intelligent behaviour in living and systemic engineering multiplied exponentially by evolving expertise in many fields, one of which is Artificial Intelligence (AI) (Bartneck et al., 2021; Schwab 2016; Singh et al., 2013). AI is a wide-ranging branch of computer science premised on smart technologies capable of performing human intelligence-based tasks. It adopts an interdisciplinary approach, creating a paradigm shift in virtually every tech industry sector (Builtin, 2019). 4IR riding on AI drives possibilities which are fast turning into realities, with strong indication that the technologies underpinning the 4IR have a significant impact on businesses (Schwab, 2016); and the educational sector cannot be left out. As such, the sectoral response to 4IR must be unified and inclusive of all global stakeholders, such as the public and private sectors, academia and civil societies. The CAT algorithm leverages AI to achieve expert and knowledgebased systems for accurate ability placement. The possibilities that 4IR brings to the table, such as multiple connectivity through a high-ended computer device and high storage capacity, strengthens CAT technology for educational assessments. These possibilities are coupled with emerging technology breakthroughs premised on AI that could be leveraged for educational testing (Schwab, 2016). Butler-Adam (2018) challenged educational researchers to identify the link of AI to curricula, teaching and learning while stressing the need for people to have the skills required to thrive with evolving technology, and be more of problem solvers, being adaptable and adequate in expressing themselves in both the written and spoken word. These are achievable by accurate educational assessments through sophisticated algorithms for adaptive testing with CAT, an emerging technology-driven by 4IR. Applications of AI for educational assessment hold the potential of shaping higher education with exponential technologies such as CAT (Penprase, 2018).
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7. Conclusion and Recommendation The review has shown an exciting direction for ensuring accuracy in ability estimation premised on the 3Parameter Logistic Item Response Theory model made possible by the fourth industrial revolution and characterised by highended adaptive technologies such as CAT in the realm of AI and apparent with intelligent candidate ability estimation in an iterative process. Empirical studies have provided evidence of reduced test lengths with CAT without watering down score integrity. Lessons from the Covid-19 pandemic show the need for higher institutions of learning to have online arrangements for teaching and learning with suitable assessment platforms for accurate ability estimation while leveraging on the wide technological possibilities greatly enhanced by the 4IR. The onus lies on higher educational stakeholders in Africa to position technology for pedagogical gain. While the traditional linear tests have mainly been employed, it is imperative to ensure CAT practice in educational assessment in Africa to actualise its gains at the higher levels of education with most institutions moving to online teaching and learning. CAT for supporting teaching and learning is an undeniable reality in the Covid-19 era and a way of ensuring that the African continent falls in line with the rapid emerging technologies characteristic of the 4IR era.
8. Limitations and directions for future research The review carried out is majorly premised on foreign literature as CAT as an assessment format is an emerging area of research in Africa. The workability of CAT considering the realities of the African continent should be considered. This calls for simulation studies on CAT as a direction for future research.
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Wise, S. L., & Kingsbury, G. G. (2000). Practical Issues in Developing and Maintaining a Computerised Adaptive Testing Program. Psicológica, 21, 135-155. Worldometers. (2020, November 28). COVID-19 Coronavirus Pandemic. https://www.worldometers.info/coronavirus/ Zhang, Y., Wang, D., Gao, X., Cai, Y., & Tu, D. (2019). Development of a computerised adaptive testing for internet addiction. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 1010.
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 5, pp. 18-37, May 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.5.2
The Development and Use of Improvised Science-Teaching Models: A Case of Natural Science Pre-Service Teachers Wiets Botes School of Education, Department of Natural Science and Mathematics Teaching, Sol Plaatje University, Kimberley, South Africa https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3024-8969 Abstract. The study aimed to describe how a team of final-year preservice teachers followed the process of improvisation to develop and utilise improvised science-teaching models during a teaching practicum experience. Guided by a conceptual understanding of the process of improvisation, this purposeful qualitative case study sought to respond to a series of research questions. These research questions are: “What are the issues that necessitate the need to develop science-teaching models for a teaching practicum experience?”, “How could the process of improvisation enable Natural Science pre-service teachers to develop improvised science-teaching models for a teaching practicum experience?” and “To what extent do the Natural Science pre-service teachers utilise the improvised science-teaching models in their teaching practicum?” Data collection methods such as spontaneous free-response e-mail communications, a focus-group discussion, and the use of photovoice methodology yielded rich empirical data. The findings revealed how the Natural Science pre-service teachers ultimately engaged with the improvisation principles to develop improvised science-teaching models from low-cost and recycled materials. The paper further describes how the improvised science-teaching models were introduced in the preservice teachers’ Natural Science lesson delivery as part of a model-based teaching approach. Findings from the study suggest that initial teacher education programs render environmental and contextual consciousness in shaping pre-service teachers for the diverse schooling contexts. The study further suggests that initial teacher education programs be intentional towards structuring module course material to make the skill of improvisation accessible to pre-service teachers as part of their teacher development. Keywords: model-based science-teaching; improvisation; Science education; pre-service teacher development
Natural
©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).
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1. Introduction and background to study Natural Science is informed by knowledge areas that deal with life and living, matter and materials, energy and change, and earth and beyond. These topics stem from various disciplines such as Biology, Chemistry, Physics, and Earth and Space sciences (DBE, 2011). With these topics in mind, a key attribute towards a quality Natural Science teaching experience is the ability of a Natural Science educator to convey what Shulman (1987) decades ago referred to as sound pedagogical content knowledge for scientific inquiry. The latter is regarded as a specific instantiation of pedagogical content knowledge fit to the teaching of Natural Science as a middle-school subject (Peel et al., 2019). This particular form of pedagogical content knowledge includes a combination of science-specific content knowledge, educational knowledge, and teaching methodology that science educators should be equipped with to facilitate learners’ comprehension of scientific phenomena (DHET, 2015; Pareek, 2019). With this attribute in mind, the expectation is that Natural Science pre-service teachers in development master the skill to teach Natural Science in an innovative, inclusive and practical manner (Stears & James, 2011). In the context of initial teacher education, one such way to develop this skill is through enabling preservice teachers to utilise a model-based teaching approach as part of their lesson design and delivery (Peel et al., 2019). Over the past couple of decades, using a model-based teaching approach has been increasingly recognised among the science education community (Black, 1962; Perkins, 1986; Gobert & Buckley, 2000; Ingham & Gilbert, 1991; Peel et al., 2019). Some claim that the idea of model-based learning takes centre stage in K-12 science education (Bryce et al., 2016). According to Harlow (2010) and Seel (2017), a model-based teaching approach is understood as a teaching approach that brings together a teacher’s subject content knowledge and teaching methodology. It compliments it with the aid of explanatory models to assist learners in visualising an idea, system or process. In other words, by following a model-based teaching approach, learners would be able to link an abstract concept and a real-life situation. One such example includes utilising a DNA double helix model to explain the characteristics of the DNA structure. Another example could be a model that displays the atomic structure of particles, hence representing the atom. In other words, a model serves as a simplified representation of a system, which details critical aspects of the system (Peel et al., 2019; Ingham & Gilbert, 1991). Thus, the understanding is that a model-based teaching approach promotes visualisation in learners (Damelin et al., 2017). The invisible (for instance, the atomic structure of the DNA double helix structure) becomes visible through physical representation. For this reason, the expectation is that pre-service teachers follow a model-based teaching approach towards their teaching practicum since it would allow for a more informed explanation of abstract biological, physical, and chemical phenomena (Taber, 2017). This aligns well with the view of Pareek (2019) when it is suggested that the utilisation of a model-based teaching approach allows for an enjoyable “hands-on” and “minds-on” learning experience. Simply put, using model-based teaching lends credence and reality to the abstract concepts and
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terminology of science education (Okori & Jerry, 2017) and translates into a learning experience that fosters learners’ ability to engage in scientific reasoning (Dare et al., 2019). Other researchers remind us that a model-based teaching approach in the science classroom stimulates learners’ general interest in the subject of Natural Science (Tsybulsky, Dodick & Camhi, 2018). Unfortunately, given the benefits towards the use of a model-based teaching approach in the context of science education, several factors seem to restrict middle-school Natural Science educators from using models in their lesson design and delivery (Akuma & Callaghan, 2016; Harlow, 2010; Okori & Jerry, 2017; Philip, 2019; Singh & Singh, 2012). In a South African teaching context, it has been reported that although the South African Department of Basic Education galvanised efforts and resources towards improving the quality of Natural Science education (Munje & Jita, 2020), some South African scholars reported on a multitude of issues that hampers science educators’ ability to implement a model-based teaching approach in their teaching (Mtsi & Maphosa, 2016; Mupira & Ramnarain, 2018; Mzuza & Van der Westhuizen, 2019; Ramnarain, 2020). A study by Mzuza and Van der Westhuizen (2019) found that in the Northern Cape province, which is the largest and most sparsely populated province of South Africa, many schools in rural and disadvantaged areas were plagued with Science classrooms. These classrooms were not well-equipped with the deemed Natural Science teaching models. This echoes the view of local scholars such as Du Plessis and Mestry (2019), who claim that ill-resourced Science classrooms characterise a significant number of South African schools in rural and disadvantaged areas. In addition, studies by Mabasa and Singh (2020) and Mupira and Ramnarain (2018) shed light on the outdated science-teaching models that are not aligned to the current national school curriculum, also referred to as the Curriculum and Policy Statement document. This particular issue, which is associated with the lack of science-teaching models in selected middle-schools, harms the ability of pre-service teachers to demonstrate their competence in pursuing a model-based teaching approach during practicum teaching opportunities. Given the reality of ill-resourced Science classrooms in selected schools in the Northern Cape province, national scholars (Fleischmann & Van der Westhuizen, 2017; Mupira & Ramnarain, 2018; Nkambule & Mukeredzi, 2017) and international scholars (Aadland, Espeland & Arnesen, 2017) call on teacher development programmes to be intentional in developing pre-service teachers’ capability to develop and utilise improvised teaching models as a means to complement their model-based teaching approach during teaching practicum opportunities. Given the preceding argument, which described various issues associated with the unavailability of science-teaching models, this study sought to document how the process of improvisation enabled a team of final-year Natural Science preservice teachers to develop and utilise improvised science-teaching models for a teaching practicum experience. Guided by a conceptual understanding of the process of improvisation, this purposeful qualitative case study responds to a
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series of research questions. These research questions are: “What are the issues that necessitate the need to develop science-teaching models for a teaching practicum experience?”, “How could the process of improvisation enable Natural Science pre-service teachers to develop improvised science-teaching models for a teaching practicum experience?” and “To what extend do the Natural Science preservice teachers utilise the improvised science-teaching models in their teaching practicum?” A response to these research questions will clarify the pre-service teachers’ ability to strategise ways to develop teaching models, thus displaying the skill of improvisation, which scholars such as Aadland, Espeland and Arnesen (2017) and Ramnarain (2020) regard as a professional teaching skill. Consequently, their development of the skill to improvise the design of science-teaching models would positively impact their quality of teaching and allow learners to enjoy the benefits of a more engaging and joyful science learning experience.
2. Problem Statement This study was conducted in a School of Education at an institution of higher education in South Africa. The study involved seven final-year pre-service teachers specialising in teaching the subject Natural Science in the intermediate phase, also commonly referred to as “middle-school” teaching. As part of their teacher development, the pre-service teachers were placed in schools in the city where the university is located for four weeks to perform practicum teaching. During this time, the pre-service teachers expected to prepare and present lessons that would allow a meaningful science teaching experience. This included the preservice teachers using a model-based science teaching approach that would elicit a “hands-on” and “minds-on” learning experience, thus enabling learners to make meaning of abstract science concepts. However, upon the pre-service teachers’ arrival at the schools where they had been placed to perform their practicum teaching, the pre-service teachers realised that the science classrooms were illresourced with little to no relevant science teaching models to use in their science teaching. Their frustrations with a lack of science-teaching models at their disposal were communicated with their module lecturer, who also served as the Researcher and author of this article. The realisation of the lack of science teaching materials available to pre-service teachers during a practicum teaching experience prompted my interest in conducting this study. This study sought to describe how a team of final-year pre-service teachers followed the process of improvisation to develop and use improvised science-teaching models during a teaching practicum experience.
3. Conceptualising the process of improvisation in the context of initial teacher education The common understanding is that social challenges require systematic solutions grounded in contextual and personalised expertise (Harlow, 2010; Ozuah, 2019). In other words, through acknowledging the contextual expertise that individuals
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have to offer, the process of improvisation seeks to create a solution that speaks to them individually identified needs of others. To contextualise, this study responds to a team of final-year Natural Science pre-service teachers’ need to develop science-teaching models that would complement their Natural Science teaching during teaching practicum opportunities. Traditionally, the process of improvisation was recognised as a complex problemsolving process in performing arts, drama, and music education (Barbara & Sam, 1957; Borko & Livingston, 1989; De Bruin, 2019; Erickson, 1982; Sawyer, 2004; Yinger, 1987). However, more recently, the field of teacher education also adopted the approach, with researchers describing how the experimental and open nature of improvisation is considered helpful in dealing with teaching and learningrelated matters (Hickey, 2015; Sawyer, 2011). To be specific, studies by Aadland, Espeland and Arnesen (2017) and Okori and Jerry (2017) described how the process of improvisation assisted educators to structure teaching models from low-cost and recyclable materials. Improvised teaching and learning models serve as low-cost goods developed from materials such as plastics, cardboard and tin cans, to name but a few (Akuma & Callaghan, 2016; Holdhus et al., 2016). Yeboah, Abonyi and Luguterah (2019) share a similar understanding of improvised teaching and learning models. They refer to them as teaching models created from local and readily available resources due to the unavailability of original teaching models. For educational purposes, teaching models are considered highly effective towards promoting a quality educational experience (Holdhus et al., 2016). At its core, the process of improvisation is informed by three overlapping principles. These include the principles of inspiration, ideation and implementation. These principles ultimately manifest in the process of improvisation (Eze, 2018; Ponzio et al., 2018). As a starting point, the principle of inspiration serves as a space that allows for identifying and clarifying individually identified needs and the drive towards the search for a solution (Philip, 2019). Thus, the understanding is that the principle of inspiration allows one to understand the extent to which the need impacts the professional capability of others. Information related to the principle of inspiration can be obtained through focus-group discussions, interviews, and surveying. However, obtaining an indepth understanding of the need of others requires one to form part of the reality of others (Philip, 2019). This approach allows for a first-hand and personalised “observed” experience (Wrigley & Stalker, 2017). Simply put, the principle of inspiration is considered a product that derives from the individual needs of others. The process of improvisation further draws on the principle of “ideation”. As the second core principle, ideation enables individuals to distil ideas into insights that could serve as potential strategies to the needs identified (Aadland, Espeland & Arnesen, 2017). This free flow of ideas and information sharing can also be referred to as divergent thinking. Everyday activities used to capture the principle of ideation includes focus-group discussions, brainstorming sessions and visual
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representations of ideas. In this study, the principle of ideation was put into motion when the team of final-year pre-service teachers strategised ways to develop science-teaching models from low-cost or recycled goods. This approach was followed to respond to the lack of teaching models available to them during their teaching practicum duties. The third and final principle that informs the process of improvisation is prototyping and implementation (Eze, 2018). The principle enables an individual to implement the strategy in an authentic “real-world” context. Prototyping is seen as a process where the strategy that stems from the principle of ideation is tested and re-tested to uncover unforeseen challenges that could negatively impact the strategy’s effectiveness (Wrigley & Stalker, 2017). Once the strategy has been re-defined, and the necessary adjustments were made to improve the strategy, implementation can occur. The impact and effectiveness of the strategy can be verified through various means such as focus-group discussions, interviews, observations, reflective entries and surveying.
4. Research approach and methodology The study followed a purposeful qualitative case study approach. The case included seven final-year Natural Science pre-service teachers and their ability to follow the process of improvisation to develop science-teaching models. Permission was granted by the Postgraduate Research Ethics Committee of the University of the Free State (Ethical clearance number - UFS-HSD2018/0073). As the principal Researcher, one was tasked to ensure that all relevant role-players involved in the study were consulted in advance (Creswell & Creswell, 2017). Therefore, the Natural Science pre-service teachers were approached to give consent to take part in the study. In addition, the team was also assured confidentiality throughout the research process. It was also made clear that they were allowed to withdraw from the study at any time. A consent form was signed by each of the Natural Science pre-service teachers, which was archived for record-keeping purposes. The research site was situated in a School of Education at a South African University. The School of Education offers a Bachelor of Education degree with multiple areas of specialisation in the intermediate phase (grade 4 – 6 teaching), senior phase (grade 7 – 9 teaching) and further education and training phase (grade 10 – 12 teaching). For this particular study, the research participants comprised seven final-year pre-service teachers specialising in the teaching of Natural Science in the intermediate phase, also commonly referred to as “middleschool” teaching. The study aimed to describe how a team of final-year pre-service teachers followed the process of improvisation to develop and utilise improvised scienceteaching models during a teaching practicum experience. In order to achieve this aim, the study responded to three pertinent research questions. The use of spontaneous free-response e-mail communications penned by the Natural Science pre-service teachers shed light on the first research question of the study. The question posed was to describe the issues that necessitate developing science-
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teaching models for a teaching practicum experience. A response to this research question would allow the team to follow a creative approach towards strategising ways to circumvent the issue associated with science-teaching models. The rich qualitative data obtained from the free-response e-mail communications were captured, thematically analysed and transcribed. Additionally, establishing a focus-group discussion between the module lecturer and the team of final-year pre-service teachers was vital in responding to the study’s second research question. The second research question sought to investigate how the process of improvisation could enable Natural Science preservice teachers to develop improvised science-teaching models for a teaching practicum experience. The team’s responses that stemmed from the focus-group discussion were audio-recorded, analysed and transcribed. Besides the focusgroup discussion, the use of photo-voice methodology was also utilised to give voice and expression to the improvised science models that the team created. The use of photo-voice methodology further allowed for an in-depth exploration and interpretation of the pre-service teachers’ models developed from low-cost goods and recycled materials. In order to respond to the aspects of credibility, reliability and validity (Creswell & Creswell, 2017), the data derived from the spontaneous e-mail communication, focus-group discussion and photo-voice methodology were shared among the pre-service teachers. This study determined whether the transcribed text and captured photographs were a true reflection of their accounts.
5. Findings The three research questions of the study yielded rich empirical data. Table 1 provides a synopsis of the themes and categories that emerged from the study as a point of departure. These themes and categories are also aligned with the research questions of the study. Thereafter, a more in-depth interpretation and descriptive explanation of the themes will follow. Table 1. Synopsis of the themes and categories. Research questions Data collection Themes Categories technique Confronting the - Lack of scienceWhat are the issues E-mail that necessitate the communication challenge teaching models associated with the need to develop during teaching unavailability of science-teaching practicums; science-teaching models for a teaching - Lack of modelmodels practicum based teaching; experience? - Pre-service teacher frustrations with practical teaching. Realising the need - Pre-service teacher How could the Focus-group to develop process of discussion determination; improvised science- - Envisioning improvisation enable a teaching models Natural Science premeaningful Natural service teachers to Science (NS)
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develop improvised science-teaching models for a teaching practicum experience?
To what extent do the Natural Science preservice teachers utilise the improvised science-teaching models in their teaching practicum?
teaching and learning experience. Photo-voice methodology
The development of improvised science-teaching models
Photo-voice methodology
The implementation of improvised scienceteaching models
- Science models designed from lowcost materials; - Science models designed from recycled goods; - Creativity and innovation. - Model-based teaching in action; - Inquiry-based learning.
Responding to research question 1: The first research question sought to describe the issues that necessitate developing science-teaching models for a teaching practicum experience. With this research question in mind, the Natural Science pre-service teachers’ responses pointed to a predominant theme, namely “the unavailability of science-teaching models”. Categories such as “lack of science-teaching models during teaching practicums”, “lack of a model-based teaching approach”, and “pre-service teacher frustrations with practical teaching” informed the challenge associated with the unavailability of science-teaching models. Theme 1 is described next. Theme 1: Confronting the challenge associated with the unavailability of science-teaching models (Responding to the principle of inspiration) The first principle that informs the process of improvisation is referred to as inspiration. The principle of inspiration enables one to clarify individually identified needs and is considered a driver towards searching for a solution. In other words, it allows individuals to be creative towards strategising ways to circumvent existing issues that might exist. This step was also crucial to responding to the first research question of the study. In this study, the principle of inspiration surfaced when the pre-service teachers voiced their concerns regarding the unavailability of science-teaching models during teaching practicum opportunities. This can be confirmed in spontaneous e-mail communication penned by a pre-service teacher and communicated to the module lecturer, who also served as the study researcher. “Good day, Sir Sir, the crits [lesson observation procedures] are next week. I’m already worried because the class does not have any models for us to use. I mean I plan my NS [Natural Science] lesson the day before just to find out that no models are available. We are then forced to stick to the textbook because there is nothing that we can use to show them [learners] how the plant cell really looks. Aren’t there any way to deal with this?” Participant 7; spontaneous e-mail response
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The subjective response provided by the pre-service teacher delivers multiple meanings. In short, the response sheds light on the lack of science-teaching models available to the pre-service teachers’ during teaching practice duties. This can be confirmed by the pre-service teacher when it was mentioned that “I mean I plan my NS [Natural Science] lesson the day before just to find out that no models are available”. Furthermore, given the pre-service teacher’s intention to utilise a model-based teaching approach, the unavailability of science-teaching models negatively affects their ability to practice a model-based teaching approach, as the pre-service teacher declared that “there is nothing that we can use to show them [learners] how the plant cell really looks.” The pre-service teacher’s cry for help in terms of circumventing the issue was also made clear when the pre-service teacher posed the question “Aren’t there any way to deal with this?”. Therefore, the assumption is that “something has to be done” to address the challenge associated with a lack of science-teaching models. The severity of the challenge was further reiterated in another e-mail response that was communicated to the module lecturer. “Hi Sir, I was at your office but you were not in. Can I come see you tomorrow after school? I’m a bit lost and need help with teaching aids [models]. I will be on campus around 3 [15:00] to hopefully fetch some equipment for my lesson this coming week.” Participant 5, spontaneous e-mail response The e-mail response provided by the pre-service teachers again reiterates the complications surrounding the lack of teaching models available to the preservice teachers during teaching practicum duties. In this particular response provided, one picks up a sense of urgency and desperation in the pre-service teachers’ voice. This can be confirmed by the phrases “I was at your office, but you were not in”, “Can I come see you” and “I’m a bit lost and need help”. In addition, the phrase “fetch some equipment for my lesson this coming week” points to the pre-service teacher’s intention to use teaching models to aid a modelbased teaching approach for a particular Natural Science lesson. Responding to research question 2: The second research question sought to describe how the process of improvisation can enable the Natural Science pre-service teachers to develop improvised science-teaching models for a teaching practicum experience. With this research question in mind, a focus group discussion with the team of pre-service teachers allowed for the formulation of the theme “realising the need to develop improvised science-teaching models”. Categories that supported this theme included “pre-service teacher determination” and “envisioning a meaningful NS teaching and learning experience”. Theme 2 is described next. Theme 2: Realising the need to develop improvised science-teaching models (Responding to the principle of inspiration cont.) To this end, the issue associated with the lack of science-teaching models was clarified based upon the spontaneous e-mail communications communicated to the module lecturer, who also served as the Researcher. Given this clarification, the module lecturer decided to establish a focus-group discussion to circumvent the issue identified, therefore responding to the study’s second research question.
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The focus group discussion took place during the initial stages of the pre-service teachers’ school visitation practical teaching process. During the focus group discussion with the team of Natural Science pre-service teachers, the Researcher asked, “What can be done to overcome the issue associated with the lack of science-teaching models?” With this question posed, one of the pre-service teachers had the following to say: “Guys it’s a fact, most of us struggled with no equipment [science-teaching models]. Well, maybe we can try and make some of these things [science-teaching models] ourselves, you know. We can just look around for stuff to use and just do. It can just be basic or whatever, but at least the kids will see [observe]. That will also help us to not only use textbook teaching the whole time.” Participant 3, free-attitude verbal response This response provided declares a pre-service teacher’s urge to follow the process of improvisation to develop their science-teaching models. This statement can be supported by the phrases “look around for stuff to use and just do it”. In addition, the phrase “It can just be basic, or whatever” points to the pre-service teacher’s intention to develop science-teaching models from readily available materials, which in this case are recycled and low-cost goods. The phrases “will also help us to not only use textbook teaching the whole time” and “at least the kids will see” are indicative of a typical model-based teaching approach which would be helpful towards deepening and promoting the learners’ understanding of complex science topics in the Natural Science classroom. Both these phrases suggest that the pre-service teacher wishes to establish a teaching environment that would explain science-related topics more simplistically, thus promoting a quality science learning experience. The use of photo-voice methodology further shed light on how the process of improvisation enabled the Natural Science pre-service teachers to develop improvised science-teaching models for a teaching practicum experience. An analysis of a series of photographs taken allowed for the formulation of the theme titled “physical development of improvised science-teaching models”. Categories that supported this theme included “science models designed from low-cost materials”, “science models designed from recycled goods”, and “creativity and innovation”. Theme 3 is described next. Theme 3: The development of improvised science-teaching models (Responding to the principle of ideation) The second principle that informs the process of improvisation is ideation. The principle of ideation enables individuals to distil their ideas into insights that could serve as potential strategies to respond to the challenges identified. Given the challenge associated with the lack of teaching models, the team of pre-service teachers set out to put their creative ideas into motion, thus staying true to the true meaning of ideation. What follows next is a showcase of some of the improvised science-teaching models that the pre-service teachers developed from low-cost and recycled goods. The models were photographed, and the nature of the models is briefly described in figures 1 to 4 below.
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“The plant cell”
Model description The model shown here provides a simple visual representation of the plant cell. The model shows the different organelles that make up the plant cell. One further finds that the model has an aesthetic appeal that would allow the Natural Science pre-service teacher to communicate the different organelles of the plant cell to the learners. A closer look at the model of the plant cell confirms its design made up of low-cost and recycled materials such as a shoebox (representing the cell wall), condom (representing the vacuole of a cell with a watery substance) and soap bars (representing the mitochondria). Figure 1. The plant cell as a science-teaching model.
“The DNA structure”
Model description The model shown here provides a basic yet visually appealing representation of the DNA double helix structure. Although the different parts of the DNA double helix structure are not clearly labelled, the learners could still distinguish the different nucleotide structures (adenine pairing with thymine and cytosine pairing with guanine) through colour matching (blue pairing with blue & pink pairing with pink). For instance, the Natural Science pre-service teacher will demonstrate that the pink marshmallow sweets represent a nucleotide pair comprising thymine and adenine. On the other hand, the blue marshmallow sweets represent the other nucleotide pair comprising guanine and cytosine. The Natural Science pre-service teacher will also show the learners that the DNA structure is curved and spiral-shaped as the model provides a three-dimensional representation of the DNA double helix structure. One also finds that the model was designed from low-cost and recycled materials such as carton and marshmallow sweets. Figure 2. The DNA double helix as a science-teaching model.
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“The water cycle”
Model description The model shown here provides a visual representation of the water cycle. The different stages involved in the water cycle are indicated with relevant labelling and drawings. What makes the model unique is the fact that the natural pre-service teacher could capture the water cycle as part of a system of events. To be specific, a closer look at the model reveals the four main stages (evaporation, condensation, precipitation and collection) that inform the water cycle. Again the model was designed to form low-cost and recycled materials such as the shoebox (portraying the earth and atmosphere respectively), leaves (representing trees), gravel and sand (representing the crust of the earth). Figure 3. The water cycle as a science-teaching model.
“Lung model”
Model description The model shown here are representative of how the lung functions in terms of the processes of inhalation and exhalation in breathing. In this instance, the pre-service teacher created a lung model from recycled materials such as a plastic bottle, two straws, an elastic band and a balloon. Figure 4. The lung model as a science-teaching model.
Responding to research question 3: The third research question sought to describe the extent to which the Natural Science pre-service teachers utilise the improvised science-teaching models in
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their teaching practicum. Again the use of photo-voice methodology allowed for the formulation of the theme titled “the implementation of improvised scienceteaching models”. Categories such as “model-based teaching in action” and “evidence of inquiry-based learning” informed the theme. Theme 4 is described next. Theme 4: The implementation of improvised science-teaching models (Responding to the principle of implementation) The third and final principle that informs the process of improvisation is implementation. For this study, the principle of implementation was seen as a process whereby the developed science-teaching models were put to the test in an authentic teaching space, thus responding to the third research question of the study. This was done to determine whether the science-teaching models had any significant impact on the quality of their model-based teaching. In order to provide an account of this principle in action, the Researcher was able to analyse, interpret, and describe how some pre-service teachers went about using the improvised teaching models as part of their model-based teaching approach during teaching practicum opportunities. What follows next is a synopsis of two teaching scenarios that provides evidence of a model-based teaching approach through the use of the photo-voice methodology. Snapshot of teaching scenario A: Investigating how the respiratory system functions through the use of a lung model
Observations made by the Researcher: A closer look at this teaching scenario reveals how the Natural Science pre-service teacher could use improvised science-teaching models in an authentic teaching context. In this teaching scenario, the Natural Science pre-service teacher allowed the learners to build lung models from recycled materials (plastic bag, plastic bottle, straws, elastic band) to understand better how the respiratory system functions. After the learners built their lung models from materials that the Natural Science pre-service teacher provided, the learners showed how air is pulled in and out of the lungs. The learners could demonstrate how the diaphragm, as a thin skeletal muscle, contract and flattens when a person inhales,
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which results in air being pulled into the lungs. They demonstrated that when a person exhales, the diaphragm relaxes, which forces air out of the lungs. The assumption is that the learners were challenged to observe how the diaphragm contracts and flattens by using the improvised lung model. The learners were tasked to collect and analyse data related to how the heartbeat’s tempo impacted breathing patterns, as witnessed on the chalkboard. Snapshot of teaching scenario B: Exploring how light reflects off surfaces
Observations made by the Researcher: In this teaching scenario, the learners could investigate how a mirror alters how light travels. The investigation allowed the learners to recognise that light travels a straight line if reflected off a mirror. A closer look at the image shows that the learners could track the light reflection by aligning it to the toothpicks pinned on a sheet of paper pasted on cardboard. This allowed the learners to realise that light travels straight line, explaining why shadows have the same shape as the objects that cast them. Here, the light reflected off the mirror perfectly aligned with the toothpicks pinned on a sheet of paper pasted on cardboard.
6. Discussion of findings In the context of teacher education, the expectation is that pre-service teachers specialising in the teaching of Natural Science education ought to develop the skill to teach Natural Science subject matter creatively and practically (Aadland, Espeland & Arnesen, 2017). One such teaching skill includes pre-service teachers adopting a model-based teaching approach as part of their lesson design and delivery (Peel et al., 2019). A common feature of a model-based teaching approach includes pre-service teachers’ ability to infuse models as part of their teaching delivery to ensure that learners make that critical link between abstract science concepts and real-time visualisation (Nkambule & Mukeredzi, 2017). For this reason, Dare et al. (2019) claim that a model-based teaching approach allows for a more simplistic understanding of biological, physical and chemical phenomena.
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Unfortunately, given the learning benefits of using a model-based teaching approach, it has been reported that middle-schools in the Northern Cape province, which are situated in rural- and disadvantaged areas, are plagued with ill-resourced science classrooms (Mzuza & Van der Westhuizen, 2019). This, as a result, impacts negatively on the ability of science pre-service teachers to follow a model-based teaching approach, since science models in these classrooms are either non-existent, outdated, or irrelevant to the current Natural Science school curriculum (Du Plessis & Mestry, 2019; Mabasa & Singh, 2020; Mtsi & Maphosa, 2016). This paper was concerned with the issue associated with a lack of science-teaching models available to final-year pre-service teachers during a teaching practicum opportunity. The study aimed to describe how a team of final-year pre-service teachers followed the process of improvisation to develop and utilise improvised science-teaching models during a teaching practicum experience. The paper explores how the process of improvisation that is characterised by the principles of “inspiration”, “ideation”, and “implementation” enabled the pre-service teachers to develop improvised science-teaching models from low-cost and recycled goods. Moreover, this paper also described the extent to which the preservice teachers were able to utilise these improvised teaching models as part of their model-based teaching. Guided by a conceptual understanding of the process of improvisation, this paper shares empirical evidence of how the pre-service teachers followed the principle of inspiration, which is considered as the first step towards the process of improvisation. The principle of inspiration serves as a space that allows for identifying and clarifying individually identified needs and the drive towards the search for a solution (Philip, 2019). In pursuit of the principle of inspiration, the pre-service teachers in the first instance confronted the lack of teaching models in selected schools where they were placed to perform their teaching practicum duties. The issue was made clear in several spontaneous e-mail communications, which included phrases such as “I am already worried because the class does not have any models for us to use - Participant 5” and “I plan my NS [Natural Science] lesson the day before just to find out that no models are available - Participant 3” that was communicated to the module lecturer. The confirmation of this particular challenge paved the way towards the realisation that something had to be done to address the issue at hand. This critical step towards searching for a solution serves as the final key feature of the principle of inspiration (Aadland, Espeland & Arnesen, 2017). Phrases such as “Aren’t there any way to deal with this? - Participant 7” and “we can look around for stuff to use and just do it ourselves - Participant 3” and “at least the kids will see Participant 3” are indicative of their intention to design their improvised teaching models to support their model-based teaching. Moreover, the phrase “look around for stuff to use and just do it ourselves” suggest that the teaching models will be developed from low-cost materials such as plastics, cardboard, straws, tin cans, to name but a few.
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Given the reality of ill-resourced science classrooms in selected South African middle-schools (Mtsi & Maphosa, 2016; Mupira & Ramnarain, 2018) and the preservice teachers’ drive to develop their teaching models, it is not surprising that South African educational policy documents such as the National Curriculum and Policy Statement (DBE, 2011) call on both pre-and in-service Natural Science teachers to acquire the skill of improvisation that would enable them to develop teaching models that would complement their science-teaching. Ramnarain (2020) takes it a step further by suggesting that the skill of improvisation should be regarded as a key Natural Science teacher attribute, which implicates how initial teacher education programmes develop pre-service teachers for the teaching profession. Furthermore, this paper provided evidence of how the pre-service teachers adhered to the principle of ideation as the second principle that informs improvisation. The principle of ideation enables individuals to distil ideas into insights that could serve as potential strategies to circumvent the needs identified (Aina, 2013; Aadland, Espeland & Arnesen, 2017). The pre-service teachers were able to put their creative ideas and insights into motion through developing some science-teaching models. Although primary and simplistic in design, these models were showcased in figures 1 to 4 and represented the plant cell, the water cycle, the DNA double helix structure, and the lung model. A closer look at these models concurs with some researchers’ understanding of science-teaching models when it is regarded as objects that promote the visualisation of complex science phenomena (Dare et al., 2019). The pre-service teachers’ models allow the invisible (the DNA structure and the plant cell) to become visible through representation (Taber, 2017). Finally, the paper provided evidence of how the pre-service teachers followed the implementation principle, which is regarded as the final principle of the improvisation process. The principle of improvisation enables the educator to ultimately put their designs to the test in a real-life teaching context (Aina, 2013), as witnessed in teaching scenarios A and B. The use of photo-voice methodology provided substantial evidence of how a couple of pre-service teachers could infuse the science-teaching models they created. To be specific, a closer look at teaching scenario A points to aspects of a model-based teaching approach. This approach was linked to the pre-service teacher’s ability to engage learners in a learning experience that required them to demonstrate how the respiratory system functions by using a lung model. Another example of a model-based teaching approach surfaced when the learners were tasked to investigate how light reflects off a mirror on a piece of cardboard, thus obtaining a more informed understanding of the topic “refraction of light” (see teaching scenario B). These basic examples of model-based teaching suggest that learners might have been involved in cooperative and collaborative learning. Considering the evidence provided that learners acquired knowledge from their fellow peers instead of relying solely on the instructional delivery of knowledge from the pre-service teacher (see teaching scenario A).
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7. Conclusion The purpose of the study was to describe how a team of final-year pre-service teachers followed the process of improvisation to develop and utilise improvised science-teaching models during a teaching practicum experience. This was done to promote the pre-service teachers’ quality of model-based teaching. The need for this study arises from the challenge associated with the lack of scienceteaching models available to the pre-service teachers during school visitation opportunities. The pre-service teachers’ ability to demonstrate improvisation skills towards developing science-teaching models benefited their quality of Natural Science teaching and impacted the learners’ Natural Science learning experience. In turn, the use of improvised science-teaching models allowed learners to engage in a learning experience that is more “hands-on” and exploratory. Such a learning approach simplified the learners’ understanding of Natural Science topics such as plant cell anatomy and genetics and promoted their interest in these topics. As a result, they could physically observe the different model structures (for instance, the helix shape of the DNA molecule, nucleotide pairs that forms part of the DNA structure and the different organelles that make up the plant cell). This study holds a series of implications for future research in the field of Natural Science teacher education. Given the reality of ill-resourced Science classrooms in selected schools in the Northern Cape province (Mzuza & Van der Westhuizen, 2019), initial teacher education programmes should render environmental and contextual consciousness through shaping pre-service teachers for the diverse schooling contexts. Against this backdrop, initial teacher education programmes should be intentional towards structuring module course material to make the skill of improvisation accessible to pre-service teachers as part of their teacher development. Future research is needed on how improvisation could assist pre-service teachers’ model-based teaching in the different areas of specialisation such as Mathematics, Geography and Technology education. In addition, future research could also attempt to investigate what the pre-service teachers’ perspectives are towards utilising improvised teaching models in the teaching and learning environment. Acknowledgements I want to thank the University of the Free State for allowing me to write this paper for my PhD project. I also want to thank Prof Micheal Van Wyk and Dr Boitumelo Moreeng, whose guidance, patience and enthusiasm enabled me to believe, try and succeed in completing this paper.
8. References Aadland, H., Espeland, M., & Arnesen, T. E. (2017). Towards a typology of improvisation as a professional teaching skill: Implications for pre-service teacher education programmes. Cogent Education, 4(1), 12-34. https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2017.1295835
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Aina, K. J. (2013). Instructional materials and improvisation in physics class: Implications for teaching and learning. Computer, 2(20), 8-19. https://doi.org/10.1080/0c96053b709495aa8b000000 Akuma, F. V., & Callaghan, R. (2016). Framework for reducing teaching challenges relating to improvisation of science education equipment and materials in schools. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science & Technology Education, 12(10), 2697-2717. https://doi.org/10.12973/eurasia.2016.1305a Barbara, S., & Sam, A. (1957). Improvised apparatus for the determination of specific heat. American Journal of Physics, 25(7), 494-494. https://doi.org/10.1119/1.1934525 Black, M. (1962). Models and Metaphors. (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press). https://doi.org/10.11239/1.34345365 Borko, H., & Livingston, C. (1989). Cognition and Improvisation: Difference in mathematics instruction by expert and novice teachers. American Educational Research Journal, 26(4), 473–498. https://doi.org/10.3102/00028312026004473 Bryce, C. M., Baliga, V. B., De Nesnera, K. L., Fiack, D., Goetz, K., Tarjan, L. M., Wade, C. E., Yovovich, V., Baumgart, S., Bard, D. G., & Ash, D. (2016). Exploring models in the biology classroom. The American Biology Teacher, 78(1), 35-42. https://doi.org/10.1525/abt.2016.78.1.35 Creswell, J. W., & Creswell, J. D. (2017). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. Sage publications. Damelin, D., Krajcik, J.S., Mcintyre, C., & Bielik, T. (2017). Students making systems models. Science Scope, 40(5), 78-83. https://doi.org/10.12973/eurasia.2017.1355 De Bruin, L. R. (2019). The use of cognitive apprenticeship in the learning and teaching of improvisation: Teacher and student perspectives. Research Studies in Music Education, 41(3), 261-279. https://doi.org/10.1177/1321103X18773110 Dare, E. A., Ring-Whalen, E. A., & Roehrig, G. H. (2019). Creating a continuum of STEM models: Exploring how K-12 science teachers conceptualise STEM education. International Journal of Science Education, 41(12), 1701-1720. https://doi.org/10.1080/09500693.2019.1638531 Department of Basic Education (DBE). (2011). Curriculum and assessment policy statement. Intermediate phase Grades 4–6: Natural sciences and technology. Pretoria, South Africa: DBE. https://doi.org/10.17159/2221-4070/2018/v7i0a7 Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET). (2015). Policy on the Minimum Requirements for Teacher Education Qualifications, as revised 2014. Pretoria: Government Gazette. https://doi.org/10.35279/-297730/2015/552 Du Plessis, P., & Mestry, R. (2019). Teachers for rural schools - A challenge for South Africa. South African Journal of Education, 39(2), 14-32. https://doi.org/saje.v39ns1a1774 Erickson, F. (1982). Classroom discourse as improvisation: Relationships between academic task structure and social participation structure in lessons. In L. C. Wilkinson (Ed.), Communicating in the classroom (pp. 153 – 181). New York: Academic Press. https://doi.org/ci.nii.ac.jp/naid/10020917973 Eze, P. I. (2018). Effectiveness of improvisation of instructional materials on students’ academic achievement and retention in Christian religious studies. Educational Studies, 5(2), 33-39. https://doi.org/10.3102/00028312026004473 Fleischmann, E. M. L. & Van der Westhuizen, C. P. (2017). The Interactive-GIS-Tutor (IGIST): An option for GIS teaching in resource-poor South African schools. South African Geographical Journal, 99(1), 68-85. https://doi.org/10.1080/03736245.2016.1208576
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Gobert, J. D. & Buckley, B. C. (2000). Introduction to model-based teaching and learning in science education. International Journal of Science Education, 22(9), 891-894. https://doi.org/10.1080/095006900416839 Harlow, D. B. (2010). Structures and improvisation for inquiry‐based science instruction: A teacher’s adaptation of a model of magnetism activity. Science education, 94(1), 142-163. https://doi.org/10.1002/sce.20348 Holdhus, K., Høisæter, S., Mæland, K., Vangsnes, V., Engelsen, K. S., Espeland, M., & Espeland, Å. (2016). Improvisation in teaching and education - roots and applications. Cogent Education, 3(1), 1-17. https://doi.org/10.1525/abt.2016.78.1.35 Hickey, M. (2015). Learning from the experts: A study of free-improvisation pedagogues in university settings. Journal of Research in Music Education, 62(4), 425-445. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022429414556319 Ingham, A. M., & Gilbert, J. K. (1991). The use of analogue models by students of chemistry at higher education level. International Journal of Science Education, 13(3), 193-202. https://doi.org/10.1080/0950069910130206 Mabasa, T., & Singh, S. (2020). Decolonising continuing teacher professional development in the teaching of physical science through improvisation in rural areas. South African Journal of Higher Education, 34(3), 146-163. https://doi.org/10.20853/34-33455 Mtsi, N., & Maphosa, C. (2016). Challenges encountered in the teaching and learning of the natural sciences in rural schools in South Africa. Journal of Social Sciences, 47(1), 58-67. https://doi.org/10.1080/09718923.2016.11893544 Munje, P. N., & Jita, T. (2020). The Impact of the Lack of ICT Resources on Teaching and Learning in Selected South African Primary Schools. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, 19(7), 263-279. https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.7.15 Mupira, P., & Ramnarain, U. (2018). The effect of inquiry-based learning on the achievement goal orientation of grade 10 physical sciences learners at township schools in South Africa. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 55(6), 810-825. Mzuza, M. K., & Van Der Westhuizen, C. P. (2019). Review on the state of GIS application in secondary schools in the Southern African region. South African Geographical Journal, 101(2), 175-191. https://doi.org/10.1002/tea.21440 Nkambule, T., & Mukeredzi, T. G. (2017). Pre-service teachers’ professional learning experiences during rural teaching practice in Acornhoek, Mpumalanga Province. South African Journal of Education, 37(3), 25-39. https://doi.org/10.15700/saje.v37n3a1371 Okori, O. A., & Jerry, O. (2017). Improvisation and utilisation of resources in the teaching and learning of science and mathematics in secondary schools in Cross River state. Global Journal of Educational Research, 16(1), 21-28. https://doi.org/10.4314/gjedr.v16i1.4 Ozuah, A. C. (2019). Assessment of the extent of improvisation in teaching and learning basic science in upper basic school level in Anambra east local government area of Anambra state. International Journal of Novel Research in Science, Technology and Engineering, 2(1), 14-29. https://doi.org/10.12973/eurasia.2016.1305a Pareek, R. B. (2019). An assessment of availability and utilisation of laboratory facilities for teaching science at secondary level. Science Education International, 30(1), 75-81. https://doi.org/10.1080/0950069910130206 Peel, A., Zangori, L., Friedrichsen, P., Hayes, E., & Sadler, T. (2019). Students’ model-based explanations about natural selection and antibiotic resistance through socio-
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scientific issues-based learning. International Journal of Science Education, 41(4), 510-532. https://doi.org/10.1080/09500693.2018.1564084 Perkins, D. N. (1986). Knowledge as Design. (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates). https://doi.org/https://stars.library.ucf.edu/cirs/3272/ Philip, T. M. (2019). Principled improvisation to support novice teacher learning. Teachers College Record, 121(4), 4-18. https://doi.org/10.693/533570693.2019.345584 Ponzio, N. M., Alder, J., Nucci, M., Dannenfelser, D., Hilton, H., Linardopoulos, N., & Lutz, C. (2018). Learning science communication skills using improvisation, video recordings, and practice, practice, practice. Journal of microbiology & biology education, 19(1), 13-31. https://doi.org/10.1128/jmbe.v19i1.1433 Ramnarain, U. D. (2020). Exploring the Autonomy of South African School Science Students when Doing Investigative Inquiries for a Science Fair. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, 16(12), 11-19. https://doi.org/10.29333/ejmste/9128 Sawyer, R. K. (2004). Creative teaching: Collaborative discussion as disciplined improvisation. Education Researcher, 33(2), 15-32. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X033002012 Sawyer, R. K. (2011). What makes good teachers great? The artful balance of structure and improvisation. In R.K. Sawyer (Ed.), Structure and improvisation in creative teaching (pp. 1–24). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511997105 Seel, N. M. (2017). Model-based learning: A synthesis of theory and research. Educational Technology Research and Development, 65(4), 931-966. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-016-9507-9 Shulman, L. S. (1987). Knowledge and teaching: Foundations of the new reform. Harvard Educational Review, 57(1), 1–22. https://doi.org/10.17763/haer.57.1.j463w79r56455411 Singh, S. K., & Singh, R. J. (2012). Pre-service teachers’ reflections of South African science classrooms. South African Journal of Higher Education, 26(1), 168-180. https://doi.org/10.10520/EJC123969 Stears, M., & James, A. (2011). Towards socially responsible biology: Two cases in a teacher education programme. African Journal of Research in Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, 15(3), 122-136. https://doi.org/10.1080/10288457.2011.10740722 Taber, K. S. (2017). Models and modelling in science and science education. In Science education. Brill Sense. https://doi.org/ 9789463007498/BP000021 Tsybulsky, D., Dodick, J., & Camhi, J. (2018). High-school students in university research labs? Implementing an outreach model based on the science as inquiry approach. Journal of Biological Education, 52(4), 415-428. https://doi.org/10.1080/00219266.2017.1403360 Wrigley, C., & Straker, K. (2017). Design thinking pedagogy: The educational design ladder. Innovations in Education and Teaching International, 54(4), 374-385. https://doi.org/10.1080/14703297.2015.1108214 Yeboah, R., Abonyi, U. K. & Luguterah, A. W. (2019). Making primary school science education more practical through appropriate interactive instructional resources: A case study of Ghana. Cogent Education, 6(1), 1-14. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511997105 Yinger, R. J. (1987). By the seat of your pants: An inquiry into improvisation and teaching. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Washington, DC. https://doi.org/10.2244/abt.2016.78.1.35
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 5, pp. 38-55, May 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.5.3
Digital Literacy and its Acquisition by Teachers and Principals at Educational Workplaces Ahmad A. S. Tabieh, Mohammad Hamzeh, Basel Kh. S. Abu-Foudeh, Niveen Jarrar, Sahar Al-Manaseer, Aysha Al-Shawabkeh and Rania Seikaly Middle East University, Amman, Jordan https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6762-6313 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1021-2336 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7988-490X https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3136-0274 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4865-6573 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3774-4156 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6258-7386
Abstract. This study investigates the digital literacy skills among workers in the educational workplace in Jordon. A convenience sample of 139 teachers and 73 administrators spread over 173 public schools and 39 private schools was selected. The study followed mixed quantitative and qualitative methods. Data were collected using two instruments: a semi structured interview to investigate and monitor the digital literacy skills; a questionnaire to measure the availability degree of the digital literacy skills and the significant differences in the availability degree due to the job title and the workplace. In this study, four areas represent digital literacy skills: functional skills, information skills, digital competency in the educational process and digital competency in empowering learners. The availability degree of digital skills is medium in general and statistically significantly higher in administrators than in teachers. The results showed that private sector workers have better digital literacy skills than their public sector peers. Finally, the study concluded that functional and information skills increase digital competency in the educational learning process and empower learners. Keywords: digital competence; digital informational skills; digital literacy
functional
skills;
digital
1. Introduction Education has become the most appropriate tool to reflect the requirements of the market economy and the new society. The change in education foundations accompanies a global process of reorienting education results towards the globalised society and digital economy. Thus, the competitive employee must know the details of his profession, know how to work in a team, be social, be stable ©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).
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in challenging situations, perform tasks and master many competencies necessary for professional work, especially digital literacy acquisition. More focus should be placed on digital literacy, as digital trends are growing and overlapping with the cultural and educational world, in terms of cultural convergence, information technologies and the impact on information and communication technologies (ICTs), on new forms of communication. Therefore, digital literacy is concerned with understanding and appropriately using modern ICTs and their functions in work or daily life, represented by different teaching resources that teachers use, such as e-textbooks, digital educational resources and the Internet, and the use of various technologies while conducting lessons, such as distance learning, elearning, open online courses and open educational resources (Yelubay et al., 2020). Digital literacy is highly important because digital technology is an integral part of modern society, promotes economic development, and helps face the challenges and perspectives of modern digital society. Moreover, digital literacy reflects the extent of digital technology use and focuses on the effort made to eradicate technological illiteracy (Bosler et al., 2019). It also contributes to developing new educational capabilities that stimulate social change through various digital practices for future youth (Ehret & Čiklovan, 2020). One of the distinguishing features of digital literacy in education is dealing with large amounts of information, as digitisation is a technical, cultural and economic reality. Simultaneously, an organisational fact is that as the amount of data produced by humans and machines grows dramatically, the material costs related to energy storage decrease. Furthermore, treat them (Bortolazzo, 2020). The digital age sheds light on the educational phenomenon, as the current generations are advocates of major changes taking place in the world: globalisation, internationalisation and digitisation. These phenomena increasingly affect educational systems, which led to changing the traditional teacher-based and student-centred educational model into a widespread educational model for digital technologies. This shift is related to future changes and the nature of work and requires new competencies. Digital literacy in education, training and learning provides various opportunities and challenges to recreate the curriculum architecture according to the real needs in the labour market (Catalano, 2019). This study evaluates the importance of digital literacy to keep pace with globalisation and technological developments among the emerging generations. Therefore, scientific research continues to reveal the skills of digital literacy and the degree of its availability among teachers and administrators of the Ministry of Education in Jordan. Yelubay et al., (2020) showed that teachers lack digital literacy and are incompetent in using digital technology. Moreover, Gabriella, (2020) confirmed the attempts to implement or enhance digital literacy in basic education networks are weak.
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Moreover, this study reveals digital literacy skills and the degree of their availability among teachers and administrators of the Ministry of Education in the government sector and public schools. In the statistical report for the academic year 2018/2019 by the Jordanian Ministry of Education, the number of teachers and administrators working in the ministry across various governorates was 87,734 and 17,643, respectively (Al-Omari, 2019). This current study is practically important because it is a recent study in the digital literacy field. In this way, it enriches the Arab research and calls for researches to pay more attention to this subject from different angles so that more comprehensive studies are conducted, contributing to supporting theoretical literature in general and Jordanian Arab research in particular. This study provides a list of digital literacy skills, which reveals the strengths and weaknesses of their degree of availability in teachers and administrators of the Jordanian Ministry of Education. Therefore, it benefits the experts, researchers, those concerned with digital literacy and those in charge of designing training programs for teachers and administrators of the Ministry of Education on digital literacy skills. A report by the UNICEF, (2017) explained that one-third of the world's Internet users are children and adolescents and the group that accesses the Internet the most are young people (15–24 years old). This conclusion indicates the ease of connection to the Internet, especially with the widespread ownership of smartphones among school students and their involvement in digital literacy to a large extent (Hanafy, 2019). Thus, digital literacy has become one of the features of education in knowledge societies, where teachers and administrators of the Ministry of Education are involved. The current study investigates one of the top research issues as part of scientific research priorities in the education sector in recent years (2011–2020) (The Higher Council for Science and Technology, 2010). Hence, more studies are warranted on digital literacy skills and their availability among teachers and administrators of the Ministry of Education in Jordan.
2. Literature Review Digital literacy skills are defined as open and dynamic processes dependent on interactive communication, which require knowledge to use ICTs, especially the Internet, and contribute to a new understanding of cultural creativity (Kumar & Bhushan, 2020). Digital literacy is related to an individual's ability and knowledge to access and use the technology needed to live, learn, and work in a society where communication and accessing information are the basis of functioning efficiently (Al-Omari, 2019). A digitally literate individual must be able to use both cognitive and technical skills. Cognitive skills are brain-based skills essential in acquiring, manipulating and reasoning with data. Teachers at the Ministry of Education in Jordan must
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have the fundamental digital skills to conduct engaging classroom sessions that maximise students' learning abilities (Levy, 2018). At an educational institute, a digitally literate teacher and administrator must understand the importance of acquiring and using the correct information efficiently to empower students so that they can create and produce innovative work, evaluate and justify a situation, analyse and connect ideas, apply and use knowledge learned, understand and explain concepts and recall facts. While acquiring all the essentials from the world of digits, teachers and administrators must be cautious about using the correct information. They have a big responsibility to direct their students' minds to a safe and rich path (Bhaumik, 2020). Another fundamentally important point for teachers and administrators is to understand that technology has an expiry date. They must choose devices, platforms and software programs wisely to avoid continuous change over short periods. Although change and staying up to date are essential in reaching goals and exceeding expectations for an institution, selecting reliable and well-tried digital tools is the key to succeeding, which will provide a solid foundation to any digital tool in place (Pettersson, 2018). The administrative section in any educational institute ensures performance efficiency in all departments. This section acts as a connecting link between senior management and teachers. Besides, it motivates the workforce and ensures achieving organisational goals. When the educational institute's digital system is implemented, all employees must be familiar with and trained to use the same software and platforms. Such decisions are made by the senior management, who will ensure that all teachers are operating systematically. Now that we have a clearer picture of what skills are needed for high competency at the educational institutes in Jordan, we need to research the degree of their availability in teachers and administrators of the Ministry of Education. Are such skills available? If so, to what degree? Pratolo & Solikhati, (2020) investigated digital literacy implementation in a private junior high school in Temanggung, identified teachers' attitudes in practising digital literacy and explored the challenges and coping mechanisms. They used a qualitative research method, where the interviews were conducted on a sample consisting of 10 teachers in the school. The results indicated that computers and smartphones were used as digital devices. In practice, teachers showed positive attitudes in terms of considering the syllabus as a core, understanding the teacher's position, developing effective learning, using multiple literacies and enhancing the four language skills. Meanwhile, lack of technology, students' background, lack of time and limited budgeting were obstacles in implementing digital literacy. Gibbs, (2019) determined educators' beliefs about using technology in their classrooms and their digital literacy knowledge and suggested effective
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promotion tactics for professional development workshops. A mixed-methods approach has been used in the study, where an online questionnaire was distributed and interviews were conducted on a sample of 40 elementary (K-5) teachers and in Delaware County, Indiana. The results indicated that teachers need to acquire key digital literacy skills and feel comfortable teaching them before leaving the professional development course. On the other hand, Yazon et al., (2019) determined the relationship between digital literacy, digital competence and educators' research productivity. They followed a descriptive correlational research design, where a questionnaire was distributed to a sample of 56 permanent faculty members at Laguna State Polytechnic University, Los Banos Campus. The results indicated a descriptive correlational and significant relationship between faculty members' digital literacy and productivity. McGuinness & Fulton, (2019) explored the role of the teacher's digital literacy (TDL) among other schools' digital literacy (SDC) components in determining the Digital Divide (DD) in Ghana's primary schools. The results indicated that the accessibility, ease-of-use, design and duration of tutorials were deemed effective in user engagement; however, several technological challenges were identified, such as browser incompatibility, uneven sound quality and general Internet connection issues, which disrupted the learning process. Hosseini, (2018) examined teachers' perceptions about digital literacy instruction in early elementary school grades to identify existing obstacles to digital literacy education and support systems necessary to enhance instruction. A quantitative descriptive approach was used by distributing an online questionnaire to a sample of 37 kindergarten and first- and second-grade teachers in California. The results indicated that early elementary grade students in this school district are provided with more opportunities to practice computer literacy than information literacy skills. Teachers identified the high student-to-teacher ratio, lack of time to plan and teach technology lessons and limited self-management and independence skills as major impediments to digital literacy instruction in the early elementary grades. Conversely, they demonstrated that access to districtlevel technology coaches and on-site technical support, opportunities to observe demo technology lessons and their knowledge of grade-level technology standards enhance their ability to teach digital literacy skills. Tewari & Birla, (2018) examined the role of digital literacy of faculties on students' learning of various specialisations. They used a quantitative descriptive approach by distributing a questionnaire to a sample of 125 students from Denver Language School. The results indicated that students from different backgrounds would perceive the faculty's DL in their individualist way. The course (graduate and postgraduate) influences students' learning experience and understanding. Students in the current education scenario preferred the incorporation of digital technology and digital platforms in teaching pedagogy.
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Spante et al., (2018) established an understanding of referencing strategy to digital literacy and digital competence over time, disciplines, countries, methods and analysis levels. In this systematic literature review, three databases were used: Web of Science, Scopus and Education Resources Information Center. Initially, 107 publications between 1997 and 2017 were found, with 28 addressing digital competence and 79 digital literacy. The results indicated that future research in HE addresses digital literacy or digital competence needs to pay more attention to definitions' origin. Furthermore, research needs to analyse how the different definitions might complement or contradict each other. It also becomes important to clarify the rationale for the preference of the specific selection of different definitions. Such clarifications facilitate understanding the research effort linked to investigating policy implementation or a more critical investigation linked to digital competence or digital literacy. Çam & Kiyici, (2017) identified digital literacy levels of prospective teachers in terms of several variables. Quantitative method was used where a questionnaire was distributed to a sample of 354 prospective teachers studying in different departments of Sakarya University College of Education. The results indicated that digital literacy levels were high in prospective male teachers (gender variable) and computer education and instructional technology teaching department (department variable). The research found that prospective teachers' income levels did not affect their digital literacy levels. Kumari & D’Souza, (2016) studied digital literacy levels among secondary school teachers in Mangaluru Taluk. They used a quantitative method by distributing a questionnaire to a sample of 73 teachers of private, aided and government schools of urban and rural areas across Mangaluru Taluk. The results indicated that digital literacy levels were average; the extent to which teachers in secondary schools use ICT was average; no significant difference was observed between the digital literacy level among teachers at secondary schools in urban and rural areas in Mangaluru Taluk. Quaicoe & Pata, (2015) identified the role of the teacher's digital literacy (TDL) among other schools' digital literacy (SDC) components in determining Digital Divide (DD) among Ghana's primary schools. They used a quantitative method where a questionnaire was distributed to a sample of 17 schools in urban, periurban and rural locations—randomly sampled from circuits in a metropolitan region of Ghana. The results indicated that DD in the sample schools was significantly influenced by TDL and ICT-related policy documents. When the previous studies such as (Hosseini, 2018; Spante et al, 2018; Çam and Kiyici, 2017; Kumari and D’Souza, 2016) in the literature are observed, it has been detected that there are very few studies that focus on investigating digital literacy skills for the academic employees of the educational workplaces. Thus, this study is thought to be beneficial for the literature in terms of identifying the digital literacy skills and providing suggestions to enhance these skills.
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3. Research Methodology 3.1. Research Goal The study investigates digital literacy skills and the degree of their availability among teachers and administrators of the Ministry of Education. The current study seeks to answer the following questions: 1. What are the digital literacy skills for teachers and administrators working in the Ministry of Education in Jordan? 2. What is the availability degree of digital literacy skills among teachers and administrators of the Ministry of Education in Jordan? 3. Is there a statistically significant difference in the availability of digital literacy skills for the Ministry of Education teachers and administrators due to job title and the educational workplace? 4. What is the effect of digital functional and informational skills on digital competence in teaching, learning, evaluating and empowering learners? 3.2. Study Design This study follows a mixed methodology that combines quantitative and qualitative approaches to answer the above-mentioned questions. A qualitative approach is used to detect digital literacy skills by conceptual analysis (Gibbs, 2019). the researchers identified the four open-ended question and applied on the respondents, next they summarized and codded the answers text under each question into manageable content categories (Hosseini, 2018), and then detected the patterns(themes) which were the digital literacy skills for teachers and administrators. A quantitative (descriptive) approach is used to measure the degree of digital literacy availability. We measured the differences in digital literacy due to job title and workplace by using MANOVA. Correlation analysis was conducted to detect the relationship between digital functional and informational skills and digital competence. 3.3. Participants The study population consisted of all teachers and administrators of the Ministry of Education in Jordan. The convenience sample consisted of 139 teachers and 73 administrators across 173 governmental sectors and 39 private sectors. 3.4. Data Collection Two instruments were developed to collect data: an interview and a questionnaire. A semi-structured interview was developed for teachers and administrators of the Ministry of Education after reviewing the literature and previous digital literacy studies. The instrument contains all digital literacy skills summarised from the literature in addition to the open-ended question of what are the digital literacy skills that teachers and administrators should achieve? The participants will be asked in individual interviews with 15 experts to answer the open-ended question and whether they agree with the skills already included in this instrument as required skills for the study sample. A questionnaire with a five-point Likert scale was developed according to the final digital literacy skills identified by the semi-structured interview to determine the degree of their availability in teachers and administrators of the Ministry of Education and differences in digital skills due to experiences, educational level
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and workplace. The questionnaires consisted of 40 skills categorised into four themes: digital functional skills (8 skills), digital informational skills (13 skills), digital competence in terms of teaching, learning and evaluation (11 skills) and digital competence in terms of empowering learners (8 skills). 3.5. Validity and Reliability To check the first instrument's validity and reliability (individual interview), we composed the questions while consulting three academic leadership experts. The instrument's initial draft was presented to two professors in education specialising in digital literacy studies to be reviewed and get genuine feedback. The instrument was presented to teachers and administrators with more than ten years of experience, and feedback was taken for any improvements or adjustments. Experts in evaluation and measurements reviewed the instrument and checked the correlation between the interview questions and the study’s questions. The instrument was presented to linguists to check the clarity of the questions. Five experts with more than ten years of experience in the educational field reviewed the list of digital literacy skills and open-ended questions. Then, the instrument was adjusted accordingly. To check the content validity of the questionnaire, we presented in its initial form to several specialists in digital literacy studies to evaluate the questionnaire in terms of accuracy, comprehensiveness of the themes and the affiliation of paragraphs with each theme. The instrument was modified according to their observations. The questionnaire was then applied to a pilot sample of 30 teachers and administrators of the Ministry of Education in Jordan that is different from the current sample. The instrument showed that Bartlett's test for Sphericity is significant at α = 0.05 and all eigenvalues are greater than one. Moreover, KMO value was greater than 0.5 (Hair et al., 2010), meaning that the instrument has enough validity to be used. The instrument's reliability was verified using Cronbach's alpha coefficient of 0.97, which showed very good reliability (Pallant, 2005). Table 1 shows the correlation coefficient and Cronbach’s alpha according to digital literacy skills.
Creative thinking skill Digital functional skills Digital informational skills Digital competence in terms of teaching, learning and evaluation Digital competence in terms of empowering learners Overall
No. of paragraphs
Table 1: Constructive validity and reliability of digital literacy skills questionnaire Validity
Reliability
8
4.82
0.91
Bartlett's test for Sphericity 899.53
13
7.22
0.93
11
4.58
8
5.47
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Eigenvalue
KMO
Sig
Cronbach’s alpha
0.000*
0.91
1650.48
0.000*
0.93
0.93
1707.88
0.000*
0.94
0.90
1270.64
0.000*
0.93 0.97
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3.6. Analysis of Data • Kolmogorov–Smirnov test examined the normality distribution. The test showed that the sampled population is normally distributed with D (200) = 0.083, P = 200. • Content analysis was used to find the in-demand digital literacy skills from the point of view of teachers and administrators of the Ministry of Education in Jordan. • Frequencies, means, standard deviations and ranks were used to measure the degree of the availability of digital literacy skills in teachers and administrators of the Ministry of Education in Jordan. • MANOVA was used to measure the differences in the degree of digital literacy skills in teachers and administrators of the Ministry of Education in Jordan attributed to the educational workplace, educational level and years of experiences. • Correlation analysis was used to detect the relation between digital functional and informational skills and digital competence.
4. Results and Discussion 4.1. Qualitative Results: The Digital Literacy Skills for Teachers and Administrators in the Educational Workplace The digital literacy skills survey was conducted by reviewing previous studies and then conducting an individual interview with specialists in educational technology to answer the open-ended question: What digital literacy skills should be available to teachers and administrative staff in the educational workplace in Jordan? After they provided the answers, the skills from the theoretical literature and the answers' content were analysed, resulting in general axes, domains, and items. The respondents divided the skills into two main axes, where the first is a requirement for the second, and each axis was divided into two subdomains. Figures 1–4 show the digital skills according to the designed model of the respondents’ answers.
Figure 1: Digital functional skills
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Figure 2: Digital informational skills
Figure 3: Digital competence in terms of empowering learners
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Figure 4: Digital competence in terms of teaching, learning, and evaluation
The results in figures (1-4) indicate that the digital literacy skills classify into four domains which are digital informational skills, digital functional skills, Digital competencies in empowering learners, and Digital competencies in LearningTeaching processing. The researchers attribute these classifications of digital literacy to the fact that educational technology experts understand the sequence of technological skills that any workers should learn to acquire the overall skills of digital literacy. Thus, workers become more aware of recent knowledge in digital literacy and how to employ it. This result is consistent with that by Tewari, S., and Birla, M (2018). 4.2. Quantitative Results 4.2.1. The Degree of Availability of Digital Literacy Skills among Teachers and Administrators Table 2 shows that the fields' means ranged between 3.68 and 3.49, with standard deviations of 0.84–0.72. The value of the total arithmetic mean was 3.59, with a standard deviation of 0.70; this indicates that the degree of availability of digital literacy skills among workers in Jordan's educational workplace was medium.
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Table 2. Means and standard deviations of the availability degree for the study themes Field
Mean
SD
Rank
Availability degree*
Digital functional skills
3.59
0.81
2
Medium
Informational digital literacy
3.68
0.72
1
Available
Digital competency in learning, teaching and assessment
3.57
0.76
3
Medium
Digital competence in empowering learners
3.49
0.84
4
Medium
Overall
3.59
0.70
Medium
*Standard grade: not available, 1–2.33; medium, 2.34–3.67); available, 3.68–5.
Concerning digital functional skills, the values of the arithmetic averages were 3.72–3.42, with standard deviations of 1.11–0.98. The highest average was for the item "choosing the right tool to search for educational information and use it to create or record it" and the lowest average for the paragraph "digital information awareness: knowing the types of databases that can be conducted by information such as the electronic library web and others." We note that 88% of the skills were of medium availability and the overall arithmetic average for this field was 3.59 with a standard deviation of 0.81 with a medium degree, indicating that the degree of availability of digital functional skills among workers in the educational workplace in Jordan was medium. For the field of information digital literacy, the arithmetic averages ranged were 4.05–3.19, with standard deviations of 1.03–0.80. The highest average was for the item "use common keywords to search for information via the Internet." The lowest average was for the paragraph "informational digital organisation: using the (social bookmark) to organise and share information.” We note that 54% of the skills have been highly appreciated. In general, we note that this field's overall arithmetic means was 3.68 with a standard deviation of 0.72, with a large degree, indicating the degree of availability of informational digital literacy among Jordan workers' educational workplace was available. In the field of digital competence in the educational learning process, the values of the arithmetic averages were 3.73–3.41 with standard deviations of 1.01–0.92. The highest average was for the item "I use different websites and search strategies to find various digital resources, choose and adapt them to my needs." Furthermore, the lowest average was for the item "use digital technologies to allow students to plan, document and monitor their work such as self-assessment tests." We note that 90% of the skills was rated average. In general, the overall arithmetic average for this field was 3.57 with a standard deviation of 0.76, with a medium degree, indicating that the degree of availability of digital competence in learning, teaching and evaluation among workers in the educational workplace in Jordan was medium.
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For digital competence in empowering learners, the values of arithmetic averages were 3.65– 3.39 with standard deviations of 1.04–0.96 and a medium degree of availability. The highest average was for the paragraph "I encourage students to use digital technologies creatively to solve concrete problems and overcome obstacles and challenges that would reduce the effectiveness of learning" and that the lowest average for the item "I train students on how to assess the reliability of the information and determine the information related to the activity under study." A standard amount of 0.84 with a medium degree indicates that the degree of digital competence availability in empowering learners was medium. The researchers attribute this result to the fact that the training courses that school staff, teachers and administrators take focus on the theoretical side of informational literacy and lack the functional and practical side of using this literacy. The degree of availability of informational digital literacy among workers in the educational workplace in Jordan was large. The researchers attribute this result to the fact that informational digital literacy is widely spread among workers in Jordanian schools, as the Ministry of Education provides free courses to obtain the ICDL certificate, which provides them with many skills related to the Internet and information and digital literacy. The results indicated that the degree of availability of digital competency in learning, teaching and evaluation among workers in educational workplaces in Jordan was medium, which could be because computer laboratories in schools are limited and unavailable, except for computer research teachers, and other teachers have no opportunity to use these laboratories. Lack of training on how to use the Internet and digital media in teaching, the curriculum length and lack of time due to the classroom's momentum do not enable the teacher to benefit from the Internet inside schools and constitute a barrier to employing digital skills. The results indicated that the degree of availability of digital competence in empowering learners was medium because the training provided to Jordanian school personnel does not focus on employing these skills (such as taking into account individual differences and preparing assignments) in a digital environment. These results are consistent with those in previous studies (Gibbs, 2019; Kumari & D’Souza, 2016; McGuinness & Fulton, 2019; Pratolo & Solikhati, 2020) on the existence of informational digital literacy to a large extent with medium digital competence in learning, teaching and evaluation. Yazon et al., (2019) demonstrated the existence of high digital competence in learning, teaching and evaluation and the empowerment of learners. 4.2.2. The Significant Difference in the Degree of Availability of Digital Literacy due to Job Title and the Educational Workplace In Table 3, apparent differences were observed in arithmetic mean values to the degree of availability of digital skills in general and each field between teachers and administrators. The table also shows apparent differences in the values of the
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averages of total availability and each field between workers in the public and private sectors. Multiple variance analysis was used to examine the substance of these differences and their statistical significance, as shown in Tables 4-5. Table 3. Means and standard deviation of the availability degree according to job title and educational workplace Job title
Educational workplace
Field
Teacher M(SD)
Administrative M(SD)
Public sector M(SD)
Private sector M(SD)
Functional digital skills
3.44(0.77)
3.87(0.79)
3.51(0.83)
3.91(0.62)
Informational digital literacy
3.56(0.71)
3.90(0.69)
3.64(0.75)
3.84(0.54)
Digital competency in learning, teaching and assessment
3.47(0.75)
3.77(0.74)
3.52(0.79)
3.80(0.55)
Digital competence in empowering learners
3.41(0.80)
3.64(0.89)
3.64(0.86)
3.61(0.72)
The overall tool
3.48(0.68)
3.81(0.70)
3.55(0.73)
3.80(0.50)
The researchers attribute these results to the fact that administrators are keen to enrol in training courses to shift from teaching to management and achieve career development. Thus, they become more aware of recent developments in digital literacy and how to employ it. This result is consistent with that by Hosseini, (2018). The results in Table 4 indicate that differences in the degree of availability of digital literacy skills according to job title were statistically significant at a level of α = 0.05, with all p values being statistically significant (0.05 = α). The difference was in favour of the administrative job title, where the arithmetic means were higher than those for the teachers. Table 4. Differences significance in availability degree due to job title (MANOVA).
Sig
Sum of squares
9.184
1
9.184
5.251
1
4.325
Macro
Sum of squares
Functional digital skills Digital information literacy Digital competency in learning, teaching and assessment Digital competence in empowering learners Overall
df
Square average
Theme
Error
Sum of squares
Job title
df
15.097
0.00**
103.325
210 136.929
211
5.251
10.671
0.001**
117.670
210 108.575
211
1
4.325
7.719
0.006**
145.005
210 121.995
211
2.678
1
2.678
3.879
0.047**
98.533
210 147.683
211
5.063
1
5.063
10.790
0.001**
103.325
210 103.596
211
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df
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Table 5 shows that for the workplace variable, statistically significant differences were observed at the level of significance of α = 0.05 in the degree of availability of digital functional skills, digital competency in learning, teaching and evaluation and digital literacy skills in general. The value of q was statistically significant at α = 0.05, and the difference was in favour of the private sector workplace, as the arithmetic means of their responses were higher than those for workers in the public sector. Table 5. Differences significance in availability degree due to the educational workplace (MANOVA).
Functional digital skills Digital information literacy Digital competency in learning, teaching and assessment Digital competence in empowering learners Overall
Macro
1
4.923
7.833
0.006**
1.312
1
1.312
2.568
0.111
2.436
1
2.436
4.279
0.040**
119.559 210 121.995 211
749
1
0.749
1.070
0.302
146.935 210 147.683 211
2.011
1
2.011
4.158
0.043**
101.584 210 103.596 211
Sig
df
Sum of squares
4.923
df
Sum of squares
F
Sum of squares
Theme
Error
Square average
Educational workplace
df
132.005 210 136.929 211 107.263 210 108.575 211
This conclusion agrees with a previous study where workers in the private sector were keener to possess and employ digital skills to maintain and advance their work. Simultaneously, public sector workers are more confident in job security and do not feel the need to develop in the digital field. These results are consistent with Hosseini's study (Hosseini, 2018) while conflicting with Kumari & D’Souza, (2016). 4.2.3. The Effect of Digital Functional and Informational Skills on Digital Competences Table 6 and Figure 5 shows that functional skills and digital informatics affect digital competence in learning, teaching, evaluation and empowerment of learners, with a correlation coefficient value of 0.791, which indicates a high degree of correlation. The impact percentage reached 62.6% and this relationship is statistically acceptable, as the value of P was 351,404 with a significance level of 0.00; this value is statistically significant at the level of statistical significance of = 0.05. Table 6. Simple linear regression of the relation between the axes of digital literacy skills Correlation coefficient (r)
Impact ratio (R2)
F
Sig
0.791
0.626
351.404
0.000
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Figure 5: Scatterplot of Correlation between axes of digital literacy
Therefore, having functional and informational digital skills would make workers in the educational workplace more effective in communicating with students, colleagues and parents, thus more effective in the learning and teaching process. These skills also help students and direct them to perform their learning tasks using the necessary technologies, which led to students' empowerment and acquiring technical skills by exchanging technical expertise with their teachers.
5. Conclusion This research was able to draw several conclusions based on the utilised two instruments and their results as follows. First, the degree of availability of digital literacy skills for workers in educational workplaces in Jordan was generally medium. Second, in educational workplaces, administrators have a higher digital literacy than teachers. Third, workers in the private educational workplace have higher digital literacy than those in the public sector. Fourth, functional and informational skills contribute to raising digital competence in learning, teaching, assessment and empowering learners.
6. Recommendations • • •
•
Train the academic employees of the educational workplaces on digital literacy skills and standards. To increase the investment and funds in digital literacy and development of digital infrastructure at the educational workplaces. To include digital literacy programs in the curriculum of higher learning institutions, taking into consideration that today’s students, will be tomorrow’s employees. To conduct future studies about digital literacy skills for students in different educational stages.
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Acknowledgments The authors acknowledge the Middle East University, Amman, Jordan, for the financial support granted to cover this research article's publication fee.
7. References Al-Omari, R. (2019). Statistical report for the academic year 2018/2019. Jordan: Ministry of Education. Bhaumik, R. (2020). Most valued digital skills. https://coursewareworld.com Bortolazzo, S. F. (2020). Connections between Digital Culture and Education: Thinking the Digital Condition in Contemporary Society. ETD - Educação Temática Digital, 22(2), 369–388. https://doi.org/10.20396/etd.v22i2.8654547 Bosler, S., Pascau, J., Pleau, J., & Fastrez, P. (2019). From concepts to the field: Digital culture in media literacy and media education. Communication Langages, No 201(3), 41–66. https://doi.org/10.3917/comla1.201.0041 Çam, E., & Kiyici, M. (2017). Perceptions of Prospective Teachers on Digital Literacy. Malaysian Online Journal of Educational Technology, 5(4), 16. Catalano, H. (2019). Opportunities and Challenges of Education in the Digital Age. Astra Salvensis, 14, 25–31. Ehret, C., & Čiklovan, L. (2020). How speculative designs produce new potentials for education research in digital culture. Discourse: Studies in the Cultural Politics of Education, 41(5), 708–722. https://doi.org/10.1080/01596306.2020.1774713 Gabriella, S. (2020). Digital Culture in basic Education: Uses of Public Policy Education in the Salvador Metropolitan region. Comunicologia: Revista Eletronica de Comunicacao e Epistemologia Da Universidade Catolica de Brasília (UCB), 13(1), 17–30. Gibbs, A. (2019). Strategies for Digital Literacy Professional Development. Ball State University. Hair, J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., Anderson, R. E., & Tatham, R. L. (2010). Multivariate Data Analysis (7th ed.). Macmillan Publishing Company. Hanafy, K. (2019). Our children in the era of digital culture. Islamic Consciousness, 56(651), 76–78. Hosseini, D. (2018). Digital Literacy in Early Elementary School: Barriers and Support Systems in the Era of the Common Core. San Jose State University. Kumar, N. A., & Bhushan, S. (2020). Digital Culture – Evolving Context, Enduring Concepts And Everlasting Solutions. Journal of Services Research, 20(1), 39–56. Kumari, V., & D’Souza, F. (2016). Secondary School Teachers’ Digital Literacy and Use of ICT in Teaching and Learning. International Journal of Computational Research and Development, 1(1), 141–146. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.220927 Levy, L. A. (2018, July 25). Teacher Digital-Literacy. https://rossieronline.usc.edu McGuinness, C., & Fulton, C. (2019). Digital Literacy in Higher Education: A Case Study of Student Engagement with E-Tutorials Using Blended Learning. Journal of Information Technology Education: Innovations in Practice, 18, 001–028. Pallant, J. (2005). SPSS survival manual: A Step-by-step guide to data analysis using SPSS for windows (Version 12) (2nd ed.). Open University Press. Pettersson, F. (2018). On the issues of digital competence in educational contexts – a review of literature. Education and Information Technologies, 23(3), 1005–1021. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-017-9649-3 Pratolo, B. W., & Solikhati, H. A. (2020). The Implementation Of Digital Literacy In Indonesian Suburban EFL Classes. 9(01), 1–5. Quaicoe, J. S., & Pata, K. (2015). The Teachers’ Digital Literacy: Determining Digital Divide in Public Basic Schools in Ghana. In S. Kurbanoglu, J. Boustany, S. Špiranec, E.
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Grassian, D. Mizrachi, & L. Roy (Eds.), Information Literacy: Moving Toward Sustainability (pp. 154–162). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-28197-1_16 Spante, M., Hashemi, S. S., Lundin, M., & Algers, A. (2018). Digital competence and digital literacy in higher education research: Systematic review of concept use. Cogent Education, 5(1), 1519143. https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2018.1519143 Tewari, S., & Birla, M. (2018). Digital Literacy of Faculty & Its Relationship with Teaching Learning: A Study on Student’s Perspective. Pacific Business Review International, 11(6), 99–108. The Higher Council for Science and Technology. (2010). Determining priorities for scientific research in Jordan for the years 2011-2020. Ammaan, Jordan. UNICEF. (2017). UNICEF Annual Report 2017. https://www.unicef.org/reports/unicefannual-report-2017 Yazon, A. D., Ang-Manaig, K., Buama, C. A. C., & Tesoro, J. F. B. (2019). Digital Literacy, Digital Competence and Research Productivity of Educators. Universal Journal of Educational Research, 7(8), 1734–1743. https://doi.org/10.13189/ujer.2019.070812 Yelubay, Y., Seri, L., Dzhussubaliyeva, D., & Abdigapbarova, U. (2020). Developing Future Teachers’ Digital Culture: Challenges and Perspectives. 2020 IEEE European Technology and Engineering Management Summit (E-TEMS), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1109/E-TEMS46250.2020.9111827
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 5, pp. 56-72, May 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.5.4
Chronometric Constructive Cognitive Learning Evaluation Model: Measuring the Consolidation of the Human Cognition Schema in Psychology Students’ Memory Guadalupe Elizabeth Morales-Martinez IISUE, National Autonomous University of Mexico, Mexico City, Mexico https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4662-229X Maria Isolde Hedlefs-Aguilar FIME, Nuevo Leon Autonomous University, Monterrey, Nuevo Leon, Mexico https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1138-9835 Janneth Trejo-Quintana IISUE, National Autonomous University of Mexico, Mexico City, Mexico https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7701-6938 Yanko Norberto Mezquita-Hoyos Psychology department, Autonomous University of Yucatan, Yucatan, Mexico https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6305-7440 Miriam Sanchez-Monroy Tecnologico Nacional de Mexico-Instituto Tecnologico de Merida, Yucatan, Mexico https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5263-1216
Abstract. This study illustrates the application of the Chronometric Constructive Cognitive Learning Evaluation Model to assess learning about human cognition knowledge schema in 48 second-year psychology students (79% females, 21% males). In the first phase, the participants carried out a conceptual definition task based on the Natural Semantic Networks technique. They defined ten target concepts related to the course by using verbs, substantives, adjectives, and pronouns (definers). Participants then rated the grade of relatedness between definers and targets concepts. Subsequently, the present authors carried out a computational simulation with data from the first study. In addition, students participated in a semantic priming experiment. They participated in a lexical decision task. Participants read pairs of words; these pairs were sometimes related by cognition scheme or common association, and sometimes were unrelated. The three tasks were applied at the start of the course and the end. The computational simulation analysis and ANOVA indicated that the initial pattern for conceptual ©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).
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activation had changed at the end of the course. Additionally, the initial chronometric behavior of the human cognition schema of the participants also changed at the end of the course. This evidence supports the idea that cognitive evaluation tools can help assess the schematic behavior patterns induced by academic learning. Keywords: academic learning; knowledge scheme; cognitive evaluation; semantic priming; psychology students
1. Introduction Measuring learning is a core part of the academic life of students and teachers. Learning assessments can be a valuable means of developing, modifying, and improving the learning and teaching process. In this regard, Harlen (2007) emphasizes the importance of determining exactly what should be evaluated because such decision-making influences the creation of learning opportunities, the selection of the content to be taught, and the design of teaching aids. This intrinsic link between the assessment of learning and teaching allows students' skills and knowledge to be certified, providing feedback to teachers on each student’s learning progress, and providing information on the effectiveness and quality of the educational system (Lambert & Lines, 2000). The effectiveness and impact of evaluation on teaching and learning depend on its validity, reliability, usefulness, and feasibility (Harlen, 2007). The design of evaluation instruments that are valid and reliable requires a clear definition of the phenomenon and a precise specification of which indicators related to the phenomenon should be measured. These two aspects are difficult to establish in academic learning since most of the mental objects of study in psychology (e.g., intelligence, emotions, consciousness), are intangible, and only indirect measures exist to observe them. The difficulties in defining learning and its cognitive indicators impacted its study in cognitive psychology. In this regard, Pozo (2006) mentions that the issue of learning measurement has rarely been explored from this perspective. From the cognitive psychology perspective, the cognitive definition of learning involves at least two relevant aspects. The first is the processing which relates to how the individual receives the inputs, processes the information, and then generates an output. The output is the second aspect, whereby the result of the learning process becomes visible to the observer (e.g., through a motor response) or leads to an unobservable expression (e.g., cognitive change). In line with the second expression, Moreno (2010) defines learning as a permanent change in mental structures due to a person's interaction with the environment. Thus, academic learning can involve qualitative and quantitative changes in cognitive knowledge structures due to the experiences a student is exposed to through interaction with their academic environment. According to Bower (1975), learning declarative knowledge involves incorporating new information nodes or new relationships between them, producing changes in knowledge structures. Lopez et al. (2014) point out that learning also implies the modification of the relationships between the scheme's concepts and the changes in the weight of these relationships.
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According to this cognitive view of learning, Morales-Martinez et al. (2021) mentioned that academic learning evaluation should involve measuring changes in the organization of information, the mental structure and in the schematic behavior (in terms of time and dynamic) due to the exposure to learning experiences. The measurement of these learning aspects becomes even more relevant in the current context; as Arieli-Attali (2013) stated, the 21st-century society has an economy which is based on information. Hence, evaluation of the complex properties of knowledge is central to academic training for students. In this regard, cognitive psychology offers a wide range of techniques for measuring changes in different cognitive structures. In the human memory study, some techniques can measure changes in knowledge structures produced by knowledge acquisition in different contexts, including the classroom. One instance of this is the Chronometric Constructive Cognitive Learning Evaluation Model or C3-LEM (Lopez et al., 2014; Morales-Martinez & Lopez-Ramirez, 2016; Morales-Martinez, 2020; Morales-Martinez et al., 2017; Morales-Martinez et al., 2015). This model applies human information processing principles (serial and parallel) to explore and explain how a student's mind forms knowledge structures when studying a topic. In general, the C3-LEM proposes the combined use of chronometric and mental representation techniques to evaluate academic learning, taking into account the processes of selection, storage, and retrieval of information learned by students. The model comprises of two evaluation phases (Figure 1). The first refers to constructive evaluation of knowledge that implies the application of mental representation techniques and computational simulation to identify the evaluated knowledge scheme's organizational, structural, and dynamic properties. The second phase, the chronometric evaluation, involves the application of mental chronometry techniques that measure the degree of knowledge consolidation in a student's memory. The following sections present details on each evaluation phase.
Figure 1: Phases and components of the C3-LEM (Source: Morales-Martinez et al., 2020)
2. Constructive Cognitive Assessment of Knowledge Constructive cognitive assessment refers measurement of the organization, structure, and dynamics of the learned knowledge scheme. The C3-LEM proposes techniques for evaluating the mental representation of knowledge, such as the
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Natural Semantic Networks (NSN), to explore how conceptual nodes are organized and structured in a student's memory. While studying the dynamics of mental structures of knowledge, this model suggests the inclusion of neural networks. Figueroa et al. (1976) created the NSN to explore the meaning people give to an object (e.g., a career, a class). This technique contemplates a definitional task. Participants define a concept (target) with definers such as noun verbs, adjectives, or pronouns. The participants complete this process of specifying definers within a time window imposed by the researcher. Participants then weigh their definers in terms of the degree of relationship they perceive them to have with the target. Morales-Martinez et al. (2021) point out that some of the most relevant NSN technique indicators include the frequency of the occurrence of the definer, the semantic richness or J value, the M value or weight of semantic relevance, and the Inter-Response Time (IRT). IRTs refers to the time that passes in the recovery and writing of a definer. The authors make a special mention of this last indicator in the following section since this work illustrates the usefulness of chronometric indicators of knowledge. Previous work describes the other values (MoralesMartinez, Angeles-Castellanos, et al., 2020; Morales-Martinez et al., 2021). Additionally, a brief description of some NSN values is given in the data analysis section of this article. Lopez-Ramirez et al. (2014) proposed using the NSN in the educational field to explore academic learning. They also suggested that the data obtained through this technique could help computer simulations of schemata behavior (LopezRamirez et al., 2015). This proposal gave way to the C3-LEM, which contemplates the application of NSN before and after students have taken a course, to extract data that allow computer simulations to emulate the knowledge scheme's behavior at the beginning and the end of the academic year. In addition, NSN provides information about the meaning that students attach to the knowledge learned (Morales-Martinez et al., 2015; Morales-Martinez et al., 2018; MoralesMartinez et al., 2021; Morales-Martinez & Lopez-Ramirez, 2016; MoralesMartinez & Santos-Alcantara, 2015). Computational simulations can show how the schematic activity changes from the beginning to the end of the course, given academic learning. For example, Lopez et al. (2015) reported the changes in the scheme activation dynamic through different domains of knowledge such as customer service, information systems, and music. Moreover, computer simulations can also provide information about connections between concepts that are not easy to observe without these tools. For example, Gonzalez et al. (2013) explored the dynamics and emergence of high school students' moral knowledge schema. They observed that computational simulations could identify the information implicitly activated in a student's mind, activating concepts that were not necessarily the most relevant in the NSN. To illustrate this result, the authors reported that one parent's activation coactivated the concept police officer. The co-activation of this concept seems to have no semantic relationship with the first activated concept; however, when the
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researchers considered the participants' social and cultural context, they noted a relationship of psychological meaning. In general, the NSN and the computational simulations provide indicators that allow the changes in the mental representation that students form during learning for a topic to be analyzed. The combination of NSN with experimental cognitive studies empowers researchers to observe different cognitive aspects of learning. For example, the inclusion of experiments based on the semantic priming paradigm could provide information on a schema's chronometric properties. It could help form a more integrative view of students' learning processes.
3. Chronometric Cognitive Assessment of Knowledge Chronometric cognitive assessment of learning involves measuring the temporal patterns of schematic activity. The C3-LEM provides several chronometric indicators, such as the IRT; this is the time it takes for a definer to appear within an NSN. The IRT can provide information on the cognitive nature of the concepts. For example, Morales-Martinez and Santos-Alcantara (2015) reported how the definers concepts with the greatest semantic weight tend to appear between 30 and 40 seconds, occupying between the third and fifth positions on the list. Morales-Martinez (2020) surmised that this result might suggest that the M value may be more related to the schema's organization properties than the ease with which students access the schema content. On the other hand, cognitive evaluation includes learning indicators as the reaction times (RT); these are generally obtained from the application of semantic priming studies. After this, a neural network classifies the RT to discriminate whether the students had integrated the academic content learned during a course into their long-term memory structures at the end of the course. The main proposal of the semantic priming paradigm' is that the recognition patterns for the stimuli (semantic or eidetic) are affected by the context that precedes them. For example, when presenting a stimulus (word or image) which is preceded by another semantically related stimulus, people will recognize the second stimulus more quickly or accurately compared to when there is no semantic relationship between both stimuli. Generally, semantic priming is explored through lexical decision tasks (McNamara, 2005); these involve the presentation of pairs of words with different relationships. The participant's task is to read the first word (prime) and then read the last word (target) and decide if it is a word or non-word. Target word recognition times can indicate whether there is a semantic relationship between it and the target. The recognition times, in the categorization of the word pairs with a schematic relationship, are of particular interest in C3-LEM studies because they provide information about the consolidation of the knowledge schema in memory. C3LEM proposes that semantic relationships between the word pairs related to the evaluated knowledge schema do not exist in the student's memory before the course, so the target recognition times in the schematic pairs will be significantly different at the beginning of the course compared to at the end. Also, these will
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differ from those obtained in the targets of word pairs with other types of semantic relationships (e.g., associative, categorical, or unrelated). The semantic priming effect produced by a schematic relationship is called "schematic priming" (Lopez, 1996; Lopez & Theios, 1992). In academic learning, schematic priming is present in word recognition tasks related to knowledge schema that the student is learning on a course. When a student stores the conceptual nodes learned in class in long-term memory, the recognition times for schema words have decreased by the end of the course (e.g., Gonzalez et al., 2013; Morales-Martinez, Lopez-Perez, et al., 2020). The opposite happens when students do not consolidate the information learned in their memory (MoralesMartinez, Angeles-Castellanos, et al., 2020). On the other hand, some studies indicate that spatial strategies can affect the recognition times for schematic words. For example, Urdiales-Ibarra et al. (2018) explored the use of concept maps to reinforce the learning of a biology scheme among high school students. They observed that only the group that used the concept maps obtained a schematic priming effect in recognizing words associated with the course. In contrast, the group which did not use maps, seem not to have consolidated the information in their memory. From the present authors' point of view, greater experimental controls in spatial strategies are lacking in this study. The exploration of new knowledge domains with C3-LEM studies can enhance the comprehension of the cognitive process through which students’ progress in their conceptual understanding in a domain of knowledge. These studies can also provide information on the learning strategies that students use to expand their learning. Thus, this work aimed to contribute to the formation of this body of empirical evidence by exploring the cognitive properties of a knowledge scheme on human cognition in psychology students. In particular, the main objective of this study was to explore the cognitive changes on evaluated schema as a result of academic learning. When students learn information from a course, the time it takes them to access and retrieve this information from memory decreases from the beginning of the course to the end. Thus, the authors looked for changes in the temporal patterns relating to recovering information. Moreover, academic learning should influence schema activation, and so the initial conceptual activations at the beginning of the course should be different those at the end. Bearing this in mind, another objective of this study was to observe variations in the definers’ initial activity at the end of the course. Finally, if students consolidated the course information in their long-term memory, then they should cognitively access this information more quickly at the end of the course compared with the beginning. Then, a final objective was to determine if the recognition time for schema words was faster at the end of the course than the beginning of the course.
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4. Method 4.1. Study Design The authors applied the NSN technique to observe behavior related to a human cognition scheme and carried out a computational simulation based on Lopez and Theios (1992). Subsequently, to explore the temporal properties of the participants' knowledge schema on human cognition, the researchers designed an experimental study based on the semantic priming paradigm with a lexical decision task. 4.2. Participants The participants were 48 second-year psychology students who took a course on human cognition. The participants' ages ranged from 19 to 34 years old (M = 20.3, SD = 2.5); of these, 38 (79%) were females, and 10 (21%) were males. All the students were volunteers and gave informed consent to participate. 4.3. Instruments and Materials The authors obtained a list of definers with the Protocol for the Collection of Target Concepts and Central and Deferred Definers (Morales-Martinez, 2015). This protocol is a procedure that allows the teacher to select target and definer concepts that are central to the development of the course. The selected definers were organized into pairs of prime-target stimuli (e.g., cognition-conditional, cognitive-heuristic, perception-supervisor). The authors used these prime-target pairs to form the experimental conditions for the semantic priming study. Also, the researchers used EVCOG software to design, apply, and analyze data from mental representation and semantic priming studies. The EVCOG also allows computational simulations to be carried out on the NSN data (Morales-Martinez, Angeles-Castellanos et al., 2020). 4.4. Procedure Students performed a concept definition task based on the NSN technique (Morales-Martinez et al., 2021). Participants had to define ten target concepts related to human cognition schema. They used nouns, verbs, and adjectives as definers to define each target concept. Participants then rated each definer on a 10-point scale based on the degree of relatedness to the target that the participants perceived the definer to have. While 1 represented a weak definer or a poor relationship to the target concept, 10 indicated a definer closely related to the target concept. Subsequently, the researchers applied a Boltzmann neural network with constraints satisfaction to the NSN study data. First, the researchers used the EVCOG software to obtain the association weights matrix between the definers. The software calculates the probability that two definers co-occur, through a modified algorithm from Rumelhart et al. (1986) by Lopez and Theios (1992) and Lopez (1996). During the second phase, students performed a lexical decision task based on the semantic priming paradigm. First, students participated in a practice session to become familiar with the experimental activity. Later, the participants performed the experimental task. Each experimental condition consisted of pairs of words organized with an experimental sequence illustrated in Figure 2. First, a dot
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appeared in the center of the computer screen for 500 milliseconds; it centered each participant's attention. Subsequently, a prime appeared and remained on the screen for 250 milliseconds. Then, a blank space appeared for 50 milliseconds. Finally, the target appeared on the screen and remained until the participant had performed the experimental task. The task consisted of silently reading the prime and the target and then deciding whether the latter was well written. The study duration for each participant ranged from 7 to 8 minutes, depending on their characteristics.
Figure 2: A sequence of an experimental trial in the semantic priming study Note: SOA = Stimulus Onset Asynchrony, ISI = Inter Stimulus Interval
5. Analyzing the Data Three analyses were carried out on participants' data. First, the authors made a visual inspection of the distribution of IRTs obtained from the definers in all NSN. Then, the researchers explored the temporality pattern of the definers of the target with greater semantic richness, in line with Morales-Martinez et al. (2021). Semantic richness or J value refers to the number of definers that a person can generate to represent an object. Subsequently, a computational simulation was carried out on the concepts with the highest M values. The M value refers to the quantitative judgment that a participant makes about the semantic relevance that each definer has in representing the evaluated target. Finally, the authors applied a repeated-measures ANOVA on the data from the semantic priming study.
6. Results 6.1. Qualitative analysis of the IRT of the NSN concepts The authors visually inspected the inter-response times or IRTs to observe the temporal pattern for definers before and after the course. Figure 3 shows that the distribution bias of the IRTs contracts from right to left. This finding implies a decrease in the recovery time for the definers after the course. Also, note that the M-value for many concepts had increased after the course.
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Figure 3: Inter-response times for the definers before and after the course
On the other hand, Figure 4 compared the IRT patterns obtained at the beginning and end of the course between concepts with the highest and lowest semantic weight reported in Morales-Martinez et al. (2021).
Figure 4: Comparison between definers' inter-response times for the target a) with greater and b) less semantic richness at the beginning and end of the course
Figure 4 reveals that the targets with the greatest and the least semantic richness (memory and consciousness) had changes in the content and relevance weighting for definers. For example, although the students conserved the 60% of initial definers to define memory, they showed a possible change in their understanding
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of the meaning of this target; at the beginning of course, they gave greater weight to definers related to structure, while at the end of course, students include, among the most relevant definers, those related to the process and structure of human memory. Additionally, there was a change in the IRT in terms of recovery for the definers. For example, at the end of the course, the students gave greater semantic relevance to the definers of storage and retrieval. In both cases, the retrieval time window changed at the end of the course. Also, the common definers of consciousness (attention, cognitive process, cognition) changed their semantic weight (J value) and their access time at the end of the course. 6.2. Computational simulation A computational simulation was carried out using data from the previous study by Morales-Martinez et al. (2021). The objective was to observe the schematic behavior of the definer concepts with the highest semantic weight (Table 1). Table 1. Definers and semantic weights were obtained in the study by MoralesMartinez et al. (2021)
Target
Before course Definer
M
Cognitive psychology
Cognitive process
159
Cognition
Cognitive process
158
Attention
Cognitive process
129
Memory
STM
127
Reasoning
To think
117
Decision making
Choice
104
Perception
Sense
97
Representation
Schemata
95
Consciousness
Mind
78
Problem solving
Reasoning
64
Target
After course Definer
M
Cognitive psychology
Cognitive process
230
Cognition
Cognitive process
259
Attention
Filter
211
Memory
Store
286
Reasoning
Reasoning
239
Decision making
Choice
222
Perception
Sensation
182
Representation
Schemata
261
Consciousness
Attention
134
Problem solving objective Note: M = semantic weight
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The definers with the highest semantic weight at the end of the course were activated with the restrictions satisfaction´s neural net. Then, the authors observed the co-activation pattern. Tables 2 and 3 show the co-activations obtained to the definer clamped of cognitive process. The authors selected this definer because it has the highest appearance frequency and is among the definers with the highest M value, according to the NSN, at the beginning and the end of the course. Table 2. Co-activated definitions for the stapling concept of cognitive processes before the course Definer
Activation
Definer
Activation
Store
*
STM
-
Analysis
-
Memory
*
Learning
*
Mental
-
Attention
-
Mind
*
Selective attention
-
LTM
*
Capacity
*
Models
-
Brain
*
WM
*
Science
-
Object
-
Cognition
*
Observe
*
Concentration
-
Options
*
Concepts
*
Thought
-
Behavior
-
Think
-
Consciousness
-
Perception
-
Choice
-
Processing
-
Schemata
-
Cognitive process
*
State of mind
-
Reasoning
-
Stimuli
*
To reason
*
Study
*
Reality
-
Evaluation
-
Remember
-
Focus
*
Memories
*
Human
-
Recovery
-
Imagen
*
Senses
*
Information
*
Sense
-
Internal
*
Symbols
-
Interpretation
*
Solutions
*
Vigil
*
Logic Note: * Co-activated
* − Inactive.
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Table 3: Co-activated definitions for the stapling concept of cognitive processes after the course Definer Activation Definer Store * Implicit Alternatives Unconscious Analogical Inductive Hot * Information Attention Interpret Divided * Logic Sustained LTM Absence * Memory Capacity * Mind Science * Goal Coding * STM Cognition * Attenuation Cold STM Concepts WM Conclusions * Neisser Knowledge Objective Realize * Choices Decision Direct Choice Perception Schemata HIP Initial state Premises Stimuli * Problem Strategies Processing Evaluation Process Experience Psychology Explicit Reasoning Filter Deductive Focus Retrieve Gestalt * Reflector Heuristics * Representation Human Selective Illusion * Semantics Images Sensation To imagine * Senses Note: * Co-activated − Inactive.
Activation * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * -
Definer Syllogism Normative Threshold
Activation -
Note that in the first and second phases, definers with implicit relationships and those closely related to the activated concept were co-activated. However, during the first phase, the number of definers related implicitly to the activated target was greater than during the second phase. In the second part of the evaluation, the computer simulation resulted in a balanced activation of definers with implicit and direct relationships. 6.3. Semantic Priming Study The authors conducted a repeated-measures ANOVA of 2 (course time: beginning vs. end of the course) x 3 (semantic relationship: associative vs. schematic vs.
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unrelated pairs of words) on the participants' data (Table 4), with p ≤ .01 as the significance level. Table 4: ANOVA of repeated measures between the factors of temporal relation and state of knowledge Effect Error F p p2 df MS df MS Course time (CT) 1 1454649.388 47 23443.495 62.049* .001 .56 Semantic relation (ST) 2 1759834.347 94 9784.957 179.851* .001 .79 CT * ST 2 83875.5138 94 4362.258 19.227* .001 .29 Note: N= 48. ANOVA = analysis of variance; df = degree of freedom; MS = mean square; p 2 = partial eta squared. *p≤.001 Factor
The most relevant factor for word recognition was the semantic relationship (p2=.72). The difference in word recognition time between the beginning and the end of the course was more significant in the schematic condition (Figure 5).
Figure 5: Interaction graph between the semantic relationship factor and the course time factor
7. Discussion In cognitive psychology, student learning involves changes in the organization, structure, dynamics, and temporality of the knowledge schemas students learn on a course. In this work, the main objective was to evaluate, through the C3-LEM, the dynamics and temporality dimensions of the schema on human cognition that psychology students learned on a course. In the NSN study, four different analyses were carried out; three were presented in the previous article by Morales-Martinez et al. (2021). This article presented the analysis of the appearance time patterns for the definers for each objective. In general, the results showed a shortening of the IRT window towards the end of the course (Figure 3). Other studies with similar data have not discussed the
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implications of these findings. However, the present authors suggest that this change in temporal pattern may indicate that the learning of a schema impacts the level of accessibility for the information stored in the student's memory. Another interesting observation is that the IRTs for the definer concepts with the highest M-value seem to require an access time of between 20 and 40 seconds, and they tend to appear between the 3rd and 5th position in the list of target concepts. So, although these types of definers are considered the most highly relevant, they are not the ones that are accessed the fastest. Morales-Martinez and SantosAlcantara (2015) obtained similar results; however, these authors did not hypothesize about this result. From the present authors' point of view, the definers with the highest M value may take time to appear because they have a more significant cognitive load. That is, definers that have a greater weight in the NSN may take longer to appear because of the number of concepts with which they are associated or connected. Another possibility is that the M value indicates the degree of complexity of the definer. On the other hand, the computational simulations indicated that the co-activation dynamics of knowledge schema evolve over the duration of the course. For example, the computer simulation activated a large number of definers with implicit relationships with the target at the beginning of the course. In contrast, the number of activated definers with closer theoretical relationships to the target had increased by the end of the course, although definers with implicit associations continued to appear throughout the network. The present authors hypothesize that this may agree with the results of the previous study (MoralesMartinez et al., 2021), in which the semantic network changed from one with a general approach to one where the student made use of more specific and specialized concepts. Finally, the reaction time analyses provided information on the changes in the chronometric behavior for the scheme learned by the students. The ANOVA indicated that there was a main effect due to the type of semantic relationship and also given the application time factor. There was a significant decrease in the recognition RTs in the schematic words, suggesting that the students stored conceptual nodes related to the human cognition schema in their long-term memory. Similar findings have been reported in various studies (e.g., Gonzalez et al., 2013; Morales-Martinez, Lopez-Perez, et al., 2020); this suggests a change in the level of consolidation of the scheme learned by the students.
8. Conclusion The evaluation of learning is a cornerstone for enhancing students’ learning. It can offer very valuable information to improve learning and teaching processes. However, commonly, learning evaluation tools are designed to indicate academic performance as a product while the cognitive processes involved in the academic learning cannot be explored through these types of tools. Thus, this research work contributes with a new cognitive tool to measure students’ cognitive gestion on the information they receive and learn on a course. Here, the authors explored the learning process among psychology students enrolled on a course on human
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cognition. In order to achieve the outcome, we used NSN to observe changes in the schema structure, computational simulation to explore the schema dynamic and a semantic priming experimental technique to determine the consolidation of information in the memory of students. The data suggest that the learning derived from a course can be observed through changes in the dynamics and schematic temporality. In this regard, the NSN study's temporal analysis indicates a change in the level of accessibility for the information stored in memory as a product of academic learning. Computer simulations suggest that the number of activated conceptual nodes changes as the course progresses. Additionally, the schema dynamics changed in terms of the level of generality of the co-activated concepts. Apparently, at the end of the course, the schema tends to appeal to more specific concepts but preserves information on implicit relationships throughout the schema. In other words, what has been learned is not lost but is modulated by new inputs. On the other hand, the results indicated a change in the recognition time for the schematic words, suggesting a consolidation of the course information in the student's longterm memory. In sum, this study's findings suggest that using the C3-LEM in learning assessment can help cover needs that Arieli-Attali (2013) regard as central for 21stcentury students in terms of their academic training, namely assessment focused on information processing skills without neglecting the knowledge measurement itself.
9. References Arieli-Attali, M. (2013, October 20−25). Formative assessment with cognition in mind: The cognitively based assessment of, for and as learning [Paper presentation]. 39th Annual Conference: Educational Assessment 2.0: Technology in Educational Assessment, Tel Aviv, Israel. https://www.iaea.info/conference-proceedings/ Bower, G. H. (1975). Cognitive psychology: An introduction. In W. K. Estes (Ed.), Handbook of learning and cognitive processes: Introduction to concepts and issues (pp. 25–80). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Figueroa, J. G., Gonzalez, E. G., & Solis, V. M. (1976). An approach to the problem of meaning: Semantic networks. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 5(2), 107−115. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01067252 Gonzalez, C. J., Lopez, E. O., & Morales, G. E. (2013). Evaluating moral schemata learning. International Journal of Advances in Psychology, 2(2), 130−136. http://www.ijJpsychol.org/paperInfo.aspx?ID=1981 Harlen, W. (2007). Assessment of learning. Sage Publications. Lambert, D., & Lines, D. (2000). Understanding assessment: Purposes, perceptions, practice (1st ed.). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203133231 Lopez, E. O. (1996). Schematically Related Word Recognition (Publication No. 9613356) [Doctoral dissertation, University of Wisconsin-Madison]. ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. Lopez, E. O, & Theios, J. (1992). Semantic analyzer of schemata organization (SASO). Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 24(2), 277−285. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03203508
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Lopez, E. O., Morales, G. E., Hedlefs, I., & Gonzalez, C. J. (2014). New empirical directions to evaluate online learning. International Journal of Advances in Psychology, 3(2), 40−47. https://doi.org/10.14355&ijap.2014.0302.03. Lopez, R. E. O., Morales, M. G. E., Hedlefs, A. M. I., Gonzalez, T. C. J., & Moreno, M. A. P. (2015). Nuevas direcciones empiricas en la investigacion e innovacion de tecnologia educativa para la evaluacion del aprendizaje en linea: Una aproximación conexionista [New empirical directions in educational technology research and innovation for the evaluation of online learning: A connectionist approach]. UANL Science / Ciencia UANL, 18(71), 52−64. McNamara, T. P. (2005). Semantic priming. Perspectives from memory and word recognition. Psychology Press Ltd. Morales-Martinez, G. E. (2015). Protocolo para la recoleccion de conceptos objetivo y definidores centrales y diferidos (PRECODECD): Un sistema de codificacion de conceptos extraidos de las redes semanticas naturales [Protocol for the collection of objective concepts and central and deferred definers (PRECODECD): A coding system for concepts extracted from natural semantic networks] [Unpublished manuscript]. Institute of Research on the University and Education, National Autonomous University of Mexico. Morales-Martinez G. E. (2020). Sistema de evaluacion cognitiva constructiva cronometrica del aprendizaje en linea y presencial [Online and face-to-face learning's constructivechronometric cognitive assessment system] [Manuscript submitted for publication]. Institute of Research on the University and Education, National Autonomous University of Mexico. Morales-Martinez, G. E., Angeles-Castellanos, A. M., Ibarra-Ramirez, V. H., & ManceraRangel, M. I. (2020). Cognitive e-tools for diagnosing the state of medical knowledge in students enrolled for a second time in an anatomy course. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, 19(9), 341−362. https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.9.18 Morales-Martinez, G., & Lopez-Ramirez, E. (2016). Cognitive responsive e-assessment of constructive e-learning. Journal of e-Learning and Knowledge Society (Je-LKS), 12(4), 39−49. https://doi.org/10.20368/1971-8829/1187 Morales-Martinez, G. E., Lopez-Perez, R. M., Garcia-Collantes, A., & Lopez-Ramirez, E. O. (2020). Evaluacion constructiva cronometrica para evaluar el aprendizaje en linea y presencial [Chronometric constructive assessment to assess online and face-toface learning]. Technology, Science and Education / Tecnología, Ciencia y Educación, 15(1), 105−124. https://doi.org/10.51302/tce.2020.371 Morales-Martinez, G. E., Lopez-Ramirez, E. O., Castro-Campos, C., Villarreal-Trevino, M. G., & Gonzales-Trujillo, C. J. (2017). Cognitive analysis of meaning and acquired mental representations as an alternative measurement method technique to innovate e-assessment. European Journal of Educational Research, 6(4), 455−464. https://doi.org/10.12973/eu-jer.6.4.455 Morales-Martinez, G. E., Lopez-Ramirez, E. O., Garcia-Duran, J. P., & Urdiales-Ibarra, M. E. (2018). Cognitive constructive – Chronometric techniques as a tool for the eassessment of learning. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, 17(2.), 159−176. https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.17.2.10 Morales-Martinez, G. E., Lopez-Ramirez, E. O., & Lopez-Gonzalez, A. E. (2015). New approaches to e-cognitive assessment of e-learning. International Journal for eLearning Security (IjeLS), 5(2), 449−453. https://doi.org/10.20533/ijels.2046.4568.2015.0057 Morales-Martinez, G. E., Trejo-Quintana, J., Charles-Cavazos, D. J., Mezquita-Hoyos, Y. N., & Sanchez-Monroy, M. (2021). Chronometric Constructive Cognitive Learning Evaluation Model: Measuring the Construction of the Human Cognition Schema of Psychology Students. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, 20(2), 1−21. https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.2.1
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 5, pp. 73-95, May 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.5.5
Research Supervision as an Antecedent to Graduate Student Progression in the Public Higher Institutions of Learning in Uganda Paul Netalisile Malunda, Juliet Atwebembeire and Proscovia Namubiru Ssentamu Uganda Management Institute (UMI), Uganda https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8329-8209 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0464-9929 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4853-3968
Abstract. This study investigated research supervision as a key factor in the progression of graduate students in the public higher institutions of learning in Uganda. A cross-sectional survey design was used to conduct the study. A total of 312 graduate students on masters' degree programs were randomly selected from 4 public institutions of higher learning. The study also included 20 research supervisors who were conveniently selected and 4 purposively selected graduate school heads. A selfadministered structured questionnaire was used to collect the data from the students. The supervisors and research school heads were interviewed. The ordered logistic regression and content analysis methods of data analysis were used to establish the contribution of research supervision to the graduate students’ progression. The findings revealed that the supervisor-supervisee relationship, supervisor guidance and feedback are significant antecedents of the graduate students’ progression. The study thus concluded that public institutions of higher learning institute mechanisms that address the supervisorsupervisee relationship, supervisor guidance and the promptness of any feedback in order to enhance the students’ progression. The study recommends that public institutions of higher learning institute i) annual training programs that focus on promoting a good relationship between supervisors and supervisees, ii) regular research seminars that bring together the supervisors and supervisees and iii) regular meetings between the administration, research supervisors and supervisees in order to review the students’ progress. The institutions should also emphasize adherence to the policy of giving feedback on the students’ research work within set time frames. Keywords: research supervision; institutions of learning
students’
progression;
higher
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).
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1. Introduction Higher education is a crucial determinant of the global economy and development (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization [UNESCO], 2015). It is a key antecedent to economic growth and the attainment of the Sustainable Development Goals (Fagoyinbo, 2013; Bloom, Canning, Chan & Luca, 2014). However, it can only play this contributory role when a considerate proportion of graduate students successfully complete their programs on time (Hebel, 1999 as cited by Eyangu, Bagire & Kibrai, 2014). Graduates at this level are expected to exhibit the skills of innovation, problem solving and critical thinking as these are necessary for addressing contemporary social economic issues (Okwakol, 2009; Bateman & Coles, 2013; National Council for Higher Education [NCHE], 2014a; Oluwajodu, Blaauw, Greyling & Kleynhans, 2015; Serrano, Llamazares & Otamendi, 2015). Unfortunately, less than 30% of the students who enroll on graduate studies in higher education institutions in Uganda complete their program in the expected timeframe, despite the efforts by these institutions to improve the completion rate and reduce the number of dropouts (Ssenyonga & Nakiganda, 2020; NCHE, 2018). Research studies conducted elsewhere in the world attribute the increasing delay to complete to high attrition rates and the low completion rates of the graduate students to the way that their research is supervised (Seidu, 2015; Akparep, Jengre & Amoah, 2017). According to Seidu (2015), several research supervisors do not provide sufficient support and guidance during the research process, with some supervisors taking a long time to give feedback on the students' written work. The low level of support from the supervisors is compounded by the various perennial challenges that graduate students face including employment, family and community demands (Wamala, Ocaya & Oonyu, 2012). In this study, we examined the influence of research supervision on the graduate students’ progression in the public higher institutions of learning in Uganda. Historically, similar to several African countries, Uganda’s higher education system provides the much needed high caliber human resources for political, social and economic development for a young independent country. In the early 1960s, the quality of education in general and higher education in particular was rated the best in Eastern Africa (Sekamwa, 2000; Government of Uganda, 1992). The quality of the education was explained by the conducive learning environment, highly trained and dedicated academic staff, and suitable student – lecturer ratio (Rabwoni, 2010). Furthermore, the education was relevant to the needs of a young independent country to the extent that those who successfully graduated were immediately absorbed into the virgin labour market. This was largely because the graduates were equipped with an adequate level of knowledge and skills that were tailored to the job market (Sekamwa, 2000). The good quality of the education was attributed to the highly qualified lecturers, well-equipped and well-funded institutions, adequate support services and staff, and good governance in all institutions (Mukwanason, 2017). Unfortunately, the 1960 - 1970 political and economic upheavals grossly affected the quality of higher education (Ochwa-Echel, 2016). The introduction of market-
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friendly reforms under the World Bank Structural Adjustment Program in 1987 and the de-regularization policies led to the liberalization of public services including education. This led to the underfunding of the public sector by the government (Namubiru, 2014, p.129). Although the World Bank Structural Adjustment Program was considered to be the best approach to achieving economic growth through savings and the efficient and effective use of resources, it had a disastrous effect on the provision of social services such as education. The liberalization policy led to a systematic reduction in the role of the state to provide HE as a social service to its people, allowing market forces to penetrate and influence the education provision (Nantege, 2007). These reforms also led to a shift in government funding priority from advanced to basic education. This further negatively affected the provision of quality higher education. Consequently, the National Council for Higher Education was established under the Universities and Other Tertiary Institutions Act 2001 to (1) regulate and guide the establishment and management of institutions of higher learning and (2) to regulate the quality of higher education, to equate qualifications and to advise the government on higher education issues (NCHE, 2008, p.5). Notwithstanding the numerous quality-related challenges, the demand for graduate education has exponentially increased in the last two decades due to the belief that higher education qualifications enable career growth that can increase the opportunity to acquire a high paying job (Eyangu, Bagire & Kibrai, 2020). However, the rapid growth in graduate student enrolment relative to the low academic staff levels and disproportionate resource allocation appears to have caused a poor research supervision environment. This has an impact on the students’ progress (Kimani, 2014; Bacwayo, Nampala & Oteyo, 2017) and completion rate. Public universities and other degree-awarding institutions in Uganda are no exception to the challenge of the growing demand for higher education. Theoretically, the study is anchored in the social learning theory by Bandura (1999). The theory stipulates that learning is influenced by the social context and that it is reciprocal in relation to the environment (Bandura, 1999). The theory emphasizes the importance of observing and modelling the behavior, attitudes and emotional reactions of others, and it suggests that all behaviors are learned through conditioning. Relating this to the supervisor / supervisee relationship, the theory postulates that both the supervisor and supervisee significantly influence each other. The supervisee's negative experience resulting from the supervisor’s behavior may negatively affect the progress of the supervisee (Henfield, Owens & Witherspoon, 2011 in Burt 2012). The supervision environment such as a delayed response to supervisee's submitted work, the unavailability of the supervisors, the lack of a cordial relationship between the supervisor and supervisee, and poor communication may create a state of helplessness on the part of the supervisee. The supervisee's response may be an expression of disappointment and frustration which may lead to withdrawal (attrition) and at worst, dropout. Interpreting the theory of social learning in the current study, the supervisor is expected to correspond to the needs of the supervisee in a realistic amount of time. Supervisors need a clear, concrete and
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logical supervisory model of supervision. The way that the supervisor relates to the supervisee has a lot of influence on the progress of the supervisee during the research process. Using the social learning theory, this study has investigated the influence of research supervision on the progress of students in higher institutions of learning in Uganda. Conceptually, research supervision, graduate students and student progression are considered to be key concepts. Research supervision is the facilitation and overseeing of the research project (Ssenyonga & Nakiganda, 2020), providing leadership and guidance to the research students (Mutula,2011). The students’ progression is defined in terms of dropout rates, completion rates, retention rates and the time to degree completion (Carlhed Ydhag, 2019). Student progression in this paper refers to the advancement of the students through the established stages of the program such as proposal writing, data collection and analysis and thesis writing through to graduation. Graduate students, according to the Cobuild Advanced English Dictionary (Graduate student, 2006), are students who have completed their bachelor’s degree who are pursuing an advanced degree or doing research in a specified area. Graduate students in this study included those pursuing a master’s degree. Contextually, there is an increasing number of students enrolling on graduate courses in Uganda with the hope of completing within the stipulated time frame (Ssenyonga & Nakiganda, 2020). Students who enroll on the masters’ programs are expected to complete their studies in a minimum of 2 years. The first year involves classroom work (coursework) and in the second year, the students are expected to do a research project. Over 70% of graduate students successfully complete the classroom phase on time. However, the students’ progression slows down when they embark on the second phase of the research project (Ssenyonga & Nakiganda, 2020; National Council for Higher Education [NCHE], 2018). Currently, the average completion rates stand at less than 30% for students on the master’s programs (Uganda Bureau of Statistics [UBOS], 2017). This low completion rate is attributed to a range of factors that include the financial, family and job-related challenges students encounter in their academic journey (Atibuni et al., 2017). This is in addition to the institutional policies and procedures, limited research facilitation and the quality of the research supervision (Kyaligonza, Kimoga & Nabayego, 2015). Given that the delayed completion and low completion rates are associated mainly with the research-based programs (Ssenyonga & Nakiganda, 2020), the purpose of this study was to establish the contribution of the research supervision towards the students’ progress in the higher institutions of learning in Uganda. The study was specifically guided by the following objectives: i. To establish the contribution of the supervisor-supervisee relationship to the students’ progression in the public higher institutions of learning in Uganda. ii. To investigate the contribution of the supervisors’ guidance on the students’ progression in the public higher institutions of learning in Uganda.
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iii.
To establish the contribution of the supervisors’ feedback towards the students’ written work related to the progression of the students in the public higher institutions of learning in Uganda.
2. Literature Review The existing literature reveals that research supervision as a critical factor that improves the completion time and attrition rates for university courses where a research project is a requirement (Chiappetta-Swanson & Watt, 2011; Chireshe, 2012; Holtman & Mukwada, 2014; Van Rensburg, Mayers & Roets, 2016; Akparep, Jengre & Amoah, 2017). According to Chiappetta-Swanson and Watt (2011), research supervision can only contribute to the progress of the graduate students when the supervisors provide adequate support and guidance during the research process. In agreement with Emilsson and Johnson (2007), Chireshe (2012) affirms that effective research supervision requires the supervisors to be wellinformed, available, approachable, supportive, helpful and patient. According to Holtman and Mukwada (2014), the way that the supervisors perceive their role and responsibilities, the approaches that they adopt and the constraints they encounter determines the quality of the supervision. To enhance the research supervision, Chireshe recommends regular graduate research seminars. Holtman and Mukwada (2014), on the other hand, emphasized that effective supervision is not only determined by the supervisors’ understanding of their role and the way that they engage with their role. Institutional factors such as the supervisory approaches, the use of student support facilities within and outside the university, co-supervision and financial support also play a part. The key question is, how adequate is the support and guidance that is provided by the research supervisors in the pubic higher institutions of learning in Uganda? It is important to note that a number of studies have established that graduate students in many sub-Saharan Africa are not getting sufficient enough support and guidance from their research supervisors (Atibuni et al., 2017). According to Atibuni et al. (2017), some supervisors take a long time to give their feedback on the students' written research work. The low support from the supervisors is compounded by the many challenges that the graduate students face such as employment, family and community demands (Ismail & Abiddin, 2011). To address these challenges, several scholars (Clutterbuck & Megginson, 1999; Arabaci & Ersozlu, 2010; Affero, Norhasni & Aminuddin, 2011; Chireshe, 2012; Ali, Watson,& Dhingra, 2016) recommend that supervisors should build a cordial relationship with their students during the research journey, be good mentors who advise the students on the best way of conducting their research, be experienced in research (have the necessary skills), be available for consultation, give prompt feedback on the students’ written work and be dedicated, critical and friendly as they guide and support their students during the research process. Given the criticality of the supervisor-supervisee relationship in relation to the performance of the graduate students as argued in the literature review, we investigated the nature of the relationship between the supervisor and supervisees and the support that is provided by the supervisors in the public higher institutions of learning in Uganda and how they contribute to the students’ progression.
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The central question in this study remains the following - what explains the slow progression and high dropout rates of graduate students in the public higher institutions of learning in Uganda? Several scholars (Ssegawa & Rwelamila, 2009; Jinarek, 2010; Olorunnisola,2011; Wamala, Ocaya & Oonyu, 2012; Seidu, 2015; Kyaligonza, Kimoga & Nabayego, 2015; Akparep, Jengre & Amoah, 2017; Atibuni et al., 2017; Hadi & Muhammad, 2019) have carried out research to establish the factors that explain both delayed completion and the high attrition rate at graduate level. The study conducted by Wamala, Ocaya, and Oonyu (2012) established that the completion rate for PhD students in Uganda was low relative to the rate in developed economies despite the attrition rates being comparable. According to Wamala et al, the determinants of delayed completion and the high attrition rate were personal, academic or financial. Similarly, Hadi and Muhammad (2019), in a study on the factors affecting postgraduate students in Malaysia, established a strong positive correlation between the students’ characteristics, the institutional factors, the level of research supervision and the students’ performance. Mutula (2011) pointed out the quality of the students admitted, the failure of the students to balance their jobs and their studies and the research supervision as some of the factors that impact on the progress of the graduate students. Atibuni et al. (2017) attributed the low completion rates of the research postgraduate courses to institutional and personal reasons. According to Kyaligonza, Kimoga and Nabayego (2015), the low rates of completion are explained by the scarcity of qualified supervisors to take on the mantle. In this study, we focused on establishing the extent to which the research supervision factor explains the progress of the graduate students in public higher institutions of learning. Finally, a number of scholars attribute delayed completion and the high dropout rates at the graduate level to research supervision (Ssegawa & Rwelamila, 2009; Jinarek, 2010; Seidu, 2015; Orellana et al., 2016; Akparep et al., 2017). According to Orellana et al. (2016), the geographical distance between the supervisors and the supervisee is one factor that affects the frequency of their interactions. Seidu (2015) recommends addressing the relationship between the supervisors and supervisees as a remedy for the delayed completion and high attrition rates. Akparep et al. (2017) recommends that the supervisors and supervisees should always formally write an explanation for the delayed completion to those in charge of the graduate school. On the basis of this literature, we investigated the challenges that the supervisors and supervisees in the public higher institutions of learning in Uganda encounter as part of their research journey and the possible remedies for the challenges.
3. Methodology The study adopted a descriptive cross-sectional survey design. The target population consisted of students on master’s programs who were in their final stage of the research project, in addition to research supervisors and graduate schools’ heads from 4 randomly selected public institutions of higher learning. The study sample consisted of 312 master’s students that were selected through random sampling. Out of the 312 self-administered questionnaires, 253 were
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returned and after the process of data preparation, 210 were retained for analysis, translating into a 67.3% response rate. Additionally, 20 supervisors were conveniently selected while 3 graduate school heads were purposively selected. A self-administered structured questionnaire (refer to appendix 1) was used to collect the data from the students. The interview method was used to collect the data from the supervisors and heads of the graduate schools. The questionnaire involved 2 questions pertaining to the respondents’ background information. Section B was composed of 10 items that sought to determine the respondents’ opinion of the supervisor –supervisee relationship, Section C involved 8 questions that gathered their opinions on guidance, Section D consisted of 8 questions that sought out the respondents’ opinion on feedback and Section E involved 11 questions on the students’ progress. The items in Sections B, C, D and E were measured using a 5-point Likert scale with the following categories: Strongly Agree (5), Agree (4), Non-committal (3), Disagree (2) and Strongly Disagree (1). One item that sought out the opinion of the supervisees on how the research supervision could be improved was included at the end of the questionnaire. The questionnaire method was preferred in this case because of the respondents who were geographically dispersed. This saved both time and money during the study. The interview guide (refer to appendix 2) included 4 items that sought information on the available research supervision, the challenges that the graduate students encounter during the research process, student progression and how the progress of the master’s students could be enhanced. The interview method was found to be suitable because of its flexibility. It also enabled more probing of the issues under inquiry and enabled the seeking of clarity on both the opinions and explanations given. The data collected using the methods described above was triangulated for a holistic understanding of the phenomenon under investigation. The instruments were pre-tested using related samples from the public institutions of higher learning prior to the actual data collection. The results of the pretest revealed that the reliability coefficient (Cronbach’s alpha) of the different sections of the questionnaire ranged from 0.731 to 0.867. This is considered appropriate for this study (Creswell, 2012). Experts from the NCHE checked the clarity and appropriateness of the instructions and questions, after which the revision and modification of the instruments was completed. Before the data were collected, informed consent was sought from the respondents. The respondents were assured of their anonymity and confidentiality. The ordered logistic regression model was used to establish the extent to which research supervision contributes to the students’ progress. A significance test was performed at the probability level of p< 0.05. The qualitative data was analyzed by identifying the patterns in the gathered information, creating the categories and finally, forming the themes. In the next section, the findings of the study are presented.
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4. Results This section includes the descriptive statistical and qualitative results about the background information on the respondents, the supervisor – supervisee relationship, the guidance provided by the supervisors, the feedback provided by the supervisors and the respondents’ opinions about the progress of their research. It also includes the ordered regression results on the students’ progression. Profile of the Respondents Table 1 presents the findings on the background information of the respondents. Table 1: Background Information on the Respondents Variable
Categories
Gender
Male Female One year or less More than 1 year but less than 3 years 3 years or more
How long have you been on the MMS program?
Number of respondents 116 94 14 82
Percentage
114
54.3
55.2 44.8 6.7 39.0
The results in Table 1 indicate that there are more male graduate students on the master’s program compared to their female counterparts. This reveals a gender parity issue at the graduate level of education. The results further demonstrate that the majority of the supervisees have been on the master’s program for more than the 2 year stipulated time frame for completing a master’s degree program. Supervisor – Supervisee Relationship The students’ views were sought on the supervisor-supervisee relationship. The summary of the respondents’ opinions on the supervisor-supervisee relationship are presented in Table 2. Table 2: Distribution of the Respondents’ Views on the Supervisor-Supervisee Relationship Supervisor – supervisee relationship
Noncommittal My supervisors are friendly 112(53.3%) 10 (4.8%) My supervisors are always available whenever I 102 (48.6%) 12 (5.7%) need them I have sufficient interactions with my supervisors 122 (58.1%) 8 (3.8%) I regularly consult my supervisors on my research 126 (60%) 6 (2.9%) My supervisors are good mentors 94 (44.7%) 4 (1.9%) My supervisors make an effort to solve the 86 (41%) 10(4.8%) challenges that may hamper my progress I regularly interact with my supervisors online 82 (39.1%) 8 (3.8%) My supervisors usually encourage me to progress 100 (47.6%) 6 (2.9%) My supervisors harass me 66 (31.4%) 2 (1.0%) I find my interactions with my supervisors stressful 92 (43.8%) 10 (4.8%)
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Agree
Disagree 88 (41.9%) 96 (45.7%) 80 (38.1%) 78 (37.1%) 112 (55.3%) 114 (54.2%) 120 (57.1%) 104 (49.6%) 142 (67.6%) 108 (51.4%)
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The results in Table 2 demonstrate the existence of a fair supervisor- supervisee relationship. However, the results suggest that the majority of the supervisors (55.3%) are not playing their mentorship role as expected. A large portion of the supervisors appear not to be interested in the challenges that the students encounter along the research journey which could inhibit their progress. The results further demonstrate that only a few (39.1%) of the supervisors interact with the supervisees online. Lastly, there is an indication of harassment by some supervisors which may explain the stressful interaction between some of the supervisees and their supervisors. Guidance Provided by the Supervisor Table 3 presents a summary of the respondents’ views on the guidance provided by the supervisors. Table 3: Distribution of the Respondents’ Views on the Guidance provided by the Research Supervisors Guidance
Agree
Disagree
112 (53.3 %)
Noncommittal 20 (9.5%)
I have a supervision schedule with my supervisor My supervisors guided me in the selection of my research topic and fine-tuning it I usually receive additional information on my topic from my supervisors My supervisors usually help me to access the relevant literature My supervisors have the necessary knowledge and experience on my topic My supervisors are keen to see how I address the comments that they make on my written work I find the guidance that my supervisor gives me on my research constructive The guidance that my supervisor has given me has helped me gain competence in the basic skills used when conducting research.
164 (78.1%)
10 (4.8 %)
36 (17.1 %)
72 (34.3%)
4 (1.9 %)
134 (63.8%)
78 (37.1%)
10 (4.8%)
122 (58.1%)
166 (79%)
26 (12.4%)
18 (8.6%)
94 (44.8%)
10(4.8%)
106 (50.4%)
166 (79 %)
6 (2.9%)
38 (18.1%)
158 (75.2%)
4 (1.9%)
48 (22.9%)
78 (37.2 %)
The results in Table 3 indicate that the majority of the supervisees (79%) received constructive guidance from their supervisors. However, regarding accessing relevant information to support their research, only a few students (37%) got support from their supervisors. The results further suggest that the supervisees have enhanced their basic research skills when conducting research as a consequence of the guidance of the supervisors. Feedback from the Supervisors Views were sought from the respondents on the feedback provided by the supervisors on their written research work. Table 4 presents a summary of their responses.
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Table 4: Summary of the Respondents’ Views on the Feedback Provided by the Supervisors Feed back
Agree
Disagree
60 (28.6 %)
Noncommittal 11 (5.2%)
My supervisors provide feedback on my written work within 2 weeks after submission The supervisors always do a thorough review of my written research work I find the comments made by my supervisors easy to understand The supervisors usually make encouraging comments on my written research work My supervisors usually provide online feedback My supervisor provide constructive criticism on feedback The feedback given by my supervisors has been helpful regarding my progress The comments made on my research work have helped me to improve on my research skills
150 (71.4%)
6 (2.9%)
54 (25.7%)
142 (67.6%)
6 (2.9%)
62 (29.5%)
136 (64.8%)
4 (1.9%)
70 (33.3%)
70 (33.3%)
6 (2.9)
134 (63.8%)
138 (65.7%)
8 (3.8%)
64 (30.5%)
70 (33.3%)
4 (1.9%)
136 (64.8%)
130 (61.9%)
6 (2.9%)
74 (35.2%)
139 (66.2%)
The results in Table 4 indicate that the supervisors thoroughly review the students’ research work and give clear, constructive and encouraging comments. However, the results suggest delayed feedback from the supervisors and low levels of online feedback. The results further suggest delayed progress as a result of the supervisors’ feedback. Students’ Progress The study further sought out the opinion of the respondents on their progress in line with the research project. Table 5 presents a summary of their responses. Table 5: Distribution of the Respondents’ Opinions on their Progress in their Research Students’ progress Agree NonDisagree committal I developed my topic within the first 146 (69.5%) 6 (2.9%) 58 (27.6%) month after the commencement of the research project I regularly meet my supervisor as 90(42.9 %) 8 (3.8%) 112 (53.3%) scheduled My supervisors are happy with my 97 (46.1 %) 9 (4.3%) 104 (49.5%) written work I always submit my written work on time 83 (39.5 %) 3 (1.4 %) 124 (59.1%) for review and assessment I defended my research proposal within 6 64(30.5 %) 12(5.7%) 134 (63.8%) months I was able to address comments raised 94(44.8%) 5 (2.4 %) 111 (52.8%) during my research proposal with ease My research proposal was approved 87 (41.4%) 7 (3.3%) 116 (55.3%) immediately on my first submission
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I collected and analyzed my data within 2 months after my proposal defense I submitted my draft thesis within 2 months after data collection I defended my thesis within 4 months after the proposal defense I am happy with the progress of my research
71 (33.8%)
6 (2.9%)
133 (63.3%)
52 (24.8%)
4 (1.9%)
154 (73.3%)
62 (29.5 %)
9 (4.3%)
139 (66.2 %)
94 (44.7%)
10 (4.8%)
106 (50.5%)
The results suggest the supervisees developed topics within the first month of their research journey. The findings, however, demonstrate that less than 50% of the respondents have been able to meet their supervisors as scheduled. The results further indicate the delayed submission of research proposals for defense within the first 6 months, with only 30% of the supervisees submitting on time. Despite a fair proportion of the supervisees (>40%) addressing comments made at the research proposal defense and having their research proposal approved, progressing to the data collection and analysis stages, the drafting of the thesis and the defense of the thesis drastically extends in duration. Verification of the Hypotheses To establish the contribution of the research supervision to the students’ progression, ordered logistic regression was conducted and the following null hypotheses were tested: i. The supervisor-supervisee relationship does not in any way contribute to the students ‘progression. ii. The supervisors’ guidance does not contribute in any way to the students’ progression. iii. The supervisors’ feedback on the students’ written work does not in any way contribute to the students’ progression. The findings of the logistic regression are presented in Table 6. Table 6: Ordered Regression Results for the Students’ Progression Students’ Progression
Coefficients
P>|Z 95% conf. interval | Supervisor-supervisee relationship 3.189 .000 2.745 5.275 Supervisors’ guidance 4.213 0.000 3.587 4.745 Supervisors’ feedback 2.345 0.023 1.978 3.105 Gender 1.103 0.489 -0.972 1.243 Pseudo R2 = 0.586, Number of respondents = 210, LR χ2 (4) = 1416.73, Prob > χ2 = 0.000
The results indicate that a unit increase in the supervisor-supervisee relationship results in a 3.189-unit increase in student progression. This means that a better supervisor-supervisee relationship enhances the students’ progression. Similarly, the results indicate that a unit increase in the supervisor’s guidance leads to a 4.213-unit increase in the students’ progression. This means that the increased guidance by the supervisors leads to improved student progression. Lastly, the results reveal that a unit increase in the supervisors’ feedback results in a 2.345unit increase in the progression of the students, meaning that feedback is correlated positively with student progression.
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The results mean that the three null hypotheses were all rejected. This result proves that the supervisor-supervisee relationship, the supervisors’ guidance and the supervisors’ feedback significantly explains the variations in the students’ progression. Overall, the results demonstrate that research supervision is a significant antecedent to the graduate students’ progression. Upon expressing their opinion on how the research supervision could be improved, the supervisees emphasized the enhancement of the supervisorsupervisee relationship. In their opinion, more friendly and available supervisors who give prompt feedback on the students’ research work are the key to promoting the graduate students’ progression. The supervisees also suggested that students should be given the opportunity to select their supervisors according to who they will comfortably work with. The supervisees also proposed regular meetings between the administration, research supervisors and supervisees about the students’ progress. The interviews with the supervisors revealed that they had a cordial relationship with most of their supervisees. The supervisors further revealed that they offer a lot of guidance during the entire research process. According to the supervisors, they spend the first months of the supervision process exposing the supervisees to the required research methods. During the interview, one of the supervisors had this to say: “Many of the students assigned to me lack the necessary research knowledge and skills. A number of them cannot write a problem statement or even develop the study objectives. So in the first two to four months, I take them through the basics of research methods. This definitely impacts on the progress of many of the students.” (Research Supervisor, 13th November 2020) The information from the interviews with the supervisors revealed that the delay in giving feedback was a consequence of the high number of students assigned to them and the heavy teaching workload plus other administrative duties that they are always engaged in. The supervisors also attributed the delayed completion to lack of seriousness on the part of the supervisees. According to the supervisors, a number of their supervisees belong to the working class and many of them dedicate less time to research. The supervisors attributed the slow student progression to the many students lacking the necessary research knowledge and skills as well. The interview information from the graduate school heads revealed that there are a number of situations where poor supervisor-supervisee relationships have been reported. According to the informants, reports about rude supervisors and incidences of male supervisors sexually harassing female supervisees are common. One head of the graduate school had this to say: “Many of our supervisors have failed to build rapport with the supervisees making their interaction with the students quite uneasy. It is also unfortunate to inform you that we even receive cases of sexual harassment. We have actually stopped allocating female students to some of our male staff because of complaints from the
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female students about their sexual behavior. For extreme sexual harassment cases, disciplinary action has been taken.” (Head of Graduate school,20th November, 2020) Interviews with the heads of the graduate schools also revealed that some of the supervisors do not have an interest in providing feedback. At times, the required expertise in the area of study is required. This has resulted in the provision of poor guidance. According to the heads, the teaching staff were allocated students because it is required that the teaching staff conduct research supervision. Given that some of the supervisors did not have the required expertise in their supervisees’ area of specialization, they were only able to concentrate on the methodology. One head of the graduate school had this to say: “We have colleagues who hardly guide supervisees during the research process. Quite a number of supervisors don’t thoroughly read through their supervisees research work to get a basis for guidance. They just sign the research documents for submission. To attest to this, some of our supervisors have confessed during proposal or dissertation defense that they were too busy to do a thorough reading of the students’ work and to offer the necessary guidance.” (Head of Graduate School, 24th November 2020) In relation to the promptness of providing feedback to the supervisees, the graduate school heads pointed out that delayed feedback is a major challenge experienced in their schools. One key informant had this to say: “Our Master’s students are having problems of availability of supervisors and delayed feedback from their supervisors. Most of these students are working people who prefer to meet their supervisors after work or over weekends which many supervisors find inconveniencing. To make matters worse, some supervisors have not embraced online supervision, they insist on hard copies of the students’ work”. About delayed response, some supervisors take over a month with the students’ submitted work without giving feedback. I do sympathize with the supervisors given their workload and the pressure to publish which could be some of reasons for not being available and delay to provide feedback.” (Head of Graduate School, 3rd December 2020) The heads revealed that several students had made requests to change supervisors after getting frustrated by the supervisors initially allocated to them. The change, however, creates more delays in terms of completion. The heads also attributed the issues related to the students’ delays in progress due to lack of commitment on the part of the students and their inadequate competence in research. Related to the suggestion of the supervisees, they proposed regular meetings between the supervisors and the students in order to put pressure on the students to progress faster.
5. Discussion of the Findings The results revealed that research supervision significantly contributes to the graduate students’ progress in public higher institutions of learning. These findings are in alignment with the findings of the previous studies (ChiappettaSwanson & Watt, 2011; Chireshe, 2012; Holtman & Mukwada, 2014; Van Rensburg, Mayers & Roets, 2016; Akparep, Jengre & Amoah, 2017) that highlight
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research supervision as a major factor that explains the graduate students’ completion and retention rate. The results revealed that the supervisor-supervisee relationship contributes significantly to the students’ progression. The findings are in accordance with those of Akparep et al. (2017) who established that the supervisor-supervisee relationship is a critical factor in the students’ progression. However, Akparep et al (2017) emphasized that for this relationship to have good results, it should be based on honesty and hard work. This however was contrary to some of the findings of this study that showed that the majority of students found interactions with their supervisors to be stressful. In line with the recommendation by Watson and Dhingra (2016), research supervisors should build a cordial relationship with the students during the research journey and be good mentors who advise the students on the best ways of conducting research. The findings further revealed the sexual harassment of female students. It is important that the supervisors act professionally whenever interfacing with students otherwise behaviors of this nature will grossly impact on the quality of education in general. Akparep et al. (2017) emphasized a morally upright relationship between the supervisor and supervisees in order for supervision to bear harvestable fruits. It is imperative that the institutions of higher learning put in place tough functional rules and regulations that deter unprofessional behavior such as the supervisors sexually harassing their supervisees. Despite the significant contribution of supervisor guidance towards the students’ progression, the findings of the study revealed that several supervisors are not providing the required support and guidance as mentors. These findings are in agreement with those of Atibuni et al. (2017) who asserted that the graduate students in many areas of sub-Saharan Africa are not getting sufficient enough support and guidance from their research supervisors. The students on a research project need adequate support and guidance from their supervisors in areas such as the literature review, the development of the data collection tools and the analysis of the data to enhance their progression (Chiappetta-Swanson & Watt, 2011). The findings revealed that the poor supervisor guidance is a consequence of the supervisors’ heavy teaching workload, the high number of supervisees assigned to particular supervisors and the supervisors’ lack of interest and expertise in the study areas. In line with the aforementioned, it is imperative to emphasize that effective research supervision calls for supervisors who are not only well-informed but who are also available, approachable, supportive, helpful and patient (Chireshe, 2012). The results demonstrated that the majority of the supervisors delayed giving feedback on the students’ written research work. These findings concur with the findings established by Seidu (2015) about the supervisors taking a long time to give feedback on the same. The delay in giving feedback as pointed out by Henfield et al. (2011) has a negative impact on the progress of the supervisees. Given that the graduate students expect to complete the course in a minimum of 2 years, the delayed feedback is a frustration due to the low completion rates with some even some dropping out of the system. It is critical that the higher
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institutions of learning implement the maximum 2-week duration for giving feedback to the supervisees. The findings indicate that the majority of the supervisees were able to develop their topics within the stipulated 1-month period. However, a delay in progression was identified after the research topic was developed. In order to enhance their progress, the students were of the view that regular meetings between the administration, research supervisors and supervisees should be instituted to review the students’ progress. The students’ views concur with those of Chireshe (2012) who recommends regular graduate research seminars with the intention of enhancing the graduate students’ progress. Another way of enhancing the students’ progress is to have the supervisors and supervisees formally write on a regular basis as an explanation for delayed completion to those in charge of the graduate school (Akparep et al, 2017). Overall, the social learning theory (Bandura, 1999) was found to be relevant when it comes to explaining the slow progression and low completion rates among the graduate students. The negative supervision environment exhibited by the stressful interaction between the supervisors and supervisees, the delayed feedback and the lack of support and guidance are a source of disappointment and frustration that negatively impact on the progress of the graduate students in the higher institutions of learning. In line with this theory, the students’ progression can be enhanced when the supervisors are friendly mentors who provide adequate support and guidance to the students while also promptly providing feedback on the students’ written work (Clutterbuck & Megginson, 1999; Arabaci & Ersozlu, 2010; Affero, Norhasni & Aminuddin, 2011; Chireshe, 2012; Ali, Watson & Dhingra, 2016).
6. Conclusion The paper focused on exploring research supervision as an antecedent to the graduate students’ progression in the public higher institutions of learning in Uganda. The study established that the supervisor-supervisee relationship, supervisor guidance and supervisor feedback are significant antecedents of the graduate students’ progression. However, the findings of this study suggest that the relationship between the supervisors and supervisees is relatively poor, that several supervisors do not provide the required support and guidance as expected, and that the supervisors often delay giving feedback on the students' written work. This is a deterrent when it comes to the graduate students’ progression in the higher institutions of learning. It is important therefore for the issues related to the supervisor-supervisee relationship, supervisor guidance and the promptness of the feedback to be addressed if students’ progression is to be enhanced.
7. Recommendations The graduate schools should institute annual training programs that focus on promoting a good relationship between the supervisors and supervisees. The higher institutions of learning should also organize regular research seminars that bring together the supervisors and supervisees. The institutions should
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emphasize adherence to the policy of giving feedback on the students’ research work in a period of 2 weeks maximum. Finally, the higher institutions of learning through the graduate schools should organize regular meetings between the administration, research supervisors and supervisees to review the students’ progress.
8. Limitations of the study The study had limitations that justify future research. Firstly, the study focused on the masters’ students in public universities. In future researchers should take into consideration all categories of graduate students in both private and public higher institutions of learning to enhance generalization of findings. Secondly, the study adopted a cross sectional design that gives a description of what is happening at the time of the study. Future studies should consider using the longitudinal or experimental designs to establish magnitude and direction of causal relationship between research supervision and students’ progression. Thirdly, the study limited its content scope to research supervision as a key factor to graduate students’ progression in public higher institutions of learning in Uganda. Future studies could consider other factors such as students’ personal and financial factors could affect graduate students’ progression. Lastly, the study focused on only two key variables- research supervision and students’ progression in higher institutions of learning. In future research, intervening variable should be brought in perspective.
9. References Abiddin, N. Z., Ismail, A., & Ismail, A. (2011). Effective supervisory approach in enhancing postgraduate research studies. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 1(2), 206–217. Affero, I., Norhasni, Z. A., & Aminuddin, H. (2011). Improving the development of postgraduate’s research and supervision. International Education Studies, 4, 78-90. https://doi.org.10.5539/ies. v4n1p78 Akparep, J. Y., Jengre, E., & Amoah, D. A. (2017). Demystifying the blame game in the delays of graduation of research students in Universities in Ghana: The case of University for Development Studies. European Journal of Business and Innovation Research, 5(1), 34-50. Ali, P. A., Watson, R., & Dhingra, K. (2016). Postgraduate research students’ and their supervisors’ attitudes towards supervision. International Journal of Doctoral Studies, 11(11), 227-241. https://doi.org/10.28945/3541 Arabacı, İ. B., & Ersözlü, A. (2010). Postgraduate students’ perceptions of their supervisors’ mentoring skills. Procedia - Social and Behavioural Sciences, 2, 42344238. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2010.03.670 Atibuni, D. Z., Kibanja, G. M., Olema, D. K., Ssenyonga, J., & Kar, S. (2017). Challenges and strategies of research engagement among master of education students in Uganda. International Journal of Educational Policy Research and Review, 4(3), 19-28. Bacwayo, K. E., Nampala, P., & Oteyo, I. N. (2017). Challenges and opportunities associated with supervising graduate students enrolled in African universities. International Journal of Education and Practice, 5(3), 29-39. https://doi.org/10.18488/journal.61/2017.5.3/61.3.29.39 Bandura, A. (1999). A social cognitive theory of personality. In L. Pervin & O. John (Ed.), Handbook of personality (2nd ed., pp.154-196). New York: Guilford Publications.
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Bateman, A., & Coles, M. (2013). Qualifications framework and quality assurance of education and training. Prepared for the World Bank. Bateman and Giles Education consultants. Bloom, D. E., Canning, D., Chan, K. J., & Luca, D. L. (2014). Higher education and economic growth in Africa. International Journal of African Higher Education, 1(1), 22-57. https://doi.org/10.6017/ijahe.v1i1.5643 Carlhed Ydhag, C. (2019). Understanding the complexity in measuring student progression in European higher education. Hungarian Educational Research Journal, 9(2), 1-25. https://doi.org/10.1556/063.9.2019.1.21 Chireshe, R. (2012). Research Supervision: Postgraduate students’ experiences in South Africa, Journal of Social Sciences, 31(2), 229-234. https://doi.org/10.1080/09718923.2012.11893032 Creswell, J. W. (2012). Educational research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research (4th ed.). Pearson Education. Emilsson, U. M., & Johnsson, E. 2007. Supervision of supervisors: on developing supervision in postgraduate education. Higher education research & development 26(2), 163-179. https://doi.org/10.1080/0729436070131079 Eyangu, S., Bagire, V., & Kibrai, M. (2014). An Examination of the completion rate of masters programs at Makerere University Business School. Creative Education, 5(22), 1913-1920. https://doi.org/10.4236/ce.2014.522214 Fagoyinbo, J. B. (2013). The armed forces: Instrument of peace, strength, development and prosperity. Bloomington, USA: Author House. Graduate student. (2006). In CoBuild Advanced English Dictionary (5th ed.). New York: Herper Collins publishers Hadi, N. U., & Muhammad, B. (2019). Factors influencing postgraduate students’ Performance. A high order top down structural equation modelling approach. Educational sciences: Theory and practice, 19(2), 58-73. https://dio.org/10.127.38/est.2019.2.004 Hebel, S. (1999). Virginia Board Wants to Link State Aid to Colleges to their Performance in key areas. The chronicle of higher education, A33, My 28 1999. Holtman, L., & Mukwada, G. (2014). Challenges confronting the quality of postgraduate research supervision and its effects on time-to-degree and throughput rates: A case of a South African University. Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences, 5(6), 179-190. https://dio.org/10.5901/MJSS.2014.V5N6P179 Kimani, E. N. (2014). Challenges in quality control for postgraduate supervision. International Journal of Humanities, Social Sciences and Education, 1(9), 63-70. Kyaligonza, R., Kimoga, J. & Nabayego, C. (2015). Funding of Academic Staff’s Research in Public Universities in Uganda: Challenges and Opportunities. Makerere Journal of Higher Education, 7(2), 147-162. https://dio.org/10.4314/majohe.v7i2.10 Mukwanason, A. H. (2017). Reversing the Decline in Higher Education. http://www.universityworldnews.com/post.php Namubiru, S. P. (2014). Ideological trends in initial teacher education curricula: the case of East African universities. Tuning Journal for Higher Education, 2(1), 129-159. http://dx.doi.org/10.18543/tjhe-2(1)-2014 Nantege, A. (2007). Quality higher education in the face of liberalization: A case of four universities in Uganda [Master thesis, University of Oslo]. http://urn.nb.no/URN:NBN:no-16509 National Council for Higher Education [NCHE]. (2014a). Quality assurance framework for universities and the licensing process for higher education institutions. Kampala, Uganda: NCHE.
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National Council for Higher Education [NCHE] (2014b). Uganda Benchmarks for Postgraduate Studies. Kampala, Uganda: NCHE. National Council for Higher Education [NCHE] (2008). Quality Assurance Framework for Universities and the Licensing procedure for higher education institutions. Kampala, Uganda: NCHE. Ochwa-Echel, J. (2016). Private Universities in Uganda: Issues and Challenges. International Journal of education and social science, 3(3), 7-18. https://works.bepress.com/james_ochwa-echel/5/ Orellana, M. L., Darder, A., Pérez, A., & Salinas, J. (2016). Improving doctoral success by matching PhD students with supervisors. International Journal of Doctoral Studies, 11, 87-103. Seidu, A. (2015). Writing a thesis: A guide for social science students, institute for continuous education and interdisciplinary research: Supreme Concept. Ssegawa, J. K., & Rwelamila, P. D. (2009). The research skill factor as a cause for high postgraduate attrition rate. Journal of Engineering, Design and Technology, 7, 293322. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/17260530910998703 Uganda Bureau of Statistics [UBOS]. (2017). The national population and housing census 2014 –Education in the thematic report series. Kampala, Uganda: UBOS. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization [UNESCO]. (2015). Rethinking Education. Paris, France: UNESCO. Van Rensburg, G. H., Mayers, P., & Roets, L. (2016). Supervision of post-Graduate students in higher education. Trends in nursing, 3(1), 1-15. https://doi.org/10.14804/3-1-55 Wamala, R., Ocaya, B., & Oonyu, J. C. (2012). Extended candidature and non-completion of a Ph.D. at Makerere University, Uganda Contemporary Issues in Education Research, 5(3), 175-184. https://doi.org/10.19030.cier.v5i3.7094
Appendix 1 Questionnaire For Students Dear respondent, We are consultants in the School of Business Management of UMI. We are undertaking a research on Research Supervision and Progress of Graduate Students in Public Higher Institutions of Learning. As a student on the master’s program in the final stages of the research project, you have a wealth of key information that is of benefit to this study. The aim of this study is to investigate the influence of research supervision on the progress of graduate students. The information gathered will provide stakeholders with an understanding of the status and challenges of students’ progress. The study is intended to give insights into the formulation of policies on research supervision for better progression of graduate students at the Institute. The information you provide will be treated with strict confidentiality and will not in any way be personalized. You are not expected to provide your name. I humbly request your cooperation in completing the attached questionnaire. Thank you in advance and I look forward to receiving your feedback. Yours sincerely, Paul Netalisile Malunda, Juliet Atwebembeire & Proscovia Namubiru
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Section A: Profile of Respondents In this section, you are kindly requested to tick the appropriate alternative response 1
Gender
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How long have you been on the Master’s program?
Male Female One year or less More than one year but less than three years Three years or more
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Section B: Supervisor – Supervisee Relationship Using the key given below, tick the right alternative that corresponds with your opinion as they relate to you regarding Supervisor- Supervisee relationship: Key: 1= Strongly disagree 2= Disagree 3=Non-committal 4= Agree 5= Strongly agree Item 4 5
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Supervisor – supervisee relationship My supervisors are friendly My supervisors are always available whenever I need them I have sufficient interaction with my supervisors I regularly consult my supervisors on my research My supervisors are good mentors My supervisors make effort to establish the challenges that may humper my progress I regularly interact with my supervisors online My supervisors usually encourage me to progress My supervisors harass me I find interaction with my supervisors so stressful
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Section C: Supervisors’ Guidance Using the key given below, tick the right alternative that corresponds with your opinion as they relate to you regarding guidance given by your supervisor: Key: 1= Strongly disagree 2= Disagree 3=Non-committal 4= Agree 5= Strongly agree Item
Guidance
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I have a supervision schedule with my supervisor My supervisors guided me on selection of my research topic and fine tuning it I usually receive additional information on my topic from the supervisors My supervisors usually help me to access relevant literature My supervisors have the knowledge and experience on my topic My supervisors are keen on how I address comments they make on written work I find the guidance my supervisor gives me on my research constructive The guidance my supervisor has given me has helped me gain competence in the basic skills of conducting research.
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Section D: Feedback by the Supervisor Using the key given below, tick the right alternative that corresponds with your opinion on feedback given by your supervisor (s): Key: 1= Strongly disagree 2= Disagree 3=Non-committal 4= Agree 5= Strongly agree Item
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My supervisors provide feedback on my written work within two weeks after submission The supervisors always do a thorough review of my written research work I find the comments made by my supervisors easy to understand The supervisors usually make encouraging comments on my written research work My supervisors usually provide online feedback My supervisor provides constructive criticism on feedback Feedback given by my supervisors has been helpful to my progress The comments made on my research work have helped me improve on my research skills
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Section E: Students’ Progress Using the key given below, tick the right alternative that corresponds with your opinion as they relate to your progress: Key: 1= Strongly disagree 2= Disagree 3=Non-committal 4= Agree 5= Strongly agree Students’ progress 30
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I developed my topic within the first month after commencement of the research project I regularly meet my supervisor as scheduled My supervisors are happy with my written work I always submit in time my written work for review and assessment I defended my research proposal within six months I was able to address comments raised during my research proposal with ease My research proposal was approved after immediately after I first presented it I collected and analyzed my data in two months after proposal defense I submitted my draft thesis within two months after data collection I defended my thesis within four months after the proposal defense I am happy with the progress of my research
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Appendix 2 INTERVIEW GUIDES For the Heads of the Graduate schools The purpose of this study is to analyze the influence of research supervision on the progress of graduate students at your university. You are kindly requested to answer the questions to the best of your knowledge. The information given herein will be treated with utmost confidence. 1. How do you assess research supervision of students on the master’s program by the allocated supervisors? 2. What are the challenges that graduate students encounter during the research process? 3. What is your assessment about the completion rates of the students on masters’ programs? 4. In your opinion, how can progress of the graduate students be enhanced? For the supervisors The purpose of this study is to analyze the influence of research supervision on the progress of graduate students at your university. You are kindly requested to answer the questions to the best of your knowledge. The information given herein will be treated with utmost confidence. 1. How do you assess progress of the students you are supervising on the master’s program? 2. What are the challenges that you encounter as a research supervisor as you supervise students on the Master’s program? 3. What is your assessment about the completion rates of the students on masters’ programs?
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 5, pp. 96-122, May 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.5.6
Exploring Match Plate’s Potential in Aiding Pupils’ Writing Skills Finola Iba anak Patrick and Azlina Abdul Aziz Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2854-7062 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7800-3688
Abstract. Teaching of writing skills has become a growing concern for teachers with the implementation of CEFR aligned curriculum in recent years. Lack of relevant materials and resources is one of the contributing factors to this concern. Furthermore, writing skill acquisition could pose a challenge in the primary ESL classroom. Therefore, this study was conducted in a suburban primary school with the aim to discover Match Plate's potential in aiding pupils' writing skills. This research employed action research as the research design, and utilised three data collection methods, namely a pre-test and post-test, questionnaire and observation checklist. A total of ten participants were involved in this study. The findings revealed that there is a positive increment in the post-test results as compared to the pre-test results. Based on the survey questionnaire, most participants showed positive perceptions towards the use of Match Plate. Additionally, the data gathered from the observation checklist showed that participants were able to build sentences using Match Plate. Hence, the findings suggest that Match Plate shows potential to support pupils’ mastering of writing skills. Apart from that, pupils' positive learning attitude could be observed throughout the treatment period. Thus, it is highly recommended for teachers to resort to alternative teaching aids for language teaching. Keywords: Match Plate; potential; writing skill; perceptions; positive learning attitude
1. Introduction The English language was used as the medium of instruction in primary schools and secondary schools when Peninsular Malaysia and East Malaysia were ruled by the British from the late eighteenth until mid-twentieth centuries. After independence, Bahasa Malaysia [Malay Language] was decreed as the national language and as the medium of instruction in public schools. Even so, the importance of English is very much evident due to globalisation and the advancement of science and technology. Hence, the English language is institutionalised as an important second language in the Education ordinance.
©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).
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A great number of local public university graduates were found to be unemployed due to their inability to speak English (Selvaratnam, 2018). Krishnan et al. (2017) noted that most fresh graduates could not comprehend the basic questions asked in interviews. In fact, the interviewees’ answers often were misinterpreted by the interviewers due to interviewees’ inappropriate choice of words. Thus, realising the importance of English language competency in creating better career pathways for the local graduates, the English Language Standards and Quality Council was established in 2013 to improve the standard of English in the country. A road map for English Language Education Reform in Malaysia spanning 2015 to 2025 was developed. One of the key aims of the plan is to align Malaysia’s English Language Education System with the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR). This framework represents the global standard for the teaching and learning of languages. CEFR provides six proficiency levels with detailed descriptions of what foreign or second-language learners should be able to do using four language skills, namely listening, speaking, reading and writing. CEFR thus provides a frame of reference for English language learning, teaching and assessment. The cascaded training programme was presented in tiers. However, the content delivery mostly happened through mere transmission during the cascaded training due to time constraints, and this left many teachers frustrated. Learning materials such as textbooks and workbooks are CEFR aligned and sourced directly from overseas. This explains the irrelevancy of textbook content considering the students’ background. Consequently, students’ learning processes could be hindered as they are dealing with unfamiliar content. A systematic review conducted by Akhtar et al. (2019) revealed that students in English as a Second Language (ESL) often faced challenges such as teaching methods, students’ attitude towards English, and poor academic language writing ability in. Similarly, a study conducted by Ngu and Aziz (2019) has revealed a number of challenges faced during CEFR implementation, namely lack of training, non-local based textbooks, inadequate ICT support, and limited teaching and learning resources. Hence, it can be assumed that inappropriate teaching methods and textbook content play a significant role in students' writing ability. A large number of teachers admitted to having limited knowledge of and exposure to CEFR (Ngu & Aziz, 2019). Having sound content and pedagogical knowledge of the new curriculum is crucial for teachers as it would help them to identify the students’ learning needs. Thus far, limited studies have been conducted on the teaching of writing skills in the CEFR-aligned curriculum. Therefore, this study was conducted to shed light on the use of alternative instructional aids in the teaching of writing skills. The study, involving ten participants, was conducted at a semi-urban school in Sarawak. . These participants were selected purposely as this study was intended for low proficiency pupils. Match Plate is a teaching-learning aid, designed to suit the CEFR syllabus, and the main focus is sentence construction. The researcher developed this idea as limited relevant exercises exist to be used by the lowproficiency pupils to practise their writing skills.
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1.1 Problem Statement The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) was started with the establishment of the English Language Standards and Quality Council (ELSQC) in 2013. Learning materials, including textbooks and workbooks, are CEFR aligned and sourced directly from overseas. According to Nawai and Said (2020), teachers expressed their concerns on the insufficient teaching materials and assistance, as well as the inadequate number of textbooks and workbooks distributed. In fact, many teachers had to find materials online or prepare their own materials and share resources with others (Ngu & Aziz, 2019). Nevertheless, pupils are expected to achieve A2 by the time they have completed primary school education; making it crucial for them to achieve A1 upon entering level 2. One of the detailed descriptors for A1 includes “Can understand and use familiar everyday expressions and very basic phrases”. These descriptors applied to all the language skills, namely listening, speaking, reading and writing. However, pupils with a limited vocabulary may find it challenging even to produce simple sentences, be it in writing or speaking tasks. According to Graham and Perin (2007), the ability of children and adults to compile meaningful writings, demands similar fundamental and essential competency. In other words, one’s language competency is reflected through one’s writings. A recent study conducted by Mohamad Uri and Abd Aziz (2018) found that the teachers were able to accept CEFR positively, but they had very limited knowledge and a low level of awareness of the framework. In line with this concern, Aziz et al. (2018) emphasized that training needed to be aligned with the local context so that teachers could find the input provided to be more relevant to them and to their students. The CEFR six-level global scale was developed with the intent of being open, dynamic, and flexible in order to assist language learners in mapping the CEFR to their assessment and syllabus (Mohamad Uri & Abd Aziz, 2020). With the six detailed descriptors and “can do” statements included in the framework, teachers could easily identify what type of expressions, phrases or sentences are expected to be produced by the pupils regardless of their language skills. Additionally, most of the tasks included in the textbook and activity book provide examples of phrases or sentences with different sentence structures to be used for each task. Yet, this might pose a challenge for the low-proficiency pupils due to their limited vocabulary. In a recent study reported by Miin et al. (2019), pupils showed significant improvement in sentence construction with the implementation of 4step sentence construction activities. As Match Plate is designed to aid pupils’ writing skill, especially in sentence construction, this study was conducted hoping to provide an alternative teaching tool for teachers to teach writing skills which are appropriate for the CEFR-aligned syllabus.
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1.2 Origin of Match Plate Memory Retention (Multi-Store Model) Positive Reinforcement (Operant Conditioning)
Match Plate - activating memory - rewards as positive reinforcement
Primary 2 Pupils’ Writing Skills
Figure 1: Conceptual Framework of Research Implementation
As illustrated in Figure 1, the research implementation is founded on two theories, which are memory retention and positive reinforcement. The core idea of Match Plate is mainly based on memory retention, which originated from the Multi-Store Model as proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968), and positive reinforcement as included in the Operant Conditioning Theory proposed by Skinner (1938). Match Plate consists of five shapes that are arranged in a line. Each shape represents one sentence part that was used to form a sentence. The sentence parts include a noun phrase, verb, preposition, adjective and proper or common noun. Match Plate can be used for pupils to form sentences with a maximum of five sentence parts. Apart from that, this innovation was carefully designed to fit the Year 2 syllabus. This study was conducted to answer the following research questions: 1. How effective is the Match Plate in aiding pupils’ writing skills? 2. What are pupils’ perceptions regarding the use of Match Plate in learning writing skills? 1.2.1 Multi-store model by Atkinson and Shiffrin 1968 The Multi-Store model, as proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968), refers to multiple memory stores which are sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. The processes involved are attention, rehearsal and retrieval. The first process, called attention, involves transferring information from sensory to short --term memory (STM). When a stimulus is presented, often in the visual system, the stimulus will be registered instantly within the appropriate sensory dimensions. The particular features of visual registration would enable us to identify it as a distinct component of memory (Sperling, 1960). In this research, the Match Plate consists of five different shapes. The shapes used in the Match Plate are registered in the participants’ short-term memory as they recognise the differences in each shape. After that, the second process will occur, which concerns the information to be transmitted to the long-term memory (LTM). This process is called rehearsal. Short-term memory can be regarded as the ‘working memory’. Information has a tendency to disappear upon entering the short-term memory, however, it requires more time to disappear compared to the time is
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takes to disappear from the sensory register. Therefore, there should be ample opportunity for the individual to review the information. In this research, the participants were given sufficient time to construct sentences by matching the different shapes onto the plate, allowing them to retain the information, . Lastly, the third process requires the individual to retrieve the existing information from the long-term memory back into the short-term memory. In this research, the participants gradually memorised the sentence structures by matching the shapes onto the Plate. Therefore, the participants were able to retrieve their knowledge on sentence structures and apply it during the administration of the post-test. 1.2.2 Operant Conditioning by B.F. Skinner Operant conditioning, as proposed by Skinner (1938), is defined as a process that aims to change specific behaviour by incorporating positive and negative reinforcement. Skinner proposed this theory based on the findings of various experiments that had been conducted (Shrestha, 2017). An example in an educational setting is when a teacher gives rewards to active or well-behaved students. Learning behaviour can be improved by incorporating an appropriate stimulus and reinforcement, as averted by Skinner (1938). Individuals associate particular behaviour and the consequence through operant conditioning. Therefore, the students eventually realised that they would get rewards if they participated actively in activities or behaved properly in the classroom. In this study, the participants’ actions of matching the shapes onto the plate is considered as operant behaviour. Meanwhile, the rewards given each time they successfully match the shapes on the plate are considered positive reinforcement.
2. Literature Review 2.1 Writing Skills Writing gained high social prestige as it plays a vital role not only in communication, but also in education. Even with the advancement of technology, writing still is not regarded as the conventional way of communicating, as one still needs to acquire competency in writing skills to communicate with others through social media. More important, though, is that most professional communication, such as proposals, memos, reports and e-mails, demands competent writing skills. Thus, writing undeniably is an essential skill. Writing is a challenging cognitive activity that demands the learner's control over a variety of circumstances (Nunan, 1989). In Malaysia, English writing skill is regarded as the most challenging skill to be acquired by the students (Jusun & Yunus, 2018). A study conducted by Shah (1999) concluded that the top three factors affecting the students’ English language achievements were attitude and motivation, sociocultural factors and individual differences. On the other hand, undergraduate students who majored in Teaching English as a Second Language (TESL) in Malaysia stated that they preferred to speak English in English classes, but acknowledged the need for the first language (L1) to complete their tasks quicker (Manty & Shah, 2017). These two studies indicated that students’ learning preferences or individual differences are crucial and need to be acknowledged in English language learning.
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2.2 Writing Skill in CEFR-Aligned Curriculum In 2013, Malaysia took a big step to elevate students' English language proficiency through the implementation of the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR). This universally recognised framework provides a sound basis for language qualifications. Besides, the framework includes six detailed descriptors which are used to assess students' performance in language learning. Basically, language users are classified into three main groups, namely Proficient users (C1 and C2), Independent users (B1 and B2) and Basic users (A1 and A2). The “can do” statements are included for each level to help teachers assess their students’ performance in each language skill. Teachers need to refer to the descriptors during the evaluation of their students’ performance. There is a huge difference in writing in a CEFR-aligned curriculum as compared to the previous curriculum known as Primary School Standards-Based Curriculum (KSSR). In KSSR, the content of the textbook was arranged modularly. Each topic contained a few suggested activities or tasks for each language skill: listening, speaking, reading and writing, and also for the teaching of grammar and language arts. For example, the writing tasks or activities included in the textbook portrayed clear directions of how students should progressively improve in their writing throughout the whole syllabus. Besides, teachers only needed to adapt the activities to cater for their students' needs. On the other hand, the content of the CEFR textbook did not provide for local contexts, causing teachers to struggle to adapt the materials. The content mostly entails pictures and is not arranged modularly. Most of the activities included require from students to perform listening and speaking tasks, but not much writing. Furthermore, some of the writing tasks require students to use the sentence structure of a spoken language, such as, "No, it isn't". The sentence structures included in the textbook suggest that grammar is taught covertly. However, this may lead to confusion when it comes to proper sentence construction as pupils are constantly exposed to the use of contractions. Besides, students then find it difficult to differentiate between spoken language and written language. 2.3 Challenges of Teaching Writing Skills in ESL Classroom Acquisition of writing skills is extremely challenging in ESL classrooms (Jusun & Yunus 2018). Previous studies have shown that Malaysian ESL students are still struggling with the acquisition of writing skills (Ghabool et al., 2012; Maarof & Murat, 2013; Ien et al., 2017). Malaysian ESL students experience problems with writing tasks, especially in language use, grammar and punctuation (Ghabool et al., 2012). According to Misbah et al. (2017), a major obstacle to mastering writing skills is students’ lack of vocabulary. Furthermore, students often make mistakes in subject-verb agreement, pronouns, tenses, articles, prepositions and basic sentence structures (Fareed et al., 2016). Hence, it definitely is not an easy task for teachers to teach writing skills due to the many impediments students have to overcome. Some of the challenges encountered by teachers in teaching writing are students’ motivation, different proficiency levels and time constraints (Moses & Mohamad, 2019). Most students are not interested in and motivated to learn English writing. According to Dornyei and Ushioda (2010), motivation refers to the effort and desire of an individual to pursue his or her goals. The students need
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to have motivation to give their best effort to learning. Hence, teachers need to provide extrinsic motivation to keep them motivated. According to Mukundan et al. (2005), the teaching of writing skills in Malaysian classrooms has yet to be successful. Having to teach in a mixed-abilities classroom is a common scenario for most teachers. However, many teachers still express their concerns about providing suitable materials during the English writing class. For instance, if the classroom consists of two proficiency levels, such as high proficiency and low proficiency, it would be quite challenging for teachers to give the instructions, as the gap is too big. In some cases, the advanced students may complete the weaker students’ tasks instead of making an effort to assist them to complete their work independently. Another challenge that is often faced by teachers of writing skills, is time constraints (Moses & Mohamad, 2019). Usually, it will take more than one lesson for teachers to teach a new topic, especially when the students require more practising time for them to understand the lesson content. It might lead to a major drawback in the students' motivation and performance if the lessons were to stop halfway, especially when the students are just about to form a new understanding. This scenario is quite common in rural or suburban schools where the English language is seen as less important because the teachers have to spend most of their time on explanations. 2.4 Use of Jigsaw Technique in the Teaching of Writing Skills The jigsaw teaching method was first discovered by Eliot Aronson in 1970, as cited in Dabell (2019). This cooperative learning technique has resulted in many successes. Jigsaw technique allows students to be assigned different roles, and each student would have to play his or her role well in order to complete the task as they are relying on each other. As none of the roles overlaps, students would eventually try their best to accomplish the task and cooperate with their group members. In this study, the same technique was adapted to the innovation, though the participants were not grouped together. The participants were able to experience taking on different roles despite having to work on the Match Plate by themselves. A study conducted by Bafadal (2015) proved that the Jigsaw technique is effective in teaching descriptive writing. Similarly, a study conducted by Ardila and Ginting (2013) found that the application of Jigsaw technique proved to be effective in improving students' ability in writing narrative texts. Although these studies (Bafadal, 2015; Ardila & Ginting, 2013) revealed that this technique is effective in improving students' paragraph and essay writing, the researcher decided to incorporate Jigsaw techniques into the innovation in teaching sentence construction in order to gain a better understanding of how Jigsaw technique can be used to teach CEFR-aligned writing skills to lower primary ESL students. It is hoped this technique will have a positive outcome by improving the participants' performance regardless of the writing tasks, thus providing new insights on the technique.
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2.5 Effective Strategies to Improve Writing in the ESL Classroom According to Cole and Feng (2015), writing skill acquisition in the ESL classroom context can be improved through the use of technology, pre-taught vocabulary, various teacher influences, and the implementation of positive, diverse literacy practices. In this study, the researchers implemented a variety of techniques, namely journal writing, activating prior knowledge, pre-viewing vocabulary, utilizing graphic organizers, scaffolded instruction, and increased teacher/peer conferencing throughout a year with a group of ESL students (experimental group), whereas another group of students (control group) were taught based on the curriculum only. The data were gathered both quantitatively and qualitatively. The findings suggest that the performance of the experimental group improved in comparison to that of the control group, and the students in the experimental group were able to identify their own weaknesses and strengths. Chandran et al. (2019) conducted a study to assess Form 4 students’ writing performance using the Hi-Five Fingers and Snack Bars via social media (Powtoon and Facebook). The researchers implemented a product-based approach during the administration of the pre-test and post-test, and also during the intervention. The intervention was carried out for three months. During the intervention, students were shown a video via Powtoon. After that, the students used Hi-Five Fingers to brainstorm their ideas and Snack Bars as guidance for their essay writing before posting their writings on a Facebook group which had been created earlier for peer and teacher feedback sessions. The findings suggest that both HiFive Fingers and Snack Bars had a positive impact on the participants' writing performance. This could be due to their active participation throughout the process, especially during the feedback session. As the feedback session involved not only the teachers but also the students themselves, they were able to provide constructive feedback and exchange new ideas. 2.6 Motivation in the Learning Process Motivation undeniably is one of the determining factors of second or foreign language learning success (Bradford, 2007; Dörnyei, 1998; Engin, 2009). In language learning, motivation serves as a driving force for learners striving to achieve their goals. There are four major factors that contribute to students’ motivation, namely competence, autonomy, interest and relatedness (Bandura [1996], Dweck [2010], Murray [2011], Pintrich [2003], Ryan & Deci [2000], Seifert [2004], as cited in Filgona et al., 2020). At least one of these factors must be present to keep the students motivated. The more motivating factors present, the greater the probability that students’ motivation will increase (Filgona et al., 2020). According to a recent study of Omar et al. (2020), the implementation of motivational strategies relies on teachers' perceived motivation in teaching. This study was conducted in eleven public universities in Malaysia, involving 49 teachers altogether. The findings suggest that the most preferred motivational strategy was proper teacher behaviour, while the least preferred motivational strategy was to promote learner autonomy. According to Omar et al. (2020), proper teacher behaviour is a strategy where teachers are enthusiastic about their teaching, customise lesson plans to accommodate students' needs and provide a safe learning environment. The teachers believed that these actions would
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motivate students in their learning, but they also were positive about the inclusion of learner autonomy. In fact, some of the teachers preferred to discuss the topic selections and the learning activities with the students.
3. Methodology 3.1 Research Design For this study an action research design was employed, as the purpose of the study was to implement the use of Match Plate in the teaching of writing skills among Year 2 pupils. The main reason for employing action research was to gain new insight about and understanding of the use of Match Plate for teaching and learning English writing skills. The study comprised five stages, which began with the identification of educational practices to improve learning, action planning, implementation, data collection, and, lastly, reflection on the action. A pre-test was done before the intervention. After that, the researcher developed a teaching aid, called Match Plate, to be used as a supplementary tool during the teaching and learning of English writing skills. Implementation took place as planned, but with some modifications to the initial plan, as the Recovery Movement Control Order (due to the Covid pandemic) had been extended. The initial plan of including fifteen participants in this study was to no avail as some of the parents still were reluctant to let their children attend school. Therefore, only ten participants were able to be included, and they were given a set of Match Plates to work on by themselves. After that, the researcher evaluated the effectiveness of Match Plate in aiding pupils' writing skills by means of three types of data collection, namely a pre-test and post-test, an observation checklist, and a questionnaire survey. Lastly, the researcher reflected on the research implementation, although there was only one cycle involved in this study. Hence, all improvements and amendments were recorded as recommendations for future study. 3.2 Research Procedure The Match Plate is an adapted version of the concept of a jigsaw puzzle. A jigsaw puzzle requires the players to fit pieces of different shapes to complete a picture. The same concept was adopted for Match Plate, where the participants have to find the correct shapes and fit them into a mould which is the Plate. The shapes were arranged in a straight line as they represented one complete sentence. There are five shapes altogether, and each shape represents one sentence part. The sentence parts, which are represented in different shapes, are to be used to form a sentence. Unlike the usual jigsaw puzzle game that would require the players to use all the pieces to complete a puzzle, the participants may not use all the shapes in the Match Plate. Hence, Match Plate can be used for pupils to form sentences with a maximum of five sentence parts. A set of pre-tests was administered to the pupils before the intervention was carried out. After that, the researcher introduced Match Plate and demonstrated how to use the innovation to perform a writing task. The researcher carried out the intervention once a week during the writing lesson, which makes up a total of four sessions altogether. During the intervention, the researcher conducted the writing lessons as usual, but the writing tasks assigned to the participants required them to use the Match Plate to accomplish the task. Each student was given a set of Match Plates to work on. The
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researcher had invited an expert teacher to observe the participants' performance. This was done to ensure that the data gathered were valid and reliable. During the last session, a set of post-tests was administered to the participants. The researcher decided to assign a fictional name (pseudonym) to all the participants for writing up the study to give anonymity to the participants. 3.3 Data Collection Methods and Data Analysis In this study three types of data collection methods were employed, namely a pretest and post-test, an observation checklist and a questionnaire survey. The pretest was administered to the participants before the research implementation. The pre-test and post-test comprised three sections: Section A, Section B and Section C. Each section consisted of five questions which totalled fifteen questions. Section A consisted of five 'sentence halves' questions; Section B consisted of five 'blanks filling' questions, and Section C consisted of five 'arranging words' questions. Meanwhile, the post-test was administered to gather information on and evaluate the participants' writing skills after the research had been implemented. The post-test was constructed using the same type of questions, but different items were included for each section. This enabled the researcher to evaluate the participants' performance based on the same constructs and yet using valid instruments for the assessment. This allowed the researcher to make meaningful inferences based on the scores (see Messick, 1989; Moss, 1995). During the implementation, an observation checklist was used to conduct a formative assessment. The items included in the observation checklist were based on a Revised Academic Success Model by York et al. (2015). However, some modifications had been made as this model was designed for assessing college students' performance. Hence, the researcher found it necessary to make some modifications to the existing model in order to suit the research context. With careful consideration, one of the elements in the model, which is career success, was omitted. Therefore, the observation checklist was derived from five elements only. Three items were included for each element. The checklist used 'yes' or 'no' statements to make it easier for the researcher to observe the students' performance. A column for 'written remarks' was included to enable the researcher and expert teacher to jot down any outstanding behaviours or incidents that were not included in the checklist. This checklist was used throughout the implementation period. Apart from that, the questionnaire was distributed to the participants to gather their perceptions on the use of Match Plate in the lessons. The items in the questionnaire were rated on a 4-point Likert scale. No safe or 'neutral' option was included so that more specific opinions could be gathered from the survey questionnaire. The items included in the questionnaire were aimed at determining the extent to which the participants agreed or disagreed with the statements regarding the use of Match Plate in learning English writing skills. The researcher used descriptive analysis to interpret the data and thematic analysis was used to interpret data gathered via the observation checklist, which served a purpose as triangulation of data.
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4. Findings 4.1 Comparison of Results of Pre-Test and Post-Test Table 2: Comparison of Results of Pre-Test and Post-Test Pseudonym
Pre-Test (%)
Post-Test (%)
Difference (%)
Mirza Qhaira Amanda Jessie Hanan Alif Akif Haikal Brian Eric
49 31 46 45 48 43 52 52 35 48
68 48 57 57 69 52 74 68 57 65
+ 19 + 17 +11 + 12 + 21 +9 + 22 + 16 + 22 + 17
As illustrated in Table 2, there is a positive increment in the post-test as compared to the pre-test. Based on the table, Alif showed the least improvement in the posttest (9%), whereas Akif and Brian showed the biggest improvement in their posttests with a definite increase of 22%; Qhaira and Eric improved by 17% in their post-tests. Meanwhile, Amanda showed a positive increment in the post-test with 11%, and Jessie improved by 12% in the post-test. On the other hand, Haikal, Mirza and Hanan improved in the post-test by 16%, 19% and 21%, respectively. This obviously demonstrates that Match Plate did improve the participants' writing abilities. This could be owing to the Match Plate having been used extensively throughout the study. By using Match Plate, the participants were exposed to the sentence structures repeatedly, thus enabling them to memorise the sentence structures.
Average Score (%)
Average Score Percentage between Pre-Test and Post-Test 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
61.5 44.9
PRE-TEST POST-TEST Figure 3: Average Score Percentage between Pre-Test and Post-Test
Figure 3 shows the difference between pre-test and post-test average score percentages. There is a positive increment of 16.6% in the post-test. Therefore,
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Match Plate clearly brought positive changes in the participants’ writing skills, as shown by post-test results. 4.2 Pupils’ Perceptions on Match Plate Table 4: Pupils’ Perceptions of Match Plate No. 1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
ITEMS
Strongly disagree
Disagree
Agree
Strongly agree
Mean Score
I can define each sentence part when asked verbally. I can differentiate the sentence parts used in the Match Plate when asked verbally. I can state the examples for each sentence part in the Match Plate when asked verbally. I am excited to complete supplementary worksheets using Match Plate. I enjoy using Match Plate to build sentences individually. I am motivated to use Match Plate in learning sentence building. I can give full attention when learning sentence building using Match Plate. I am not afraid to ask questions when I am facing difficulties in using Match Plate. I enjoy competing to complete the supplementary worksheet using Match Plate.
0 (0%)
2 (20%)
6 (60%)
2 (20%)
3.0 (MODERATE)
0 (0%)
2 (20%)
4 (40%)
4 (40%)
3.2 (HIGH)
0 (0%)
0 (0%)
6 (60%)
4 (40%)
3.4 (HIGH)
0 (0%)
0 (0%)
6 (60%)
4 (40%)
3.4 (HIGH)
0 (0%)
0 (0%)
5 (50%)
5 (50%)
3.5 (HIGH)
0 (0%)
0 (0%)
3 (30%)
7 (70%)
3.7 (HIGH)
0 (0%)
0 (0%)
6 (60%)
4 (40%)
3.4 (HIGH)
0 (0%)
0 (0%)
3 (30%)
7 (70%)
3.7 (HIGH)
0 (0%)
0 (0%)
4 (40%)
6 (60%)
3.6 (HIGH)
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10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
I am able to match the puzzles with less guidance. I am able to write the sentences with similar sentence structures in Match Plate correctly. I am able to identify the mistakes in sentences when asked verbally. I am able to rearrange words into sentences correctly. I am able to create simple sentences without the help of Match Plate independently. I am getting better in sentence building over time.
0
0
3
7
3.7
(0%)
(0%)
(30%)
(70%)
(HIGH)
0
0
4
6
3.6
(0%)
(0%)
(40%)
(60%)
(HIGH)
0
3
5
2
2.9
(0%)
(30%)
(50%)
(20%)
(MODERATE)
0
0
3
7
3.7
(0%)
(0%)
(30%)
(70%)
(HIGH)
0
3
5
2
2.9
(0%)
(30%)
(50%)
(20%)
(MODERATE)
0
0
4
6
3.6
(0%)
(0%)
(40%)
(60%)
(HIGH)
As illustrated in Table 4, 50% of the respondents with a high mean score of 3.5 strongly agreed that they enjoyed using Match Plate to learn sentence building. As Match Plate was an adapted version of a jigsaw puzzle, the participants found it interesting to use this while learning sentence construction. Besides, most of them had been exposed to the jigsaw puzzle game itself, so it took less time for the participants to identify the assembling mechanism of the jigsaw puzzle adapted into Match Plate. Furthermore, 70% of the respondents with a high mean score of 3.7 strongly agreed that Match Plate motivated them to learn the English language. As low-proficiency students placed such a high value on exam results or performance in comparison to others, they rarely felt successful in their English education, which led them to give up learning English and be hesitant to seek help from teachers (Fukuda, 2019). Thus, motivation is indeed crucial in English language learning, especially to low-proficiency pupils. In this study, Match Plate not only promoted fun learning, but also served as a classroom energiser, especially when students were struggling in English language learning. Apart from that, 70% of the respondents, with a mean score of 3.7, strongly agreed that they needed less guidance to match the puzzles. This indicates that the participants were able to match the puzzles as they understood the mechanism, helping them to accomplish the tasks. On the other hand, 30% of the participants responded negatively to item number 12, which deals with the identification of mistakes in sentences when they were asked verbally. This implies that three of the respondents still were unable to grasp the concept. On the other hand, 80% of
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the respondents agreed and strongly agreed with item number 2, which indicates that they believed they could differentiate the sentence parts used in the Match Plate when asked verbally. This implies that two of the participants still were unable to understand (make meaning of) the function of each constituent part of a sentence, even after having used Match Plate. In sum, most of the participants had positive perspectives on the use of Match Plate, but few of them were unable to attain the learning outcome. 4.3 Observation Checklist Table 5: Observation Checklist
CHECK-LIST ITEMS
YES Pupils are able to define each sentence part when asked verbally.
NO
EXPERT TEACHER
RESEARCHER
ELEMENTS
YES
WRITTEN REMARKS
NO - few are not convinced with own answers (R) - few are hinting friends to give answers (ET)
Attainment of Pupils are able to Learning differentiate the sentence Outcome parts used in the Match Plate when asked verbally.
- few still unable to differentiate (R & ET)
Pupils are able to state the examples for each sentence part in the Match Plate when asked verbally.
- most can give examples especially verb, preposition and noun phrase (R)
Pupils are excited to complete supplementary worksheet using Match Plate.
-most pupils portray positive responses while using MP (R & ET)
- most can work on their own (ET)
- some even shouted ‘yeay’ upon hearing MP to be used as the writing task (R)
Satisfaction in Learning Pupils enjoy using Match Plate to build sentences individually. Pupils are motivated to learn sentence building using Match Plate.
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Persistence in Learning
Pupils concentrated fully when learning sentence building using Match Plate.
-most pupils were seen giving full attention (R)
Pupils are not afraid to ask questions when they are facing difficulties in using Match Plate.
- some even use Malay language to ask questions (R)
Pupils are competing to complete the supplementary worksheet using Match Plate.
- most pupils are competing to complete the task the fastest (R & ET)
Pupils are able to match the puzzles with less guidance.
-most pupils were able to match the puzzles independently (R & ET)
Pupils are able to write the sentences with similar sentence structures in Match Plate correctly.
Pupils can write the sentences with similar sentence structure faster than before (R & ET)
Pupils are able to identify the mistakes in sentences when asked verbally.
- few are not able to identify the mistakes (ET)
Pupils are able to rearrange words into sentences correctly.
-most pupils can rearrange the sentence parts
- few still need guidance (R)
- some pupils have been progressing gradually (R)
- few of them choose to ask their friends and some are no longer avoiding eye contact (ET)
Acquired Learning Skills
Performance/A Pupils are able to create cademic simple sentences without Achievement the help of Match Plate independently. Pupils are getting better in sentence building over time.
As depicted in Table 5, both the researcher and expert teacher noted that the pupils were observed competing with each other to complete the task using Match Plate. Besides, the researcher and the expert teacher also agreed that pupils were
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able to provide examples of verb, preposition and noun phrases when they were asked verbally. These remarks indicated that pupils slowly were learning to understand and differentiate each sentence part used in the innovation. The researcher also noted that some pupils used the Malay language to ask questions. This remark was included in the element of persistence in learning. These written remarks indicated that pupils were doing whatever it took to overcome the difficulties while using the innovation to complete the writing activity. Though the pupils were asked to use this innovation individually, it did not stop them from learning as they seemingly were more comfortable seeking their friends' help.
5. Discussion 5.1 The effectiveness of Match Plate in aiding pupils’ writing skills Based on the comparison of average score percentages in the pre-test and posttest results, there is a positive increment with a value of 16.6% in the post-test. This suggests that Match Plate is useful in aiding pupils in mastering writing skills, indicating that pupils' memory retention had gradually improved over time with frequent use of Match Plate. The particular features of visual registration enable humans to identify them as a distinct memory component (Sperling, 1960). In this research, the shapes used in the Match Plate were registered to the participants' short-term memory as they recognised the differences in each shape. Furthermore, the jigsaw technique provided the learners with an opportunity to become responsible, autonomous learners (see Esnawy, 2016). Benson (2001) states that autonomy is essential for effective learning, and learners' capacity to take control over their own learning is reflected through their actions. This means that once learners become autonomous learners, they are gradually developing into more responsible and critical learners. With the use of Match Plate, pupils are taking responsibility for their own learning, for they have to match the correct pieces in order to form the sentences correctly. Besides, they will be able to identify their own mistakes and learn from them. 5.2 Pupils’ perceptions regarding the use of Match Plate in learning writing skills As depicted in Table 4, the research participants had positive views on the use of Match Plate in general. The questionnaire's most notable finding was that 50% of the respondents strongly agreed that they enjoyed using Match Plate to perform the writing tasks. This suggests that Match Plate promotes fun learning. Meanwhile, 70% of the participants strongly agreed that they felt motivated to learn sentence building with Match Plate. Dornyei (1994) states that a motivational construct involves both instrumental and integrative motivation. In this study, the participants were given rewards each time they had completed a writing task correctly. The rewards acted as the stimulus or instrumental motivation for the participants to accomplish the task well in future. As asserted by O'Connor and McCartney (2007), the rewards which are offered as pleasant stimulus would make students feel interested in their immediate task and motivated to maintain their behaviour. Apart from that, 60% of the participants strongly agreed that this innovation allowed them to compete healthily with their friends. Verhoeff (1997) claims that healthy, diverse competition has much to offer
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in education. In this study, the participants could be seen competing with each other to match the sentence parts. The competition encourages pupils to challenge their innate drive for competence as well as to engage in self-evaluation to discover their intellectual and talent potential, as affirmed by Rogers (1959). This process is important as it requires the pupils to build self-confidence and selfawareness. 5.3 Triangulation of Data The researcher used an observation checklist to triangulate the data gathered from the tests and questionnaire. One of the written remarks that stood out most on the observation checklist is that "some pupils are no longer avoiding eye contact". This remark was written by the expert teacher under item number 8, which is, "Pupils are not afraid to ask questions when they are facing difficulties in using Match Plate". This item appears under the element of persistence in learning, and indicates that some of the pupils used to avoid eye contact, and they might have been reluctant to seek help before, even though they were facing difficulties with a task. The phrase, "no longer" here indicates that the pupils were not avoiding eye contact anymore, thus, it may be assumed that they had developed selfconfidence over time. On the other hand, 20% of the respondents disagreed with questionnaire item number 2, which refers to the ability to differentiate the sentence parts, categorised under "attainment of learning”; 30% of the respondents also disagreed with item number 14, which states, "I am able to create simple sentences without the help of Match Plate independently". This item was included under "performance/academic achievement". These data correlated with the written remarks in the observation checklist, which state, "few still unable to differentiate and few still need guidance" (see items 2 and 14 respectively). Therefore, these similarities in the findings imply congruence in the results of the different data collection strategies, signifying that most of the participants had positive opinions on the use of Match Plate, but few still were unable to attain the learning outcome.
6. Conclusion This research aimed to investigate the potential of Match Plate in aiding pupils' efforts to master writing skills. The findings proved that Match Plate showed great potential in helping pupils to learn sentence building. Generally, pupils developed a positive learning attitude due to Match Plate, though a few of the participants still were unable to differentiate the sentence parts and write sentences independently. Hence, this study has shed light on the use of alternative teaching aids in the teaching of writing skills. Note that no particular strategy for teaching writing skills is prescribed, and it is crucial to acknowledge pupils' diverse backgrounds and learning needs when teaching English as a second language. The teaching aids used should cater for pupils' learning needs, be appropriate in their contexts, and never settle for monotonous lessons, no matter how challenging the teaching and learning process might be. A few limitations in this study must be acknowledged. The main limitation was the small sampling size, ensuing in the realisation that generalisations could not be made. Another shortcoming in the study was the testing. Tests (pre-test and post-test) were administered before and after the intervention. Therefore, it is
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possible that the participants showed improvements in the post-test due to similar items used in the pre-test, indicating their improvements may not be due solely to the innovation. A few modifications are recommended for future studies in this field, namely to include an erasable sheet for each shape to allow free-writing sessions. The researcher also may consider integrating different language skills. This would give a new direction to the study and enable the researcher to gather richer data.
7. References Akhtar, R., Hassan, H., Saidalvi, A. & Hussain, S. (2019). A systematic review of the challenges and solutions of ESL Students’ academic writing. International Journal of Engineering and Advanced Technology, 8(5C), 11691171. https://doi.org/10.35940/ijeat.e1164.0585c19 Ardila, R., & Ginting, S.A. (2013). Improving the students’ ability in writing recount text by applying Jigsaw technique. Transform Journal of English Language Teaching and Learning, 2(2). https://jurnal.unimed.ac.id/2012/index.php/jelt/article/view/908 Atkinson, R. C., & Shiffrin, R. M. (1968). Human memory: A proposed system and its control processes. Psychology of Learning and Motivation, 89–195. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0079-7421(08)60422-3 Aziz, A. H. A. A., Rasid, R. A., & Zainudin, W. Z. W. (2018). The enactment of the Malaysian Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR): National master trainer’s reflection. Indonesian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 8(2), 409-417. https://doi.org/10.17509/ijal.v8i2.13307 Bafadal, M. F. (2015). The effectiveness of Jigsaw technique in teaching writing descriptive text. Linguistics and ELT Journal, 3(1), 117-136. Benson, P. (2001). Teaching and Researching Autonomy in Language Learning. Pearson PTR Interactive. Bradford, A. (2007). Motivational orientations in under-researched FLL contexts: Findings from Indonesia. RELC Journal, 38(3), 302-323. Chandran, Y., Plaindaren, C. J., Pavadai, S., & Yunus, M. M. (2019). Collaborative Writing: An Integration of Snack Bars and Hi-Five Fingers via Social Media. Creative Education, 10(02), 475–484. https://doi.org/10.4236/ce.2019.102034 Cole, J., & Feng, J. (2015). Effective strategies for improving writing skills of elementary English language learners [Paper presentation]. The Chinese American Educational Research and Development Association Annual Conference. Dabell, J. (2019). What is the jigsaw classroom technique? SecEd. https://www.seced.co.uk/best-practice/what-is-the-jigsaw-classroom-technique/ Dornyei, Z. (1994). Motivation and Motivating in the Foreign Language Classroom. The Modern Language Journal, 78(3), 273. https://doi.org/10.2307/330107 Dörnyei, Z. (1998). Motivation in second and foreign language learning. Language Teaching, 31(3), 117-135. Dornyei, Z., & Ushioda, E. (2010). Teaching and Researching: Motivation (Applied Linguistics in Action) (2nd ed.). Routledge. Engin, A. O. (2009). Second language learning success and motivation. Social Behavior and Personality, 37(8), 1035-1041. Esnawy, S. (2016). EFL/EAP Reading and Research Essay Writing Using Jigsaw. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, October, 98–101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2016.10.033
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Moses, R. N., & Mohamad, M. (2019). Challenges Faced by Students and Teachers on Writing Skills in ESL Contexts: A Literature Review. Creative Education, 10(13), 3385–3391. https://doi.org/10.4236/ce.2019.1013260 Moss, P. A. (1995). Themes and Variations in Validity Theory. Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice, 14(2), 4–31. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.17453992.1995.tb00854.x Mukundan, J., Singh, D., & Singh, R. (2005). Writing maturity in some Malaysian ESL student writers’ compositions. Iranian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 8(1), 47-69. Nawai, R., & Said, N. E. M. (2020). Implementation Challenges of Common European Framework Reference (CEFR) in a Malaysian Setting: Insights on English Teachers’ Attitude. International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences, 10(7). https://doi.org/10.6007/ijarbss/v10-i7/7394 Ngu, M. K., & Aziz, A. A. (2019). English language teachers' perceptions on the implementation of CEFR-aligned curriculum among primary schools in Malaysia. Proceedings of Seminar Wacana Pendidikan (SWAPEN), 212-222. Nunan, D. (1989). Designing Tasks for the Communicative Classroom. Cambridge: University Press. O’Connor, E., & McCartney, K. (2007). Examining Teacher–Child Relationships and Achievement as Part of an Ecological Model of Development. American Educational Research Journal, 44(2), 340–369. https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831207302172 Omar, S., Farhan bin Azim, N. A., Syamimie Mohd Nawi, N., & Zaini, N. (2020). Motivational Strategies among English Language Teachers: An Examination in Higher Education Institutions in the Malaysian Context. Arab World English Journal, 11(3), 170–183. https://doi.org/10.24093/awej/vol11no3.10 Rogers, C. R. (1959). A theory of therapy, personality, and interpersonal relationships, as developed in the client-centred framework. In Koch, S. (Ed.), Psychology: A Study of a Science: Vol. 3 (pp. 184-256). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Selvaratnam, V. (2018). Our glaring English deficiency is too big to ignore. Malaysiakini, August 28 . https://www.malaysiakini.com/news/440643 Shah, P. M. (1999). Perceptions of Malaysian ESL low achievers about English language learning. Doctoral dissertation, University of Connecticut. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global. Shrestha, P. (2017). Skinner’s theory on Operant Conditioning. Psychestudy, November 17. https://www.psychestudy.com/behavioral/learning-memory/operantconditioning/skinner Skinner, B. F. (1938). The behavior of organisms: An experimental analysis. New York: Appleton-Century. Sperling, G. (1960). The information available in brief visual presentations. Psychological Monographs: General and Applied, 74(11), 1–29. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0093759 Verhoeff, T. (1997). The role of competitions in education [Thesis]. Faculty of Mathematics and Computing Science, Eindhoven University of Technology. York, T. T., Gibson, C., & Rankin, S. (2015). Defining and Measuring Academic Success. Practical Assessment, Research & Evaluation, 20(5), 1–20. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/278305241_Defining_and_Measurin g_Academic_Success
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Appendix 1: Pre-Test Section A: Sentence Halves Match the sentences below.
She
are singing.
Maria
hungry.
I’m
doesn’t like cats.
The boys
likes to sing.
My brothers
don’t eat oranges.
Section B: Blanks Filling Fill in the blanks using correct answers. like
is
Eisha and Elisya
1. _____________ goes to school. 2. Haikal and his friends ____________ swimming. 3. Mother _____________ jogging at the park. 4. I ____________ apples. 5. ____________ dance in the room.
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are
Aimin
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Section C: Rearrange Words Arrange the words and write the answers. sing
my sister
to
likes
1. ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ I
don’t
orange juice
like
2. ____________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________
they
swim
on Wednesday
3. ____________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________
Iqwan
an apple
eats
4. ____________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________
buy
Husna and Inara
a storybook
5. ____________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________
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Appendix 2: Post-Test Section A: Sentence Halves Match the sentences below.
My sister like to bake cookies.
The girls
am fishing. Inara
is reading a storybook.
I
likes to play with her cats.
Hariz and Aryan
are skipping.
Section B: Blanks Filling Fill in the blanks using correct answers. don’t
is
They
1. Khalis _______________ drawing. 2. She ___________ on the floor. 3. The boys ____________ like to eat chicken rice. 4. ______________ are baking in the kitchen. 5. _____________ is running from a dog.
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John
sleeps
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Section C: Rearrange Words Arrange the words and write the answers.
sandwiches
he
making
is
1. _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________
pizza
eating
i’m
in
the kitchen
2. _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________
the ball
they
kick
3. _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________
in
the boys
dive
the river
4. _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________
the floor
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Aniq and Khalis
sweep
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5. _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ Appendix 3: Questionnaire No. 1. 2.
3.
4.
5. 6.
7.
8.
9.
10. 11.
12.
13.
ITEMS I can define each sentence part when asked verbally. I can differentiate the sentence parts used in the Match Plate when asked verbally. I can state the examples for each sentence part in the Match Plate when asked verbally. I am excited to complete supplementary worksheet using Match Plate. I enjoy using Match Plate to build sentences individually. I am motivated to use Match Plate in learning sentence building. I can give full concentration when learning sentence building using Match Plate. I am not afraid to ask questions when they are facing difficulties in using Match Plate. I am competing to complete the supplementary worksheet using Match Plate. I am able to match the puzzles with less guidance. I am able to write the sentences with similar sentence structures in Match Plate correctly. I am able to identify the mistakes in sentences when asked verbally. I am able to rearrange words into sentences correctly.
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Strongly disagree
Disagree
Agree
Strongly agree
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14.
15.
I am able to create simple sentences without the help of Match Plate independently. I am getting better in sentence building over time.
Appendix 4: Observation Checklist
ELEMENTS
Pupils are able to differentiate the sentence parts used in the Match Plate when asked verbally. Pupils are able to state the examples for each sentence part in the Match Plate when asked verbally.
Satisfaction in Learning
EXPERT TEACHER
YES
YES
CHECKLIST ITEMS Pupils are able to define each sentence part when asked verbally.
Attainment of Learning Outcome
RESEARCHER
Pupils are excited to complete supplementary worksheet using Match Plate. Pupils enjoy using Match Plate to build sentences individually. Pupils are motivated to learn sentence building using Match Plate. Pupils are fully concentrated when learning sentence building using Match Plate.
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NO
NO
WRITTEN REMARKS
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Persistence in Learning
Pupils are not afraid to ask questions when they are facing difficulties in using Match Plate. Pupils are competing to complete the supplementary worksheet using Match Plate. Pupils are able to match the puzzles with less guidance.
Acquired Learning Skills
Pupils are able to write the sentences with similar sentence structures in Match Plate correctly. Pupils are able to identify the mistakes in sentences when asked verbally. Pupils are able to rearrange words into sentences correctly.
Performance Pupils are able to create / Academic simple sentences Achievement without the help of Match Plate independently. Pupils are getting better in sentence building over time.
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 5, pp. 123-141, May 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.5.7
Teachers’ Classroom Management Styles and Student-Teacher Connectedness and Anxiety Ray T. Obispo, Gilbert C. Magulod Jr. and Darin Jan C. Tindowen University of Saint Louis, Tuguegarao City, Cagayan, Philippines https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2914-6735 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6056-5287 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9165-0698
Abstract. The type of classroom management style employed by educators has a considerable impact on their interactions with students. The goal of this study is to understand more about faculty members' classroom management methods and how they communicate with their students in higher education. A combination of quantitative and qualitative analysis techniques was used in this investigation. Instructors emphasized an authoritative classroom management style, which they claimed was an essential factor for successful teaching, according to the report. Students were found to be satisfied with the types of relationships they had with their teachers. However, when teachers are classified according to their profile variables, there is a noticeable difference in their classroom management types. Furthermore, there is no significant association between instructors' classroom management styles and the types of relationships that students develop. The qualitative results of this study indicate that teachers use a range of classroom management styles. The transcripts revealed that, from the viewpoint of teachers, the classroom management style is a combination of democratic and authoritative types. Keywords: classroom management styles; higher education; instructors; student-teacher relationship
1. Introduction Higher educational institutions in the Philippines have their own role in the progress and development of society and aim to prepare scientific, technical, managerial and administrative cadres in modern societies/for the workplace?, which are the top concern of the educational system. Academia has an important role in the improvement of a country’s workforce. The teacher, as one of the most prominent figures in academia, plays an important role in students' schooling and education. Teachers are vital in helping schools to deliver quality education through the effective and efficient utilization of classroom
©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).
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management and discipline. Promoting the best learning environment possible is the primary focus of the classroom teacher’s responsibility. As a result, teaching is a dynamic occupation that is influenced by a variety of factors, which include learner and teacher characteristics, school and community relations, learning resources. While all of these factors contribute to a positive teaching experience, it is widely acknowledged that the teacher-student interpersonal relationship is critical to the teaching and learning process. Classroom management styles are one of the factors that affect teachers' classroom behavior (Rahimi & Asadollahi, 2012; Rokita-Jaśkow, 2016). The degree of teacher participation with students and the type of control exercised by teachers over their students are referred to as classroom management style (Burden, 2020). Teachers who use a certain classroom management style can have a significant impact on how they react to their students' actions and how they educate them. Classroom management styles are an integral part of a teacher's success in creating a healthy and productive learning atmosphere that encourages students to obtain a high-quality education (Jones et al., 2014). As a result, determining a teacher's classroom management orientation can aid in the selection of acceptable or desired teaching activities in the classroom. It is necessary to examine how teachers execute classroom management styles. From an interpersonal perspective on teaching, a friendly classroom climate unquestionably generates and retains an optimistic, warm classroom atmosphere conducive to learning (Denscombe, 2012; Erasmus, 2019). This is because both teachers and students need to feel at ease in their classrooms in order for teaching and learning to be interesting, enjoyable, and meaningful. The role of teachers in classroom management is critical to creating a proactive learning atmosphere (Banks, 2014; MacSuga-Gage et al., 2012; Wolff et al., 2014). Classroom management involves setting boundaries for mental, emotional, physical, and intellectual environments (Burden, 2020). This makes for more effective teaching and learning. There are numerous ways to assist teachers and students in improving their interpersonal relationships. Different teachers argue for varying degrees of student control. Some teachers prefer a structured learning environment, while others prefer to build a comfortable learning environment in which students feel free to take chances and be innovative (Hornstra et al., 2015; Kangas et al., 2017). One of the fundamental tenets of classroom management is a teacher's classroom management style, which promotes both positive and negative interactions between the teacher and the students (Aloe et al., 2014; Cangelosi, 2013; Gremmen et al., 2016; Meece & Eccles, 2010). Some teachers often engage in unpleasant interactions with students, such as criticizing bad posture, pointing out errors, making derogatory remarks about improper social behavior, and frowning to express disapproval (Jahangiri & Mucciolo, 2012; Lumadi, 2013). Other teachers also believe it is their responsibility to point out where the students have gone astray. Other teachers normally communicate with students in a positive manner, such as complimenting good posture, praising achievements, making flattering statements about acceptable social behavior,
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and smiling to display approval (Fisher et al., 2012). In this manner, it can then be stressed that the kind of classroom management style being utilized by teachers significantly affects teacher and student-interaction and relationships. Classroom management styles are consistently associated with variations in student behavior. In fact, the ratio of positive to negative experiences between teachers and students was eight to one in classrooms where students were on task, attending, following directions, and participating appropriately (Gage et al., 2018). These teachers were making pleasant comments to their students or laughing, touching, and gesturing positively eight times for every time they insulted, frowned, or did something similar. Teachers who have a structured plan for discipline and procedures feel more in charge and informed, according to certain studies on classroom management (Burden, 2020; Greenberg et al., 2014). As a result, when teachers are able to concentrate less on discipline, they may devote more time to creating a curriculum that encourages higher achievement. According to Brody (2003), there are four fundamental approaches to classroom management styles. These include democratic, authoritative, autocratic, and permissive or laissez-faire styles. The democratic management style generates an environment of independence in the classroom, enabling students to communicate their thoughts and desires while leaving the final decision to the teacher. The autocratic model, on the other hand, indicates a coercive and dictatorial approach to classroom management. Instructors who use this approach rely on their own experience, expertise, and understanding while ignoring the learners’ viewpoint. Furthermore, an authoritarian style imposes restrictions and controls on students while also encouraging individuality. Finally, the laissez-faire model signifies full control by the students with no input from the teacher. Higher education institutions, particularly Catholic universities which have stricter policies and regulations than public and other private educational institutions, are excellent places to learn about classroom management and the instructor-student relationship. Most instructors employ a variety of classroom management techniques which influence how students associate, interact, and interact with their teachers. Some students are terrified of their teachers, while others see them as collaborators. Some regard their teachers as second parents, while others disregard their responsibilities as classroom teachers. The researchers are perplexed by this situation because how students interact and communicate with instructors has a significant impact on their learning process, their perception of school as a learning environment, and their perception of instructors who are on the cutting edge of knowledge building. The purpose of this study was to determine whether there was a correlation between college teachers' classroom management styles and the perceived types of studentinstructor relationships.
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Conceptual Framework One major emphasis is on the basic idea that classroom management is an important facet of daily instruction. Learning how to manage and discipline every student affects the teaching and learning process which can be reflected in the instructor-student relationship. To investigate teachers’ classroom management styles in this study, four basic approaches to classroom management were used, namely autocratic, authoritative, democratic and laissez-faire or permissive (Brody et al., 2003). a) Autocratic Classroom Management Style. This means that the instructor is the classroom's sole authority figure; behavior standards are high but frequently not developmentally appropriate; rules are created by the instructor and students are not permitted to question them; and the instructor uses punishment and external rewards to get students to obey. The students follow rules only when the instructor is watching; students learn submission and very little about selfcontrol and assertion. Moreover, students’ relationship with the instructor and with each other is undetermined; students may feel anger, fear, humiliation and a desire for revenge. b) Authoritative Classroom Management Style. The authoritative instructor establishes boundaries and controls the students while also encouraging individuality. This instructor also discusses why laws and decisions are made the way they are. A disruptive student will be reprimanded harshly but respectfully by the teacher. On rare occasions, this instructor will use discipline, but only after careful analysis of the issue. The authoritative instructor welcomes a great deal of verbal exchanges, including critical debates. Students are conscious that they have the right to interrupt the instructor if they have a pertinent question or remark. Students will have the opportunity to develop and practice their communication skills in this area. c) Democratic Classroom Management Style. It is characterized by instructors helping students develop self-control; behavior standards are high and developmentally appropriate; students help create rules and the instructor helps them to practice the rules; the instructor uses logical consequences to help students learn from mistakes. Additionally, students learn to think and act in socially responsible ways; students' relationships with the instructor and with each other are strengthened; and students feel safe in school. d) Permissive or Laissez-Faire Classroom Management Style. This style occurs when the instructor has little control of classroom life; behavior standards are low; the instructor uses praise, rewards, cajoling and empty threats to try to convince students to cooperate and the instructor ignores a lot of undesired behavior. The classroom environment is chaotic, and students constantly push boundaries and show disrespect; students learn self-centeredness and manipulation skills. Furthermore, students’ relationship with the instructor and with each other is undetermined, and students may feel insecure because of the lack of predictability. The relationship between students and teachers is critical in the classroom setting (Myers & Clas, 2012). In a similar vein, the class environment is defined as the collective expectations of students with respect to shared relationships
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within the classroom, lesson organization, and student learning tasks (Goddard et al., 2015). It is worth emphasizing that the classroom atmosphere has a significant influence on how students and teachers get along. Positive studentteacher relationships help to rebuild and establish reciprocal ties that aid in student retention (Riley, 2013). Therefore, the instructor-student relationship is investigated in this study using two (2) parameters: connectedness and anxiety. According to Thijs and Fleischmann (2015), the establishment of a positive student-teacher relationship helps students to explore their surroundings while knowing that they will be reassured and protected if necessary. In most cases, such a relationship is evaluated on two dimensions: connectedness and anxiety.
2. Method Research Design A mix of quantitative and qualitative methodologies was used in the study. Two hypotheses were tested using descriptive-correlational analysis in the study's quantitative component. The qualitative method, on the other hand, was situated in the phenomenological framework of investigating teachers' perspectives on a model classroom management style. Respondents of the Study Respondents in the survey included 45 college professors and 1,816 students from a Catholic higher education institution in the Philippines who were selected using stratified random sampling. Table 1: Distribution of the respondents of the study Department School of Education, Arts, and Sciences (SEAS) School of Accountancy, Business, and Hospitality (SABH) School of Health and Allied Sciences (SHAS) School of Engineering, Architecture and Interior Design, and Information Technology Education (SEAIDITE) Total
Student Sample 525 544 136
Instructor respondents 11 13 7
611
15
1,816
45
Research Instruments and Procedures Instrument for Classroom Management Style Teacher-respondents were asked to answer the Inventory of Classroom Management Style (ICMS) developed by Wright (2005) for the Department of Special Education at Indian University. The tool consists of 12 items and is divided into four dimensions: autocratic classroom management style (3 items), authoritative classroom management style (3 items), democratic classroom management style (3 items), and laissez-faire classroom management style (3 items).
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Instrument for Teacher-Student Relationship Student-respondents were asked to answer the student-instructor relationship scale (SIRS), which was developed by Jarvis and Creasey (2009) and was used to measure student-instructor relationships, specifically instructor connectedness and instructor anxiety. The research instruments were used with the sources' permission. Other terminologies were modified by the researchers to suit the study's current location. Prior to their administration to the respondents, these tools underwent expert validation and reliability testing. Three experts in management and research were invited to review the content of the questionnaires. After that, the revisions were made by the researchers based on the recommendations of the experts. After the expert validation, a reliability test was conducted to ensure that the questionnaires were suitable for the respondents. Five teachers and ten students were considered in the reliability test. The test showed reliability values of .900 for the classroom management styles and .085 for the teacher-student relationship. Hence, the two questionnaires were reliable and suited to the present study. Interview Session In terms of the qualitative component, a semi-structured interview was employed by the researchers to explore the instructor's typification of the ideal classroom management style. The validated and pilot-tested interview protocol included interview questions that addressed the specific research questions about the instructors’ typification of the ideal classroom management style. The interview session lasted between 20-30 minutes and manual transcription produced 45 individual verbatim transcripts. Quantitative Data Analysis Frequency counts and percentages were used to provide the profiles of the teachers and their prevailing classroom management style. The prevailing classroom management style of teachers was based on their highest mean score on the questionnaire. Weighted mean was used to describe the types of relationships established by students toward their instructors using the following range and qualitative descriptions: Range 3.50-4.00 2.50-3.49 1.50-2.49 1.00-1.49
Qualitative Description Instructor Connectedness Instructor Anxiety Very high level of connectedness Very high level of anxiety High level of connectedness High level of anxiety Low level of connectedness Low level of anxiety Very low level of connectedness Very low level of anxiety
The independent sample t-test and one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) were utilized to determine significant differences in the prevailing classroom management style of the teachers when grouped according to their profile variables.
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The chi-square test was performed to determine whether there was a link between teachers' preferred classroom management style and the types of relationships students formed with their teachers. Qualitative Data Analysis The narratives of the teachers were coded and examined to identify the trends and themes that were needed for the study. The multiple themes and trends that emerged from the interview with the instructors were analyzed using thematic analysis. The informants' categorizations and classifications were based on their own understanding, true experience, and stream of consciousness gained from interacting with different classroom management approaches. The number of categories was finalized using the CERES criteria for the determinations of categories by Ballena and Liwag (2019): (a) Conceptual congruence, (b) Exclusivity, (c) Responsiveness, (d) Exhaustiveness, and (e) Sensitivity. Conceptual congruence of themes was observed when all of them belonged to the same conceptual level; in short, parallelism was observed in the phraseology of themes. Second, exclusivity means that one identified theme should mutually exclude the others; thus, overlapping of themes was avoided. Third, responsiveness was maintained when the identified themes were the direct answers to the research problems or objectives of the research. Fourth, exhaustiveness was followed when the identified themes were enough to encompass all the relevant data contained in the transcripts. Fifth and last, sensitivity was observed when the identified themes were reflective of the qualitative data; in short, they had strong and material support from the data. Ethical Considerations Participation of the respondents was entirely voluntary. The information obtained was coded to ensure anonymity. Prior to the interview, participants were invited to participate in the study, which was scheduled at a time that was convenient for them and did not conflict with their academic work.
3. Results and Discussion Table 2: Profile of the instructors Frequency Profile Variables (N=45) Gender Male 20 Female 25 Age 21-30 years old 10 31-40 years old 22 41—50 years old 6 51 and above 7 Civil Status Single 9 Married 31 Widowed 5
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Percentage (N=100.00) 44.44 55.56 22.22 48.89 13.33 15.56 20.00 68.89 11.11
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Number of Years in Teaching At least 4 years 5-10 years 11-15 years 16-20 years More than 21 years Academic Rank Assistant Instructor Instructor Senior Instructor Assistant Professor Associate Professor Number of Subject Preparation 1 subject 2 subjects 3 subjects 4 subjects 5 subjects Highest Educational Attainment BS/ BA Graduate with MA/MS units MA/MS Graduate w/ Doctorate units Doctorate Graduate Class Size Less than 20 21-25 students 26-30 students 31-35 students 36-40 students 41-45 students
15 7 9 7 7
33.33 15.56 20.00 15.56 15.56
4 13 16 10 2
8.89 28.89 35.56 22.22 4.44
5 9 18 9 4
11.11 20.00 40.00 20.00 8.89
3 12 18 6 6
6.67 26.67 40.00 13.33 13.33
2 4 5 14 12 8
4.44 8.89 11.11 31.11 26.67 17.78
The instructors' profiles are shown in Table 2. The table shows that there are more female respondents than male respondents in terms of gender. The majority of the respondents are between the ages of 31 and 40 years old. Many respondents have at least four years of experience teaching at the university level. The finding may imply that many college instructors in the university are relatively young in the teaching profession. Meanwhile, in terms of their academic rank, many instructors are currently senior instructors. The majority of respondents had three subjects in their instruction. It is also worth noting that the majority of university instructors have a master's degree, which means they meet the Commission on Higher Education's (CHEd) minimum requirement that college instructors have at least a master's degree. Finally, in terms of their class size, the majority of the instructors have at least 31-40 students in a class. Table 3: Classroom management styles of instructors Prevailing Classroom Management Style Frequency Autocratic 6 Authoritative 30 Democratic 5 Laissez-faire 4 Total 45
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Percentage 13.33 66.67 11.11 8.89 100.00
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Table 3 shows the instructors' classroom management styles. The classroom management style is a key concept in this research. The instructor's entire classroom management style is referred to as the classroom management style. This includes how the instructor organizes the learners' activities and learning scenarios in terms of planning, advising, monitoring, and managing learners to achieve specific goals and learning outcomes. The instructor-respondents' evaluations revealed that they valued an authoritative classroom management style as an important factor for successful teaching. In the present study, it was revealed that the majority of the instructor-respondents are authoritative in terms of their classroom management style. This means that teachers who use an authoritarian classroom management style impose limitations and controls on students while also encouraging independence. Instructors believed that classroom rules and decisions should be communicated to students prior to the instructors’ enforcing them. They are adamant believers in the value of rules and procedures for successfully managing and instructing a classroom. This also implies that when lecturing, teachers consider the possibility of allowing students to ask pertinent questions. The findings are consistent with previous studies which found that most teachers use an authoritative style of classroom management (Lovorn & Holaway, 2015; Uibu & Kikas, 2014; Wubbels et al., 2014). This is also due to the fact that college education emphasizes task-oriented learning. As a result, the authoritative environment focuses on a well-structured, fun-filled, and task-oriented classroom (Wubbels et al., 2006). Furthermore, previous research has shown that authoritative teachers often use expected and logically organized lecture methods (Barni et al., 2018; Greogory et al., 2012; Torff & Kimmons, 2021). The results could further suggest that, since instructors are authoritative in terms of classroom management, it is fair to conclude that they often use the lecture form. Table 4: Types of relationships established by students toward their instructors Types of Relationship
Mean
Qualitative Description
Instructor Connectedness
3.58
Very High Level of Connectedness
Instructor Anxiety
3.03
High Level of Anxiety
Table 4 presents the types of relationships established by students with their instructors. The students' evaluations of the types of relationships they established with their instructors revealed that they related well to them. It can be deduced that students have a strong bond with their lecturers. For adult learners, developing connections and relationships with teachers is crucial since it will boost their self-confidence and allow them to pursue new life chances (Goddu, 2012; Jackson, 2016; Laurillard, 2013). According to the findings, students believe that their teachers are attentive to their needs; therefore they feel very comfortable in class. Students are able to see how uncompromising their lecturers are as a result of this. They understand that how they are treated in the classroom demonstrates a caring nature on the part of their teachers. In addition, academic motivation, behavior, and school success are all affected by a sense of connectedness or commitment to teachers, as demonstrated by teacher care, as well as teacher evaluation and expectations (Collie et al., 2012; Ford et al., 2019).
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Students also talk to their professors about their issues and concerns. This means that students often share their personal interests with their instructors, and have already developed a sense of openness toward their instructors. These also suggest that instructors have built solid, genuine relationships with their students. According to Zeichner and Liston (2013), in order for a transformation of the classroom to take place, teachers must see students as individuals and eliminate traditional student-teacher roles and boundaries that discourage relationships, focusing instead on a trusting learning environment built on mutual connectedness. Additionally, the anxiety of students toward their instructors was measured in this analysis. The findings show that students are worried about their teachers. Students agree with the assertion that they are afraid of losing their instructors' confidence. This means that since students regard their instructors as purveyors of experience and wisdom, they must always be treated with reverence as learning facilitators. The above result supports the study of Banks and Smyth (2015) who found that the learning climate is rich in circumstances that students may interpret as stressful. As a result, teachers must create an atmosphere in the classroom that is not emotionally threatening to the students. According to Zvolensky et al. (2016), students' anxiety may have a range of behavioral, cognitive, and physiological consequences. Anxiety causes unpleasant emotions, anxiousness, and stress, as well as behavioral repercussions such as avoidance, isolation, and procrastination in completing assignments. Anxiety can also be triggered for external reasons, such as concern about others' impressions of their writing, teachers' unrealistic expectations, and preoccupation with their writing ability. Bailey and Phillips (2015) found that students who were satisfied with their academic life and had low levels of anxiety and depression fared better academically because they were interested in school and contributed to its efficacy on a regular basis. Table 5: Test of difference of the classroom management styles of instructors when grouped according to their profile variables Probability Values Profile Variables Laissez Autocratic Authoritative Democratic Faire Gender .603 .418 .393 .973 Age .229 .109 .109 .065 Civil status
.327
.056
.026 *
.244
Department
.662
.072
.251
.451
Number of years in teaching
.080
.027 *
.066
.113
Academic rank
.123
. 071
.057
.120
Number of subject preparations
.238
.970s
.243
.939
Highest educational attainment
.659
.042 *
.226
.478
.202
.336
.059
. 871
Class size * significant at 0.05 level
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When teachers with an authoritative classroom management style are grouped according to their years of teaching and highest educational attainment, the table reveals a significant difference. Additionally, when teachers are classified according to their civil status, there is a significant difference between those who use a democratic classroom management style and those who do not. Finally, this study found that instructors' classroom management styles are unaffected by their gender, age, department, academic rank, number of subject preparations, class size, or monthly income. Table 5.a: Post-hoc analysis on the significant difference of the democratic classroom management style of instructors when grouped according to civil status Civil Status Mean Single Married Widow Single 4.19 1 Married 2.17 .000* 1 Widow 2.61 .000* 0.890 1 *significant at 0.05 level
Table 5a presents a post-hoc analysis of the significant difference in teachers' democratic classroom management styles according to civil status. According to the table, single instructors are more likely to use a democratic classroom management style than married or widowed instructors. Table 5.b: Post-hoc analysis on the significant difference of the authoritative classroom management style of teachers when grouped according to the number of years in teaching More At Least 5-10 11-15 16-20 Civil Status Mean than 21 4 years Years Years Years Years At least 4 years 2.71 1 5-10 years 3.05 .052 1 11-15 years 4.25 .000* .061 1 16-20 years 4.65 .000* .024* .040* 1 More than 21 years 4.54 .000* .007* .056 .112 1 *significant at 0.05 level
Table 5b summarizes the post-hoc analysis of the significant difference in teachers' authoritative classroom management styles when grouped by years of teaching experience. The findings indicate that there is a significant difference in the authoritative classroom management style of teachers who have taught for at least four years, eleven to fifteen years, sixteen to twenty years, and more than twenty years. The findings imply that instructors with more than five years of classroom experience employ an authoritative style of classroom management, whereas those with at least four years of classroom experience are not that authoritative in the classroom. This supports the study of Gregory et al. (2012) who found that teachers with more years of experience are more likely to prefer full control or authoritative control. As a result, instructors' views about classroom management styles are heavily influenced by their years of teaching experience. Teachers with less experience, on the other hand, were found to be more egalitarian. Similarly, Unal and Unal (2009) pointed out that seasoned
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teachers are thought to have a combination of years of experience and a repertoire of classroom skills and techniques. They usually have the ability to prioritize assignments and pay attention to a limited range of important classroom issues. Table 5.c: Post-hoc analysis on the significant difference of the authoritative classroom management style of teachers when grouped according to highest educational attainment Highest w/ w/ BS/BA MA/MS Doctorate Educational Mean MA/MS Doctorate Graduate Graduate Graduate Attainment units Units BS/ BA 2.75 1 graduate with MA/MS 2.82 .956 1 units MA/MS 4.43 .001* .001* 1 graduate w/ Doctorate 4.58 .000* .000* .060 1 units Doctorate 4.61 .000* .020* .052 .800 1 graduate *significant at 0.05 level
Table 5c presents the post-hoc analysis of the significant difference in the authoritative classroom management style of teachers when grouped according to the highest educational attainment. According to the table, instructors with post-graduate degrees such as master’s and doctorates use an authoritative classroom style, whereas instructors with bachelor's degrees and those enrolled in a master's degree program do not use an authoritative classroom style. This finding corroborates the findings of Schleicher (2016), who found that teachers with advanced educational credentials possessed a structured authority to manage the classroom because they had established a path for collectively expanding the frontiers of their expertise and experience. This means that once knowledge has been developed and confirmed, teachers can now project experience in the field and are aware of what to expect from the students. As a result, the consolidation of their knowledge allows instructors to use an authoritarian classroom management style. Table 6: Significant relationship on instructors’ classroom management styles and the types of relationship established by students Probability Values Classroom Management Style Instructor Connectedness Instructor Anxiety Autocratic .127 .404 Authoritative .252 .094 Democratic .132 .387 Laissez-faire .595 .698 *significant at 0.05 level
The table indicates that there is no correlation between teachers' predominant classroom management styles and the types of relationships they form with their
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students. As a result, their classroom management styles have no effect on their students' ability to associate, engage, and interact with their instructors. Instructors’ View of a Model Classroom Management Style From the perspective of the instructors, their view of what constitutes a model classroom management style is an important research query as this will serve as feedback for them to improve their classroom tactics. Table 7 below presents the clustered themes of responses of the instructors to their views of a model classroom management style. Four major themes were deduced from the responses of the respondents to an ideal classroom management style. Table 7: Instructors’ views of a model classroom management style Views of a Model Classroom Management Style Frequency Percentage 1. A mixture of a democratic and an authoritative types 20 44.44 of classroom management 2. Motivator and learner-centered instructor 12 26.67 3. A strict teacher in the classroom 8 17.78 4.Friendly and approachable instructor 5 11.11 Total 45 100.00
A. A Mixture of Democratic and Authoritative Types of Classroom Management One of the instructors' primary perspectives reveals that their model classroom management style is a hybrid of authoritative and democratic management styles. This means that, despite the teacher's rules and policies, there is still room for independence and freedom in the classroom. Additionally, previous research has revealed that among the various classroom management styles used by teachers, the combination of democratic and authoritative styles is the most frequently used, as these two styles are inextricably linked and will undoubtedly result in more positive outcomes for students (Flemming, 2016; Strawhacker et al., 2017; Zhang et al., 2015). Furthermore, the findings also show that the utilization of two classroom management styles among teachers attests to the capability of teachers to handle student behavior in the classroom. This can also be attributed to the fact that classroom instruction is a challenging task performed in a difficult environment (Al-Madani, 2015; Kaiser & Stender, 2013). With this concept, it can be inferred that the utilization of classroom management styles may depend on the kind of classroom a teacher experiences. Some of their verbalizations are as follows: LI 1: “I employ democratic and authoritative classroom management styles and, to the extent possible, I avoid hurting my students' feelings. I have the utmost respect for my students' feelings, but I still enforce rules to maintain order in the classroom.” LI 4: "A model classroom management is a combination of democratic and authoritative, which will give my students more opportunities to interact with me and discuss academic concerns, but I still need to set rules for them." LI 5: "I use a democratic and authoritative style because it helps the students to become very critical while they are aware of the discipline
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being implemented from the start of the classes. This also helps them understand that learning and discipline go hand in hand. LI 9: "The one who maintains discipline in the classroom. He would not tolerate any disrespect to anyone in the class. Furthermore, other themes that were transcribed from the responses of teachers on ideal classroom management styles were (a) motivator and learner-centered instructor, (b) strict in the classroom; and (c) friendly and approachable teacher. The findings suggest that the views of teachers on the ideal classroom management style focus primarily on the teacher. This means that the success of classroom management depends primarily on the teacher’s characteristics. Furthermore, previous literature also claims that an ideal classroom management style will only be realized depending on the classroom setting and even students’ profiles and behaviors (Davis et al., 2012; Jones et al., 2014; Macías & Sánchez, 2015). B. Motivator and Learner-Centered Instructor Another theme that was revealed in the responses of instructors with reference to the ideal classroom management style is that a teacher should be a motivator and learner-centered. Some of their verbalizations are as follows: LI25: "I believe that an ideal classroom management style relies on the capability of the teacher. Furthermore, this can be realized if the teacher is a motivator in the class in the sense that he always leads his students towards effective learning. Also, he should always motivate his students to strive harder in their studies, especially in the college setting, where the survival of the fittest is important. Meanwhile, a teacher should also be a learner-centered instructor in the sense that he serves only as a facilitator of learning. " LI32: "An ideal classroom management style, especially in the 21st century educational landscape, is the idea that a teacher is a motivator and has a learner-centered orientation. Especially if they are in a Catholic school, students must see their teachers as motivators of learning and success, and with that, other aspects of classroom management will follow. Also, a teacher should have a learner-centered orientation because, today, the center of learning is the student and not the teacher.” C. A Strict Teacher in the Classroom It is also important to note that there are a substantial number of responses from the instructors stressing that the ideal classroom management approach is a teacher who is strict in the classroom. Some of their verbalizations are as follows: L28: "A college classroom should be manned by a strict teacher, especially with the behavioral problems of young people today. The more the teacher is strict, the more discipline and order will be imposed in the classroom.”
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L45: "I consider myself a strict teacher because I always impose rules in the class, because I want my students to build the values of responsibility and discipline. Besides, this is the best way to ensure that classroom management is really implemented in the classroom. " D. Friendly and Approachable Instructor The last theme that emerged from the responses of the faculty relating to an ideal classroom management style is that a teacher should be friendly and approachable. Some of their verbalizations are as follows: LI5: "A classroom should have a teacher who is friendly and approachable. Today, students really want a friendly teacher who really knows the status of his students, not a terrifying teacher which can only lead to fear.” L40: "A teacher should be approachable and friendly in the classroom with limitations and regulations. This is to build a harmonious relationship between the student and the teacher. This also contributes to the students' trust.
4. Conclusion and Implications for Further Research The study concludes that instructors place a high value on an authoritative classroom management style, believing it to be an important factor in successful teaching. Furthermore, they have formed genuine student-instructor relationships with their students, which should foster positive student motivation and higher learning achievement among students. Instructors' classroom management styles are based on formal authority while providing students with knowledge, skills, and practice in the use of eclectic classroom management which will enable them to become better teachers. In furtherance of improving teachers' classroom management styles, the university can continue to provide in-service classroom management training to teachers. Instructors can study and use research-based classroom management methods, as well as testing research-based teaching techniques. Furthermore, college deans must be conscious of how their instructors' classroom management orientations have been shaped by their cultural beliefs in order to better form their instructors' classroom management orientations. Instructors can also participate in regular social conversations with their students. Teachers can demonstrate an interest in and empathy for students by talking with them about their lives outside of the classroom. Instructors should be interested in their students' opinions and ideas. Instructors should actively seek and facilitate opportunities for students to express their thoughts and opinions on academic subjects. Instructors should also use behavior management techniques that clearly express goals and show concern for their students. In addition, instructors can let students know when they have free time before or after school, since this can be a valuable opportunity for students who need to speak with an adult. The impact of using classroom management styles on students' academic lives, such as academic success, study patterns or other related variables may be investigated as a potential extension of this
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research. Furthermore, if the findings of the current research agree with those of other forms of educational establishments, such as government-owned schools and other private schools, a similar study may be performed. Prospective researchers may look into further variables that may be related to teachers' classroom management styles, such as organizational behavior, teacher effectiveness, teacher empowerment, and other teacher and student variables.
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 5, pp. 159-176, May 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.5.9
Pre-service Social Sciences Teachers’ Reflections on a Teacher Preparation Program Munje Paul Nwati University of the Free State, South Africa https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7948-9704 Jita Thuthukile Faculty of Education, University of the Free State, South Africa https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1173-5251 Abstract. The need for quality education in South Africa and beyond encourages research that interrogates the preparation of pre-service teachers and their ability to teach in the classroom after graduation. This qualitative paper focuses on the reflections of final year pre-service Social Sciences teachers in a South African public university. Gibbs’ reflective cycle is used as a lens. We used open-ended questions to gather data from 19 pre-service Social Sciences teachers to explore their preparedness and readiness to teach in future. The research process constituted two phases. Phase one was implemented from 10 February 2020 to 9 March 2020 and phase two occurred in July 2020. Phase two was necessitated by the negative educational implications of COVID-19. Findings indicated that the participants faced challenges pertaining to content knowledge, which was aggravated by the introduction of online learning due to COVID-19. Despite these challenges, participants remained resilient and optimistic toward the teaching profession. Deducing from their voices, we recommend clarification of content in Social Sciences core subjects of History and Geography. Balanced tuition for content knowledge and pedagogy is recommended. Ongoing professional development is needed for academic advisors concerning subject specifications and for lecturers to empower them about remote teaching, communication, and technological skills to improve teaching and learning. Regular monitoring by the teaching and learning unit in the faculty is required to identify challenges and to intervene where necessary. The varied challenges of online learning also warrant the equipping of students with the necessary resources to facilitate learning. Keywords: content knowledge; COVID-19; online learning; pre-service teachers; Social Sciences; South Africa
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).
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1. Introduction The clamor for quality education across the globe puts the spotlight on pre-service teachers’ preparedness, readiness, and ability to teach effectively upon graduation. Teacher education programs around the world aim at ensuring adequate preparation of pre-service teachers since their output is reflected through outcomes in schools where they teach (Hudson, 2011; Mkhasibe, 2018; Tatto & Pippin, 2017). Mkhasibe (2018) noted that many pre-service teachers are unable to perform their duties as expected by the training institutions and the schools where knowledge is imparted to add value and improve learner performance and experiences. This expectation explicates the massive investment in teacher preparation globally in order to graduate quality pre-service teachers (Hudson, 2011). Interestingly, Mayer et al. (2017) supposed that the perceptions of graduate teachers represent the quality and value of the institutions that prepared them. Therefore, adequate preparation of pre-service teachers influences how they view themselves as professional teachers and the way they teach learners. Determining the characteristics of a well-prepared pre-service teacher is a discourse on its own, however. Some scholars have argued that content-knowledge acquisition by pre-service teachers is fundamental and guarantees their preparedness and readiness to teach effectively (Mkhasibe, 2018). Seemingly, those with insufficient content knowledge are generally ill-prepared or demotivated to teach (Kenna & Poole, 2017). This aligns with the notion of Cochran-Smith and Lytle (1999, p. 249) that “… teachers who know more teach better”. Globally, teacher education programs envisage pre-service teachers who are adequately prepared holistically to effectively deliver the curriculum (Petrarca & Bullock, 2014; Tambyah, 2008). The lack of a holistic preparation approach exposes some teacher training institutions to criticisms (Naylor et al., 2015). According to Harte and Reitano (2015), the duration of teacher education programs in some countries makes it challenging for effective incorporation of adequate content knowledge and skills. In some instances, substantial focus is placed on pedagogical skills at the detriment of content knowledge. For example, Harte and Reitano (2015) argued that pre-service Geography teachers need to be grounded in both physical and human geography to teach Geography effectively, the lack of which will create imminent challenges. When teachers do not understand the basic concepts in Geography, there are likely to be negative repercussions on learners (Blankman et al., 2016). However, the way subjects such as Geography are taught to pre-service teachers varies globally based on contextual realities (Tatto & Pippin, 2017). Such variances lead to the different experiences amassed by pre-service teachers globally. The importance of content knowledge to pre-service teachers has been recognized for decades and captured succinctly by Cochran-Smith and Lytle (1999). Tatto and Pippin (2017) contended that the ability of individual teacher education programs around the world to maintain quality in their teacher preparation in various sectors is based on contextual realities, making standardization difficult to achieve. Notably, the conceptualization of what a quality teacher education
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program means is not linear (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 1999), although quality assurance mechanisms are visible in higher education institutions globally. This is exacerbated by the lack of a universal agreement of what constitutes content knowledge in a teacher preparation program (Harte & Reitano, 2015), making this line of argumentation somewhat contested and fragmented. This paper emanates from impromptu discussions about pre-service teachers’ readiness to teach. The varied perceptions that arose, including challenges with content knowledge in the classroom during teaching practice, made it relevant to interrogate their teacher preparation program in-depth. 1.1 Gauging pre-service Social Sciences teachers’ preparedness and readiness Pre-service Social Sciences teachers face challenges in terms of the requisite skills and content knowledge due to the broadness of the field. In the view of Tambyah (2008), the knowledge base of pre-service Social Sciences teachers is problematic in some teacher education programs, with the lack of relevant disciplinary knowledge for many novice Social Sciences teachers a commonality. Apparently, not enough is done in teacher education programs in many countries, including South Africa, the United States, and England, to adequately equip pre-service teachers with the necessary skills, including controversial topics which constitute an important component of teaching and learning in Social Sciences (Chikoko et al., 2011, cited in Nganga et al., 2020). In this regard, Nganga et al. (2020) argued that pre-service teachers struggle to effectively identify, conceptualize, and teach controversial topics in Social Sciences. Nganga et al. (2020, p. 78) further argued that teacher education programs “… do not explicitly develop or recognize the discursive and explorative methods associated with [the] integration of controversial topics”. Notwithstanding, there is evidence that pre-service teachers around the world are generally positive about their preparedness to teach (Khalid et al., 2017; Mayer et al., 2017). Still, there are exceptions in some domains, warranting a need for improvement (Botha & Reddy, 2011; Stahl et al., 2016). Notable is that contextual realities impose a variety of experiences on teacher education institutions and pre-service teachers alike. Final year pre-service teachers are most confident to teach when they possess the required content knowledge (Hudson, 2011; Nganga et al., 2020). Effective teachers are expected to possess a wealth of content knowledge, and to have a good theoretical base and good pedagogical and instructional strategies (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 1999). These characteristics are possible based on individual teacher education programs. Pre-service Geography teachers, for example, are more likely to accumulate enough content knowledge and develop the confidence to teach geographical skills if they are opportune to attend an institution that provides for them the opportunity to complete many disciplinespecific courses in Geography (Harte & Reitano, 2015). Effective pre-service Geography teachers therefore need to possess a good understanding of key concepts such as map reading and physical geography (Harte & Reitano, 2015). Various means, including reflections, can be used to gather information concerning the quality of any teacher preparation program from pre-service
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teachers (Tatto & Pippin, 2017). This approach engages pre-service teachers through reflections to deeply interrogate their knowledge base and expertise, their preparedness and readiness to face the teaching profession (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 1999). For example, in a study conducted by Harte and Reitano (2015), participating pre-service teachers noted that although they had completed Geography courses in school, it was merely composed of knowledge that can give them a foundation to cope with Geography in the teacher education program. Therefore, they needed more content courses in Geography during the teacher preparation program to enable them to teach effectively after graduation. According to these pre-service teachers, the content knowledge acquired in school is almost irrelevant for two reasons: 1) the duration between when they completed the Geography modules in school and university, and 2) the nature and approach to Geography at the university which is now different as taught in school. To keep pre-service Social Sciences teachers abreast with the changing content and pedagogical practices, more content courses need to be completed for History and Geography at the university. This explains why Harte and Reitano (2015) argued that pre-service teachers who have completed nine or more Geography-discipline-related courses were more confident to teach Geography than those who have completed fewer courses. According to Tambyah (2008), it is not uncommon for pre-service and novice Social Sciences teachers to lack disciplinary knowledge. For example, Geography teachers are expected to possess adequate content knowledge in human and physical geography. Nonetheless, courses offered by the selected university to pre-service Social Sciences teachers in Geography are more inclined toward human than physical geography (see Table 1). This validates the need to explore how the gap between expectations of trained pre-service Social Sciences teachers and the courses the university offers impacts on their teacher preparation program. The common rhetorical question likely to resonate is whether pre-service Social Sciences teachers in South Africa are sufficiently equipped with content knowledge for core subjects (History and Geography) upon graduation. The emphasis on pre-service Social Sciences teachers in this study derives from the fact that the social sciences provide an important platform for teachers to change learners’ educational experiences from a broader perspective (Kenna & Poole, 2017). The Department of Basic Education (DBE, 2011, p. 8) argued that: “The subject Social Sciences consist [sic] of History and Geography ... The Social Sciences curriculum aims to provide opportunities for learners to look at their world with fresh, critical eyes and perhaps more importantly, it aims to introduce learners to a world beyond their everyday realities.” The importance attached to Social Sciences explains why engaging pre-service Social Sciences teachers to understand their preparedness and readiness during their training and ability to teach after graduation is relevant. The paper therefore pursues the following question: What factors influence pre-service Social Science teachers’ preparedness, readiness, and ability to teach effectively upon graduation?
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2. Theoretical Framework Gibbs’ experimental learning cycle which hinges on a six-stage reflective cycle underpins this paper. The cycle provides a structure to analyze a situation (see Figure 1). Gibbs’ reflective cycle has been used extensively in the health sciences (Ardian et al., 2019; Li et al., 2020) and other disciplines, including education. For example, Markkanen et al. (2020) used the cycle in Finnish school research aimed at upskilling teachers’ ability to deal with challenging situations, enabling teachers to intensively reflect on their learning. Gibbs’ ideology, developed in 1988, emanated from the experimental cycle of David Kolb (Gibbs, 1988). The cycle allows for teaching and learning experiences and outcomes to be revealed through debriefings using interviews and questionnaires (Gibbs, 1988). In the view of Gibbs, the cycle can potentially contribute to locating the supposed relationship between educational theories and practice. Hence, it is a perfect tool to understand the preparedness and readiness of pre-service teachers. The focus in this study is pre-service Social Sciences teachers. Seemingly, learning opportunities become more relevant if experiences are reflected upon (Gibbs, 1988). Feelings and thoughts are shared during reflection to create room for the amelioration of any existing deficiency. For example, when pre-service teachers reflect about what is learnt in relation to future practical experiences as professional teachers, they may identify alignments and misalignments. According to Gibbs, humans add value to themselves when they think about what they do. Hence, learning is not only articulated best when done by doing but also better when reflected upon to understand its successes and challenges (Gibbs, 1988). Reflections produce accurate results, however, when questions used for that purpose are correctly framed. The power of reflection reinforced our decision to engage pre-service Social Sciences teachers in their final year of study to reflect on their teacher education preparation using open-ended questions. 6. Action Plan: What are you going to do differently?
1. Description: What happened?
2. Feelings: Your reaction and feelings
5. Conclusion: What have you learnt?
4. Analysis: Make sense of the situation
3. Evaluation: What was good and bad?
Figure 1: Reflective cycle. Adapted from Gibbs (1988, pp. 49-50)
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Using Gibbs’ reflective cycle, Ditchburn (2015) demonstrated that when pre-service teachers constantly reflect on their professional experiences, they are likely to understand the complexities of teaching and learning better. Jang (2019) also used Gibbs’ reflective cycle in a pre-service-teacher preparation program with an emphasis on their technological pedagogical content knowledge. Similarly, Ismail and Çavuşoğlu (2017) contended that reflection serves as both an educational and transformational instrument amongst pre-service teachers as the disjuncture between theory and practice is deciphered. Likewise, Mazzola (2019), using Gibbs’ reflective cycle, argued that reflection can potentially bridge the gap between passive and active learning in higher education since it provides an opportunity for pre-service teachers to immerse themselves deeper into what they do. In this paper, we use reflection to understand what a teacher preparation program offers pre-service Social Sciences teachers and how that aligns with their expectations and articulation of their skills in the classroom. The power of reflection portrayed by authors such as Ditchburn (2015), Jang (2019), Ismail and Çavuşoğlu (2017) and Mazzola (2019), further justified its use in this study which focuses on pre-service Social Sciences teachers’ reflections on a four-year teacher preparation program.
3. Methodology This qualitative case study aims to understand the perceptions of pre-service Social Sciences teachers on a four-year teacher preparation program through reflections guided by open-ended questions. The qualitative method was chosen to allow participants to express themselves in their own words, void of restrictions. This explains why certain themes that were not preempted emerged from the reflections. Nineteen fourth year pre-service Social Sciences teachers, who were part of the 2020 cohort in a South African public university, participated. They participated voluntarily (McLain & Kim, 2018) by responding to open-ended questions concerning their preparedness and readiness to teach in future. The research project, which took place in 2020, comprised two phases. The first phase was between 10 February 2020 and 9 March 2020 and the second phase occurred in July 2020. The second phase, which was necessitated by COVID-19, was meant to understand the impact of the pandemic on pre-service teachers’ preparedness and readiness based on its negative educational implications across the globe. Since some challenges were raised during the first phase, it became important to do a follow-up to understand whether COVID-19 had exacerbated already existing challenges, thus with additional negative implications on the participants’ teacher preparation program. Lockdown in South Africa, like in other countries around the world, led to the introduction of online learning, with numerous challenges for individual students based on context and circumstances. Student participants 1–10 were interviewed during phase one and 11–19 during phase two. During the data gathering process, questionnaires were administered on Blackboard for all interested final year Social Sciences students to participate, and 19 of them responded to the open-ended questions that were provided. Since it was not a compulsory exercise, only those students who submitted completed sheets of the open-ended questions were considered to ensure that no one
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participated under duress. The aim was to obtain a detailed understanding of concerns that emerged during an impromptu discussion during a lecture that interrogated their preparedness to teach after graduation in 2021. A thematic method was employed during data analysis. The data were manually coded. This process included reading and rereading responses provided by the pre-service teachers who participated for divergence and convergence. The available data were then shifted to identify valuable information which was arranged into themes. When data from various participants were placed into themes for the first time, a need arose for merging of some themes to avoid duplication and oversimplicity. The mergence gave rise to four main themes. To ensure that information obtained from the participants was valid and credible, they were asked not to include their names and any other identifiers on the response sheets. Anonymity excludes the fear of victimization and the probability for participants to be genuine in their responses (Pietilä et al., 2020). Also, participating students were informed of their rights and the purpose of the research. In terms of rights, participants were informed that the exercise would not be graded and that there would be no penalties for not participating. Permission to conduct the research was provided by the ethics committee of the selected university. 3.1 Contextualizing the study The study emanated from concerns raised by final year students during classroom discussions meant to talk about their experiences accrued during the first lap of their teaching practice. The discussions produced varied challenges encountered by the participants, which included their inability to adequately engage with content knowledge in core subjects, including History and Geography, during teaching practice. Hence, there is a need to engage them formally and earnestly to better understand their challenges and initiate ways to navigate them to ensure the preparation of proficient professional teachers in future.
4. Findings and Discussion The findings of the study indicated that although the participants presented varying views and opinions regarding the teacher preparation program, emanating from existing challenges, the kind of tuition and guidance received, and their level of preparedness, there was unanimity that content knowledge received in core subjects was inadequate. This has not, however, diluted their enthusiasm to become professional teachers. Four major themes emerged from the study: (i) challenges related to Social Sciences content knowledge in core subjects, (ii) academic advising, (iii) pre-service-teacher preparedness and readiness to teach, and (iv) the implications of COVID-19 on pre-service teachers’ readiness and preparedness to teach. 4.1 Challenges related to content knowledge in core subjects Findings suggested that participants received limited content knowledge in core Social Sciences subjects (Geography and History), with implications on their ability to teach. This is corroborated by Kenna and Poole (2017), who explained that teachers who lack content knowledge are generally ill-prepared and, in some
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cases, demotivated to teach. For example, Participants 1, 5, and 10 expected to be taught content knowledge in the core subjects throughout their four years at the university. They argued that although they had received content knowledge in these core subjects whilst in school, this was insufficient and could no longer serve the purpose because, over the years, a lot had changed in depth and breadth of these subjects, a view supported by Harte and Reitano (2015). Hence, the participating pre-service teachers decried the fact that content knowledge in core subjects was neglected as more tuition time was accorded to the learning of teaching methods. However, there was a divided opinion concerning the amount of tuition they received in each of these subjects. For instance, Participants 3, 7, and 8 argued that enough content knowledge was received in History as opposed to Geography. In agreement, P10 said: “I think that I have been adequately prepared as a Social Science teacher … I have been trained in History content as well as teaching techniques ….” There is a correlation between the claims of the participants regarding the nature of tuition received in Social Sciences and what is obtained in the university’s faculty rulebook for 2020. A snapshot of this correlation is available in Table 1. Contrary to the views of other participants, P1, however, claimed that content was never taught: “I did not get enough training as a student-teacher … since my first year, my lecturers never taught me Geography content … we never did map skills, physical geography … We only received enough content on sub-field of Geography ….” Judging from Table 1, the claims of P1 can be interpreted as the participant not having received enough tuition in physical geography leading to a loss of confidence to teach Geography effectively. This is also obtained from the disjuncture between the various specializations offered in Social Sciences at the university (see Table 1) and what the DBE expects from Social Sciences teachers in schools (see page 5). In participants’ views, content-knowledge deficiency hindered them from effectively teaching during teaching practice, considering that Social Sciences teachers are expected to be knowledgeable in History and Geography (DBE, 2011). In support of this finding, Harte and Reitano (2015) argued that Geography teachers in training should be well grounded in both physical and human geography to ensure effective teaching and learning. What emerges from the concerns of P1 is that pre-service teachers who do not have a deeper understanding of content knowledge are likely to be discouraged in the classroom, a view shared by Kenna and Poole (2017). Drawing from a Caribbean experience, Robinson (2017) considered content knowledge as a vital tool every teacher needs in the classroom, the lack of which could potentially lead to low levels of learner performance. The disjuncture between school curriculum and university-course curriculum explains why P1 struggled to teach during teaching practice, a thought shared by P5. Similarly, P8 expounded by saying that, “I did not get enough training in Geography. We have not been taught Geography in depth, but we are expected to teach Geography at school during teaching practical and it is difficult for us to teach.” Hudson (2011) and Nganga et al. (2020) agreed that teachers who do not possess adequate content knowledge are not confident enough to teach. However, they can possess deeper content knowledge that is not necessarily aligned with the school curriculum.
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Table 1: Specializations and year courses at the selected university Specialization & Courses
Year 1
Year 2
Year 3
Year 4
Life Skills, Social Sciences & Afrikaans First Additional Language Specialising in Life Skills & Social Sciences (LSSS) & Sesotho Home Language
N/A
Social Sciences 1: History.
Teaching of Social Sciences 1.
Teaching of Social Sciences 1
Social Sciences 2: Geography Social Sciences 1: History.
Teaching of Social Sciences 1.
Teaching of Social Sciences 2.
Specialising in Life Skills, Social Sciences & Sesotho First Additional Language
N/A
Social Sciences 2: Geography. Social Sciences 1: History.
Teaching of Social Sciences 1.
Teaching of Social Sciences 2.
History and Social Sciences (HSS) Specialisations
Introduction to Geography
Geography Teaching 1.
Geography Teaching 2
Geography Teaching 1.
Geography Teaching 2.
History Teaching 1.
History Teaching 2.
Specialising in Life Orientation and Geography History And Social Sciences (HSS) Specialising in History and Geography
N/A
Social Sciences 2: Geography. Housing and Urban Development. Environment and Climate.
Introduction to Physical Geography.
Housing and Urban Development.
Introduction to the 20th Century History of South Africa.
The Rise of Nationalism in South Africa (HIST2614).
20th Century World History
Environment and Climate Studies.
The Rise of Nationalism in South Africa (HIST2624). Adapted from selected university’s Faculty of Education Rulebook (2020, pp. 124-135, 156-163).
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However, some participant responses somewhat question pre-service teachers’ understanding of what constitutes Social Sciences. For example, P6 confidently said: I have been adequately prepared as a Social Sciences teacher in its entirety … I’m able to accommodate the learners in the classroom … I feel relatively confident going into the teaching practice with the training that I have received this far in the content of the core subject of History …. P6 made a comparison between tuition received in History and Geography, emphasizing a deficiency in Geography content. The excerpt from P6 questions the relationship between what schools expect of Social Sciences teachers and what knowledge institutions provide to prepare these teachers. According to the DBE (2011), Social Sciences comprises History and Geography; hence, all pre-service Social Sciences teachers on teaching practice are expected by schools to teach both subjects effectively. This has placed many Social Sciences teachers in a dilemma. Similarly, P4 observed that content knowledge in core subjects were taught throughout the four years of the teacher preparation program, questioning students’ ability to differentiate between pedagogical and content knowledge. Based on these varied perceptions, it is important to interrogate academic advising, a gatekeeper in terms of student teachers’ specialty, especially in Social Sciences, during the teacher preparation program at the selected university. 4.2 Academic advising Academic advising is meant to guide students on modules related to specific specialties. Findings showed a divided perception concerning the services provided by academic advisors and its impact on participants’ overall preparation. Some participants maintained that academic advising was available and useful, with Participants 2, 4, 6, and 5 being positive toward the services of academic advisors. For example, P2 said: “I got academic advising in my first year; they told me which modules to register for.” Similarly, P4 said: “I always go to academic advising and I find it to be very useful.” P6 added: “I did receive academic advice concerning which subjects I needed to register and do in order to qualify as a Social Science teacher.” Additionally, P5 accessed relevant information beyond academic advising: “In the first year, I got academic advice on which subjects I needed to take. Each year, I refer to the Faculty Rulebook if I am uncertain.” The positive perceptions enumerated toward the services of academic advisors explain why P9 decried that the challenges they encountered were more due to lecturers focusing more on what is convenient for them to teach, many being History specialists who are expected by the university to teach Geography modules. P9 explained: The academic advisor told me about the modules that I had to register every year in order to qualify to be a Social Science teacher … I think that most of the time, lecturers teach what they are best in and that becomes a challenge ... I can say that I understand History more than Geography, which makes me bias towards Geography. Furthermore, other participants argued that academic advising was either inadequate or misleading. P10 cautiously elucidated:
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… I received academic advice that informed me that Geography modules would not be a necessary requirement to qualify as a Social Science teacher. As such, I only completed History modules … I feel somewhat nervous about teaching a Geography lesson given my lack of knowledge or training on the subject … I didn’t take Geography lessons during my time at the university based on the academic advice that I received. My nervousness can’t and shouldn’t reflect the training the university offers. The assertion of P10 does not portray academic advisors as incompetent but aligns more with how Social Sciences specialties are designed at the university, often derailing from what is expected in schools. This aligns with the view of Tatto and Pippin (2017) that contextual realities significantly influence the quality of teachers in individual spaces across the globe. This also attests Tambyah’s (2008) notion that a clear understanding of what constitutes pre-service teachers’ content knowledge in some teacher education programs across the globe is problematic. P10 particularly questioned the delimitation of Social Sciences content knowledge at the university that contradicts what schools expect of pre-service Social Sciences teachers. To deduce from P10’s narrative that the responsible academic advisor lacked certain professional and educational skills in their informing of pre-service teachers (McGill et al., 2020) is thus contested. Additionally, in terms of limited academic advising, P8 painted a different picture of events, though with some caution: I did not get enough academic advice on my first year and just saw myself doing Social Sciences and Life Skills. I also think that the university should allow everyone to choose their specialty, because choosing for us is not working and that is the reason why we find teachers not doing their work … they are doing or teaching subjects they do not like …. Such perceptions are worth taking note of and attending to because the perceptions of graduate teachers epitomize the quality and value of the institutions that prepared them (Mayer et al., 2017). The existent challenges, coupled with divergent views concerning the services of academic advisors and the implications thereof, raise eyebrows concerning the preparedness and readiness of the participating pre-service Social Sciences teachers, especially because many of them were to begin teaching in 2021. 4.3 Pre-service teachers’ preparedness and readiness to teach Despite existing challenges, most of the participants were generally positive and eager to begin their teaching profession in the following year (2021). To begin with, P3 considered their readiness and confidence to teach not optional, irrespective of existing challenges: “We must feel confident; we must learn from the teachers in school how to give classes [lessons] in Geography and History.” These thoughts were reechoed by P1, who applauded teaching practice for assisting them to learn more despite not getting enough preparation at the university regardless of much anticipation: “I thought that [during] my fourth year, that’s where I will be taught more about History and Geography [content] … but I taught myself subject knowledge, not the university ….” Similarly, P3 mentioned: “… I feel we learn much more during practical than the knowledge we learn at the university ….” However,
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P2 supposed that much effort was still needed even at individual level to enable them to become the professional teachers they were expected to be: “I am not as prepared as I need to be. I still need to do more research on the content in Social Sciences and gain more knowledge on the subject matter.” P9 agreed: “There are still some of the things that I cannot understand … that I still want to learn or to be taught.” Nevertheless, optimism was vivid in the words of P5: I believe that by the end of the year [2020], I will be fully equipped to be a Social Science teacher. I believe that my content knowledge of the subject is adequate and that the rest of the year will prepare me well enough to deliver the content effectively from 2021. Also, worth mentioning is the undiluted eagerness of P8, who said: “I cannot wait to finish my degree and go out there to show the world and learners how to teach Social Sciences and how important social sciences are ….” Such elation does not imply, however, that P8 was adequately prepared for the classroom, as can be deduced from the following words: “The content is different from the one we are supposed to teach … at school, we are expected to teach about things like mapwork … we have not been taught about mapwork here ….” Mapwork emerged from the research of Harte and Reitano (2015) as an important prerequisite for effective Geography teachers. Within the Namibian context, Naxweka and Wilmot (2019) argued that when teachers lack the skills to teach mapwork to students, there are likely to be negative implications on their performance. Similarly, P9 commented on the implications of a knowledge gap in the teaching and learning process: “… it becomes difficult to teach learners something that you hardly know … At some point, I am not good with the strategies to use when I teach Geography and I am not good with mathematics.” Similarly, P3 explained: “In Geography, we only learned about the concepts … We have also just learned about history and what history is all about ….” It is worth noting that Geography content knowledge received in school is meant to serve as a foundation to enable pre-service teachers to cope with tuition at university, where it is expected that pre-service teachers will be assisted adequately to acquire a deeper understanding of content knowledge. This is because the nature of and approach to Geography at university have changed over time, especially with the advent of technology. Pre-service teachers need to be knowledgeable in both physical and human geography content to effectively teach in the classroom. This aligns with the view of Blankman et al. (2016, p. 425) that many teachers in training are not conversant with the basic concepts of Geography teaching. In a rather concerning tone, P8 expressed ongoing reservations about the level of preparedness: “I have been concerned about the quality of my training before fourth year because I do not know how to produce things that CAPS want us as Social Sciences teachers to produce.” Comparable sentiments, although somewhat optimistic, were echoed by P4, who said: “I always questioned if I was ever ready, but as time went on, I worked on my self-confidence and -esteem.” Furthermore, when asked about the ability to teach Geography effectively, P1 expounded: “… I don’t have enough subject knowledge. The faculty did not develop me that much.” In agreement, P2 added: “We did not really focus on the content that we
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would have to teach when we start teaching. Not much focus was given to Geography; we mostly focus on History.” To emphasize the neglect of Geography content knowledge, P9 explained: “What we learned about History was sufficient … for Geography, it was not sufficient, because I still struggle on how to teach learners maps because I have not been taught ….” The concerns of these participants are supported by Mkhasibe (2018), who reiterated the importance of accumulating enough content knowledge, which determines teachers’ ability to teach effectively. For participants such as P8, the confidence to teach derives from the fact that teaching practice provided a space to accumulate sufficient content knowledge compared to the university: “I feel confident, not because I have received enough training, but because I have been doing teaching practice for the past years … I interact and communicate with my mentors if there is something I struggle with.” Although the assertion of P8 cannot hold true for all pre-service teachers, it does indicate that the context of teaching practice and the mentors involved contribute in shaping pre-service teachers either positively or negatively. Apart from the challenges, P1 contemplated strategies to overcome existing gaps: The training was not enough … I lack the subject knowledge of Social Sciences. When I teach Social Sciences, I must rely on the knowledge and skills I developed from high school … I must do more research and borrow books from the library to develop my History knowledge. P7, however, was more concerned about pedagogical gaps: “I am nervous about … 2021 because I am not sure whether the learners will understand me when I present the lesson to them.” It should be noted, though, that most of the participants were satisfied with the pedagogical aspect of their training. Despite the positive perceptions participants revealed, numerous challenges obstructed their journey to become professional teachers. Their circumstances were exacerbated by the global implications of COVID-19 on the educational sector. 4.4 Implications of COVID-19 on pre-service-teacher readiness and preparedness to teach The impact of COVID-19 on teacher preparation cannot be denied (Hartshorne et al., 2020). The advent of COVID-19 precipitated an end to face-to-face tuition and the introduction of online learning in South Africa and beyond, with varied implications. It emerged that online learning exacerbated existing challenges faced by the participating pre-service teachers. P13 elucidated as follows: COVID-19 has had a very negative impact on my teacher preparation program. I am a very practical person; learning online is very difficult for me as I do not have all resources needed to pursue meaningful learning and the submission of tasks and attending of online classes …. Online assessment is a challenge for students within and beyond the borders of South Africa (Kabir et al., 2021). This explains why P14 indicated preference for face-to-face teaching: “I would have gained more experience in face-to-face lectures rather than online learning.” To boost this argument, P11 explained the limited assistance experienced from some lecturers during online learning and its implications:
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Many lecturers have not assisted us … Some do not properly communicate about assessments and what is expected of us during this time. This has caused confusion and a great deal of stress. I do believe that we have lost valuable time which could have been used to equip us better …. The impression that online learning exposed the inadequacies of many lecturers, especially regarding their communication and technological skills, was reechoed by P16: COVID-19 has primarily impacted my teacher preparation program by adding a layer of uncertainty with regards to the delivery of content. In some modules, there is limited communication and in others where there is communication, much of it is not clear or concise in its execution. This has established a skeptical perspective on the online teaching and learning experiences in that the competencies of some lecturers are brought into question as it relates to technological proficiency. Naylor et al. (2015) noted that criticisms toward teacher training institutions are not uncommon and are due to varied reasons. The exacerbation of these challenges during a pandemic such as COVID-19 cannot be overemphasized. P15 supposed that intermittent internet connectivity worsened the situation: “… internet connection is not up to standard … it takes me longer than it should to do assignments due to my poor internet connection.” Internet connectivity is a major challenge for online teaching and learning in South Africa and beyond (Omodan & Ige, 2021; Paudel, 2021), with students residing in rural communities being the most affected (Molise & Dube, 2020). Similar thoughts were echoed by P14, who felt demotivated as online teaching worsened existing circumstances: “It has even been very difficult for some of us to learn or acquire knowledge through face-to-face sessions. Some of us are not even motivated anymore because we are losing hope on our studies …” P12 further explicated the disadvantages of online learning and the implications thereof: I am used to going to class … ask questions about something I don’t understand. Now, I must accept everything and make peace with the fact that everything changed. My performance has dropped significantly because of the challenges … At home, we don’t all have … Wi-Fi or a laptop or even money. In the view of Itmeizeh and Farrah (2021), learning is likely to be more effective if online learning is combined with some degree of face-to-face interaction between lecturers and students. Existent challenges were expounded by P17, who expressed uncertainty about their future as professional teachers: “… I could not practice my teaching skills in a school setup … I have not been able to get into a school … I am not sure how or when or if I will be getting my degree this year.” P18 felt that online learning was overwhelming and psychologically torturing: COVID-19 has played a lot of mind games with me since the start of lockdown. I kept on feeling lost regarding my studies. I kept on feeling like I missed something or [am] behind with my work because of the lack of communication from some of my lecturers. In some subjects, I am still in the dark and haven’t received any form of
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assignments or an activity. The closer we move to the end of the year, the more anxious I get about those subjects where I haven’t heard much of. Worthy to note is that P18 and P15 were adamant that not all lecturers left them in the dark. For example, P18 explicated: “Other subjects I feel confident, thanks to regular communication and activities from the lecturers.” In agreement, P15 acknowledged the effort of lecturers who consistently communicated with them, thereby ameliorating the stress of many students. Generally, some research participants were of the view that despite the negative connotations of online learning, it was unprecedented and had some advantages. For example, P13 gave an honest balance sheet of online teaching in the following words: I honestly think that there’s nothing that could have been done differently … the university tried its best to keep everything going … The lecturers and us the students, we tried our best to keep up with the work, but the pandemic was just way above us. There is nothing that could have been done. Interestingly, P15 described online learning as a learning curve: … distance learning has prepared me for the real world … I don’t have a lecturer reminding me every time to go to class … that I have an assignment … now, as an individual, I need to seek for information without someone always reminding me. P13 agreed: “Nevertheless, this pandemic has taught me how to work under pressure … taught me to be self-disciplined through difficulties.” To debunk negative perceptions toward online learning, P16 said: “Despite the online learning experience being somewhat of a mixed bag, I would not suggest that my preparedness for the teaching profession has been severely impacted … There are other variables that require consideration, like the availability of technology ….” The congruence of views participants raised about online learning indicates that despite existing challenges there is hope if appropriate measures are put in place.
5. Conclusion The paper focused on the reflections of final year pre-service Social Sciences teachers to understand their preparation using Gibbs’ reflective cycle as a lens. After thematic analysis, four themes emerged: challenges related to content knowledge in core subjects, academic advising, pre-service-teacher preparedness and readiness to teach, and implications of COVID-19 on pre-service-teacher readiness and preparedness to teach. Based on the findings, we recommend that universities should clarify Social Sciences content, specifically History and Geography, in order to align it with DBE expectations and what is applicable in schools. A balanced tuition for content knowledge and pedagogy in Geography and History is imperative. The teaching and learning unit of the Faculty of Education should put in place mechanisms to regularly check whether students are receiving the expected content knowledge. Currently, some challenges exist due to oversight by relevant authorities who ought to revisit what students are taught on a regular basis to intervene where necessary. Such interventions should include ensuring that responsible lecturers
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have relevant qualifications/skills to provide adequate content knowledge to pre-service teachers. Lecturers also require ongoing professional development on remote teaching to improve their communication and technological skills. The varied challenges of online learning warrant the equipping of students with the necessary resources to facilitate learning. The findings of this research contribute to ongoing discourses on teacher preparation, particularly in South Africa and beyond, and bring to light some challenges pre-service Social Sciences teachers in South Africa encounter due to the nature of training provided. This research is limited because it focused on pre-service Social Sciences teachers in one university in South Africa. Further research in other universities is therefore encouraged for a broader understanding of the experiences of pre-service Social Sciences teachers during their teacher preparation program.
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 5, pp. 177-188, May 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.5.10
“Don’t Delay Learning”: Igniting Promotion of Pedagogical Transformation Strategies in Early Childhood Care Education Shawe Thulebona, Nhase Zukiswa and Dube Bekithemba Faculty of Education, School of Social Sciences and Language Education, University of the Free State, South Africa https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8644-6649 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4557-9880 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4327-7838 Abstract. The global pandemic COVID-19 has forced traditional teaching pedagogies to meet the new educational demands such as remote learning. The safety measures and regulations of COVID-19, such as social distancing, have challenged all facets of education to transform their pedagogical strategies to mitigate the spread of the pandemic, but the rate has been slow to catch up the lost learning time in Early Childhood Care Education (ECCE). This study, underpinned in critical emancipatory research, responded to two questions: what are the challenges of ECCE in the context of COVID-19 and how ECCE could adapt ways of promoting transformative pedagogical strategies. This article underpins the notion that ECCE practitioners should be equipped with novel technology methodologies that replace traditional face-to-face teaching and learning. However, it is reasonable to believe that face-toface teaching and learning will not be totally replaced by any other new methodology or fads; it will remain important for some years to come, especially in the lower level classes. A hybrid approach of using both the in-person and distance learning strategies for flexibility and manageability by both learners and practitioners seems promising at the moment. In short, this paper explores the challenges to explore promotion of pedagogical transformation strategies in ECCE, and offers some correctives because this will be an ongoing issue for years to come. There are no easy solutions to be packaged in fancy terminology. We argue that the early promotion of transformative pedagogical strategies will assist the children and make the practitioners’ work more flexible and understandable. Keywords: early childhood; pedagogical; hybrid approach; correctives; challenges
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1. Introduction The world went into unprecedented trajectories which was ignited by the spread of COVID 19 like bush fires. COVID 19 “was first hinted at in Wuhan city of the Hubei province in the people’s republic of China” (Tanhan et al., 2020). In April 2020, “there were slightly over three million confirmed cases of COVID-19, and 211,321 deaths globally” (Roser et al., 2020). The world pandemic reconfigured many facets of life, including the need to rethink the pedagogical approaches used in teaching and learning (Dube, 2020). The global pandemic saw many systems of life halted as a way to curb the spread of the virus. To control the spread of the virus, South African government was the temporary closure of learning sites. The 26th of March 2020 will be remembered in history as a day in which the South African government closed Early Childhood Care Education (ECCE) centres to protect the learners from the virus. However, the ECCE learning sites’ closure necessitated the need for pedagogy scholars to rethink alternatives to ensure teaching and learning continued despite the pandemic. With COVID-19 restructuring all facets of life, attention was given to the upper grades of school and the importance of ECCE was overlooked (Neuman & Powers, 2021). The focus, especially in the South African context, was to find ways in which Grade 12 and university students could save the academic year, so online learning become the ideal mode of learning despite the new, challenging variables involved. While the move was noble, desirable, and doable, it marginalised the ECCE learners, who were not catered for by the Department of Social Development. The Department of Social Development became silent on discussing learning strategies to address the gap created by closing face-to-face learning and the onward movement to online learning. Thus, this paper will focus on the missing participants of the current online learning arrangement: the ECCE learners. To address the needs of this forgotten category of learners, there is an inevitable need to transform the ECCE’s pedagogical strategies to resonate with the current trend of teaching and learning in replacing the traditional face-to-face approach. Based on the preceding, we argue that, in light of the COVID-19 pandemic, there is a need for transforming the pedagogical strategies in ECCE to align teaching and learning with global trends such as virtual or online learning. This paper comes amidst various studies that have been conducted on ECCE and education, such as Makarova and Makarova’s (2018, p. 56) study on “blending the pedagogy and digital technology to transform the educational environment. They pointed out that digital technologies infuse the lives of 21st-century learners, and help teachers recognise the instructional potential of these technologies while they seek ways to utilise them in support of learning effectively”. They argued that transformation in any field is never easy, especially in education. In their conclusion, they mentioned that “blending digital educational tools with innovative teaching technologies in the teaching and learning process helps trainees improve their skills and gain experience in the following areas: identifying, selecting, and solving a problem” (Makarova & Makarova, 2018, p. 56). De Sousa et al. (2019) in their study on “Participatory pedagogies, where need of various stakeholders to participate in learning experiences. held that the challenge was on how within the right approach and they concluded “that providing the
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space and time for all to share their voice and insights is vital to recognising participation as the best solution against the abstract nature of the mainstream transmissive pedagogy” (p. 299). Formosinho and Pascal’s (2017) paper titled “Pedagogy development” in Assessment and Evaluation for Transformation in Early Childhood cited John Dew and Paulo Freire’s view that as much as there are two pedagogies – transmissive and participatory – the practitioner needs to choose the most relevant that will make a child an active participant while learning. They explained the difference between the two listed examples and chose transmissive pedagogy as the best solution to promoting relevant learning and social cohesion. In contrast, with participatory pedagogy the teacher’s role is to organise the environment and observe the child to understand and respond to it. Therefore, during pedagogical strategies transformation, the practitioners need to integrate the two types of pedagogies and develop strategies that will be more appropriate for children at the ECCE. Manning et al.’s (2017, p. 2) study on ECCE identified that “higher teacher qualifications are related to improvements in supporting children’s development, including supporting the language-reasoning experience; supervision, and the scheduling of activities; organisation and room arrangement; providing varied social experiences for children; and creating a warm and friendly environment for interactions”. They concluded their research by arguing “that the early childhood sector’s professionalisation through more qualified staff may lead to significant gains for children and their families and life-long outcomes that will benefit all of society” (p. 2). Kuusisto and Garvis’ 2020 study on ECCE explained that “due to societal change and the increasingly intensified migration of recent years, most countries are undergoing notable demographic changes. As a result, early childhood education and care (ECEC) has commonalities across the national contexts, with shared values and pedagogy aimed at supporting children in being democratic (p.279)”. They concluded their paper by arguing that there is a growing number of ECEC settings due to social change. As a result, the ECEC is often the first societal arena where super-diversity begins. After a thorough review of these previous research, this paper is unique because it argues for the transformation of pedagogical approaches to align them with the new normal characterised by virtual learning as necessitated by the COVID-19 pandemic. It is also unique because it uses decoloniality theory to argue for localised learning strategies that resonate with African ideologies even in online teaching and learning. This paper is arranged as follows: theoretical framework; the challenges of transforming ECCE in South Africa; how transformation can be achieved at ECCE centres; findings; and conclusion. The following section addresses the theoretical lens of this paper, which is decoloniality.
2. Theoretical Framework This article is underpinned by decoloniality theory. Wanderley and Barros (2018, p. 79) argued that decoloniality theory “has its roots in Latin America under
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leading scholars such as Walter Mignolo, Maldonado-Torres, Quijano, and Dussel”. It “was borne out of a realisation that ours is an asymmetrical world order that is sustained not only by the colonial matrices of power but also by the pedagogies and epistemologies of equilibrium that continue to produce alienated Africans” (Ndlovu-Gatsheni, 2013, p. 11). Furthermore, “decoloniality rejects modernity (especially when it contributes to the symmetry of power), which is located on the oppressed and exploited side of the colonial difference, in favour of a decolonial liberation struggle to achieve a world beyond Eurocentric modernity” (Grosfoguel, 2011, n.p.). The struggle of decoloniality scholars is “against the invisible vampirism of imperialism technologies and colonial matrices of power (coloniality) that continue to exist in the minds, lives, languages, dreams, imaginations, religion and epistemologies of modern subjects in Africa and the entire global South” (Ndlovu-Gatsheni, 2013, p. 11). Decoloniality is about “acknowledging that knowledge is produced from a particular dominant space and that individuals think, know, and act from a particular position” (Muthukrishna & Engelbrecht, 2018, p. 4). With this in mind, decoloniality emancipates us to advocate the importance of ECCE practitioners, who by default or design are marginalised in the learning process despite the significant role in child development. With decoloniality, the paper advocates for transformative pedagogies that address the ECCE learners’ lived realities in the context of a new reality such as COVID-19. By couching this paper in decoloniality, there is an impetus for reconfiguring local pedagogies to enhance teaching and learning as opposed to centring learning on Western ideologies, which may have little significance on the ECCE learners (Seehawer, 2018). With this in mind, decoloniality critiques the superficial worldwide spread of Western knowledge and the dominance of Western culture at the expense of local epistemologies. This theory aims to critique, reformulate, and re-envision power, knowledge, and change, which can reconfigure teaching and learning in a time of crisis – such as COVID-19 – through the adoption of localised pedagogies that resonate with ECCE learners in the South African context. The following section focuses on the challenges of ECCE in South Africa.
3. The Challenges of Transforming Early Childhood Care Education in South Africa This section responds to research question one: what are the challenges faced by the rural ECCE centres during COVID-19? According to Atmore et al. (2012), even prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, the challenges were vast, and they can be classified as socio-economic inequalities, infrastructure, lack of practitioner training, and a lack of parental interest in children’s education. The first challenge discussed is the social-economic inequalities. 3.1 Socio-economic inequalities The worldwide pandemic (COVID-19) was a sad reminder that in South Africa, and perhaps the world over, social inequality is real, and the struggle to address it is still far from being over. COVID-19 widened the rich-poor divide in all facets of life, such as education, especially the rural ECCE learners (Buheji et al., 2021). As such, the rural ECCE centres were worst hit by COVID-19 due to low socio-economic disparities. Children with high cultural capital could mitigate the
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lack of face-to-face teaching and learning by embracing technologies and outsourcing private teachers to assist ECCE learners. Furthermore, urban learners with cultural capital could access social media and television, which helped ensure that teaching and learning were not interrupted. Mahaye (2020) suggested that the South African government believes that digital equipment should be installed in various schools to support technology-based learning by all learners in South Africa. However, the implementation is slow, and when it happens, more urban learners are beneficiaries than rural learners. This implies that rural learners continue to rely on the traditional method of chalk-andboard teaching, which requires that participants must be present in class, a situation that seems far from being possible given the need for social distancing and keeping the number of learners as low as possible to curb the spread of COVID-19. Bearing this in mind, scholars prone to social justice and decoloniality problematise structures that continue to marginalise learners based on their geographical setting and financial strength. While addressing COVID-19, all learners need to be catered for based on both the principle of equality and equity as a counter-hegemonic strategy against a system that undermines and relegates rural students to the periphery of development. To this end, new avenues of learning are indispensable (Mirriahi et al., 2015; Wikramanayake, 2005) to inject hope for social and economically excluded learners despite their geographic location. Informed by the preceding, we submit that the government has an opportunity to address the rich-poor divide in the learning context, which has characterised South Africa over the years (Jedwab et al., 2020). The rural ECCE centres continue to suffer due to socio-economic inequalities, and COVID-19 is a reminder that rural learners face various trajectories which present a double tragedy for them. 3.2 Lack of infrastructure The other challenge faced by rural ECCE learners is the lack of infrastructure to support the teaching and learning amid the COVID-19 pandemic (Anand et al., 2018). Infrastructure includes many things such as building, network, roads and electricity among many other things. In this paper, infrastructure refers to communication networks such as television and internet connectivity to support online learning. As of March 2020, there was a fallacy that all schools were ready to move to online learning automatically, and there was an intentional denial that rural schools were not ready due to lack of infrastructure. Rural schools are in the peripheral experiencing various challenges which among them is access to technology to support teaching and learning in the time of crisis such as COVID 19. This is cemented by Dieltiens (2008, p. 40), who argued that “rural schools certainly have problems particular to them; predicaments which require systemic effort and creative ideas most.” The economically disadvantaged South African child cannot access these provisions adequately. Lack of electricity impacts connectivity and access to online learning resources, impeding the novel idea of moving teaching and learning from traditional face-to-face to online learning. This negates, of course, the effective integration of technology among rural learners (Dzansi & Amedzo, 2014). In addition, Xafis (2020) argued that the disadvantaged rural ECCE learners are further affected by the misdistribution of power, money, and resources, which in decoloniality must be teased, exposed, and challenged to
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produce a world order where both urban and rural leaners are not pushed to the periphery of development by merely being born to rich or low-income families. Thus, this paper calls for a transformation in the social development sector to ensure that rural learners are put into the centre of learning by the equitable distribution of teaching materials and adequate connectivity, which can help support remote learning for all learners. 3.3 Lack of teacher re-training ECCE learners are disadvantaged because of the lack of re-training for educators who are still adjusting to the new normal. The training teachers receive in their initial teacher education does not remain relevant forever, igniting the need for re-training educators to meet the new demands, especially those brought about by the pandemic. The pandemic exposed the need to rethink education by retraining teachers to meet the needs and demands of online teaching and learning (Whalen, 2020). On this note, we agree with the World Bank (2020, p. 10) that “very few classroom teachers have received training in online instructional approaches and tools. If teachers need to support the online learning of their students while schools are closed, they would need to be prepared to do so before the schools are closed”. However, in South Africa, there was an incorrect assumption that all educators were ready and equipped with online teaching and learning materials; however, some were clueless on its usage, thus depriving learners of teaching and learning time, especially those in the rural context. Such scenarios dehumanise learners who are saddled with ill-equipped teachers who cannot prepare for the teaching and learning process under the COVID-19 pandemic. This situation is not peculiar to South Africa alone but the world over. König et al. (2020) commented on the German context by arguing that there is a general lack of teacher competence such as in their technological pedagogical knowledge and teacher education learning opportunities about digital teaching and learning. In light of this challenge, ECCE practitioners are inevitably trained to ensure success for teaching and learning in the COVID-19 context (DarlingHammond & Oakes, 2021). Regarding ECCE, we agree with Hemmeter et al. (2021, p. 206) that the effectiveness of ECCE will likely “require a broad range of professional development activities and support for staff interactions with children”. 3.4 Insufficient parental involvement in children’s education Another challenge faced by rural ECCE learners is insufficient parental involvement in educational matters due to various reasons. Mishra and Vij (2020) lamented the insufficient parental involvement in supporting teaching and learning, and COVID-19 has worsened the situation. Most rural parents lack the skills, resources, and understanding to support online learning at ECCE centres. South Africa faces the same challenge of lack of infrastructure, especially in the rural context, coupled with poor connectivity and a limited number of devices in a family. Thus, any success of ECCE teaching and learning has one of its variables as parental involvement. This is because parental involvement positively impacts children’s holistic development and, therefore, quality ECEC education (Oke et al., 2020). Therefore, parents, guardians, or siblings need to assist these young children with their schoolwork to ensure they are well developed and understand that education is important. While this may be a noble call, it is based on the
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fallacy that parents have to know how to assist in the teaching and learning of ECCE learners. Parents should have a degree of training and enlightenment to assist learners effectively. Thus, it is essential that while the call is there to train the educators on their role in the teaching and learning in ECCE, the department of education should develop a programme where parents can learn the basics of teaching and learning to assist learners. This approach has the potential to transform ECCE in South Africa through professionalising parental involvement. Considering the challenges, pedagogical adjustment is inevitable to redress the trajectories faced by rural ECCE learners in the COVID-19 context. The following section addresses what we think can help transform teaching and learning among the ECCE learners in rural areas from a decoloniality mindset.
4. Igniting Transformation of ECCE : No to Delayed Learning In this section, we discuss how ECCE can be transformed towards addressing rural learners’ lived realities and facing various vulnerabilities that the COVID-19 pandemic has exacerbated. As a result of this, ECCE scholars should continue to probe and suggest ways to improve teaching and learning while staying sensitive to values such as social justice and inclusivity. In this paper, we based arguments for transformation on decoloniality. This theory argues the need to include all people as a counter-strategy against ontological density where people are categorised on race, geographic location, and other forms of exclusion. The first point we discuss in this section is new pedagogical strategies. 4.1 New Pedagogical Teaching Strategies Transformation is essential to the response of trajectories of ECCE teaching and learning in the COVID-19 context. Such transformation is centred on innovative teaching strategies that resonate with the lived realities of rural learners in South Africa. Pedagogical strategies cannot remain constant, and COVID-19 has become a wake-up call for scholars who need to continue with research that can ignite new teaching and learning strategies. In so doing, we agree with Du Plessis and Mestry’s (2019, p. 5) observation that “there is a need to put strategies in place to improve the working conditions of teachers and the teaching at rural schools, to improve learner achievement across the rural areas of South Africa”. The success of pedagogical transformation has many variables. One variable is that educators need to be lifelong learners and upgrade themselves with new technological innovations in teaching and learning. Life learning should be central to the teaching profession, which translates to confidence, recognition, and emancipation for the educators and the learners. South Africa requires teachers with the highest qualification in ECCE instead of a diploma in teacher education or certificate, which has characterised many ECCE educators. For ECCE to participate in modernity and gain recognition in decoloniality thinking, lifelong learning is inevitable to equip educators with new or emerging trends in teacher education, especially ECCE. Another variable is the willingness to unlearn in order to learn. In some cases, educators are resistant to changes, especially when perceived as bringing additional workloads, yet such innovation is intended to make the work easier. With this in mind, we agree with Schwartz (2006, p. 450) that “curriculum
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planners, with all good intentions, have compiled volumes of well-conceived educational action plans, choosing specific materials and activities for their preconceived target: curriculum receivers and students, only to find that the curriculum users and teachers are not prepared for the innovations.” While this may have a certain degree of validity, we also note Stabback’s (2011, p. 2) “observation that curriculum developers need to take into account where a country is, in terms of the current breadth and depth of the curriculum; attainment levels; the quality of teachers; and the range and effectiveness of teaching, learning and assessment practices.” Thus, looking at rural ECCE teachers, the government must avail the resources that equate “rural teachers with their counterparts in urban centres. In so doing, teachers need to be empowered in unthreatening ways, as teacher knowledge is the biggest factor in the implementation of the curriculum” (Quyen & Khairani, 2017, p. 166). While this is very important, rural educators have a responsibility by engaging in a struggle which emancipates them. This struggle can involve many facets, including consistently challenging the department of education to relook into the plights of rural learners. Apart from challenging the department, educators need to be lifelong learners to hear their voices, which is essential for transformation. Also, they need to adopt best practices that have contributed to the development of teaching and learning in the rural areas of some countries in Africa and beyond. In decoloniality thinking, rural ECCE teachers need to participate effectively in their own emancipation, especially adopting new pedagogical strategies such as online teaching and learning, which have become the new normal due to the COVID-19 pandemic. 4.2 Improvement of Infrastructure for Rural ECCE Centres As a developing country, South Africa can enact structures for rural learners to cater to social distancing. This is because South Africa can build schools for urban areas and have the resources to assist rural learners. Through decoloniality, we need to continue to encourage educational authorities to uphold the ontology of rural learners by providing basic infrastructure to enhance teaching and learning. Decoloniality is against the notion of exclusion of rural learners; thus, scholars prone to social justice need to continue to problematise the skewed distribution of resources favouring urban cities. Informed with decoloniality, this paper agrees with Oloruntegbe and Collins’ (2011, p.443) view that “successful reforms are initiated from the grassroots (bottom-up), particularly by teachers and learners who have first-hand experience of the realities of online learning” in the COVID19 context. Infrastructure not only entails building for teaching and learning, but technological support which includes the learning devices and connectivity that support teaching and learning in the COVID-19 era. The transitioning from faceto-face to online learning is inevitable and resonates with the lack of infrastructure, such as connectivity, that not “only places a damper on academic matters but also on strategies implemented in various contexts to fight COVID19” (Dube, 2020, p 140). Thus, any meaningful transformation needs support from the department, which has shown the potential to provide resources, especially in advantaged communities. Thus, in line with the principle of equality and equity, there is a need to prioritise rural learners and ECCE with appropriate infrastructure. The success of this lies in the collective problematisation of rural
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exclusion with an intention to construct conducive learning. It should not only be rural people waging war against exclusion, but anyone who believes in social justice as an ideal principle to ignite a better society for all. Through this, teaching and learning for ECCE are not delayed, and in the process, transformation for the betterment of all. 4.3 Collaboration with Social Justice-oriented Stakeholders There was never a more critical time in human history when collaboration is essential, and a means to ensure the survival of humankind. Following the scourge of the pandemic, countries have shared technology and knowledge of surviving the pandemic, which has caused immense suffering to humankind. This collaboration is inevitable within education to construct meaningful learning conditions and improve rural ECCE learners and educators’ conditions. As suggested by Komives et al. (1998, p. 74), “collaboration is purposeful, builds commitment towards positive change, includes people with diverse points of view, and empowers those involved in making decisions that affect their lives and professions.” Transformation centres around collaboration and ECCE educators can tap into the various players oriented to social justice to construct meaningful learning for rural learners. Decoloniality reinforces the need for collaboration, but this should be sensitive to social justice inclusion and the rehumanisation of all people. It is against any form of collaboration that subdues the vulnerable members of society. Instead, decoloniality strives for equal presentation for all actors to ignite learning that embraces diversity and appreciates differences. In other words, transformation is essential and ensures that there is no delay in learning for rural ECCE teaching and learning.
5. Conclusion This article discussed the challenges of transforming ECCE in the South African context. The discussion from various literature revealed the different aspects that still need to be considered by ECCE and the government at large. If in South Africa, we are for a solid, quality educational foundation that is equal for all children across cultures and environment, the government needs to take urgent steps to enhance teaching and learning in ECCE centres. This paper is centred on decoloniality and argued that rural learners’ challenges should be addressed as an act of rehumanisation and transformation. It ended by noting how the teaching and learning of ECCE can be transformed to achieve excellence in rural learning. Informed by decoloniality, the paper argued that learning must not be delayed further and that collaboration devoid of the suppression of others is an essential step to configure conducive learning conditions for rural ECCE in the COVID-19 context. Finally, in this study, challenges and correctives have been explored, emphasising teamwork among all the stakeholders, including the social justice advocates and government who needs to tackle infrastructure inequalities, especially in the rural centres and impoverished areas. Also, equipping educators with new technologies and methodologies through interactive refresher courses, seminars should be actively pursued. Continued eager development is essential as the paper demonstrates. Socio-economic distractions must be addressed for a quality educational system that honours, respects, and enriches the culture, history, and human dignity for all learners.
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Acknowledgements: This study was made possible through the funding from DHET and EU on Early Childhood Care Education given to the University of the Free State.
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 5, pp. 142-158, May 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.5.8
Online Learning in the Quran Reading Class during Covid-19 Pandemic M. Wildan Bin H. M. Yahya Universitas Islam Bandung, Indonesia https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7544-1404 Taqia Rahman Universitas Gadjah Mada, Indonesia https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6850-2865 Asep Ahmad Siddiq and Parihat Universitas Islam Bandung, Indonesia https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0617-1305 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7559-8463
Abstract. The COVID-19 pandemic has forced higher-education institutions to switch to emergency online learning. This situation has also challenged the Muslim communities and institutions across the world to shift to the online mode of teaching Quran and Islamic studies. This research explored undergraduate students’ and instructors’ perceptions of the emergency online learning of Quran reading in Indonesia. Several aspects were analysed to compare the students’ perspective towards face-to-face class versus online learning, including class interaction, learning experience, motivation, satisfaction and comfort level. The study also compared students’ Quran reading performance in the online-learning setting with the records from a traditional face-to-face class during the previous year. The survey and performance data were obtained from 923 students. The findings indicated no significant difference in students’ performance between Quran reading classes in face-to-face and online classroom settings. Furthermore, although students and instructors felt that some aspects had changed, they generally tended to accept the Quran class in online mode. This is likely because, amidst the pandemic, students and instructors have no other options except to adapt to the rapid change and embrace the transition. Nevertheless, the study indicated signs of fatigue and reduction in the students’ acceptance of the Quran online learning over time. Keywords: Quran reading; e-learning; Muslim student; reading skill; Quran recitation
©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).
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1. Introduction The spread of the new COVID-19 corona virus has led to serious changes in social interaction and organisation around the world, including the profound interruption of the education sector (Murphy, 2020). As the United Nation’s Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) reports, the pandemic has affected the education of more than a billion students in 137 countries worldwide (UNESCO, 2020). The pandemic has resulted in the closure of higher-education institutions and schools all over the world, consistent with government guidelines for implementing social distancing that might help to contain the infection and reduce overall fatalities from the virus (Rashid & Yadav, 2020). As a result, educators and learners have had to quickly adapt to remote learning online (Carrillo & Flores, 2020). This situation also challenged the Muslim communities and institutions across the world to shift to the online mode of teaching Quran and Islamic studies. In many places, such as Africa, Southeast Asia, Malaysia and Pakistan, the Quran learning and reading class traditionally takes place in classes or masjid (mosque) through a face-to-face approach, and assessments use pencil and paper (Raja Yusof et al., 2011).Teaching Quran recitation and its rule (tajweed) is quite different from other subjects; evaluating oral performance is the means of measuring students’ skills and learning outcomes (reading, flow, elocution, pronunciation, tempo and segment prolongation).During the session, students typically sit in front of a bench on the floor and the instructor sits at the front of the classroom. The instructor then asks the students to open up the textbook or the Quran and locate a certain page, or surah, to recite together. For practice, the instructor would call on each student individually, listen to his Quran recitation and correct the student’s reading with the right pronunciation and tajweed (Noh et al., 2013). No doubt, the face-to-face approach is the best teaching method. However, under the current circumstances, Muslim communities had to shift to the online mode of teaching Quran to reduce face-to-face contact and contain the spread of COVID-19. The rapid, abrupt and forced shift from face-to-face to distance/online learning has introduced not only many questions and constraints on the quality and effectiveness of education, but also opportunities to investigate. The current study investigated students’ performance in Quran-reading skills during emergency online learning in an undergraduate program as a case study in Indonesia. The study also examined students’ and instructors’ perceptions of the adoption, use and acceptance of Quran online learning during the pandemic. Furthermore, the study explored the key issues of Quran online learning, compared with face-to-face classroom learning. The following sections review the literature addressing the rise of online learning during the COVID-19 pandemic and the resulting learning of Quran reading. The authors then describe the research methods and presents findings and discussion, before drawing conclusions. In particular, this research was performed to:
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1- Measure the performance of students in Quran online learning to examine whether the online learning can potentially substitute the face-to-face learning environment; 2- Investigate the student’s level of acceptance of Quran online learning; and 3- Determine the benefit and disadvantages of Quran online learning as compared to face-to-face classroom learning. The expected result of this study improved understanding regarding the acceptance and effectiveness of online distance learning, especially in a Quranreading class. This research is a valuable contribution to enabling educators and Muslim communities to improve the effectiveness of Quran-reading classes in a situation that forces them to continue learning online.
2. Literature Review 2.1. Growth of Digital Technology for Virtual Learning and Online Education The online learning setting for higher-education institutions is an emergency strategy for following the COVID-19 physical-distancing protocol (O’Brien et al., 2020). A broad variety of terms identifies online learning systems, such as: elearning’, remote teaching, distance learning, and emergency education (Murphy, 2020). Online learning delivers educational programmes to students whom distance has isolated from teachers, using the Internet, computer devices, connectivity, and communication technologies. Online learning can be described as educational experiences using various devices (e.g. computers, tablet, smartphones, laptop) with Internet connectivity in synchronous or asynchronous settings (Dhawan, 2020). The organisation of synchronous learning enables students to attend a live class where educators and learners have real-time interactions and direct feedback. However, in asynchronous learning settings, the teaching and learning process does not occur at the same time. 2.2. Previous Studies on Comparison of Face-to-Face and Online Learning Several empirical studies analyse the quality and effectiveness of online learning in comparison to traditional face-to-face learning, from various aspects. Onlinelearning proponents argue that online learning offers several advantages, including eliminating the barrier of distance, as it enables reaching any location that offers a device and Internet access (Ni, 2013); providing learning environments with increased convenience and flexibility (Capra, 2011); offering time cost-effectiveness (Luaran et al., 2014) and enhancing the learning experience with interactive media. However, opponents are aware that online learners might feel isolated and disconnected (McInnerney & Roberts, 2004) and anxious (Bao, 2020; Sundarasen et al., 2020), thus, possibly reducing students’ engagement and participation. Furthermore, for the instructors, preparing and developing content for online learning may be more time-consuming (Capra, 2011) and less comfortable for the instructor (Fein & Logan, 2003), who may feel a lack of control and the absence of real interaction (Coppola et al., 2001). Many researchers have performed several studies regarding students’ performance in the two different learning modes. For example, Dondorf et al.
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(2016) compared the face-to-face classroom learning setting with an online learning setting in a mathematics course in an undergraduate programme and found that the students in the classroom performed much better than the students in the online learning setting. The result could relate to reduced student motivation in online learning. Patricia (2020), who investigated 270 college students’ perception and acceptance of online learning, identified a similar finding in emergency online learning during the pandemic, namely, a reduction in the students’ cognitive skills (i.e. knowledge, focus, engagement, involvement and interest). On the contrary, Ni (2013) provided evidence that students’ performance in a public administration class, as measured by grades, was independent of the learning mode. Furthermore, Gonzalez (2020) analysed students’ performance during the pandemic and concluded that students performed significantly better in the online-learning format, compared to student performance reflected in records of the face-to-face class from the previous year. 2.3. Quran Recitation Learning As of 2015, there were an estimated 1.8 billion Muslims around the world (Pew Research Center, 2019). Approximately 80% of Muslims are non-Arab, comprising around 1 billion people worldwide today. From the perspective of their religious faith, this large number of people has a common need; they all need to learn the Arabic language to enable them read the Quran. The Muslim views the Quran as Allah's (God’s) words, preserved verbatim. Therefore, only Arabic Quran is perceived as the Quran, and Quran in any other language is not considered the Quran but rather the Translated Quran (Abdullah et al., 2016). All Muslims must use the Arabic Quranic words and verses in their formal prayers (i.e. salat), regardless of whether they are native or non-native Arab speakers (Shihab, 2007). Reading the Quran is one of the strongly recommended practices for Muslims, and it should be performed cautiously so that pronunciation is not mistaken. This mandate has created an unusual social phenomenon, namely, training many non-native Arab Muslims in the complicated phonological rules of the Arabic language, in the context of pronouncing and reciting the Quran correctly (Zarif et al., 2014). The Quran reader must follow a law of pronunciation, intonation, prolongation, stress and stretch, and tempo, to properly perform the recitation, referred to as the tajweed rule (Czerepinski & Swayd, 2006). For this reason, reading the Quran is one of the challenging tasks for most non-Arab-speaking Muslims, including those in Indonesia. In many places, instructors of the Quran, often known as Ustaz, have traditionally taught the Quran-reading class in the face-to-face classroom (Raja Yusof et al., 2011). However, in the last 10 years, several countries have developed the Quran online class for Muslims who may not have convenient access to a masjid (mosque) or madrasah (Islamic school). The Quran online class mostly takes place in the synchronous learning environment, where the students attend live lectures or online private classes using video conferencing software and a program that displays pages of the Quran. The student reads the verse and the tutor corrects him if he makes a mistake. Occasionally, the class also
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takes place in asynchronous learning environments, where the student learns individually from speech-recognition software for the Quran, capable of automatically checking the tajweed and identifying errors in Quran recitation. Despite this increasing trend, Quran online learning has not been massively adopted by many Muslims around the world, and to date, literature regarding the students’ acceptance and its effect on Quran-reading performance has been limited.
3. Methodology 3.1. Research Site, Participant and Research Design This study aims to investigate students’ performance in an online Quran class and their acceptance during the COVID-19 pandemic of the emergency online learning in undergraduate programs at the Universitas Islam Bandung (UNISBA), Bandung, Indonesia. The students’ performance (grades) in six online remote classes held between May 20 and August 21, 2020 (second semester of the 2019/2020 academic year) were compared to students’ performance records from eight face-to-face classes run in 2019.The teaching process during online class, including number of course meeting, course content and tools, and assessment indicators, was designed as closely as possible to faceto-face Quran class performed in previous years to provide comparable conditions. The assessment indicators to gauge the students’ performance are later discussed in the next section. All procedures were granted the university’s ethical-practice approval. The Quran reading class is one of the required courses at the university, designed for all students in any undergraduate study programme and offered to the students three times every semester. Students who earn a minimum grade of 60 points get a certificate, required for graduation. Otherwise, a remedial class is offered to the student who does not meet the course criteria. The course has been implemented for more than 30 years, regularly conducted in classes through a face-to-face approach and assessed through class-interaction. However, following the rise of COVID-19 cases and starting on March 14, 2020, the university shifted to emergency remote education using online settings. Besides the student performance records, this study also used student survey responses from six Quran online classes to assess the students’ perception of the online learning system. Online questionnaires were distributed to the students prior to the course and at the end of the lecture series. Students’ participation was anonymous and voluntary, and those who agreed were required to complete the consent form before filling out the questionnaires. A total of 937 students were asked, but only 923 students (557 female and 366 male) completed the form. In the pre-course questionnaires, students were required to provide their gender, year of study, age, study program, experiences in reading Quran, and duration of study they expected to enable them to read Quran fluently. In the post-course questionnaires, students were asked about their perception of Quran online learning. The questionnaire for students included demographic items, questions to assess students’ attitude towards face-to-face Quran class versus Quran online learning, learning experience, learning comfort, motivation to participate in the class, cognitive engagement, and class interaction. The
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questionnaire was adopted from the work by Ni (2013), (Dondorf et al., 2016) and (Luaran et al., 2014) about the issues related to students during online education. The questions are presented later in Figure 2 and Figure 3 in results and discussions section. The respondents’ average age was 19.9 (SD =1.84) and the reported course disciplines were: 26.82% Economics and Business, 17.7% Religion and Education, 12.9% Engineering, 14.4% Basic Science, 8.2% Law and 4.4% other. Furthermore, to investigate the instructors’ perceptions, they also received the questionnaire. The questionnaire for instructors included demographic items, questions to assess instructors’ attitude towards the changing role during online learning, instructor preparation program (demand on their time), and interaction barriers. The questionnaire was adopted from the paper presented by Kebritchi et al. (2017) concerning the issues related to instructors during online education. The questions are presented later in Figure 5 in results and discussions section. Instructors who agreed to participate each received an online questionnaire package to complete and return to the researchers. A total of 11 instructors responded. 3.2. Tools and Mode of Teaching The Bilhikmah Quranic approach that the author developed in the early 1990s was used as the learning approach to Quran reading. It is a phonetic method consisting of four books, starting with training in single Arabic letters with all vowel symbols (harakaat) in Book 1 and the introduction of the connected form of the Arabic letters in Book 2. Further, in Book 3, the symbols and letters are combined with the progressive improvement of tajweed rule. In addition, Book 4 provides comprehensive rules of tajweed for advanced students/users. For each book, the instructor of Bilhikmah begins with the overview of the basic rules and how to speak the written word or letter, then asks the students to read individually one set of phrases or more. The set of phrases that are presented in Bilhikmah books are all derived from the Quran. The students must be competent in each lesson before progressing to the next book. UNISBA has used the Bilhikmah approach continuously to teach undergraduate students to read the Quran. In order to create equivalent learning experiences between the two teaching modes (face-to-face and online), the material content and the arrangement were structured to be as similar as possible. Table 1 displays the comparison of the content delivery across the two teaching modes. The online teaching session included 14 teaching meetings, each lasting 60 minutes, precisely the same duration as the pre-lockdown face-to-face classroom meeting. Furthermore, all course materials were delivered using Zoom teleconference software. The students received physical and digital versions of the textbook and could choose and use the version they found more convenient. During the learning process, PowerPoint presentations replaced the blackboard. The instructor would display the Arabic alphabet or Quran verses (depending on the class) to recite together. The instructor would initially demonstrate the correct pronunciation of the Arabic letters or the Quran verses, and the students would subsequently repeat and replicate the recitation. During practice, the individual student would have a private lesson with the instructor for about five-to-ten minutes. Like the face-
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to-face classroom, the instructor would call the students one-by-one to evaluate their recitation. The remaining students were asked to mute their microphones and practice on their own while awaiting their turn. Students with questions or comments could type the question in the comments box or speak directly by turning on their microphones. Table 1. Comparison of Content Delivery Mode of Teaching Textbook and readings for tajweed theory Discussions Lectures Reading Assessment
Classroom (control group) Bilhikmah Classroom interactive Instructor and board Classroom interactive
Online-learning Bilhikmah digital Video conference PowerPoint Video conference
3.3. Students’ Performance Assessment Indicators To assess the students’ performance during Quran online learning, similar to face-to-face classroom learning, students were divided into different subclasses based on their pre-course placement-test result. The placement addressed the wide range of students’ skills in reading the Quran. Table 2 shows the indicators and performance grades, according to the number of students who were placed in seven different sub-classes based on their Quran reading skill. A similar Quran reading-skills indicator system also appeared in a study by Supriyadi and Julia (2019). The placement test was administered before the course started. The students were individually asked to read the random verse in the Qur'an and the instructor assessed the reading. In addition, the same tests were performed again at the end of the course to evaluate the students’ improvement in reading the Quran. Table 2. Quran Reading Skills Indicators No. Sub-class Key Features 1
Very Advanced
2
Advanced
3
Pre-advanced
4
Intermediate
5
Preintermediate
6
Elementary
7
Beginner
Fluently and correctly reading cursive letters Fluently reciting the makhraj Correctly applying and comprehending the tajweed rule Reciting the Quran with correct tempo and rhythm Fluently and correctly reading cursive letters Fluently reciting the makhraj Somewhat correctly applying the tajweed rule in reading Fluently and correctly reading cursive letters Reciting the Quran with a slow tempo but not halting Still incorrectly applying the tajweed rule in reading Be able to read the cursive letters but only 3 to 4 letters Be able to read the makhraj is still incorrect or swapped Be able to acknowledge single Arabic letters but some letters are still frequently swapped Slowly or haltingly reading the cursive letters Be able to read the single Arabic letters but not the cursive letters Not be able to or barely acknowledge single Arabic letters with the vowel
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Performance grade 80 – 99
70 – 79
60 – 69 50 – 59 40 – 49 30 - 39 <29
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4. Result and Discussion 4.1. Students’ Performance The researchers obtained a total of 923 students’ performance data (grade)in the Quran reading class in the online-learning mode, then compared them with the control-sample data of 1,239 students in the Quran reading class conducted in face-to-face learning mode in 2019 (before the pandemic). Table 3 shows the comparison results. Table 3. Performance of Students in Online vs. Classroom Learning Mode of learning
Number of students
Classroom learning Online learning
1,239 923
Average Performances Pre-course Post-test Differences test 66.15 70.95 +4.80 65.32 70.31 +4.99
On average, the students in the face-to-face classroom improved their performance from 66.15 on the placement test to 70.95 on the post-course test. Comparatively, in the online-learning students achieved, on average, 65.32 on the pre-course test and 70.31 on the post-course test. Thus, the face-to-face classroom students increased their performance by 4.80%, whereas the students in the online setting improved their performance by 4.99%.In comparison, Figure 1 displays the results for each individual student. The students’ grades on the pre-course test appear on the x-axis, while the results of the post-course test appear on the y ordinate. The blue dotted line displays the trend line for the students’ performance in face-to-face learning mode whereas the orange dashed line represents the trend line for online-learning students. 100 Classroom
PTclassroom = 0.646 PcTclassroom + 28.07 R² = 0.63
Post-test (PT)
80
Online Learning
60
Linear (Classroom)
40 PTonline = 0.676 PcTonline + 26.28 R² = 0.61
Linear (Online Learning)
20
0 0
20
40
60
80
100
Pre-course test (PcT)
Figure 1. Performance of Students in Online vs. Classroom Learning – Individual Results
The graph illustrates both trend lines showing a steady increase, indicating that students who performed well on the pre-course test were more likely to score better on the post-test, and vice versa. The correlation coefficient of the classroom trend line is 0.63, while the coefficient for the online-learning trend line is 0.61. Several outliers were found for both learning modes. In general, the result in the figure shows that students performed similarly in the face-to-face classroom and online-learning mode. Moreover, the trend line of the online-class
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students was slightly higher than that of the face-to-face students. This is likely due to the lack of students’ performance data at a grade below 40, the limitation of this study. Furthermore, Welch’s t-test, which Ruxton (2006) recommends for samples with unequal variances and sample sizes, was performed to assess the statistical significance. The results indicated no statistical significance between the online and classroom learning in this research (p = 0.1203), indicating that student performance in Quran reading, as measured by grade (on a scale of 0–100), is independent of the learning mode. The result is similar to findings in previous literature (Gonzalez, 2020; McLaren, 2004; Ni, 2013), suggesting that students performed comparably in both face-to-face and online-learning modes. 4.2. Students’ Perceptions In addition to the performance assessment, the survey was also administered after the course to assess the students’ perception of and satisfaction with the online course, compared to traditional classroom learning. Several factors were analysed, including class interaction, learning experience, motivation, satisfaction and comfort level, and Figure 2 presents the results. In terms of learning comfort, the majority of the students reported a ‘medium’ feeling about the comfort level of participating in the online format. Surprisingly, 25% and 3% of students perceived a moderate and a significant increase, respectively, in comfort level during the online class. Previous research supports the finding (Hanafi et al., 2019), stating that Quran lessons in online format can enhance students’ comfort because the environment is less intimidating than the traditional classroom, for students who are reserved and afraid of direct and open feedback from either the instructor or their classmates. When asked about the quality of their learning experience, more students perceived that the experience improved when the class performed in the online setting, compared to the traditional classroom learning. However, despite the positive opinions about online learning, the majority of the students felt that the quality of interaction with other students and the instructor decreased, along with a slightly reduced motivation level. Motivation is one of the important keys affecting students’ behavioural intention to achieve a goal during the learning process. Highly motivated students are likely to participate in self-monitoring activities that support them in achieving their goals (Kemp et al., 2019). Thus, the reduction in motivation is an essential challenge during the shift to an online-learning setting. The surveys also asked the students about their perception of the online learning setting, on a scale of 2 (strongly agree) 1 (agree), 0 (neutral), -1 (disagree) and -2 (strongly disagree). The results, the distributions and the average score of the students’ perceptions appear in Figure 3. Students tended to feel that online learning is useful during studies but is more time-consuming than face-to-face learning, although most of them perceived the statement neutrally. The majority of the students tended to disagree that online learning can provide more benefits than drawbacks. Moreover, most students claimed that they have learned more effectively in the face-to-face learning setting.
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Although students felt that some aspects had slightly changed when they moved to online learning, they generally tended to accept online learning. This could be because the pandemic has likely made the students initially hesitant to change more accepting of the emergency online-learning mode. After all, they had no other options than adjusting to this new situation. These results also accorded with the research by Ayebi-Arthur (2017), a case study of college students in New Zealand, severely affected by earthquake activity. The author observed that the college students were more open to emergency online learning after the catastrophic incident. In comparison to traditional classroom instruction, in this online course ....
Mean (N=923)
Students' response distribution
1. The quality of my learning experience
3%
2. The quality of interaction with other students
26%
27%
21%
3. The quality of interaction with the instructor
38%
15%
4. My motivation to participate in class activities
8%
5. My comfort level of participating in class activities
6%
23%
35%
30%
25%
38%
24%
0%
40%
Definitely Decreased (-2)
Somewhat Decreased (-1)
Somewhat Increased (+1)
Definitely Increased (+2)
0.17
16%
2%
-0.59
18%
2%
-0.43
4%
-0.08
3%
-0.07
25%
43%
20%
3%
41%
24%
60%
80%
100%
No Change (0)
N = 923, Rated on a 5-Point Scale Figure 2. Post-Course Questionnaire about Online Learning Interaction Questions
Students' response distribution
1. Online learning is useful during the studies
5%
2. Online learning is more time-consuming compared to classroom learning (reversed)
5%
24%
3. Online learning suffi ciently replaced the classroom learning
7%
19%
4. I would have learned more effectively in the face-to-face learning setting (rev ersed)
2% 6%
5. Online learning can give more advantages rather than disadvantages
14%
6. I will recommend online learning
13%
0% Strongly Disagree (-2)
Disagree (-1)
21%
45%
21%
32%
31%
34%
26%
20%
Neutral (0)
35%
40%
0.05
10%
0.07
11%
0.21
60%
Agree (+1)
0.80
28%
40%
21%
8%
21%
40%
30%
Mean (N=923)
17% 3%
22%
9%
80%
100%
-0.30
-0.08
Strongly Agree (+2)
N = 923, Rated on a 5-point scale (red = strongly disagree (-2), yellow = neutral (0), green = strongly agree (+2)) Figure 3. Post-Course Surveys about the Students’ Perception of the Online Learning
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Furthermore, students are susceptible to ‘online learning fatigue’, the sense of boredom and exhaustion that students feel from attending many live lectures multiple times (Wiederhold, 2020). On a variety of occasions, the continuous use of technology may cause fatigue. Sitting for a prolonged amount of time in the same setting will induce both emotional and physical drains. In this study, to investigate the students’ perception of online learning repeatedly over time, the responses were analysed for two different periods; May to June 2020 (𝑁=228), the early stage of online learning, and July to August (𝑁=694), the stage when online learning had been fully implemented. For each period, the students were asked whether they recommend the Quran recitation class in online learning mode. The results appear in Figure 4. The findings showed that students’ acceptance of the online mode in the learning period of July to August (-0.53) was significantly lower than the early period of the online-learning shift (0.21). The t-test result showed the statistically significant difference between the students’ acceptance during the early period and several months later (p = 0.000). Students likely were still excited the first time they switched to emergency online learning and gradually became exhausted after several months with countless online classes. Previous studies supported such results (Bao, 2020; Lee, 2020; Sundarasen et al., 2020; Wang & Zhao, 2020), suggesting that online learning can be one main cause of student stress and anxiety. Survey period
Students' response distribution on I will recommend online learning platform
May-June 7% 18%
35%
25%
15%
Mean
0.21
N=228
July-August
15%
22%
35%
21%
7%
-0.53
N=694 0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
Strongly Disagree (-2)
Disagree (-1)
Neutral (0)
Agree (+1)
Strongly Agree (+2)
Different Periods N = 923, Rated on a 5-point scale Figure 4. Students’ Acceptance of Quran Recitation Class in Online Mode over Two
4.3. Instructors’ Perceptions The instructors were also asked to fill out a questionnaire after the course, about their perceptions of the online-learning mode. The questionnaire package contained questions from previous research, on several issues and challenges related to instructors, including time management, transitioning from face-toface to online, instructors’ lack of interest in online courses and communication barriers(Anderson et al., 2011; Crawley et al., 2009; Kebritchi et al., 2017). The results appear in Figure 5.
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Questions
Instructors' response distribution
1. I am satisfied with online teaching
18%
45%
2. Online learning takes more time to prepare, plan, and teach (reserved)
36%
3. I feel comfortable switching to the online for mat
37%
4. With online learning I find difficulties to communicate with the students (reserved)
36%
5. Online learning can give more disadvantages rather than advantages (reserved) 6. I will recommend online learning platform
0%
0% Do not agree (-1)
37%
9%
18%
18%
0.27
0.45
45%
40%
60%
80%
-0.09
0.09
55%
55%
Undecided (0)
0.18
46%
18%
20%
0.18
55%
45%
27%
Mean (N=11)
100%
Agree (+1)
N = 11, Rated on a 3-point scale (yellow = do not agree (-1), green = neutral (0), dark green agree (+1)). Figure 5. Post-Course Questionnaire about the Online-Learning Platform from Instructor’s Perspective
Feedback responses were obtained from 11 instructors. Although the majority tended to feel satisfied with the online-learning format, they also felt that it takes quite a bit more time than face-to-face learning to design, prepare and teach the online class 𝑛=6 (55%). The result agreed with previous studies (Capra, 2011; Cavanaugh, 2005; Humphries, 2010), which show that online learning could demand more instructor time. During the pandemic, the instructors had to redesign and re-plan the curriculum, develop the content delivery and create the new assessment method. This new activity resulted in overwork, anxiety and stress among instructors and academic staff (Rashid & Yadav, 2020). Moreover, in this study, the instructors did not feel comfortable switching to the online setting 𝑛=4 (36%) and had difficulties interacting with the students 𝑛=5 (45%). The discomfort may have been associated with their concerns about interacting and communicating with the students; the surveys showed that the instructors felt the reduced interaction with the students. Although in online learning, the instructor is still able to communicate with students visually and audibly, it may be the lack of the personal touch that reduces the effectiveness of the communication. In the online-learning format, the instructors have difficulty taking cues from students’ verbal and nonverbal interaction that they usually had in the face-to-face classroom (Crawley et al., 2009). Instructors’ comfort level with technology and online education is important, because it affects instructors’ desire to teach in an online setting (Fein & Logan, 2003; Osika et al., 2009). Making sure that the instructors are comfortable with new technology and how to utilize it is important for its effectiveness. However, despite the issues arising during the online study, the majority of instructors were satisfied with the online class and tended to recommend the Quran class performed in the online-learning setting. Although most of them
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perceived it neutrally, surprisingly, no instructor rejected the online-learning format. Similar to the student observation, it seems that amidst the pandemic, instructors have no other choice but to adjust to the dynamic situation and embrace the transition. Overall, students and instructors tend to accept the Quran class in online mode. The study indicated that altering the Quran reading class to an online setting can be quite simple. Commonly used video-conferencing software can accommodate the main features of learning Quran reading, namely, the real-time audio, visual and text. Also, students are now regularly taught in online-learning formats during the pandemic, and they seem to have adapted to the change. Despite all these promising adjustments, several issues relating to online students and instructors were identified. Issues relating to students covered their readiness, reduced motivation, difficulties in classroom communication, potential fatigue and rising anxiety. Issues related to instructors included reduced comfort level, difficulties in classroom interaction and time-management concerns. Highereducation institutions play a critical role in improving the standard of online education by helping students, instructors and the development of the learning content (Kebritchi et al., 2017). The potential fatigue and anxiety that the student feels during online learning must be relieved in many ways, to make sure that students can successfully and effectively participate in online learning (Bao, 2020). Proactive initiatives to support the well-being of students and academic staff are now required during the pandemic (Flores, 2020). Regarding issues related to instructors, the higher-education institution must provide sufficient training and professional development for the instructor on how to use the current technology, as well as how to engage in online classes. During the pandemic, the instructors are teaching in the context of emergency online learning, but not necessarily properly designed learning (Murphy, 2020). Thus, training is expected to help solve these issues in the future. In addition, higher-education institutions can continuously assess—through polls, evaluations, surveys, interviews and analysis of course design—what contributes to better and more effective online learning during this pandemic. As the assessment continues and the effectiveness of teaching and learning in the online setting improves, we hope that students, too, can adapt to and benefit from this new emergency online learning more effectively. Furthermore, to improve the students’ learning experience during the emergency online learning in the Quran reading class, instructors can develop such strategies as incorporating multimedia to enhance the teaching content delivery. The rise of the adoption of speech processing and recognition software for the Arabic language (Noor Jamaliah et al., 2015) could benefit developing and incorporating Quranic-verse-recitation recognition software into the design of Quran online courses. The software can automatically check the tajweed, identify errors in Quran recitation and show exactly where errors have occurred (Mohammed et al., 2015). This option provides students with the chance to make numerous attempts to master the Quran reading, without the need for instructor supervision.
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5. Conclusion This research explored undergraduate students’ and instructors’ perceptions and acceptance of the emergency Quran online learning in Indonesia. Several aspects were analysed, including class interaction, learning experience, motivation, satisfaction and comfort level. The study also compared students’ Quran-reading performance on an online learning platform with the records from a traditional face-to-face class from the previous year. The survey and performance data were obtained from 923 students of the Universitas Islam Bandung (Indonesia), between May and August 2020, when all universities had to shift to distance learning because of the corona virus outbreak. The findings indicated no significant difference in student performance between the online mode and the face-to-face classroom setting. Furthermore, although students and instructors felt that some aspects had changed, they generally tended to accept the Quran class in online mode. This is likely because, amidst the pandemic, students and instructors have no other options except to adapt to the rapid change and embrace the transition. While the online class provides a comparably effective learning alternative, we should realise that online learning has its benefits and drawbacks. It is reasonable that students feel fatigue or less motivated toward online learning. The study indicated the reduction over time in the students’ acceptance of the Quran online learning. It is likely that students were still excited when they first switched to learning new technology and gradually became exhausted after several months with countless online classes. Providing students with a support plan, including phone numbers, email or online messaging where students can contact staff, is important. In addition, it is necessary to provide proactive initiatives to support the well-being of the students, instructors and academic staff during the pandemic. We conclude that the online-learning setting is practical, affordable and adaptable for use with Quran recitation classes in Indonesia, beyond the prevailing pandemic, as students and instructors seem to have become more open to the online learning setting.
6. Limitations There are some limitations to this study. The initial student performance (grade) in the face-to-face class and the online class were not at the same level and could cause bias in the results (Hanafi et al., 2019). The research also had insufficient data for students with an initial performance at a grade below 40; thus, the performance of students with very limited Quran-reading skills was not known. Another limitation of this research is that during the study, students were asked about their perception of Quran online learning as compared to traditional faceto-face learning. However, some students had not previously enrolled in the traditional face-to-face Quran class in the university, and thus, they had no comprehensive picture of the differences between the Quran class face-to-face and in an online setting. Nevertheless, the pre-course survey result reveals that the majority of the students had learned the Quran for years; hence, it is expected that this would provide them with the clue of the typical traditional Quran learning.
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 5, pp. 189-210, May 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.5.11
Connecting Theory and Practice: Pre-service Science Teachers’ Adoption and Implementation of the Demonstration Method Rose Atieno Mutende, Winston Akala and Rosemary K. Imonje School of Education, University of Nairobi, Kenya https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0030-1113 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0548-5815 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0945-6034 Abstract. This study examined adoption and implementation of the demonstration method by Bachelor of Education (BEd) Science students’ during teaching practice (TP), which lasted 14 weeks. Data were collected using questionnaires and interview schedules. The data analysis techniques comprised descriptive and inferential analysis. Findings indicated that i) the school-based experiential learning as designed and implemented is not sufficient to modify the Bed (Science) students’ prior frame of reference for the integration of interactive instructional practices in the demonstration method; ii) despite pedagogical supervision, the pedagogical knowledge and repertoire of skills learnt was not sufficient to effect a major increase in the instructional practices implemented; iii) the Bed (Science) students’ developmental needs persisted to the end of teaching practice because the pedagogical support provided on TP was not sufficient to address them; iv) although pre-service teachers have the potential for immediate improvement of their adoption and implementation of interactive instructional practices, they require a clear frame of reference before exposure to the context of their professional work without which they cannot effectively leverage a significant paradigm shift. The study provides several recommendations based on the findings. Keywords: instructional practices; constructivist; demonstration method; supervision practices
1. Introduction Interactive teaching methods are a major focus of the current reform efforts in science education. Research has established that appropriate application of interactive teaching methods facilitates the construction of scientific knowledge and enhances learners’ potential for development of critical thinking and problem-solving (Burrows & Slater, 2015). In particular, the demonstration of complex abstract scientific concepts or process skills have been found to promote ©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).
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learning, hence, are considered the hallmark of science teaching. Biadgelign (2010) opines that, because demonstrations entail learners observing while listening to explanations of processes, their critical thinking and creativity are stimulated. Critical thinking and creativity allow for modification of conceptual understanding and generalisations. Learners are then able to connect theory to the demonstrated experiment, and to the natural phenomena and everyday practices. Learning then becomes meaningful. As observed by Feiman-Nemser (2010), by the time pre-service science teachers enter into teacher education programmes, they have already experienced application of teaching methods from their earlier socialisation and observation of the teaching and learning process as students of science education. They thus hold preconceptions about the application of such methods based on a limited understanding of science teaching. Darling-Hammond (2010) cautions that the preconceptions must be transformed, otherwise the pre-service teachers will teach the way they were taught, which, therefore, will not facilitate knowledge construction among learners. In this regard, pre-service science teachers should be helped to develop adequate conceptual and practical knowledge of teaching methods in their pedagogy courses (Duit et al., 2008; Gunckel, 2013; Ochanji et al., 2015; Odundo et al., 2018). Problem statement Teacher education programmes across the world have been criticised over time as being more theoretical and disconnected from professional practice (Beck & Kosnik, 2002; Fraser, 2007; Ketter & Stoffel, 2008; Kosnik & Beck, 2009). Consequently, they produce teachers who are not practitioners and who cannot appropriately apply interactive teaching methods. This has been demonstrated to be the case for Sub-Saharan Africa where the demonstration method and other forms of interactive teaching are not widely applied (Bunyi et al., 2013; Centre for Mathematics, Science and Technology Education in Africa [CEMASTEA], 2009; Strengthening of Mathematics and Science at Secondary Education [SMASSE] Project Impact Assessment, 2007). Remarkably, a survey of science teaching methods in secondary schools in Sub-Saharan Africa confirms that many science subject teachers experience difficulties with the concept of demonstration, and many more do not apply the demonstration method in their lessons even when it is necessary (Cheruiyot et al., 2015; SMASSE Project Impact Assessment, 2007). This implies that many science teachers in Sub-Saharan Africa have inadequate pedagogical knowledge and skills to apply the demonstration method. Furthermore, Nasimiyu (2017) found that teacher preparation programmes in Sub-Saharan Africa are narrow in scope and in their repertoire of skills and opportunities to facilitate the development of learner-oriented pedagogies. Additionally, research has consistently indicated that the gap in the transfer of teaching skills from university-based learning to real classrooms still persists (Korthagen & Kessels, 1999; Leijen et al., 2015; McGarr et al., 2017; Shaharabani & Yarden, 2019). This brings into focus the appropriateness of pre-service teacher adoption and implementation of method-specific instructional practices, as demonstrated during teaching practice.
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Purpose of the study This article contributes to the existing knowledge on pre-service science teacher preparation by focusing on pre-service science teachers’ adoption and implementation of the demonstration method. Specifically, the following research question were addressed; 1. Is there any significant difference in the BEd(Science) students’ adoption and implementation of the demonstration method at the onset and towards the end of teaching practice? 2. In what ways do the pedagogical supervision practices support the BEd(Science) students’ adoption and implementation of the demonstration method?
2. Literature Review Constructivism in the pedagogy of science education Pre-service science teachers' preconceptions of application of teaching methods are more theoretical and abstract, hence difficult to implement in real classrooms. To help pre-service teachers to re-conceptualise their pedagogical knowledge and skills of application of teaching methods, science teacher education programmes need to adopt a practice-based philosophy anchored in constructivism (Ball & Forzani, 2011; Forzani, 2014; McDonald et al., 2013). Drawing from the above epistemological root, the most profound challenge for pre-service science teachers is not the acquisition of knowledge about teaching methods, but making personal sense of constructivist instructional practices (Schön, 1983). In a bid to reorient the teaching methods to a constructivist pedagogy, researchers (Ball & Forzani, 2011; Grossman, 2018; Kloser, 2014; McDonald et al., 2013; Sherin et al., 2011; Trna & Trnova, 2015; Windschitl et al., 2012) have decomposed teaching methods into short, explicit, learner-oriented specified instructional practices that pre-service teachers can implement. Implementing these instructional practices in a context similar to that of their professional work coupled with adequate pedagogical and technical support has the potential to promote the integration of constructivist instructional practices in teaching (Meyer & Land, 2006; Yilmaz, 2011). The demonstration method in science teaching Demonstration in science teaching is a planned manipulation of scientific apparatus and materials so that learners observe first-hand scientific principles or laws. Scientific concepts are made easier to comprehend and connect to real-life experiences if explained alongside an observed demonstration (Basheer et al., 2017). This implies that the teacher must be competent enough to design the learning material in a manner that will explicitly show how theory connects to the process under demonstration, and to the natural phenomena, which then leads to knowledge construction. Teacher preparation for application of the demonstration method Over time, researchers have explored pre-service teacher preparation for teaching methods (Amobi & Irwin, 2009; Cardoso et al., 2011; Ciminelli, 2009; Ghousseini & Sleep, 2011; Kazemi et al., 2009; Kloser, 2014; Lampert et al., 2010, 2013; Warner & Myers, 2008). The findings indicate that, for pre-service teachers to adopt and
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effectively implement a teaching method, they should be helped to prepare appropriate instructional tasks that are short, explicit, learner-oriented and anchored in constructivism. In particular, based on an analysis of literary sources, Trna and Trnova (2015) report that teacher preparation for application of the demonstration method hinges on principles that teachers must put into considerations when implementing the instructional practices embedded in such method. They include: (i) learners predict the outcome of the demonstration; (ii) allowing discussions on the concept under demonstration; (iii) performing the demonstration alongside explanations focused on key aspects; (iv) discussing results obtained; (v) providing appropriate analogies based on the concept demonstrated. These principles inform the instructional practices that teachers must integrate in their application of the demonstration method. Other researches on teacher preparation report the instructional practices to include:(i) provision of a guideline for engagement in to the activity and engage students in the investigation to provide concrete experience (Kloser, 2014); (ii) elicit and expose learners’ existing knowledge of the concept under demonstration, and facilitate classroom discourse so that learners predict the outcome (Grossman, 2018; Kloser, 2014; Windschitl et al., 2012); (iii) facilitate an evidence-based explanations discourse to explain phenomena by making a connection between the target science concept, the process under demonstration and the natural phenomena (Warner & Myers, 2008; Winschitl et al., 2012); (iv) review key points of the learning material, assess students’ learning in the context of teaching and provide follow up activities to connect the learning to real-life (Duncan & Clemons, 2012; Webster et al., 2009). Tesfaw and Hofman (2014), Ochanji et al. (2015) and Usman (2015) aver that, for effective adoption and implementation, pre-service teachers should be allowed to rehearse, enact and reflect on their pedagogical understanding and skills of the instructional practices amid support from peers and lecturer; hence experiential learning, which is the underpinning rationale to teacher preparation for application of teaching methods. Thus, a focus on the implementation of short, explicit, learner-oriented constructivist teaching tasks enables the operationalisation of the demonstration method into short, observable and measurable activities. Experiential learning in pre-service science teacher education Proponents of experiential learning (Dewey, 1938; Kolb, 1984; Piaget, 1954) assert that it serves to connect theory to practice and comprises reflective activities embedded in practice-based learning and anchored in constructivism. Further, the proponents argue that effective acquisition of pedagogical knowledge occurs if the learner is provided the opportunity to demonstrate their learning to more knowledgeable others who offer support. This implies that effective experiential learning should be mediated in a social learning environment with pedagogical support and opportunities for collaborative reflections. Such collaborative reflections draw on the pre-service teachers’ own experiences of exposure to and enacting of the instructional practices and linking the same to research-based knowledge and classroom practices (Leijen et al., 2012; Mannathoko, 2013; Odundo et al., 2017). In particular, collaborative reflective activities in experiential learning elicits and exposes misconceptions, making the pre-service teachers aware of areas of growth, which, if addressed, improves their application of
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teaching methods to new but similar contexts (Ayot & Wanga, 1987; Gok, 2012; Mannathoko, 2013). Consequently, any mismatch between the pre-service teachers’ existing conceptions, and the envisaged future teaching practices get addressed (Britton & Anderson, 2010; Gok, 2012; Grossman et al., 2009 Hismanoglu & Hismanoglu, 2010; Schreiber & Valle, 2013). Ultimately, they build up a repertoire of examples, visions and skills and, hence, make personal sense of the instructional practices. To promote the adoption and integration of interactive instructional practices further, pedagogical supervision and assessment must be conducted by experienced subject specialists who are informed of the current reforms in teaching methods and are well-versed in the criteria for pedagogical supervision and assessment (Idris, 2016; Milanowsik, 2011). Related studies Concerns that Africa, and Kenya in particular, is substantially underrepresented in the uptake of science-related courses and jobs is linked to the pedagogical practices of teachers, which are below expectations (Mukhwana, 2020; Sichangi., 2018). Specifically, the demonstration method is a pedagogical intervention targeting teachers and advanced for enhancing learner outcomes in science subjects. However, studies conducted on pre-service science teachers’ application of the demonstration method are generally comparative or focus on the effectiveness of, or evaluation of the method on learners (Adekoya & Olatoye, 2011; Basheer et al., 2017; Crouch et al., 2004; Daluba, 2013; Giridharan & Raju, 2016; Meyer et al., 2003; Moll & Milner-Bolotin, 2009; Trna & Trnova, 2015; Watson, 2000). Few studies endeavour to address the pre-service science teachers’ adoption and integration of interactive instructional practices in the demonstration method at secondary schools (Basheer et al., 2017; Odom & Bell, 2015). Studies on supervision of teachers as they learn to apply interactive methods have been undertaken (Darling-Hammond & McLaughlin, 2011; Fishman et al., 2003; Opfer & Pedder, 2011; Zembal-Saul, 2009), but more research on supervision of pre-service teachers’ application of the demonstration method is needed. This indicates a need to examine pre-service science teachers’ adoption and implementation of the demonstration method, during teaching practice at secondary school.
3. Methodology
Research approach and design The study problem and research questions seek to systematically describe the practices of participants (Loeb et al., 2017). As such, the study is anchored on the survey design to explore pre-service science teachers’ adoption and implementation of the demonstration method during TP. Population and sampling procedure The target population was 145 BEd(Science) students who were stratified into three (3) categories based on the three teaching subjects, namely chemistry, physics and biology, comprising 45, 64 and 36 students, respectively. The categories were homogeneous within themselves. The determination of the sample was obtained using Yamane’s (1973) formula. 𝑁 𝑛= 1 + 𝑁𝑒 2
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where; 𝑛 =The desired sample size 𝑁 =The population size 𝑒 = The error limit = 0.05 (as suggested by Yamane, 1973) Source: Yamane (1973) The resulting distribution of the sample across the strata was 33, 47 and 27 for chemistry, physics and biology, respectively, hence a sample size of 107. Since the population strata were relatively small, disproportionate stratified random sampling was used (Cochran, 1997). The sample (n=107) had completed the mandatory educational foundation and pedagogy courses. An equal number of Head of Department (HoS) (n=107) and pedagogy lecturer (n=3) who taught the subject methods course, namely biology, chemistry and physics, were key informants and, therefore, purposively selected (Cohen et al., 2010). Methods of and instruments for data collection Data on participants’ adoption and implementation of the demonstration method as well as the data on the pedagogical supervision practices were collected at the beginning and at the end of TP using questionnaires (Appendices 2 and 3). The pedagogy lecturers were interviewed using an interview schedule (Appendix 4) at the end of TP and provided data regarding the what and the how of the participants’ preparation for adoption and implementation of the demonstration method. The TP session last for 14 weeks of supervised teaching. The instrument analysis for content and construct validity indexes, and sampling adequacy tests were conducted and the results (Appendix 1) revealed that the constructs were valid (Liu, 2010; Williams et al., 2012). The reliability index of the instruments was computed using Cronbach’s alpha and found reliable (Drost, 2012; Nunnally, 1978). Methods of data analysis Inferential statistics were used and t-test assessed the mean difference in the adoption and implementation of the demonstration method at the beginning and at the end of TP. Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient technique was used to conduct a correlation analysis. SPSS version 23 software was used to perform the analysis. Ethical issues The principles of integrity, respect, responsibility and competence were applied throughout the study (Creswell & Creswell, 2017).
4. Results Is there any significant difference in the BEd(Science) students’ adoption and implementation of the demonstration method at the onset and towards the end of teaching practice? The total average scores for the participants’ adoption and implementation of the demonstration method (Appendix 2) and the pedagogical practices of the HoS and university supervisors (Appendix 3) are as in Table 1 below.
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Table 1: Statistics for application of the demonstration method and pedagogical practices of the HoS and university supervisors Total average score Variables N Mean %Mean SE SD Skewness SE Onset of teaching 107 3.8526 77.1% 0.0382 0.3933 -0.167 0.235 practice End of teaching practice HoS Pedagogical Supervision Practices University Supervisors’ Pedagogical Supervision Practices
107
4.0349
80.7%
0.0431
0.446
0.021
0.234
107
2.1761
43.2%
0.0451
0.4669
0.511
0.234
107
3.1939
63.9%
0.0921
0.9486
-0.409
0.235
Results of the adoption and implementation of the demonstration method (Appendix 2) showed: Items 1-2: towards the end of TP, 97% (66, 38) of participants demonstrated adequate ability to design the procedure of activities for the lesson, while 82.3% (37, 51) were able to formulate appropriate objectives to guide their teaching towards an instructional goal. This suggests that the majority had adequate conceptual and pedagogical knowledge of the instructional practices. Items 3-6: most participants appear to have come into TP with a clear frame of reference regarding instructional practices of assembling the demonstration equipment, facilitating learners to predict the outcome of the demonstration and assessing learner thinking. However, only 20% (3, 18) at the onset and 31.8% (14, 20) towards the end of TP explained the demonstration process and made connections to the scientific concept and natural phenomena. This suggests that 68.2% persistently failed to implement the practice. Notably, there was an increase in the instructional practices implemented during TP. Items 7-8: the participants appear to have come into TP with a concrete frame of reference of the instructional practices of directing learners’ observation on specific aspects/processes of the demonstration activity. However, only 21.9% (3, 20) at the onset and 31.7% (13, 21) towards the end of TP could facilitate evidencebased argumentation, suggesting that 79.1% found the practice difficult to implement. Nonetheless, the participants who implemented the practice increased during TP. Items 9-10: the participants highlighted key points of a demonstration activity and provided follow-up assignments. This suggests that the majority had a concrete frame of reference for the practices. However, towards the end of TP, the number of participants who provided follow-up assignments to the demonstration reduced from 95.3% (64,37) to 93.4% (62,38), suggesting that 1.9% participants likely had only superficial pedagogical knowledge because they refrained from use of the practice. Effect of TP on the application of the demonstration method The total average score results on the application of the demonstration method (Table 1) was M= 4.0349, SD=0.446, up from M= of 3.8526, SD=0.03933. This revealed an increase in the instructional practices implemented, suggesting that
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some participants learnt the practices on TP. However, the fact that the increase was low suggests that the demonstration method as learnt at university and implemented on TP is not as efficient as it should be. The participants appear to have had a persistent inadequate frame of reference for the implementation of the instructional practices. On the effect of TP on the integration of instructional practices in the demonstration method (Table 2), the results show [Mean Difference=0.19020 (3.6%), SE = 0. 05641, (t (105) = 3.372, p < .001). Table 2: Mean difference in adoption and implementation of the demonstration method on teaching practice Paired Differences
Pair 1
Mean Difference .19020
Std. Deviation .58078
Std. Error Mean .05641
95% Confidence Interval of the Difference Lower Upper .07835 .30205
T
Df
Sig.(2tailed)
3.372
105
.001
The difference, even though small, is statistically significant and affirms that, despite pedagogical supervision, the pedagogical knowledge and skill held were not sufficient to effect a major increase in the instructional practices implemented. In what ways do the pedagogical supervision practices support the BEd(Science) students’ adoption and implantation of the demonstration method? The pedagogical supervision practices were as indicated in Appendix 3. The results at the onset (Table 1) show the total average score on pedagogical supervision practices as M=2.1761 (43.2%), SD=0.4669 and when “often” and “always” are combined, the majority of the HoS were reported not to have guided the participants in lesson preparation and implementation, nor to have guided them appropriately to link theoretical knowledge and classroom practices. Additionally, the timeliness and adequacy of the feedback they provided did not support the implementation of instructional practices among the participants. As noted earlier, the HoS were not obligated to provide pedagogical supervision. Nevertheless, 69.8% (32, 42) participants reported that they used the supervision feedback for subsequent teaching, suggesting that, if mandated and empowered, the HoS can provide appropriate pedagogical support, which can increase the instructional practices implemented by the participants. The total average score for the pedagogical supervision practices of university supervisors (Table 1) was M=3.1939 (M%=63.9%), SD=0.9486, revealing mixed results when “often” and “always” are combined. Specifically, the majority of the participants reported having received timely feedback of the supervision which was linked to their classroom practices. Further, the feedback informed the participants’ subsequent teaching, with areas pointed out to improve their implementation of the demonstration method. On the flip side, when “rarely” and “never” are combined, the results showed that the university supervisors did not regularly attend lessons, neither did they hold a pre-observation meeting ahead of the lesson, or guide on teaching methods to be applied and how to integrate
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them in a lesson. In other words, they were hands-off in as far as preparation for teaching is concerned. The HoS and university supervisor’s practices rendered the pedagogical supervision practices unsupportive to subsequent teaching.
5. Discussion The current study employed constructivism as the underpinning theory to examine the adoption and implementation of the demonstration method by Bed (Science) students. Is there any significant difference in the BEd (Science) students’ adoption and implementation of the demonstration method at the onset and towards the end of teaching practice? The study found that the participants were able to design guidelines and formulate objectives for engaging learners, which means they had a concrete frame of reference to design tasks to determine the extent of learner engagement and the support needed (Warner & Myers, 2008). This finding is consistent with the explanation of the lecturer who, when asked how the methods course supports the participants’ adoption and implementation of the demonstration method on TP, stated: “The methods course links the academic component to the professional component during TP. The course helps the BEd (Science) student to learn and visualise teaching activities which they then enact in real classrooms.” (Lecturer for TCT 332: Subject Methods-Chemistry, September, 2019). This finding implies that, by the time the participants teach in real classrooms during TP, they have already refined their conceptual and pedagogical understanding of how to implement the demonstration method. The increase in students who implemented the instructional practices that constitute the demonstration method suggests that initial theoretical and abstract knowledge requires consistent practice in a professional context for meaningful learning to occur (Korthagen & Kessels, 1999; Warner & Myers, 2008). The study further found that the majority of the participants had difficulties in explaining a process and how it connects to the experiment and the natural phenomena under the demonstration. This reveals lack of a clear frame of reference, and it was likely students had not experienced the practice. To make sense of a practice requires sustained enactment, reflection, rehearsal and implementation, with pedagogical support (Korthagen & Kessels, 1999; Sherin et al., 2011). Additionally, the study found that the majority of the participants asked learners to predict the outcome of the demonstration, indicating they had adequate pedagogical knowledge for the practice. Requiring learners to make predictions calls for evidence and serves to stimulate learners’ thinking and creativity (Crouch et al., 2004; Trna & Trnova, 2015). The increase in students who implemented the instructional practices suggests that meaningful learning to implement theoretical and abstract knowledge can occur within the classroom context if opportunity for consistent practice is provided (Korthagen & Kessels, 1999; Warner & Myers, 2008).
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Further, the study found that the majority of the participants found implementing evidence-based argumentation difficult. Likely, they had not, as learners, participated in evidence-based argumentations and explanations. This implies that the practice was superficially developed and, therefore, difficult to implement (Grossman, 2018; Korthagen & Kessels, 1999). This resonates with findings (Zembal-Saul, 2009) that scientific discourse and argumentation is not common in science education because teachers themselves have had few opportunities to apply evidence-based argumentation as learners. On lesson closure and follow-up, the study found that participants had adequate pedagogical knowledge and skills at the onset of TP. A review of learning points and a follow-up on the content taught informs the teachers’ instruction in the future lessons (Duncan & Clemons, 2012; Webster et al., 2009, yet, remarkably, the study revealed that a few participants refrained from providing follow-up practice of a lesson. Grossman (2018) posits that practices cannot be sustained if the understanding is only partial. The slight increase indicates that, prior to TP, the majority of the participants had pedagogical knowledge of the instructional practices that constitute the demonstration method. As such, the majority of the participants were, to some extent, able to apply such method. This contributed to the high total average score. During interview, a lecturer stated: “We prepare student teachers on use of teaching resources. So that when they get to a school with limited laboratory equipment they ably adopt demonstration.” (Lecturer for TCT 333: Subject Methods - Physics, September 2019). Further clarification regarding the participants’ adoption and implementation of the demonstration method was made by the lecturer during interview who revealed that: “The student teachers individually carry out practical related to secondary school experiments in their various course units at university. Therefore, the BEd(Science) students should be in a position to ably handle all practical effectively.” (Lecturer for TCT 331: Subject Methods-Biology, September 2019) The slight improvement likely occurred as a result of regular demonstrations in the course of TP. The effect of teaching practice on the adoption and implementation of the demonstration method The results of the total average score (M= 4.0349, SD=0.446, up from M= of 3.8526, SD=0.3933) (Table 1) on the participants’ adoption and implementation of demonstration method revealed a small but statistically significant improvement. This suggests that adoption occurred during TP, despite the persistence of unaddressed developmental issues among the participants. This suggests that simply exposing the pre-service teachers to the context of their professional work without a clear frame of reference as a pre-requisite cannot effectively leverage a significant paradigm shift (Grossman, 2013; Idris, 2016; Kazemi et al., 2009; Windschitl et al., 2012).
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Further, the t-test results on Table 2 [Mean Difference=0.19020 (3.6%), SE = 0. 05641, (t (105) = 3.372, p < .001) showed a small statistically significant difference. Notably, this improvement occurred over the course of TP while the participants were under supervision. The implication is that TP supervision has potential to promote participants’ application of the demonstration method. The significance of the pedagogical supervision on TP was confirmed during interview with a lecturer who intimated that TP supervision exposes gaps in the BEd(Science) students’ pedagogical knowledge which can then be addressed. Nevertheless, the small difference suggests that, despite pedagogical supervision, the pedagogical knowledge and skill held were not sufficient to effect a major increase in the instructional practices implemented. This finding affirms Korthagen and Kessels’, (1999) argument that key challenges for pre-service teachers relate to lack of competency and experience prior to implementation of instructional practices, and their limited status in professional growth. To promote further adoption and implementation of instructional practices that were initially theoretical and abstract within the classroom context requires intensive, sustained and coherent learning activities that reflect teachers’ professional work coupled with appropriate pedagogical support (Korthagen & Kessels, 1999; Opfer & Pedder, 2011; Warner & Myers, 2008). Thus evidently, school-based experiential learning as implemented was not sufficient in quality and quantity to further build on the pedagogical knowledge for the adoption and the subsequent application of the demonstration method and the embedded instructional practices. This exposes a disconnect between the university-based learning and classroom practice. In what ways do the pedagogical supervision practices support the BEd(Science) students’ adoption and implantation of the demonstration method? The study found that the total average score on pedagogical practices for the HoS was low, suggesting they provided insufficient pedagogical support even though they are experienced teachers and subject specialists. Important to note is that pedagogical expertise is required for an effective approximation of practices to attain a high standard of implementation of instructional practices. This finding supports the findings of a study by Gunckel (2013) who established that collaborating teachers are not well-versed with the current university-based learning of pre-service teachers and the pedagogic requirements for instructional practices. However, the fact that the feedback provided by the HoS was useful to the participants for subsequent teaching indicates that, if capacity is built for pedagogical supervision, the HoS can provide sufficient and appropriate pedagogical support to leverage the adoption, honing and implementation of the “difficult” instructional practices. The university supervisors, on the other hand, had a limited schedule to adequately offer pedagogical support. Additionally, the study found there was limited modelling of the instructional practices and, therefore, the inherent reflection in-and-on practice. Grossman et al. (2013) posit that modelling by the teacher educator is a crucial representation of practice as it enables the pre-service teachers to visualise application of a teaching method and, hence, is critical in closing the gap between their present and their possible accomplishment. Clearly,
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the principles of effective pedagogical supervision and support as advanced (Ayot & Wanga, 1987; Idris, 2016; Leijen et al., 2012, 2015; Usman, 2015) were not embraced. Overall, the limited schedule for university supervisors coupled with the fact that the HoS offered inadequate pedagogical support denied the participants a firm base on which to build instructional practices, particularly those that may have been deemed “difficult” to adopt, enact and implement. This finding supports findings by Ochanji et al. (2015) and Odundo et al. (2017) that teaching practice as provided in public universities in Kenya is insufficient in quality and quantity. Limitation of the study The respondents were drawn from the School of Education and this violated the ecological validity and limited the findings’ generalisations to graduate science teachers with characteristics represented in the sample.
6. Conclusions and Implications The study findings highlighted the following issues; • The BEd(Science) students successfully implemented some instructional practices but not others, and, even though some instructional practices seemed to have been adopted in the course of TP, this was to a small extent. This means that the school-based experiential learning as designed and implemented is not sufficient to modify the BEd(Science) students’ prior frame of reference for the integration of interactive instructional practices in the demonstration method. There is, therefore, a need to reorient TP by increasing and prolonging the sessions and adopting the principles of effective pedagogical supervision. • The BEd(Science) students did not possess adequate pre-requisite for application of the demonstration method. This can be enhanced by reconceptualising the content and design of the teaching methods component to comprise specified short explicit instructional practices that are learner-oriented and grounded in constructivism. • The limited and inadequate pedagogical support denied the BEd(Science) students a firm base on which to build pedagogical knowledge and skills to adopt and implement instructional practices. There is, therefore, a need to capacity-build the HoS in principles of pedagogical supervision. • The BEd (Science) students have potential to improve their adoption and implementation of the demonstration method and the embedded instructional practices, the unaddressed developmental needs notwithstanding. This can be promoted by designing a portfolio of TP experiences that relate to varied contexts to inform experiential learning tasks and pedagogical support. Recommendation for future research There is need for longitudinal studies to examine the effect of experiential learning on novice teachers’ performance.
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APPENDICES Appendix 1 Test of Sampling Adequacy and Sphericity Factors Discussion teaching method Demonstration method Lab practical teaching method Lecture teaching method Moderator (TP supervision/guidance) TP performance of BEd(Science). teachers on TP
KMO Test
Bartlett's Test of Sphericity df Approx. ChiSquare 84.431 45 120.946 45 86.804 45 79.333 45 89.771 45 162.082 36
.702 .818 .714 .700 .722 .843
Sig. .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000
Appendix 2 Descriptive Statistics for Application of the Demonstration Method at the Beginning and End of Teaching Practice SD = Strongly Disagree, D= Disagree, U = Uncertain, A = Agree, SA= Strongly Agree At the beginning of TP 1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
The teacher used an outline to guide the demonstration The teacher specified the objective of the demonstration to focus attention
SD
D
U
A
SA
Count 1
2
1
36
66
%
1.9% 0.9% 34.0% 62.3%
0.9%
Count 2
23
%
21.7%2.8% 58.5% 15.1%
1.9%
The teacher arranged the equipment so that Count 1 each student could observe the % 0.9% demonstration
5
3
3
62
65
16
32
4.7% 2.8% 61.3% 30.2%
Count 20 62 2 18 3 The teacher manipulated the apparatus and explained the process at the same time % 19.0% 59.0%1.9% 17.1% 2.9% The teacher asked questions to gauge students' ideas of the topic/subtopic The teacher asked students to predict the outcome of the demonstration The teacher asked questions to direct student observation to the demonstration
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Count 0
3
%
2.8% 0.0% 33.0% 64.2%
0.0%
0
23
%
21.7%2.8% 58.5% 16.0% 65
17
Count 0
5
%
4.8% 1.9% 61.9% 31.4%
0.0%
2
62
68
Count 1 0.9%
3
35
33
207
8.
The teacher pressed students to provide evidence-based explanation
Count 17 %
64
1
Count 1 10. The teacher gave follow-up assignments to the demonstration % 0.9%
1
Total average score at onset of TP
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
3
2
35
68
0.9% 1.9% 33.0% 64.2% 3
37
64
0.9% 2.8% 34.9% 60.4%
N
Mean
%Mean
SE
SD
Skewness
SE
107
3.8526
77.1%
0.0382
0.3933
-0.167
0.235
End of TP 1.
20
16.2% 61.0%1.0% 19.0% 2.9%
Count 0 The teacher summarised the essential points at the end of the demonstration % 0.0%
9.
1
The teacher used an outline to guide the demonstration The teacher specified the objective of the demonstration to focus attention
SD
D
U
A
SA
Count 0
2
1
38
66
%
1.9% 0.9% 35.5% 61.7%
0.0%
Count 1
12
%
11.2%5.6% 47.7% 34.6%
0.9%
The teacher arranged the equipment so that Count 0 each student could observe the % 0.0% demonstration
5
Count 10 The teacher manipulated the apparatus and explained the process at the same time % 9.3%
53
The teacher asked questions to gauge students' ideas of the topic/subtopic The teacher asked students to predict the outcome of the demonstration The teacher asked questions to direct student observation to the demonstration The teacher pressed students to provide evidence-based explanation
2
51
57
37
43
4.7% 1.9% 53.3% 40.2% 10
20
14
49.5%9.3% 18.7% 13.1%
Count 0
0
%
0.0% 0.9% 36.4% 62.6%
0.0%
1
%
12.3%4.7% 50.0% 33.0% 6
%
5.6% 0.9% 55.1% 38.3%
Count 11 %
55
7
59
35
Count 0 0.0%
1
53
67
13
0.0%
5
39
Count 0
21
41
13
10.3% 51.4%6.5% 19.6% 12.1%
Count 0 The teacher summarised the essential points at the end of the demonstration % 0.0% Count 0
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6
0
3
42
62
0.0% 2.8% 39.3% 57.9% 1
6
38
62
208
10. The teacher gave follow-up assignments to % the demonstration Total average score N Mean %Mean towards end of TP 107 4.0349 80.7%
0.0%
0.9% 5.6% 35.5% 57.9%
SE
SD
Skewness
SE
0.0431
0.446
0.021
0.234
Appendix 3 Pedagogical Supervision Head of Subject (HoS) Supervision Never
1.
The HoS checks that my lesson plan is aligned to my schemes of work 2. The HoS guides me on how to integrate instructional practices in my teaching. 3. My HoS advises me on the appropriate instructional practice during lesson development 4. My HoS provides prompt feedback 5. My HoS attends my lessons to observe my teaching practices regularly. 6. The feedback my HoS gives me is about my teaching practices 7. The feedback my HoS gives is timely 8. I am able to apply the feedback in successive lessons. 9. The HoS feedback supports me to progressively improve my application of the demonstration method. 10. The feedback shows gaps in my implementation of the demonstration method. Average score N Mean 107 2.1761
Rarely
Sometime
Often Always
Count 0
16
68
19
%
15.1%
64.2%
17.9% 2.8%
Count 15
46
37
5
3
%
43.4%
34.9%
4.7%
2.8%
Count 61
29
11
2
3
%
27.4%
10.4%
1.9%
2.8%
Count 1 % 1.0% Count 11
45 43.3% 72
46 44.2% 18
8 7.7% 3
4 3.8% 1
%
68.6%
17.1%
2.9%
1.0%
Count 7
49
39
8
4
%
45.8%
36.4%
7.5%
3.7%
Count 18 % 17.0% Count 13
56 52.8% 1
27 25.5% 18
4 3.8% 42
1 0.9% 32
%
0.9%
17.0%
39.6% 30.2%
Count 50
46
8
3
0
%
43.0%
7.5%
2.8%
0.0%
Count 88
14
5
0
0
%
13.1%
4.7%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
14.2%
57.5%
10.5%
6.5%
12.3%
46.7%
82.2%
%Mean SE 43.2% 0.0451
SD 0.4669
Skewness 0.511
3
SE 0.234
Supervision by university lecturer Never Rarely Sometime Often Always
1.
2.
The supervisor checks that my lesson plan is aligned to my schemes of work The supervisor guides me on how to integrate instructional practices in my teaching.
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Count 10 %
57
9.4% 14.2% 53.8%
Count 13 %
15
29
29
12.3% 27.4% 27.4%
13
11
12.3% 10.4% 23
12
21.7% 11.3%
209
3.
4. 5.
6.
The supervisor advises me on the appropriate instructional practice during lesson development The supervisor provides prompt feedback The supervisor attends my lessons to observe my teaching practices regularly The feedback my supervisor gives me is about my teaching practices
Count 63
13
8
60.0% 8.6%
12.4%
7.6% 11.4%
Count 8 9 % 7.6% 8.6% Count 12 43
32 30.5% 29
34 22 32.4% 21.0% 9 12
11.4% 41.0% 27.6%
8.6% 11.4%
13 12.3% 13 12.3% 13 12.3% 13
%
%
Count % Count 7. The feedback I am given is timely % 8. I am able to apply the feedback in Count successive lessons % 9. The supervisor feedback supports Count me to progressively improve my application of the demonstration % method. 10. The feedback shows gaps in my Count implementation of the % demonstration method.
9
12
1 0.9% 3 2.8% 1 0.9% 3
18 17.0% 17 16.0% 18 17.0% 17
42 39.6% 34 32.1% 42 39.6% 34
12.3% 2.8%
16.0%
32.1% 36.8%
14
13
29
12.3%
27.4% 45.3%
2
13.2% 1.9%
32 30.2% 39 36.8% 32 30.2% 39
48
Total average score N
Mean
107
3.1939
%Mea SE n 63.9% 0.0921
SD
Skewness
SE
0.9486
-0.409
0.235
Appendix 4 Guided Interview Schedule Bio-data S/N 1
2 4 5
6
QUESTION How many years have you taught Subject methods - Biology? TCT 332: Subject methods - Chemistry? TCT 333: Subject methods - Physics? TCT 333 (as applicable) How many years have you supervised students on teaching practice? How many BEd(Science) students’ teaching did you supervise in the last teaching practice session? How many times did you supervise and assess the BEd(Science) students teaching biology/chemistry/physics (as applicable) in the last teaching practice session? Has the university oriented/trained you on how to supervise and assess BEd(Science) students during teaching practice?
Teaching of subject methods course What is the significance of the subject methods course in BEd(Science) teacher preparation? How does the methods course support the participants’ classroom instructional practices?
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Please outline the teaching methods for science subjects that you focus on when preparing pre-service teachers to apply during TP. What instructional practices did you want the BEd(Science) students to master so as to effectively apply the demonstration method? Please suggest. with reasons, any change(s) you would like to be made so as to improve on the delivery of the current subject method course? Ability of BEd(Science) students to apply teaching methods in lessons Basing on your observation and assessment of the BEd(Science) students on teaching practice, which instructional practice(s) did the students find a) Easy to apply at the beginning of teaching practice? Why was this the case? b) Difficult to apply at the beginning of teaching practice? Why was this the case? Was your observation any different towards the end of teaching practice? How? Teaching practice supervision and assessment of teaching methods During your teaching practice supervision, what considerations did you base on to decide that the demonstration method was effectively applied? What support did you provide the pre-service teachers who experienced problems in the application of the demonstration method in science lessons? Please suggest with reasons, any change(s) you would like to be made regarding the supervision process of BEd(Science) students during teaching practice. Thank you for your time.
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 5, pp. 211-231, May 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.5.12
Gamification in Higher Education (Case Study on a Management Subject) Andrea Bencsik J. Selye University, Komarno, Slovakia https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8204-3706 Adriana Mezeiova J. Selye University, Komarno, Slovakia https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5878-7334 Bernadett Oszene Samu Jedlik Anyos Mechanical and Informatics School, Hungary https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6176-8510
Abstract. In today’s education systems, new solutions are required for educators to raise and maintain the interest of young people (from primary school to higher education). The aim of the study is to present a self-developed gamification solution and its application in higher education in economics. The method, the process, and experiences presented in the study were tested within the framework of a management subject. The gamification model, based on an extensive literature review, was elaborated with the help of a self-developed method. Prior to the development of the process, students’ opinions on their experiences and expectations for current educational methods were surveyed. After the end of the semester, our students were asked on their feedback, and a national survey was conducted in higher education institutions about the experiences with gamification solutions. The positive consequences of the application of our own model, can be traced in the students’ continuous and year-end performance (a higher level of task solutions and better grades) and also in their feedback. Although the subject of the test semester was a management-type subject, the logic of the model can be applied within the framework of any other subject and in any higher education institution as well. Keywords: flow; gamification; gamification model; higher education; management; motivation
©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).
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1. Introduction Raising and maintaining the attention of young people has been a problem for years on all levels and in all fields of education. It is a global problem and can be found all around the world. Beyond the digital world, young people are not interested in anything, they cannot concentrate on one thing for more than a few minutes, and they constantly hang out on screens – opinions generally say. A group of researchers (Wang et al, 2014; Barak, 2020) believe that this inattentiveness (disorganisation) is inherent in our digital world, as the human brain is unable to develop as fast as the technology it creates. It is also an everyday experience that they are able to listen to music, search in browsers, chat with friends while watching TV. It indicates that they can still pay attention to what interests them. Constant opportunities for expression and interactive activities are also expected in different education systems. Teachers and lecturers face this challenge; in education, interactive techniques should be used that meet the needs of young people (Steigerwald, 2016). Young people in educational institutions should be prepared for the future, where they will have to deal with complex, multidisciplinary problems and approach global challenges from a new perspective (Schwab, 2016). 21st century higher education is not only about acquiring knowledge in a single field of science. Higher-level skills such as critical thinking, creative problem solving, teamwork and communication, and also soft skills are becoming increasingly valuable. Due to the multiplication of data and information, the selection and critical evaluation of, and the appropriate decision-making based on relevant information is essential for the success of the society of the future. Today, lecturers in higher education not only have to pass on information, knowledge content, and students – unlike former students – not only take and internalise that. Thanks to modern technological tools, students are capable of quickly finding anything on their smart devices but this knowledge is superficial. The task of the teacher is to make underlying content and connections understood. Young people should be taught to process information so as to understand its meaning and interplay, and their conceptual and practical skills. The role of teachers is becoming increasingly important in this process (Zivkovil, 2016; Kereluik, Mishra, Fahnoe & Terry, 2014; Kivunja, 2014). Higher education institutions are aware of the need to increase investments in education, although they are not able to do so at the same level. This is also the reason for the increase in the number of researchers seeking effective ways of education, teaching-learning in recent years. The results of research by Deslauriers and colleagues (Deslauriers, Schelew & Wieman, 2011) showed about 10 years ago that traditional presentation-oriented education does not provide 21st century key skills. In interactive education, students become equal participants of research-based learning, exploratory innovation, and the process of learning from mistakes. A most important benefit of this new solution is that they learn to think, decide and act in context, thus developing their professional identity. As a result, they become more ambitious not only in educational institutions but also in real life (Holmes et al, 2015).
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Freeman and colleagues (2014) have shown that interactive methods increase the efficiency of education by giving students a deeper understanding of concepts, and as a result of activity, they spend a significant part of their time in the classroom. During the course of education, they do activities that require extensive information gathering using electronic devices or answering questions, filling out worksheets on web interfaces, analysing problems and constantly communicating. Such interactive techniques make education more attractive, authentic and satisfying – full of challenges that young people have to address –, thus increasing the efficiency of learning (Talbot, Doughty, Nasim, Hartley & Le, 2016). One method that meets the above requirements is gamification. Several studies support (Han-Huei Tsaya, Kofinasb & Luo, 2018; Goksuna & Gursoy, 2019) that, with the help of games, both children and adults absorb knowledge much deeper and more thoroughly. Huotari & Hamari (2017) approach gamification as a service developing process, where the generation of a game-like experience supports user value creation. The application of game elements in higher education is often biased, many consider it frivolous, although research has shown its positive effects (Nah, Zeng, Telaprolu, Ayyappa & Eschenbrenner, 2014). The experimental teaching method illustrated below attempts to test this contradiction. In this research, which is a kind of case study, answers to the following research question were sought: What impacts does gamified education have on the students’ in-class and out-of-class activity? How do they relate to the new method? Is the positive impact of gamified education on learning results traceable? What do higher education lecturers think of the possible applications of gamification? Answering the questions seemed possible with the help of our own ‘experimental’ education. The study summarises the experiences that present the gamified solution of a management subject taught in economic higher education. The method preferred creativity more than a solution involving financial investments. Education required Internet access, laptops, tablets or any kind of smart devices (available to all students without exception). No further specific software is needed. The experiences of the experimental education show that the majority of the participating young people enjoyed and found the gamified solution useful, which was also confirmed by the end-of-semester grades. Colleagues from other educational institutions surveyed had mixed feelings and varied opinions about gamification as a method, but few have their own experience.
2. Literature review 2.1. The impact of media on the human brain The young generation studying at universities is also called Generation Z. The first ones (born between 1995 and 2000) who were there at the beginning of the digital era. Children born in the second wave (between 2005-2010) were already born into the digital world. In this world, you already have to be present on social media sites, on-demand entertainment (whenever you want it) is self-evident. For them, info-communication technology (ICT) is a natural part of life, which fills all
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segments of society. They enjoy it and want to make the most of the opportunities, they live in the moment, talk less and keep things brief (Tari, 2015; Seemiller & Grace, 2016). Several studies have discussed the impacts of media on the human brain. They showed that media changes our habits and routines (Valkenburg, Joche, & Walther, 2016; Uncapher & Wagner, 2018; Crone & Konijn, 2018). Carr (2010) described his feelings that his brain was constantly “hungry”, and demanded the Internet to feed it in its own way, but the more it received, the “hungrier” it became. Today, we know that our brain is constantly changing, and adapts to the slightest changes in circumstances and behaviour. This wonderful property is called plasticity. Neuroplasticity is the most important result of evolution, which allows individuals to adapt to changed circumstances and reorganise themselves throughout their lives or even in the course of a few days (Hanson, 2017; Price & Duman, 2019). During adolescence, significant changes take place in the brain. Nerve cells that are not used regularly die, so in some cases high-performing students in secondary school fail in higher education because weak functions of their brains are overburdened by increased strain (Carr, 2010). More studies indicate the fact that when having to switch between two tasks confuses our brain and increases cognitive load, and also the possibility of not registering important information (Kirschner & Karpinski, 2010; Junco & Cotten, 2012). As a result of the use of multimedia devices for several hours a day, young people’s brains have adapted and their brain maps have rearranged. You could say: their brains ‘work’ differently from their parents. Today’s young generation is heavily burdened by academic traditions: the curriculum (content that we teach) and the teaching methods (how we teach). A kind of reaction to this is the use of interactive teaching methods in higher educational institutions. 2.2. Interactive teaching methods Active/interactive reading improves the learning process as it provides students with more starting points. These are important because students come to school with different knowledge or culture. Innovative education offers more opportunities for correcting misconceptions, providing timely feedback, or integrating different viewpoints through debate and discovery (Holmes et al., 2015) as the responsibility for the education, which combines different educational methods to meet various professional directions and student aspirations (Deslauriers et al., 2011; Hoellwarth & Moelter, 2011; Freemann et al., 2014; Von Korff et al., 2016). According to Tamim and colleagues (Tamim, Bernard, Borokhovski, Abrami & Schmid, 2011), shifts towards students. These methods are able to adapt to the abilities of individuals, trainings can become more effective and provide participants with a higher level of satisfaction. One of the solutions to active/interactive learning is gamification. 2.3. Gamification The term gamification was born from the word ‘game’ and the suffix ‘-fication’ transform into something, in the digital media industry. It was first used by Pelling (2011) in 2002, but gained public awareness only in 2010. The most significant difference between game and gamification is that while games are
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always self-serving, and the focus is on fun and gaming experience, gamification always has some out-of-the-game, useful purpose. According to the most widely accepted definition, gamification is the application of game elements and mechanisms in an out-of-the-game environment (Deterding et al., 2011). According to Kapp (2012), gamification is a strategy that aims to change user behaviours in a positive direction by applying elements of game design and game aesthetics. The basic idea is that human activity is more efficient if the task to be performed is enjoyable and there is joy both in the work process and the result. The two definitions are consistent. To understand the definition, we need to distinguish two types of games, for which there are two separate words. ‘Play’ means the free, spontaneous, selfdirected game of childhood (Santayana, 1955). By contrast, “game” means a game subject to rules, with a purpose and quantifiable outcome (Salen & Zimmerman, 2004). The French thinker, Caillois (2001), conveys the same difference by the terms ludus and paidia. Paidia (from the Greek pais “kid” root) is an exuberant, spontaneous manifestation of the playful instinct, while ludus (play) borrowed from Latin is characterised by brainwork, instructions and limitations. Gamification uses game design elements that ban be categorised as ludus. The creators of the definition illustrate this concept on a twice two-element matrix (see Figure 1). On one axis you find playfulness as opposed to gamefulness, while on the other axis holism as opposed to construction from elements. According to the definition, gamification does not use complete games (in other words, full-fledged games), only game elements, and not playful design, but gameful design.
Source: Deterding et al., 2011 Figure 1. Gamification and related concepts
Gamification occurs in an out-of-the-game context, so it does not create or complete games, but supports other systems with game elements, for instance, in
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the educational or business spheres. The aim of gamification is therefore not to entertain but to increase engagement, motivation and user experience. The creators of the definition distinguish three types of game elements: game technology, playful design and game-based procedures, of which gamification uses only game design elements. Subsequently, gamification is not linked to the use of digital technologies (Deterding et al., 2011; Dulova Spisakova, 2017). The logic of gamification is a blend of game design tools and psychology. It can be divided into three levels, which include regulatory, behavioural and emotional components that are also called MDA (Mechanics, Dynamics Aesthetics) model. Breaking down to factors, you can formulate the three elements of the gamification system (Kim, 2015). For game mechanics, various rewarding tools are listed, such as collectable points, badges, achievable levels, challenges and missions, virtual assets and gifts. Game dynamics denote human desires such as reward, status, performance, selfexpression, competition and altruism (Dicheva, Dichev, Agre & Angelova, 2015; Aliyu, 2020). Aesthetics is the third and final elements of the MDA model, which describes what reactions the game process evokes in the player. These emotions can come from: trying out something new, completing a challenge, exploration and adventure, belonging to a community, the opportunity of self-expression, immersion in a fantasy world (Kusuma. Wigati & Utomo, 2018). Players react emotionally to each part of the game, so they will have game experience and develop their cognitive and social competencies (Deterding et al., 2011; Kapp, 2012). A few years ago, game researchers only studied the negative effects of games. They paid great attention to addictive attributes (Gentile et al., 2011), and gameinduced aggressive behaviour (Bushman, Rothstein & Anderson, 2010; Rozsa, 2019). Today, they endeavour to exploit the positives. Based on a decision by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) released in June 2020, experts used Akili’s game called EndeavorRx to treat children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). The FDA’s decision is a milestone in the growing field of digital therapies, as this is the first time an authority authorised a video game therapy for any health condition. The studies have tested the new method with more than 600 children over 7 years. Clinical trials results showed that one-third of the participating children had a measurable improvement in their attention deficit after playing 25 minutes a day, five times a week for four weeks. The manufacturer claims that the game is able to activate and strengthen certain neural networks through targeted algorithms. The following period may bring new challenges for the company, as they must convince doctors that the game is worth prescribing to children, and health insurers to cover treatment costs (FDA, n.d; Collins et al., 2020; Mura, Gontkovicova, Dulova Spisakova & Hajduova, 2019).
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Sheldon’s (2012) experiment is often mentioned as a successful gamification example in higher education, who gamified the university course on the example of MMORPG (Massively Multiplayer Online Role-Playing Game). In his solution, students moved levels based on points, based on which they received their final grades. He recognised that the simplest point and level systems, and the immediate feedback motivate students. Ryan and his colleagues claim that planning a good game is difficult, and planning a good educational game is even more difficult (Ryan, Costello & Stapleton, 2012). Various simulation programs belonging to the ‘serious game’ category mentioned above are used at universities, especially in teaching economics subjects. These games are usually used in teaching corporate decision-making subjects and developing leadership competences. The next chapter presents our own gamified teaching method.
3. Methodology The research was carried out in three phases. 1. Survey of student opinions motivation and attitude (questionnaire survey) 2. Development and implementation of a gamified course (the combined use of gamification tools and the evaluation of results in the teaching of a management subject) 3. A national survey on the use of gamification in higher education (questionnaire survey) The study describes the second phase in detail, the first and final phases are presented outlined only for clarity. 3.1. Participants As a first step, in the 2019/2020 school year, a quantitative research was conducted among students (260 participants) studying at the Faculty of Economics of a higher education institution, aimed to map students’ learning motivation factors and preferred classroom tasks. Hypothesis testing revealed significant differences between the liking of gamified solutions and solving real problems (Pearson 0,341, 2 sign. 0,000<0,01), between internal motivation and gamified solutions (Pearson 0,129, 2 sign. 0,000<0,01), and between internal motivation and the liking of real problems (Pearson 0,466 2 sign. 0,000<0,01). Summarising the results, students driven by internal motivation liked real problems and were glad to solve them in a gamified form [50]. The second step Based on the results of this phase, we prepared the gamified curriculum for 4th year students studying for a master’s degree, for a seminar course related to a management subject, which was taught in the spring semester of 2020. The two main topics of the course were knowledge management and change management. The students had sufficient preliminary studies, and acquired the special knowledge of the subject necessary for the seminar during theoretical lessons. The course was taken by 68 students, divided into two seminar groups. Seminar classes were conducted on a weekly basis in two lessons.
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3.2. Research design and procedures The logical process of the course is shown in Figure 2 below.
Source: Authors’ own construction Figure 2. The logical process of the gamified course
After planning the process, the ‘persona generation’ phase helps with thinking. Its aim is to get to know participant motivation, which provides guidance for planning ‘challenges’. In our research, persona generation was aided by the evaluation of student questionnaires (Phase 1 of the research). Accordingly, the characteristics of our ‘persona’ are: members of Generation Z, their learning is mainly driven by internal motivation, do not mind having to work harder if the task is interesting, like to solve real problems with the help of games, like to perform and present less, play some inline game every day and like strategy and logic games best. The course began with an introductory session, where students got familiar with the new method, tasks, logic of progress, achievable levels, expected outcomes, potential pitfalls and opportunities for success. 3.3. Instruments At the beginning of the semester, a virtual classroom was created on the Google Classroom site for students to join. With the help of Google Docs Editor, an Excel table called ‘Progress Indicator’ was created, in which everyone could keep track of their own and others’ progress, completed tasks, the current status of points, levels and badges. In the preparation for the course, students formed small groups of 7-8 people, and worked in a permanent composition throughout the semester. The background of gamified tasks was a self-invented company, which was freely chosen and built on students’ creativity. They formulated the vision, mission, scope of activities, organisational framework and operation of the company, distributed the most important positions and named the main problem, for the solution of which the tasks received during the semester provided support. Nine companies were established, the problems of which could be solved in a ‘customised way’ through solving compulsory tasks. The activities and experienced problems of the established companies are collected in Table 1.
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Table 1. Students’ companies and main problems Company activity Marketing service Sale and cultivation of fruit and vegetable goods Manufacturing of bakery products, delivery to chain stores Catering unit – sale of craft beers Plumbing, electrical installation Diamond trading Events management Fitness
Problem Few orders Overchemicalised products Outdated technology, high costs, labour shortage Unreliable suppliers, halting the supply of raw materials Unskilled workforce Legal regulation as an obstacle Few orders Few visitors, high costs
The tasks solved during the semester, built on each other in their logic, served to solve a company problem defined by the students, built on the theoretical curriculum (change and knowledge management). The first part of the tasks was aimed at identifying problems, delimiting them in the organisations of companies, then trying to solve them. In addition to problem solving, based on the logic of Probst’s model (Probst, 1998) (keeping in mind the rules of the relationships between the system approach and the processes), students had to work out conditions and steps for the implementation of a knowledge management system that ensures successful organisational operation. As each group elaborated the tasks for their own company, creative and unique solutions were created. All the companies operated in the same ‘virtual market’, so it was an additional task to find a company among the others, with which they could enter into a mutually beneficial cooperation agreement to support the solution of the main problem. (Technique used was free to choose, which aroused great enthusiasm, and serious ‘business negotiations’ were held in the lesson. There was a group that reached a mutual agreement with all the other companies.) In addition, problem solving and task completion was supported by film screenings, analyses, situational games and personality tests. They could test their own progress during the semester in the Kahoot program, using individual and group quizzes we had created. 3.4. Analysis technique Some tasks were solved during lessons, while others had to be uploaded to the Google Classroom site. During the semester, they could collect 400 points (the socalled XP points known from video games), which belonged to eight levels (rookie, interested, inquisitive, knowledge-thirsty, eager-to-learn, hardworking apprentice, master, grandmaster). A virtual badge was also associated with each level, and progress could be tracked by following XP points on the ‘Progress Indicator’ interface. After completing a task, immediate feedback was provided with help of the evaluation of results and the collected points. At most fewer points, but no negative evaluation was not given, which provided them with motivation with an opportunity to reach a higher level. Students had the
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opportunity to earn extra points by proposing a solution to a problem of a real company of their choice. Twice during the semester and in the final session, they demonstrated their progress in problem solving to the other companies in a presentation. By the end of the semester, all small businesses had met their main goal (problem solving), albeit at different levels. The success of the method was measured in two ways. At the end of the semester, the participating students were asked to complete a brief questionnaire. Using closed-ended questions, students assessed the semester on a 4-point Likert scale, answering how much they agree with the provided statements (1-Not at all, 4Totally agree). In the last, open-ended question, they were asked to give their honest opinions, suggestions, comments about the lessons. Another element of back-testing was the comparison of their learning results with those of the students in the previous year’s non-gamified course. The detailed evaluation results are presented in the next chapters. 3.5. Evaluation of the semester During course evaluation, 49 students expressed their opinions by answering questions summarised in 5 groups. In the first group of questions, respondents were asked to provide a general evaluation of the gamified seminar. The summarised results are shown in Table 2. Table 2. General evaluation of the seminar (n=49) Statements
Mean
Median
Modus
Standard deviation
% of students
I was not bored in class
3.15
3.00
3.00
.994
71.5
The classes were interesting
3.04
3.00
3.00
.856
73.4
I liked attending the classes I would have attended the classes even if it had not been compulsory
3.02
3.00
3.00
.892
73.5
2.71
3.00
2.00
.995
57.1
The second group of questions investigated how the students experienced solving tasks through a self-created company, assuming a real market situation, which led to a solution to the main problem. The statistical evaluation of the results is shown in Table 3 below. Table 3. Students’ reception of a self-created company (n=49) Statements I would prefer if there was a similar opportunity for subjects as well I think gamification is a good idea I liked that we could be creative
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Mean
Median
Modus
Std. dev.
% of students
3.31
3.00
3.00
.748
89.8
3.30
3.00
4.00
.832
89.8
3.23
3.00
4.00
.857
85.7
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I liked that I could think about the task They were more interesting to me I thus better understood the curriculum
3.15
3.00
3.00
.772
83.7
3.14
3.00
3.00
.714
87.5
3.02
3.02
3.00
.978
75.5
Student feedback supported the results of the exploratory research. The results show that students evaluated the tasks developed for their own companies very positively. They could be creative as there was no predefined ‘correct’ solution. They found it interesting and exciting to solve a real problem and use their own ideas. In the third group of ideas, students evaluated the system of points and badges. The statistical results of answers are summarised in Table 4. Table 4. Evaluation of the system of points and badges (n=49) Statements I think it is a good idea I would prefer a similar solution built in other subjects as well Made the subject more interesting Increased the spirit of competition
4.00
Standard deviation 1.021
% of students 71.4
3.00
4.00
1.115
67.4
2.80
3.00
3.00
.935
67.4
2.55
3.00
3.00
.98
55.2
Mean
Median
Modus
2.90
3.00
2.90
The results show that the system of points and badges had the least effect on motivation and competitiveness, but it still increased these in more than half of the students. Nearly three quarters found it a good idea and the majority believed they could better track their or progress and would have preferred to meet such an opportunity in other subjects as well. The fourth group of questions explored student experiences with the Google Classroom site. The statistical results of the answers are summarised in Table 5. Table 5. Evaluation of the use of Google Classroom (n=49) Statement Handling it did not cause any problems It was good to have all the information in one place I think it is a good idea I would prefer if there was a similar solution in other subjects as well
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Mean
Median
Modus
Standard deviation
% of students
3.56
4.00
4.00
.733
93.9
3.56
4.00
4.00
.611
95.9
3.56
4.00
4.00
.705
87.8
3.28
4.00
4.00
.935
77.5
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The students were very positive about the online solution, and they quickly became familiarised with its handling. They took advantage of the opportunities provided by the site, and constantly followed their own and the others’ progress. In the last, fifth group of questions, the students were asked to compare the gamified solutions of the course with the seminar lessons of other subjects. The statistical results of the answers are shown in Table 6. Table 6. Comparison of the gamified seminar lesson with other seminar lessons (n=49) Statements The tasks were more creative The sessions were more interesting The sessions were not more boring The lessons were the same as before
Mean
Median
Modus
Standard deviation
% of students
3.19
3.00
3.00
.77
83.7
3.08
3.00
3.00
.731
81.2
1.66
2.00
1.00
.788
89.7
1.92
2.00
2.00
.731
81.5
As the next step of evaluation, the study results of the students attending the gamified lessons were compared with those who attended the traditional course. Table 7 shows that the results of those studying with the new solution have significantly improved compared to the students attending the traditional course. Table 7. Study results of gamified and traditional courses Traditional course Evaluations
Gamified course
Number of students
%
Number of students
%
5 10 10 18 15 2 1 61
8.2 16.4 16.4 29.5 24.6 3.3 1.6 100. 0
13 13 21 9 7 1 4 68
19.1 19.1 30.9 13.2 10.3 1.5 5.9 100.0
A B C D E FX Did not attend Total
As the third step of the research, we asked 24 colleagues in higher education institutions to share their experience with and evaluations of gamification. 273 responses were evaluated during the questionnaire survey. Experiences with the application are summarised in Table 8. Table 8. Lecturer opinions about gamified education Application of the gamified method Have not applied yet Have applied, but mainly prefer traditional education I apply traditional and gamified methods alternately The application of the gamified method predominates Total
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% 52.0 28.0 18.0 2.0 100.0
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The third step It is interesting how two further responses illustrate the domestic picture of the method. As an answer to the question ‘What subject/subjects have you gamified or would like to gamify?’ in most cases, foreign language education was marked, followed by the field of economics (management, marketing, corporate economics, micro and macroeconomics), and then mathematics. The diversity of the mentioned subjects confirms the wide applicability of the method: oral surgery, history, pedagogy, conflict management, communication, research methodology, bioinformatics, chemistry, constitutional law, mechanics, optics, heritage protection and food safety, etc. Based on the respondents’ opinion (273 participants), the advantages and disadvantages are summarised in Table 9 below. Table 9. Advantages and disadvantages of gamification Advantages
Mean Disadvantages It requires more preparation time on the part of the educator Few publications discuss practical implementation There is not enough theoretical information about the topic Its administration is more complicated
Mean
Makes the learning process more enjoyable
4.32
Attracts student attention
4.27
Positively influences student motivation
4.07
Increases student activity
4.07
Increases competitiveness
3.66
Too student-centred
3.33
Knowledge is easier to transfer
3.60
The educator’s preparation time is disproportionate to the usefulness of the method
3.23
4.23 3.59 3.55 3.53
Lecturer experience shows that the application of gamification in higher education makes knowledge transfer easier, attracts student attention, positively affects competitiveness, motivation and in-class activity. Preparation time was mentioned as the biggest disadvantage, but less think that the more preparation time is disproportionate to the usefulness of the method. Of course, not everyone agreed on the application of the method, as other answers show (not exhaustive list): gamification hides the importance of lexical knowledge, older students may find it too childish, teacher training is missing, it is not the task of the educator to motivate, students get too comfortable. However, few colleagues have direct personal experience. In the next chapter, we summarise our experiences in the light of former research results.
4. Discussion Recent research works have proven the positive effect of gamification on user behaviour and motivation, but also that it does not have similar impact on everyone (Barak, 2020; Bencsik, Mezeiova, Seres Huszarik, & Tobias Kosar, 2019; Gokuüna & Gursoy, 2019). Our work has also confirmed them. The majority of
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studies report a positive effect, but emphasise that gamification largely depends on users and context (Hamari, 2013). The elements of game dynamics and game technics are closely related. The elements of mechanics brought dynamics with them, namely, points served as tools of rewarding, levels indicated current status, challenges satisfied their desire for performance, virtual assets helped in self-expression, ranking lists increased competitive instinct, gifts supported their being altruistic. These elements appear as fundamental expectations in the summary of research by Fromann, (2017) and Bunchball (2011). The solution we have developed meets these needs and practical experience has confirmed their raison d’être. Aesthetics, as the third element of the model, describes the players’ (students) emotional reactions during the game. These feelings can be achieved in more ways, depending on what they can be derived from. The method we have developed could provide the following from the ‘roots’ defined by Kusuma et al., 2018): trying something new, completing the challenge, belonging to the community, an opportunity for self-expression, immersion in the world of fantasy. Fromann (2017) stated that there is no miracle recipe for a successful game or for participants to enjoy the game. He says gamification’s immersive effects can be achieved through enforcing three conditions (or participant expectations). These (optimal workload, ideal levelling ideal reward system) were kept in mind when planning the semester. Our results are supported by several studies that have shown that the application of the problem-based learning (PBL) model increases activity, and improves students’ problem solving skills, (Simamora, Simamora & Sinaga, 2017) critical thinking skills (Najah, Rohmah & Susilo, 2019) and verbal communication skills (Kumar & Bervell, 2019). Several studies have shown that the ease of use and usefulness of Google Classroom has a positive effect on its spread in education (Zichermann and Cunningham, 2011; Wang et al, 2014; Wijava, 2016). This way of transferring information and knowledge (using Google Classroom) can be effectively used in educational activity inside and outside the classroom (Supriyanto, Setiawan & Budiarti, 2018). In their study, Laskowski and Badurowicz (2014) report the results of a gamification course with students of an IT course where no significant relationship was found between class attendance and end-semester results. Students in the gamified course achieved worse results than the participants of the traditional course. A higher course attendance and an increase in the willingness to solve homework were recorded as positive results. Campillo-Ferrer and his colleagues (2020) used the well-known Kahoot program as a gamification tool in a Spanish university course. Their experiences were particularly positive in terms of students’ active participation, their social relationships, the development of their interactivity, and their motivation to learn and solve tasks. Also building on the Kahoot program, experimental education was conducted by
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Varannai and his colleagues (2017) who experienced a positive attitude, an increased student performance, and the acceptance of the use of the program. The positive effects of the Kahoot program were also reported by Prieto, Palma, Tobias & Leon (2019) in relation to teaching an operations management subject. These results support our research results, despite only one method was used from the tools that were part of the gamification training. Although experiences are rather positive, the studies note that the relationship between the invested amount of time, energy and costs and the results achieved needs to be weighed. According to several researchers, education lacks a consistent understanding of processes used for gamifying learning activities (Borges, Durelli, Reis & Isotani, 2014; Ibanez, Di-Serio & Delgado-Kloos, 2014). There is no trained teaching team, which is true in our case as well. We and our colleagues, who apply them, prepare in the form of self-education. In many previous cases, inconsistency led to the failure of game experiments in education, which resulted in undesirable and unexpected effects on the learning processes and study results (Hakulinen & Auvinen, 2014; Hanus & Fox, 2015); Dominguez et al., 2012). Therefore, special attention should be paid to teacher preparedness. In addition, users may not be able to take advantage of opportunities and focus too much on end results (e.g. achieved position or ranking), and less on the tasks (Knaving & Bjork, 2013; Silpasuwanchai, Shigemasu & Ren, 2016). Gamified processes can also inspire users to behave appropriately only when it is rewarded (Bui, 2015). For many users, due to its simplicity or childishness, it may be demotivating (Augustin, Thiebes, Lins, Linden & Basten, 2016).
5. Conclusion We considered the logic of the MDA (Mechanics, Dynamics, Aesthetics) model, well-known from the gamification theory, as the basis for the course design, keeping in mind the mechanics, dynamics and aesthetics of the gamified system, which elements are recommended by several earlier research works (Hamari, Koivisto & Sarsa, 2014; Zichermann & Cunningham, 2011). Based on these theoretical models, we built the gamified semester from elements that meet the expectations formulated by Fromann (2017) and Bunchmall (2011). They included challenges for participating groups, all ‘companies’ started with an equal chance, there was an opportunity to gain a reputation for their performance, the tasks had to be completed on time, to which obtainable points were pre-assigned. The opportunity to advance between levels was ensured, which could be tracked on a list prepared for this purpose. The system rewarded extra performance. During gamification, the combination of these elements – provided that it is foreseeable and known to the participants – ensure the successful achievements of goals (Bunchmall, 2011). The students were familiar with all the tasks, expectations, and they chose the main scope of company activities and the problem to be solved. This ensured that they were able to realise “the main goal” to be achieved (solving their own company’s problem) by the end of the semester. The gamified teaching solution contributed to raising participants’ result to a higher level, but, of course, the student receptivity was not the same and the achieved results did not represent the same shift for everyone.
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The mere implementation of the mechanisms of game techniques does not automatically lead to a significant increase in activity, but the users who actively kept track of their badges and those of their peers showed increased user activity. The methods used during the semester – solving the problem of a fictitious company invented by the students by associating special tasks – can be classified as problem-based learning (PBL). The students participating in the experiment liked that they could be creative (85,7%), and believed they could better understand the curriculum (75,5%). The lessons were interesting and they were glad to attend, they would be happy if further subjects were taught in a similar way. The built-in player feedback (badges) made the progress more interesting and traceable. 67.3% of the students felt that the Progress Indicator helped to assess their level of progress along with that of their peers. This tracking had a positive impact on their motivation and the building of healthy competitiveness). Managing the Google Classroom interface used in the course, on which they could track their own progress, points and badges, cause no difficulty, students easily learnt to use it (93,7 The course was considered more interesting and creative compared to traditional education. Learning outcomes at the end of the course showed a higher level than those in traditional education. Overall, it was seen during the course that young people are most motivated by internal motivation, and they like to solve real problems in a gamified way (Bencsik et al., 2019), which facts were confirmed by our former research. According to the responses of 273 employees of 24 educational institutions, the advantage of the application of gamification is that it makes knowledge transfer easier, attracts the students’ attention, has a positive impact on competitiveness and motivation, but, at the same time, requires much more effort from educators. After concluding our research (experimental teaching), we do not claim that the developed solution is perfect, but, compared to previous semesters, the students were able to achieve better results. Conclusions have been drawn from the experiences, which will be incorporated into the gamified solution of the next course.
6. Limitations of the research The most significant limitation was the opportunity to apply the method. We managed to try the new method on a relatively small course, so our results are true only for the observed course and the students participating in the experiment. Thus, the results cannot be generalized. Another limitation to mention was the lecturers’ inexperience, which may distort student opinions. It is also possible that what they felt as a problem of the method was actually a consequence of the lecturers’ inexperience. It is also a problem and influences the success of the course that during the course the students cannot yet get involved in the use of similar methods in the case of other subjects.
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 5, pp. 232-248, May 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.5.13
Untangling Constructs of Characteristics of Effective Teaching at the Higher Institute of Sport and Physical Education (Tunis) Aymen Hawani Higher Institute of Sport and Physical Education (Ksar Saïd), University of Manouba, Tunisia https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0692-3976 Anis ben Chikha Research unit ECOTIDI (UR16ES10), Virtual University, Tunisia https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8313-7691 Ghazwa ben Maaouia Research Unit of the National Sports Observatory (ONS): Physical activity: Sport & Health, Tunis, Tunisia https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4417-5924
Abstract. This study explored the characteristics of effective teaching, as observed by students at the Higher Institute of Sport and Physical Education (Ksar Saïd) at the University of Manouba, Tunisia. The study employed a descriptive survey method, and analyzed the data quantitatively. The respondents (n=199) were registered for general education courses, and a preconstructed interview schedule was used. The 69 characteristics of effective teaching were ascertained by the qualitative method through axial coding of general themes, in order to make recommendations for the Effective Teaching Program. The major findings are that the three important elements of effective teaching as perceived by students are academic qualifications, attitudes, and skills. It is important to mention that there are characteristics of effective teaching reveals attitudes and skills. Specific recommendations for the Effective Teaching Program are given in the paper, to strengthen teaching effectiveness. Keywords: characteristics of effective teaching; effective teaching program; student perceptions
1. Introduction The students of today are described as belonging to the digital generation. They are constantly exposed to digital technology and electronic devices, such as that
©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).
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used for computer games and other virtual media, and which serve as their learning tools. They are accustomed to a ‘plug-and-play’ learning approach. The divergent and dynamic learning orientation of this generation involves hands-on experience and learning by trial and error or exploration, as opposed to the traditional sequential or linear learning approach generally followed by Tunisian universities. Students have evolved into active learners, because of an open learning environment characterized by the accessibility of the internet, where information is delivered to anyone, anywhere, and at any time. Rapid changes in technology, the influence of globalization, or internationalization of education, the diversity of the student body, global competition, and the need for a skilled workforce to meet the challenges of the 21st century, brought teaching effectiveness to the forefront of higher education policies. Education policymakers are faced with a challenging scenario, the need to propose paradigms for quality teaching, and to prepare graduates to work and adapt in a complex and fast-changing environment. An effective teacher is one who can respond to change and meet the learning needs of students in the 21st century. How do we characterize effective teachers in the 21st century? In response to the challenges posed by the 21st century, three main areas of competency that teachers should develop were identified by a report of the National Institute of Education, Singapore, entitled A Teacher Education Model for the 21st Century (2013, p. 31); these areas are (1) Literacies relating to using knowledge and information (adeptness at guiding students’ access to information through various electronic and print media critically, creatively and accurately, and develop students’ ability to use knowledge to generate better ideas); ability to demonstrate skill at utilizing multiple media or interactive modes of instruction to facilitate learning; and being aware of cultural diversity (or multicultural literacy); (2) Ability to enhance and expand the learning environment by utilizing various instructional tools, technologies and resources to broaden students’ awareness and knowledge of real, current issues that affect their own communities and world contexts; and (3) Ability to integrate technology in pedagogy and curriculum by devising innovative and inquiry and problem-based approaches and developing the higher-order thinking skills of students. A vital element of effective teaching is possessing desirable personal characteristics or personality dispositions. A study by Calderhead (2008) found that, in both educational settings – traditional and online – personality traits correlated significantly with effective teaching – the two variables were found to have a significant linear relationship. Personal characteristics have been found to be of paramount importance for effective teaching, more than content knowledge, cultural knowledge, or pedagogical knowledge (Spitzer, 2009); they influence student achievement and need further attention and investigation (Ciolli-Stewart, 2014; Chandler, 2015); they contribute to a conducive learning environment by facilitating and enhancing learning (Ciolli-Stewart, 2014; Halder& Dutta, 2014; Kimbrough-Walls, 2012); and students’ perceptions of ‘good or bad teachers’ are
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based on the personal characteristics observed in class, which impact students’ assessment of teaching effectiveness (Ibad, 2018). As we transform and meet the demands of 21st century education, we should focus not only on what to teach, but also think about how to impart needs and develop the needs of 21st century learners. The latter requires finding out how we can be effective in our teaching, which starts with identifying dispositional characteristics. As a starting point, we explored the perspectives of students at the Higher Institute of Physical Education (Ksar Saïd), University of Manouba (Tunisia), to determine constructs of characteristics related to effective teaching.
2. Literature review The following body of information makes up the literature review, which has direct bearing on the study. 2.1. Teacher effectiveness in higher education Elliott (2010) identified two subtopics related to teaching effectiveness: “effective teacher characteristics may be summarized as measuring who I am or the essence of teaching, whereas teacher effectiveness may be summarized as what I do or the process/product of teaching” (p. 1). In a review of related studies on teacher effectiveness and student outcomes, Burroughs et al. (2019) point out that teacher characteristics and behaviors (observed by students during classroom instruction and delivery of content to support learning) have an influence on student achievement or outcomes. Findings by Teven and McCroskey (1977) on caring as a teacher attribute (Chandler, 2015) indicate that, if students perceive that their teachers care, teachers’ caring correlates positively with student learning, as evidenced by higher achievement scores. Teaching effectiveness can be deduced from perceived, profound, lasting impact on students. Gender and year of study have also been found to influence students’ perceptions of teacher effectiveness. A study conducted by Yilmaz (2011) asked students pursuing teacher training to describe the characteristics of teachers whom they characterized as effective throughout their schooling, from primary school to secondary school or university level. A significant number of respondents in this study reported their high school teachers to be ‘most effective’ to a much greater extent than they did their elementary school or university teachers. The defining factor of effectiveness was the way teachers had contributed to students’ personality development – especially in terms of dealing with life challenges, or affecting their outlook in life, their thoughts and emotions, their confidence in their worth (self-esteem), and developing self-sufficiency. Regarding gender and years of study, Yilmaz (2011) found that female students tended to report having effective teachers more than male students did, and that more students during their first year of study (as freshmen) reported having had a teacher that had been effective, at the least. The idea of what makes a teacher effective also depends on the thinking styles of students. Teaching styles that encourage creative thinking and complex information processing are considered by students to be the most effective
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teaching styles (Li-Fang, 2004). The same so-called characteristics of effective teaching (CET) were found in both online environments and traditional face-toface settings, though the emphasis or order of importance was different in different settings (Delaney et al., 2010; Gangi, 2011). The factors or variables that contribute to successful teaching, ranked according to importance, are (1) Personal knowledge and characteristics (ability to collaborate with colleagues, forms strong relationships with students, etc.); (2) Content knowledge (knowledge about what is to be learned or taught); (3) Cultural knowledge (understanding of cultural context and characteristics of learners belonging to a particular culture); and (4) Pedagogical knowledge (general knowledge of how to teach) (Spitzer, 2009, p. 88). The ability to communicate well, being concerned about student learning, the ability to motivate students, and course organization were found to be significant criteria of teaching effectiveness (Young & Shaw, 1999). Effective teachers did not necessarily get high ratings on all these important variables, which implies that teaching effectiveness does not follow an additive model. Furthermore, informing students of the value or worth of a course was the strongest predictor of teacher effectiveness (Young & Shaw, 1999). Part of teaching effectiveness is innovation. The eminent psychologist L. S. Vygotsky (1978) emphasized that experience—the idiosyncratic way each individual internalizes the environment's information—is important for both cognitive and personality development. If we give all students the same material, each student will have a different experience according to his or her background, strengths, and challenges. Thus, to promote learning across student intelligence profiles, teachers need to offer students rich experiences—activities in which they can engage with the material personally, rather than just absorb it in an abstract, decontextualized way. 2.2. Students’ perceptions of characteristics of effective teachers A study was conducted, from a Western perspective, to determine students’ perceptions of effective teaching in higher education by comparing on-campus and distance modes of delivery (Delaney et al., 2010). Regardless of the mode of delivery, nine CET were identified: respectful, knowledgeable, approachable, engaging, communicative, organized, responsive, professional, and humorous. Being respectful was ranked first for both on-campus and distance modes of delivery. The students described respectfulness as being fair, realistic, understanding, trustworthy, flexible, humble, caring, empathetic, patient, kind, helpful, consistent, compassionate, open-minded, reasonable, sincere, concerned and diplomatic. Being knowledgeable is demonstrated by being practical, flexible, current, competent, credible, eclectic, qualified, and reflective. Being positive, friendly, happy, personable, helpful, and accessible characterized being approachable. The students described engaging as being assertive, enthusiastic, energetic, interesting, interactive, passionate, stimulating, motivating, charismatic, creative, and positive. Being communicative is demonstrated by being attentive, clear, constructive, understandable, and thorough. To be organized, a teacher should be prepared, efficient and focused. Being perceptive, efficient, helpful, accommodating, and available described being responsive. To
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be professional, one has to be confident, dedicated, hygienic, punctual, efficacious and dependable; and being humorous was described as being kind, having a positive outlook, and being engaging and approachable (Boluda & López, 2021). A cross-cultural study that compared the qualities of good teachers in China reports results that are consistent with studies in the United States, in spite of finding different categories (Liu & Meng, 2009). Three categories that characterize effective teachers as perceived by Chinese students were (1) A high degree of ethical behavior, (2) Possessing professional skills, and (3) Their students obtain good test scores. A teacher who demonstrates high teacher ethics is one who is responsible, treats students equally, is caring, maintains friendly and close relations with students, is humorous, considerate, and able to control his/her temper. A teacher who is knowledgeable has excellent teaching skills and is able to create an active classroom atmosphere – these traits were perceived as representing good professional skills. If students obtain good test scores, the teacher is considered to be effective (Rayou, 2018). 2.3. Dimensions of Characteristics of Effective Teaching There are three important dimensions that relate to teaching effectiveness: academic characteristics, social and psychological characteristics of personality, and practical and pedagogical expertise. These dimensions were found to characterize effective ESL (English as a Second Language) teachers by female Qatari college students (Sabbah, 2018). Students expected that highly effective ESL teachers who were rated highly on academic characteristics had achieved the basic skills and required teacher qualifications, or had pursued graduate degrees, had attended relevant training, exhibited teaching proficiency, and were able to speak the students' native language. In terms of social and psychological characteristics, the students regarded the following as highly important: being friendly, just or fair, kind, showing stability under pressure, stimulating learning, being a good listener, being polite and respectful, reducing students’ anxiety in class, encouraging and motivating students, being patient, showing a willingness to help students in and out of the class, being flexible in checking attendance, and firm in dealing with students, and giving regular assignments. Teachers who demonstrated a high degree of practical and pedagogical expertise applied various strategies in their teaching, were well-prepared, managed the class and class time properly, prepared activities that stimulated the interest of students, and utilized technology (such being familiar with the software being used, multimedia, and social media) in teaching. Turkish college students based their perceptions of effective teachers on teachers’ personal and professional characteristics (Yilmaz, 2011). In order of preference, they listed the top 10 characteristics or qualities of effective teachers as follows: (1) Exhibits dynamism, (2) Shows empathy, (3) Has expertise on the subject area, (4) Shows warmth and friendliness, (5) Is fair to students, (6) Communicates effectively, (7) Motivates and inspires students, (8) Has a good sense of humor and makes learning fun, (9) Is well informed and up to date on relevant issues, and (10) Promotes the talents of students.
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Another study (Çakmak, 2009), involving Turkish prospective teachers (college students), identified important behaviors that describe effective teaching characteristics as follows: states the objectives of the lesson; keeps students lively in the lesson; is fond of his/her job; teaches with consideration of students’ interests and talents, and is able to maintain rapport with students. The least important of the behaviors of an effective teacher are arranges various seating arrangements (group, etc.) in the teaching process; jokes with students; requires students to do presentations (projects, etc.) in lessons; suggests a source material list to students that they should adhere to in the lessons, and the tendency to be authoritative. Teaching effectiveness is perceived as a combination of personality and ability, the former being regarded as a key factor. Research conducted by Raymond (2008) with students primarily from Middle East regions identified five important personality traits of effective teachers, namely (1) Being respectful, (2) Making classes interesting, (3) Fairness in grading and evaluating student work, (4) Cares that students succeed in the course and (5) Being friendly to students. Three important ability attributes were found to describe excellent teaching, namely being (1) able to encourage students’ questions and discussion, (2) well prepared and organized, and (5) able to make difficult subjects easy to learn. Saafin (2008) characterizes an effective teacher as one who can establish and maintain good rapport, and shows flexibility and willingness to compromise or adjust in depicting United Arab Emirates (UAE) culture. Two themes, namely interpersonal rapport with students, and instructional skills, were identified by students in UAE as characteristic of perceived qualities of effective teaching. The qualities and practices that were identified by content analysis, in order of frequency, are (1) Treats students with respect, (2) Shows flexibility and willingness to compromise, (3) Is helpful and caring, (4) Is friendly, (5) Has a good sense of humor, (6) Helps students understand by exhausting all possible means for students to learn, (7) Gives students a chance to speak and ask questions, (8) Shows dedication in teaching, (9) Is fair or treats students equally in class, (10) Is a role model, (11) Is knowledgeable or has mastery of courses taught, (12) Is patient, and (13) Smiles often.
3. Objectives of the Study This qualitative, descriptive study aimed to explore the concept of effective teaching of students at a higher education institution in Tunisia. Specifically, it aimed to achieve the following research objectives: 1. To identify the dominant CETs as perceived by students; 2. To determine the elements that the concept of CET comprises, as identified by the students. 3. To recommend a set of programs for effective teaching.
4. Research Paradigm Figure 1 shows the process paradigm of the study.
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Figure 1: The process paradigm of the study The paradigm (Figure 1) displays the process of the qualitative study. In determining the dominant CETs, the mean rating per CET was computed and the top 20 CETs identified. Comments for the 20 CETs were gathered for analysis. Then, axial coding was done to provide an abstract of the definition per CET. The first part of the coding established whether the comments were clear definitions of the CET, or otherwise; thus, “Definition” and “Unclear” were coded accordingly. A second coding round was done on the comments that had been coded as Definition. Thematic clustering was used as the basis for coding. Comments with the same theme were given the same code and were clustered further, to derive the CETs and group them with the elements of effective teaching.
5. Analysis of Data The paper employed a qualitative research design, particularly, a descriptive study, utilizing an interview method. A process of content analysis was employed, through axial coding and clustering of responses, to come up with specific constructs of CET. A total of 199 students voluntarily participated in this study, of whom 121 were women, and 78 men. The study was conducted in a private university of the Higher Institute of Sport and Physical Education (Ksar Saïd), University of Manouba (Tunisia). 5.1. Research Instrument An accessibility sampling technique was employed, through which all the students registered in the General Education Program were invited to take a part in the study. Each of the 199 respondents was individually invited in an interview session that was facilitated by the authors of this research paper. Students were given the assurance that their identity would be withheld as part of ethical practice. The respondents were given a preconstructed list of CETs (Table 1), and they were asked to choose five CETs from the given list and rank these five items in order of importance (1 being the most important, and 5 being the least important). Thereafter, the student respondents were asked to describe the characteristics they had chosen. The descriptions provided by the students were considered and were tabulated. The top five most important characteristics from the list of 69 CETs were ascertained through content analysis (axial coding and clustering of CETs).
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6. Results and discussion This section will present the results derived from the data collected from the 199 respondents after the necessary analysis had been done. The analysis of data was guided by the problems investigated by this study. Objective 1: Identify the dominant CETs as perceived by students Based on the top five responses generated by the respondents, the CETs were chosen. The 20 CETs were generated through coding and framing of student responses provided during the interviews conducted personally by the authors. Table 1 lists the CETs with their corresponding ranks, based on the frequency distribution. Table 1. Dominant CETs as perceived by the students. CETs
N
Rank
Helpful
67
1
Knowledgeable
65
2
Friendly
63
3
Organized
39
4
Flexible
37
5
Understanding
29
6.5
Respectful
29
6.5
Open minded
27
8
Fair
25
9
Understandable
22
11
Motivating
22
11
Happy
22
11
Communicative
20
13
Interesting
19
15
Clear
19
15
Professional
19
15
Qualified
15
17
Focused
14
18
Available
12
19
Humorous
11
20.5
Patient
11
20.5
The result of the analysis for Objective 1 shows that being helpful is the most dominant characteristic among the top 21 CETs considered, namely helpful, knowledgeable, friendly, flexible, respectful, fair, understanding, motivating, communicative, interesting, clear, professional, qualified and patient. As Table 2 shows, the first five CETs fall under the category of personal knowledge and characteristics (Spitzer, 2009). The factors or variables that contribute to successful teaching, ranked according to importance, are (1)
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Personal knowledge and characteristics (ability to collaborate with colleagues, form strong relationships with students and others); (2) Content knowledge (knowledge about what is to be learned or taught); (3) Cultural knowledge (understanding the cultural context and characteristics of learners belonging to a particular culture); and (4) Pedagogical knowledge (general knowledge of how to teach). Objective 2: Determine the elements that comprise the concept of effective teaching Table 2. Clustered elements that comprise the concept of effective teaching Academic Qualifications Professional Knowledgeable Qualified
Attitude Flexible Understanding Communicative Focused Understandable Clear Open Minded Helpful Respectful Friendly Happy Patient Available Fair
Skill Flexible Understanding Communicative Focused Understandable Clear Open Minded Helpful Knowledgeable Motivating Interesting Professional Humorous Organized
Table 2 shows that the initial clustering resulted in three elements making up the concept of effective teaching: academic qualifications, attitudes, and skills. It is significant that there are the same number of characteristics for attitudes and skills, 14, the first eight of which are in the same order. An academically qualified instructor who is perceived as effective in teaching is one who has PhD, has undergone relevant training and certification related to the field of study, imparts lessons clearly, is able to relate to student experiences, and is adept at using technology to enhance learning. In terms of attitude, an effective teacher is one who demonstrates flexibility, is fair, shows respect and patience, maintains a happy demeanor, is accessible when needed and, at the same time, is able to deliver lessons clearly, is sensitive to students‘diverse needs and can address the learning difficulties of students. Teaching skills that students perceived to be important are the ability to communicate effectively and establish good rapport to keep students engaged in and motivated for learning, encouraging students to openly share their opinions and values, showing expertise in the subject area and acting professionally, by being updated about the use of technology; being able to recognize and address the diverse needs of students (of different abilities and cultural backgrounds).
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Objective 3: Recommend a set of programs for effective teaching Based on the results of the study, the following are strongly recommended as basis for an effective teaching program: 1. Faculty development. Faculty should be given the time, venue and opportunity to reflect on their methods, their delivery, and the way they connect with their students. Through diagnostic meetings and appropriate workshops, they should be able to uncover those weaknesses, enhance their strengths further and come up with courses of action to improve their effectiveness in teaching. 2. Faculty recruitment. The elements that comprise the concept of CET that include academic qualifications, attitudes and skills, should be considered in the recruitment of faculty. 3. Student feedback. Consider students’ concept of effective teaching when developing tools for evaluating effective teaching of instructors; evaluation should take place on an annual basis, at the least. 4. Faculty evaluation. Evaluate effective teaching further in the university using the behavioral manifestations of the CET as perceived by students. 5. Data analytics. Compare effective teaching concepts of faculty and administrators, using the concept of CET identified by the student as basis for leveling expectations.
7. Study Limitations The study was conducted with the help of students, without taking into consideration several factors, such as their experience, their personalities and their grade levels. Likewise, the study did not consider a possible relationship between the nature of the subjects taught by the teachers and the CET observed by the students involved in the study.
8. Conclusion This study aimed to identify the constructs of CET at a higher education institution, and to propose using them as basis for an effective teaching program. Specifically, it aimed to determine the dominant CETs as perceived by the student respondents; to determine how the students defined the CETs; to ascertain the CETs that can be derived from the combination of identified CETs; and to determine the elements that comprise the concept of CET identified by the students. The unit of analysis was taken from the 199 student respondents and using a preconstructed interview schedule consisting of 69 CETs. The dominant CETs perceived by the student respondents were 21 items, with being helpful heading the list, followed by being knowledgeable, friendly, organized and flexible in the top five.
9. Implications of the Study Despite the limitations discussed in Section 7, the results reported in this study are promising and encouraging. This study opens up a new research perspective and could constitute an interesting contribution to the initial training of teachers and for recruitment for Tunisian university teachers.
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Acknowledgments The authors express their sincerest gratitude to the editors and blind reviewers who shared their expertise and provided guidance for the opportunity availed through this paper. Declaration of Conflicting Interests The authors declare no potential conflicts of interest.
10. References Boluda, I. K., & López, N. V. (2021). A teachers' orientation approach to understand the university teacher-student relationship. Estudios Sobre Educación, 40, 149-172. http://dx.doi.org/10.15581/004.40.149-172 Burroughs, N., Gardner, J., Lee, Y., Guo, S., Touitou, I., Jasen, K., & Schmidt, W. (2019). Teaching for excellence and equity. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-03016151-4_2 Çakmak, M. (2009). Prospective teachers’ thoughts on characteristics of an “effective teacher”. Education and Science, 34(153), 74–82. Calderhead, S. A. (2008). College students' perceptions of effective teaching personality traits: a quantitative analysis of traditional versus online education. (Doctoral dissertation). capella university. https://www.learntechlib.org/p/117120/ Ciolli-Stewart, S. (2014). An investigation into the traits of and strategies used by highly effective teachers (Doctoral dissertation, Indiana State University). Chandler, W. B. (2015). The potential influence a teacher's personality has on student valueadded results (Doctoral dissertation, Union University). Delaney, J. G., Johnson, A., Johnson, T. D. & Treslan, D. (2010). Students’ perceptions of effective teaching in higher education [Project report]. Memorial University of Newfoundland. http://research.library.mun.ca/id/eprint/8370 Elliott, B. L. S. (2010). Effective teacher characteristics: a two nation causal comparative study (PhD dissertation). Walden University. Gangi, S. (2011). Differentiating instruction using multiple intelligences in the elementary school classroom: a literature review (Doctoral Dissertation). University of Wisconsin-Stout. Halder, S., & Dutta, R. (2014). Exploring the relationship between teacher effectiveness and personality traits. International Journal of Education and Management Studies, 4(4), 249–254. Ibad, F. (2018). Personality and ability traits of teachers: student perceptions. Journal of Education and Educational Development, 5(2), 162–177. http://dx.doi.org/10.22555/joeed.v5i2.2215 Kimbrough-Walls, V. (2012). Students' perception of important teaching behaviors in classroom and clinical environments of a community college nursing and dental hygiene education program (Doctoral dissertation), University of Nevada. Li-Fang, Z. (2004). Thinking styles: university students' preferred teaching styles and their conceptions of effective teachers. The Journal of Psychology, 138(3), 233–252. https://doi.org/10.3200/jrlp.138.3.233-252 Liu, S., & Meng, L. (2009). Perceptions of teachers, students and parents of the characteristics of good teachers: A cross-cultural comparison of China and the United States. Educational Assessment, Evaluation and Accountability, 21(4), 313–328. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11092-009-9077-z Raymond, S. M. (2008). The characteristics of effective English as a Second Language instructors. International Journal of English Language Teaching, 6(2), 1–24.
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http://www.eajournals.org/wp-content/uploads/tertiarylevelstudents%e2%80%99-perceptions-of-the-characteristics-of-effective-englishasa-second-language-instructors.pdf Rayou, P. (2018) Pédagogie explicite [explicit pedagogy]. Recherche & Formation, 87, 87– 107. d10.4000/rechercheformation.3546 National Institute of Education, Singapore. (2013). A teacher education model for the 21st century [Report]. http://www.nie.edu.sg/files/spcs/te21_online_ver.pdf (accessed on may). Sabbah, S. S. (2018). The characteristics of effective english as a second language instructors. International Journal of English Language Teaching, 6(2), 1-24. http://www.eajournals.org/wp-content/uploads/tertiarylevelstudents%e2%80%99-perceptions-of-the-characteristics-of-effective-englishasa-second-language-instructors.pdf Saafin, S. (2008). Arab tertiary students’ perceptions of effective teachers. Learning and Teaching in Higher Education: Gulf Perspectives, 5(2). http://www.zu.ac.ae/lthe/lthe05_02_02_saafin.htm Spitzer, L. (2009). Personality or pedagogy: which personal characteristics are necessary for esl teachers to possess and what role do they play compared to formal pedagogical training in ESL teaching? Studies in Learning, Evaluation, Innovation & Development, 6(3) , 80–92. Teven, J. T., & McCroskey, J. C. (1977). The relationship of perceived teacher caring with student learning and teacher evaluation. Communication Education, 46, 167–176. http://www.jamescmccroskey.com/publications/167.pdf Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society. MIT Press. Yilmaz, A. (2011). Quality problem in teaching profession: qualities teacher candidates feel to be required of teachers. Educational Research and Reviews, 6(14), 812–823. Young, S. A. & Shaw, D. G. (1999). Profiles of effective college and university teachers. The Journal of Higher Education, 70(6), 670–686. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221546.1999.11780803
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APPENDIX A PRECONSTRUCTED CHARACTERISTICS OF EFFECTIVE TEACHING USED IN THE INTERVIEW SCHEDULE 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Approachable Enthusiastic Available Knowledgeable Stimulating Personable Humorous Understanding Flexible Understandable Open Minded Communicative Punctual Responsive Sincere Concerned Organized Interesting Patient Fair Motivating Clear Respectful
24 25 26 27 26 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46
Based on Delaney et al. (2010, p. 20).
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Challenging Practical Energetic Thorough Helpful Attentive Eclectic Efficient Accessible Prepared Confident Friendly Trustworthy Positive Empathic Dedicated Current Dependable Caring Engaging Happy Constructive Competitive
47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69
Creative Realistic Compassionate Professional Qualified Pleasant Hygienic Accommodating Reasonable Consistent Perceptive Kind Interactive Focused Charismatic Efficacious Credible Assertive Passionate Diplomatic Reflective Humble Collaborative
245
APPENDIX B CHARACTERISTICS OF EFFECTIVE TEACHING (Axial coding sequence) Characteristics Helpful
Knowledgeable
Friendly
Organized
Flexible
Understanding
Respectful Open minded
Behavioral manifestations of instructors as described by students Instructors take initiative to ask students of anything they missed or failed to understand. Instructors answer all queries from students in and out of their classroom. Instructors make sure that students understand the lessons in class. Instructors encourage students to do their best. Instructors assist students, even for non-academic purposes. Instructors prepare students to face what is in store for them in the field of work. Instructors provide bonus questions to help students increase their grades. Instructors have PhDs. Instructors are proficient in the use of English as a medium of instruction in class. Instructors are confident with facts of their lesson because of their use of several references, like books and personal experiences. Instructors are confident in explaining their lesson with the use of technologies. Instructors find time to greet, converse and make jokes with students even outside the classroom. Instructors create a family working environment inside the classroom. Instructors find time to help students understand the lesson even outside the classroom. Instructors smile in and outside the classroom. Instructors see to it that instructional materials are guided by the arrangement of topics in the course syllabus. Instructors make sure that materials are reader friendly. Instructors present topics using a certain flow of information that is easily understandable by students. Instructors can manage and change schedules in class accordingly. Instructors are not strict with absences and ‘late incurrence’ of students in class. Instructors explain requirements and quizzes ahead of time, then, provide additional help to students when needed. Instructors can use practical approaches in teaching when needed. Instructors provide means on how students can reach them when needed. Instructors exert effort to understand and adjust to the limitations of students. Instructors find time to know personal concerns of students even outside their classroom. Instructors respect the religion and culture of every student. Instructors can discuss any topic and accept any answers from students. Instructors recognize differences in abilities and cultures and adjust accordingly
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Fair
Understandable
Motivating Happy Communicative
Clear
Professional
Qualified
Focused
Available
Humorous Patient
Instructors give a grade that is due to students based on their work, not on nationality. Instructors properly supervise students to provide appropriate grade. Instructors provide instructional materials to everybody. Instructors use a language that is understandable to all students. Instructors accent do not affect students understanding of the lesson. Instructors make themselves available for questions from students even outside their classes. Instructors bring out the best in every student. Instructors come to class in good mood and with all smiles. Instructors are available whenever students would like to communicate with them. Instructors are capable of indulging students to participate in exchanging information through discussion in and even outside the class. Instructors use several means to communicate with students like SMS, webmail, and portal. Instructors exert effort in making sure that students understand each lesson, requirements, policies and exams clearly. Instructors see to it that students know how to communicate with them whenever they have questions even outside their classes. Instructors are educated with higher degree and teaches subjects from their own field. Instructors present lessons in a simple manner with the use of technologies. Instructors teach subjects in their field of specialization and shows evidence that they are studying or learning subjects outside their specialization. Instructors do have high qualifications like PhDs and degrees of specialization. Instructors are grounded with their mission to develop each student. Instructors exert effort in simplifying lessons for maximum understanding of students. Instructors are anywhere in the university when needed by students. Instructors are willing to render service in the absence of the other. Instructors delegates tasks in his absence. Instructors exert effort to break the seriousness of the class by giving jokes and funny comments. Instructors entertain many questions from students and is not irritated when students come to class late or when students leave the room.
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APPENDIX C CLASSIFICATION OF CHARACTERISTICS DERIVED FROM THE COMBINATION OF THE CETs AS PERCEIVED BY THE STUDENTS USING AXIAL CODING A. Buddy Type Characteristics Behavioral Manifestations Available Instructors are accessible at the university when needed by students. Flexible Instructors provide ways students can reach them when needed. Communicative Instructors are available whenever students would like to communicate with them. Instructors use several means to communicate with students, like SMS, webmail, and portal. Clear Instructors see to it that students know how to communicate with them whenever they have questions, even outside their classes. Understanding Instructors make themselves available for questions from students, even outside their classes. Helpful Instructors answer all queries from students in and out of their classroom. Instructors take the initiative to ask students about anything they missed or failed to understand. B. Accommodating Type Characteristics Behavioral Manifestations Friendly Instructors find the time to help students understand the lesson, even outside the classroom. Understanding Instructors exert effort to understand and adjust to the limitations of students. Focused Instructors exert effort to simplify lessons for maximum understanding by students. Clear Instructors exert effort to make sure that students understand each lesson, requirements, policies and exams clearly. Organized Instructors present topics using a certain flow of information that is easily understandable for students. Understandable Instructors use a language that is understandable by all students. Instructors’ accent do not affect students’ understanding of the lesson. Helpful Instructors make sure that students understand the lessons in class. C. Cool Type Characteristics Flexible Patient
Behavioral Manifestations Instructors are not strict with absences and “late incurrence” of students in class. Instructors are not irritated when students come to class late.
D. Academician Type Characteristics Professional Knowledgeable
Behavioral Manifestations Instructors are educated with higher degrees and teach subjects from their own field. Instructors have PhDs.
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Qualified
Instructors do have high qualifications, like PhDs and degrees of specialization
E. Techie Type Characteristics Professional Knowledgeable Communicative
F.
Behavioral Manifestations Instructors present lessons in a simple manner and use technologies. Instructors are confident about explaining their lesson with the use of technologies. Instructors use several means to communicate with students, like SMS, webmail, and portal.
Non-Biased Type
Characteristics Respectful Open minded
Behavioral Manifestations Instructors respect the religion and culture of every student. Instructors recognize differences in abilities and cultures and adjust accordingly.
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 5, pp. 249-270, May 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.5.14
Problem-Based Learning and Capstone Course Teaching Strategies for University Social Responsibility: The Case of a Packaging Design Course Chinlon Lin and Hui Tu Hungkuang University, Taichung, Taiwan https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9720-8910 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9211-271X
Abstract. Most design courses in Taiwanese universities still follow the traditional teaching methods that cannot address the complex and interdisciplinary problems of the real world. In response to this, this study tries to integrate problem-based learning and capstone course approaches with university social responsibility to packaging design courses. It expects the hybrid teaching model will allow third-year college students to gain problem-solving skills, practical experience, and awareness of social responsibility in the design process. Therefore, this paper aims at addressing the following purposes: (1) explore each teaching approach’s features and the influence on design education; and (2) identify the implementation process for the new hybrid teaching method. This study uses qualitative research to obtain primary information, including authors’ observation and reflection and semistructured interviews with 12 students and four clients. After three years of data collection and analysis, this study validates that the hybrid teaching method is suitable for design education and proposes a sevenstage implementation model applied to professional design courses. Adjustment according to the needs of different fields, providing a reference for teachers’ future curriculum planning and practice is included. Keywords: capstone course; packaging design; problem-based learning; teaching strategies; university social responsibility
1. Introduction When planning the curriculum and teaching of packaging design courses in design departments in Taiwanese universities, most courses still follow the standard guideline and mindset of the 1990s. The teaching strategies are limited to only exploring and teaching the forms, principles, and packaging processes. Students are assigned hypothetical themes that cannot address the complex and interdisciplinary problems of the real world. Design perspectives are becoming more fluid and complex in an era of rapidly changing design forms and materials. ©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).
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It is essential to re-examine the course structure to meet current industry needs and provide students with appropriate and professional materials. In response to this issue, the packaging design course (the course) at the Department of Cultural and Creative Industries of Hungkuang University first adopted problem-based learning (PBL) in 2017. It later integrated the capstone course into its teaching. The concept of university social responsibility (USR) was applied to the assignment to establish a connection with the community. Based on the core concept of “learning by doing”, PBL uses practical problems as the core of the teaching process and encourages students to engage in group discussions to develop their active learning, critical thinking, and problemsolving skills. This teaching method is believed to be more effective than traditional lecture-based learning. Capstone course is a method that focuses on industry orientation and stresses the assessment of students’ core competencies. Through peer and external assessors’ feedbacks, students can apply their core competencies to solving problems in the industry. In addition to the two teaching methods, the course also integrates the concept of USR to assignment topics which enable students to connect and grow with the community. This study uses qualitative Action Research as its research method. Primary information is collected through authors’ observation and reflection and interview feedback from the students and clients. After three years of data collection, this study discovers that students have acquired the ability to solve problems and develop critical thinking using a hybrid teaching approach. During the process, students learn to transform researched materials into design ideas, conduct market and case studies analysis, engage in repeated rounds of critiques with the teachers, industry experts, and the clients, reflect on feedback, and finally present their design works as a team. Thus, this study will address the following purposes: (1) explore each teaching approach’s features and the influence on design education; and (2) identify the implementation process for the new hybrid teaching method. With this, the study hopes to construct a new teaching framework for packaging design courses that can cultivate a new generation of design talents and reference teachers’ future curriculum planning and practice.
2. Literature Review 2.1 Problem-Based Learning Problem-based learning (PBL) is a learner-oriented curriculum design that motivates active, cooperative, and practical learning. The concept of PBL was first proposed by the educator John Dewey (1859-1952), who advocated “learning by doing” instead of learning by passively receiving. He believes “true learning is based on discovery guided by mentoring rather than the transmission of knowledge” (Boyer, 1998, p. 15). Through “learning by doing,” knowledge is acquired through action (Bender, 2012). In 2017, the Department of Technological and Vocational Education under Taiwan’s Ministry of Education proposed the 2017 Pilot Program for Teaching Innovation in Technical Colleges and Universities, including the PBL course as a focus of the program. Subsequently, the “2019 Technical and Vocational Education Development Report” also identified PBL as the primary focus for enhancing the teaching practice in
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technical and vocational education. Therefore, tertiary institutions (not limited to technical colleges) such as Hungkuang University now consider PBL a crucial part of courses (Ministry of Education, 2019). PBL is a method in which teachers use practical problems as the core of the teaching process and encourage students to engage in group discussions to develop their active learning, critical thinking, and problem-solving skills. This teaching method regards active learning as the focus of instruction and believes that active learning is more effective than traditional lecture-based learning (Hawks, 2014). Duch et al. (2001) asserted that PBL uses complex and real-world problems to encourage students to explore and study the concepts behind problems, allowing students to develop case studies from real-world problems. Through small learning groups and peer discussion, PBL also enables a more active and interactive process of learning, allowing students to develop solutions to problems rather than absorb knowledge passively (Yang & Chang, 2005; Leung, 2008). Tu et al. (2016) also argued that when carrying out PBL teaching, students can be motivated to participate in the course content and pursue self-achievement actively to reinforce their interest in the course content, practical application and relevance. This will not only increase students’ level of satisfaction with the course, but it will also increase their satisfaction with the teaching resources, such as teachers’ guidance and classroom equipment, as well as students themselves. In recent years, research on the use of PBL in teaching has diversified. Fan (2019) suggested that course curriculum should be practice-oriented to produce students to meet the needs and expectations of the workplace and employers, satisfying requirements for industry development. Al-Busaidi et al. (2021) believe that PBL emphasises the meaningful use of language as a tool for communication and problem-solving. The implementation steps and key points of PBL have been in place for many years, and there are various versions and approaches, but the core concepts and aims are the same (Al-Busaidi et al., 2021). According to Barrett & Moore (2011) and Flipped Education and Action Learning Association (2018), PBL can be divided into the following seven stages: 1. problem-solving; 2. case-based; 3. selfdirected; 4. small group discussion; 5. tutor-assisted; 6. self-assessment; 7. development of interpersonal skills. Along with the teacher’s guidance, students can learn to think about problem-solving during the one-year university course and serve the community and its needs. 2.2 PBL Integrated Capstone Course When discussing the value of university education in recent years, demonstrating learning outcomes has become a core indicator for judging the quality of education. This is a significant difference from the past when only academics were examined. Following this trend, the capstone course has been widely applied in various disciplines. In terms of teaching, the capstone course represents the final year of the university experience; some departments also implement capstone courses in the third year. The course length is one or two semesters. Capstone
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courses should include four functions: integrating university learning experience, closure of the learning experience, reflection on the learning experience, and transition from university learning experience to the workplace (Gardner & Van der Veer, 1998). The implementation of capstone courses can provide teachers with feedback on teaching and course improvement. It also helps students integrate their previous learning to produce specific results (i.e., creative works), enhance their ability, build confidence, and prepare for the future (Lee et al., 2019). Maleki (2009) defined capstone courses that incorporate project-based, problembased, and inquiry-based learning as courses that emphasise the need for learners to work in teams to apply knowledge and think critically to accomplish learning tasks. Capstone courses integrate students’ previous learning and outputs. Therefore, considerable emphasis is placed on students’ ability to solve real-world problems. These problems are often complex and open-ended, so capstone courses are frequently combined with PBL teaching methods. The features of capstone courses should include the ability to highlight the department’s specialities, the planning of learning processes that encourage active learning, knowledge sharing and teamwork, the production of designs that solve real problems, and teacher involvement and guidance. These features will increase students’ interaction with the industry and develop learning applications (Dutson et al., 1997; Lee et al., 2019). Aside from emphasising industry orientation, capstone courses stress the assessment of students’ core competencies. Peer assessment among students allows them to evaluate each other’s works and learn from one another (Wu & Cheng, 2014). In addition, inviting external teachers or trained assessors to serve as assessment committee members (Heitmann, 1996; Oscarson, 1989) can enable students to understand their performance and skills and apply their core. 2.3 Praxis of University Social Responsibility University Social Responsibility (USR) is a humanism-based concept driven by local demand and implemented through students’ participation in solving problems. USR was first discussed in the book entitled Beyond the Ivory Tower: Social Responsibilities of the Modern University by Derek Bok in 1984. They argued that universities must uphold their fundamental values and functions and think deeply about their social responsibilities and escape from the ivory tower in their teaching and research. The Higher Education Institution (HEI) discusses the contributions of USR, arguing that USR is a social philosophy or principle that plays a crucial role in social change to sustain social, ecological, environmental, technological, and economic development. USR is an interactive dialogue between the university on the one hand and society and the community, on the other hand, providing services through the transformation of knowledge to promote sustainable human development and research (Matten & Moon, 2004). Participating in the communities can shape a university’s research agenda and enhance students’ learning. In other words, USR integrates or establishes connections with the local community through teaching so that students and the community can learn from each other and grow together. In addition to traditional teaching and research, universities’ role and mission of participating in and serving society are also essential responsibilities that enable students to
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have a sense of social mission and lead to the progressive development of society (Chiang & Chuang, 2018; Wu, 2018). In addition to the theoretical and thematic convergence in the implementation of USR, Yamazaki (2015) proposed using the concept of community design to connect people through activities participation. He believes that design is a “powerful tool” for addressing social issues and uniting communities. Therefore, it is necessary to identify community resources, clarify the structure of the design theme, think about how to combine various elements and sustain enthusiasm. In his book entitled The Age of Community Design, Yamazaki (2018) divided community design into four stages: (1) Interview: collecting related local information; (2) Workshop: designers creating designs through interacting with people in the community; (3) Teambuilding: building the respect, communication, and coordination among team members, and assigning the roles and jobs of each individual; and (4) Action: providing the team with various types of support during the implementation process. Yamazaki (2018) mentioned the importance of focusing on what the community has and what the community wants to create. In this sense, during the development of community design, designers should pay attention to the locality and originality and respect the diversity of local culture to create an ideal lifestyle, from the bottom up, based entirely on the wishes of community residents. 2.4 Research Hypothesis Based on the literature review and the author’s personal teaching experience, this study hypothesises that by integrating PBL, capstone course, and the concept of USR to the teaching method, students will acquire the capability to solve realworld problems. In addition, the result of students’ design work will demonstrate the concept of social responsibility.
3. Methodology 3.1 Teaching Methods The authors have taught the packaging design course of Hungkuang University since 2017. The course is carried out with a hybrid teaching method that combines PBL with the capstone course approach and the praxis of USR. The course starts with an introduction to let students familiarise themselves with the overall packaging design process while building their professional judgment, selecting materials, and processing methods. The course is divided into two-semester and is taught to the third-year design students in the Department of Cultural and Creative Industries. The course curriculum is broadly divided into three themes each semester, with the concept of USR gradually blended in. This allows students to understand the impact of design on the social environment and consumers through hands-on design practices and case studies analysis. Students are assigned actual design topics which require them to communicate with both the clients and users repeatedly. The seven stages of PBL are implemented through a collaborative design process in small groups of 2-4 people: 1. problem-solving; 2. case-based; 3. self-directed;
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4. small group discussion; 5. tutor-assisted; 6. self-assessment; 7. development of interpersonal skills (Table 1). Table 1. The seven stages of PBL Step 1. Problem-solving Students explore various aspects of the theme, such as users of the objects, market position, design goals, and shape and structure. Step 2. Case-based Besides using the real case as the theme, students need to conduct case studies from Taiwan and overseas. Later, students are guided to visit and interact with the target object and site to clearly define the theme and integrate the design into the real environment. Step 3. Self-directed Students convert the information collected from the previous steps into design ideas and use case studies to search for the most suitable design techniques and styles to execute the ideas. Step 4. Small group discussion With each member’s role and job functions assigned according to the individual’s expertise, students are asked to work as a team to find solutions through interactive discussions and gradually construct the design proposals. Step 5. Tutor-assisted After rounds of group discussions, students’ design proposals are presented in the classroom. The teachers then provide professional guidance, rather than giving the “best” or “right” answers, for students to reflect on. Step 6. Self-assessment After receiving suggestions and comments, each student digests the feedback individually, then voice his/or opinions in group discussions. The training in this stage focuses on students’ self-assessment to identify the direction and extent of design modifications. Step 7. Development of interpersonal skills This is the final stage of the design process. The format usually includes the design literature, posters, and final product. During this stage, the course teachers, industry experts, community representatives, clients, and other students are gathered to critique the works. Students are to learn to express their ideas clearly and confidently. The interactive process is also an essential basis for developing interpersonal relations and prepares them for entering the real workplace.
The course also incorporates the capstone course approach to teaching. Students can reflect on their previous learning experiences and engage in the process of integration, closure, reflection, and transition, and thus fully integrated with professional skills and overall competence. Some of the themes that had been assigned to the course in recent years include the following types: 1. Community-based topics: Students use design processes, such as observation, interviews, and participation, to collate design issues, discover local characteristics and culture of the community, and then propose innovative and creative packaging design solutions. Producers of products from the community are invited to participate in the design assessment, and so the students can learn more about the local features. Examples include packaging design for dried pineapple from Nantou (2017), packaging design for peaches from Xinshe, Taichung (2017), black bean mooncake packaging/gift box design from Wuqi, Taichung (2017), sweet potato nougat
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2.
3.
design from Longjing, Taichung (2018), tangerine for Gonglaoping Community Development Organization in Fengyuan, Taichung (2019), and wine bottle packaging design for Hung Estate Winery in Waipu, Taichung (2020). Schools and social welfare organisations related topics: Examples include packaging design for the shampoo set for the Department of Applied Cosmetology, Hungkuang University (2018), the Anoectochilus Tea for the Department of Food Science and Technology, Hungkuang University (2019), and the Cancer-nono Foundation gift set (2019). Environmental sustainability and universal design-related social topics: this theme allows students to think about packaging design from environmental issues and sustainable development. Examples include value-added packaging design (2018), universal packaging design proposal (2018), and green packaging product design and implementation plan (2019). The aim is for students to understand how to balance business with environmental and social responsibilities as designers.
3.2 Research Methodology The research method for this study is primarily action research. Action research is a part of educational research that studies a specific problem in a specific context, emphasising the immediate application of findings. Action research combines the action and research of the practitioners in an attempt to bridge the gap between theory and practice. It focuses on the resolution of practical problems and the development of the capacity for action. At the same time, it also emphasises the development of critical and reflective skills (Huang & Tsai, 2003). Educators carry out “educational action research” based on the problems they encounter or occur in education (Tsai, 2007). Lewin (1946) developed the action research model, describing action research as a spiral of steps:
Figure 1. Action Research Model
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This study applies an action research model and is carried out through such processes as seeking the root of the problem, drawing up an action plan and process, implementing the action plan, observing and evaluating the effectiveness of the action strategy, evaluating the course, and incorporating reflection and feedback. The research materials include the teaching observations of the two teachers, student learning experiences and feedbacks, students’ works (output), and interviews with clients. In reflection, the researchers provide feedbacks based on research materials and external assessors’ opinions as the capstone course method suggests. Until all the stakeholders’ information is collected and analysed, the research generates basic assumptions and plans another action plan for the new cycle. 3.2.1 Data Collection Data collection is divided into preparatory, implementation, and reporting phases. In preparation, the two teachers consolidate previous teaching experiences and knowledge and record the observation on students’ performance during the course. Four teams with grades ‘B’ or above are chosen based on the purposive sampling method in the implementation phase. For three consecutive years, a total of 12 respondents, one student from each of the four chosen teams each year, was selected among 120 students who took the course between the academic years of 2017 and 2019 (Table 1). Gender selection is based on the female to male ratio of 3 to 1 in the class each year. Table 1. Students who took the course between academic years 2017-2019 No. 01
Code SC
Sex Female
Year 2017
02
ST
Female
2017
03
SY1
Female
2017
04
SJ
Male
2017
05
SL1
Female
2018
06
SS
Female
2018
07
SW
Male
2018
08
SL2
Female
2018
09
SL3
Female
2019
10
SL4
Female
2019
11
SY2
Male
2019
12
SL5
Female
2019
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Sources Used Learning experience reports, assignments Learning experience reports, assignments Learning experience reports Learning experience reports Learning experience reports, assignments Learning experience reports, assignments Learning experience reports Learning experience reports, assignments Learning experience reports, assignments Learning experience reports, assignments Learning experience reports, assignments Learning experience reports, assignments
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Students were required to write a report on their learning experiences in the middle and end of each semester in the reporting phase. Students were also required to create and submit a portfolio of their work at the end of that semester. These materials are used to assess their learning outcomes and facilitate two-way dialogue between the teachers and students. Additionally, in-depth interviews were conducted on the students and clients after completing each assignment between the academic years of 2017-2019. The interviews were done in a semistructured style in which the interviewees were asked open-ended questions rather than a straightforward question-answer format. The interviewees were 12 students and four clients. The clients consisted of 2 males and two females who were the managers or owners of the organisations that commissioned the design projects (Table 2). The question outline was designed based on the concept of PBL, capstone teaching, and USR. Information elicited were first converted to a transcript and later analysed to look for any significant finding (Table 3). Table 2. Clients between academic years 2017-2019 No. 01 02 03 04
Code DL1 DL2 DY DL3
Sex Male Female Female Male
Design Year 2018 2018 2019 2019
Sources Used Personal interview Personal interview Personal interview Personal interview
Table 3. Semi-structured interview questions Q1. What are the differences between students’ work and that of design firms’? Are the work conforms to industry standard and practices? Q2. Have the students shown synergy between design and marketing strategies in their proposal? Q3. Based on your experience during the final critique, do you think the works are presented and the theme of the assignments need to be revised or improved? Q4. Have the students integrated the concept of USR into their works? Q5. By integrating the concept of USR into the assignment theme, have students created something that brought changes to the community?
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3.3 Research Process
Figure 2. Research Process
4. Discussion 4.1 Plan The Department of Cultural and Creative Industries of Hungkuang University underwent a department-wide curriculum restructuring in 2018 and positioned the course as an integrated professional design course that focuses on localisation in design. Therefore, in addition to the original PBL learning method, the course also embodies a capstone course approach to enable students to complete the learning experience of integration, closure, reflection, and transition and use their expertise to help to solve real-world problems in the community. Students receive concrete achievements from their learning outcomes through this process, which will later help them make a smoother transition between school and future working life. To deepen students’ learning, USR was incorporated into the course’s design topics in 2019. In order to successfully carrying it out, the concepts of sustainable packaging design and universal design were also adopted for the first time,
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allowing students to design from the perspectives of environmental awareness and social issues. The goal of the course was to guide students to think and act from a professional designer’s perspective and consequently maximise social responsibility through teamwork, innovation, and creativity. In addition, the course incorporated community design techniques that enable students to interact with residents and users and develop designs that integrate nature and local elements. 4.2 Action Unlike conventional design teaching, two teachers are taught, both with professional backgrounds in design. The two teachers provide different viewpoints and case studies on the same topic, allowing students to think from multiple perspectives. In this section of the study, the implementation process of the course will be explicated in five stages: tasks and propositions, case-based, self-directed learning, group discussions, and tutor-assisted. 4.2.1 Tasks and Propositions (Integration) In contrast to conventional packaging design training, the course hopes to utilise more local vocabulary and elements, allowing students to learn more about local features and the environment and processes for producing agricultural products based on their observations and interviews. The teachers provide case studies for every topic assigned and emphasise that design is not just about the final output but also analytical transformation and contextual construction. For example, for the assignment “packaging/gift box design for black bean mooncake from Wuqi, Taichung”, SC-2017 described the process of developing propositions as follows: “I was asked to ‘reawaken’ the experiences and then ‘reconstruct’ them. At first, I was unable to adapt to this way of thinking. There was never a standard answer to the questions I raised; the teachers only gave two or three sentences as guidance and left the rest to me to think. Shouldn’t the teacher give us clear instructions? After seeing case studies, we were asked to provide our views again. I really felt like there were too many things to think about and that it was too complicated. After few rounds of practice and note-taking, new ideas started to arise. Perhaps there are more possibilities for black beans from Wuqi. I slowly began to familiarise myself with the local features, and often times I would discuss them with my family. It’s like they have become a new game in my life.”
This student’s progression from being unable to adapt to the eliciting teaching method to the method becoming a part of her life shows that the student could accumulate and internalise previous learning experiences. However, for students to connect, they require proper guidance and practice. Another example is the assignment “packaging design for sweet potato nougat from Longjing, Taichung” indicates that students can enhance their design ideas and creativity by acquiring others’ life experience and professional knowledge. SL1- 2018 noted: “If a good packaging design can convey this knowledge to more people, I believe Longjing’s sweet potato nougat can differentiate itself from others and generate better sales.”
Feedbacks from the client was positive as DL2-2018 commented that: “We can see that students used many local elements in their proposals. This is something we rarely see from other companies in the industry. Maybe this was
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due to the advice given by the teachers or the way the course was carried out. We love this creative idea, so we decided to use this design for our product packaging.”
In addition to visual effects, a good design must also be culturally rooted. Regarding the assignment “packaging design for tangerine for Gonglaoping Community Development Organization in Fengyuan, Taichung”, SL4-2019 explained how they approach the theme: “Our group came up with ideas from local eco-tourism. Based on the interviews and data collected, we decided to use local birds as the theme.”
The client was delighted with the result and amazed by the student’s creativity, as DL3-2019 pointed out: “The students are full of creative ideas. They included a lot of community elements that we hadn’t thought of ourselves in the proposal. The people in the organisation felt that they were very unique and everyone likes them. Unfortunately, it was not possible to mass-produce all of them.”
The main reason the Organization preferred this group’s work was its originality in marketing strategy. In contrast to the conventional representation of tangerine images, this group used birds that live in the same environment as the tangerines to illustrate its high-quality and pollution-free (Fig. 3). This approach enhances the reliability of the product and helps promote local features at the same time.
Figure 3-1. Conceptual design proposal
Figure 3-2. Characters setting
Figure 3-3. Integration of culture and local elements in packaging design
Figure 3-4. Final packaging design for mass production
Combining culture with local elements and successfully converting them into a conceptual design is key to assessing students’ core competencies. Students have many creative ideas and observations that society and commercial designs have
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not yet ossified. Therefore, they can propose ideas from a unique perspective that distinguishes them from others. 4.2.2 Case-Based (Integration) One of the main focuses of the course is case-based teaching. The course emphasises the significant relationship between design and users. A good packaging design should be based on the designers’ understanding of the users and identify the leading target group. Students are asked to use market analysis, product analysis, in-depth interviews or questionnaires, and observation of consumer behaviour as data collection, aggregation, and judgment methods. These are to be converted into marketing strategies later. For example, in the assignment “shampoo set packaging design for the Department of Applied Cosmetology, Hungkuang University,” students must first understand the basic information of the product, such as ingredients, features, primary customer, and sales channels, before they can conduct interviews with the clients or provide questionnaires to potential consumers. According to SL2-2018’s experience report: “At first, we wanted to just mimic the design currently trending in the market. However, we discovered that apart from retail sale purposes, the product was going to be used as a school gift. Also, based on interviews, we know the client wanted the package to look luxurious and petite, emphasising its high-quality texture, and the bottle should be small and light enough for travel. On the contrary, the consumers wanted the price to be cheap and the capacity of the bottle to be big, hoping for the best value. Each party had a different view, and it was difficult to balance them.”
Students’ task with this case was not knowing which should be given priority or accommodating different views. As a result, they resolved these issues through communication, coordination, and design techniques. Team members discussed with both sides relentlessly and finally provided a solution that met both parties’ cost/price, aestheticism, and practical needs (Fig. 4). This back-and-forth process is a common practice in the design industry, but not for students. As the client DL1-2018 noted: “Because students lack experience in sales and marketing, they are less realistic in determining who the consumers are. From deciding the concept to the final design for mass production, we spent a lot of time going back and forth, revising and evaluating mock-ups. Although the final product looks very different from the students’ original design, the main concept was still there. As a result, the product was very well-received, and everyone thought it was great. This gave us the confidence to continue collaborating with the course. We also hope by doing so allows students’ works to be seen and gives them a real sense of achievement and recognition.”
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Figure 4-1. Creating design mock-ups
Figure 4-2. Final design for massproduction
4.2.3 Self-Directed Learning (Closure) Although the course is carried out in small groups, each step along the way involves a process of self-directed learning. During the course, the teacher’s guide students to identify problems from their past life experiences and encourage members from the group to provide suggestions and input for the problems, producing a continuous spiral learning experience between the student and his/her group. As two students expressed that: SL2-2018: “At first, I simply used keywords to search for a case study for my design in the internet, but the results were not always suitable. With the teachers’ guidance, I learn to contemplate on what I really want to achieve before making decisions.” SL5-2019: “After seeing the case studies provided by the teachers and the ones I researched, I usually comb my thoughts once again before presenting my ideas to the group for interactive discussion. By hearing other members’ opinions, I gained a lot more.”
In the beginning, students could not grasp the key points in self-directed learning and were not serious about the assignments. With the teachers’ guidance, students have learned to integrate their strengths with learning experiences and optimise their self-directed learning. 4.2.4 Group Discussion (Closure) Each stage of the course relies on the communication and collaboration between group members. These skills cannot be taught directly through teaching materials or theoretical explanations but rather from peers. Students need to keep an open mind and learn to listen to others’ opinions and respect the decisions the group has made. They must also use effective methods and tools for team discussion and communication and propose the final design solutions. As students pointed out that: SJ-2017: “The more members there are in a group, the harder it is to regulate. Many people are unwilling to accept the views of others or reluctant to express their views during the discussion but later demand to reverse the group’s decision. This communication is ineffective.” SW-2018: “Teamwork is not an easy task for me. Particularly if the group members have conflicting views and we yet still have to select the best proposal.” SS-2018: “I’ve learned how to accommodate each other over time; I can now patiently listen to other people’s thoughts.”
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SL3-2018: “I often hoped to use my idea as the group proposal. Because this was a group project, it was necessary to incorporate the views of other group members.” SY1-2017: “In the group discussion, I prefer everyone first putting forth his/her own design proposal, and after reviewing and identifying the pros and cons, the group decide on a proposal and move forward with it.” SL5-2019: “Nowadays, people like to use LINE group chats for discussion. I think group discussions should still be face-to-face in order to stay focused.” SC1-2017: “By working in a team, I was able to learn different ways of thinking and approaches to design from other students.” ST-2017: “Assigning roles and jobs allow everyone to take part in the project based on his or her strength; for example, those who are good at writing draft the plan and write the literature, and those who are better at craft build the models…etc.”
Based on the above comments, it is clear that students have mixed feelings about working as a group. It is a standard practice in the industry, and students need to adapt and be prepared for their future employment. Students should accumulate experiences that include learning to listen, respecting decisions made, dividing work, collaborating, sharing, and reflecting on one another during their studies. 4.2.5 Tutor-Assisted (Closure) Integrating USR into the course’s curriculum requires more in-depth guidance for students and the provision of different design media. In addition to thinking about USR from multiple perspectives and the localisation of design, cultural, social, and environmental issues should also be incorporated so that students can learn practical skills and at the same time practice USR as they study. Two students described in the assignments “Value-added packaging design” and “Green packaging product design” as follows: SS-2018: “This theme requires not only functionality but also added values, so there are more dimensions to consider. Packaging design combining environmental sustainability. I feel that there are many problems that need to be addressed, which make my design training more oriented.” SL3-2019: “The concept of green packaging allows us to rethink the role of designers. We should do our part for the environment and natural resources starting from design.”
The clients gave positive feedback towards students’ efforts to raise awareness of social responsibilities in their work. DY-2019: “This time, the students designed products for us that fitted the theme very well. As a social welfare organisation, working with this course is a win-win situation.” DL3-2019: “The community needs young people in marketing and design like those from the Department of Cultural and Creative Industries. They can bring in a lot of fresh ideas. It would be good if the students could come more often to collaborate with us.”
The scope of USR is vast. The teachers have explored elements of social responsibility, including environmental and sustainability development, local communities, and non-profit organisations, from different perspectives in the course, allowing students to integrate relevant knowledge acquired from the classroom with their design experience. For students in the technical and
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vocational education system such as Hungkuang University, the knowledge accumulated through direct hands-on experience is more valuable than gained through lectures. 4.3 Observation Observation includes collecting data and observing each action procedure’s process, outcomes, context, and actor characteristics. This part of the study is divided into two stages, self-assessment and development of interpersonal skills. The main focus of the two stages is to record the interaction between students and the teachers, external experts, the clients, and peers, and how the students apply the comments and suggestions back into their design proposition. Students’ ability to communicate with others professionally and present works in industrystandard is critical for the assignment’s success. 4.3.1 Self-Assessment (Reflection) After group discussion and teachers’ guidance, the most suitable solution is selected for the final proposal. From a practical design perspective, being aesthetically attractive is not the only thing that matters; a good design also needs to consider other factors such as having an appropriate theme, connections with the place, the users and the clients’ needs, structure, and cost. The process involves individuals and the group’s collective decisions to find the most suitable solution. As students describe below: SC1-2017: “Model making is an important part of design process. I’ve learned to use sketch models to study and make necessary adjustment to my own proposition.” SL3-2018: “If there’s any adjustment needs to be made, we’ve learned to revisit the original design concept and try to propose another more suitable idea.” SS-2018: “The first time I created a design, I thought it was important to make it aesthetically beautiful. Until a critic told me during presentation that the packaging shouldn’t be more expensive than the product, then I suddenly realised that our agenda was to design the packaging for the product, not to sell the packaging. Now, I’ve learned to always remember my goal and carefully calculate the cost and effect of the packaging and the products.”
Using self-assessment to find the best solution for a design proposal is relatively challenging for students. On the one hand, they are required to be innovative and creative; on the other, they are asked to consider practicality. Over the years of teaching, it is evidenced that cost and practicality are the two factors that determine the success of a student’s design. Hence, in this stage of the implementation process, demanding students to perform self-assessment is critical to their solution-finding and a crucial part of the design in the real-world environment. 4.3.2 Development of Interpersonal Skills (Transition) When learning to communicate design ideas through a presentation, how students respond to differences in opinions is vital for accumulating and transitioning experiences. In addition to the two-course teachers, student’s performance in the course is assessed by industry experts, representatives from the community, the clients (project commissioners), and occasionally their peers. Listening to opinions from their peers allows students to re-examine their ideas from different perspectives, which can later be applied back into the design.
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ST-2018: “I’m always nervous about presenting my proposal because I’m afraid that my design is not good enough, so I always rehearse over and over again to make sure I can clearly express my ideas.” SW-2018: “I am always nervous when the teachers say we are going to do peer assessment. It may not be easy for me to criticise the works of my friends without any personal feelings involved, but I try to do my best and be impartial.”
Students must present their design proposals in this final stage; hence practical aspects of the design needs consideration. This interaction between the two counterparties, the presenter and the critics, allows students to learn to speak in public and be more familiar with actual industry practice. The inclusion of peer assessment also enables them to think about the feasibility and strengths and weaknesses of other proposals from a designer’s perspective and not as a student. This is also the challenge they will be facing when working in the design industry in the future. 4.4 Reflection This study uses a hybrid method to integrate three teaching strategies. Similar to Duch et al. (2001) argument, the course uses real-world problems as assignments for students to come up with solutions collectively in teams. In terms of capstone course teaching, not only do the teacher’s guide every design development like Dutson et al. (1997) and Lee et al. (2019) suggested, clients and industry experts are invited to assess students’ work, allowing the outcome to meet industry needs and conform to market standard. This approach validates Heitmann’s (1996) theory that inviting external assessors to students’ performance proved essential. At the end of every semester, the teachers summarise the students’ overall performance, feedback from both the students and the clients, and result from teaching evaluation, and make modifications to next semester’s course, assuring the curriculum meets everyone’s needs. If any student experienced learning difficulties, the teachers would look into the problems and adjust the course’s scope in the Plan stage. This reflection of the course requires extensive communication and modifications, but its spiral process enables the course to show improvement and differences each semester.
5. Result By combining PBL, capstone course, and USR to the packaging design course at the Department of Cultural and Creative Industries of Hungkuang University, the study has accumulated three years of the teachers’ teaching experience and course feedback and feedback from the project commissioners. This study discovers that such an integrated teaching method is helpful to students’ learning and performance and can increase their knowledge of social responsibility. Based on the authors’ teaching experience and the outcomes from the courses, this study proposes a new teaching strategy (Fig. 5) for the packaging design course. The course implementation can be carried out in a seven-stage process as follows: 1. Identifying the task: exploring current issues and determining the design proposition and scope after surveying and classifying the data. This train’s student’s ability to discover problems from the context and organising information collected.
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2.
3.
4.
5.
6. 7.
Defining the design field: conducting in-depth interviews, case studies, or workshops to define the scope of the design field after the case is introduced. Using any method or approach learned to identify its cultural features for further development. Internalising information: internalising the information obtained from Steps 1 and 2 and summarising the contexts, textures, and design ideas. Different from other commercial designs, this process focuses on the cultural connection and localisation of the design. Assigning roles and jobs: dividing work according to expertise and gradually exchanging information to build the design structure. Packaging design is interdisciplinary, so each member in the team providing his or her expertise is rather crucial to the success of the design proposition. Conducting a self-review: repeatedly exchanging ideas among members of the group and participating in brainstorming sessions with the teachers. The different guidance provided enable students to think from different perspectives and judge the feasibility of their works more critically. Reflecting on and deepening output: repeatedly thinking about design closure until finding the most suitable solution for output. Displaying the design results: displaying the design results, collecting expert feedback, and making modifications to the final project. This allows students to know if their work is industry standard and what needs to be learned and modified.
Figure 5. New Teaching Strategy for Packaging Design Course
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After three consecutive years of dynamic adjustments to the teaching strategies, this study has witnessed the transformation of students’ learning, from their initial attempts to imitate the flashy design of existing products to have the ability to analyse product position, market demand, and user assessment professionally. Through case/field studies and assimilation of professional knowledge, students develop design ideas and produce suitable proposals as a team. To achieve the best result, students go through repeated discussions and modifications during the design process. The teacher only offers counselling and guidance and identifies problems to be resolved or corrected without giving subjective answers, thus allowing them to search for solutions and verify themselves. The final output is presented in a professional manner equivalent to that of industry practice. An opportunity is presented for students to interact with guest critics such as industry experts, representatives from the community, and clients. The proposal is finalised after feedback is collected and modifications are made. This teaching strategy guides students to progress in stages. Students complained about the workload being too heavy initially, but gradually they were willing to devote more time and effort to group discussions and design. This is what the course was designed to achieve. Feedback from the school’s teaching evaluations (Table 5) also shows positive growth in student learning and satisfaction. Table 5. 2017–2020 Packaging Design I &II Teaching Evaluation Scores
2017–2018
Packaging Design I Maximum score of 5 4.22
Packaging Design II Maximum score of 5 4.24
2018–2019
4.53
4.39
Academic Year
2019–2020 4.54 4.62 Source: Teaching evaluations, Office of Academic Affairs, Hungkuang University
6. Conclusion The packaging design course at the Department of Cultural and Creative Industries of Hungkuang University has been based on PBL since 2017. Subsequently, the course has combined the capstone course approach and the praxis of USR to build an integrated teaching framework for educating a new generation of design talents. The innovative strategy of the course is constructed through a seven-stage implementation process that addresses the shortcomings of traditional design education. It can also be applied to other professional design courses with adjustment according to the needs of different fields. The study has made several contributions to the teaching of design courses. In terms of teaching strategy, the study provides design education with another innovative and effective method. This framework enables students to think in progressive stages to produce integrated and quality ideas. With regard to design topics, using real cases as assignments can motivate and inspire students. Many of the design works proposed by the students, such as the shampoo set packaging design and the Cancer-nono Foundation gift set packaging design, have been commercialised and are currently circulating in the market. Some even help the clients generate higher sales. These achievements set the foundation for future
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students who are thinking of pursuing their careers in design. From the perspective of improving students’ competencies in design, the course also provides students with theoretical materials to enhance their professional knowledge. With the combination of their technical skills training, students can complete a design project, from the inception of assignment, market and cases analysis, development of ideas, to the final presentation, in a professional manner and standard as a team. This is evidenced by a group of students who won the Best Popularity Award for the Taichung Ah Yue Iced Black Tea Cup Design Competition in 2018 and three other students who won the top three Blue Sky Hotel Guest Room Design Competition prizes 2019. Packaging design is a rapidly changing field, with new materials and structural designs constantly emerging. The teaching strategies need to be modified constantly in response to these changes to enhance learning efficacy. The course will allow students to connect with industry practices and bridge the gap between learning and application to better prepare them for future life.
7. Suggestion and Limitation The hybrid teaching method hypothesised by the study is validated through third-year college students at Hungkuang University. They acquire active learning and critical thinking abilities, problem-solving skills when facing complex and interdisciplinary real-world problems, and understand the importance of social responsibility to the community. Hence, the study has the following suggestions for future research: 1. Besides the packaging design course, this hybrid teaching method can be applied to other design courses to fill any possible implementation process gap. 2. The integration of PBL, capstone course, and praxis of USR is a validated teaching method, but the teacher needs to spend twice as much time on preparation and teaching. The cost to carry out such a strategy can be a financial burden to the department and school. 3. Problem-based learning emphasises using group discussion to develop solutions. However, in practice, team members often determine the success of a discussion. In other words, groups with academically well-performed members are more likely to generate better outcomes than those without. Hence, if a group discussion did not go well, the teacher needs to be involved and assist in ensuring the 4. Due to time limitations, the study only spent three years collecting data from 16 respondents. Future research can increase the sampling number and research time for a more accurate result. 5. Future research can conduct control group experiments to compare the result based on hybrid teaching methods and traditional teaching methods.
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Bok, D. (1984). Beyond the ivory tower: Social responsibilities of the modern university. MA: Harvard University Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/40249026 Boyer, E. L. (1998). The Boyer Commission on Educating Undergraduates in the Research University, Reinventing Undergraduate Education: A Blueprint for America’s Research Universities. Stony Brook, NY. Chiang, Y. J., & Chuang, H. Y. (2018). Integrating Collaboration of University and Indigenous Tribe for the Development of Tribal Tourism: A Case Study of Jialan Tribe in Jinfeng Township, Taitung. Sustainable Community-based Tourism Studies, 2(2), 1-18. https://doi.org/10.6744/SCTS.201812_2(2).0001 Duch, B. J., Groh, S. E., & Allen, D. E. (2001). The power of problem-based learning: A practical ‘how to’ for teaching undergraduate courses in any discipline. Sterling, VA: Stylus. Dutson, A. J., Todd, R. H., Magleby, S. P., & Sorensen, C.D. (1997). A review of literature on teaching engineering design through project ‐ oriented Capstone courses. Journal of Engineering Education, 86(1), 17-28. https://doi.org/ 10.1002/j.21689830.1997.tb00260.x Fan, T. Y. (2019). Research on the Capstone course with PBL teaching method - taking the “Entrepreneurship” credits program as an example. Journal of Business Administration, 44(3), 75-96. https://doi.org/10.3966/102596272019090443004 Gardner, J. N., & Van der Veer, G. (1998). The senior year experience: Facilitating integration, reflection, closure, and transition. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Flipped Education and Action Learning Association (2018). Problem-based learning, PBL. http://www.feala.org.tw/?p=5133 Hawks, J. S. (2014). The flipped classroom: Now or never? AANA Journal, 82(4), 264-269. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25167605/ Huang, K. H., & Tsai, C. T. (2003). Practising the concept of course studies and development. Chung Cheng Educational Studies, 1(1), 1-20. https://doi.org/10.6357/CCES.200304.0001 Heitmann, G. (1996). Project-oriented study and project-organised curricula: A brief review of intentions and solutions. European Journal of Engineering Education, 21(2), 121-131. https://doi.org/10.1080/03043799608923395 Lee, L. S., Kung, H. Y., Chen, C. Y., & Lin, K. Y. (2019). The influence of teaching strategies on learning effectiveness in the project-, problem- and inquiry-based Capstone course. Curriculum & Instruction Quarterly, 22(3), 55-76. https://doi.org/10.6384/CIQ.201907_22(3).0003 Lewin, K. (1946). Action research and minority problems. Journal of Social Issues, 2(4), 3446. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.1946.tb02295.x Matten, D., & Moon, J. (2004). Corporate social responsibility education in Europe. Journal of Business Ethic, 54(4), 323-337. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-004-1822-0 Ministry of Education. (2019). Technical and Professional Education Development Report: For the School Years of 2015 & 2016. Taipei, Taiwan: Ministry of Education. https://tvet.ie.ntnu.edu.tw/sites/default/files/201903/108%E5%B9%B4%E6%8A%80%E8%A1%93%E5%8F%8A%E8%81%B7%E6% A5%AD%E6%95%99%E8%82%B2%E7%99%BC%E5%B1%95%E5%A0%B1%E5% 91%8A%E6%9B%B8%28%E7%99%BC%E5%B8%83%E7%89%88%29.pdf Oscarson, M. (1989). Self-assessment of language proficiency: Rationale and applications. Language Testing, 6(1), 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1177/026553228900600103 Tsai, C. T. (2007). The praxis of curriculum action studies. Curriculum & Instruction Quarterly, 10(3), 75-89. https://doi.org/10.6384/CIQ.200707.0075 Tu, H., Lei, H. S., & Huang, C. H. (2016). Problem-based learning: the effect of learning motivation on learning satisfaction. Commerce & Management Quarterly, 17(4), 467491. https://doi.org/10.30083/CMQ
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Wu, C. F., & Cheng, P. J. (2014). Capstone Course in the Realm of Design. Evaluation Bimonthly, 49, 32-34. https://doi.org/10.6445/EB Wu, C. S. (2018). Educational terminology - USR. Pulse of Education by National Academy for Educational Research, 15, 1-2. Wu, M. C. (2018). Practice of USR. Public Governance Quarterly, 6(1), 62-67. Yamazaki, R. (2015). Community Design. Taipei, Taiwan: Faces Publishing. Yamazaki, R. (2018). The Age of Community Design. Taipei, Taiwan: Faces Publishing. Yang, K. Y., & Chang, M. L. (2005). The theoretical background and teaching process of problem-based learning. Chung Yuan Journal, 33(2), 215-235. https://doi.org/10.6358/JCYU.200506.0215
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 5, pp. 271-281, May 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.5.15
Teaching Young Children Early Mathematics through Music and Movement Kamariah Abu Bakar Faculty of Education, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia [National University of Malaysia], Selangor, Malaysia https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8134-6182 Mohamad Azam Samsudin Department of Early Childhood Studies, Faculty of Creative Industries, Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman [Tunku Abdul Rahman University], Selangor, Malaysia https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1304-6222 Abstract. The purpose of this study was to explore the integration of music and movement elements into young children’s mathematics classrooms. Using a qualitative approach, this research was a case study. Three teachers were purposely selected as participants for this study. The teachers were interviewed to gain information about the songs and movements they chose to employ into their instruction. Additionally, their lessons were observed to attain the ways they incorporated music and movement. These sessions were video recorded to gain a rich picture of the songs and movements incorporated as well as the benefits of such practice in the teaching and learning of mathematics. The findings from the interviews (with teachers), classroom observations, and photographs exhibited that the teachers used familiar, easy and simple songs to be incorporated in their instruction. It was also evident that embedding music and movement activities into young children's mathematics lessons had a positive impact on the students' learning of early mathematics. The students focused on what the teachers were doing and repeating after them. This enhanced their mathematics learning. The implication of this study is that mathematics instruction should be employed in a fun yet meaningful way by incorporating music and movement activities as teaching and learning activities. More importantly, is that children learn mathematics with understanding. Keywords: teaching and learning; mathematics; music; movement
young
children;
numbers;
1. Introduction
The Malaysian Education Development Plan (2013-2025) outlines several educational programs that serve an important function in supporting children's development starting from preschool level to primary education (Malaysia Education Blueprint, 2013). With regard to young children's education, the National Standard Preschool Curriculum (NSPC) listed various approaches, strategies, and techniques to be implemented into instruction including inquirybased learning, project-based learning, mastery approaches and learning through ©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).
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play (KSPK, 2017) to help children develop physically, emotionally and cognitively. Music and movement are considered as one of the learning techniques frequently used by teachers of young children. To develop children holistically, instruction based on the diversity of intelligence (Gardner, 1993) is often employed in preschool settings due to its potential in facilitating the children’s development in various domains. Previous research emphasized mathematics concepts as amongst the most challenging subject. Students often find it troublesome to understand abstract mathematics concepts (Azlina, 2003). Additionally, researchers found that the traditional method of instruction practiced by teachers was ineffective, because it is not capable of reaching students with different needs and learning styles (Scott, 2005). In order to tackle such problems, teachers introduced various techniques to assist children in learning mathematics using meaningful ways that involve the play approach and using multiple representations (Bakar et al. (2020); Rosli et al., 2015; Abdullah et al., 2014). The National Council of Teachers Mathematics (NCTM) in the USA and NSPC in Malaysia suggested that educators employ effective teaching approaches including incorporating other content areas such as music and movement to help children acquire skills and knowledge in a meaningful way (Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia [Ministry of Education], 2017; NCTM, 2000). However, studies embracing music and movement activities in mathematics are limited. Moreover, earlier studies have focused more on the incorporation of music and movement into the learning of language and literacy (Wiggins, 2007; Riddle, 2016). In contrast, there is a need for more studies to be done on the integration of music and movement into mathematics learning, creating a gap deserving of further investigation into music as a context for classroom educational activities that help explore and experience mathematics concepts. The Board of Studies, New South Wales (BOSNSW) defined integration as “purposeful planning by teachers, of strategies and learning experiences to enhance learning across key learning areas” (Board of Studies NSW, 1996). Hence, this study intended to investigate musical activities in a broader educational context by incorporating music and movement into mathematics lessons to ascertain whether this approach impacted mathematics learning in a positive way similar to the way music and movement benefited children's reading, writing and speaking skills.
2. Research Background
In many young children's educational settings worldwide, music and movement are part of the daily routine that brings enjoyment to young children. Besides functioning as an enjoyable routine for children, music and movement are increasingly integrated into teaching and learning sessions. In the Malaysian context, the National Standard Preschool Curriculum (NSPC) is aimed to equip preschool children with critical skills including reading, speaking, writing, counting, and thinking as preparation to enter Year One in primary school (Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia [Ministry of Education], 2017). While teachers have been practicing interdisciplinary instruction for many years that incorporates subjects including Science and Technology, Communication Skills, Physical and Aesthetic Development, Spirituality, Attitude and Values, and Humanity and Personal Skills (as recommended by the NSPC), the integration of music and movement into mathematics teaching and learning should be emphasized. This is to ensure that students learn these critical skills in an integrated means. Most importantly is that they possess all the important knowledge and skills in a fun yet meaningful way.
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The integration of music and movement into mathematics learning enables students to achieve both mathematics as well as arts and creativity objectives as stated in the learning standards worldwide and the Malaysian curriculum for young children. For example, the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics – USA (NCTM, 2000) and the NSPC – Malaysia (Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia [Ministry of Education], 2017) demand students to connect mathematics with other areas or subjects. Additionally, the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) (NAEYC, 2009) highlights the importance of integrating mathematics with songs, explore the relationships between them, have rich opportunities to express aesthetic aspects through music, and have children experience self-problem solving. Integrating music and movement helps enhance learning by providing a pressure-free environment as well as stimulates exploration and fun learning that permit children to have an active engagement in learning (Johnson & Edelson, 2003). Music and movement are recognized as the most common method used by teachers during teaching and learning sessions. Music is considered as amongst the greatest source of education (Elizabeth, 2016) as it creates a positive environment that supports self-control and self-efficacy. Music, art and creativity should not be separated from young children's life and learning as these activities provide them with a fun yet meaningful experience (Lagerlöf et al., 2013). Researchers worldwide have investigated and hence recognized the potential of music and movements themed activities in enhancing student's creativity, social skills, well-being, and health (Garaigordobil & Berrueco, 2011; Lobo & Winsler, 2006; Quin et al., 2007). The integration of music and movement activities into teaching and learning helped facilitate various aspects of learning that contributed to the holistic development of children. The integration of music into mathematics teaching and learning should be encouraged, as such practice requires musical training and equipment that are inexpensive (Capraro & Tillman, 2013). Mathematics teachers have found the potential of music activities to teach different mathematics topics and concepts such as number concepts, basic operations and geometry (An & Tillman, 2015). Also, students were reported to engage in higher levels of thinking and participated more actively in mathematics explorations and sense-making activities (An et al., 2013); (An & Tillman, 2015); (Robertson & Lesser, 2013).
3. The Framework
This study is based on a theoretical framework that includes the Multiple Intelligences theory to determine the effect of incorporating music and movement into young children’s mathematics learning. Howard Gardner’s theory of Multiple Intelligences (MI) highlights students' different abilities to learn and incorporates a combination of two or more intelligences to enhance learning (Gardner, 1993). As students understand and learn skills and knowledge from various means, Gardner proposed that teachers employ instructions in various ways to provide students with opportunities for understanding and building concepts in each of the intelligences. For example, by incorporating music activities into mathematics lessons, students' mathematical understanding could be enhanced. Especially for students who grapple to understand mathematics concepts, Gardner (1993) suggested that they should be provided with an alternative means to help build conceptual understanding (Kassell, 1998). Additionally, embedding music and mathematics provide children with a fun means for building logical intelligence alongside with their musical intelligence (Shilling, 2002). More importantly, learning mathematics through engagement in music activities could help them comprehend mathematics more easily (Johnson & Edelson, 2003).
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The theory of multiple intelligences, with its unique interpretation of intelligence and great integration, provides a theoretical basis for the professional development of mathematics teachers. For the present study, Gardner‘s theory provided a framework that helps to study the use of arts-mathematics integration as a means to provide a rich and stimulating mathematics learning environment. It opens up a new horizon especially in renewing teachers' traditional educational ideas and enriching their teaching practice. The theory of multiple intelligences can prompt teachers to rethink the current problems of mathematics education and teaching from a new perspective and provide new ideas to improve teaching and evaluation views. This study is aimed at exploring the integration of music and movement in the educational setting of preschool children. Specifically, this study intended to answer the following research questions: 1. What are the music and movement elements used in early mathematics instruction? 2. How do music and movement benefit the teaching and learning of early mathematics in preschool classrooms?
4. Research Design
This study used a qualitative approach because of its appropriateness in exploring the integration of music in mathematics learning. Qualitative research is “an inquiry process of understanding based on distinct methodological traditions on inquiry that explore a social or human problem. The researcher builds a complex, holistic picture, analyses words, reports details of informants, and conducts the study in a natural setting” (Creswell, 1998, p.15). In the present study, a case study research design was used to obtain in-depth information about the integration of music and movement in mathematics learning, which is critical to understanding the ongoing phenomenon in a real-life context by using various data collection techniques to collect evidence (Yin, 2009) such as interview and observation. A case study can be identified as an intensive report of a unique case that explains the special phenomena, events or incidents, and personal identities and activities (Yin, 2009).
5. Research Method
5.1 Participants The participants included three preschool teachers and thirty students. The criteria for selecting the teachers included i) certified preschool teachers with at least four years teaching experience, ii) employing music and movement activities in mathematics instruction, and iii) voluntary participation in the study. As for the students, only those who provided approval for their participation were included in the study. The participants were labelled as Teacher 1 (T1) , Teacher 2 (T2), and Teacher 3 (T3) to protect their privacy and confidentiality. 5.2 Data Collection This article focused only on the number concepts (numbers below 20) although other mathematics concepts were also taught by the teachers. Data collection included observations, interviews, field notes, and video recordings. Various data sources were collected to serve various purposes. Observations of the mathematics lessons in a classroom setting were done to obtain information pertaining to the teaching and learning situations and events, interactions between teacher-children and children-children as well as the children's behaviours during their engagement in the mathematics-music activities.
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Observing how the teachers employed music and movement activities in mathematics lessons and the children’s behaviours as a result of integrating music in mathematics were important data that explained the benefits of such integration into mathematics learning. Interviews with the teachers were employed i) prior to the study, and ii) after the teaching sessions. These interviews aimed at achieving details about the teachers’ experiences and thoughts related to mathematics instruction that embedded music and movements. A range of data sources obtained for the study allowed the researcher to obtain a rich picture (Ghazali & Sufean, 2016) about children's understanding of mathematics concepts as a result of embedding mathematics lessons with music and movement. 5.3 Ethics Each teacher was observed at least three times and all teaching sessions were video recorded. Prior to recording the lessons, the researcher obtained permission from the teachers and the children. All participants confirmed that their participation was voluntary and provided permission to being video-recorded. 5.4 Data Analysis Firstly, all interviews were transcribed. Then, the researcher proceeded with the video analysis of teaching and learning sessions that integrated music and movement in mathematics classrooms. The researcher went through six phases in conducting thematic analysis as listed by Medina (2002): i) becoming familiar with the data; ii) generating initial codes; iii) searching for themes; iv) reviewing themes; v) Defining and naming themes; and vi) producing the report. The combination of all data provided evidence for the children's mathematics learning. These data afforded rich information about the ways teachers employed music and movements in mathematics as well as the benefits such activities had on children’s mathematics learning.
6. Findings
The ways that the teachers integrated music and movement activities in classrooms when teaching mathematics were explored. Additionally, the advantages of integrating music and movements into mathematics instruction were investigated. 6.1. What are the music and movement elements used in early mathematics instruction? The first teacher (T1) stated that when selecting music or songs to be integrated into mathematics lessons, he often used songs that contain mathematics (such as numbers) that are familiar to the children. "….easy to use familiar songs….in which children are familiar with them…". He further explained that this is important to enable the children to easily sing them compared to having them learn a new song that requires a lot of time. In cases where there are no suitable songs that can be linked directly to the mathematics topic or concept he was to teach, he altered the lyrics to ensure it contained the concepts that the children were going to learn. He further added that by doing so aided children to learn mathematics more quickly and easily than using traditional means (i.e., chalk and talk by the teacher). The songs used in this study included "Pukul berapa datuk harimau" [What is the time now Mr. Tiger], and "Satu jari tap tap tap" [One finger tap, tap, tap]. The song 'What is the time now Mr. Tiger' is a popular game song played by Malaysian children that required the children to chase their friends when it comes to a particular time. In this study, this song was incorporated during the topic of time and clock. On the other hand, the song 'One finger tap,
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tap, tap' was used to teach the concept of numbers and quantities. The children were observed to enjoy the short, easy, and repetitive songs that in turn facilitated and strengthened mathematics learning by singing the lyrics and tapping their fingers to count. T3 agreed that songs familiar to the children were his priority when selecting suitable songs to be integrated into his instruction. He further stressed that he selected familiar melodies for his lessons. Additionally, both teachers agreed that familiar rhythms were among the important elements when selecting music or songs to be embedded in mathematics lessons for young children. When asked further about the music or song used by the teachers, T1 stated that "… firstly, teachers must ensure that the songs contain simple lyrics and words, that children understand…". Other teacher participants including T1, T2, and T3 supported the statement made by T1 by adding other important criteria in selecting music or songs for their preschool children including repetitive words, lyrics that are not too long, easy to memorize, and understandable to the children. In terms of movements, T1 stated that he chose simple and easy movements to enable children to follow what the teacher had demonstrated. He mentioned that "…the songs contain simple and easy movement ….. so that children can follow the movements….". Like the first teacher, both T3 and T4 too integrated songs that contain easy movement. T3 added that this is to enable children to memorize the steps or movements that they were to exhibit while singing the song. Apparently, the teachers integrated songs and rhymes that are familiar to the children. As for movement, they ensured simple movements were integrated into classroom learning. Using familiar songs with simple, short, and easy lyrics as well as movements is beneficial in supporting mathematical learning. For instance, the songs and movements used in this study supported children's numeral recognition and number formation. 6.2 How do music and movement benefit the teaching and learning of early mathematics in preschool classrooms? T2 stated how music and movement impacted children's behaviour. "… music and movement can attract children's attention…. they can pay attention to us when they sing songs and make movement…....". When music and movement are integrated into her lessons, she found that children focused their attention on the teacher. A scene photographed during the teaching session proved the statement made by T2. As can be seen in Figure 1, the whole class fully paid attention to the teacher standing in front of the classroom.
Figure 1: The children focused their attention on the teacher
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The teacher taught the children about numbers. She demonstrated how the numbers look like using her body. For example, she gestured with her hand and arm how numeral seven looks like. As shown in Figure 1, all children in the classroom focused their attention and showed interest in what the teacher was demonstrating (gesturing with her hand the numeral seven) and saying (i.e., singing). None of the children were observed chatting or talking with others. The children did not show signs of being distracted by other things happening surrounding the classroom and were focused on the lesson. When music and movement were integrated into the teaching and learning session, children's attention was focused fully on the teacher. This enabled the teacher to deliver the lesson easily. Integration of songs in mathematics assisted children to focus their attention and participate in the music and movement activities for a longer time. The act of singing and making movements seemed particularly helpful to capture the children's attention and draw out mathematical responses including tapping their fingers, and pointing to objects in the classroom while counting and singing the number song. GP3 further described that the integration of music and movement activities empowered children to participate actively in the mathematics tasks. As evident in Figure 2, all children engaged enthusiastically in the session. Not a single child refused to get involved in the activities and all the children participated in the activity.
Figure 2. Making movement (forming a circle) whilst singing
The teacher requested the children to form a circle and simultaneously sing. As can be seen in Figure 2, all children participated and formed a chain by holding their friend's body and made a circle (when learning about shapes; in this case, to form a circle with their body). Clearly, the integration of songs and movements in mathematics helped children focus and engaged their attention in the music and movement activities for a longer time. The act of singing and making movements appeared particularly useful in capturing the children's attention and draw out mathematical responses including tapping their fingers, pointing to objects in the classroom, forming shapes with the body while counting, forming shapes and singing. Learning mathematics through music and movement provided the children with enjoyable moments in a pressure-free environment that helped create a positive mathematics learning environment. This in turn helped the children feel comfortable and hence ease the process of knowledge transfer. The use of music and movements helped enhance the children's learning of mathematics concepts as well as understanding. While singing the song “One finger, tap, tap, tap”, the children were also counting their fingers at the same time. The act of saying aloud the number names (i.e., through singing) and counting or pointing to objects or fingers helped the children to match the number
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names to the quantity. The children's engagement in the mathematics songs and movements helped the reinforcement of mathematics learning in various ways. Obviously, mathematics-infused songs (e.g., Number songs) helped reinforce readily mastered concepts (i.e., number names) that the children had practiced in previous lessons. Singing the number songs aloud helped the children familiarize themselves with the correct order of the number names. While singing aloud the song and making movements, the children were simultaneously counting and holding up their fingers to represent the quantity. The teacher (T2) stated that the children successfully answered the questions related to the mathematics lesson. T2 affirmed that "... the kids are able to learn quickly, when we ask questions, these kids will be able to answer and understand the concepts taught in the classroom ...". When learning number names, it is particularly important that young children are able to say the number names in the correct sequence. Using number songs such as “One finger tap, tap, tap” and making relevant movements (tapping their fingers) helped the children memorize the sequence of the number names easily and correctly as they rehearse the song.
7. Discussion of Findings
The discussion of the findings presented in this article is organized into three main themes: (i) familiar, easy and simple songs; (ii) increase children's attention; and (iii) enhance children's learning and understanding. 7.1 Familiar, easy, and simple songs Music and movement are useful memory aids. As evident in the number of songs, music plays a critical role in engaging children in mathematical activities and learning while developing mathematical recall. Previous studies have highlighted the link between music and memory recall. Songs help to store and release information when needed, hence they functioned as a valuable means for mathematics teaching and learning (Medina, 2002; Mora, 2000). As highlighted by Lake (2002) and Samson and Zatorre (2004), songs that comprise of catchy and repetitive words or lyrics ease children in memorizing them. In mathematics learning, it is vital that children have a strong memory to enable them to perform in mathematics (Conners, Rosenquist & Taylor, 2001). Constant practice over time is the key to retention, and rehearsal or practice can help to consolidate new learning into long-term memory (Hunter, 2004). Hence, it is beneficial that children regularly recite, practice and rehearse music-mathematics songs to aid in automaticity (Laws, MacDonald & Buckley, 1996). Through singing, children can make meaningful associations and rehearse or practice mathematical concepts, increasing the chance for new learning to be fastened and strengthened. 7.2 Increase Children's Attention Interest is a powerful strength that stimulates children to focus on individuals, objects, events, and activities. Apparently, songs integrated into learning sessions can indeed attract the children to focus on the teacher's words and actions; hence, capturing their interest. When children's attention are focused on the teacher, it is easier for the teacher to deliver the lesson. Therefore, making it easy for the teacher to transfer the skills and knowledge to the children. As asserted by An and Tillman (2015), children who have better concentration are more cognitively engaged in mathematics learning. 7.3 Enhance Children's Learning and Understanding Among all the mathematics topics, basic knowledge and skills related to the topic of numbers play a critical function when processing mathematics. It is necessary that teachers help children master this basic knowledge because basic number knowledge and skills are key to more complex mathematics topics (Scott, 2005).
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For example, children should master counting skills to enable them to solve problems involving addition and subtraction problems. When children lack counting skills, it is difficult for them to proceed with the addition process. Clearly, this study provided evidence for the benefits of integrating music into mathematics learning; by proving music as a potential means to assist children in mastering basic number skills. Rhyme and rhythm (in the song) and repetition in counting helped reinforce learning (Geist, Geist, & Kuznik, 2012). Repetitively reciting the number names helped ease the students to memorize the number order or sequence. Furthermore, when children learn mathematics in a fun way, it helped the retention of information and knowledge.
8. Conclusion
This study presented the benefits of using music and movement to teach early mathematics in preschool classrooms. Evidently, music activities embedded in mathematics instruction enhanced learning in many ways such as attracting children's attention towards the teachers, providing a stress-free environment which empowers the learning of mathematics. The findings of the present study clearly exhibited the potential of music and movement activities in enhancing mathematics learning. Embedding music and movement activities clearly invites the active participation and engagement of children in mathematical ways (e.g., through counting aloud while singing). Hence, it is imperative that teachers switch from traditional learning that often resulted in passive participation and is focused on one domain to active integrated learning by engaging children in various music and movement activities whilst learning mathematics concepts. This study has an implication for teacher preparation and training. Teachers should be provided with knowledge, skills, and experiences pertaining to blended learning. Educators should no longer be dependent only on traditional approaches, but to diversify their teaching approaches towards preparing children for the 21st century life and future learning. Additionally, it is imperative that effective instruction especially pertaining to the use of music and movement be embedded in all learning areas and subjects particularly among teachers of young children. Also, it is expected that mathematics learning will be enjoyable yet meaningful by means of incorporating a wide range of music activities into mathematics classrooms. Further research examining the link between music and mathematics learning should be done as such research could contribute to effective mathematics instruction.
Acknowledgment
This research was supported by grants provided by the Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia [The National University of Malaysia] (GGPM-2019-011) and (GG-2019061).
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 5, pp. 282-299, May 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.5.16
The Impact of Contextual Factors on Learning of Agricultural Programmes in Technical and Vocational Education Training Colleges, South Africa Ramongwane Daniel Sephokgole* Tshwane University of Technology, Pretoria, South Africa https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3600-0411 Sylvia Manto Ramaligela University of Limpopo, Polokwane, South Africa https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3200-2700 Moses Makgato Tshwane University of Technology, Pretoria, South Africa https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9416-2777
Abstract. Contextual factors may influence the learning of agricultural programmes in Technical and Vocational Education Training (TVET) colleges. This study employed a quantitative approach to explore the impact of contextual factors on learning agricultural programmes in TVET colleges in the Limpopo Province of South Africa. The study surveyed 240 students from three TVET colleges. Purposive sampling was used to select the TVET colleges that offer agricultural programmes. Data was collected through a questionnaire to understand the impact of contextual factors on the students learning agricultural programmes. Data was analysed using Microsoft Excel 2016 and was presented in the form of a table. Based on Mitzel’s (1969) model, the impact of the contextual factors will help to guide TVET colleges when recruiting agriculture students. The results of the study indicated that contextual factors such as the student's prior experience, knowledge, skills, and personality traits have an impact on the learning of agricultural programmes in TVET colleges. The study recommends that upon recruiting TVET students, contextual factors such as prior knowledge and skills, prior experience as well as personality traits should be tested. Keywords: agricultural programme; contextual factors; prior knowledge and skills; prior experience; personality traits
*Corresponding
author: Ramongwane Daniel Sephokgole; Email: SephokgoleRD@tut.ac.za
©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).
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1. Introduction Learning has been a fundamental aspect of everybody's life since the creation of human nature and the need for learning agricultural programmes has been well documented (Kong, 2018). This motion of learning agricultural programmes has become a necessity for the students who are willing to work in farming and it has been supported globally (International Center for Tropical Agriculture [ICTA], 2015; International Fund for Agricultural Development [IFAD], 2016). A growing number of governments, donor agencies, and development organisations are committed to supporting the learning of agricultural programmes to achieve their development goals (Morss, 2019). Such goals were drawn from a deep concern about the status of Agricultural Education and Training (AET) worldwide. As a result of the importance of learning agricultural programmes, effective recruitment efforts are required to improve the number of students who are willing to register for agricultural programmes. However, the students’ contextual factors such as prior knowledge and skills, prior experience and personality traits need to be considered. Although recruitment is vital for the growing agricultural sector, identifying students who have interest in learning agricultural programmes is vital. Much research has been done on recruitment strategies, for instance, Ramson, Govender and Naidoo (2016) investigated the recruitment and retention strategies for public sector optometrists in the KwaZulu-Natal Province in South Africa. The study found that the incentives strategy was used to get a large proportion of optometrists. Malema and Muthelo (2018) also explored the strategies that may be utilised for the recruitment and retention of skilled healthcare workers in remote rural areas. The study found that compulsory measures on recruiting students were used and they were accompanied by relevant support and incentives to recruit health workers. Tanga and Maphosa (2018) in a separate study explored the recruitment and training of peer facilitators in a South African university. The study found that the critical factors in the recruiting strategy include the quality of peer facilitators and their level of academic attainment. Based on the studies above, most of the recruiting strategies focus less on the students' contextual factors which may have an impact on the learning of agricultural programmes. A big variation continues to exist in different programmes and institutions, as students in TVET colleges are affected and influenced by various contextual factors and this impacts their learning (Mogensen & Schnack, 2010). Therefore, the impact of contextual factors on learning agricultural programmes affects the status of Agricultural Education and Training. In the case of this study, the following question guides this research work: What is the impact of contextual factors on the learning of agricultural programmes in TVET colleges? The researcher hypothesised that contextual factors include prior knowledge and skills, prior experience, as well as personality traits (Mitzel, 1969). Hence, this study emphasises that these contextual factors impact the students’ learning of agricultural programmes in TVET colleges. This quantitative research method design was concerned with exploring the impact of contextual factors on the
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learning of agricultural programmes in three TVET colleges and providing recommendations to the relevant stakeholders. Several researchers have noted the existence of contextual factors that influence learning and performance at large in various countries. Choi and Lim (2017) conducted a study on the contextual factors affecting the innovation performance of manufacturing medium-sized enterprises, while Imran and Pamungkas (2016) conducted a study in Indonesia on conceptualising the impact of contextual communication factors on organisational learning in higher learning institutions. Dang (2017) from Australia, explored the contextual factors shaping teacher collaborative learning in a paired placement. Although this subject has been researched in other countries, in South Africa, there are a few studies on agricultural programmes. For instance, Thwala (2017) conducted a study on an agricultural vocational education programme and the promotion of job creation skills in the Free State, while Zwane and Setlalentoa (2020) investigated the factors hindering the implementation of e-learning at Motheo Technical and Vocational Education and Training College. Sephokgole and Ramaligela (2021) wrote about the challenges experienced by lecturers when teaching about the instructional practices on agricultural programmes in TVET colleges. Hence, all these studies were aimed at exploring the impact of contextual factors on the learning of agricultural programmes.
2. Theoretical framework To explore the impact of the contextual factors on learning agricultural programmes in TVET colleges, this study adopted Mitzel's (1969) model to investigate the related prospects of learning agriculture. This model is relevant as it can be utilised to explore the contextual factors impacting the agricultural programmes in TVET colleges. Mitzel's (1969) model provided the investigative framework to design this study and therefore, the contextual factors that are briefly considered are prior knowledge and skills, prior experience, as well as personality traits. To understand why students, choose to study agriculture, the study needs to understand the impact contextual factors have on learning agricultural programmes so that critical strategies can be created to evaluate these contextual factors. Extant literature mainly addresses the contextual factors that impact the learning of agricultural programmes. 2.1 Prior knowledge and skills The term “prior knowledge and skills” has been used to understand the students’ state of knowledge and skills in a particular programme. This study refers to prior knowledge and skills as content learned in the previous level of study (Mitzel, 1969). The two words, knowledge and skill are interrelated; hence, “prior knowledge” involves knowledge in particular agricultural topics, content, skills, beliefs, and cognitive understanding (McCarthy & McNamara, 2021). This means “prior knowledge” does not just refer to subject-matter knowledge, but also to the “prior skills” of a particular subject matter. Xhomara (2020) also claims that prior knowledge and skills are closely connected. Therefore, many studies claim that prior knowledge is a component of performance, while performance portrays a successful virtue of one's skill (Sosa, 2015; Salzwedel, Heidler, Meng, Schikora,
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Wegscheider, Reibis & Völler, 2019; Beatson, Berg & Smith, 2020). This means prior knowledge and skills can influence the effectiveness of the students’ learning (Taçgın, 2020). Other scholars also believe that prior knowledge and skills have a positive impact on learning in general (Chiu, 2016; Lin & Liou, 2019). Therefore, students with knowledge and skills stand a better chance to recognise the subject matter and they can relate to new information using prior knowledge to apply the skills attached to the different learned content (Wati, Pasani & Dewantara, 2018). Hence, the researcher believes in prior knowledge which can impact the learning of agricultural programmes. As students enrolled in programmes in different TVET colleges, prior knowledge and skills were found to be an important factor when learning any programme (Yarden & Yarden, 2010). According to Mothokoa and Maritz (2018), prior knowledge and skills help students to recognise some content that was learned in their previous schooling. Therefore, a study by Chiu (2016) noted that prior knowledge and skills have a direct impact and influence on understanding new learning content. Despite other reasons for students to choose to be involved in agricultural programmes, prior knowledge and skills are still among the contextual factors that impact the learning of agricultural programmes (Hoover, 2020). Several contextual factors have been identified in the extant literature which explains that personal interest, self-esteem, and societal influence are some of the major factors that significantly impact career selection (Pasha & Siddiqui, 2019). Similarly, a study by Meddour, Abdo, Majid, Auf, and Aman (2016) found that self-efficacy, family, personal interests, and economic factors are considered amongst the contextual factors that may impact career choice. With regard to the aforesaid contextual factors, prior knowledge and skills are believed to be significant factors that impact the career choice of learning programmes (Deng, Guan, Huang, Liang, Zhang & Zhang, 2017), it remains to be seen whether this holds across different learning programmes. 2.2 Prior experience Prior experience is considered as an important learning factor for every student and as the most influential factor for choosing agricultural courses (Liaw, Wu, Chow, Lim & Tan, 2017). A similar study conducted by Palmer and Aubusson (2017) notes that prior experience in agriculture was identified as the most relevant influential factor because most students choose subject careers based on their prior experience. On the same view, Kenderdine, Spooner, Jousan, Herrin and Hoffman (2019) opine that having prior experience increases the student's desire to obtain agriculture-related courses or participate in agriculture activities. For instance, Romberger (2018) conducted a study to compare secondary agricultural education students and secondary non-agricultural education students' perceptions of career decisions. The study found that prior experience on agricultural students reported higher self-efficacy scores when making career decisions on agriculture than non-agricultural education students. Therefore, there is a need to understand that the students' prior experience plays an influential factor and contributes to their decisions to choose agricultural programmes as their major career (Stair, Danjean, Blackburn & Bunch, 2016).
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Furthermore, prior experience is among the factors that influence students to think about enrolling in agricultural programmes in TVET colleges (Hoover, 2020). The entire student's decision to choose a career in agricultural programmes is believed to be associated with prior experience factors (Perry, 2018). Furthermore, Marx, Smith, Smalley, and Miller (2017) believe that a passion for agricultural education does not only derive from prior experiences, but that other contextual factors can contribute to the students enrolled in other programmes. Several studies by Foreman, Smalley and Retallick (2018); s well as that of Mtemeri (2017) note that the other factors involved in the student's decisions to choose careers in agricultural programmes include but are not limited to career guidance, peers, current college students, agricultural educators, and family members. Prior experiences can also build courage in a student’s choice to study agriculture (Hoyle, 2017). A similar study conducted by Ingram, Sorensen, Warnick and Lawver (2018) found that the students’ decisions were encouraged by prior experience in which the students were involved either in agriculture or other school-based subjects. Furthermore, Thieman, Rosch and Suarez (2016) conducted a study exploring the factors influencing the high school students' consideration of agricultural education as a future career. The study found that the students’ involvement gave them prior experience that is related to the agriculture cocurricular and that encouraged the students’ choice of furthering their career in agriculture. In the same view, Marx, Simonsen and Kitchel (2014) affirmed that prior experience serves as the most powerful factor to encourage the students’ choice to study agriculture further. According to Botha (2020), personal factors and prior exposure to job opportunities also play a major role in choosing to study agricultural programmes but prior experiences influenced the students’ decisions to take agriculture as their first-choice career. For instance, Adebo and Sekumade (2013) conducted a study exploring the factors determining the choice of agriculture as a professional career. The study found that prior experience was among the preferred influential factors for choosing agriculture as a first career choice. Subsequent research has shown that throughout these years, the students still possess the intention that prior experience is an important factor that influences their choice (Fizer, 2013; Woeber & Sibley, 2018; Bilal & Hussien, 2019). 2.3 Personality traits In a learning context, there is often a Five-Factor Model (FFM) that resembles personalities, including extraversion, openness, neuroticism, conscientiousness, and agreeableness (Ariani, 2013). There is considerable research about personality traits, but this research has yielded a single finding on the personality trait. In support of research, the student's interest in agriculture is linked to the extraversion personality traits (Ahmed, Sharif & Ahmad, 2017). According to Ettis and Kefi (2016), extroverted students have stronger intentions to pursue their interests in studying agricultural programmes because they are more active in what they are doing. Similarly, Ariani (2013) opined that the extraversion personality traits are characterised by students who are ambitious and interested to achieve better and those traits can boost the students' attitudes to enrol in
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agricultural programmes. For instance, Picazo-Vela, Chou, Melcher, and Pearson, (2010) found a kind of attitude as the degree to which an individual student has a favourable or unfavourable trait towards learning agriculture. One important element in learning is to have a positive attitude towards any learning content. Looking at the students' responses to the questionnaire, there is a relationship between personality traits and attitude (Kamal & Radhakrishnan, 2019). However, Faulkner, Baggett, Bowen, and Bowen (2009) highlighted that the personality traits are necessary but not sufficient to influence the students’ attitudes to enrol in a program of their choice. Furthermore, Kamal and Radhakrishnan (2019) assert that the students’ personality traits help them to engage more in learning. Other scholars, however, found that the personality traits should be an important consideration when recruiting students because they contribute to academic performance (Zhang & Ziegler, 2018; Stajkovic, Bandura, Locke, Lee & Sergent, 2018; Kamal & Radhakrishnan, 2019). Nevertheless, further research is needed to validate the results and to further understand the personality traits factor.
3. Methodology Data collection, population, and sample, research instrumentation as well as procedures are considered in this section. 3.1 Type of research This study used a quantitative research method to investigate the impact of contextual factors on the learning of agricultural programmes. Instruments such as questionnaires were used to collect information regarding the researched topic from one or more groups of agriculture students. The survey technique that was used here was directly administering questionnaires, which were given to a group of participants that were assembled for a particular purpose at a certain place. This quantitative research helped to generate knowledge and to create an understanding about the contextual factors on the learning of agricultural programmes. 3.2 Population and sample According to Ary, Jacobs, Razavieh and Sorensen (2006), a study population includes all the members of any well-defined class of people, events, or objects. Gay, Mills and Airasian (2009) opine that a research sample includes a group of individuals, items, or events that represent the features of the larger group from which the sample is drawn. In South Africa, there are 50 TVET colleges, of which 13 are currently offering agricultural programmes. The Limpopo province has seven public TVET colleges, of which only three are offering agricultural programmes. It was impossible to include all the seven TVET colleges in the province in one study. Purposive sampling is a process of selecting the subjects who have experience, knowledge, and skills. Therefore, purposive sampling was used on the basis that the participants were information-rich regarding the agricultural programmes. Furthermore, convenience sampling is the process of including the participants that are available at the right place and at the right time. Hence the students were conveniently sampled based on their availability.
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Therefore, the general population of interest for this research was agriculture students. This study is from my master’s program which investigated the challenges of agricultural programmes in selected technical and vocational education training colleges in the Limpopo province. The reason for this research site was because it was convenient to reach, connected to the site and the researcher believes that the participants are rich in information that is related to agricultural programmes. The researcher was not sure of the other provinces that could give rich information on the research. The participating TVET colleges were given pseudonyms to protect their identities, therefore, they are referred to as Colleges A, B and C. The agriculture students were involved in the Technical Education Diploma (NATEDN1-N6) and in the National Certificate Vocational (NCV) agricultural programmes. A NATED program required at least three years of study with modules such as data management; financial management; maintenance management farming and management in farming. While the NCV program requires at least 3 years from level 2 to 4, the modules include farm planning and mechanisation, plant production, animal production, soil science, and agribusiness. The other compulsory modules include English, Mathematics Literacy, and Life Orientation. The age of the participants ranged from 16 to 50 years (Males =118 and Females =122) and there were 49% males and 51% of the participants were females (N= 240). 3.3 Research instrumentation and procedure College A recorded 112 participants, College B recorded 84 participants and College C recorded approximately 44 participants. A participant’s demographic questionnaire was developed and used to collect sampled information. The questionnaire had three sections of which the first part was about biographical information that probed the gender, age group, and the program of involvement. The second part of the questionnaire had Likert-type questions. The research questions were generated from the literature to close the existing gap that was realised by the researcher. The five scores from the Likert scales were: 5=Strongly Agreed (SA), 4=Agreed (A), 3=Neutral (N), 2=Disagree (D), and 1=Strongly Disagreed (SD). This type of Likert scale helped the researcher to scaffold the data that was generated through the questionnaire. The participants were asked to indicate the extent to which they agree or disagree next to each statement by ticking the appropriate answer (). The survey was administered as a paper–pen questionnaire and it was completed in about 40 minutes. The survey took place on different dates and occurred in a college where students assembled for a particular purpose at a certain place. The researcher gave each participant a copy of the questionnaire. For ethical purposes, the students were warned not to write their names on the questionnaire. However, the aim was to obtain reliable and valid information from the participants who had information that was related to the issue that was being studied. The instrument used in this study was reliable and valid. Reliability and validity in this research study represented the fundamental features that increase transparency and decrease bias (Singh, Fazel, Gueorguieva & Buchanan, 2014).
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The researcher piloted the data collection instrument by making use of the students and the lecturers at the institution after which the researcher took the instrument to the supervisor who validated it. The researcher also employed peer and expert reviews to answer the questions in the questionnaire, after which the results that were arrived at were taken to the supervisor who measured the validity of the instrument. Microsoft Excel 2016 was used to analyse data. The analysis was based on the percentage result of the students’ indication of each item of the questionnaire. The respondents’ difference in opinion, perception, and experience and the results were presented in the form of tables.
4. Results and discussion In this study, data was presented in the form of tables. The study deployed Mitzel's (1969) model as a framework and the categories were used to present the students’ questionnaire results. The next section presents the students’ biographical data, then it is followed by categories on prior knowledge and skills, prior experience, and personality traits. 4.1 Biographical data The biographical data shows the gender of participants, their age group, and the program in which students are faced with contextual factors that affect the learning of agricultural programmes. The reason to present biographical data is to understand which gender of students, age group, and the program is mostly affected by competency on the learning of agricultural programmes. Table 1 below shows the students’ biographical data. Table 1. Students’ biographical data. Gender Frequency(f) Percent (%) Male 118 49% Female 122 51% Total 240 100% Age Group 16-19 10 4.1 % 20-30 219 91.3% 31-40 8 3.3% 41-50 3 1.3% Total 240 100% Above 50 Program NC(V) 156 65% NATED 84 35% Total 240 100%
The results show the frequency and the percentages of the three aspects, which are, gender, age group, and program. Firstly, under gender, the results indicated that 49% of the participants were male students and 51% were female participants in this research study. Secondly, under the age group, the results indicated that 4.1% of the participants were between 16-19 years old, 91.3% were between 20-30 years old, 3.3%were between 31-40 years old, 1.3% were between 41-50 years old and no participants were above the age of 50. Lastly, the results indicated that 65% of the participants were involved in National Certificate Vocational (NCV)
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training in the agricultural program, while 35% of the participants were doing a National Accredited Technical Education Diploma (NATED) in an agricultural program. As indicated earlier that the study explores the students' contextual factors that impact the learning of agricultural programmes, the study deployed Mitzel’s (1969) model as a framework and their categories were used to present data. The following section presents the findings and a discussion of the students’ questionnaire. The survey results for the (n=240) students were analysed and discussed in three categories of which Table 2 from item 1 to 4 shows the percentages responding to prior knowledge and skills. Table 3 shows item 1 to 3 and has the percentages responding to prior experience. Table 4 from item 1 shows the percentages responding to the students’ personality traits from the questionnaire. 4.2 Prior knowledge and skills To explore the students’ prior knowledge and skills, the students were presented with four items that probe their prior knowledge and skills. Table 2 below shows the students' responses. Categories Items 1. 2 3 4
Table 2: Prior knowledge and skills SD D N
Prior knowledge and skills Students choose to study agriculture based on prior knowledge and skills. Agricultural Programmes Offer Relevant Agricultural Knowledge Agricultural programmes offer relevant agricultural skills. Agricultural programmes help to alleviate poverty, create jobs, and minimize inequality.
f
%
f
%
f
%
A f
%
SA f
%
10 5% 23 10%
34
15% 92 38%
79
32%
9 4% 13 5%
31
13% 90 38%
97
40%
15 6% 17 7%
33
14% 92 38%
87
35%
12 5% 8
6
3%
68 28% 146
61%
3%
Table 2 indicates that 32% of the students have strongly agreed and 38% agreed that they were influenced by prior knowledge and skills to study agriculture. Other results indicated that 15% of the students remained neutral, while 10% disagreed and 5% strongly disagreed that they were influenced by prior knowledge and skills to study agriculture. The results show that a high percentage of the students chose to study agriculture based on prior knowledge and skills. Item 1 means that prior knowledge and skills play a major role in the choice of a career as shown by the majority of students who agree (38%) and strongly agree (32%). A child who possesses prior knowledge and skills of a particular subject will most likely choose agriculture as a career because they have a background in that subject. The 5% and 10% represent those who lack prior knowledge and skills related to their subject choice and they are most unlikely to choose agriculture as a career. The neutral students (13%) seem to lack prior knowledge and skills and most likely, they will not take agriculture as a career.
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Most students (40%) and the other 38% showed strong agreement and agreement respectively on the fact that the agriculture programmes offered at TVET colleges impart relevant agricultural knowledge. The other results show that 13% of the students remained neutral, while 5% disagreed and strongly disagreed that the agricultural programmes offered at TVET colleges impart relevant agricultural knowledge. The results indicated that a high percentage of the student’s prior knowledge and skills make them understand that the agricultural programmes they were currently studying offer relevant agricultural knowledge. Item 2 means that the prior knowledge and skills that students possess, put them in a position to receive relevant agricultural knowledge as shown by the majority of the students who agree (38%) and strongly agree (40%). A student who possesses prior knowledge will want to learn more because they want to prosper in agriculture. The neutral students (14%) seem to possess prior knowledge and most like they will not realise whether the agricultural programmes offer relevant knowledge or not. A total of (35%) TVET students strongly agreed and 38% agreed that there were agricultural programmes that offered to impart relevant agricultural skills. The other results indicated that a total of 14% of the students remained neutral, while 7% disagreed and strongly disagreed that the agricultural programmes offered at TVET colleges impart relevant agricultural skills. The results show that a high percentage of the students’ prior knowledge and skills make them understand that the agricultural programmes they were currently studying, offer relevant agricultural skills. Item 4 on Table 2 indicated that most students (61%) have strongly agreed and 28% agreed that agricultural programmes help to alleviate poverty, create jobs, and minimise inequality. The other results indicated that only 3% of the students remained neutral, while the other 3% disagreed and 5% strongly disagreed that agricultural programmes help to alleviate poverty, create jobs, and minimises inequality. The results show that a high percentage of the students’ prior knowledge and skills help them to understand that agricultural programmes help to alleviate poverty, create jobs, and minimize inequality. Item 4 also means that the prior knowledge and skills help students to realize that agricultural programmes help to alleviate poverty, create jobs, and minimize inequality as shown by the majority of students who agree (28%) and strongly agree (61%). A student who engaged in agricultural activities before will most likely realise the contribution and importance of agriculture in life. The 5% and 3% represent those who were not exposed to agriculture before, and they are therefore unlikely to realise the contribution and importance of agriculture. The neutral ones (3%) seem to know nothing about agriculture and they most likely will not notice the contribution and importance of taking agriculture. These findings agree with what is said by Chiu, (2016) as well as Lin and Liou (2019) who state that prior knowledge and skills are the other contextual factors that impact the students’ learning of agricultural programmes.
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4.3 Prior experience To explore the students’ prior experience, the learners were presented with three items that probe their prior experience. Table 3 below shows the students' responses.
Items
Categories
Table 3: Prior experience SD D
Prior experience
f
%
f
%
1. Agriculture was one of my 6
3%
5
3% 13
major subjects at school. 2. Agriculture practices at home have encouraged me to 14 pursue agricultural studies. 3 Agriculture was my first 11 career choice.
f
N
A
%
f
5%
60
%
92
f
25% 153
6% 12 5% 31 13% 105 44% 5% 11 5% 23 10%
SA % 64%
78
32%
38% 101
42%
The analysis of Table 3 above indicates the students' responses to item 1 that most students (64%) have strongly agreed and 25% agreed that they studied agriculture as their major subject at school. The other results indicated that 5% of the students remained neutral, while (3%) of the students have strongly disagreed and disagreed that they studied agriculture as their major subject in their previous schools. The results show that a high percentage of the students have prior experience in agriculture as they have studied the subject before furthering their studies in the colleges. Item 1 means that the students who have majored in agriculture in their previous schooling have possessed prior experience in agriculture as shown by the majority of students who agree (25%) and strongly agree (64%). Students who experienced agriculture before will most likely perform better during their studies and many of them became more active in agricultural activities than those who did not. Those with 3% (SD) and 3% (D) represent those who did not experience agriculture before, and they are most unlikely to possess prior experience in agriculture during their studies. The neutral ones (5%) seem to know nothing about agriculture and most like they have never studied agriculture before. Item 2 indicated that 32% of the students have strongly agreed, while 44% agreed that home-based practices encourage students to study agriculture. The other results indicated that a total of 13% of the students remained neutral, while 5% disagreed and 6% strongly disagreed that home-based practices encourage students to study agriculture. The results show that a high percentage of the students have prior experience which was influenced by home-based agricultural practices, and these encouraged them to pursue agricultural studies at the college level. Item 2 means that the students who have practiced agriculture at home dare to further their studies in agriculture as shown by the majority of the students who agree (44%) and strongly agree (32%). A child who has been exposed to agriculture at home will most likely have prior experience that is related to agricultural activities and is most likely to pursue agricultural studies further to the tertiary level. Those with 5% (SD) and 6% (D) represent those who did not practice agriculture at home and are most likely discouraged to pursue
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agricultural studies. The neutral ones (13%) seem to know nothing on whether practicing agriculture at home can encourage or discourage one to further pursue agricultural studies or not. Item 3 indicated that most students (42%) have strongly agreed and 38% agreed that agriculture was their first career choice. The other results indicated that 10% of the students remained neutral, while 5% strongly disagreed and the other 5% disagreed that agriculture was their first career choice. The results show that a high percentage of the students’ prior experience was influenced by their firstcareer choice such as agriculture. Item 3 means that most of the students with prior experience chose agriculture as their first career choice as shown by the majority of students who agreed (38%) and strongly agreed (42%). A child who has grown in an agricultural environment and is exposed to agricultural activities will most likely choose agriculture as a first career choice because this is what they want to achieve as a first choice. The 5% and 5% represent those who did not choose agriculture and they are most unlikely to choose agriculture as their first career choice. The neutral ones (10%) seem to know nothing about whether they choose agriculture as their first career choice or not. These findings are in harmony with Romberger (2018); Stair, Danjean, Blackburn and Bunch (2016); as well as with Ingram, Sorensen, Warnick and Lawver (2018) that contextual factors such as prior experience have a positive influence on the career choice of learning agricultural programmes. 4.4 Personality traits To explore the students’ personality traits, the students were presented with 2 items that probed the impact of the personality traits on the learning of agricultural programmes.
Items
Categories
Table 4: Personality traits SD D
Personality traits
f
%
f
%
N f
A %
f
SA %
f
1. Personality traits played a major role in choosing agricultural 15 6% 22 10% 38 16% 82 34% 81 studies. 2. Students’ personality traits towards agriculture have led to low enrolment into vocational 11 5% 26 11% 21 agriculture programmes.
9%
%
34%
76 32% 106 43%
After analysing the students' responses to item 1, 34% of the students have strongly agreed and 34% agreed that personality traits have played a major role in choosing agricultural studies. The other results indicated that 16% of the students remained neutral, while 10% disagreed and 6% strongly disagreed that personality traits have played a major role in choosing agricultural studies. The results show that a high percentage of the student’s personality traits contributed
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to the students choosing agricultural studies. Item 1 means that the personality traits and the environment play a major role in the choice of a career as shown by the majority of students who agree (34%) and strongly agree (34%). A child who has grown in an agricultural environment will most likely choose agriculture as a career because this is what they see every day. The 6% and 10% represent those who were not exposed to agriculture, and they are most unlikely to choose agriculture as a career. The neutral ones (16%) seem to know nothing and most likely they will not take agriculture as a career. Table 4 indicated that most students (43%) have strongly agreed and 32% agreed that the students’ personality traits towards agriculture could lead to low enrolment into vocational agriculture programmes. The other results indicated that 9% of the students remained neutral, while 11% disagreed and 5% strongly disagreed that the students’ personality traits towards agriculture could lead to low enrolment into vocational agriculture programmes. The results show that a high percentage of the student’s positive personality traits influenced them to enrol in vocational agriculture programmes. Item 2 means that the personality traits towards agriculture play a vital when one had to choose to enrol in agricultural programmes as shown by the majority of students who agree (32%) and strongly agree (43%). A child who has never been exposed to agriculture can develop personality traits towards agriculture programmes and that can lead to low enrolment in learning institutions. The 5% and 11% represent those who strongly disagree and agree that personality traits have nothing to do with the students' enrolment. The neutral ones (19%) seem to be unaware of the students' personality traits towards enrolling in agricultural programmes. These findings are in harmony with Foreman, Smalley and Retallick (2018); Mtemeri (2017) that personality traits influence the students towards learning agricultural programmes.
5. Conclusion The study investigated the impact of contextual factors on learning agricultural programmes in TVET colleges. The findings of this study revealed that there are contextual factors that influence the learning of agricultural programmes. Firstly, the study found that the contextual factors such as prior knowledge and skills impact the students’ learning of agricultural programmes. The majority of the students indicated that they chose to study agriculture because of their prior agricultural knowledge and skills. For example, the majority of the students indicated that their prior knowledge and skills help them to understand that agricultural programmes help to alleviate poverty, create jobs, and minimise inequality. Secondly, the study found that the other contextual factors such as prior experience have a positive influence on career choice and on the learning of agricultural programmes. For instance, the majority of the students indicated that their previous agriculture studies at high school level influenced them to take agriculture as their first-choice career. Lastly, the study found that personality traits influence students towards learning agricultural programmes. For instance, the majority of the students were influenced by personality traits to choose agricultural studies. These findings can guide recruitment efforts at TVET colleges to look for the students’ knowledge and skills, prior experience, and personality
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traits during the recruitment process. As such, the policy leaders can promote and encourage all the schools to incorporate agriculture programmes into early school curriculums as these findings can influence the students to further their agricultural studies to a higher level. The study also recommends that upon recruiting students, contextual factors such as prior knowledge and skills, prior experience as well as personality traits should be tested. However, a new exploration must be carried to investigate other potential contextual factors that are related to the learning of agricultural programmes.
6. Study limitations In this research, three sections of limits are discussed. Firstly, also it is important to cross-check the current findings. Most of the results that the researchers arrived at were discussed in the previous study. For instance, Chiu (2016); Lin and Liou (2019) said that the other contextual factors that impact the student's learning of agricultural programmes include prior knowledge and skills, which is something the researcher has found out in this study. But the researcher’s understanding is that continuous improvement is very important because it goes along with time. Secondly, referring to other factors that may reveal other results, the researcher could not get other factors that could have influenced the results. Lastly, calling for the teachers’ outlooks could be convenient too. The researcher tried to discuss the results with the lecturers, but they did not have the interest, neither did they have the willingness to do so. Had they allowed the researcher to discuss with them, maybe the results might have been different.
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 5, pp. 300-315, May 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.5.17
The Effect of ‘box-and-bead’ Analogy versus Retrieval-based Learning on Retention in Chemical Kinetics among First-Year Chemistry Students Taurayi Willard Chinaka University of Zululand, KwaDlangezwa, South Africa https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4567-2452
Abstract. The study examined the effects of the box-and-bead analogy versus retrieval-based learning on students’ retention and performance in chemical kinetics among first-year chemistry students. A purposive sampling technique was used to sample participants from the accessible population. The sample was made of two hundred and forty-five (n = 245) first-year chemistry students, at a public university, in South Africa. The study adopted a sequential explanatory research design. A chemical kinetics retention test (CKRT) was used for data collection as pre-, posttest and delayed post-test. A reliability coefficient of 0.73 was established using the Kuderson and Richardson correlation moment coefficient. Participants in the two groups were taught using an advanced retrieval instruction approach and the box-and-bead analogy. The results of the study showed no statistical difference in the retention of procedural knowledge and a statistical difference in conceptual knowledge. Overall, students taught using advanced retrieval performed better than the other group. The study underlines the fact that analogy-based instruction can be effective in improving conceptual knowledge using concrete analogues that aid in the retention of chemical kinetics. The findings of this study are diagnostic and they assist module designers in determining the procedural and conceptual knowledge in chemical kinetics retained by students, even after years have passed. Keywords: analogy; base/target domains; chemical kinetics; cognitive load theory; retention; retrieval
1. Introduction First-year, introductory physical chemistry is based on the three important topics of chemical kinetics, thermodynamics and basic quantum mechanics. Chemical kinetics is concerned about how fast a reaction progresses, through the monitoring of a suitable parameter which changes with time. Chemical kinetics relies heavily on complex mathematical concepts, such as differential equations in advanced courses, and students are expected to retain core knowledge concepts learned in their first year. The two instruction methods of retrieval-based learning ©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).
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and analogies might have the potential to enhance retention among university students. The retention of introductory physical chemistry concepts is vital for success in advanced chemistry courses in the third and fourth years. There has been growing concern about students’ lack of retention of the important concepts that are required as pre-requisites for advanced modules in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM). Lecturers of advanced courses in chemistry bemoan students’ lack of recall of the core knowledge concepts learned in first year. Third and four-year attrition is a long-established problem in South Africa, going back many decades. Specifically, there has been very little change since 2000 (Scott, 2014). The Council on Higher Education (CHE, 2013) reported that the greatest attrition occurs at the end of the third year of study. In 2014, the CHE report revealed that poor performance in STEM is still persistent across South African universities. Most of the degree completion rates are below 42% at contact universities. The high dropout and failure rates of students in second and thirdyear chemistry might be due to the poor retention of core knowledge concepts from preceding modules. This lack of retention of core knowledge concepts is not unique to South Africa. In the USA, Arum and Roska (2011) alerted institutions of higher learning about the lack of critical skills thinking and retention among STEM college graduates. Chemistry as a discipline risks being a mnemonic exercise if students fail to retain core knowledge concepts that drive chemical phenomena. The retention of core knowledge concepts by students may be a research niche in science-education that has the potential to inform instructional practices at a tertiary level. The new curricula for the Natural Sciences and Technology module focus on the relationships between the concepts and meanings behind procedures (CHE, 2016). Kieran (2013) suggested that a procedural and conceptual dichotomy is the distinction between knowing how (instrumental) and knowing how and why (relational). In chemistry, Zoller (2002) posited that procedural knowledge requires questions that use a memorised set of approaches for their solution, while conceptual knowledge invokes the fundamental concepts of the primary theories of science in order to answer the question. The distinction between being able to apply a relatively well determined set of instructions to a chemical problem and being able to explain and use links between different structural aspects of chemistry remains unexplored in chemistry education literature in South Africa. Potgieter et al. (2006) investigated the procedural and conceptual knowledge in mathematics and chemistry in first year students at the University of Pretoria. The study was a correlation which sought to establish whether students who displayed good conceptual and procedural understanding in mathematics also performed well in chemistry. The findings revealed low relationships between performance in chemistry and mathematics. The authors suggested that it was an indication that students had more alternative conceptions in chemistry than mathematics. This study did not use different instructional methods and never went further to check the retention of concepts. Lysne et al. (2017) defined retention as the ability of a student to remember what has been learned over time and it is influenced by instructional approaches.
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Furthermore, retention is the extent to which students can successfully retrieve core knowledge concepts from long-term memory. Instructional methods play an important role in the retention ability of students. Inappropriate lecturing methods in chemistry invariably translate to students’ inability to retain core knowledge concepts (Ajayi & Angura, 2017). In South Africa, chemistry lectures are usually with very large classes. The traditional lecture method is the modus operandi and there are few lecturer-student and student-students’ interactions. The long-term retention of first-year engineering students in the study of calculus was investigated over two years at the University of Pretoria in South Africa by Engelbrecht et al. (2007). A mixedmethod research design, involving pre-test, post-test and interviews, was used to collect data among the first years. The same test was administered as a pre-test in the first year and, after two years, as a post-test. Participants were exposed to the traditional lecturer-centred instructional approach. The authors reported a decline in the retention of core knowledge concepts of calculus and performance. The findings may have been different if other instructional methods had been used. In a related study, D’Ottone and Ochonogor (2017) investigated the effectiveness of problem-based learning (PBL) with simulations in retention of chemical kinetics concepts among 104 second-year chemistry students in the USA. A quasiexperiment, non-equivalent, Solomon four design was used to determine the performance and retention of the students. The findings of the study showed that students who were taught using simulations and PBL retained concepts better in the post-test than those taught using the traditional lecturer-centred instructional approach. The retention reported in this study was based on delayed post-test scores. Didis (2015) investigated the effectiveness of analogies in introductory quantum theory among first-year chemistry students. The author observed 48 analogies and the data were collected through interviews and analysis of video recordings. A wide variety of analogies used during lessons included verbatim, pictorial and body motion. The analysis of the interviews showed that students enjoyed the analogies and it improved the conceptual understanding and retention of quantum theory concepts. The study recommended the use of multiple analogies in teaching abstract topics in chemistry. The findings focused on conceptual knowledge and left out the procedural knowledge. Shahani and Jenkinson (2016) also explored the efficacy of interactive analogical models among third-year chemistry students. The study employed two analogies: the spring system and electrostatic spheres on potential energy curves. The results of the study showed that students had difficulties in visualising the potential energy wells and the post-test mean score increased by 11%. Retention in this study was also based on the delayed post-test scores. Taylor et al. (2016) investigated first-year university students’ retention of prerequisite knowledge using activities and in-class reinforcement. The findings showed that pre-class activities, together with integrative questions, were effective in improving performance and long-term retention.
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Karpicke and Blunt (2011) compared RELT and concepts maps in improving retention among high school students. The participants in the RELT group were given educational texts and practiced retrieval without looking at the text for three weeks. The final assessment was based on conceptual questions and the students performed better than those in the concept map group. RELT has a paucity in science education and its potential still remains unexplored. In a similar study, Chan and McDermott (2007) investigated the effectiveness of RELT on 48 undergraduate students. The students were tested on basic arithmetic and English. The findings revealed that students’ retention improved. This study seeks to explore how RELT can also improve retention in chemical kinetics. The retrieval-enhanced learning theory (RELT) underpins the act of bringing information from long-term memory. RELT approach is based on the assumption that all types of knowledge require retrieval and depend on the retrieval signal available in a given context. Furthermore, when an individual retrieves knowledge, that knowledge is altered, because retrieving knowledge enhances one’s ability to bring it out again in future. Karpicke (2012) claimed that RELT does not simlpy produce rote and short-term learning but it enhances longterm learning. Retrieving information from the long-term memory improves retention and learning far better than reading and reviewing time and again (Karpicke, 2012; Butler & Roediger, 2008; Butler, 2010). Retrieval-based learning (RBL) is a powerful learning strategy that is under-appreciated and is not considered as an important part of the learning process by both educators and students (Karpicke & Bauernschmidt, 2011). The reason for that might be that educators confuse repeated retrieval learning and rote learning. Recent research on repeated retrieval on the spectrum of pre-school to high school has established that retrieval-based learning enhances retention (Balota et al., 2006; Fritz et al., 2007). One modern theory of RELT is the episodic context account (Karpicke, 2012), which is based on four central assumptions. Firstly, individuals encode information in the temporal or episodic context in which they occurred. Secondly, during retrieval, the memory search process involves an attempt to reinstate the episodic context. Thirdly, if information is successful retrieved, the episodic context is updated and incorporate features of the new context. Finally, the updated context aids in recovery and successful retrieval enhances memory performance. The episodic theory accounts for two important findings in the retrieval practice literature. Spaced retrieval improves retention as compared to massed retrieval (Roediger & Karpicke, 2011). Spaced retrieval yields updated context representations that are distinctive and easily accessed. Furthermore, the episodic context explains the role of a retrieval mode. Karpicke and Zaromb (2010) defined a retrieval mode as the cognitive state in which individuals intentionally think back to a particular place and time where an event occurred. An analogy transfers a system of relationships from a familiar/base domain (boxand-bead analogy) to one that is less familiar/target domain (chemical kinetics). The chemistry conceptual understanding learning model, suggested by Johnstone (2009), claims that matter is represented at the three levels of macroscopic, microscopic (particles/molecules) and symbolic (chemistry language and
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mathematical models). Though students live in the macroscopic world, the chemical kinetics concepts require them to be versatile in both microscopic and symbolic levels. Thus, analogies bridge the gap among abstract concepts and familiar domains through a process called mapping. Matching or mapping involves finding correspondence between two domains. The dynamic skill theory (DST) is an extension of social constructivism that claims that skills do not develop in a vacuum but are influenced by social factors (Fischer, 2008). Skills develop on three levels of increasing complexity, differentiation and integration, and are influenced by self, others and the environment (Mascolo & Fischer, 2016). The DST also claims that cognition develops through levels and tiers. At the age of 14 - 18 years old, students operate in the abstract tier. In the abstract tier, there are three abstractions, namely single, mappings and systems. Mappings play an important role in analogy-based instruction since analogies uses similarities between the familiar and unfamiliar domain. One finding linked to the DST is that student performance does not increase steadily but is dynamic, depending on context. The retention of concepts is influenced by the instructional methods and analogies bridge the gap between familiar and unfamiliar domains. Thus, instructional methods play an important role in the retention and performance of students. While analogies and RBL have been studied in a variety of settings, very few studies directly show their effect on retention of chemical kinetics. Bain and Towns (2016) reviewed 34 peer reviewed science education journal articles on chemical kinetics. Most of the studies were based on conceptual understanding and alternative conceptions in chemical kinetics but very few where based on students’ retention of chemical kinetics concepts. There is a paucity of research about the retention of core knowledge concepts in chemical kinetics at both the secondary and higher educational levels. This study investigated how two instructional methods affect the retention of conceptual and procedural knowledge and performance in chemical kinetics. The study was guided by the following research questions: 1
Is there a statistically significant difference between pre-test and post-test scores of the students taught with the box-and-bead analogy and RBL instructional approaches?
2
What is the effect of lecturing with the box-and-bead analogy and RBL instructional approaches on first-year chemistry student’s procedural and conceptual knowledge retention in chemical kinetics?
3
How does the box-and-bead analogy and RBL instructional approaches enhance retention of procedural and conceptual knowledge of chemical kinetics concepts among first year chemistry students?
1.1 Research Design This study employed a mixed-methods, sequential, explanatory research design, which consisted of a dominant quantitative approach (quan) followed by a qualitative approach (qual) (Creswell, 2015). In this study, a quasi-experimental,
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non-randomised, pre-test-post-test post-post-test control group and semistructured interviews were used in a sequential design. The reasoning for this approach is that the analysis of quantitative data provides a general apprehension of the research problem. Furthermore, analysis of qualitative data refines and explain statistical results by investigating the participants’ perspectives in-depth. The overarching goal of quasi-experimental research lies in attempting to find the effectiveness of a treatment or intervention (Creswell, 2015). 1.2 Participants The participants involved in this study were 245 first-year chemistry students (age range of 18-24 years) at a South African public university. Convenience sampling was used to select two groups which were readily accessible to the researcher. Two groups (A = 121 box-and-bead analogy) and (B= 124 RBL) were randomly assigned to experimental and control groups. All the students were enrolled in the Faculty of Education, Department of Mathematics, Science and Technology (MSTE). The Natural Science and Technology module is divided into the two areas of Chemistry (50%) and Physics (50%) and had two instructors. The module is taken in three months in the first semester. First-year students enter directly from high school and the entry requirements include a pass in both Physical Sciences and Mathematics. The South African high school Physical Sciences Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS) has three topics under chemical change (rate and extent of reaction, measuring rates of reactions and mechanisms of reaction and catalysis) which are related to chemical kinetics. Students were assessed through pre-, post- and delayed post-tests and interviews. An university ethical clearance was obtained to collect demographic information through tests and interviews. The study was guided by three ethical considerations: deception of the participants, protection of the participants from harm and confidentiality of data. The potential benefits of the study were explained to the students and consent forms were completed. Participants were assured that their individual scores would not be recorded as part of their official duly performed (DP) marks.
2. Data Collection Instruments The first stage of the instrument development involved defining the content boundaries of chemical kinetics. The module outline of the first year module ‘Introductory to Basic Chemistry’ subtopic, ‘Reaction Kinetics of Chemical Reactions’, and South Africa’s high school National Curriculum Statement (NCS) for the physical sciences (rate and extent of the reaction) were used to define the content scope of the study, encompassing reaction rates, factors affecting rates and experimental rate determination. The chemical kinetics concepts covered in the CKRT were the rates of chemical reactions, temperature and concentration, dependence on rate and order of reactions. The identification of alternative conceptions by reviewing literature was the second stage that was used to select distractors in the instrument. Accordingly, distractors in the multiple-choice questions were based on alternative conceptions related to chemical kinetics (Bain & Towns, 2016)
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The CKRT was administered as a pre-test, post-test and delayed post-test. The test covered the core knowledge (conceptual and procedural knowledge) in chemical kinetics. Conceptual knowledge is based on concepts that drive factual pieces of information from the environment. Furthermore, it links key concepts and the relationships among them. It is a connected web of knowledge. Procedural knowledge includes knowledge of formal language or symbolic representations, and knowledge of procedures, rules, formulae, algorithms and symbols used in chemistry. Test items assessing conceptual and procedural knowledge are referred to as conceptual and procedural questions respectively. The CKRT had five two-tier multiple choice questions and reasoning and five open-ended questions (Figure 1). Three multiple-choice questions and two open-ended questions were based on procedural knowledge. In contrast, two multiple-choice questions and three open-ended questions were based on conceptual knowledge. The three chemistry lecturers and three high school educators checked the content validity of the instrument. The reliability of the CKRT was calculated using Kuderson-Richardson 0.74. The difficult indices of the CKRT ranged from 0.31 to 0.64. A five-question, semi-structured, interview data collection instrument was used to gain insight into how the use of analogy and retrieval based instructional methods improves the students’ retention of chemical kinetics concepts. Question 1.8 Consider three reactions having the energy profiles below:
Arrange the reactions from slowest to fastest, assuming they have the same frequency factor A. Two groups were instructed using the box-and-bead analogy (A) and RBL (B). Post-test mean scores were compared to the pre-test mean scores after a threeweek intervention. The delayed post-test was administered after six-months. A total of 12 students were purposively selected for interviews after the delayed post-test. The box-and-bead analogy suggested for this study was designed by the author. The activities involving plastic beads and shoeboxes were used to map abstract chemical kinetics concepts. A chemical kinetics analogy organiser was used to avoid the mechanical breakdown of the analogy by mapping the similarities and differences between the abstract and familiar domains. An analogy to represent a zero-order involved dividing the shoebox with cardboard, with a small opening at the bottom. The other side was filled with 20 beads and the students were to shake the shoebox. After two minutes, the students counted the beads that had crossed to the other side of the shoebox. The process was repeated with 100 beads.
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Students used the analogy organiser to map the similarities between the familiar and unfamiliar domains. To illustrate the statistical approximation of the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution curve, students placed 100 beads (50 red and 50 blue) into the shoebox and shook the contents. The students observed the movement of beads and mapped similarities with the target domain. In a reaction, very few particles possess the right kinetic energy and orientation for a collision to form products. To witness the effect of temperature on the rate of reaction, students shook the beads inside the box gently, moderately and quickly. Students observed the movements of the beads and mapped the similarities. For the progression of the rate of reaction, students used two boxes, one for reactants and one for products. A concentration versus time graph was used to follow the progression of the reaction. The beads were transferred from the reactants to the products and students mapped the similarities and differences between the familiar and target domains on the progression of rate. The two groups met three days a week for the semester. The textbook used was Chemistry Seventh Edition by Zumdahl and Zumdahl (2007). Table 1 shows some of the mappings done during the lessons. Table 1: Mappings between familiar and unfamiliar concepts Familiar
Unfamiliar concepts
Beads
Molecules
Gentle shaking
Low temperature
Cardboard with a small opening
Zero-order (reaction independent of the concentration of reactants)
Movement of beads
Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution curve
Retrieval-based learning has five steps (Karpicke, 2012) namely, enhance metacognition, practice with real-world scenarios, provide multiple self-checks and exercises, space retrieval practice and provide opportunities for group discussions. The first step involves introducing RBL and its advantages to the students. One of the advantages is that it enhances learning and long-term retention by repeatedly practicing to recall the information studied (Karpicke, 2012). The university’s learning management system (LMS) (moodle) was used to actively engage students with a quiz before they arrived for lectures. The prelecture quiz covered important pre-requisite concepts students had to remember. Step two involved repeating step one, using isomorphic questions. To reinforce retention, students worked in pairs answering questions. Step three of providing feedback involved giving students flashcards to practice and the answers were posted on the LMS. To vary the retrieval steps one to three, students worked in groups and took online quizzes. The last step involved changing the questions
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from low to higher cognitive levels and the quiz questions were changed from simple recall to conceptual tests. 2.1 Method of Data Analysis The data collected from students’ pre-, post- and delayed post-tests were analysed using the Statistical Package for the Social Science (SPSS) version 25. The data collected through semi-structured interviews were analysed qualitatively using idiographic and nomothetic methods analysis. The interviews were recorded and transcribed. Measures of central tendency were used to analyse the students’ performance between pre-test and post-test. One way Anova was used to analyse retention between the two groups.
3. Findings The mean scores of the two groups were compared to investigate the effectiveness of the box-and-bead analogy and retrieval-based learning on students’ performance in chemical kinetics. The descriptive statistics of the two groups are presented in Table 2. Rutherford (2011) described how to analyse a non-equivalent pre-test post-test research design. The first step involves establishing equivalence among the groups. As can be seen from Table 2, the pre-test mean scores of the two groups are 56.90 % and 58.8% respectively, implying that the mean scores are equivalent. The post-test mean score of students taught using the box-and-bead analogy is 63.73% versus 65.34% of the RBL. The mean score for the post-test of RBL is slightly higher therefore the students performed better than those in group A boxbead-analogy. The standard deviation (SD) measures the spread of scores and it is a square root of variance. The values of the SD of the delayed post-tests were 7.350 and 5.128 for group A and B respectively. A low SD suggest the scores are close to the mean and a high SD the scores are scattered from the mean. From descriptive statistics it can be concluded that a low SD suggest the post-test scores were close to the mean in RBL as compared to box-bead and box analogy. Table 2: Descriptive statistics Group
Pre-test
P-test
Delayed P-test
N
Expt A
56.90
63.73
56.25
121
Expt B
58.83
65.34
51.08
124
Sdpre 6.989 9.843
Sdpost 7.350 5.128
The null hypotheses H01 and H02 were tested to establish whether the difference between the two interventions was due to error or variance.
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Table 3: One way ANCOVA analysis of the post-and delayed-post-tests mean scores of experimental and control groups Variable
F
t
mean scores
Sig (2-tailed)
Delayed P-test
0.686
-2.37
59.43, 56.21
0.018
Post-test
0.002
-2.908
63.73, 51.08
0.004
The analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) on the two groups was done on the delayed post-test using post-test scores as a covariate. As seen in Table 3, the pvalue obtained is 0.018 at 0.05 level of significance. The null hypothesis of no significant difference between performances of the two groups in the delayedpost-test is rejected. This implies that lecturing using the box-and-bead analogy is better at improving students’ retention ability in chemical kinetics than retrievalbased learning. Similarly, the p-value obtained for the post-test score is 0.004 at 0.05 level of significance. The null hypothesis of no significant difference between the post-test score after instructional interventions with the box-and-bead analogy and retrieval-based learning is rejected. Thus, lecturing using retrieval-based learning improved student’s performance better than using the analogy. The analysis of the two groups on post-test and delayed post-post-test procedural and conceptual knowledge questions was done using quantitative item analysis, as shown in Table 4. Table 4 shows a decreasing trend in all of the groups after six months. Overall, retention was the highest in experimental group A and the least was in group B. Table 4: Item analysis of post and delayed-post-test questions Post-test
Delayed Post-test
PKA
CKA
PKB
CKB
PKA
CKA
PKB
CKB
1.1
64
69
70
70
57
58
60
55
1.2
59
59
63
64
57
54
48
58
1.3
61
66
54
55
52
55
53
40
1.4
53
48
62
50
45
54
51
28
1.5
68
47
73
42
65
44
61
30
Key:
PKA - procedural knowledge group A CKA - conceptual knowledge group A
Rate of Chemical Reactions Question 1.1 and 1.6 covered how the rate progresses during a reaction and how the rate of product and reactants relate given stoichiometry equations respectively.
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Calculate the rate at which ozone is consumed as compared to that at which oxygen is produced in the reaction 2 O3 (g)
3O2(g)?
If the rate at which O2 appears, 6.0 x 10-5 M/s at a particular instant, at what rate is O3 disappearing? The mean scores for question 1.1 were 64% and 70% in the post-test and 57% and 58% in the delayed post-test. There was a drop in the overall performance. For question 1.6, students claimed to have forgotten the formula and that the formula book could have helped. During interviews, students relied on calculators and the variation in the second part created some confusion. Thus, it can be concluded that students were procedurally proficient but lacked the conceptual knowledge on the rate of chemical reactions. Temperature Dependency For question 1.7, Table 5 shows the rate constants for the rearrangement of methyl isonitrile at various temperatures. Table 5: Rate constants
Students were required to calculate the activation energy for the reaction and also the value of the rate constant at 430.0K. The mean scores for the groups were 55% and 46% for the delayed post-test, and 66% and 55% for the post-test for groups A and B respectively. For this question, the retention was high using an analogy (group A) as an instructional method. Question 1.5 Consider a reaction for which rate = k [A][B]2. Each of the following boxes represents a reaction mixture in which A is shown as red spheres and B as purple ones. Arrange the reactions in ascending order of rate of reaction.
The mean scores for all the groups show a slight drop in the post-test and delayed post-test implying that procedural knowledge on order of reactions was retained. The RBL instructional method had 73% and 70% in the post-test and delayed post-
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test, thus retaining more than the other groups. For question 1.10, the mean of 44% and 42% post-test dropped to 44% and 30%, delayed post-test. There was a disappointing and surprising decline in the knowledge on the order of reactions.
4. Qualitative results Interviews were conducted to complement the results obtained using the quasiexperiment pre-test-post-test-delayed-post-test design after six months. Interviews with 12 students were conducted using purposive sampling of the students in the lower, middle and upper groups of performance. The responses, that included a correct answer and a scientifically accepted explanation of semistructured interviews, are presented in Figure 2. For students in the experimental groups, their responses were mainly in the scientifically acceptable category. Thus, it may be concluded, as obtained from quantitative data, that the use of the box-and-bead analogy (group A) improved retention in chemical kinetics.
ANALYSIS OF INTERVIEW QUESTION RESPONSES 4 2 0 qn 1.1
qn1.2
qn1.3
Group A
qn1.4
qn1.5
Group B
Figure 2: Analysis of interview responses
Excerpts from interviews Interviews were done to complement the results obtained using the quasi experiment, pre-test-post-test-delayed-post-test design. All the participants were coded with a capital letter (A, B, C) and the subscript representing their number (A1 student from group A). B2: I had been thinking about reaction orders all along and have looked at different authors. Thinking over and over again and trying to understand conceptually lead me to solve many problems on reactions orders until I was really satisfied. B2 seems to have been motivated by the repeated exposure of retrieving from the long term memory. Retrieving from the long term memory seemed to have helped him to try as many questions from different textbooks. He managed to have a conceptual understanding of reaction orders. B5: Most of the time when I get free time, I will constantly ask myself about chemical kinetics concepts especially temperature dependency. I
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now know about rate constants with less struggle. This question even you ask me after a year I will get it right. The response of B5 seems to suggest that RELT enhances intrinsic motivation that will aid in retention through constant retrieval. A2: The analogy had opened the way I viewed the rate of reaction. Today I know how the rate progresses during the reaction. Through analogies, I managed to understand the Maxwell-Boltzman distribution curve and activation energy. If confronted with a question I will try and go back to the analogy and this has led me to have a fine grasp of the concepts A5: I never had a correct understanding of activation energy from high school. Working with the analogy made me to have a clear picture about. Each time I get a question the analogy appears in my mind. The students from group A relied on concrete analogs to conceptually understand the core concepts in chemical kinetics. Though A2 admitted that the rate of reaction was vague at first and relied on her mathematical skills relating to the analogy would be used to answer questions. B4 was a textbook example of superficially and procedural knowledge which cannot be retained. Although he managed to rank reactions based on their activation energy in the first year, he failed to do so after six months, showing that he lacked a conceptual understanding of potential energy graph versus progression of a reaction. AC: I have totally forgotten what I did in the first semester. I got this question correct but the ideas just faded. I guess I was working hard in the first semester than now. The last interview shows a case of lack of understanding of how chemical kinetics concepts should build up.
5. Discussion Two instructional approaches were compared on the retention of chemical kinetics concepts but the result showed a declining trend. The findings were similar to those reported by Engelbretcht et al. (2007), wherein it was shown how procedural knowledge was retained the most over three years. RBL had the highest retention, followed by the analogy for questions based on procedural knowledge. Repeated exercises in RBL proved to enhance retention and seemed to improve emotive and intrinsic motivation. This is similar to the findings of Karpicke and Blunt (2011), on RBL, that retrieving knowledge improves the ability to retrieve it again in the future. Analogy-based instruction had the highest retention on conceptual knowledge of chemical kinetics concepts. The use of the analogy might have impacted students’ abilities to visualise the motion and interactions of particles at a molecular level, resulting in the improved germane load. The interviews revealed that students had concrete analogs which they would refer to when answering questions and which served as retrieval cues. The use of familiar and unfamiliar domains in the analogy might have improved the students retention ability.
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According to the CLT, concrete analogs could affect germane cognitive loads that lead to the automation of the right schemas. The findings on the use of analogies were similar to those by Didis (2015), that students enjoyed the analogies and it improved the conceptual understanding and retention of quantum theory concepts. The RELT had the least retention and it is concluded that active engagement using the box-bead-analogy leads to better retention of chemical kinetics concepts. The findings of this study are in agreement with several related research studies (Taylor et al., 2016; Shahani & Jenkinson, 2016; D’Ottone & Ochonogor, 2017) that concluded that when students engage with analogies they form concrete analogues that enhances retention.
6. Conclusion This study aimed at exploring the effects of bead-box-analogy versus RBL on students performance and retention of chemical kinetics concepts. Specific focus was on exploring how the students’ conceptual and procedural knowledge understanding improved after the two interventions. The RBL improved performance in the post-test (A= 63.73%, B = 65.34%) and analogy based instruction increased students’ retention in the delayed post-test (A= 56.01% and 51.08%). Students retain procedural knowledge better using RBL and conceptual knowledge using the box-bead-analogy. The present study supports the idea that the RBL and box-and-bead analogy can be used in a college classroom to enhance students’ conceptual and procedural knowledge retention of chemical kinetics. Through concrete analogs formed by mappings between the familiar and unfamiliar domains in the box-and-bead analogy, students can master their understanding of basic chemical kinetics concepts. RBL can influence learning in a variety of ways. The study found that it improves emotive and intrinsic motivation. The retrieval of knowledge repeatedly exposes what the students know or do not know and can guide future studying. Overall, the long-term effect of RBL and the box-and-bead analogy requires more investigation, and several questions remain open, such as if the retention is permanent or not.
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
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