IJLTER.ORG Vol 21 No 3 March 2022

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p-ISSN: 1694-2493 e-ISSN: 1694-2116

International Journal of Learning, Teaching And Educational Research

Vol.21 No.3

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research (IJLTER) Vol. 21, No. 3 (March 2022) Print version: 1694-2493 Online version: 1694-2116

IJLTER International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research (IJLTER) Vol. 21, No. 3

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Society for Research and Knowledge Management

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research The International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research is a peer-reviewed open-access journal which has been established for the dissemination of state-of-the-art knowledge in the fields of learning, teaching and educational research.

Aims and Objectives The main objective of this journal is to provide a platform for educators, teachers, trainers, academicians, scientists and researchers from over the world to present the results of their research activities in the following fields: innovative methodologies in learning, teaching and assessment; multimedia in digital learning; e-learning; m-learning; e-education; knowledge management; infrastructure support for online learning; virtual learning environments; open education; ICT and education; digital classrooms; blended learning; social networks and education; etutoring: learning management systems; educational portals, classroom management issues, educational case studies, etc.

Indexing and Abstracting The International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research is indexed in Scopus since 2018. The Journal is also indexed in Google Scholar and CNKI. All articles published in IJLTER are assigned a unique DOI number.

Foreword We are very happy to publish this issue of the International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research.

The International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research is a peer-reviewed open-access journal committed to publishing high-quality articles in the field of education. Submissions may include full-length articles, case studies and innovative solutions to problems faced by students, educators and directors of educational organisations. To learn more about this journal, please visit the website http://www.ijlter.org.

We are grateful to the editor-in-chief, members of the Editorial Board and the reviewers for accepting only high quality articles in this issue.

We seize this opportunity to thank them for their great collaboration.

The Editorial Board is composed of renowned people from across the world. Each paper is reviewed by at least two blind reviewers.

We will endeavour to ensure the reputation and quality of this journal with this issue.

Editors of the March 2022 Issue

VOLUME 21

NUMBER 3

March 2022

Table of Contents Determinants of High School Learners' Continuous Use of Mobile Learning during the Covid-19 Pandemic ......... 1 Admire Chibisa, David Mutambara Speaking Skills Enhancement through Digital Storytelling among Primary School Students in Malaysia .............. 22 Khasturi Ramalingam, Yeo Kee Jiar, Siva Mathiyazhagan Item Analysis of a Reading Test in Sri Lankan Context Using Classical Test Theory ................................................. 36 Fouzul Kareema Mohamed Ismail, Ainol Madziah Bt Zubairi Employing Exploratory and Pooled Confirmatory Factor Analysis for Reliability and Validity of Peer-Led Fun Inspiring Inquisitive Scale ................................................................................................................................................... 51 Kho Chee Yuet Fanny, Khayri Zaid Z Alzalit The Application of Mobile-Enhanced Collaborative Learning Models on Oral Presentation Competence in Rural Area During Covid-19 Pandemic........................................................................................................................................ 71 Dzul Rachman, Margana ., Priyanto .

The Impact of Mentoring in the Development of Pre-Service Teachers from a University in South Africa............. 88 Clever Ndebele, Dagogo William Legg-Jack Linear Predictors of Perceived Graduate Employability among South Africa’s Rural Universities’ Learners during the Covid-19 Pandemic ...................................................................................................................................................... 106 Herring Shava Challenges of Pre-service Teachers in Rural Places of Teaching Practice: A Decolonial Perspectives .................... 127 Bunmi Isaiah Omodan A Traditional Game-Based Parenting Model as a Cultural-Inheritance Medium in Early Childhood Education 143 Suteja ., Saifuddin ., Farihin ., Aris ., Widodo Winarso Students’ Acquisition of Science Process Skills in Chemistry through Computer Simulations and Animations in Secondary Schools in Tanzania ......................................................................................................................................... 166 Flavia Beichumila, Bernard Bahati, Eugenia Kafanabo Fostering Scientific Creativity in the Classroom: The Concept of Flex-Based Learning ........................................... 196 Kurt Haim, Wolfgang Aschauer The Impact of Production-oriented Approach on Oral English Performance of Senior High School Chinese Students: An Application Study ....................................................................................................................................... 231 Lixuan Sun, Adelina Asmawi The Impact of a Debriefing Strategy in Online ESL Classrooms .................................................................................. 247 Sasirekha Kandasamy, Tan Kim Hua, Fazal Mohamed Mohamed Sultan

Teacher Unions, Schools and Success: Opportunities and Contradictions ................................................................. 263 Vuyisile Msila Instrument Measuring the Adaptability of University Students to Online Learning (SOLE) and Its Predicting Factors .................................................................................................................................................................................. 281 Ateerah Abdul Razak, Azahah Abu Hassan Shaari, Lukman Zawawi Mohamad, Amanina Abdul Razak Mohamed, Asma Lailee Mohd Noor Relationship between Spirituality, Nature Connectedness, and Burnout of Schoolteachers during Online Classes amid Covid-19 Pandemic: The Moderating Role of Gender ......................................................................................... 301 Tengku Farhanan Tengku Mohamed, Samsilah Roslan, Zeinab Zaremohzzabieh, Seyedali Ahrari Parental Involvement in Young Children’s Education in Malaysia: A Systematic Literature Review.................... 319 Siti Soraya Lin Abdullah Kamal, Abdul Halim Masnan, Nor Hashimah Hashim A Look Back: Assessment of the Learning Outcomes of the Community-Based Research Experiences of the Senior High School Students of a Higher Education Institution in Batangas ......................................................................... 342 Joseph Angelou Ilagan Ng The Relevance of Learning Methods in Realising Student-Centred Transformative Learning ................................ 359 Mariana Simanjuntak, Merry Meryam Martgrita, Juli Yanti Damanik, Monalisa Pasaribu Content Learning through Languaging: Translingual Practices in a Graduate-level Teacher Preparation EMI Course in South Korea ....................................................................................................................................................... 379 Hyunjin Jinna Kim, Yong-Jik Lee, Yue Li Case-Based Instruction in the Forensic Chemistry Classroom: Effects on Students' Motivation and Achievement ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 396 Epiphania B. Magwilang Teachers’ Level of Knowledge and Readiness in Integrating 4IR: Primary ESL Classroom Context ...................... 415 Nur Maechea Avelino, Hanita Hanim Ismail Development of the Love for Writing and Publishing Journal (LWPJ) Module for Higher Education .................. 434 Syaidatun Nazirah Abu Zahrin, Mohd Izwan Mahmud, Norzaini Azman

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 21, No. 3, pp. 1-21, March 2022 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.3.1 Received Dec 23, 2021; Revised Feb 6, 2022; Accepted Feb 24, 2022

Determinants of High School Learners' Continuous Use of Mobile Learning during the Covid-19 Pandemic Admire Chibisa Department of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, University of Zululand, Faculty of Education David Mutambara Department of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, University of Zululand, Faculty of Education

Abstract. Every child has a right to education and attending school is a must in South Africa. However, school attendance was severely disrupted by the Covid-19 pandemic outbreak. Regardless, the academic process has to continue, hence the use of mobile devices as pedagogical tools for learning. The aim of this study therefore is to explore the determinants of high school learners' continuous use of mobile learning in order that the academic project may continue. The study employed a survey design in which quantitative data were collected using a sevenpoint Likert-type scale questionnaire developed by the researchers. A stratified sample of 500 high school learners participated in the survey of which 419 of them successfully completed the survey, giving a success rate of 83.8%. The remaining 16.2% submissions were spoilt and hence discarded. The study combined three models, namely the technology acceptance model (TAM), self-determination theory (SDT), and the expectation-confirmation model (ECT) in its analysis of the developed seven-construct model which used partial least squares structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM). SmartPLS v 3.0 was used to validate the measurement and structural models of the study. Results showed that all six variables identified for the model were good predictors of high school learners’ continuous use of mobile learning with 68% explained variance for satisfaction and 39.1% for continuous use. The study developed and validated a robust mobile learning model which is recommended to stakeholders for continuous use of mobile learning. Future researchers are encouraged to search for more determinants of continuous use of mobile learning that have not been identified in this study.

Keywords: high school learners; continuous use; user satisfaction; mobile learning

©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

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1. Introduction Thousands of people died in China in 2003 as a result of a kind of upper respiratory tract pneumonia known as severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) (Tang et al., 2021). An even deadlier new coronavirus (COVID-19) that possibly originated in Wuhan (Yang et al., 2020) has spread throughout China and around the world with catastrophic effects (Guan et al., 2020). By the end of October 2020, the coronavirus pandemic had killed over one million people and infected over 42 million individuals (UNESCO, 2020).

The coronavirus has had a negative impact on the world economy and human social activities, including the school system (Duan et al., 2020). Owing to the overwhelming spread of COVID-19, South Africa, as the other 190 countries of the world, implemented a national lockdown on 26 March, 2020 (Shrotri et al., 2021).

COVID-19 affected about 1500 million students world-wide (UNESCO, 2020).

The Department of Basic Education (DBE) in South Africa encouraged schools to use mobile learning (Mutambara & Bayaga, 2021). The DBE argued that mobile learning enables teaching and learning to continue while observing the lockdown restrictions and encouraging social distancing. The DBE also stated that mobile learning can help learners to have access to learning material anytime and anywhere (Mutambara & Bayaga, 2021). Mobile learning also helps learners learn at their own pace. Furthermore, the DBE argued that mobile learning provides learners with opportunities to carry out self-regulated learning.

However, there are several obstacles to implementing mobile learning. On the learners' side, many communities, particularly in rural areas, lack electricity, have a sluggish Internet connection at home, or do not have a mobile device capable of supporting mobile learning (Mutambara & Bayaga, 2021). As a result, a shift to mobile learning could exacerbate long-standing equality issues. Teachers are concerned about what to teach, how to teach, and how to meet each learner’s learning needs (Kim, 2020). Despite these challenges, schools switched to mobile learning in order to save the academic process.

Many scholars and online educators believe that the mobile learning that took place during the coronavirus pandemic can be used to address the shortcomings of traditional face-to-face education in developed countries (Mutambara & Bayaga, 2021; Wang et al., 2021). Mobile learning can assist learners and schools in crisis situations by providing unique opportunities. It has several advantages, including the ability for educators and learners to continue teaching and learning in any location without interruption. Mobile learning can also assist learners take charge of their education. Furthermore, it can be used to alleviate school textbook shortages. Mobile learning can also be used to help students understand concepts because the technology can mentally stimulate learners (Mutambara & Bayaga, 2021).

Although mobile learning provides flexible activities and abundant learning resources (Luo et al., 2021), the value of mobile learning may not be realised if learners are unable to use it on a continuous basis (Tang et al., 2021; Wang et al., 2021). “The nature of technology empowers learners with the necessary ‘possibilities,' not with ‘ready to use' resources,” (Wang et al., 2021, p. 10). In the

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realm of information systems (ISs), the success of an IS such as mobile learning is ultimately determined by its continued use rather than its initial use (Albelali & Alaulamie, 2019; Bhattacherjee, 2001). If learners are unable to use mobile learning on a regular basis or after the pandemic, the value of mobile learning will be lost.

This means that mobile learning has become an integral part of the school system’s pedagogy which should be perpetuated at all costs (Mutambara & Bayaga, 2021).

This calls for the continuous use of this mobile learning. However, very little is known about high school learners’ continuous use of this technology.

This study aims to explore the determinants of high school learners' continuous use of mobile learning. The focus is more on continuous use of mobile learning, an area of which very little is known. Most research studies have focussed on the pre-acceptance of mobile learning (Albelali & Alaulamie, 2019; Amzaourou & Oubaha, 2018; Cheng & Yuen, 2020; Shao, 2018). It also aims to investigate whether social moderators have an influence on high school learners' continuous use of mobile learning. Therefore, the motivations for the present research are as follows: 1. To investigate the determinants of high school learners’ continuous use of mobile learning; and 2. To investigate the effect of social moderators (gender, geographical area, and educational level) on high school learners’ continued use of mobile learning.

2. Literature Review 2.1 Mobile learning In the body of knowledge, there are numerous definitions of mobile learning.

According to Albelali and Alaulamie (2019), mobile learning is defined as learning that takes place through wireless devices such as iPods, laptops, smartphones, USBs, cameras, and personal digital assistants (PDAs). In terms of mobility, mobile learning is defined as the provision of education and training utilising devices that are convenient to carry and use anywhere, at any time, such as cellphones, PDAs, and palmtops (Mutambara & Bayaga, 2020). Mutambara and Bayaga (2021) described mobile learning as an extension of e-learning supported by wireless mobile devices and communication for teaching and learning. In the current study, mobile learning is defined as the use of wireless mobile devices such as cellphones, tablets, iPods, laptops, and USBs by high school learners’ learning.

2.2 Social moderators The enterprise content management (ECM) to assess users' continued usage of an information system was used by Venkatesh et al. (2011) who recommended that future research focus on the influence of social moderators on continuous use.

The assessment of educational technology continuous research revealed that the effects of social moderators on educational technology continuous use have not been adequately explored (Lee, 2010). Geographical area, age, gender and level of education are the commonly studied social moderators of educational technology acceptance and continuous use (Almahamid & Rub, 2011). However, the moderating effects of these moderators on the continuous use of educational technology need to be further understood (Lee, 2010).

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There are contradictory results of the social moderators on the continuous use of educational technologies. Existing research also supports social moderators' moderating effects on technological acceptance (Albelali & Alaulamie, 2019; Amzaourou & Oubaha, 2018; Cheng & Yuen, 2020; Shao, 2018). Cheng and Yuen (2020) studied the effects of gender, experience, and socioeconomic position on secondary students' acceptance and continued usage of e-learning systems. They measured the experience using the students’ grades. In this case, the grade of the student is used to determine the learner's level of education. Gender and level of education were found to be significant moderators. Amzaourou and Oubaha (2018) investigated the moderating effect of gender, educational level, and geographical area on university students’ use of online learning. Geographical area and gender were found to be good moderators of students’ use of online learning but not educational level. Shao (2018) noted that gender plays an important moderating role on university students’ continuous use of massive open online courses. Female students’ continuous use of mobile learning was reported to be weaker than that of their male counterparts (Albelali & Alaulamie, 2019).

Contrary to the findings of these studies (Amzaourou & Oubaha, 2018; Cheng & Yuen, 2020), a study by Almahamid and Rub (2011) indicated that there is no significant difference in the assessment of continuous desire to utilise e-learning systems by research participants based on demographic variables such as gender, age, and level of education. These findings were confirmed by Tarhini et al. (2015), who noted that only socioeconomic difference was a good moderator.

Considering the results of these studies (Almahamid & Rub, 2011; Amzaourou & Oubaha, 2018; Cheng & Yuen, 2020; Tarhini et al., 2015), one can learn that more studies that focus on the effects of social moderators are needed to help to understand their effects on the continuous use of educational technologies.

2.3 Theoretical framework There have been very few studies conducted to investigate the factors that influence users' continuous use of educational technologies (Luo et al., 2021; Ramadiani et al., 2019; Wu & Chen, 2017). Ramadiani et al. (2019) extended the unified theory of acceptance and use of technology (UTAUT) to predict students’ continued use of Wiki. On the other hand, Wu and Chen (2017) extended the TAM to explain users’ continued use of online learning. The SDT was used by Luo et al.

(2021) to describe students’ motivation and continued use of online learning.

However, the transferability of the findings of these to high school learners’ continuous use of mobile learning, especially in developing countries, might be limited. The TAM and the UTAUT were developed to predict initial acceptance of technology (Venkatesh et al., 2011); therefore, their applicability to predict continuous use of mobile learning might be limited (Mutambara & Bayaga, 2021).

Additionally, since most of these studies were carried out in institutions of higher learning of developed countries, the generalisation of these findings to high schools of developing nations in particular might be limited as well.

Amzaourou and Oubaha (2018) emphasised the importance of developing countries’ conducting their own technology acceptance and usage studies rather than blindly following developed-country examples. To that end, it is critical to

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establish the determinants of high school learners in developing nations’ continuous use of mobile learning. In doing so, three models were used in this study: the TAM, the SDT, and the ECM). TAM and SDT models have been widely used to predict mobile learning acceptance (Al-Emran et al., 2018). In contrast, ECM has rarely been utilised to investigate students' intentions to use educational technologies. The ECM, proposed by Bhattacherjee (2001), developed a theoretical psychological framework in consumer behaviour that gives a clear approach of explaining how customer intention to purchase a product is influenced by comparing both early (pre-purchase) and later (post-purchase) anticipation.

According to Lin et al. (2005), such a model is critical to employ when analysing a consumer's continuous intent to use mobile learning. Combining these three models will add value to the body of knowledge because the TAM and SDT have been tried and tested in the context of mobile learning, while the ECM brings postacceptance and the continuous use.

Information systems (IS) research on continuous use behaviour is split into three distinct but slightly overlapping groups (Larsen et al., 2009). This is also the case for mobile learning continuity. The first category includes studies that use information system adoption characteristics as antecedents to explain the continuous use of mobile learning (Limayem & Cheung, 2008; Roca & Gagné, 2008). As their basic variables, these articles typically incorporate variables from the originally suggested ECM (Bhattacherjee, 2001). In the second group, are studies that seek to break down the originally postulated ECM variables and evaluate them as antecedents for explaining the continuous use of mobile learning (Chiu et al., 2007; Sørebø et al., 2009). The third and last category of works attempts to connect the IS-continuance theory with complementary theoretical approaches (Liu et al., 2009).

This research falls within the third category. Following the studies of Liu et al.

(2009) and Sørebø et al. (2009), the starting point is Bhattacherjee's (2001) ECM and the added viewpoint is the self-determination theory by Gagné and Deci (2005).

Liu et al. (2009) and Sørebø et al. (2009) established that SDT is complimentary to ECM in understanding continuance intentions to use educational technologies.

This study also added perceived ease of use, which is one of the pillars of the TAM. ECM's strength is that it stresses high school learners' mobile learning preadoption expectations as well as post-adoption usefulness and ease-of-use views.

The latter of these, namely utility and ease-of-use beliefs, were characterised as extrinsic motivators of the TAM by Davis et al. (1992). In contrast, the selfdetermination theory emphasises basic need fulfilment and the development of real inner motivation, despite extrinsic incentive still being significant.

2.4 Hypotheses formulation and the conceptual framework 2.4.1 Satisfaction (SAT) According to Zhou (2017), satisfaction is a mental state that embodies the sum of a user's material and emotional responses to a specific activity, such as mobile learning. When the outcomes meet the user's needs, expectations, task orientation, and goal determination, they will be emotionally satisfied. User’s satisfaction is considered to be an important substitution for an information system’s success.

According to the Chong (2013), the user information system’s continuation

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intention is mostly defined by satisfaction with that information system's use.

Bhattacherjee (2001) argued that satisfaction generated after actual use is the primary determinant of continuance intention. A high level of satisfaction leads to a high level of continuance intention. Chong (2013) found that satisfaction is commonly regarded as a moderator variable of post-purchase behaviour. Zho (2017) confirmed that consumer satisfaction, promotes future behavioural intention. Based on the assessments of Zhou (2017), Chong (2013) and Bhattacherjee (2001) one can conclude that users will be materially satisfied as a result of their system usage experience. The current study proposes that high school learners who are satisfied with a mobile learning system may continue to use it and suggest it to others. Therefore, the hypothesis, namely H1: High school learners’ satisfaction has positive influence on continuous use of mobile learning.

2.4.2 Confirmation (CONF) In the context of information systems, confirmation is defined as the evaluation of users' ability to meet expectations, confirmation being proportional to satisfaction (Tang et al., 2021). Bhattacharjee (2001) stated that confirmation and perceived usefulness (PU) have a positive relationship. According to the cognitive dissonance theory, when a user's pre-acceptance perception of PU is contradicted, they may experience cognitive inconsistency or worry (Chong, 2013). Users frequently attempt to change their perception of pre-acceptance usefulness so that it corresponds to post-acceptance reality (Chong, 2013). That is, confirmation increases PU while decreasing the likelihood of disconfirmation. Chong (2013) found that perceived usefulness influences confirmation, which in turn influences satisfaction. Additionally, Tang et al. (2021) noted that user confirmation is a critical requirement for satisfaction. This study posits that high school learners’ perceived influence will influence their confirmation, and confirmation will predict their satisfaction. Therefore, the hypothesis, namely H2: High school learners’ confirmation has a positive impact on their satisfaction.

2.4.3 Perceived usefulness (PU) Mutambara and Bayaga (2021) define perceived usefulness in the context of mobile learning as an individual's perception that utilizing mobile learning will enhance his or her teaching and learning. One of the most typical constructs of extrinsic incentive for IS use is PU (Wang et al., 2021). Over the past few decades, PU has continuously been verified as the major factor of continuous IS use (Bhattacherjee, 2001; Mutambara & Bayaga, 2020). Wang et al. (2021) confirmed the effect of PU on continuous use. Luo et al. (2021) noted that PU influences not only learners' continuing use, but also their satisfaction. Based on the findings of Luo et al. (2021) and Tang et al. (2021), it can be concluded that the belief that mobile learning can enhance learners’ performance influences their satisfaction which in turn reinforces their continued use of mobile learning. Therefore, the hypotheses, namely H3: High school learners’ perceived usefulness has a positive influence on confirmation.

H4: High school learners’ perceived usefulness has a positive influence on continued use.

H5: High school learners’ perceived usefulness has a positive influence on satisfaction.

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2.4.4 Perceived autonomy (PA) Supporting students' perceived autonomy entails assisting and encouraging them to pursue their personal objectives (Sierens et al., 2009). Mobile learning provides teachers with several tools that can be used to meet diverse learners’ needs. These tools enhance learners’ perceived autonomy by allowing them to take charge of their education without being controlled by teachers. Supporting students' perceived autonomy entails assisting and encouraging them to pursue their personal objectives. Several studies have found a link between autonomysupportive teaching and educational benefits, such as increased intrinsic motivation, which lead to improved learners’ performance and satisfaction (Luo et al., 2021). Perceived autonomy was shown to have a significant positive impact on perceived enjoyment but not on perceived usefulness. This study postulates that learners’ perceived autonomy will influence their perceived usefulness and satisfaction. Therefore, the hypotheses, namely H6: High school learners’ perceived autonomy will influence their perceived usefulness.

H7: High school learners’ perceived autonomy will influence their satisfaction.

2.4.5 Perceived competence (PC) This study defines perceived competence as learners’ perceptions of their skills to manage and execute learning tasks in order to improve their performance. Luo et al. (2021) showed that perceived competence influences learners’ perceived usefulness. Extrinsic motivation (perceived usefulness) and learners’ satisfaction have been shown to be influenced by computer competence (Yang & Brown, 2015). Learners who perceive themselves as computer competent are likely to perceive mobile learning to be easy to use and satisfying. Therefore, the hypotheses, namely H8: High school learners’ perceived competence influences their perceived ease of use.

H9: High school learners’ perceived competence will influence their satisfaction.

2.4.6 Perceived ease of use (EoU) Perceived ease of use was defined as the extent to which users believe that adopting mobile learning would be free from effort (Mutambara & Bayaga, 2020).

Pratama (2021) confirmed the positive effect of learners’ EoU on perceived usefulness and behavioural intentions. However, the effect of EoU on continuous use needs to be more clearly understood. In this study, the belief that using mobile learning would be effort free will influence high school learners’ continuous use.

Therefore, the hypotheses, namely H10: High school learners’ perceived ease of use influences their perceived usefulness.

H11: High school learners’ perceived ease of use will influence their continued use.

According to the proposed conceptual model in Figure 1, EoU predicts PU as well as continuous use. The PC predicts EoU and Sat. PA predicts PU and SAT, which are both factors influencing continuous use. PU is a predictor of COMF, which is a predictor of SAT.

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Figure 1: Conceptual model

3. Research Methodology and Procedure A survey design was used in this investigation. A survey design investigates a subset of the population in order to generate a quantitative assessment of the population's opinions (Creswell & Poth, 2016). In this study, a survey was conducted to obtain a quantitative picture of how high school learners felt about the continuous use of mobile learning. A survey was chosen because it enabled the collection of a large dataset from high school learners in a short period of time and at a reasonable cost. In this study, a survey was employed to collect opinionrelated data from high school learners by means of a questionnaire. Initially, descriptive statistics were employed to examine demographic data from high school students. Subsequently, the conceptual model was tested using PLS-SEM. 3.1 Participants To collect data, stratified sampling was used. All high schools in South Africa's King Cetshwayo District were classified according to their quintiles. A stratum was formed by grouping schools in the same quintile. Placing schools in the same quintile in a stratum ensures that homogeneous elements are placed in the same stratum, reducing any estimation error (Creswell & Poth, 2016). There were five strata altogether. Using simple random sampling, only one school was chosen from each stratum. Learners in the five selected schools were also classified according to their educational phase. In high school, there are two phases: General Education and Training (GET) (grades 8 and 9) and Further Education and Training (FET) (grades 10 to 12). Simple random sampling was utilised to choose 50 pupils from each phase from the selected schools. There were 500 people chosen in all.

Out of 500 questionnaires administered, 435 (87%) were collected. However, only 83.8 % (419 responses) were used in this study, with the remaining 16 responses being eliminated during data screening. A total of 59.9 % (251) of respondents were in the GET phase, while 40.1 % (168) were in the FET phase. In terms of

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gender, 246 (58.7 %) of the 419 respondents in this study were females, while the remaining 173 (41.3 %) were males. There were 176 (42.0 %) learners from rural areas, 109 (26.0 %) from semi-urban areas, and 137 (32.0 %) from urban areas.

Each of the three latent variables (CUSE, PA, and PC) had five indicators. These latent variables had the most indicators in the model. Using the advice of Sarstedt et al. (2017), namely that a sample size must be ten times larger than the number of indicators on the latent variable with the most indicators being used, the required minimum sample size was 50. The sample size for this study exceeded this stated limit by far.

3.2 Research instrument There were two sections to the research instrument. The first component asked for biographical information from respondents. On a seven-point Likert-type scale, respondents were asked to choose one of seven answers ranging from ‘strongly disagree’ to ‘strongly agree’ in the second phase. The research instrument utilized in this study was derived from previous research.

Furthermore, in order to have the range of questions required for each construct, several questionnaire items had to be changed and updated. Because of the large number of items required in the research instrument, questions from different surveys had to be adapted and modified. The research instrument contained 44 items in total. Additionally, the conceptual model was developed using constructs from different models. As a result, it was anticipated that simply adopting and changing one questionnaire would be inadequate. The questionnaire items were developed from prior studies (Cheng & Yuen, 2020; Lu et al., 2019; Sørebø et al., 2009) and modified to meet the objectives of this investigation.

3.3 Analysis procedure The Software Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) was used to screen the data. The SPSS was also used for analysing descriptive statistics. The data was then exported to the SmartPLS software, which was used for analysing the data by means of PLS-SEM. According to Sarstedt et al. (2017), the primary objective of PLS-SEM is to forecast the target variable, in this case, the continuous use of mobile learning by high school learners. The PLS-SEM methodology was also used to determine the moderation effects of demographics (gender, geographic area, and educational level) on high school learners’ continuous use of mobile learning.

The two-stage model analysis approach proposed by Sarstedt et al. (2017) was followed in current study. The quality of the measurement model was evaluated by checking the reliability and validity of model variables and their indicators.

The measurement model establishes the relationship between the constructs and their respective indicators. In the second stage, the structural model's linkages were evaluated by examining the significance of the path coefficients, explained variance of endogenous variables, and predictive capacity of distinct variables (Hair Jr. et al., 2021).

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4. Presentation of results 4.1 Measurement model The measurement model is validated to ensure the appropriateness of the constructs added to the model. This is performed by evaluating the convergent validity, internal consistency, and discriminant validity of the measurement model (Hair et al., 2021). Internal consistency reliability was determined using the composite reliability (CR) and Cronbach's alpha (CA) tests.

Results in Table 1 show that all the CR and CA values were greater than 0.7, thereby confirming indicator reliability (Hair Jr. et al., 2021). The outer loadings and average extracted variance (AVE) were used to assess the convergent validity.

Results in Table 1 show that all the AVE values were greater than 0.5. The results in Table 1 also show that, with the exception of CUSE5 (0.604), all the other outer loadings were greater than 0.7. The construct CUSE5 was retained owing to its contribution to content validity (Hair Jr. et al., 2021). The results of the outer loadings and AVE confirmed the convergent validity of the proposed model (Hair Jr. et al., 2021).

Table 1: Measurement model Construct

Conformation

Continuous use

Perceived ease of use

Perceived autonomy

Perceived competence

Perceived usefulness

Item

Loadings

CONF1

0.740

CONF2

0.811

CONF3

0.800

CONF4

0.899

CUSE1

0.805

CUSE2

0.804

CUSE3

0.846

CUSE4

0.772

CUSE5

0.604

EoU1

0.829

EoU2

0.818

EoU3

0.904

PA1

0.744

PA2

0.777

PA3

0.838

PA4

0.883

PA5

0.820

PC1

0.889

PC2

0.778

PC3

0.873

PC4

0.868

PC5

0.912

PU1

0.810

PU2

0.852

PU3

0.865

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CA

CR

AVE

0.830

0.887

0.663

0.828

0.879

0.594

0.810

0.887

0.725

0.871

0.907

0.663

0.915

0.937

0.749

0.857

0.903

0.700

11

Satisfaction

PU4

0.817

SAT1

0.826

SAT2

0.902

SAT3

0.914

SAT4

0.924

0.914

0.940

0.796

The Heterotrait-Monotrait ratio (HTMT) was utilised in the study to assess discriminant validity. Hair Jr. et al. (2021) proposed that the HTMT correlation ratio delivers more accurate discriminant validity results than cross-loading and the Fornell-Larcker criterion. The HTMT values in Figure 2 were all less than 0.85, indicating that the results supported discriminant validity (Hair Jr. et al., 2021).

The structural model was evaluated after establishing the suitability of the constructs in the measurement model.

Figure 2: The HTMT

4.2 Structural model The variance inflation factor values (VIF) were utilized to evaluate the model's collinearity issues. The VIF values ranged from 1.000 to 2.354, as shown in Table 2. All of the predictors' VIF values were less than 4 (Hair Jr. et al., 2021), demonstrating that the model was not affected by collinearity issues.

Bootstrapping (with 5000 subsamples) was performed to examine the statistical significance of each hypothesis (Hair Jr. et al., 2021). The results are summarised in Table 2. Only three of the 13 hypotheses examined were not statistically significant. The hypotheses which were not statistically significant were EoU to CUSE (β = -0.022, t = 0.755 p > 0.05), PA to CUSE (β = 0.028, t = 0.608 p > 0.05), and PA to PU (β = 0.041, t = 0.567 p > 0.05).

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Table 2: Path coefficients Path

Std Beta

T-Statistics

P Values

Decision

f-squared

VIF Values

CONF -> SAT 0.466 8.317 0.000 Accepted 0.470 1.447 EoU -> CUSE 0.022 0.313 0.755 Rejected 0.000 1.650 EoU -> PU 0.314 4.988 0.000 Accepted 0.095 1.161 PA -> CUSE 0.028 0.513 0.608 Rejected 0.001 1.398 PA -> PU 0.041 0.573 0.567 Rejected 0.002 1.161 PA -> SAT 0.077 1.999 0.050 Accepted 0.030 1.440 PC -> CUSE 0.226 2.875 0.004 Accepted 0.036 2.354 PC -> EoU 0.610 12.320 0.000 Accepted 0.594 1.000 PC -> SAT 0.388 6.400 0.000 Accepted 0.303 1.551 PU -> CONF 0.325 5.084 0.000 Accepted 0.118 1.000 PU -> CUSE 0.245 3.525 0.000 Accepted 0.074 1.335 PU -> SAT 0.119 2.630 0.009 Accepted 0.034 1.288 SAT -> CUSE 0.257 3.315 0.001 Accepted 0.051 2.138 CUSE -- continuous use, PU – perceived usefulness, EoU – perceived ease of use, PA – perceived autonomy, PC – perceived competence, CONF – conformation, and SAT – satisfaction

The f-squared statistic was used to determine how much each exogenous construct contributed to the explained variance of its endogenous counterpart.

The results are shown in Table 2. Cohen (2003) specifies acceptable effect sizes as 0.02, 0.15, and 0.35, to mean small, medium, and substantial, respectively. The effect size of CONF to SAT (0.470) and PC to EoU (0.594) were deemed substantial

by Cohen's standard (Cohen, 2003). The effect size of PC to SAT (0.303) was medium, while the rest had a small effect size.

The R-squared value is the sum of all the predictors' contributions to the explained variance of the exogenous variable (Hair Jr. et al., 2021). The R-squared value of the model was 0.391, as shown in Figure 3. According to the findings, all model predictors account for 39.1% of the continuous use of mobile learning by high school learners. According to Hair Jr. et al. (2021), the exogenous variable has a moderate influence on the endogenous variable, which is very respectable.

The predictive relevance of the model was evaluated using a cross-validated redundancy predictor Q-squared. Results show that all Q-squared values ranged from 0.064 to 0.533. All the Q-squared values were greater than zero, meaning that the model could be used to explain and forecast high school learners’ acceptance of mobile learning. The results also mean that the factors PU, SAT, CONF, EoU, PC, and PA are good predictors of CUSE. These constructs (PU, SAT, CONF, EoU, PC, PA, and CUSE) made up the structural model.

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Figure 3: Structural model Note: CUSE - continuous use, PU - perceived usefulness, EoU – perceived ease of use, PA – perceived autonomy, PC – perceived competence, CONF – conformation, and SAT - satisfaction

4.3 Moderation effect The moderating effects of gender, level of education, and location were assessed and the results are shown in Table 3. These results show that the moderating effects of gender, level of education, and location on high school learners’ continuous use of mobile learning were not statistically significant since their tvalues are less than 1.96. Hence, they were rejected.

Table 3: Moderating effect Path

Std Beta

T Statistics

P Values

Decision

Gender -> CUSE

-0.014

0.245

0.806

Rejected

Gender Moderating Effect -> CUSE

-0.076

1.149

0.251

Rejected

Level -> CUSE

0.002

0.040

0.968

Rejected

Level Moderating Effect -> CUSE

-0.042

0.647

0.518

Rejected

Location -> CUSE

0.143

2.796

0.005

Accepted

0.050

0.468

0.640

Rejected

Location Moderating Effect -> CUSE CUSE- continuous use

5. Discussion Research objective 1: The primary objective of this study was to assess determinants of high school learners’ continuous use of mobile learning. Six variables were identified and evaluated using PLS-SEM. Findings in Table 2 show that satisfaction, perceived competence, and perceived usefulness all had favourable effects on high school learners' continuous use of mobile learning.

Although perceived ease of use and perceived autonomy had no direct effect on

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continuous use, they did have an indirect effect through perceived usefulness and satisfaction, respectively. High school learners' confirmation had an indirect effect on their continuous use by means of the mediating effect of satisfaction.

According to these results, perceived autonomy, satisfaction, perceived ease of use, perceived competence, and confirmation are all good predictors of high school learners' continuous use of mobile learning.

According to the findings Pratama (2021), EoU had a positive effect on PU but had no direct effect on high school learners' continuous use of mobile learning. These results imply that effort needed to learn to use mobile learning reinforces its usefulness, which in turn influences their continuous use of mobile learning.

Effort required to learn to use mobile learning, on the other hand, has no direct effect on learners' continuous use of mobile learning. There are two possible explanations for this outcome. Firstly, high school students are 'digital natives,' or adept users of mobile devices. Secondly, the high school students in these studies have used mobile learning for the entire year, indicating that they are now proficient users of mobile learning. Mutambara and Bayaga (2020) noted that the effect of perceived ease of use on actual use attenuates with learners' experience with mobile learning.

Contrary to the findings of Alraimi et al. (2015) and Kim (2020), the findings of this study revealed that high school learners' perceived usefulness had a direct positive effect on their continued use of mobile learning. The ability of mobile learning to provide learning materials anywhere, at any time, encourages high school learners to continue using it. This interpretation emphasises the importance of extrinsic motivation in the use of mobile learning. After using mobile learning for the entire year, high school students have realised that mobile learning can improve their performance. It is this realisation that possibly influences their intention to continue using mobile learning.

This study also found that high school learners’ realisation that mobile learning can improve their performance influences their satisfaction with it, which is consistent with the findings of Luo et al. (2021). Because mobile learning was more advantageous to high school students who did not have access to face-to-face learning owing to the coronavirus pandemic restrictions (Shrotri et al., 2021), the students may regard this benefit as the primary driver of satisfaction formation.

The ability of mobile learning to satisfy high school learners' requirements, expectations, task orientation, and goal determination gratified them both emotionally and materially. According to the findings, the usefulness of mobile learning influences a key surrogate indicator of mobile learning success (Santosa et al., 2005).

Congruent to the findings of Luo et al. (2021), high school learners’ perceived autonomy had a positive significant effect on their satisfaction. A possible explanation for this is that, after using mobile learning for the whole year, high school learners realised that they can study at their own pace, anytime, and anywhere. This ability of mobile learning of allowing high school learners to take charge of their learning leads to their satisfaction with it.

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Perceived competence was meant to be a good determinant of perceived ease of use, satisfaction and continuous use. These results were confirmed by the findings in prior studies (Luo et al., 2021; Sørebø et al., 2009). When it comes to the extent to which high school learners' pre-acceptance expectations are verified, perceived competence appears to be the most crucial factor. The explanation for this might be that competency has the ability to make pre-acceptance expectations more reasonable and post-acceptance usage more efficient. When reasonable expectations meet efficient use, a high degree of satisfaction is achieved.The satisfaction of high school students had a positive effect on their continuous use.

The findings are consistent with those of Chong (2013) and Lu (2019), who found that users will continue to use a system if it meets their material and emotional needs. One possible explanation for this finding is that high school students used mobile learning for an entire year and found it to be materially and emotionally satisfying, resulting in their intention to continue using it. Satisfaction also serves as an important moderator between high school students' perceived usefulness, perceived competence and confirmation, and their continuous use.

Research objective 2: This was to investigate the mediating effect of social moderators on the relationship between learners’ satisfaction and their continued use of mobile learning. Results in Figure 3 show that the R-squared value of SAT was 0.680. This result implies that the total contribution of PA, PC, PU, EoU, and COMF in the explained variance of SAT was 68%. This coefficient of determination is considered substantial (Cohen et al., 2003). The effect of satisfaction on continued use is a result of its own indicators and the 68% contribution of its exogenous variables (PA, PC, PU, EoU, and COMF).

The moderating effect of social moderators (gender, educational level, and geographical area) on the path satisfaction to continuous use was assessed, and the results are displayed in Table 3. Contrary to the finding of Amzaourou and Oubaha (2018) and Cheng and Yuen (2020), gender does not moderate the path satisfaction to continuous use. These results imply that male and female learners had similar continuous use of mobile learning. This means that both male and female learners have the same perceptions on mobile learning and they intend to continue using it.

Educational level does not moderate the satisfaction to continuous use relationship. This result is in line with the findings of Amzaourou and Oubaha (2018), who also noted that university students’ educational level does not moderate the relationship with satisfaction and continuous use. The results imply that learners in the general education and training phase and those in the further education and training phase have similar continuous use of mobile learning intentions.

Tarhini et al. (2015) and Cheng and Yuen (2020) found that geographical area does not moderate the relationship between satisfaction and continuous use. Our results confirmed the findings of Tarhini et al. (2015) and Cheng and Yuen (2020).

These results mean that rural, semi-urban, and urban high school learners have similar continuous use of mobile learning intentions. A possible reason for this finding could be the influence of connectivity developments taking place in both rural and semi-urban areas. The difference between rural areas and urban areas is

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narrowing because cellular network providers have invested heavily in cell phone boasters in rural areas, thereby making Internet access available (Chibisa et al., 2021). This access to connectivity in all areas causes geographical areas to be statistically insignificant moderators of satisfaction versus continuous use.

6. Conclusions and Recommendations This study aimed to assess the determinants of high school learners’ continuous use of mobile learning and to investigate the moderation effects of respondent’s social moderators. Six latent variables were identified and evaluated using PLS-SEM. These variables were perceived autonomy, satisfaction, perceived ease of use, satisfaction, perceived competence, and confirmation. They were all found to be statistically significant and hence good determinants of high school learners' continuous use of mobile learning. A model for predicting high school learners’ continuous use of mobile learning was developed using these variables. It was found to be statistically valid and robust with a moderate coefficient of determination of 39.1%.

With a successful model of continuous use of mobile learning such as this one, stakeholders are encouraged to continue using mobile learning because high school learners have shown intentions to continue using it in order to alleviate the restrictive and devastating effects of the Covid-19 pandemic. It has also been shown that there are so many advantages of using mobile learning, such as learning at one’s own pace, anytime, anywhere that enhance high school learners’ intentions to continue using mobile learning. Although the explained variance of this study was statistically significant, a coefficient of determination of 39.1% means that 61.8% of the factors that explain the continued use of mobile learning were not captured in this model. It is therefore recommended that future studies should focus on finding these ‘missing’ variables.

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Appendix 1 Determinants of high school learners' continuous use of mobile learning during the Covid-19 pandemic The purpose of this questionnaire is to collect data that will be used to find the determinants of high school learners' continuous use of mobile learning during the Covid-19 pandemic. Any information provided will be treated with utmost confidentiality and will not be used for any purpose other than this. Your participation in this survey will be highly appreciated. All data obtained from participants and their personal details will be treated with utmost confidentiality.

You are free to withdraw from this survey any time you feel like doing so, without any consequences. You need approximately 5-10 minutes to complete this survey.

DEMOGRAPHIC DATA (Please tick the appropriate box) Gender

Male

Female

1

2

Geographical Location

Phase

Rural

Semi-urban

1

2

GET

FET

1

2

CONSTRUCTS AND INDICATORS Continuance intention CUSE1

I intend to continue using the mobile learning, rather than discontinue its use.

CUSE2

My intentions are to extend my use of the mobile learning rather than using any alternative means.

CUSE3

I would never discontinue my use of the mobile learning.

CUSE4

I intend to continue using mobile learning for the rest of my high school learning.

CUSE5

I will encourage my teacher to keep on using mobile learning so that I keep on using it.

Satisfaction SAT1

After using mobile learning I felt satisfied.

SAT2

After using mobile learning I felt contented.

SAT3

After using mobile learning I felt pleased.

SAT4

After using mobile learning I felt delighted.

SAT5

After using mobile learning I felt terrible.

Perceived usefulness PU1

Using mobile learning improves the quality of my school work

PU2

Using mobile learning increases my productivity as a learner.

PU3

Using mobile learning enhances my effectiveness in my school work.

PU4

Overall, mobile learning is useful in my school work.

PU5

Using mobile learning would make it easier for me to learn.

PU6

I would find mobile learning useful in learning.

Confirmation

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CONF1

My experience with using mobile learning was better than what I expected.

CONF2

The service level provided by mobile learning was better than what I expected.

CONF3

Overall, most of my expectations from using mobile learning were confirmed.

CONF4

My experience with using mobile learning at home was better than what I expected.

CONF5

My experience with using mobile learning at school was better than what I expected.

Perceived competence PC1

I do not feel very competent when I use mobile learning in my school work.

PC2

The other learners tell me I am good at using mobile learning in my school work.

PC3

I have been able to learn interesting new skills in mobile learning.

PC4

Most days I feel a sense of accomplishment from working with mobile learning.

PC5

In school work I do not get much of a chance to show how capable I am in mobile learning.

PC6

When I am using mobile learning I often do not feel very capable.

PC7

My feelings toward mobile learning are taken into consideration in class.

PC8

I feel like I can pretty much use mobile learning as I do my school work.

PC9

There is not much opportunity for me to decide for myself how to use mobile learning in my educational work.

Perceived autonomy PA1

I feel like I can make a lot of inputs to deciding how I use mobile learning in my school work.

PA2

I feel pressured at using mobile learning in my school work.

PA3

I am free to express my ideas and opinions on using mobile learning in my school work.

PA4

When I am using mobile learning, I have to do what I am told.

PA5

My feelings toward mobile learning are taken into consideration at school.

PA6

There is not much opportunity for me to decide for myself how to use mobile learning in my school work

Perceived ease of use EoU1

It will be easy to learn how to use mobile learning to learn.

EoU2

I will find it easy to use mobile learning to share information with others.

EoU3

I will find mobile learning easy to use in class.

EoU4

I would find mobile learning to be flexible to interact with.

EoU5 EoU6

It will be easy for me to become skilful in using mobile learning.

I will find mobile learning easy to use at home.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 21, No. 3, pp. 22-35, March 2022 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.3.2 Received Jan 4, 2022; Revised Feb 26, 2022; Accepted Feb 28, 2022

Speaking Skills Enhancement through Digital Storytelling among Primary School Students in Malaysia Khasturi Ramalingam* Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor, Malaysia Yeo Kee Jiar Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor, Malaysia Siva Mathiyazhagan Columbia University, NYC, USA

Abstract. Speaking skills can be considered a key measure of success in learning a language. Learning Tamil, as an elective language in Malaysian National Primary schools, is extremely difficult for beginners compared to students in National Type Tamil Primary Schools in Malaysia. The aim of the research is to apply digital storytelling as a pedagogical approach in speaking classes in national primary schools with a view to promote Tamil speaking abilities of children. A collaborative quasi-experimental action research design was adopted to measure the efficacy of digital storytelling in enhancing students’ Tamil speaking skills. Action research was conducted with thirteen 2nd standard students aged between 7 and 8 years old, in a national primary school, in Pasir Gudang district, Johor, on a pilot project. The Tamil digital storytelling modules were developed in a mobile application with pre-and post-test survey tools and the respective class teachers were trained on the module to work with children in a regular classroom setting. The results showed that significant improvements were observed in students' comprehension, vocabulary, and fluency elements of the speaking skills after their participation in the digital storytelling sessions. As a result, the study suggests that digital storytelling may be an effective pedagogical approach to enhance students’ speaking abilities in the classroom and beyond to improve the students’ mother-tongue as second-language learning in schools.

Keywords: digital storytelling; education; speaking skills; pedagogy; Tamil language

*

Corresponding author: Khasturi Ramalingam, khasturiam@gmail.com

©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

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1. Introduction Speaking is an important element of learning and communication. Speaking in a second or third language enables students’ abilities to reflect, connect, and contextualize situations beyond their learning experiences. The initial method of student engagement is through oral communication. Students express their thoughts, ideas, and desires verbally (Sembiring & Ginting, 2019). This already known pattern of communication makes speaking skills vital in the early stage of learning, particularly in countries with a multi-racial and linguistic population like Malaysia (Xu et al., 2020). Malaysia is home to around two million Tamil people ethnically from Tamil Nadu, India, and Sri Lanka (Joshua Project, 2019).

Although most children are from Tamil-speaking family traditions, when students learn Tamil as a second language as an elective subject, their Tamil speaking abilities are rather low. Consequently, these students struggle to speak in their mother tongue at school. Speaking in their mother-tongue enables kids to learn other languages easily; it builds children's self-esteem and their personal, cultural, and social identities; and it develops critical thinking and innovation (Awopetu, 2016). Students learning Tamil as an elective subject in Malaysian national primary schools (Malay medium schools) face more difficulty in speaking in Tamil in comparison to students in National Type Tamil Primary Schools (Tamil medium schools).

Rapid technological advancements and assistive technologies, however, are changing the learning patterns of students. There are more tech tools, products, and services available to improve the students’ learning abilities. As a result, teachers are using more technology in the classroom to promote listening and speaking skills. Storytelling has proven to be an effective pedagogical approach to improve students’ listening and speaking abilities in a classroom and family setting (Sharma, 2018). The growth of digital media has more creative content development opportunities for storytelling. Digital storytelling is a new form of storytelling that has emerged as a digital tool for education enhancement.

Teachers can use digital storytelling as a pedagogical tool to work on various aspects of language in order to stimulate students’ interest and attention (Badawi et al., 2022). This empirical paper raises a key critical question – does digital storytelling enhance the Tamil speaking skills of National Primary School children in Malaysia? – and seeks to address possible research and practice gaps to promote Tamil speaking skills of the students in Malaysia.

2. Literature Review 2.1. Digital Storytelling Storytelling retells a narrative that has been heard or read in the narrator's own words depending on their expertise (Ikrammuddin, 2018). As per Kristiawan et al. (2022), storytelling resembles an activity in which the storyteller and the audience – the speaker and the listener – participate in some level of interaction.

Nurzaman (2019) defines storytelling as a means for students to retell stories after the teacher lectures them in a new word construction. Safei (2020) defines it as one instructional approach that uses short stories called storytelling. According to Asniatih et al. (2020), storytelling as a learner-centered technique assists students in making sense of material and interacting with others. Thus, storytelling may be characterised as a teaching style wherein students are required to repeat the

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substance of stories employing a variety of word constructions whilst interacting with the storyteller. One technique for telling stories are outlined as follows: (1) the teacher displays various stories on the whiteboard with colourful papers, (2) the teacher organizes students in small groups, (3) the teacher ask student representative from each group to take a paper from the whiteboard, (4) the teacher instructs students to create their own story in 15 minutes, and (5) the teacher instructs them to share their story (Khodabandeh, 2019). Fikriah (2016) offers another example: (1) Students are instructed to sit in groups, (2) they develop a tale using a series of photos and key sentences supplied by the teacher, and (3) the teacher invites each group to share their story in front of the class.

The physical storytelling strategies have been applied in various settings to measure the efficacy of the pedagogical approach. Recent studies in Indonesia used storytelling methods for teaching English: they observed that the storytelling approach has enhanced students’ fluency, grammar, pronunciation, vocabulary, and content (Asniatih et al., 2020; Sembiring & Ginting, 2019). According to an Iranian teaching experiment, it was revealed that storytelling was helpful in teaching vocabulary (Wahyudi, 2020). Rosyidah and Putri (2019) implemented digital storytelling materials in the classroom. They have observed joyful learning, critical thinking, creativity, confidence, and interest to explore the world of technology. Rajendran and Yunus (2021) performed a systematic literature review based on the Mobile-Assisted Language Learning (MALL) usage for improving speaking skills among English as a Foreign Language (EFL) and English as a Second Language (ESL) learners, which showed that students’ English-speaking skills were significantly improved in using digital storytelling. There are several research studies for storytelling and digital storytelling in the English language to improve the speaking skills of the students. However, no study was found in the Tamil language to improve speaking skills in Malaysia.

2.2. Storytelling and Speaking Skills Storytelling is an oral activity that can comprise enhancement in telling a story through body movement as well as facial gestures, to capture the audience's attention by using multisensory stirring emotion of an event in a story.

Storytelling is also a teaching strategy that helps students to concentrate on story aspects as part of class speaking activities (Yunita, 2019). Moreover, storytelling is a technique that allows children to take an active role in the retelling of a story. It places a strong emphasis on both academic and social development. When telling and developing a story, they employ language for a lengthy amount of time. This activity therefore helps them to develop their language skills (Masuram & Sripada, 2020).

Students in preschool or in the early stage of primary school instinctively love stories. They are introduced to the wonders of the world and stimulated to imagine many unknown possibilities (Febyanti et al., 2022). Telling stories resembles an active process encouraging students to reconstruct the text, and at the same time, allowing teacher and student interaction (Valsesia et al., 2017).

Storytelling boosts students’ confidence, improves their language skills, promotes speaking and listening fluency, and increases motivation and interaction (Ahmadi & Zenouzagh, 2017; Ikrammuddin, 2018). The storytelling method makes the

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learning process more enjoyable for the student. In addition, the storytelling process develops language skills with history, science, and other subjects as well.

In primary education, four basic language skills are taught: listening, speaking, reading, and writing (Leong & Zainol Abidin, 2018). In Malaysia, storytelling has long been used as a teaching method or technique to pique interest following a lesson. Teachers uses storytelling to teach language skills, inculcate moral values in students, and develop students’ soft skills such as communication and social skills.

One of the key skills in language is speaking. Speaking skills are viewed as an important indicator of a student’s progress in learning a foreign or second language. Speaking is an essential skill for students to develop and not just to meet curriculum objectives, but also to advance to the next level of their formal education. Numerous specialized programmes are referred to as intensive speaking programmes of foreign languages, particularly, English for adults and students. However, the majority of Tamil students in National Primary Schools learn a relatively minimal level of Tamil in a short period of time in these schools.

The majority of them are still beginners in their efforts to learn Tamil as a second language. Most often, these students have difficulties in speaking Tamil as it's a second language for them. Rudrapathy (2021) argued that it is difficult for a beginner to pronounce Tamil letters.

Every child hears his/her mother tongue as a first language, which also serves to develop thoughts and emotions. Learning in one’s mother tongue is also important for improving other skills such as critical thinking, the ability to learn languages, and literacy. A child's mother tongue promotes the child's personal, social, and cultural identity (Cvikić & Dobravac, 2017). The choice of words and expressions have different meanings across cultures, and where asking direct questions is considered as quite intrusive in one language, but it may be inquisitive in another. This means that the language used when speaking is deliberated upon before it is spoken. According to (Nishanthi, 2020), ability and concepts learnt in the learner's native language do not need to be taught again when they are transferred to a second language. In a school with a strong mother tongue programme, it is critical that younger children receive support in their mother-tongue. When a child is confident in his/her mother tongue, he or she will typically perform well when learning a second or third language. Children who receive education in their mother-tongue improve their performance in their second language as well (Maniam et al., 2020). Early learning to read in one's mother language also lowers dropout rates and it makes schooling more engaging, relevant, and fun for youngsters.

2.3. Child Development and Speaking Skills Primary school students start to compare and contrast, organize, analyze, and come up with increasingly complex solutions to problems, which helps in the development of their mathematical and scientific reasoning abilities (Ramasamy et al., 2018). This study also focuses on the cognitive-developmental level for children in the preschool age group. There are two types of early childhood learning models: teacher-centered learning models and child-centered learning models. Pavlov, Skinner, and other behaviorists pioneered a teacher-centered

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learning model. Child-centered learning was pioneered by Piaget, Erikson, and Isaacs (Alharbi & Alzahrani, 2020). Children have the ability to communicate their ideas orally in narrative and innovative ways. Their imaginations increasingly become the primary mode of play and learning for them. Cognitive development is a unique process for each child's development. According to (Dewi et al., 2018) children's brains grow alongside their bodies during the preschool years. Between the age of 3 and 5, a child's thinking skills will undergo significant development.

Children continue to grow and acquire new abilities in kindergarten and preschool (aged 2.5 to 6 years old). Playing is beneficial in many aspects of development, which includes, emotional, social, communicative, physical, cognitive, and linguistic (Kucirkova, 2019). Language and communication skills are essential for a child's development. They are more able to socialise and learn from formal classroom instruction including the pleasant atmosphere around them, owing to clear oral communication that can help them enhance their speaking abilities. Language and speech are important in children's communication and development (Rao, 2019).

It is evident that storytelling has a significant impact on early childhood development and during the education process. However, the majority of educational experiments and research focus on the English language and there is not much literature on Indian regional languages like Tamil. This significant research gap drives the authors to explore the Tamil language-specific digital storytelling as an alternative pedagogical approach to improve Tamil speaking skills of the National Primary School students in Malaysia.

3. Methodology 3.1. Research Problem Malaysia's Ministry of Education, in collaboration with the Curriculum Development Agency, has created updated curriculums for every subject taught from preschool to tertiary level. In primary school, a curriculum has been established for each of the core subjects and electives, including the Spanish, English, and Tamil language programmes offered at the National School of Tamil.

Under the Tamil language programme, Tamil language lessons, which were previously exclusively available to Tamil students and are now available to all students regardless of race or religion, encourage children from other races to learn Tamil as an additional language, which fosters increased harmony in Malaysia's multi-racial culture. As a result of this education strategy, an additional 70 National Schools pioneered the introduction of Tamil subjects in 2007 (PIPP 2006-2010).

Based on the primary observations during the pilot test by the researcher, Tamil students at National Primary Schools in Pasir Gudang district still have a relatively poor level of Tamil speaking skills. According to Rudrapathy (2021), the following factors contribute to students’ low speaking skills in Tamil: (1) insufficient time in the classroom to practice speaking in Tamil, (2) a lack of vocabulary, (3) less interest in communicating in Tamil because of unattractive teaching methods, and (4) a lack of ability to relate the content of speech to their daily lives. Furthermore, providing speaking methods that enable language learners to communicate in the target language is vital (Shin & Yunus, 2021). In

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addition, speaking is one of the major challenges for beginners and often causes them dissatisfaction (Nijat et al., 2019). In order to address these pertinent issues, research and practice gap in the Malaysian education system, a comprehensive action research on Tamil digital storytelling for primary school students was initiated. As part of the larger Ph.D. research work, this article has been prepared based on the initial pilot study conducted among 2nd standard Tamil students in a National Primary School as an intensive Tamil digital storytelling programme.

The primary aim of this research is therefore to examine the impact of digital storytelling to enhance the speaking skills among 2nd standard Tamil students at a National Primary School with an intense Tamil digital storytelling programme in the academic year 2021.

Teachers selection Students selection

Week 1Comprehension Week 2Vocabulary Week 3- Fluency

Session Observation Field Notes Process documentation

Reflect

School permission

Pre-test

Observe

Preparation of tools

Implementation

Plan

3.2. Research Design This research adopts collaborative action research as a quasi-experimental research study (Sembiring & Ginting, 2019; Sharma, 2018; Zuhriyah, 2017). This research process consists of the following four steps 1) plan, 2) implement, 3) observe, and 4) reflect. These four steps were adopted based on the model developed by Kemmis and McTaggart (James et al., 2019). The purpose of this study is to incorporate digital storytelling as pedagogy into speaking classes to encourage students from National Primary Schools to speak Tamil during Tamil language classes and to measure their progress with a pre-and post-test survey.

Discussion with teachers 1.Field notes reflections 2. Quantitative result reflection

Post-test

Figure 1: Implementation process of digital storytelling in the classroom

3.2.1. Plan The first author prepared the lesson plans of teaching speaking skills by using digital storytelling during the month of May 2021. In addition, the researcher also prepared 13 tablets with a mobile application named ‘KaniMani’ for digital storytelling. This mobile application contains 6 family-oriented stories which emphasize moral value in the family. The researcher also prepared pre-and posttest questions based on the students’ comprehension (understand instruction), vocabulary (nouns, verbs), and fluency (number of sentences, speech rate, fillers) in speaking skills. Qualified Tamil Teachers with a minimum of five years of experience were identified and inducted on the mobile application, research objectives, process, and tools for effective implementation of the programme. As part of the plan, the researcher received written consent from the school administration and individual parents/ legal guardians to engage children in the classroom research activities. Institutional Review Board approval was obtained from the Universiti Teknologi Malaysia to carry out this research project in schools.

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3.2.2. Implement The researcher ensured that the invitation letter and the informed consent forms are received from the parents/legal guardians. Additionally, the researcher provided a brief explanation of the research objective and process to ensure that the participants understood and gained a general understanding of both the research objectives, methods, process, and time requirements to complete the study to all the student participants and teachers involved in the process.

Meanwhile, the teachers received a set of lesson plans to use in the classroom with a mobile application. The teacher was also provided with observation sheets to record the teacher's instructions, students’ activities, and responses of the students. The researcher ensured a complete child-friendly and participative pedagogical approach for the digital storytelling sessions. The digital storytelling sessions were implemented for over a period of 4 weeks between May to July 2021.

Each session lasted for a period of 60 minutes. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic restrictions, all the sessions were organized through Google Meet. In the end, post-assessments were conducted to measure progress in speaking skills. The speaking rubric produced by Rukmini and Saputri (2017) was adapted to develop the grading criteria for oral communication abilities used in this study.

3.2.3. Observe The researcher was present during the implementation of digital storytelling in the virtual classroom as a participant-observer and took field notes from the teaching and learning process. The students’ and teachers’ perspectives were observed and described in the field notes.

3.2.4. Reflect After observation, the researcher gathered all required information and pre- and post-survey data and discussed and reflected on the results with the Tamil teachers. The researcher conducted two cycles of reflections with teachers: one based on the field observation and the other on the quantitative results of speaking skills among the students. These observations and reflections were recorded and described in the field notes.

3.3. Research Area and Participants The survey was conducted at the National Primary School in Pasir Gudang district, Johor, Malaysia. The study indicated that the participants are predominantly identified as Indian students who were 8 years old at the time of the study. There were 15 students in this Tamil class, but only 13 of them were regular attendees without missing any class. The participants have been selected using the purposive sampling method (Har, 2019) based on the low achievement track record in the previous academic year in the Tamil subject, particularly in speaking skills. These 13 Indian students studying Tamil as an elective subject in the school, were included. All the participants were from similar socio-economic backgrounds.

3.4. Data Collection and Analysis Qualitative and quantitative data was collected from the students through the online classroom experiment. The quantitative data was collected from the students’ pre-and post-tests. All the collected data was updated on Microsoft

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Excel, cross-verified for missing values, coded based on the categories of the speaking skills, and analyzed to generate bar diagrams to assess the speaking skills of the students who participated in the study and disseminate as the result.

The field notes from observations and reflections were described in Microsoft Word, and thematic analysis were performed to validate the qualitative results.

3.5. Limitations As a pilot study from the Ph.D. programme, the experiment was conducted in one school with a limited number of research participants. The results may not be generalizable at this point. However, this pilot study will pave the way for larger studies in regional languages. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic safety restrictions, all the sessions were conducted virtually and consequently, it was difficult to observe students’ learning process, body language, and other expressions. The parents’ guidance and engagements were required to be with their children to ensure effective implementation. Due to multi-stakeholders’ engagement, it was difficult to find a mutually available time for everyone in the research process.

The fluctuations and other disturbances in internet connectivity made the process more difficult in understanding students’ speaking abilities. Mobile Applicationbased digital storytelling, in any regional language, will be well suited for a homebased learning perspective with parents than virtual classrooms.

4. Results 4.1. Quantitative Results The results of the present study were based on the pre- and post-speaking tests.

There are three components measured in the Tamil speaking test with primary school students. The (1) comprehension, (2) vocabulary, and (3) fluency of students were observed and measured to understand the impact of digital storytelling on improving students’ speaking abilities.

Table 1: Pre and post-test scores of digital storytelling

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The above table 1 shows that the summary of the pre and post-test scores of the students. Each category of speaking skills was scored out of 10 marks. Significant improvements were recorded in the pre and post-test in all aspects of the speaking skills. Fluency had an highest level of improvement in students speaking skills.

Pre-test

Post-test

60 58%

50

52%

50%

40 30 20

25%

27%

27%

10 0 Comprehension

Vocabulary

Fluency

Figure 2: Result of speaking skills before and after digital storytelling

Figure 1 shows that students’ speaking skills considerably improved in all three aspects after the implementation of digital storytelling sessions. The students’ oral comprehension skill has increased to 52% compared to a pre-test score of 25%.

The results show that students’ vocabulary has improved from 27% to 50%, and the fluency of Tamil speaking skills have also improved with a difference of 31% after they were exposed to digital storytelling. Overall, the students’ capacity to communicate vocally improves as a result of the implementation of the digital storytelling technique in the virtual classroom environment 4.2. Observations and Reflections The researcher’s observations and teachers’ post-experiment reflections reveal that teachers strongly believe that digital storytelling was a good pedagogical approach to improve students’ speaking skills. The teachers acknowledged that the Mobile Application-based storytelling allows students to repeat the stories more times which allows them to learn vocabulary and get familiar with new words in Tamil. The mobile application-based digital storytelling and gamified evaluations with rewards motivated students to joyfully participate and learn independently at home. The parents are highly satisfied with children’s creative expressions after the digital storytelling sessions. Students expressed that Mobile Application-based learning for Tamil is new to all of them. It was also observed that the students were more interested in participating in an online storytelling competition at the state level. Students imitated stories and actions which enable them to speak in Tamil for more than a minute. Students feel more secure, able to recognize their own potential through video, and more comfortable sharing their stories and tales. It was also observed that students were more excited and had fun with Mobile Application technology and considerably improved their Tamil speaking skills.

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5. Discussion 5.1. Digital Storytelling and Speaking Skills It is evident that the digital storytelling approach contributes to the Tamil speaking abilities of primary school students in Malaysia. The storytelling proved to be an effective approach in improving English speaking skills. The present pilot study results show that Tamil speaking skills also improve through digital storytelling. It may be possible to expand digital storytelling as a pedagogical approach for other regional language improvement and promote mother-tongue speaking abilities in National Schools. Yunita (2019) emphasized that students require better speaking skills in all aspects of life in this era of globalization. The Mobile Application-based digital storytelling could be an option to improve the speaking skills of the students in primary schools. The students’ excitement towards modern technology, visual representation, and active virtual participation makes digital storytelling an interesting tool to explore in the classrooms. There are several researchers who have argued on the importance of speaking skills for students’ communication, creativity, career development, identity development, learning languages, and social engagement (Choi et al., 2019; Kucirkova, 2019). Schools in the twenty-first century adopt various emerging technologies and assistive technologies into the classrooms to support students’ learning abilities. Mobile application-based learning is not a new approach in the education space, however, language inclusion in technology can make it more accessible for diverse ethnic groups across the world. Digital storytelling in a mobile application version will support students beyond the classroom and geographical boundaries to improve their speaking skills and other additional social benefits.

5.2. Language Inclusion and Digital Storytelling Most digital products in the education space are in English. There are roughly 6500 to 7000 languages and major dialects spoken in the world (UNESCO, 2020).

74 million people speak Tamil as their native language (Goreau-Ponceaud, 2019), and almost ten million people speak Tamil as a second language in more than six countries including Malaysia. Digital learning tools need to be in the native language to share indigenous stories and tales to students to build their sociocultural identity and creative exploration of the world, and enhance their clarity and confidence to communicate with each other. Learning in one's mother tongue is also important for developing other critical thinking skills, more additional language learning, and literacy abilities (Nishanthi, 2020). People convey and communicate ideas to others verbally by speaking (Pandian et al., 2020). People's thought process and feelings are shaped by their mother tongue. It is vital for a child's growth to learn to speak in his/her mother tongue. Fluency in the children’s mother tongue has a number of advantages for the child (Uzeyir Sugumlu, 2022). This digital storytelling experiment in the Tamil language will pave the path for language inclusion in the digital learning environment and promote more mother tongue speaking abilities through digital storytelling approaches.

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6. Conclusion Digital storytelling is one of the emerging approaches in the education space to improve students’ skills and capacities to be better learners. The pilot study results suggest that digital storytelling can be an effective methodology to improve students’ speaking skills particularly to improve their language fluency. In addition, for linguistic minorities learning their mother tongue as a second language in school, digital storytelling may be an effective way to enhance these students’ speaking skills at home and school via the Mobile Application. The effective implementation of digital storytelling in the National Primary school of Malaysia could improve the Tamil speaking abilities of students of Indian origin in the intensive Tamil programme. The study results show that primary school students enhance their speaking skills at an early stage of their education.

Therefore, more child-friendly speaking-based mobile applications should be enhanced for primary school students in Malay, Mandarin, and Tamil languages for National and National Type schools based on the Malaysian syllabus. In addition, there is a need for a teaching module based on digital storytelling which can provide systematic guidance to tell a story and enhance speaking skills among primary school students. There is scope for future research in the areas of digital storytelling and creative skills and leadership. The future of digital storytelling may adopt Virtual Reality (VR), Augmented Reality (AR), and Extended Reality (XR) to the classrooms to expand the regional language learning and speaking opportunities for students. It is vital to adopt additional innovative pedagogies and digital tools to optimize the level of mother tongue and second language speaking skills among students for their well-being and for a brighter future.

Language inclusion in digital tools will expand learning opportunities for every child, everywhere.

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International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (IJTSRD), 5(1), 77–80. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Rajathurai-Nishanthi2/publication/345436020_Understanding_of_the_Importance_of_Mother_Tong ue_Learning/links/5fa6aa3692851cc2869cfebd/Understanding-of-theImportance-of-Mother-Tongue-Learning.pdf Nurzaman, I. G. G. (2019). Developing interactive storytelling model to facilitate young learners’ speaking skills. The 2nd International Conference on Elementary Education, 2(1), 64–69. http://proceedings.upi.edu/index.php/icee/article/view/607/524 Pandian, A., Baboo, S. B., & Yi, L. J. (2020). Digital storytelling: Engaging young people to communicate for digital media literacy. Jurnal Komunikasi: Malaysian Journal of Communication, 36(1), 187–204. http://doi.org/10.17576/JKMJC-2020-3601-11 Rajendran, T., & Yunus, M. (2021). A systematic literature review on the use of mobileassisted language Learning (MALL) for enhancing speaking skills among ESL and EFL learners. International Journal of Academic Research in Progressive Education and Development, 10(1), 586–609. http://doi.org/10.6007/IJARPED/v10-i1/8939 Ramasamy, R. K., Williams, M. J., Subramanian, P., & Batumalai, V. (2018). Contemporary applications of teaching pedagogy for Tamil kindergarten using sustainable practices. Knowledge Management International Conference (KMICe), 1(1), 72–76. https://repo.uum.edu.my/25192 Rao, P. S. (2019). The importance of speaking skills in English classrooms. Alford Council of International English & Literature Journal(ACIELJ), 2(2), 6–18. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/ParupalliRao/publication/334283040_THE_IMPORTANCE_OF_SPEAKING_SKILLS_IN _ENGLISH_CLASSROOMS/links/5d21b2db458515c11c18dbf3/THEIMPORTANCE-OF-SPEAKING-SKILLS-IN-ENGLISH-CLASSROOMS.pdf Rosyidah, A., & Putri, A. (2019). Digital storytelling implementation for enhancing students’ speaking ability in various text genres. International Journal of Recent Technology and Engineering, 8(4), 3147–3151. http://doi.org/10.35940/ijrte.d8002.118419 Rudrapathy, T. (2021). The difficulties and factors that faced by non-native students in pronouncing Tamil letters.

Journal of Valartamil, 2(1), 55–68. http://doi.org/10.37134/jvt.vol2.1.5.2021 Rukmini, D., & Saputri, L. A. D. E. (2017). The authentic assessment to measure students’ English productive skills based on 2013 curriculum. Indonesian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 7(2), 263–273. http://doi.org/10.17509/ijal.v7i2.8128 Safei, N. H. (2020). The effectiveness of retelling short story towards students’ accuracy in speaking skill. IDEAS: Journal on English Language Teaching and Learning, Linguistics and Literature, 8(1), 137–144. http://doi.org/10.24256/ideas.v8i1.1275 Sembiring, N., & Ginting, F. Y. A. (2019). Improving students’ speaking achievement by using storytelling technique. Budapest International Research and Critics in

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Linguistics and Education (BirLE) Journal, 2(4), 179–184. http://doi.org/10.33258/birle.v2i4.505 Sharma, D. R. (2018). Action research on improving students’ speaking proficiency in using cooperative storytelling strategy. Journal of NELTA Surkhet, 5(1), 97–105. http://doi.org/10.3126/jns.v5i0.19495 Shin, J. L. K., & Yunus, M. M. (2021). The attitudes of pupils towards using flipgrid in learning English speaking skills. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, 20(3), 151–168. http://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.3.10 UNESCO. (2020). Protecting languages and preserving cultures. ODUMUNC 2020 Issue Brief, 1–8. https://www.odu.edu/content/dam/odu/offices/mun/docs/ib-3rdlanguages-and-cultures.pdf Uzeyir Sugumlu, S. A. (2022). The use of web 2.0 tools in mother-tongue instruction: Teachers’ experiences. International Journal of Education & Literacy Studies, 10(1), 124–137. http://doi.org/10.7575/aiac.ijels.v.10n.1p.124 Valsesia, F., Diehl, K., & Nunes, J. C. (2017). Based on a true story: Making people believe the unbelievable. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 71(1), 105–110. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2017.03.001 Wahyudi, F. T. (2020). Do story telling technique on helps students’ speaking achievement?: An experimental study of eight grade. LangEdu Journal, 1(1), 1–5. https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/287229426.pdf Xu, Y., Wang, D., Collins, P., Lee, H., & Warschauer, M. (2020). Same benefits, different communication patterns: Comparing children’s reading with a conversational agent vs. a human partner. Computers and Education, 161, 104059. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2020.104059 Yunita, H. (2019). The effect of storytelling towards students’ speaking skill at X grade students of Ma Nurul Haraman bording school. Journal of Languages and Language Teaching, 7(2), 132–143. http://doi.org/10.33394/jollt.v7i2.1961 Zuhriyah, M. (2017). Storytelling to improve student’s speaking skill. Jurnal Tadris Bahasa Inggris, 10(1), 119–134.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 21, No. 3, pp. 36-50, March 2022 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.3.3 Received Nov 8, 2021; Revised Feb 24, 2022; Accepted Mar 12, 2022

Item Analysis of a Reading Test in a Sri Lankan Context using Classical Test Theory Fouzul Kareema Mohamed Ismail PhD candidate in TESL, Department of Curriculum and Instruction, International Islamic University Malaysia Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia *South Eastern University of Sri Lanka, Sri Lanka Ainol Madziah Bt Zubairi International Islamic University Malaysia Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

Abstract. This paper is based on a research study on a reading test that evaluates the different cognitive processes prescribed by Khalifa and Weir (2009). The 25-item test was designed based on a test specification targeted at the B2 level of the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR). The responses of 50 students were used to check the validity and reliability of the test. The validity of the test was ascertained through item analysis involving item difficulty indices, item discrimination indices, and distractor analysis. Each item was studied to provide detailed information leading to the improvement of test construction. To achieve test reliability, the Kuder-Richardson Formula 20 (KR-20) was applied. The results were achieved by simply using Microsoft Excel. Findings revealed that the test met the standards for content validity, indicating acceptable item difficulty indices, with 17 items at the moderate level between the ranges of 0.30 and 0.79. Except for three items, all others functioned well to differentiate between high- and low-ability students, and only five items had malfunction distractors. Meanwhile, the reliability value of the test scores was 0.82, which is deemed a good value, proving the consistency of the test results. It signifies that more than half, that is 88%, of the test items were well functioning and that the test proved to be valid and reliable. The present research can contribute to students, teachers, and test-makers having an insightful understanding of item analysis and test development.

Keywords: cognitive processing in reading; distractor; item difficulty; item discrimination

1. Introduction Reading is a multivariate ability that necessitates the complicated combination and integration of a wide range of linguistic, non-linguistic, and cognitive skills, ranging from extremely basic low-level processing abilities to high-level ©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

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processing abilities. Assessing or testing reading is also a complex phenomenon (Alderson, 2000).

A test can be defined as a method of measuring a person’s ability, knowledge, or performance in a specific domain (Brown & Abeywickrama, 2010). In this study, a test was utilized as method to measure the reading performance level of selected students of the South Eastern University of Sri Lanka. Considering the significance of assessing reading, the test was developed using the theoretical backgrounds in test development and validation to provide the necessary information for test designers and teachers in achieving a valid and reliable test that assesses what it is supposed to assess. The test paper consisted of 25 items, including 18 multiple-choice questions (MCQs) with 4 options each and 7 questions of multiple matching. Both response types belong to the category of selected-response methods (Khalifa & Weir, 2009; Urquhart & Weir, 1998).

Recent developments in research have recognized reading as a mental process, identified as cognitive processing by Khalifa and Weir (2009). These cognitive processes are included in this study to measure the reading performance level of the students. To do this, eight socio-cognitive processes were identified to evaluate the reading performance. These are: word recognition (WR), lexical access (LA), syntactic parsing (SP), establishing propositional meaning (EPM), inferencing (I), building a mental model (BMM), creating a text-level structure (CTLS), and creating an inter-textual representation (CITR). The first four processes have been categorized as low-level process (lower order thinking [LOT]) skills, with the latter four categorized as high-level process (higher order thinking [HOT]) skills (Bax & Chan, 2016). This paper highlights the utility of the classical item analysis in providing detailed information about how items function in a test.

2. Literature Review In ascertaining the reliability and validity of a test, knowledge of test development and validation is of great importance. In developing a test, test and item design is pivotal. Furthermore, the validity and reliability of a test require theoretical knowledge of item analysis. This study adopted an approach based on classical test theory (CTT).

2.1 Test Development and Validation The validity and reliability of the test determine whether the test serves its purpose well. Validity is the extent to which a test measures what it is meant to measure (Messick, 1989). To check whether test items are valid, content validation of the test items is crucial before administering a test (Halek et al., 2017). As Creswell (2012) and Crocker and Algina (1986) mentioned, content validation can be performed by a group of experts in a specific content area.

2.2 Classical Test Theory and Item Difficulty Analysis CTT is based on a test score theory that introduces three concepts: the test score (also known as the observed score), the true score, and the error score (Eleje et al., 2018; Hambleton & Jones, 1993; Magno, 2009; Yusup, 2012). The main advantage

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of CTT, according to Hambleton and Jones (1993), is its “relatively weak assumptions (i.e., they are easy to meet in real test data)” (p. 40), which makes it simple to employ in a variety of testing scenarios. Item difficulty indices, item discrimination analysis, and distractor analysis are the primary features of CTT, which are key elements in item analysis as well. These three types of analyses can provide evidence for validity arguments, as supported by Tamil (2015), Manalu (2019), and Shanmugam et al. (2020).

Item analysis is the process of evaluating test questions involving a systematic procedure that provides specific information about the items constructed (Pratiwi et al., 2021). Barnard (1999) defined the item difficulty index as the proportion of the group who answer the questions correctly. This is determined by the total number of correct responses for a particular item divided by the total number of students and multiplied by 100 to get the percentage (Tamil, 2015).

Difficulty index (D) = students with correct answers x 100 total number of students However, Samad (2004, p. 103) did not convert the result into a percentage as in the present research. Item difficulty can range from 0 to 1 and often involves “decimal points”. This can be calculated by using the number of students who answered an item correctly and dividing it by the number of students who attempted to answer the item. Some researchers have identified items with values less than 0.30 as difficult items, and those greater than 0.70 as easy items (Bichi & Embong, 2018; Shanmugam et al., 2020; Zubairi & Kassim, 2006). Nonetheless, this study used Tamil’s (2015) recommendations. He categorized items scoring 0.0−0.29 as difficult, 0.30–0.79 as moderate, and 0.80–1.00 as easy items. Very easy and very difficult items may need to be revised to achieve a valid test (Bichi & Embong, 2018; Samad, 2004; Shanmugam et al., 2020; Tamil, 2015) if the test is achievement-based. A good test must have a variety of items, ranging from easy, moderate, to difficult items (Wright & Stone, 1979).

2.3 Item Discrimination Item discrimination is a method used to determine how well an item distinguishes between pupils of high and poor ability. Item discrimination values range from -1 to 1 (Samad, 2004). The number of correct answers from students in the upper and lower ability groups, respectively, is used to measure item discrimination.

Discrimination index (R) = (H - L) 27% of total H = number of correct answers from the top 27% of students L = number of correct answers from the bottom 27% of students (Tamil, 2015).

The aim is to divide the group into three, the upper 27%, middle 46%, and lower 27%. Some textbooks use 25% as the cut-score instead of 27%. However, based on Kelley (1939), using upper and lower groups consisting of 27% from the extremes of the criterion score distribution is optimal for the study of test items (Tamil,

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2015). Samad (2004), Tamil (2015), Bichi and Embong (2018), and Shanmugam et al. (2020) classified four types of item discrimination interpretations, as shown in Table 1, which is almost similar to Ebel and Frisbie’s (1991) classification.

Table 1: Item discrimination reading Range 0.40 & above 0.30–0.39 0.20–0.29 0.09–0.19

Verbal description Very good item Good item Fair item Poor item

Items that fall under the poor item category should be revisited and eliminated from the test if there are no optimal justifications to have them.

2.4 Reliability of the Test The most important element of CTT is test reliability, which is generally accepted as a requirement for a test to be recognized as adequate quality for practical usage (McNamara, 1996). The uniformity of measurement is referred to as reliability.

Theoretically, it is identified as the ratio of observed-score variance caused by true-score variance (Crocker & Algina, 1986; Ebel & Frisbie, 1991). Reliability indicates the consistency of test scores or other evaluation outcomes from one measurement to the next. It has been established that the reliability of a test determines whether the test can be trusted following the criteria set out. When dealing with the same group at a different time or opportunity, a test is considered reliable if it consistently produces the same result (Samad, 2004).

Items that have only right and wrong answers are known as dichotomous. An MCQ has a right answer and two, three, or more options as wrong answers (Ebel & Frisbie, 1991). The right answer is known as the “key” and the wrong ones as the “distractors” (Kastner & Stangl, 2011, p. 265). The internal consistency of measures using dichotomous choices is checked with the index (i.e., correct versus incorrect) provided by Kuder and Richardson (1937) known as the Kuder-Richardson Formula 20 (KR-20). A right question receives a score of 1, whereas a wrong question receives a score of 0. The index values thus range from 0 to 1. 𝐾𝑅-20 = 𝐾 𝐾−1

1 − ∑𝑃𝑄 𝜎2𝑋

KR-20 = Kuder-Richardson Formula 20 K = number of questions Σ = indication to sum P = probability of correct answer Q = probability of the wrong answer σ = variance of the total scores of all the people taking the test (adapted from Tamil, 2015).

Since the above formula has been widely used, we employed it to estimate the reliability of test scores of test items (Zimmerman, 1972). We aimed to analyze each test item to determine the level of difficulty, examine the discrimination

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index for revision, do a distractor analysis to discover the distractor that is malfunctioning, revise the items and malfunctioning distractors, and check the reliability of the test.

3. Methods This research attempts to develop and validate a test by providing a table of specifications followed by information based on the item difficulty index, item discrimination index, distractor analysis of each item, and reliability analysis. The main data were collected in this study by administering a test to a selected sample of students.

3.1 Data Collection Instrument Development A table of specifications was constructed to ensure the test items are content valid (Table 2). Content validation by experts is a must to produce an effective measurement tool (Turner & Carlson, 2003). The table of specifications is the output of the content validation by expert judgement. Fulcher and Davidson (2007) believed that “specs are actually a common-sense notion in test development … Specs are often called blueprints, and this is an apt analogy.

Blueprints are used to build structures, and from blueprints many equivalent structures can be erected” (p. 52). Moreover, the table of specifications was used to outline the reading test before the test took place to see the skills, methods, and items that are tested within the time limit (Brown & Abeywickrama, 2010).

Table 2: Table of specifications Item no.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21

Reading cognitive process EPM

Type of reading (CR/G)*

Explicit/ implicit

Source

Test method

Explicit

Newspaper article -

EPM EPM EPM EPM EPM BMM EPM LA LA WR EPM BMM BMM BMM EPM I I EPM EPM EPM

(CR/G) (CR/G) (CR/G) (CR/G) (CR/G) (CR/G) (CR/G) (ER/L)** (ER/L) (ER/G) (ER/G) (ER/G) (CR/G) (CR/G) (CR/G) (CR/G) (CR/G) (CR/G) (CR/G) (CR/G)

Implicit Implicit Explicit Implicit Explicit Implicit Explicit Explicit Explicit Explicit Explicit Explicit Implicit Implicit Explicit Implicit Implicit Implicit Explicit Explicit

MCQ 4option MCQ MCQ MCQ MCQ MCQ MCQ MCQ MCQ MCQ MCQ MCQ MCQ MM*** MM MM MM MM MM MM MCQ

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22 EPM 23 EPM 24 I 25 BMM *Careful reading/global **Expeditious reading/local ***Multiple matching

(CR/G) (CR/G) (CR/G) (CR/G)

Implicit Implicit Implicit Explicit

MCQ MCQ MCQ MCQ

Table 2 provides the table of specifications of the test assessed in this study. The table shows that the reading test comprises the eight cognitive processes of Khalifa and Weir (2009), the item number, cognitive processing, information about the item, whether it is explicit or implicit, the source, and the test method used.

The test construction was guided by the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR), which is commonly used in language tests and policies throughout Europe (Deygers et al., 2018). The CEFR has six levels of scales, namely A1, A2, B1, B2, C1, and C2, from lower levels to higher levels. The first two levels (A1 and A2) are for basic users, whereas the next two are for independent users, and the final two for professional users (Council of Europe, 2001). For English as a foreign or second language users, the minimum requirement for university entrance and future academic achievements in the university career is the B2 level (Carlsen, 2018; Fleckenstein et al., 2018; Waluyo, 2019). The present study targeted the B2 level; hence, the design of the test focused on this level.

The test includes two passages that meet the readability analysis requirements for being qualified for the CEFR B2 level. The English language learning website Linguapress (2020) mapped Flesch-Kincaid reading scores onto CEFR levels (Natova, 2019). According to this website, the ranges of Flesch-Kincaid reading ease values between 60 and 70 are synthesized to be at the CEFR B2 level. Table 3 presents a summary of the readability analysis of the two passages selected based on the Flesch-Kincaid reading ease level. Text Inspector software was utilized to obtain the readability indices. The Flesch-Kincaid readability formula indicates that the higher the index, the easier the text.

Table 3: Readability index Passage 1 Passage 2 Flesch reading ease 63.43 67.47 Flesch-Kincaid grade 8.17 8.15 Gunning fog index 10.14 11.44

The Flesch reading ease score for passages 1 and 2 were 63.43 and 67.47, respectively. This suggests that the passages can be aligned with the CEFR B2 level.

Since the passages selected for this test were taken from the CEFR B2 level, most items were items on the level of HOT skills. Three items measured I (inferencing), five items evaluated BMM, and none of the items tested the most challenging HOT

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skills, such as CTLS and CITR, as discussed in the research conducted by the First Certificate in English (FCE) test (B2 level) of Cambridge assessment (Khalifa & Weir, 2009).

The questions were developed focusing on the cognitive processing in reading and were later validated by subject matter experts. We made sure that the test items were targeted at the B2 level. Two types of test methods (item formats), MCQ and multiple matching, were used, with 18 and 7 items, respectively.

Passage 1 used reading for information text belonging to the expository text. The passage was adapted from the www.sundayobserver.lk website. The first part of the article What happens when you do nothing? was adapted concerning test administration purposes and comprised seven MCQ four-option items and six fill-in-the-blank items of the selected-response type.

Passage 2 used reading for pleasure belonging to the narrative text. The passage was taken from a travel blog available at https://atasteoftravelblog.com/my-favourite-cities-in-the-world/. These items comprised seven multiple matchings of the selected-response method and five MCQ items.

Thus, a distribution of 25 items was tested using MCQ and multiple matching response methods. Responses to these items were used to examine the level of difficulty, the discrimination index for revision, distractor analysis to identify the malfunction distractor, and the reliability of the test.

3.2 Research Participants This reading comprehension test was completed by 50 Faculty of Arts and Culture (FAC) students in the second and third year (semester 2, 2020/2021 academic year) from mixed-ability groups. Compared to science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) students, students from this faculty (FAC) are believed to be low achievers in English language proficiency, which hinders their enrolment in the job market (Dundar et al., 2017). Therefore, selecting students from a faculty of social sciences and humanities was the better choice. The participating students belonged to a multi-ethnic and multi-regional society whose mother tongue is Tamil. Out of the 50 participants, 44 were female, whereas 6 were male (88% and 12%, respectively). In addition, 30 participants were Muslim, 18 were Hindu, and 2 were Christian. Participants were provided 40 minutes to complete the task.

4. Results The research findings are discussed in detail under the relevant subheadings below.

4.1 Item Difficulty Indices This section describes the level of difficulty for each item to find out which cognitive processes are considered as easy, moderate, and difficult based on participants’ responses. Table 4 provides a summary of the findings.

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Table 4: Item difficulty indices Difficulty level Difficult (0.0–0.29)

Moderate (0.30–0.79)

Easy (0.80–1.00)

Item no.

Cognitive processing

Item difficulty Number of items

Q19

EPM

0.28

Q22 Q11 Q1 Q24 Q9 Q17 Q20 Q13 Q23 Q2 Q12 Q14 Q21 Q8 Q15 Q3 Q5 Q18 Q25 Q7 Q6 Q16 Q10 Q4

EPM WR EPM I LA I EPM BMM EPM EPM EPM BMM EPM EPM BMM EPM EPM I BMM BMM EPM EPM LA EPM

0.3 0.38 0.42 0.42 0.44 0.56 0.56 0.58 0.58 0.64 0.64 0.64 0.64 0.68 0.68 0.76 0.76 0.82 0.82 0.84 0.88 0.94 0.96 0.98

%

1

4

17

68

7

28

In terms of level of difficulty in percentage, 4% of the items were difficult, 68% were moderate, and 28% were easy. The mean difficulty of the 25 items was 0.65.

Of the 25 items, only one (Q19) was identified as a difficult item. This item belonged to the EPM cognitive process, which is the most difficult skill among the LOT skills. Although some items in the test evaluate other difficult cognitive processes such as I (inferencing) and BMM, item 19 was still found to be at the most difficult level. A possible reason for this could be due to the test format used.

For this item, the multiple matching formats with an excessive option may make the item challenging.

Out of the 17 moderate items, 12 belonged to the LOT skills by Khalifa and Weir (2009), including WR, LA, and EPM. Of the 5 remaining items, 2 belonged to I (inferencing) and 3 to BMM. The seven easy items had indices ranging between 0.8 and 1.0, indicating that these were easy for the participants to attempt. Easy items are made up of different cognitive processes, namely I (inferencing), BMM, EPM, and LA. Four of

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the items evaluated LOT skills, which involve explicitly stated information, whereas three evaluated HOT items.

The items in the test covered all suitable subskills needed for the B2 level, containing both explicit and implicit items. Nonetheless, as the mean difficulty of the 25 items was 0.65, it can be concluded that the reading test was moderately difficult for the participating group of test-takers.

4.2 Item Discrimination Indices Table 5 presents the results on the discrimination indices for each test item based on four categories, namely poor item, fair item, good item, and very good item.

Item discrimination provides information about how good the item is in distinguishing the strong students from the weak ones.

Since 50 students participated in taking the test, 27% out of 50 is equal to 14 participants. We therefore had to take the number of correct answers from the top 14 students (H), deduct the number of correct answers from the bottom 14 students (L), and then divide it by 14.

Table 5: Item discrimination indices Z Poor item (0.09–0.19) Fair item (0.20–0.29) Good item (0.30–0.39)

Very good item (0.40–0.99)

Item no.

Q4 Q16 Q10 Q1 Q9 Q6 Q2 Q18 Q25 Q19 Q22 Q14 Q23 Q3 Q5 Q7 Q20 Q13 Q12 Q21 Q17 Q11 Q24 Q8 Q15

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Cognitive processing EPM EPM LA EPM LA EPM EPM I BMM EPM EPM BMM EPM EPM EPM BMM EPM BMM EPM EPM I WR I EPM BMM

Discrimination 0 0.143 0.143 0.214 0.286 0.286 0.357 0.357 0.357 0.429 0.429 0.429 0.500 0.500 0.500 0.500 0.571 0.571 0.571 0.571 0.643 0.714 0.714 0.714 0.786

Items % (n) 3

12

3

12

3

12

16

64

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As seen in Table 5, 16 of the 25 items were identified as very good that are functioning well, amounting to 64% of the test items. The remaining nine items were reported equally (three each) as good, fair, and poor items, at 12% each.

From this statistic, more than 88% of the items can be recycled and reused for the next test paper. Moreover, the most used LOT skills (WR, EPM, I, and BMM) were also tested in the “very good item” category. If the test items are going to be reproduced in future tests, the three items that fell under the “poor item” category with the low indices of 0 and 0.143, which are in the range of 0.09−0.19, should be revisited and eliminated if there is no clear justification to place them in the test.

This is especially true for item Q4, where 49 participants selected the key (D) and none selected the distractors A and B. This item can be removed in future or else the distractors should be modified, and the key should not be direct. However, for items Q16 and Q10, slight changes can be made to the distractors to recycle them for reuse.

4.3 Distractor Analysis This section analyses the malfunction distractors based on the participants’ answers. Table 6 shows the 18 MCQ items each with their four options. The green highlighted boxes are the key answers, while the yellow highlighted boxes indicate the malfunction distractors.

Table 6: Distractor analysis for MCQ items Item no.

Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8 Q9 Q10 Q11 Q12 Q13 Q21 Q22 Q23 Q24 Q25

A 17 6 6 0 6 3 42 9 15 0 10 8 29 0 15 0 7 2

MCQ items B C 21 5 32 10 38 3 0 1 3 38 1 2 1 3 5 34 22 5 48 1 9 19 4 6 6 5 32 10 10 12 29 8 9 21 4 3

D 7 2 3 49 3 44 4 2 8 1 12 32 10 8 13 13 13 41

Table 7 indicates the seven multiple matching items, each consisting of one correct answer and four distractors.

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Table 7: Distractor analysis for multiple matching items Item no.

Q14 Q15 Q16 Q17 Q18 Q19 Q20

Multiple matching items Paris New York Istanbul All three cities 7 32 6 2 3 8 4 1 1 2 47 0 12 28 4 4 4 41 3 0 14 15 6 10 11 8 28 2

None of the cities 3 34 0 2 2 5 1

The tables above clearly portray that items Q4, Q10, Q16, Q18, Q21, and Q23 contained malfunction distractors (distractors not chosen by any student). Item 4 had options A and B as malfunction distractors. Item 16 also had two malfunction distractors. Therefore, these items should be eliminated for future reproduction.

However, all the other items can be kept for reproduction, with changes to some of the distractors. The pie chart below indicates the percentages of the options for item Q4, which contained two malfunction distractors (Figure 1).

Figure. 1: Distractor analysis – item 4

Item 4 was answered correctly by 49 participants, possessing 98%, with option 4 or D being the key to the item. Only one participant answered wrongly, selecting option 3 or C. Options 1 (A) and 2 (B) were not selected by participants. In contrast, item 12 is a good example of an item with suitable distractors and a key (Figure 2).

Figure. 2: Distractor analysis – item 12

As can be seen from Figure 2, the distractors and key of item 12 were selected in reliable proportions, which indicates that the distractors all functioned well. Each distractor and key of item 12 was selected by a good number of participants.

Option 4 or D was the correct answer to item 12 and the rest were the distractors, with a distractor selection ratio of 8:4:6.

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4.4 Reliability of the Test The reliability index for the test analyzed in the current research was identified using the KR-20 formula (Table 8). To calculate the reliability index, first, the probability of the correct answers (P) for each item was calculated and then the probability of the wrong answers (Q) was identified. Thereafter, the sum of PQ was derived. Finally, the variance of the total scores (σ2) was calculated to determine the reliability of the test.

Table 8 shows the reliability index of the test to be at 0.82, which is a good value for a cognitive test (Samad, 2004; Tamil, 2015). The mean of the item difficulty indicates a good value of 64.8%. The standard error of measurement (SEM) of 2.006 is also an acceptable index (Tamil, 2015).

Table 8: Reliability index Item no. Reading skill Q1 EPM Q2 EPM Q3 EPM Q4 EPM Q5 EPM Q6 EPM Q7 BMM Q8 EPM Q9 LA Q10 LA Q11 WR Q12 EPM Q13 BMM Q14 BMM Q15 BMM Q16 EPM Q17 I Q18 I Q19 EPM Q20 EPM Q21 EPM Q22 EPM Q23 EPM Q24 I Q25 BMM Mean Total Variance pKR20 SEM

Difficulty (%) Discrimination 42 0.214 64 0.357 76 0.500 98 0.000 7676 0.500 88 0.286 84 0.500 68 0.714 44 0.286 96 0.143 38 0.714 64 0.571 58 0.571 64 0.429 68 0.786 94 0.143 56 0.643 82 0.357 28 0.429 56 0.571 64 0.571 30 0.429 58 0.500 42 0.714 82 0.357 64.8 0.451

P 0.42 0.64 0.76 0.98 0.76 0.88 0.84 0.68 0.44 0.96 0.38 0.64 0.58 0.64 0.68 0.94 0.56 0.82 0.28 0.56 0.64 0.3 0.58 0.42 0.82 0.65

Q 0.58 0.36 0.24 0.02 0.24 0.12 0.16 0.32 0.56 0.04 0.62 0.36 0.42 0.36 0.32 0.06 0.44 0.18 0.72 0.44 0.36 0.7 0.42 0.58 0.18 0.35

PQ 0.244 0.23 0.182 0.02 0.182 0.106 0.134 0.218 0.246 0.038 0.236 0.23 0.244 0.23 0.218 0.056 0.246 0.148 0.202 0.246 0.23 0.21 0.244 0.244 0.148 0.189 4.732 21.71 0.815 2.006

This paper illustrates the utility of the CTT item analysis in providing post-priori information about test items in terms of difficulty, discrimination function, and the distractors’ function. The results showed that many of the items are moderately difficult items. In fact, the test on average is moderately difficult, with a mean item difficulty of 0.65.

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In terms of what made up difficult and easy items in the test, we found that easy items are not necessarily made up of LOT skills and easy cognitive processes, a finding corroborated by Khalifa and Weir (2009). For example, EPM was found to be both easy and difficult in this test, where it is theoretically considered an LOT skill. Similarly, according to Khalifa and Weir (2009), although WR is the easiest and CITR the most difficult skill, the results of this research showed the contrary.

Therefore, the present study cannot confirm the hierarchy of cognitive processes as stipulated in literature.

The discrimination analyses conducted in this study yielded percentages for items regarding being considered as very good, good, fair, or poor items. This is important in situations where the items are to be reused. For example, items Q4, Q10, and Q16 were poorly functioning items with low item discrimination indices between 0.09 and 0.19 and therefore need to be reworked before they can be reused. The same can be said about the utility of the distractor analysis. Some items were found to have options that were not plausible for any participating test taker.

All these findings provide support that developing test items is not an easy task.

Test designers need to consider a few aspects when designing tests. These include the purpose and objective of the test; how the test specifications will reflect both the purpose and objectives; selection of test tasks; arrangement of the separate items; and what kind of scoring, grading, or feedback is expected. Furthermore, creating a question paper is challenging and time-consuming. The designer has to start with the text input, create the stem and options, and consider the length, vocabulary range of the students, and formats. Although MCQ items are believed to be “easy”, designing them is “time-consuming” (Powell & Gillespie, 1990, p. 1) and it is difficult to come up with plausible and alternative distractors.

5. Conclusion This paper has illustrated the efficacy of item difficulty index, item discrimination index, and distractor analysis in identifying the quality of items used in assessments. In addition, it provided ample data on the reliability of the whole test analyzed using the reliability index. Examining the item analysis and student performance can help to improve the course and curriculum as well as shape teachers’ professional development. This study has an implication for test item writing. Test writers need to consider the facets that can contribute to the difficulty of an item besides the cognitive processes and thinking levels. Further research is needed and should include more items, examine a larger sample size, and focus on the constructed responses. In addition, employing item response theory (IRT) instead of CTT may provide different findings.

6. Acknowledgement We wish to express our gratitude to the AHEAD project funded by the World Bank in collaboration with the UGC, Sri Lanka and the Ministry of Higher Education, Sri Lanka for enabling the first author to pursue her PhD program.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 21, No. 3, pp. 51-70, March 2022 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.3.4 Received Dec 5, 2021; Revised Feb 22, 2022; Accepted Mar 4, 2022

Employing Exploratory and PooledConfirmatory Factor-Analysis for the Reliability and the Validity of a Peer-Led Fun-Inspired Inquisitive Scale Kho Chee Yuet Fanny* Sultan Idris Education University, Ministry of Higher Education, Malaysia Khayri Zaid Z Alzalit Libyan Authority for Scientific Research, Ministry of Higher Education, Libya

Abstract. This study focuses on pre-school teachers’ initiative to lead their peers in fun-inspired instructions that suit the current educational ecosystem. Thus, the main purpose of this study is to determine the reliability and the validity of the newly developed Peer-Led Fun-Inspired Inquisitive (PeLFII) scale. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses were employed to test the scale. A total of 857 pre-school teachers from 3433 pre-schools in Malaysia completed the survey. The analysis yielded a four-factor PeLFII scale, namely, ‘Leading through the Appreciation of Fun-Inspired Inquiry’ (AFI), ‘Leading, through Sharing Knowledge and Ideas of Fun-Inspired Inquiry’ (SKI), ‘Leading through Engaging and Fun-Inspired Inquiry’ (EFI), and ‘Leading through Short-Term Innovation Goals for Fun-Inspired Inquiry’ (SIG), with a total of 25 items loaded, ranging from 0.54 to 0.87 for each item. The reliability of the Cronbach-Alpha coefficient for Factor 1 (AFI) and Factor 2 (SKI) is 0.92 respectively, 0.87 for Factor 3 (EFI), and 0.97 for Factor 4 (SIG). The findings show that the PeLFII Scale with 25 items offers a promising new measure for examining PeLFII. The results also show that it is significant to shift the paradigm from isolation to collaboration among pre-school teachers. It is also significant to mobilize the peer-leadership of funinspired inquisitive pedagogical strategies online or vice versa. The PeLFII model also inspired teacher-parent connection through the PeLFII Digi-Community, thereby paving the way towards Education 4.0 in Malaysia.

Keywords: exploratory-factor analysis; confirmatory-factor analysis; teacher-parent; peer-led; fun-inspired inquisitive

*

Corresponding author: Kho Chee Yuet Fanny; fannykcy@fpe.upsi.edu.my

©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

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1. Introduction Pre-school education, which is becoming increasingly vital in today's society, is extremely crucial to children's understanding and conceptualization of life.

Receiving an effective and precise pre-school education in early life, when the child is developing rapidly, ensures that the child will grow up to be a successful adult. However, not many researchers placed a high value on the quality of early childhood education in pre-schools. Adding fun-inspired pedagogy into interactive lessons brings a happier and more enjoyable atmosphere for young children for years and years. It is a great way to develop curiosity and inquisitive minds among young learners. Educators, on the other hand, may innovate funinspired pedagogy that incorporates creative inquiries in both online and face-toface modes of learning in all levels of academic disciplines. Likewise, creativity is essential in the innovative process of designing or conducting inspired-inquisitive lessons in distinct fun, and interactive environments that involve practicalities.

The innovative processes can be brought into inquisitive minds, as within-process and cross-process skills that are needed in multiple creative-thinking skills.

Innovation in academic disciplines, on the other hand, can be kept in mind as new ideas, new alternatives, new initiatives, new means of seeing inspired inquisitive lessons, and new methods in delivering creative and interactive fun-inspired pedagogy. Consequently, the validated PeLFII scale, which aims to measure the newly developed PeLFII model, would be an eye-opener for pre-school teachers to polish their creative and innovative thinking in leading their peers in funinspired inquisitive pedagogy that would suit the changes of the global educational ecosystem. Creative thinking consists of generating ideas, followed by cognitive processes, which are directly linked with critical thinking that would promote individuals’ potential to produce innovation (Nakano & Wechsler, 2018; Primi & Wechsler, 2018). Likewise, leadership and pedagogical technological skills are essential in the changes of the current global educational ecosystem.

Nevertheless, one may still fail to perceive how creative and innovative thinking, leadership, and pedagogical technological skills are interconnected.

Teachers as educationists, for instance, need to take a second look at what they believe to be creative and innovative thinking, and how they could bring leadership and pedagogical technological skills closer together. Simply stated, teachers need to carefully identify creative and innovative thinking that does not overlook fun-inspired pedagogy. Rather, it contributes to the limitation in children’s creativity and existing knowledge, which further inhibits the creativity of those who teach and lead them. Thus, this is where peer-led fun-inspired pedagogy comes into its own.

In the case of public pre-schools, the true measure of innovative engagement would largely depend on the effectiveness of blended and online-learning activities. Incorporating technology into interactive fun-inspired pedagogy is a great way to actively engage young learners in online-interactive sessions, particularly during the global pandemic situation. Teachers’ technological knowledge and the quality of technological means and tools could be continued permanently in a borderless learning network for quality fun-inspired pedagogy.

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The flexibility of schedules, too, enables teachers to take on shared leadership and innovative responsibilities, in order to openly share evidence-based and promising fun-inspired pedagogy (Vandavasi et al., 2020; Yuet et al., 2021) and to influence the mobilization of peer-led fun-inspired pedagogy across and beyond schools.

2. The Problem Statement The Malaysian government, as also the rest of the world, is significantly aware of the importance of the paradigm shift towards Education 4.0, as a result of the imbalance of the education ecosystem globally. In a nutshell, the pre-school curriculum has switched to digital classrooms that underlie the basis of inspiring inquiry and peer leadership in Education 4.0 (Drosos et al., 2021; Verganti, 2020).

It provides advantages for pre-school teachers to collaborate and lead each other in designing fun-inspired activities that might also require parents’ involvement (Gerekli et al., 2021).

Parents’ involvement that demands hands-on activities would pique young learners' attention and stimulate their curiosity, while allowing them to enjoyably explore creative and innovative ideas that should enhance their imagination and their inquisitive minds (Rudenko et al., 2021). The lack of consensus on the quality of the pre-school environment and pre-school leaders’ pedagogical knowledge and their skills limits their competence to influence fun-inspired pedagogy among their peers (Supovitz, 2017).

Pre-school teachers may be unaware of how fun-inspired pedagogy can be improved, in order to determine which skills stifle creativity and, as a result, limit their innovative teaching and creative learning that would enable learners to apply their imagination to generating ideas, particularly in the basic scienceprocess skills. It is also indisputable that not all pre-school teachers are capable of equipping themselves and leading peers in fun-inspired pedagogy, both in blended and online interactions.

The data obtained from the semi-structured interviews conducted with three preschool personnel from the Perak State Education Department, Selangor State Education Department, and Sarawak State Education Department, as well as two personnel from the Curriculum-Development Centre, the Ministry of Education Malaysia, and the School of Inspectorate and Quality Assurance, Ministry of Education Malaysia, revealed that basic science-process concepts and skills were rarely revealed to young learners at the age of four to six years old in many preschool classrooms in Malaysia (Ministry of Education Malaysia [MOE], 2019).

Most pre-school teachers from distinct pre-schools conduct similar nature-related activities, which comprise collecting dry leaves in the school compound, drawing and coloring the leaves (Dogan & Simsar, 2018). Young learners only observe their environment without developing their curiosity about the different colors, sizes, and textures of the leaves. Opportunities for young learners to ask questions and talk about the leaves were rarely offered. This might be because pre-school teachers, who always perform as ‘lone rangers’, had limited ideas to perform

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effective and enjoyable observational activities. Consequently, pre-school teachers should work with their peers, in order to construct various fun-inspired activities that would inspire learners to improve their creative thinking.

Another common activity conducted was merely asking young learners to plant some seeds in various pots – and then placing them outside and inside the classrooms. The knowledge of the need to place the pots at the accurate spot where they could get direct sunlight was rarely defined. Instead, young learners were given the task to observe and measure the plants every day, without providing any opportunity for learners’ ‘voices’ and flexibility, or for them to share their observations with their peers in the classrooms (Gratacós et al., 2021).

Similarly, there was a limited opportunity for allowing young learners to speak their mind in the learning process.

Pre-school teachers, on the other hand, should create a learning environment that attracts and engages young learners. They should also place great emphasis on the inspirational value that requires every teacher and young learner to look at the school, as their second home, in order to feel safe and to spend most of their leisure time in school. Once, young learners feel safe to express their creativity, their minds are then fully and consistently engaged. At times, pre-school teachers should work with their peers and lead each other in fun-inspired pedagogical practices and provide young learners with the knowledge and skills, which they need to acquire for their future (Cahapay, 2020; DeJesus et al., 2020). The proposed Peer-Led Fun-Inspired Inquiry [PeLFII] Model in the current study, was developed to enhance peer leaders’ leadership competencies in leading peer teachers to conduct various fun-inspired pedagogical activities, particularly in teaching basic science-process skills through: i) the appreciation of fun-inspired inquiry; ii) sharing knowledge and ideas of fun-inspired inquiry; iii) engaging and fun-inspired inquiry, and setting short-term innovation goals for fun-inspired inquiry.

3. An Empirical Review of the Peer-Led Fun-Inspired Inquisitive Model The PeLFII model was developed to enhance peer leaders’ major role in guiding peers for improved fun-inspired pedagogy. The PeLFII model serves as an essential initiative in guiding peer leaders in leading their peers to mobilize funinspired pedagogy in the new horizon (Harris et al., 2021). In other words, the PeLFII model was developed with the initiative to connect pre-school teachers in the ‘PeLFII Digi-Community’ [PeLFIIDCy], in order to enable them to lead each other in designing and implementing various fun-inspired inquiries in virtual classrooms, which are also flexible and adaptable in blended-learning environments. Similarly, pre-school teachers may also invite parents to join the PeLFIIDCy, and to contribute their creative ideas on how they could help enhance their children’s learning at home, particularly in acquiring the basic-science concepts and skills.

To elaborate, the PeLFII model provides an opportunity for pre-school peer leaders to lead their peers in effective fun-inspired pedagogy, in order to enrich the learning environment with accessible recycled and natural resources to better

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tune in to the learner’s interests and to build up the learning process based on one’s learning needs. Therefore, they should engage in the PeLFIIDCy and offer tasks and activities, which would allow young learners to explore and experiment with multiple ways of solving a problem, to ask their questions, as well as to answer their teachers, discover relationships, patterns, and make connections that are new to them, and conjecture about the results of making changes. Hence, with advances in contemporary trends’ innovation, thus, the development of the PeLFII model remains crucial for pedagogical improvement (Andrews, 2019).

Pre-school peer leaders, also, should put in effort and commitment to guide their peer teachers to present to the parents the suggestion that fun-inspired pedagogy could make a significant difference. The presentation could highlight the need to allow young learners to step out of the classrooms and be with other learners in groups in any learning space provided. The parents were informed that when their children work outside the classroom, this does not mean that the teacher has lost control. In contrast, parents are welcome to become themselves involved in their children’s work. They may apply their creativity and art skills to design ways that could stimulate learners to learn. Parents’ involvement could have a tremendous impact on youngsters' learning. It would also assist pre-school teachers, in laying the framework for innovative thinking. Innovative pre-school peer leaders, therefore, could inspire their peers to accept new ideas for adopting digitalized pedagogical communities that are appropriate for the contemporary global epidemic. The influence of the aforesaid elements led to the establishment of the PeLFII model.

The PeLFII model would also provide an opportunity for peer leaders to lead their peers to incorporate a few lessons, which focus on a single topic to a range of subjects that would help young learners to be physically and mentally, immersed in the topics taught. For instance, if the topic taught was on “bees”, pre-school teachers could use music, cartoons, folktales, as well as experiments; and they could thread these, together with basic science, mathematics, and a bit of art on the “characteristics of bees”. Consequently, the transition of conventional to contemporary pedagogy towards inspiring child-friendly learning environments needs to become acceptable in Malaysian pre-schools.

4. The Development of the Peer-Led Fun-Inspired Inquisitive Model The PeLFII model was developed on the basis of Dobni’s innovation theory (Dobni, 2008), Piaget’s cognitive constructivism theory (Piaget, 1973), Vygotsky’s social constructivism theory (Vygotsky, 1978), as well as an empirical review of an inquisitive framework and four pedagogical coaching models, and the integration of peer-leadership skills. The framework and the four models include: the Community of Inquiry Framework (Garrison et al., 2000); the Model of Instructional Coaching (Knight, 2004); the Community of a Practice Model (Bonk et al., 2004); the Model of Knowledge-Sharing (Ho et al., 2006); and the Model of Appreciative Inquiry (Cooperrider, & Whitney, 2001) respectively.

Garrison et al. (2000) revealed that the Community-of-Inquiry Framework has been the primary model for creative-inquiry development. They also revealed

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that the Community-of-Inquiry Framework was developed as a tool for fostering and sustaining inspirational pedagogy, which can be blended with the current pandemic scenarios. It has been a highly influential paradigm that has served as the foundation for a variety of new pedagogical frameworks and models. In essence, the Community-of-Inquiry Framework serves as a leading model for the development of the PeLFII model, which are based on the various Malaysian educational settings.

Knight (2004), contrarily, has created an evidence-based collaborativepedagogical-coaching program for pre-school teachers that serves as a significant added value of peer-leadership competency for effective fun-inspired practices.

Other researchers, have also highlighted fun-inspired pedagogy; it has always been blended with the incorporation of innovative, constructive, collaborative teaching, group work, and accessibility (Hypponen et al., 2019; Murtenon et al., 2019). However, Mazur, et al. (2019) innovative, constructive, and inquiry-based pedagogy require value-added leadership, collaborative teaching, group work, and accessibility. Kurt (2017), too claimed that the effectiveness of inquiry-based pedagogy is enhanced through the incorporation of the Flipped-Classroom approach.

The Flipped-Classroom approach allows pre-school teachers to share their funinspired pedagogical experiences with their peers (Tomas et al., 2019; Gratacós et al., 2021). This notion has been highlighted in the Knowledge-Sharing Model (Ho et al., 2006). This model provides valuable insight into the accomplishment of pedagogical goals. Lastly the study's most important model, the CooperriderWhitney Model of Appreciative Inquiry (Cooperrider & Whitney, 2001) contributes significantly to the understanding of fun-inspired inquisitive practices.

As previously stated, the development of the PeLFII model was a multi-layered process. Each process necessitates innovative peer-leadership competencies in engaging pre-school peer leaders with their peer teachers in a variety of crucial roles, resulting in improving innovative, inquisitive fun-inspired pedagogy. In a nutshell, the researcher's initial purpose for determining the validity and the reliability of the PeLFII Scale was to identify the essential dimensions of the newly developed model (Kho, 2020; Yuet et al., 2021).

In sum, the offered concepts for producing peer-led fun-inspired pedagogy were based on an empirical review of the four models, respectively. Despite the models, there are sites of contact between them. In practice, all the identified areas of abilities, from identification through the evaluation of peer-led fun-inspired pedagogy, were expressed. Hence, four key dimensions have been proposed: i) ‘Leading through the Appreciation of Fun-Inspired Inquiry’, ii) ‘Leading through Sharing Knowledge and the Ideas of Fun-Inspired Inquiry, iii) ‘Leading through Engaging and Fun-Inspired Inquiry’, and iv) ‘Leading through Short-Term Innovation Goals for Fun-Inspired Inquiry’. The first dimension of the PeLFII model, which was highlighted as 'Leading through the Appreciation of FunInspired Inquiry' (AFI) dimension was composed on the basis of the first phase of

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the 4-D cycle (Discovery) in the Model of Appreciative Inquiry (Cooperrider & Whitney, 2001).

The second and third basic dimensions in the Model of Instructional Coaching, the Community-of-Inquiry Framework, and the Community-of-Practice Model, also contributed to the development of the AFI dimension, respectively. AFI emphasized the importance of valuing creative and innovative ideas, while designing fun-inspired pedagogy for learning new concepts and abilities, such as early science-process concepts and skills, while having fun. Pre-school peer leaders, on the other hand, could guide their peer teachers in an effective approach to engage young learners in digital learning, which is growing in popularity (Hyypiä et al., 2019). The ability and flexibility of using digital technologies as an integral part of social interactions between a preschool teacher and a young learner, as well as learner-to-learner via a virtual funlearning environment, enhance personalized learning (OECD, 2016).

Personalized learning could be further enhanced through the second composed dimension of the PeLFII model, the 'Leading-through-Sharing Knowledge and Ideas of Fun-Inspired Inquiry' (SKI). SKI was composed on the basis of the Knowledge-Sharing and Community-of-Practice Model through its third dimension, 'Sharing places for idea negotiation.' It also demonstrates the importance of being open-minded, collaborative problem-solving, and knowledge-building in the cross-boundary PeLFIIDCy, which involves teacherparent collaboration from school-based to home-based fun-inspired pedagogical platforms. Actually, teachers could share effective multi-focused and authentic fun-inspired pedagogy with the parents and vice versa, in order to boost young learners’ creativity in the process of acquiring new skills, such as collaborative problem-solving skills in cross-boundary blended and online-fun learning (Mehtaa et al., 2014; Vuojarvi et al., 2019).

Garrison et al. (2000), suggested that problem-solving skills could be enhanced through deep thinking and collective reflection, collaboration with various stakeholders, and learning to use digital technology in meaningful ways. These ideas are also supported by Vuojarvi et al. (2019), which is highlighted in the third dimension of the PeLFII model. The third dimension, 'Leading through Engaging and Fun-Inspired Inquiry' (EFI) promotes pre-school peer leaders’ competence in conceiving effective reflection on those activities conducted for young learners at the age of six years old – either via blended learning, or by virtual interactions.

The concern was to reflect on the effectiveness of the fun-inspired pedagogy in giving exposure for young learners to learning new scientific concepts and skills.

It was also concerned with pre-school peer leaders’ competence in sharing the output of their observation with their peers and parents via the PeLFIIDCy platform.

Peer teachers are also encouraged to share their collective reflections on funinspired inquiry activities in enhancing young learners’ learning (Gratacós, et al., 2021), which in turn, focuses on peer-to-peer leadership for learning. Peer-to-peer leadership is also integrated into the fourth dimension of the PeLFII model, ‘Leading through Short-Term Innovation Goals for Fun-Inspired Inquiry' (SIG).

It describes the factors that influence peer leadership, the possible influence on

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peer leadership in pedagogical improvement, a typology of roles that peer leadership performs, and how they might perform them (Nobile, 2017). SIG was constructed on the basis of the second phase of the 4-D cycle, which is known as 'Dream' in the Model of Appreciative Inquiry (Cooperrider & Whitney, 2001).

In a nutshell, SIG provides an opportunity for peer leaders to stay connected with their peers and parents via the PeLFIIDCy platform within a short period, for achieving short-term fun-innovation visions in the new horizon. Hence, the purpose of this study is to determine the validity and the reliability of the PeLFII Scale (Appendix 1) in Malaysian pre-schools. Exploratory-factor analysis is employed to produce the most reliable items to measure each factor in the PeLFII model. The factors were later confirmed through pooled confirmatory-factor analysis. The major concern of the study was to develop an empirically verified PeLFII model, and secondly, to develop and validate the PeLFII Scale (Appendix 1) The specific research question (RQ) and the research hypothesis (RH) was to measure these phenomena. These are: RQ1. Is the Peer-Led Fun-Inspired Inquisitive Model construct-valid?

RH1. The Peer-Led Fun-Inspired Inquisitive Model can be described by the following four factors: i)Leading through the Appreciation of Fun-Inspired Inquiry’ (AFI), ii) ‘Leading through Sharing Knowledge and the Ideas of Fun-Inspired Inquiry’ (SKI), iii) ‘Leading through Engaging and Fun-Inspired Inquiry’ (EFI), and iv) ‘Leading through Short-Term Innovation Goals for Fun-Inspired Inquiry’ (SIG).

5. The Methodology 5.1 Population and Sampling Procedures The population for this study consisted of 9,685 (N = 9,685) trained pre-school teachers from 2,165 pre-schools (MOE, 2021). Likewise, pre-school teachers were the unit of analysis for the current study. They play an essential role in expressing their sincere views on the effectiveness of the proposed PeLFII model in the new horizon. A multiple-staged stratified random-sampling procedure was employed in this study, due to its highly recommended efficiency. Notably, it is the most efficient technique compared to other sampling procedures.

The desirable feature of multi-stage stratified random sampling is that each essential component of the population is represented in the sample. It raises the possibility of representation and the probability for sample bias; and it offers the likelihood of greater precision. Essentially, there were three strata in the study population: Perak State Public Pre-schools [PeSPP], Selangor State Public Preschools [S-eSPP], and Sarawak State Public Pre-schools [SaSPP]. Among 3433 public pre-schools in Malaysia, there were 876 in PeSPP, 1059 in SeSPP, and 1498 in SaSPP. Similarly, a proportional stratification procedure was employed to stratify the concerned schools, in order to ensure that schools in each stratum were proportional to the total number of schools in the relevant stratum of the total population. Thus, the researcher had assigned 25 per cent of each stratum for the study.

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Table 1: Number of public pre-schools involved in the final survey Public Pre-school PeSPP SeSPP SaSPP Total

Number of Pre-schools 876 1059 1498 3433

Number of Pre-schools for Survey 219 264 374 857

Subsequently, a purposive-sampling procedure was employed. Each pre-school was represented by a pre-school teacher respectively. Likewise, 219 pre-school teachers from PeSPP, 264 from SeSPP, and 374 from SaSPP, with a total number of 857 respondents, were identified for the survey. The total number of 857 public pre-school teachers was also sufficient to perform confirmatory-factor analysis for the newly developed measurement model (Hair et al., 2019).

5.2 Pre-Testing the PeLFII Scale The newly designed PeLFI[ Scale had undergone five distinct pre-test approaches to minimize any measurement error or bias before the final administration. Pretesting approaches would also provide the foundation for instrument reliability and validity (Ikart, 2019). It also reflects theoretical model development by the participants. First, the PeLFII Scale was distributed to six experts from several institutions for content validity. The experts were from the Early Childhood Education Unit, the Curriculum Development Centre and the School of Inspectorate and Quality Assurance, the Ministry of Education Malaysia, and the National Child Development Research Centre, and the Sultan Idris Education University, Malaysia. All the experts agreed on the 34 items that determine the pre-school teachers’ peer leadership competence in mobilizing the fun-inspired pedagogy towards Education 4.0. This approach is crucial; since the items were self-developed on the basis of five distinct models. Next, the PeLFII Scale was further validated for face validity by two experts from the Language Department, Faculty of Language and Communication, Sultan Idris Education University, and the Institute of Teacher Education Malaysia. Experts had commented on the ambiguous terms utilized in the instrument. Validation for the PeLFII Scale dimensions was also required.

Furthermore, the PeLFII Scale was validated by the eight experts from School Improvement in respective state education departments for item-clarity evaluation based on a scale from 1 to 10. The item-clarity procedure is crucial to assess the validity of each newly developed item, and to ensure that the items could measure the desired dimensions. The average score of the construct (9.47) (Table 2), confirmed the validity and the reliability of the PeLFII Scale for assessing Malaysian pre-school teachers’ leadership accountability in leading peers on creative and innovative fun-inspired pedagogy that suits the 21st century learning towards Education 4.0.

Finally, the PeLFII Scale was distributed to 20 respondents, in order to check on the format, syntax, or design, as well as the length of time allocated for the respondents to provide genuine responses. The input from the respondents reveals that the PeLFII Scale is a reliable instrument to measure pre-school peer

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leaders’ leadership competence in leading their peer teachers to mobilize funinspired pedagogical practices, while empowering peer teachers, parents, and young children to lead.

Table 2: Item clarity average scores of the PeLFII Scale construct and dimension Construct

Dimension

Peer-Led FunInspired Inquisitive Scale

Leading through Appreciation of FunInspired Inquiry

Average Score of the Dimension 9.52

Leading through Sharing Knowledge and Ideas of Fun-Inspired Inquiry

9.42

Leading through Engaging and Fun-Inspired Inquiry

9.60

Leading through Short-Term Innovation Goals for FunInspired Inquiry

9.33

Total Average Score

Average Score of the Construct

9.47

5.3 The Pilot-Study Process 5.3.1 The Cronbach Alpha-Reliability Estimate The PeLFII Scale (Appendix 1) was subjected to a pilot-field test, in order to assess the internal consistency for all 34 items. The ideal value for this study's threshold was set at 0.75. The items for the PeLFII Scale were measured on the basis of each construct. The PeLFII scale is a valid instrument with a Cronbach's alpha of 0.87 for the 34 items and 0.86 to 0.96 for all the four dimensions (AFI, EFI, SKI, and SIG), and more than 0.7 for the item scale of all the PeLFII items. As a whole, the Cronbach alpha value obtained indicates that the PeLFII Scale has a high level of internal consistency.

5.3.2 Exploratory-Factor Analysis on the PeLFII Scale The assessment of construct validity for the newly developed PeLFII model in the study has undergone the exploratory-factor analysis process; since this is crucial for self-developed instruments. The data gathered from a sample of 145 preschool teachers was sufficient to perform an exploratory-factor analysis based on the commonality cut-off value (>0.5) (Hair et al., 2019). The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) test indicated that the study's sampling was adequate, with a value of 0.94.

The correlation matrix output (p< 0.05) demonstrated that the PeLFII Scale was fit for exploratory-factor analysis (Table 2); and it was employed for bi-purposes.

Firstly, it aimed to plot the proposed items into four dimensions. Secondly, each item was loaded onto each dimension by using the principal-components analysis (PCA), which is less challenging than the factor analysis (Hair et al., 2019). Data cleaning will be employed before PCA, in order to remove any severely skewed variables. Four dimensions were successfully loaded, ranging from 0.54 to 0.87.

Six items (AF2, AF3, AF4, AF5, AF6, and AF8) were loaded onto Factor 1 [Dimension 1: Leading through the Appreciation of Fun-Inspired Inquiry (AFI)].

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Items AF1 and AF7 were deleted, as being the items cross-loaded with Factor 2.

Four items (FL2, FL3, FL5, and FL8) were loaded onto Factor 1 [Dimension 1: Leading through the Appreciation of Fun-Inspired Inquiry (AFI)] after being plotted onto Factor 2 [Dimension 2: Leading through Sharing Knowledge and Ideas of Inspired Inquiry (SKI)]. Item FL1 was deleted; since it was loaded onto more than 1 factor.

Three items (FL4, FL6, and FL7) were also deleted due to zero loading. In contrast, EFA allows all the nine items (KI1, KI2, KI3, KI4, KI5, KI6, KI7, KI8, and KI9) to be loaded onto its initial Factor 2 (SKI). Items FL9, FL10, and FL11, which were originally plotted onto Factor 2, were loaded onto Factor 3 (EFI). Another five items (IG1, IG2, IG3, IG4, and IG5) were loaded onto Factor 4 (SIG). In sum, exploratory-factor analysis had significantly extracted 27 out of 34 items highlighted in the PeLFII Scale. All the 27 items were loaded greater than 0.5, as shown in Table 2. This implies that the variation across and within these factors is significant.

Table 2: Exploratory-factor analysis output of the PeLFII construct Item AFI2 AFI3 AFI4 AFI5 AFI6 AFI8 EFI2 EFI3 EFI5 EFI8 SKI1 SKI2 SKI4 SKI5 SKI6 SKI7 SKI8 SKI9 EFI9 EFI10 EFI11 SIG1 SIG2 SIG3 SIG4 SIG5 Eigenvalues KMO Barlett’s test of sphericity* dfTotal of Variance explained

Factor 1 0.66 0.75 0.81 0.77 0.54 0.78 0.67 0.70 0.61 0.61

Factor 2

Factor 3

Factor 4

0.67 0.62 0.66 0.74 0.76 0.71 0.82 0.73 0.65 0.68 0.74

6.04 0.94 *4000.39 561 24.17

*p<0.0

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2.44

0.86 0.87 0.71 0.85 0.84 2.12

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5.3.3 Pooled-Confirmatory Factor Analysis on the PeLFII Scale In general, first-order confirmatory-factor analysis (CFA) yields the presence of four latent variables. The variables were computed as Factor 1 (AFI), Factor 2 (SKI), Factor 3 (EFI), and Factor 4 (SIG). Factor 1 (AFI) was measured by ten observable variables, nine observable variables for Factor 2 (SKI), three observable variables for Factor 3 (EFI), and five observable variables for Factor 4 (SIG). The observable variables were measured on the basis of the rule-of-thumb of at least three indicators for each factor (Hair et al., 2019); and the threshold value of more than 0.5 (>0.50) for the newly developed items (Hair et al., 2019). Likewise, an item (AFI10) with factor loading 0.48 was deleted during the first-order analysis; since it does not meet the basic requirement of the newly developed item. To ensure compliance with the model fitting in SEM, the PeLFII Scale (Appendix 1) was further measured by using a second-order measurement model. The secondorder measurement model is one of the phases in SEM, which is widely used to test the reliability of the newly developed model in a step-wise manner. It starts with exploratory-factor analysis (EFA); and it subsequently moves towards a confirmatory-factor analysis (CFA), highlighting the best practices, while using structural-equation analysis. Consequently, an item (SIG1) with factor loading 0.45, which was lower than the threshold value of more than 0.5 (>.5) (Hair et. al, 2019), was deleted during the final stage of the second-order measurement model (Figure 1). Three categories of fit indices were utilized to assess the construct validity of the PeLFII Scale. The categories of the fit indices included: i) absolute fit indices; ii) incremental fit indices; and iii) parsimonious fit indices. The absolute fit indices (RMSEA = 0.056), the incremental fit indices (CFI = 0.958), and the parsimonious fit indices (Chisq/df = 2.999) have surpassed the required level for the fitness indices for the new measurement model, thereby indicating that the PeLFII Scale is valid.

Figure 1: The Second-Order CFA for the PeLFII construct http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

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5.3.4 Convergent Validity and Composite Reliability Estimate The individual item loadings displayed in Table 3 were significant as all of the items loaded above 0.50 (Hair et al., 2019), ranged from 0.69 to 0.94. The critical ratios of the estimates fall beyond the ± 1.96 z-value range, and the p-value was below 0.05, as depicted in Table 4, thereby, providing initial evidence of convergent validity (Hair et al., 2019). The average variance extracted (AVE) exceeded the threshold value of 0.50 (Owolabi et al., 2020), and 0.60 for the composite reliability (CR) (Hair et al., 2019), supporting the composite reliability of the PeLFII model (Table 3). In short, the PeLFII model represents the true score of the population.

Table 3: The CFA results for the PeLFII construct Construct

Dimension / Item Leading through Appreciation of Fun Inspired Inquiry

Peer-Led Fun Inspired Inquisitive Scale

Factor Loading 1.01

Leading through Sharing Knowledge and Ideas of Fun Inspired Inquiry

0.88

Leading through Engaging and Fun Inspired Inquiry

0.81

Leading through Short-Term Innovation Goals for Fun Inspired Inquiry

0.66

CR (> .6) 0.91

AVE ( > .5) 0.72

Leading through Appreciation of Fun Inspired Inquiry

AFI1 AFI2 AFI3 AFI4 AFI5 AFI6 AFI7 AFI8 AFI9

0.73 0.74 0.81 0.78 0.76 0.77 0.77 0.78 0.73

0.93

0.58

Leading through Sharing Knowledge and Ideas of Fun Inspired Inquiry

SKI1 SKI2 SKI3 SKI4 SKI5 SKI6 SKI7 SKI8 SKI9

0.75 0.75 0.69 0.72 0.77 0.85 0.83 0.82 0.77

0.93

0.60

Leading through Engaging and Fun Inspired Inquiry

EFI1 EFI2 EFI3

0.87 0.85 0.79

0.88

0.70

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Leading through ShortTerm Innovation Goals for Fun Inspired Inquiry

SIG2 SIG3 SIG4

0.91 0.88 0.94

SIG5

0.93

0.95

0.84

CR=Composite Reliability; AVE=Average Variance Extracted Table 4. The Summarized Assessments of Convergent Validity for the PeLFII Scale Construct

Item

Leading through Appreciation of Fun Inspired Inquiry

Critical Unstandardized SMC Ratio Factor Loadings

AFI1 AFI2 AFI3 AFI4 AFI5 AFI6 AFI7 AFI8 AFI9 Leading through SKI1 Sharing SKI2 Knowledge and SKI3 Ideas of FunSKI4 Inspired Inquiry SKI5 SKI6 SKI7 SKI8 SKI9 Leading through EFI1 Engaging and EFI2 Fun Inspired EFI3 Inquiry

√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √

√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √

√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √

Leading through Short-Term Innovation Goals for Fun Inspired Inquiry

√ √ √ √

√ √ √ √

√ √ √ √

SIG2 SIG3 SIG4 SIG5

CR

AVE

Final Decision

√ √

Retained

√

Retained

√ √

Retained

√

√

√

Retained

SMC=Squared Multiple Correlations; CR=Composite Reliability AVE=Average Variance Extracted

6. The Results The findings for the first dimension of the PeLFII model – 'Leading through Appreciation of Fun-Inspired Inquiry' (AFI) were similar to those of the Appreciative-Inquiry Model (Cooperrider & Whitney, 2001), Model of

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Instructional Coaching (Knight, 2004), Community-of-Inquiry Framework (Garrison et al., 2000), and Community-of-Practice Model (Bonk et al., 2004).

This conveyed a similar message about the importance of respecting and appreciating others’ efforts in bringing fun-inspired inquiry into the learning of basic science-process concepts through blended or online interactions, which would indirectly enhance peer-leadership competency and commitment.

The pre-school peer leaders should continually show their appreciation to their peers’ efforts in conducting fun-inspired inquisitive activities that are blended with the current epidemic circumstances (Heng & Sol, 2020). Peer leaders should also encourage their peers to collaborate with parents and peer teachers through cross-boundary digitalized collaboration, such as the PeLFIIDCy (Graafland, 2018). The cross-boundary collaborative effort is believed to promote creative education; and, as a result, to integrate the needs of the 4th Industrial Revolution in Malaysian pre-schools (Jemimah & Suziyani, 2019). The second dimension of the PeLFII model – 'Leading through Sharing Knowledge and Ideas of Fun-Inspired Inquiry' – was then explicitly linked to the third dimension of the Model of Knowledge Sharing – 'Functions of ICT Platforms in Knowledge Sharing' and the third dimension of the Community-of-Practice Model – 'Sharing spaces for idea negotiation'. Similarly, this dimension highlighted the importance of polishing imaginative and creative thinking skills, knowledge, and values, while leading and engaging peers’ teachers to plan and conduct funinspired inquiry activities effectively in integrated subjects, such as science, mathematics, and arts.

Likewise, the third dimension of the PeLFII Model - 'Leading through Engaging and Fun-Inspired Inquiry,' corresponded to the Community of Inquiry Framework's, the third phase, ‘Integration' (Garrison et al., 2000). This dimension urges pre-school teachers to engage with the pre-school community, parents, and young learners in planning and in the implementation of various fun-inspired inquiry activities effectively through blended and online interactions. Hence, pre-school teachers may brainstorm ideas with their peers, parents, and school communities on various fun-inspired pedagogical strategies that are more flexible and engaging from school to home-based learning.

Finally, 'Leading through Short-Term Innovation Goals for Fun-Inspired Inquiry' was revealed as the fourth dimension in the PeLFII model. The outcome was in line with ‘Discovery’, the first phase in the Appreciative-Inquiry Model, 'Discovery' (Cooperrider & Whitney, 2001). Although 'Leading through Short-Term Innovation Goals for Fun- Inspired Inquiry' was the least dominant factor, it was allied with 'Leading through the Appreciation of Fun-Inspired Inquiry', 'Leading through Sharing Knowledge and Ideas of Fun-Inspired Inquiry '. In contrast, 'Leading through Engaging and Fun-Inspired Inquiry' was the most dominant factor (Figure 1).

'Leading through Short-Term Innovation Goals for Fun-Inspired Inquiry' for peer leaders had been recognized in the first phase of the 4-D cycle in the 'Appreciative-Inquiry Model. Peer leaders would need to take the first move of sharing their views, feelings, and experiences before their effort in leading pre-

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school peer teachers, particularly novice pre-school teachers in planning and conducting fun-inspired pedagogical practices (Namyssova et al., 2019). Peer teachers, too, should consistently be informative and accountable; as they provide an opportunity for young learners to enjoyably share their ‘voice’ through blended or online interactions. Incorporating the learners’ ‘voices’ would contribute to their performance and empower them to lead (Banner et al., 2019).

7. Conclusion In particular, the study had highlighted the novelty in the development of the PeLFII model, based on the combination of instructional-coaching models and inquiry framework, as well as the integration of peer-leadership skills. PeLFII is the first model to be practically and theoretically examined, in order to better understand pre-school teachers' peer leadership competencies in mobilizing fun-inspired pedagogy, based on local educational context. The underpinning theories contribute to the body of knowledge on teachers’ peer leadership in leading peers on fun-inspired pedagogical practices and a framework for further investigations. It also yields teacher-parent collaboration in any context of learners’ learning. Schools, teachers, and policymakers can adopt one or more of these fun-inspired strategies to ensure that schools reflect the interests and needs of the school community they serve.

It should also aid scholarly knowledge and provide a new perspective in a preschool curriculum that focussed on Higher-Order Thinking Skills (HOTS) for problem-solving, the incorporation of students’ voices, and the innovation values towards Education 4.0.

8. Limitation and Recommendations for Future Work There is one major drawback to the generalizability of the PeLFII scale.

Although the PeLFII scale's psychometric qualities were pilot-tested and found to be satisfactory, the data were collected from a small number of public preschools; therefore no demographic influence could be determined. As a result, future studies will require more thorough samples. A more comprehensive and systematic research approach, such as that of the Design and Development Research (DDR) could be employed to develop innovative, fun, and inspiring research instruments. Secondly, future research could involve more thorough samples from the private kindergartens, in order to determine robust demographic effects; since the research samples of this study involved only public pre-school teachers.

Thirdly, a follow-up study could focus on individual elements that influence creativity in leading peers on innovative fun-inspired activities that suit the education ecosystem in the new normal. Fourthly, future research could focus on those factors that polish imagination and creativity in teaching scienceprocess skills in early childhood classrooms. Last but not least, the newly developed PeLFII Scale could be validated with lower primary school teachers for content and construct validity.

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9. Acknowledgments The funding from the Ministry of Higher Education Malaysia for the Fundamental Research Grant Scheme for the Research Acculturation of Early Career Researchers, grant number (RACER/1/2019/SSI09/UPSI//4) is gratefully acknowledged.

10. Disclosure statements No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

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Appendix 1: Peer-Led Fun-Inspired Inquisitive Scale As a peer leader, please circle your response in the box provided based on the following scale: STRONGLY DISAGREE 1

DISAGREE 2

AGREE 3

STRONGLY AGREE 4

1. I value peers’ innovative ideas in performing new fun-inspired inquiry 1 2 3 4 pedagogy.

2. I appreciate peers’ effort in determining the effectiveness of fun-inspired inquisitive pedagogy periodically.

3. I value peers’ efforts in performing fun-inspired inquisitive pedagogy in 1 2 3 4 teaching basic science concepts.

4. I appreciate peers’ attempt in practicing effective fun-inspired inquisitive . 1 2 3 4 pedagogy.

5. I value pedagogical development programs in sustaining peers’ fun1 2 3 4 inspired inquisitive inquiry pedagogical skills.

6. I appreciate peers’ effort in collaborating with other peers for fun-inspired 1 2 3 4 inquisitive pedagogy.

7. I value peers’ fun-inspired inquisitive pedagogical ideas.

1 2 3 4 8. I appreciate peers’ effort in integrating the narrative approach into fun1 2 3 4 inspired inquisitive pedagogy.

9. I value peers’ effort in practicing pair-reflection with parents on home1 2 3 4 based fun-inspired experiments.

10. I encourage peers to share fun-inspired inquisitive pedagogy with peer 1 2 3 4 teachers within the schools.

11. I share a fun-communicative approach with peers.

1 2 3 4 12. I encourage peers to exchange ideas on fun-inspired inquisitive pedagogical strategies with parents.

13. I facilitate the dissemination of fun-inspired inquisitive activities with peers.

14. I encourage peers to attend cross-boundary meetings with other teachers from other sub-units to discuss fun-inspired inquisitive pedagogy.

15. I share inspiring ideas on fun-inspired inquisitive strategies with peers.

1 2 3 4

16. I guide peers to transform various sources into fun-inspired pedagogical materials.

17. I guide peers on techniques to search for fun-inspired inquisitive pedagogy in the database.

18. I guide peers to implement various digital-educational technologies for fun-inspired inquisitive pedagogy.

19. I talk openly via Innovative Digi-Community on steps to conduct funinspired inquisitive pedagogy in learning basic science process concepts.

1 2 3 4

20. I invite peers to contribute ideas on new ways of teaching.

1 2 3 4

21. I engage peers in exchanging fun-inspired ideas via an Innovative DigiCommunity.

22. I set innovation goals for peers to practice online fun-inspired inquisitive pedagogy daily.

23. I set a schedule for peers to review young learners’ fun-inspired inquisitive projects at least once a week.

24. I set monthly innovation goals for peers to initiate fun-inspired pedagogy.

25. I collaborate with parents to set fun-inspired goals fortnightly.

1 2 3 4

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1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 21, No. 3, pp. 71-87, March 2022 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.3.5 Received Dec 28, 2021; Revised Feb 22, 2022; Accepted Mar 2, 2022

The Application of Mobile-Enhanced Collaborative Learning Models on Oral Presentation Competence in Rural Area During Covid-19 Pandemic Dzul Rachman* , Margana and Priyanto Universitas Negeri Yogyakarta, Yogyakarta, Indonesia

Abstract. Oral presentation skills are regarded as one of the most critical abilities required to achieve success in higher education and future careers. Therefore, this study focuses on examining the use of mobileenhanced collaboration learning models to assist rural students in studying oral presentation skills. This involved 80 students in an online academic presentation class conducted through the implementation of video blogging. Data were collected from oral presentation videos and interviews while a modified Malouff and Shearer grading rubric was used to assess the students' presentation video and interview guide. The findings showed that the mobile-enhanced collaboration assists students, particularly those living in rural areas, to improve their oral presentation skills even during the period of the pandemic that they were forced to study from home. It is important to note that the students used the applications they deemed appropriate and accessible to accomplish their goal of creating a proper script and a professional video presentation.

This means it is possible to provide students with a rich learning opportunity using oral presentation teaching models in order to enhance their future presentation skills.

Keywords: MALL; Collaborative Learning; Oral Presentation; Rural Area

1. Introduction One of the most critical soft skills the students in higher education need to acquire before graduating is the ability to present information publicly, clearly, and eloquently in different academic and professional contexts ((Dunbar et al., 2006; Živković, 2014). This is in line with the findings of a previous study that graduates need to be proficient in multiple academic subjects and possess additional relevant skills to enhance their employment prospects in the modern era (Stephen & Christine, 2000). It has also become an axiom in English as Foreign Language (EFL) contexts that graduates with a strong command of oral English communication skills have a better chance in life than those without the skill

©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

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(Idrus et al., 2011; Kunioshi et al., 2012). This indicates there is a need to enhance the skills of graduates towards ensuring they are prepared for the competitive and explosive nature of the market both in the EFL and native contexts (Subramaniam & Harun, 2012). Moreover, Oral English Communication Skills (OECSs) necessitate a distinct focus on learning and teaching in all disciplines of education to make the students more effective in both their academic and professional lives (Kunioshi et al., 2012; Malthus & Lu, 2012; Mitchell & Eng, 2010; Nikolic et al., 2018; Tuomaitė & Zajankauskaitė, 2017).

OECSs are difficult to teach and learn in the EFL context and this is observed from the unsatisfactory performance of students after graduating from the university.

Therefore, this systematic research study compiled the factors contributing to low OECS in each EFL environment and also analysed the methods of teaching and assessing the skill between 2010 and 2019. This is associated with the fact that OESCs are normally taught and acquired through different methods in EFL situations (Seraj et al., 2021).

Seraj et al., (2021) discovered that the environmental factor, in combination with other variables, is the most important factor influencing EFL learners' low OECS performance in EFL contexts. Some of the environmental factors considered include students' passivity, demotivation, mixed abilities, and large class sizes while psychological factors such as fear, shyness, self-efficacy, confidence, emotions, and hesitation were also considered. Moreover, linguistic characteristics were associated with learners' low levels of language knowledge, accuracy, fluency, and vocabulary while a dearth of teaching resources and authentic materials used in teaching and acquiring oral skills were also discovered to be important for future writers. Previous research established that these characteristics directly or indirectly contributed to the poor oral performance of EFL learners.

It was also reported that learners lacked the ability to produce accurate speech in terms of pronunciation, presentation, and communication of ideas (Alghail & Mahfoodh, 2019). This signifies fluency is a linguistic factor which is associated with speech rate, spontaneity, and pause frequency with a subsequent contribution to the poor oral skills of EFL learners (Alghail & Mahfoodh, 2019; Sakae, 2014). It is important to acknowledge that the low vocabulary level of these learners normally hampers the development of their oral skills (Soomro et al.

2019). Moreover, the teachers and students were observed to rarely collaborate to provide direct and peer feedback with guidance from the teachers and this further promotes monotonous learning, thereby, leading to the absence of motivation for students to communicate and discuss actively with each other. It was also reported in some EFL contexts such as Indonesia that the feedback provided by the teachers can be used to develop the oral skills of learners (Saefurrohman, 2018). Furthermore, (Kernec et al., 2017) found that the mixed panel assessment has the ability to prepare students for life after university by encouraging crossdisciplinary thinking and also ensures self-assessment to make the learners understand their errors in order to make adequate corrections in the future.

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It is also important to emphasize that certain difficulties are associated with the transition to digital education for several students such as the absence of internet connectivity in rural areas and low-income to procure the devices required for traditional “home-based learning” and EdTech solutions (Yarrow, 2020).

Moreover, it is more difficult for students in Indonesia to access online learning systems due to the country's geography. The urban students also lack access to educational devices because of the infrastructural constraints caused by the fragmented island landscape (Lee, 2020; Qiu et al., 2017).

The presentation skills of Indonesian students in rural areas studying at home during the recent pandemic was observed not to be optimal. Moreover, the analysis of preliminary findings indicates that the root causes of poor oral English communication skills in EFL learners are mainly based on environmental, psychological, linguistic, educational resource-related, and internet-related issues. The majority of previous studies confirmed that the environmental factors include the lack of opportunities to practice in and out of the classroom (Aeni et al., 2017; Alam & Uddin, 2013; Ella & Dapudong, 2014; Fitria & Salwa, 2018; Ismail et al., 2018; Rahman, 2010) and this implies there is no appropriate environment to practice oral skills (Soomro et al., 2019). This signifies nervousness due to time limitations and audiences has the ability to cause a loss of ideas during the process of performing. EFL students also often struggle with presentations because the content taught in general classrooms rarely meets the required structure and formality (Tsai, 2019).

A successful speaking activity in front of an audience requires being confident and spontaneous. Meanwhile, it is usually tougher for non-native speakers to perform in a foreign language and even more difficult when it is part of an academic course ( Al Harun et al., 2016). The lack of good presentation training can also make it difficult for someone new to public speaking to present orally (Al Harun et al., 2016). This is observed for students at the tertiary level during the pandemic, especially those living in rural areas.

The uneven internet access and network coverage across Indonesia make it difficult for teachers to use the most effective means of teaching their students during the pandemic period. This is associated with the fact that energy and telecommunications infrastructures are still emerging in the country (Rahmadi et al., 2010). Subsequently, Indonesian teachers prefer video chats and messaging apps to teach their students during the pandemics, and one possible solution to the problem of internet access and coverage is to allow the students to work together online on the skills associated with conducting presentations in front of an audience. This collaborative learning allows the students to consistently share useful information in order to solve shared problems (Peijian & Yuan, 2018). This method is beneficial due to its ability to ensure better communicative competence, enhanced critical-thinking skills, and improved problem-solving abilities when compared to individual learning (Barrett et al., 2016; Liu, 2009).

This present study discovers that the best solution to the complications previously associated with the development of online presentation skills is the application of

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Mobile Assisted Language Learning (MALL). The integration of this method into language classrooms is expected to allow learners to gain access to materials and activities as well as to speak with their friends and teachers in English, regardless of the connectivity. This is due to the findings of previous studies that it has the ability to assist teachers and students in speaking and listening as well as to improve student-student interaction (Ewa et al., 2014; Kondo et al., 2012; Toland et al., 2016; Wu-Yuin et al., 2014). A recent systematic review (Shadiev et al., 2020) also showed that learning in authentic environments and collaborative language learning are the two most common MALL activities (Kukulska-Hulme et al., 2017).

According to (Barrett et al., 2016), several tools have been developed in terms of technology to assist students in the construction of oral monologue but there is no indication these tools are being used effectively. This indicates there is a need to investigate the effectiveness of learning technologies such as blogs, courseware, digital story software, PowerPoint, YouTube, and smartphone on the ultimate output of students' oral presentations in rural areas. This is necessary to determine the ability of mobile enhanced collaboration learning models to assist students studying oral presentation skills in rural areas. The studies conducted over the past 10 years were observed not to provide an in-depth explanation on the suitability of these models for students in rural areas despite the need to determine their importance in enhancing oral presentation literature at higher education level, the perceptions of oral presentations conducted through mobile technology, issues with design and content, and the experience had during collaborations with others. The need to fill this research gap is one of the main reasons this topic was explored in this present study.

2. Literature Review 2.1. Oral Presentation Competence in Higher Education Several studies have examined the effectiveness of MALL in ESL and EFL learning contexts in order to determine the MALL affordances that have made language learning accessible through the aforementioned attributes. Moreover, (Paneerselvam, A., & Mohamad, 2019) defined 'social skills' as a positive attribute due to their ability to facilitate communication. It was further noted that social skills enable people to work collaboratively, solve problems, think critically, and communicate effectively in the twenty-first century. Meanwhile, these are some of the traits employees in today's globalized world are expected to possess. (Rao, 2019)also supported this argument by stating that effective communication is a passport to better employment opportunities. This denotes speaking skills are critical for ESL and EFL learners to adequately prepare to compete as a 'global player' in different spheres of life. Moreover, the connectivity of MALL enables ESL students to communicate with native speakers and speakers from other countries (Hashim et al., 2017). Octavia et al., 2019 also explained that mobile devices provide authentic materials that are more accessible than those used in traditional classroom settings.

Several studies have stressed that people studying accounting, business, medical, and technical fields often do not achieve the level of practice required to finish

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their education (Brown et al., 2004; Chan, 2011; Debra & Grace, 2004; Pittenger et al. 2004; Kerby & Jeff, 2009). This implies there is a need to focus more on teaching communication competence in higher education (Alshare & Hindi, 2004; Iain, 1994; Mulder, 2014). Meanwhile, Chan believed that students and teachers first need to grasp the importance of building presentation skills but this is difficult because of the lack of commitment and confidence in certain academic subjects as well as the challenge of finding time and space in the curriculum to address the concepts (Chan, 2011). The possession of excellent oral presentation skills is often thought of as a lengthy task (Chan, 2011; Grez et al., 2009) and the policy implemented in higher education to reduce in-class time is at odds with this trend (De Grez, 2009). Meanwhile, it is more difficult to acquire these skills due to the pressure on the curricula in higher education to encourage students' performances related to several academic and communication competencies within a limited time (Chan, 2011; Pittenger et al., 2004; Young & Murphy, 2003).

Therefore, the oral presentation courses in higher education need to be designed in such a way to efficiently achieve educational objectives within a limited period, using a limited budget, and by applying an approach that is more integrated into “real-world” situations (Chan, 2011; Pittenger et al., 2004).

Speaking or pronunciation practice can be made easier for shy learners using mobile devices which makes it possible for them to learn in a private place in their homes or elsewhere. This is confirmed by the findings of a previous study which showed that young people using mobile phones to successfully learn Irish were also able to speak with their teachers privately to get feedback and also connect with other learners (Keogh & Ní Mhurchú, 2009). Moreover, (Wu-Yuin et al., 2014) studied the English writing abilities of elementary school students with a focus on those taught through peer-feedback activities. It was discovered that the provision of tools to allow students to comment remotely or in-class enables each learner to add to the discussion. Moreover, some individuals are motivated to learn when there is an option to make comments immediately through social media or a mobile blog.

3. Research Method This study used a mixed-method approach which involves retrieving data from both quantitative and qualitative sources. The data from the video assessments were analysed using a quantitative approach through pre-test and post-test while those related to student interviews were analysed using a qualitative approach.

This research design was selected due to a few considerations such as its ability to improve the quality of the results, provide more comprehensive findings, allow the simultaneous generalization of results from a sample to a population, and gain a deeper understanding of the phenomena of interest (Creswell, 2013). It is also possible to support and enhance the generalizations through the provision of detailed descriptions of specific aspects of the data which is a common approach among qualitative writers.

3.1. Research Participants This study was conducted in the Department of English Language Education at a public university in Indonesia which was selected because two of the authors are

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faculty members, thereby, making it possible to easily contact the department's head, lecturers, and students. Moreover, the SFH order implemented due to the Covid-19 pandemic was observed and this led to the participation of 80 students in an online academic presentation class conducted through video blogging for four months. It is important to note that the Academic Oral Presentation lecturer decided to implement video blogging as the online learning technique after the Indonesian government decided to stop all offline classes and directed a transition to online classes. It was discovered that most of the students are familiar with the use of cameras to record video clips and also understand the usefulness of YouTube based on the previous robust procedure successfully used to implement video blogging in previous studies (Cepik & Yastibas, 2013; Huang & Huang, 2016; Sun & Yang, 2015). Therefore, YouTube was selected as the platform to be used in this study.

3.2. Research Instruments The research instruments used were video assessment and interview guide after which a modified (Malouff & Shearer, 2016)grading rubric was applied to assess the students' presentations. The difficulty associated with differentiating some of the criteria including tone, pace, posture, and others led to their combination into a single criterion known as non-verbal eloquence. Moreover, the professional criterion which is beyond the presentation competency was not used while the visual support criterion found in other published instruments was applied in this study (Carroll, 2006; Dunbar et al., 2006).

The oral presentation interview guidelines developed by (Barrett et al., 2020) was used to interview the students in order to determine their use of mobile learning technology and views on oral presentation learning in rural areas during the pandemic. The participants were selected through a purposive sampling technique and only twenty eligible students including 10 males and 10 females indicated were used as samples. Moreover, a WhatsApp group was created for the students and lecturer to facilitate communication and subsequent discussions were conducted via this group due to meeting and travel constraints.

3.3. Guided Instruction and classroom procedures The academic oral presentation course was implemented through four phases presented in Figure 3. This arrangement was intended to facilitate the use of Mobile-Assisted Language Learning (MALL) in teaching students from rural areas oral presentation skills during the pandemic.

OECSs Instruction

Discu ssion in WAG

Content Prepara tion in Peers

Peer Feedbac k in WAG

Vi de o

Learning Model Evaluation

Figure 3. The Process of Arranging the Mobile Enhanced Collaborative Learning for Academic Oral Presentation Course.

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In the first phase, the OECSs were taught for three weeks using instructional videos the students were allowed to watch on their mobile phones after which the tools to be used in the next phases were introduced. In the second phase, the students were asked to work in pairs, collaborate in the content preparation stage, and conduct an oral presentation. Videos were created by the students in the fifth week and the unfinished products were shared in the WhatsApp group to get feedback from their classmates and the instructor through voice notes and chats.

Revisions were made and uploaded based on the comments of the instructors and colleagues. In the third phase, the students' progress for two weeks was evaluated and the final videos were re-uploaded to their respective YouTube accounts in the eleventh week of class. This is necessary to allow the class to communicate and discuss the videos with the instructor in real-time. In the fourth phase, the students were filmed and interviewed to determine the mobile learning technology used to complete their project and understand their perspective on the model.

3.3. Data Analysis Method A proposal, consent letter, and interview protocol were submitted to the Institutional Review Board for approval before the study was conducted because it involves human subjects. This was followed by the permission sought through phone calls from the head of department after which a lecturer was contacted to inform the students about the study and explain the benefits and risks. The students consented to the collection of data from their video assignments and this led to the evaluation of these videos using a modified version of the oral presentation grading rubric adopted from (Malouff, & Shearer, 2016). This was followed by the processing of the data using SPSS Software for descriptive analysis.

The qualitative data obtained through interviews were coded and analysed through a theoretical thematic analysis which involves identifying the themes based on theoretical or analytic interest in the area (Braun & Clarke, 2006). This implies the themes to be used including the shift in the perceptions of oral presentations, the application of mobile technology, issues with design and content, and experience garnered collaborating with others in English oral presentations were determined before the data were analysed.

4. Results The pre-and post-surveys were analysed individually and this was followed by a paired samples t-test. The significance of the changes in the participants' competence for the aforementioned variables is demonstrated in Table 1.

Table 1. Results of the Pre-test and Post-test Variable

Pre

Post

N

M

N

M

SD

t

df

P

Clarity

80

22.66

80

24.59

3.337

-5.16

79

.000

Vocal skill

80

12.75

80

14.25

2.147

-6.25

79

.000

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Physical skill

80

11.95

80

14.00

2.545

-7.20

79

.000

Video Format

80

11.45

80

13.39

1.830

-9.46

79

.000

The statistical significance in clarity was found to be t(79) = -5160, p = 0.00, vocal skill was t(79) = -6250, p = 0.00, physical skill t(79) = -7204, p = 0.00, and video format of oral presentations t(79) = -9467, p = 0.00. This study showed that some positive attitudes of the students were improved due to the application of MALL as indicated by the increased engagement in learning, greater motivation, interactive connection, situated learning, and ease of use. This is in line with the findings of (Tsai, 2019) that learners' speaking skills improved in a number of areas such as fluency, correctness, appropriateness, and overall completion with the application of MALL in the learning process.

The assessment of the peer rubric and lecturer feedback groups before and after the test showed the ability of the MALL to assist the students, especially those living in rural areas, to improve their oral presentation skills even during the period of studying at a home due to the pandemic.

The pre-test data showed no statistical significance in oral presentation skills between students and this means the students have equal abilities. Meanwhile, the post-test scores of the t-test showed that all variables were statistically different from their pre-test scores after MALL was applied by the students to create presentation videos. Moreover, the peer and teacher feedback also assisted the processes involved in the improvement of the students' presentations as indicated by their speed, articulation, and pronunciation. This is in line with the findings of (De Grez, 2009) that the application of the MALL method had a positive effect on the quality of students' oral presentation skills.

Luis and Montanero also showed that student oral presentations can be improved more through peer evaluations compared to the comments made by the instructor as long as the students are provided adequate support and resources (Luis and Montanero, 2018). Moreover, (Nicol & Macfarlane-Dick, 2006) reported that a coassessment strategy which combines expert and peer assessment as well as encourages instructor and peer dialogue provides better presentation quality and overall performance than the application of only expert assessment.

The findings showed that MALL allowed the students to use mobile apps as tools to learn independently at their own pace despite poor internet access in rural areas, thereby, providing the opportunity to make up for the learning materials previously missed.

4.1. Result of Interviews The analysis of the responses from the twenty participants interviewed showed the level of the changes in the students' perceptions of oral presentations, their use of mobile technology, issues with design and content, and experience had collaborating with others in English oral presentations.

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4.2. The use of MALL as Learning Tools to Overcome Oral Presentation Issues The students shared their difficulties with the development of oral presentation skills and the usefulness of MALL in preparing the content and delivering the presentation effectively.

“Sometimes I do not lack the confidence to present but usually have pronunciation difficulties. The google translate app on my phone assists me with the right pronunciation of words before I record my video.” (ST 16).

Another interviewee also added that students usually make grammatical errors when they are nervous but the use of the ginger keyboard app to type the script was observed to have assisted in solving this problem.

“I feel nervous and this makes me have grammar errors… I also do not speak fluently in front of people because of my nervousness and this is the reason I use ginger a lot whenever I am preparing my script before recording the video. I also use it when we have to discuss through WA group chat because it lessens my worries due to its ability to provide suggestions for corrections.” (ST 12).

The interview showed that the students tend to worry that their pronunciations and grammatical errors can affect their performance in an oral presentation.

Meanwhile, the use of MALL through the apps on their phone was observed to have assisted in correcting these mistakes before the actual presentation. This is in line with the findings of (Darmi et al., 2017) that learners that used mobileassisted language learning tools managed to improve their oral communication skills. It is important to note that the knowledge of learners is normally constructed through their personal experiences from thinking and learning and this led to the suggestion of collaborative learning through social interactions.

The research conducted by (Tonekaboni, 2019) also showed that the use of the 'English Daily' mobile app led to significantly better performance as indicated by the post-test. The app was reported to be liked by the students due to the motivation it provides and its ability to keep their attention. Several previous studies also showed that the increase in the awareness of the students concerning the available tools to meet their language learning needs enhances their interest in different areas of informal language learning such as online learning resources (Geoffrey, 2014), online tools (Trinder, 2017), and language learning with smartphones (Jurkovič, 2018; Steel et al., 2013; Trinder, 2017; Wrigglesworth & Harvor, 2018) 4.3. Problems with the design and content Students are required to make a script, memorize what they want to deliver, and revise parts with feedback before recording the video in order to create a good oral presentation. However, the majority of the students had problems with the design and content due to the pressure from their peers and the inability to write scripts effectively, especially in the academic context. They are unable to decide the appropriate word count for the introduction and how to connect it with the next part.

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“Presentations are quite difficult because I need to memorize the script and record the video thinking my friends will watch it and this makes me feel very nervous. I also need to organize the English words to use and my thoughts after which I have to revise the script based on the comments of the teacher and suggestions from my friends. This seems quite difficult at first but I learned a lot from the process. At least I now know what I should do before making a presentation.” (ST 9).

The feedback from the instructor and peers serve as the guide to construct the script and the time to be used in making the presentation.

4.4. Experience in collaborating with others in English oral presentation Collaborative learning in MALL enabled the students to work together comfortably by sharing knowledge during the process of creating content. An interviewee confessed that the student had problems illustrating the presentation content but got assisted by their peers through WhatsApp chat.

“When I had troubles in creating some charts or making a clip to illustrate my contents, my partner showed me the way to do it.” (ST 19) A student also added that the collaboration is very helpful and makes the work to be faster because they do not only discuss but also learn from each other.

“I think collaboration is very helpful because we discuss and learn from each other at the same time by sharing new ideas. The exchange of ideas further inspires different ideas and this makes it faster than working alone.” (ST 11) The students were also able to divide the work based on their ability, prepared for the presentation together, and learned to trust each other.

“We shared the work equally and suitably based on the strength of each member... I am always trusted to do the content, not the technology while my partner is in charge of technology like cutting the films, clips, formatting PPT and others. That’s why we had fascinating slides and interesting and appropriate tracks of films.” (ST 5).

This is in line with the findings of (Geoffrey, 2014)that the use of MALL and the internet in recent years has increased the autonomy of language learners (Geoffrey, 2014)This is associated with their ability to create multimodal work such as videos, blogs, and graphics individually or in collaboration with others using the language learned online and in class. Moreover, the students in rural areas have the opportunities to improve their oral presentation skills in this current situation when there is a transition from a face-to-face class to online learning due to the pandemic situation. This was achieved through the incorporation of MALL in the form of offline apps on their phone into the learning process and the encouragement of a collaborative working process with their peers despite the lack of access to the internet and advanced technology.

5. Discussion This research was conducted to comprehensively determine the suitability of mobile enhanced collaborative technology for students in rural areas to learn oral

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presentation skills at the tertiary level. The results of the assessment through pretest and post-test showed an improvement in the clarity, vocal skill, physical skill, and video format of oral presentations.

The findings from the interview conducted also clearly showed that MALL was able to assist the students in preparing the content and also supported the delivery process. Moreover, collaborative learning with MALL enabled the students to work comfortably together in creating the content by sharing their knowledge and also made the work to be faster by discussion and learning from each other simultaneously. This means the students in rural areas experienced positive outcomes in oral presentation class from the use of MALL. This is observed to be in line with the findings of (Stepp-Greany, 2002)that technology is critical for instructional activities and enables learners to participate in the language learning process. (Xu et al. , 2017) also studied the students' perceptions of mobile-assisted oral production feedback and reported an increase in the confidence of the learners that received the feedback as well as the demonstration of more positive attitudes when speaking English.

The interview result on the exploration of the mobile technology used, issues with design and content, and experience during their collaboration with others in English oral presentations using MALL also showed that the students in rural areas were able to learn oral presentation skills at their pace. They used the apps they found suitable and accessible to achieve their goal of making a proper script and good video presentation. This supports the findings of (Abugohar et al., 2019) that smartphone applications can serve as a valuable source of authentic materials and also as the tool to assist shy and anxious learners to relax and learn more effectively in a less intimidating learning environment.

The students used different applications but the interview results showed that they usually use offline dictionaries to learn pronunciation and translation. This is observed to be in line with the findings of (Almarshadi et al., 2004) that the use of dictionary feature in a smartphone is beneficial to the process of learning the correct pronunciation of English words, lexical items, and grammar accuracy, and this further leads to an improvement in the speaking ability.

The students also used office alternative apps to make slides or type their scripts, a browser to find tutorials on a good presentation, and WhatsApp to communicate and collaboratively learn oral presentation skills asynchronously.

This agrees with (Bashir & Gupta, 2018) that social networking sites (SNS) can be used as an online space for students to interact, chat, or maintain ties for the purposes of education, entertainment, socialization, and other activities. It was also discovered that the most popular social networking platform used by EFL learners is WhatsApp due to its accessibility and familiarity with both the student and their instructors (Almarshadi et al., 2004; Kusmaryani et al. 2019; Shamsi et al., 2019).

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6. Conclusion The findings showed that MALL had been successfully used in educational programs for students learning English and can be used by those in rural areas to assist with their oral presentation skills even though some were unable to accomplish this effectively due to unstable internet connections. In conclusion, MALL contributes to the improvement of educational experience, especially for foreign language learners, due to its ability to increase the dedication and engagement of students with their studies. Moreover, it allows families with smart devices such as smartphones to bring education into their homes. It is recommended that future studies investigate the development of MALL for oral presentation courses in higher institutions of education.

Pedagogical implication Instructors are to be provided with a concise and clear path to teaching oral presentations using mobile technology. Moreover, the mobile enhanced collaboration learning model used in this study has the ability to improve the oral presentation skills of students in rural areas. Apart from personal growth, the students can also learn how to transform themselves to become better persons and be useful to their communities as a whole. This model also has the capability to provide a new perspective and method of teaching with different types of learning facilities to be implemented by the policymakers of the faculty. This is due to the fact that these policymakers are responsible for deciding on the best activities to be conducted by the students in digital learning. Moreover, the findings of this study can be used to develop oral presentation teaching models in the future. More studies on MALL and language teaching in rural areas can also benefit other writers.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 21, No. 3, pp. 88-105, March 2022 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.3.6 Received Oct 29, 2021; Revised Feb 22, 2022; Accepted Mar 9, 2022

The Impact of Mentoring in the Development of Pre-Service Teachers from a University in South Africa Clever Ndebele

and Dagogo William Legg-Jack* Walter Sisulu University, Nelson Mandela Drive, Mthatha, Eastern Cape, South Africa

Abstract. Limited conceptual knowledge, and the lack of competencies and skills in the discharge of duties have been part of the challenges faced by some teachers within the South African school system. One of the reasons attributed to this is poor teacher development programmes in some of the training institutions. This study explored the impact of mentorship development on pre-service teachers from a university in South Africa. The five-factor model of mentoring namely, personal attributes, system requirements, pedagogical knowledge, modelling, and feedback was employed as a theoretical lens. The purpose was to understand the attributes and practices mentors transfer to their mentees (student teachers) during their teaching practice. Located in the interpretive paradigm, the research employed a qualitative case study design to generate data through semi-structured interviews from 26 B.Ed Honours pre-service teachers, purposively selected as the study sample.

A thematic approach was used to analyse the data generated. Findings from the analyses revealed that pre-service teachers were positively impacted mostly in the development of pedagogical knowledge, followed by system requirements, personal attributes, modelling and feedback.

The findings support the Five-Factor mentoring Model as a valid and useful framework for measuring the impact of the mentoring received by pre-service teachers on teaching practicum. The study concludes that mentoring activity in pre-service teacher education is an important component of professional development for effective teachers. Based on this conclusion, the study recommends that mentors support student teachers in the development of the necessary skills and competencies required of a professional teacher.

Keywords: Five-Factor; mentoring; model; pre-service; teachers

*

Corresponding author: Dagogo William Legg-Jack, dlegg-jack@wsu.ac.za

©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

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1. Introduction Teachers play fundamental roles in nation building and are thus described as agents of transformation in the society (Manzar-Abbass et al., 2017). Many improvement initiatives have focused on the teacher as the key to improving learner performance over the years (Desimone et al., 2006; Knight & Wiseman, 2005) because teacher quality and abilities are the most significant school-based factors that contribute to student achievement and educational improvement (Kutsyuruba & Walker, 2020). Also, as stated by King and Newman(2001, p. 86), it is believed that: “Teachers have the most direct, sustained contact with students, as well as considerable control over what is taught and the climate of learning. It is reasonably assumed that improving teachers’ knowledge, skills and dispositions is one of the most critical steps to improving student achievement.”

Steyn (2008) argues that this explains why teachers are pressurized to be competent in their classrooms. In South Africa, “the quest is for quality teachers who are appropriately trained and developed to meet the evolving challenges and needs of the developing country” (Republic of South Africa, 2007, p. 4). However, one major challenge identified as impeding the South African school system is the issue of teacher development (De Clercq & Phiri, 2013), most aspects of which are related to competencies and skills in the discharge of their duties. Limited conceptual knowledge of many teachers has been confirmed as the “most critical challenge for teacher education in South Africa” (President’s Education Initiative Research Project; RSA, 2007, p. 4). The South African education system is plagued by relentless inequality, unacceptable high learner dropout rates and problematic teaching quality (SACE, 2018). Some of the challenges associated with the poor quality of teachers are linked to their pre-service training.

From the foregoing, it is evident that the competencies and quality of teachers produced in the South African education system is problematic. It is argued that some teachers are not able to translate what they have learnt in the university to address the needs of the present-day classroom (Botha & Rens, 2018). The implication is that a gap exists between theory and practice; thus, the need for proper grooming of pre-service teachers through mentorship. Issues related to pedagogical knowledge, classroom and time management, as well as administrative tasks have been highlighted in different studies as challenges confronting beginner teachers (Botha & Rens, 2018; Modise, 2016; Condy & Blease, 2014). For instance, the study conducted by Botha and Rens (2018) highlighted that beginner teachers experience reality shock when they encounter their lack of readiness on how to handle learners in the classroom without becoming negative about teaching. The issues revealed in the study are linked to pedagogical application, lack of motivation, classroom management and basic knowledge of psychology as major challenges to their ability to create and sustain meaningful relationships with their students (Botha & Rens, 2018). Another study (Modise, 2016) found that some beginner teachers are not qualified to teach because they lack the necessary pedagogical content knowledge; this has far-reaching effects on learners’ success. Similarly, Jiyane and Gravett (2019) found difficulties related to

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pedagogical knowledge and classroom management were issues for new teachers.

The implication of these findings is that beginner teachers lack the necessary competence to handle the reality of a school classroom. According to The Alberta Teachers’ Association (ATA) (2003), teachers are faced with different tasks, ranging from learning new curricula, handling classroom management and discipline, integrating students with special needs, using technology, individualizing student programmes, coordinating extracurricular activities and being accountable to the various stakeholders of education. Mentoring is therefore essential.

Mentoring as an integral aspect of work-based placement creates room for preservice teachers to be groomed effectively by serving teachers in an authentic classroom situation. According to Lederman and Lederman (2015), teaching practice is an essential component of pre-service teacher education. Corroborating this, Abongdia et al. (2015) argued that this approach affords pre-service teachers the opportunity to put theory into practice to develop the necessary skills and competencies required of an educator.

Evidence from the studies reviewed shows that little has been done on pre-service teacher development via mentoring, and a knowledge gap exists. The focus of the studies reviewed centres on beginner teachers (Botha & Rens, 2018), foundationphase teachers (Condy & Blease, 2014), serving Grade 9 teachers (Mondise, 2016), and final-year student teachers (Jiyane & Gravett (2019). None of these studies focused on student teachers at B.Ed Honours levels, which gap this present research intends to address by exploring the impact of mentoring in the development of pre-service teachers at a university in South Africa. Specifically, the study explored one objective, namely, the impact of mentoring in the development of B.Ed Honours pre-service teachers. To achieve this, the study employed a qualitative case study design. The Five-Factor Model (FFM) of mentoring was employed in framing the study. Data were generated through semi-structured interviews with 26 B.Ed Honours pre-service teachers. The interview questions were organised according to the five factors for ease of data analysis and the subsequent discussion of findings was also presented according to the five factors. The outcome of this study will enhance the body of knowledge within and outside higher education in different areas, namely, the impact of mentoring in the development of B.Ed Honours pre-service teachers as well as scholars in the fields of pre-service teacher education and work integrated learning (WIL).

The next two sections discuss the theoretical framework of the study: FFM, and insights from the literature on pre-service teachers with regard to WIL, teaching practice, and mentoring in pre-service education.

2. Theoretical Framework Informed by construct theory (Cherry, 2020) which argues that “people develop personal constructs about how the world works and then use these constructs to make sense of their observations and experiences”, this study is premised on the

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FFM for effective teaching popularised by Hudson (2004), and further elaborated

by Hudson et al. (2005). According to these scholars, the model consists of five constructs, namely, personal attributes, system requirements, pedagogical knowledge, modelling and feedback. These constructs are employed in determining what transpires between the mentor and mentee in a professional environment. The composition of each is as follows: 2.1 Personal attributes: These cover the mentor’s personal qualities that enable the mentee’s professional growth and support the relationship that exists between the mentor and mentee in which the former is supportive of the latter. According to Hudson (2007), it is a situation in which the practices of teaching and attentive listening are comfortably discussed by the mentor and mentee. Significantly, the mentor’s personal attributes, such as emotional support, guidance and encouragement depend upon the reassurance of the mentee’s reflection on practices, as well as instilling confidence and positive attributes in the mentee (Moir et al. 2009; Albakri et al., 2021).

2.2 System requirements: These incorporate the school’s aim, the curriculum and the policies that cater for the specific objectives of teaching and learning. These components are articulated and passed on from mentors to mentees (student teachers) in specific subject areas, thereby advancing the pre-service teachers’ understanding of system requirements, especially when linked with the other four factors (Hudson, 2004). A study on system requirements reported that mentors “discussed policies, goals of [the] school, as well as [the] outline of the curriculum with mentees, and they benefitted by understanding the various relationships occasioned in the classroom and the educational context at large (Bird, 2012)”.

2.3 Pedagogical knowledge: This factor focuses on the level of a teacher’s teaching competencies. Pre-service teachers (mentees) learn how to plan for their teaching through the organisation of their timetable or schedule lessons from impactful and effective mentors (Hudson, 2004). Mentors discuss the requirements for lesson preparation in relation to location and use of resources. Effective lesson delivery is a function of well-structured teaching strategies, and experienced mentors are chief custodians of this, which they make available to their mentees.

Content knowledge and classroom management strategies are all captured in this factor. The mentor ascertains the mentee’s content knowledge to see if it aligns with system requirements, and assists pre-service teachers in solving certain problems that emanate from the classroom during lesson delivery (Hudson, 2007).

2.4 Modelling: An enthusiastic teacher can present desirable teaching qualities (Hudson, 2004). Mentors are considered instructional coaches and are models of the best instructional practices themselves, according to Moir (2009). Trubowitz (2004) described mentors as experienced professionals who are mostly regarded as master teachers by their colleagues. Accordingly, mentees are modelled on what is expected of them and what is not, that is, the right language usage ideal for students’ teaching and learning, classroom management, practical activities, as well as lesson planning (Hudson, 2004).

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2.5 Feedback: An effective mentor conveys expectations and provides necessary advice to the mentee (pre-service teacher) (Hudson, 2004). Mentees are provided with oral and written feedback based on their teaching practices as observed by the mentor, revision of their lesson plans and an assessment of their practical training setting. According to Evans-Andris et al. (2006, p. 299), “well defined feedback solves problems related to classroom management, discipline and behaviour, grading, paperwork, interactions with parents, lesson planning, resource acquisition, and other unique needs of student teachers”.

Evidence from research conducted by several different scholars has justified each of the factors reviewed above, as popularised by Hudson (Hyde, 2019; Bird, 2012; Duah, 2010, Smolik, 2010). The decision to choose this model for the current study is based on the objective of the research which hinges on how mentors influence the development of student teachers from a university in South Africa during their teaching practice exercise.

3. Work Integrated Learning (WIL) The concept of WIL as defined by Groenewald (2004, p. 17) is “an educational strategy in which students undergo academic learning at a university and combine this with time spent in a workplace relevant to their programme of study and career aims”. Consequently, WIL has a dual learning focus aimed at equipping students with the necessary knowledge, skills and attitudes that will be required for their future professional work (Du Plessis, 2019). “The rationale that underpins WIL focuses on a collaborative approach between partner schools and universities as service providers of teacher education qualifications to ensure career-specific and full-rounded learning through the application of theory and academic learning with real-life practice of teaching and learning in selected schools (Van Niekerk, 2018, pp. 66–67)”. Drawing from Initial Teacher Education (ITE), WIL creates room for pre-service teachers in a real-life workplace (specific school context) to apply theoretical and practical knowledge (Gillett-Swan & Grant-Smith, 2017). The benefit of this approach covers personal development and experience from exposure to real-world situations in a variety of school contexts (Mentz, De Beer, Petersen, Van Vuuren, …. & White, 2020) 3.1. Teaching practicum Teaching practice, as encapsulated in WIL, is a pragmatic approach where preservice teachers are engaged in field experience to showcase the practical aspects of the theoretical knowledge attained in the classroom. According to Clarke et al.

(2014), this exercise is regarded as a crucial aspect of teacher preparation programmes. However, Grossman (2010) argues that the value accruable from the teaching practice experience rests on the quality of support pre-service teachers receive; hence the need for a mentor-teacher whose influence bears on the studentteacher in terms of interacting with other individuals and in providing feedback.

Research has been conducted on how to improve the professional experience of pre-service teachers on teaching practicum (Danyluk, 2013; Hamaidi et al., 2014).

More recently, the works of Grant-Smith and De Zwaan (2019), Grant-Smith et al., (2018) as well as Grant-Smith and Gillett-Swan, (2017) have focused on students’ wellbeing and avenues that better support pre-service teachers in teaching practice. Attention is directed towards the influence of mentoring in positively

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shaping pre-service teacher commitment, classroom practice and student achievement (Ingersoll & Strong, 2011).

3.2. Mentoring in pre-service teachers’ education Different constructs and concepts apply in describing the professional experience support received by pre-service teachers. This support is received from an inschool supervisor, who is sometimes referred to as a cooperating teacher (Clarke et al, 2014) or school mentor/teacher-mentor (Ambrosetti & Dekkers, 2010).

Mentoring, according to Pennanen et al. (2020), is a global and widely applied method of professional development. This view is corroborated by Liaqat et al.

(2020) who aver that, in recent times, mentoring has been acknowledged in numerous organisations as an approved process and an inseparable part of professionalisation in diverse areas of study, such as medical sciences, social sciences, education, law, and architecture, among others. Further, Delaney (2012) argues that one way to ensure teacher job retention for a longer period is through mentoring; it is also a cost-effective approach to improve the skills and the value of a teacher whilst ensuring that the students get high quality service. In schools, mentoring has a long history of being used to impart skills and knowledge (Simonsen et al., 2009; Van & Waghid, 2008).

Diverse studies have confirmed the impact of mentoring as being influential in pre-service teachers’ developing the necessary skills required for the profession.

These skills include the development of attributes and practices such as pedagogical knowledge (Sempowi & Hudson, 2011), time management skills (Mulyasa, 2004), classroom management strategies (Hudson & Hudson, 2013; Mukeredzi & Manwa, 2019), acceptance and motivation for career growth (Hudson, 2010), awareness of school routine (Chan, 2020), use of appropriate classroom language (Hudson, 2004; Macario, 2018) and advice for professional development (Munjita, 2019).

The reviewed literature shows the significance of mentoring pre-service teachers in translating theoretical knowledge from initial training into the real classroom situation. Evidence from studies reveals that mentoring contributes to the achievement of positive results (Garvey, 2009; Lai, 2005). Guided by this literature, this study sought to investigate the impact of mentorship development on preservice teachers; to examine the attributes and practices mentors transfer to their mentees (pre-service teachers during teaching practice exercise), and to solicit mentee views on the extent to which they gained from the mentor’s personal attributes and practices during the teaching and learning process.

4. Methodology 4.1 Research design and participants The study adopted a qualitative case study design located in the interpretive paradigm and informed by construct theory (Cherry, 2020) which argues that people develop personal constructs about how the world works and then use these constructs to make sense of their observations and experiences. According to Henning et al. (2004), qualitative research design allows for unrestricted and natural emergence of themes which the researcher wishes to identify in the study because the ability to control variables is not usually presented. In qualitative research, the researcher is positioned to see through the eyes of the participant

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and to understand the world as others experience it (Austin & Sutton, 2014); that is, the researcher is intimately involved in the process. Case study research seeks a profound understanding of a situation with the aim of capturing the real-life context of an event (Cohen et al., 2011; Kumar, 2011). On the other hand, the interpretive paradigm aims to understand the subjective world of human experiences (Cohen et al, 2011).

The study aims to understand and interpret the impact of mentors on the development of student teachers (the case in this study) from the participants’ perspectives. The sample for the study comprised 26 B.Ed. Honours pre-service teachers who were purposively selected from a group of B.Ed. Honours preservice teachers who were on teaching practice. A purposive sample provides the researcher with study-ready participants who possess the potential information that addresses the objective of the research (Kumar, 2011). The sample of 26 students were those who had been observed delivering lessons by one of the researchers who had also been able to listen to the oral feedback from mentors during visits to schools.

4.2. Instruments Data generation in the study was executed using semi-structured interviews which were administered to the 26 pre-service teachers after their teaching practice exercise. This method was preferred because it enabled the researcher to “gather information from key informants who have personal experiences, attitudes and perceptions and beliefs related to the topic of interest” (DeJonckheere & Vaughn, 2019, p. 2). To ensure the credibility and trustworthiness of the data, the triangulation of data from different participants was followed, and by coding the transcriptions of a few informants to ensure the soundness and relevance of themes. In addition, as already indicated in the preceding section, observational data by the researchers during teaching practice and oral feedback from mentors during visits to schools was used as a form of triangulation.

4.3. Data analysis The thematic approach was used to analyse the data generated from the semistructured interviews (Clarke & Braun, 2013). This approach to data analysis involves familiarisation with the data, generating initial codes, searching for themes, reviewing the themes, defining and naming the themes, and producing the report (Nowell et al., 2017). Data generated from pre-service teachers through semi-structured interviews were analysed according to the stages outlined above.

5. Presentation of Findings The Five-Factor Model of mentoring was used to categorise the various themes that emerged from the data. Prominent among the five factors is pedagogical knowledge, followed by system requirements, personal attributes, modelling, and feedback.

5.1 Pedagogical knowledge and feedback This factor focuses on a teacher’s teaching competencies. Participants responded to a question which sought to find out the extent to which mentors assisted mentees to translate into practice the pedagogical knowledge gained during

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teacher training. Participants in the study articulated how pedagogical knowledge was grounded at various points during their teaching practice. They described how their mentors impacted them in diverse ways in navigating the different strategies of teaching. These they expressed in the comments below: “My physical science mentor was very good at her job, so she taught me very important methods of teaching: how to teach learners, how to assess them and when to assess them. She told me additional information like how to prepare a QLM portfolio and what I should and should not do to make my work less stressful”. P21 The comment by Participant 21 indicates that the mentor was helpful in teaching methods and assessment. Similarly, the following two participants explain that they were introduced to different pedagogical practices: “How to use a variety of teaching approaches in a single classroom to accommodate all learners.” P5 “I benefited a lot from my mentor. I have learned many things from her. I have learned how to introduce the lesson topic, how to formulate lesson outcomes, how to engage learners in the lesson and how to explain the content.” P14 “I learned a lot from him that a foundation phase teacher can indeed teach young learners in a fun way.” P8 The excerpts above reveal different pedagogical practices participants learnt from their mentors. According to Participant 5, it was the use of multiple teaching approaches in a single classroom; for Participant 14, the impact was on how to introduce a lesson, formulate lesson objectives, engage learners in a lesson as well as explain content, whilst that of Participant 8 focused on the ability of a foundation phase teacher to teach young learners in a lively way.

Two participants described that their mentor taught them how to get the attention of learners. This they expressed in their various comments: “She was even helping me about some strategies to grab the attention of the learners and even she was supportive.” P7 “As a student teacher I was not sure how to start the lesson to get the attention of learners. My mentor helped me with the methods I can use.”

P15 Other participants commented that: “He was always teaching me on how to conduct a lesson since from first year and now I can do my things without being guided.” P16 “The mentor was there to guide me and tell me more about the learners in terms of their mental abilities. New teaching strategies.” P11 Findings from both participants’ excerpts above highlight the availability of mentors to guide mentees on how to conduct their lessons. Both comments speak of feedback as well. From Participant 16’s perspective, constant guidance by way of advice led to an improvement in practice, and this is one of the essentials of

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feedback. According to Participant 11, the mentor’s guidance provided insight into new teaching strategies to handle learners with respect to their mental abilities, a typical approach to inclusivity.

5.1.1 Provision of support The provision of support to pre-service teachers on teaching practice is one way to promote the quality of teaching offered by students. Participants in the study were asked to respond to a question which asked them to comment on the extent of support provided by their mentors in facilitating their lessons.

“The mentor was a great adviser; he was always supporting me with everything, including teaching materials. He would show me where [sic] I need to work on and always facilitating me.” P23 Similarly, another participant said: “My mentor provided me with textbooks, notes and the work schedule that I needed to follow for the time I was doing my practice teaching.” P6 Analysis of both excerpts above reveals, from both participants’ perspectives, that their mentors provided them with diverse support in the discharge of their duties.

According to Participant 23, the support enjoyed was the provision of teaching materials as well as what to work on, while that of Participant 6 covers provision of resources such as textbooks, notes and the work schedule. However, a participant who did not enjoy any form of support lamented the mentor’s inattention and lack of any support. The comment below reinforces that: “I did not benefit from most of the teaching practice. Once I arrived the mentor relaxed, they would let me teach on my own. They were not assisting me.” P17 The excerpt in the comment above indicates that the participant was completely unsupported during the teaching practice exercise.

5.1.2 Time management Participants responded to a question which sought their views on how they learnt time management skills from mentors. Some participants indicated that their mentors taught them how to manage their time, as revealed in the comments below.

“He taught me to prepare my things before time e.g., lesson plans. He showed me how to manage my time so that at the end of the day I must not have load of work.” P18 “I benefited on how you should always prepare your lesson ahead so that you can identify problem areas. P10 Analysis of both comments above indicates that both participants benefited from their mentors on how to manage their time. According to Participant 18, the lesson learnt was the necessity of preparing the lesson ahead of time so as to maximise time and avoid a heavy workload. Participant 10 was taught that preparing for the lesson on time enabled one to anticipate and identify likely problem areas.

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It is worth noting that this factor impacts pre-service teachers the most, as eight mentees indicated that their pedagogical content knowledge was impacted by their mentors.

5.1.3 Classroom management Pedagogical knowledge was also captured in classroom management. Some participants were forthright about the impact of their mentors in the development of classroom management strategies, as expressed in the comments below: “I benefited [from] the techniques of maintaining classroom discipline.…”

P26 “I benefited a lot from what I feared, it is now what in master [sic], discipline and involving learners in my lesson is what I am good at and from all that I got it from my mentor.” P25 “The mentor was there to guide…how to handle bad behaviours [sic], as well as how to punish learners.” P11 “Honestly speaking, there is very little that I can say which was mainly what not to do in a classroom, especially regarding the classroom management, treatment of learners, etc.” P4 “My mentor helped me a lot by maintaining order and discipline in [the] classroom. My mentor taught me how to make the atmosphere in class to be conducive for every other learner.” P2 “Oh! My last teaching practice I had a wonderful mentor …. showing me and helping me with teaching methods of the discipline.” P9 Findings from the analysis of participants’ excerpts above reveal the impact of mentors on mentees in the development of classroom management strategies in the area of discipline. According to Participant 25, classroom management was a dreaded area, but through the help of a mentor, it is no longer an issue. For Participant 11, the mentor was helpful in showing how to handle bad behaviour and how to manage learner discipline, whilst Participant 4 was influenced in the treatment of learners. According to Participant 2, the mentor’s impact on the mentee helped to create a calm and conducive learning atmosphere.

5.2 System requirements System requirements, as one of the five-factors of the mentor model, focuses on information about the daily school routine. The interview schedule posed a question which sought to discover from mentees the extent to which they were guided by mentors in understanding the general school system requirements.

Some participants reported the guidance provided by their mentors on how to participate and integrate into certain norms of the school activities. Evidence in the comments reveals the following: “I also benefited when it comes to day-to-day planning of learner’s activities.” P26 “My mentor assisted me how to complete house tasks, dress code, punctuality and teacher conduct.” P19

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“My mentor taught me the ins and outs of teaching. All the things university will never teach you. Things like moderation, completing [the] learner register ….” P22….

“She also took her time to show me about the administration work of the teacher.” P9 Analysis of the above comments from the three participants reveals the impacts of mentors on mentees’ compliance with system requirements. The benefits of mentors as voiced by Participant 26 is on how to plan daily learner activities, whilst for Participant 19, it is on how to complete house tasks, dress code, punctuality, and teacher conduct. Participant 22 enjoyed the impact on how moderation and completing the learners’ register is done, whilst Participant 9 learnt about the administrative duties of a teacher.

5.3 Personal attributes The mentor’s personal features enhance the mentee’s professional growth as well as make the mentee feel successful in their career. Mentees were asked to comment on the extent to which they gained from the mentor’s personal attributes during the teaching and learning process and from which the mentee drew inspiration in developing their own practice. Some participants commented on being encouraged in diverse ways, as expressed in the comments below: “He gave me the sense of belonging and made me realise the best part of being an educator and also gave me a room for suggestion[s] on how to improve in teaching and learning especially in language of English.” P13 “Oh! I like[d] my mentor. She was welcoming in a way that she motivates me even about my career.” P7 Analysis of these comments indicates the impact of mentors’ personal attributes and modelling on mentees. The excerpts from Participants 13 and 7 reveal that they both enjoyed the acceptance of their mentors. The acceptance created room for improvement in the teaching of English Language for Participant 13, whilst Participant 7 reflected on the motivation in career development. The comments from the two participants are a typical reflection of a mentor’s personal attribute, because both are aimed at instilling confidence and a positive attitude in the mentees.

5.4 Modelling This factor entails the use of appropriate classroom language that is suitable for students’ learning. Mentees responded to a question which asked about the extent to which they gained from the modelling attributes of the mentor in the actual teaching and learning situation. One of the participants commented on the impact of the mentor’s right use of language during the teaching and learning process.

“I benefited [from learning] how to talk to learners without yelling at them or threatening them.” P2 According to Participant 2, the benefit derived from the mentor’s modelling was in how to approach learners in an controlled manner without aggression, which implies the use of right language.

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The major themes that emerged from the findings in this section reflect the characteristics of the Five-Factor Model of mentoring, namely, pedagogical knowledge, system requirements, personal attributes, modelling and feedback.

These are discussed in the next section.

6. Discussion In this section, we discuss the findings on the impact of mentors on the development of student teachers from a university in South Africa during their teaching practice exercise. The findings from the study support the major factors advocated for by Hudson (2004) and Hudson et al. (2005), as mentioned above.

These factors and their respective components are discussed below in relation to this study, beginning with the most prominent.

6.1 Pedagogical knowledge: Findings in the research highlighted the impact of mentors in developing their mentees (students on teaching practice) in different areas of pedagogical content knowledge. According to Hudson (2004; Hudson et al, 2005), pedagogical knowledge entails instructional approaches and competencies, provision of resources, time management, and classroom management strategies. The study revealed mentors’ impact on participants (preservice teachers) in the development of pedagogical knowledge. The findings showed that pedagogical knowledge was revealed at different stages of the exercise, namely, planning, preparation and implementation of lessons. This finding supports that of Sempowicz and Hudson (2011) whose study highlighted how mentors shaped mentees’ teaching experiences through the transfer of diverse pedagogical skills. The pedagogical approaches revealed include how to introduce and formulate lesson objectives, strategies to attract learners’ attention, and teaching learners with different mental abilities. These findings corroborate those of Bird (2012) whose study revealed similar pedagogical strategies as part of the mentors’ impact on student teachers. The study also found that mentors assisted with the knowledge of how to assess learners, echoing the finding of Prasetyo (2019) whose study showed that mentoring has the ability to improve prospective teachers’ pedagogical knowledge of assessment. As reported, mentors provided mentees (pre-service teachers) with time management skills (Bird, 2012) as well as effective teaching and assessment practices in relation to classroom management (Sempowicz & Hudson, 2011).

A component of pedagogical knowledge is the provision of resources required to implement teaching and learning. The study revealed that participants were provided the resources needed for the implementation of their teaching exercise.

Corroborating this finding is that of Smolik (2010), whose research revealed that mentors provided novice teachers with resources such as lesson plans which helped novice teachers in preparing their own lesson plans. One of the participants was critical of their mentorship because of the lack of support received. This finding is in line with Abongdia et al. (2015) who reported that some mentors fail to support their mentees on teaching practice. Thus Abongdia et al. (2015, p. 55) recommended that “school-based mentors should ensure that pre-service teachers are supported during their work integrated learning since they require [the] opportunity for personal growth”.

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The study also revealed improvement of time management skills as part of the beneficial impact of mentors on mentees (pre-service teachers). Similarly, the study conducted by Bird (2012) found that mentors helped their mentees with time management. They were taught how to prepare their lessons on time to avoid a heavy workload as well as to identify problem areas in the lesson. Poor time management has been confirmed as one of the seven indicators of poor teacher performance (Mulyasa, 2004) and, therefore, mentoring services for pre-service teachers is one major way to mitigate such a challenge.

Part of pedagogical knowledge, according to the five-factor mentor model, is classroom management strategies (Hudson, 2004). Participants in the study were outspoken on the development of diverse classroom management strategies resulting from their respective mentors’ input. This agrees with the finding of Hudson and Hudson (2013) which revealed that student teachers developed classroom management strategies while they observed how their mentor teachers related to learners. The different classroom management strategies developed by mentees (pre-service teachers) in this study include maintaining discipline in the classroom, handling learners’ bad behaviour, and the treatment of learners. These findings agree with those of Mukeredzi and Manwa (2019) who maintain that classroom management and control are essential for student learning and for sustaining academic achievement. Often important aspects of establishing control include creating an effective discipline policy, building rapport, and determining the needs of the problem students. Consequently, Bloomfield (2010) and Johnson (2010) describe teaching practice as a highly valued component of teacher preparation that equips pre-service teachers with the art of teaching in a classroom setting, enables them to develop knowledge and competencies as well as the attributes for effective teaching in the actual classroom.

6.2 System requirements: Mentors provide mentees with the important, necessary information they need to understand the different, various regulations and programmes of the school community (Hudson, 2007). The study revealed that participants were impacted by their mentors in the area of executing other school programmes outside the normal teaching and learning exercise. This finding is in line with that of Chan (2020) whose study found that mentors provided support for mentees in negotiating school policies. Participants in the study were taught by their mentors how to plan day-to-day learner activities, to complete house tasks, what the dress code was, and about expected teacher conduct. Other system requirements learnt included moderation, completing the learner register, and the administrative work of the teacher.

6.3 Personal attributes: According to Hudson (2004), the mentor’s personal features impact the mentee’s professional growth; these are the conditions and situations that make mentees feel successful in their own career. Participants in the study shared their experience on how they were impacted by their mentors’ personal attributes. One of the participants reported the level of acceptance received which provided room for suggestions on improvement in teaching and learning the English language, whilst another revelation was how the mentor boosted the motivation of a pre-service teacher for a teaching career. These findings are in agreement with the study by Hudson (2010), whose study revealed

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that mentors’ personal attributes and practices as associated with the Five-Factor Model make the mentee (pre-service teachers) feel successful in their teaching.

6.4 Modelling: As articulated, this factor relates to the enthusiasm which a teacher shows that can evidence desirable teaching qualities (Hudson, 2004). This includes appropriate classroom language for students’ learning, teaching, effective teaching, classroom management, hands-on lessons, and well-designed lessons (Hudson, 2004). The study revealed the impact of mentors on mentees in the use of right language when communicating with learners. This aligns with the study of Macario (2018) who also employed the Five-Factor Model in their study.

According to Macario (2018), modelling provides a reference point and immersion of practice. Corroborating the results of this study, McElroy (2012) reported that educators are not well equipped when they are not given time to prepare, and when that happens, system requirements suffer. Modelling creates room for preservice teachers to learn good classroom management strategies, instructional language and the pacing of a lesson (Maphalala, 2013).

6.5 Feedback: An effective mentor conveys expectations and provides the necessary advice to the mentee (pre-service teacher) to aid professional development (Hudson, 2004). Although revealed as part of pedagogical knowledge, one of the participants (pre-service teacher) became competent in the conduct of lessons because of the mentor’s regular support, implying that the mentoring of the pre-service teacher led to improvement. The result of this study agrees with the findings of Munjita (2019) who found that student teachers who were provided with feedback indicated they had been adequately mentored.

According to Maphalala (2013), the ability of student teachers to grow depends on the level of feedback provided.

7. Conclusion and Recommendations This study explored the impact of mentorship development of pre-service teachers at a South African university. An overview of related literature on Work Integrated Learning, teaching practicum, and mentoring in pre-service teacher education was undertaken. The study employed Hudson’s (2004) Five-Factor Mentoring Model as a theoretical lens, whilst a qualitative case study design was used for data generation and analysis. Findings from the study support the attributes and practices of the Five-Factor Mentoring Model popularized and improved by Hudson (2004) and Hudson et al, (2005). Prominent among these findings is pedagogical knowledge, system requirements, personal attributes, modelling, and feedback. The pedagogical knowledge factor was identified as the most dominant as different mentees recorded the greatest benefit under the factor.

Clearly, mentoring activity in pre-service teacher education is an important component in the professional development of effective teachers. Furthermore, mentoring of pre-service teachers helps to develop diverse arrays of pedagogical knowledge, provide them with the resources needed for the implementation of teaching, time and classroom management strategies for effective teaching and learning, and the encouragement for successful career development. The study recommends that mentees (student teachers) be supported by mentors in their serving schools to enable them to fulfil the mandate of their teaching practice exercise.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 21, No. 3, pp. 106-126, March 2022 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.3.7 Received Jan 6, 2022; Revised Feb 20, 2022; Accepted Mar 3, 2022

Linear Predictors of Perceived Graduate Employability among South Africa’s Rural Universities’ Learners during the Covid-19 Pandemic Herring Shava* Department of Management, Walter Sisulu University, South Africa

Abstract. After the outbreak of Covid-19, universities in South Africa adopted blended learning and learning continued online. The outbreak of Covid-19 brought to light inherent problems that South African rural universities are facing in the utilisation of educational technologies. These problems include inadequate online support technologies, inadequate electricity supply and poor educator and learner technological skills.

Resultantly, questions have been raised on rural university graduates’ employability prospects and how these can be enhanced. This study provides evidence revealing that learner career ambition can be used as an intervention mechanism to enhance graduate employability among rural university learners. This study sought to determine whether online teaching and learning predict perceived graduate employability among rural university learners in South Africa. In addition, the study investigated whether learner career ambition moderates the relationship between online teaching and learning and perceived graduate employability. Quantitative data was gathered from 150 rural university undergraduate learners. Random sampling was used to select them. A survey approach was used to gather primary data and the research instrument was a self-administered questionnaire. Simple linear regression, and hierarchical regression analyses were performed. Results reveal that online teaching and learning predict perceived graduate employability, and learner career ambition negatively moderates the relationship between online teaching and learning. The study recommends that more research is needed to shed light on how ambition can be used to enhance graduate employability especially in online teaching and learning environments marred by poor information and communication technology infrastructure.

Keywords: Online teaching and learning; Covid-19; perceived graduate employability; learner career ambition

*

Corresponding author: Herring Shava; hshava@wsu.ac.za

©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

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1. Introduction The acquisition of education remains an integral part of human life. From a human resources management perspective, education positively and significantly contributes to the economic value of an individual. The human capital theory further confirms this notion and points out that among other variables, education plays a critical role in the development of a person’s skills set and other important attributes sought after by employers (Ployhart, 2006). The value that society places on education explains why in some societies it has arguably become the only hope for escaping poverty, that is, if or when an educated person successfully lands an attractive job after graduation. Although education remains critical in many human spheres, it is how education is acquired that has changed across the globe owing to unforeseen challenges, for example, the Covid-19 global pandemic (Bergdahl & Nouri, 2021).

Before the pandemic, the majority of learning took place in a classroom set-up with the educator and learners physically present, that is, face-to-face learning (Chirinda et al., 2021). According to Lave and Wenger (1998), strategies employed during face-to-face learning are meant to promote relationship building among learners with similar interests, better known as the community of practice. Under communities of practice, learners repeatedly worked hand-in-hand, heavily relying on continued reciprocal interactions. This is what the global Covid-19 pandemic temporarily took away from learners as institutions shifted from the traditional face-to-face learning approach to blended learning (van Schalkwyk.

2021).

Blended learning is a deliberate combination of both online and face-to-face teaching activities with the intent of stimulating and supporting student learning (Boelens et al., 2015). Since the pandemic swept across the globe, face-to-face learning was no longer possible as both learners and educators were at high risk of spreading the deadly virus. Resultantly, online learning temporarily became the mode in which learning activities could continue. The pandemic struck during the digital age which made the transition from face-to-face learning to online learning possible, but not without its challenges given the unprepared nature of rural universities particularly in South Africa.

The challenges some institutions of higher learning experienced in the full implementation of online learning were a result of institutional policies and disparities in infrastructure (Amin & Mahabeer, 2021). A possible reason for this is that many institutions of higher learning, professional bodies and employers still consider the traditional approach to learning as more robust, with very few questions asked with regard to graduate competencies. This is unsurprising as face-to-face learning allows educators to assess learners making use of class tests, practical work and examinations. More importantly, such assessments are taken by learners in the presence of educators, thereby limiting unwarranted learner behaviour, for example cheating.

Writing assessments in controlled environments is perceived as one of the major contributors to graduate competence. Learners usually take time to prepare for

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such assessments, which involves thorough content engagement and unlimited self and peer assessments to perfect the skills resulting in maximum knowledge assimilation. Hence, fewer questions were raised on whether graduates had the skills that employers required when education was taking place following the traditional approach as opposed to the new mode of online learning.

To a certain degree, both educators and employers are somehow justified to ask questions around graduate competence as very few educators and learners had enough time to prepare for the new mode of learning especially in emerging economies’ rural universities. Although online learning management systems are equally effective in controlling unethical behaviour among learners, both the educator and the learner must be highly skilled in the use of such platforms (Naidoo, 2020). Research by Matsilele (2021) found that both educators and learners had serious skills deficiency in the utilisation of educational technologies, for example, Moodle, Blackboard and others. Matsilele (2021) has further reported that the majority of learners and educators had to undergo training to acquire the basic skills on how to teach and learn using educational technologies.

This skills deficiency among educators and learners in rural universities is known to the labour market, which therefore raise the questions, how do learners perceive their employability and what role does learner career ambition play in the relationship between online teaching and graduate perceived employability?

These questions are critical given the gap that exists between educator online teaching skills, student online learning needs, skills transfer and knowledge acquisition leading to questions around graduate employability. In addition, very little is known about the role of learner career ambition in mitigating the effects of effective learning resulting in increased attractiveness and readiness for work among rural university graduates. This study will contribute to this gap by answering the raised questions from an emerging economy perspective. In so doing, the study has sought to bring to light the work that needs to be done in terms of bringing proper online teaching and learning (T&L) technologies to the needy. In the absence of such lessons, implications are that the higher education sector will continue to celebrate high throughput while the rate of graduate unemployment continues rising sharply, a challenge that the South African government is desperately trying to resolve.

The objectives of the study were formulated as follows: 1. To investigate whether online teaching and learning predict graduate perceived employability of rural university learners, and 2. To investigate whether learner career ambition moderates the relationship between online teaching and learning and perceived graduate employability.

2. Literature Review The literature points out that learning occurs naturally and optimally in ecologies, formal and informal communities (Bridgstock, 2017; Mitchell & Sackney, 2011).

However, the Covid-19 pandemic significantly changed how individuals went about their daily lives, including formal learning. Similar to other key sectors of the society, the outbreak disturbed the education sector as classroom activities

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were at some point wholly suspended. In some low-income countries, it took over 500 calendar days for learners to resume classes. In South Africa, at some point, contact classes resumed and were later suspended when another wave of the deadly Delta variant of Covid-19 swept the entire nation.

As the global health environment continued to be unstable, at the local level, South African universities adopted blended learning, where both online and traditional classroom teaching methods were accepted depending on what was safer for both learners and educators. At times when the spread of the virus was very high, online teaching and learning were then fully implemented. Although this meant a continuation of educational activities, the question is how effective are educators in implementing online teaching methods in South Africa’s rural universities to achieve desired learning outcomes to ensure that graduate employability prospects of learners were not in jeopardy? The paragraphs that follow deal with the concept of graduate employability in detail.

2.1 Perceived graduate employability Literature divides the concept of perceived graduate employability into two distinct but closely related dimensions, namely perceived internal employability (PIE) and perceived external employability (PEE) (Rothwell & Arnold, 2007; Rothwell et al., 2008; Rothwell et al., 2009). On the one hand, PIE focuses on a person’s perceived employability based on that person’s internal skills, abilities, academic performance and ambition, and engagement with the learning material.

In the context of this study, PIE refers to the graduate’s belief to be employed and retained by an entity (Sulistiawan et al., 2021). On the other hand, PEE focuses on a person’s perceived employability based on external factors such as the demands of the labour market, the influence of the university they will graduate from and the qualification with which they will graduate (Rothwell et al., 2008). According to Smith (2010), PEE is the perception of an employee to be able to fill open job opportunities outside the current organisation. In this study, perceived graduate employability is viewed from a unidimensional perspective where the external aspects (PEE) are deemed to be more crucial in determining perceived graduate employability. In other words, the study argues that issues that are critical from a rural university perspective are the labour market demands, focusing on graduate competencies. This is because the majority of rural universities have a low budget which is largely devoted to staff salaries and delivery of teaching and learning activities. The tight budget leaves rural universities with little capacity to engage extensively in community engagement programmes that could enhance their image.

Across disciplines, research has so far not adopted a single approach to employability (Forrier & Sels, 2003). Two competing schools of thought on the concept of employability exist. On the one hand, the competency-based approach points out that an individual’s perceptions of abilities, capacities, and skills are the critical elements for being hired (Van der Heijde & Van der Heijden, 2006).

Guided by the competency-based approach, it is therefore of interest for learners and the providers of education to develop and deliver a curriculum that will

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produce graduates with the competencies sought by the labour market (Hillage & Pollard, 1998; Harvey, 2001; Knight & Yorke, 2004).

On the other hand, the dispositional approach points out that an individual’s perceptions of their proactive attitudes toward career and work are critical elements of employment (Fugate & Kinicki, 2008). The dispositional approach is more aligned to issues related to career adaptability. In other words, the learner is assumed to have in-depth knowledge of the labour market, how it operates and what it seeks in a graduate. Guided by this understanding, the learner works towards positioning themselves for career success and growth by carefully navigating the gaps found in work and career environments. Therefore, one contributing factor that will see the learner successfully adapting to different career and work environments might be career ambition which resonates well with the concept of how a person perceives their capabilities towards career success despite challenges that exist in building a career.

2.2 Career ambition There has been a sudden increase in research focusing on the concept of ambition and the majority of these studies highly argue that it is a standalone construct that can be expressed in many facets of life (Hirschi & Spurk, 2021; Gürlek, 2021; Jones et al., 2017; Judge & Kammeyer-Mueller, 2012). According to Ćurić Dražić et al.

(2018), career ambition may be viewed as the fundamental reason why individuals place value on outcomes. As a result, there is a strong link between individual beliefs in and efforts towards career success and this phenomenon is better explained by an individual’s internal locus of control. Judge and Kammeyer-Mueller (2012) defined ambition as a consistent and continuous pursuit for success, gain and accomplishment. In addition, Pettigrove (2007) described ambition as an individual’s prolonged inner quest for achievement. In the context of this research, an ambitious learner is a person who strongly believes that to gain employment in the labour market, personal efforts must be consistently channelled towards academic success. This must happen despite challenges that exist in the learning environment, for example, challenges emanating from online teaching and learning as a result of the Covid-19 pandemic and other factors inherent to institutional structures, their goals, and capabilities.

Apart from academic success, Pettigrove (2007) pointed out that ambition is a critical tool that can be used by individuals for different purposes. For example, one individual can use ambition to earn invaluable societal achievements while the other may use ambition as a tool to inflict pain and suffering on others in search of personal rewards. Central to this study is the thinking that through ambition, learners may successfully navigate the challenges of online learning with the intent of enhancing their employability prospects. Research concurs and points out that ambition positively influences multiple works and career behaviours as well as outcomes (Judge & Kammeyer, 2012; Jones et al., 2017). The above description also points out that ambition is an indicator of future career success. Resultantly, ambition is a critical factor in the sense that it provides the learner with the tools to effectively deal with barriers towards academic success leading to successful employment and career growth.

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2.3 Online T&L in South Africa during the Covid-19 pandemic At least two decades ago, the South African government pointed out that if South African graduates were to become competent and attractive in the 21st-century workplace, the education sector must utilise technological-based teaching and learning mechanisms (Ministry of Education, 2001). Online teaching and learning in South Africa’s higher education are therefore not new (Ravjee, 2007). The study

by Damoense (2003) found that the use of technological tools for teaching and learning, for example, the Internet aided by the presence of a climate conducive to online learning was critical towards the achievement of learning outcomes in the South African context. The study by Damoense (2003) further cited research

by NUA (2000) estimating that South Africa had approximately 360 000 online learners by the end of the year 2000. Given the advancements in information and communication technologies (ICT), this figure has grown exponentially to this date.

The majority of urban institutions in South Africa have adopted online teaching and learning mechanisms but given the disparity in resources between the urban and rural universities, Dube (2020) found that rural universities have been left behind in the implementation of online teaching and learning. This is because of the lack of technology required to connect to the Internet, the high cost of online learning management systems, and the poor uptake of software. There is no unified definition of rurality although in simplicity it can be defined as a nonurban area where human beings reside with limited or no access to progressive socio-economic facilities and technologies. These include, for example, electricity, running water, Internet, marketing platforms, road infrastructure, sound education and medical facilities (Mukuna & Aloka, 2020).

The failure by South African rural universities to fully implement online teaching and learning is highly influenced by the lack of a social and economic muscle required to stimulate and sustain technological advancements (Cristobal-Fransi et al., 2020). According to Dube (2020), South African authorities have not done very well, as is evident in rural learners’ and educators’ prolonged deprivation of important ICT infrastructure, quality education and skills, among others. The presence of these amenities could come in handy in the fight against the Covid-19 pandemic and perhaps with little disruption in teaching and learning activities in the rural areas.

People in the rural areas are highly dependent on the sale of agricultural produce and movement of people from one market to the other is critical. Proceeds from the sale of agricultural produce (livestock, vegetables and crops) enable families to assist learners in acquiring the most basic Internet connectivity facilities and ensure that their children are not left behind as online teaching and learning has so far taken over.

It can be argued that to a certain degree, rural families could have acquired a few basic online teaching and learning gadgets and improved the graduate employability prospects of many learners had the South African government not responded to the Covid-19 outbreak by implementing the harshest lockdown

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which saw both the military and the police being deployed in the streets. From the government’s perspective, this was necessary to ensure that non-essential services people stayed indoors, venturing outside only to buy food and medication. For unemployed rural families that largely rely on the sale of agricultural products and other merchandise, lockdowns resulted in the loss of the much-needed income for sustenance, resulting in university dropouts.

Research by Ebrahim et al. (2020) also noted that the implementation of lockdown severely affected the economic activities of the Global South, South Africa included. To this date, the exact number of learners who dropped out from South Africa’s urban and rural universities owing to failure to access online teaching and learning during the Covid-19 pandemic is not known. However, it is estimated that at least 750 000 learners aged 7 to 17 years dropped out at the basic education level.

Access to online teaching in rural universities is not the only challenge that rural universities are facing but skills needed by both the educator and the learner to effectively utilise the little and overly constrained online facilities they have is another major issue (Matsilele, 2021). Highly qualified educators shun the rural areas for resourceful urban institutions of higher learning. This further adds questions on the graduate employability of learners from rural universities especially during this error of the pandemic. Du Plessis and Mestry (2019) pleaded that there is an urgent need for the development of mechanisms that will result in an improvement of the working environment of educators in rural areas. This will foster better achievement of learning outcomes by rural learners which will contribute immensely towards the development of a better human capital base across the country.

2.4 Online T&L and graduate perceived employability Siemans (2005) pointed out that in the digital age, learning is highly networked as it is driven by extended and diverse connections with people, systems and information. In simple terms, there are learning platforms that are formally recognised by institutions such as Moodle, Blackboard, among others (Dong et al., 2021). However, to assume that online learning or information sharing only occurs in formal platforms will be accepting a narrow view of online learning as informal platforms are equally utilised by both learners and educators (Shava & Chinyamurindi, 2018).

To ensure that learners and educators effectively implement online learning, universities seem to be fostering both formal and informal online platforms to develop educator teaching capabilities and student learning capabilities with the view of enhancing graduate employability. Bridgstock (2017) pointed out that digital networks have enabled individuals to learn new capabilities and keep up to date with trends of interest. There is a great need to challenge university authorities to develop a conducive online learning climate that will stimulate the desire among learners and educators to fully adopt any digital platform and build learner confidence, trigger full participation and enhance problem solving and analytical skills. These competencies are critical for any graduate intending to

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compete in the labour market. Online learning platforms provide both the learner and the educator unlimited learning opportunities, making online learning and teaching platforms an important instructional tool during and post the pandemic.

However, as the pandemic is still looming with health experts pointing out that the Covid-19 situation may subside post-December 2022, online teaching and learning have become the main trend among both educators and learners.

Although rural universities are struggling with the effective implementation of online learning, the mere adoption of the Internet as a teaching tool on its own is a step in the right direction to ensure that South African university graduates are highly attractive, both in the local and global labour market. Based on the above discussion, the study hypothesises that: H1: Online T&L predict graduate perceived employability of rural university learners.

2.5 Online T&L, perceived graduate employability and learner career ambition Dube (2020) found that online teaching and learning in rural South Africa is adversely affected by poor network connectivity, the exorbitant cost of Internet data bundles, closure of Internet cafes (during lockdown), inadequate online teaching and learning devices, and lack of computer skills. In the absence of learner career ambition, the mentioned issues are expected to somehow negatively impact graduate employability especially when educators have poor skills on how to effectively utilise online learning platforms for better achievement of learning outcomes, among other difficulties. Poor technological skills from a learner perspective pose a huge challenge in content engagement and class participation. However, ambition is a strong driving force that could see a learner finding a way to be able to learn, engage and participate in online class activities. This viewpoint is supported by the engagement theory. Therefore, borrowing from the engagement theory, rural learners are most likely to navigate the challenge of poor educational technology utilisation skills by treating such as one of the real problems which they must personally overcome if they are to become attractive graduates in a competitive labour market. The engagement theory points out that during teaching and learning, real world problems are presented to learners and through increased levels of collaboration, interaction and participation, learners take charge of their learning and engage the learning content, resulting in the acquisition of knowledge and achievement of desired learning outcomes (Jones et al., 1994; Salmon, 2001). Based on the above discussion, the study further hypothesises that: H2: Learner career ambition moderates the relationship between online teaching and learning and perceived graduate employability.

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Learner career ambition

H2 Online teaching and learning practices

H1

Perceived graduate employability

Figure 1: Conceptual model depicting learner ambition as a moderator on the relationship between online teaching and learning and perceived graduate employability

3. Research Methodology 3.1 Research design, approach and sampling The study is positioned within the positivist research paradigm. Thus, the research is anchored in theories of learning and hypotheses were formulated and primary quantitative data collected to test such hypotheses. A survey approach was adopted for data collection where a self-administered questionnaire was randomly distributed among rural university learners who visited their campuses during the lockdown period in South Africa. Primary data collection was severely affected by the Covid-19 pandemic as universities did not allow a full return of learners on campuses except those who were to attend practical work and other reasons deemed important by university and faculty management. Although 240 questionnaires were distributed, 150 were returned with sufficient data to proceed to the data analysis stage. Based on the returned questionnaires, the study therefore utilised a sample of 150 learners. Data collection became relatively easy when the learners were allowed to return to campus in phases (Mafolo, 2020).

Primary data collected was statistically analysed. Simple linear, percentages and hierarchical regression analyses were performed to make meaning of the data based on the formulated hypotheses.

3.2 Measures The research instrument was divided into four sections (A to D). Section A questions were meant to gather demographic data of the respondents, such as age, gender, and the qualifications that they were studying at the time of the research.

Section B was designed to gather data on how lecturers utilised online teaching and learning platforms. On that note, the Online Teaching Self-Efficacy Inventory was modified to suit the context of the study. The wording on the questionnaire items was changed from a self-evaluation perspective to a learner evaluation perspective. Thus, instead of lecturers evaluating themselves, in this study, it was learners evaluating lecturers. Consequently, four dimensions of the Online Teaching Self-Efficacy Inventory were used, with the first dimension being virtual interaction that was measured on a five-point Likert scale, where 1 represented

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strongly disagree and 5 represented strongly agree. An example of a virtual scale interaction reads, “lecturers are able to effectively express emotion within the online environment”. The virtual interaction scale’s Cronbach alpha coefficient was derived as .772, indicating that it was internally consistent. The second dimension which was unit content migration had 7 scale items, also measured on a five-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree). An example of the scale items reads, “lecturers are able to transfer lecture presentations used in face-to-face style units to online formats”. The unit content migration scale had a satisfactory Cronbach alpha coefficient of .749. The online course alignment subscale with 11 items was the third dimension used. An example of the scale items reads, “Lecturers are able to accurately assess the depth of students’ level of engagement”. Similarly, online course alignment was measured on a five-point scale (1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree). The online course alignment scale was reliable given a Cronbach alpha coefficient = .783. The last sub-scale was the web-based module structure with 11 items also measured on a five-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree). An example of the scale items reads, “lecturers are able to design online module content that is easy for students to navigate”. The web-based module structure scale was also reliable with a Cronbach alpha coefficient = .826.

The employability and ambition scales which comprised section C and D of the questionnaire were both developed by Rothwell et al. (2008). The employability and the ambition scales had 16 and 6 questionnaire items, while their internal reliability scores of .864 and .850 were acceptable given that they were above the minimum threshold of .7. Both scales were measured on a five-point Likert scale, with 1 representing strongly disagree and ranging up to 5 representing strongly agree. The employability scale item example reads, “Employers are eager to employ graduates from my university” and the ambition scale item example reads, “I feel it is urgent that I get on with my career development”. See Appendix 1 for the study’s research instrument.

4. Results The data showed the distribution of respondents by gender was 56% female and 40% male. The remaining 4% were not comfortable revealing their gender (rather not say category). The majority of the respondents were Africans 98% and 2% were coloureds. This result reflects that the majority of learners in rural universities come from an African background as opposed to Whites, Indians and Chinese. The mentioned races are well represented in South Africa’s resourceful universities as opposed to rural universities. The distribution of respondents by age revealed that 25% of the respondents were aged 20 and below, while the 2125 age group was the majority with 70% and the 26 years & above category was the least represented by a low value of 5%. The distribution of learners by disciplines revealed that 33% were in the natural sciences (chemistry, physics, geography, mathematics), 10% in the information and communication technology sector, and the main group comprised learners in the management and commerce disciplines, represented by 46%. The social sciences and humanities disciplines were represented by 6% while the engineering and health sciences were represented by 3% and 2% respectively.

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Before simple linear regression was performed, the hypothesis stating that online teaching and learning predict perceived graduate employability, normality tests were performed and the results revealed that the p-values were below .05 for both the Kolmogorov-Smirnov and the Shapiro-Wilk tests. This result is an indicator that the data violated the assumptions of normality. Resultantly, simple linear regression analysis with bootstrapped confidence intervals and their significance levels was performed as these take into consideration the position that the data violated the assumptions of normality and heteroscedasticity. Results of the model fit and summary are shown in Table 1.

Table 1: Simple linear regression model fit and summary for online teaching and learning on perceived graduate employability Source

df

Sum of Mean squares squares

F

Pr > F

r

R2

Adjusted R2

Estimated standard error

Model 0.597 0.356 0.349 0.42180 summary Regression 1 9.535 9.535 53.590 0.000* Residual 149 17.258 0.178 Total 150 26.793 Note: Predictor variable: Online teaching and learning; Outcome variable: perceived graduate employability. *, Significant fit at p < 0.05.

Results in Table 1 reveal a moderate positive association between online teaching and learning and perceived graduate employability (r = .597). Further, online teaching and learning explained 35.6% of the variance in perceived graduate employment (R2 = .356). Given this result, the effect size of online teaching and learning (independent variable), on perceived graduate employability (dependent variable), as measured by Cohen’s f2 is .553 and is considered to be large.

The F-ratio seeks to explain whether this model is significantly better at predicting graduate employability as opposed to the mean value. From Table 1, an F-ratio = 53.590 that is significant at p = .000 provides enough evidence to suggest that this model is significantly better and can be relied upon to predict graduate employability as opposed to the use of a mean value.

Table 2 provides the parameter estimates for online teaching and learning on perceived graduate employability and we can observe that b0 = 1.131 and b1= .605, and significant as p < .05. This result indicates that for a single unit increase in the use of online teaching and learning, there is a corresponding positive increase in perceived graduate employability of rural university learners in South Africa.

Based on this result, there is enough evidence to support the hypothesis stating that online teaching and learning predict perceived graduate employability at a 95% confidence interval.

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Table 2: Parameter estimates for online teaching and learning on perceived graduate employability Parameter

B

Unstandardised co-efficient Standard error Significance 0.335 0.000* 0.083 0.000*

Constant 1.131 Online teaching and 0.605 learning Note: Predictor: Online teaching and learning; Outcome: perceived graduate employability. *, Significant at p < 0.05.

To determine whether learner career ambition moderates the relationship between online teaching and learning and perceived graduate employability, a hierarchical regression analysis making use of Hayes’ process model was performed. Focusing on the conditional effects of online teaching and learning at different values of the moderator (lowest, mean and highest), it was observed that when learner career ambition is at its lowest, there is a significant positive relationship between online teaching and learning and perceived graduate employability, b = .707, 95% CI [.488, .925], t = 6.416, p = .000. At the mean value of learner career ambition, the results revealed that there is a significant positive relationship between online teaching and learning and perceived graduate employability, b = .587, 95% CI [.419, .755], t = 6.940, p = .000. Further, when learner career ambition is high, there is a significant positive relationship between online teaching and learning and perceived graduate employability, b = 468, 95% CI [.286, .650], t = 5.105, p = .000.

To establish whether moderation took place, the interaction between learner career ambition and online teaching and learning was observed. The results showed the interaction between learner career ambition and online teaching and learning was significant, b = -.201, 95% CI [-.394, -.015], t = -2.144, p = .035. Also, important to note is that the effect size of online teaching and learning on perceived graduate employability in the presence of the moderating variable is very large, Cohen’s f2 = .75 and is an indication that learner career ambition plays a critical role and that it is a factor we should pay special attention to when designing measures that are meant to improve graduate employability perception and online teaching and learning in institutions of higher learning. Given this result, the study’s hypothesis stating that learner career ambition moderates the relationship between online teaching and learning and perceived graduate employability is supported. Table 3 summarises the results.

Table 3: Linear model predictors of perceived graduate employability b SE B t P Constant 3.567 .042 84.03 p < .001 [3.48, 3.65] Online teaching and learning .587 .085 6.940 p < .001 [.419, .755] Ambition .132 .077 1.723 p < .001 [-.020, .285] Interaction (Online teaching and -.205 .096 -2.144 p = .035 learning * Ambition) [-.394, - .015]

R2 = .43

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5. Discussion The study’s results emphasise the importance of learner career ambition as far as online teaching and learning and perceived graduate employability are concerned. This picture is painted clearly by two aspects, that is, the derived R2 and corresponding effect sizes (Cohen’s f2), shown in two models. The first model showed that online teaching and learning explained 35.6% of the variance in perceived graduate employability. More importantly, the effect size of online teaching and learning equal to .553 is reasonably large. Given the large effect size, there is significant evidence to suggest that with the use of educational technologies, learning is improving in South Africa’s rural universities. Research by van Rensburg (2018) pointed out that online teaching and learning had their challenges but on the bright side, they provide the desired pathway to uplift and address the needs of the society resulting in an improved standard of education, a desirable spillover as far as graduate employability is concerned. Challenges of online teaching and learning experience in South Africa’s rural universities that could erode graduate employability include selective utilisation of online learning platforms by lectures, resistance, and poor skills among educators and learners in the use of educational technologies (Matsilele, 2021). Although both educators and learners received training on the use of educational technologies, that is, before the adoption of online teaching and learning, trainers were either nonsubject specialists or non-academics (support staff). Another notable challenge affecting online teaching and learning and graduate employability is the poor internet connectivity. Most students studying in rural universities received laptops and Internet bundles through the understanding between rural universities and leading South African information and communication technology companies. In addition, university websites and learning activities that took place on such platforms were zero-rated. The major issue was Internet connectivity as learners returned home, mostly in rural areas, during the height of Covid-19.

Despite the abovementioned challenges, the results of the study reveal that learner ambition can be used as an important tool to address challenges that could erode graduate employability. In the presence of ambition, the effect size of online teaching and learning rose to .75 from .553 which indicates that ignoring the impact of learner career ambition in a learning set-up that is aided by educational technologies may yield unpleasant results as far as graduate employability is concerned. The results also reveal that given the right levels of ambition, that is, low, average and high results in a positive and significant relationship between online teaching and learning and perceived graduate employability. The results further revealed that upon increasing the values of ambition, the effect of online teaching and learning on perceived graduate employability becomes negative.

Based on the result, educators have to guard their learners against being overly ambitious. Ambition is a strong force that can be used in different avenues in a person’s lifetime. From an academic perspective, the right levels of ambition provide the learner with a clear course of action, that is, class attendance and engagement with the learning content including participation. This viewpoint is supported by the engagement theory. However, an overly ambitious learner may fail to pay special attention to the basic things that are critical in building a strong

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foundation for learning that could lead to the learner failing to achieve the desired learning outcomes. Upon failing, the chances for the learner to make meaningful participation in the labour market drastically diminish.

Learner career ambition is an important tool for graduate employability. Through ambition, learners can engage and participate in online teaching and learning activities which increase their chances of attaining desired learning outcomes.

More research is needed to investigate the concept of ambition and develop more theories that can contribute to ambition in a learning set-up to be unambiguous.

Currently, little research exists on how educators and policy makers can exploit the concept of ambition to enhance graduate employability especially in turbulent times such as now with communities struggling to deal with the Covid-19 pandemic. In addition to that, there is an urgent need to create a conducive online teaching and learning environment in rural universities just like the online teaching and learning environment in urban universities. Addressing the resources and information communication and technology gap that exists between the urban and rural communities is critical to enhance the graduate employability of rural university learners.

6. Conclusion The research investigated whether online teaching and learning predict graduate employability of rural university learners in South Africa. The findings of the study revealed that online teaching and learning is a predictor of perceived graduate employability. The results revealed that the effect of online teaching and learning on perceived graduate employability is relatively large. This result is a significant theoretical contribution to research and provides a valuable guideline on how academics and industry players who are concerned about enhancing graduate employability can design and implement such mechanisms. In addition, the study further investigated whether learner career ambition moderates the relationship between online teaching and learning and perceived graduate employability. The findings revealed that learner career ambition negatively and significantly moderates the relationship between online teaching and learning and perceived graduate employability. This finding is another significant contribution to theory revealing that ambition can also be incorporated in intervention mechanisms that are meant to enhance graduate employability of rural university learners who during their studies face various challenges, unlike learners who are studying in affluent universities. This study provides enough evidence to conclude that online teaching and learning, and learner career ambition are linear predictors of perceived graduate employability.

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Appendix 1 – Questionnaire Section A: Demographics Gender Race Age

Male Female African Indian White 20 and 21 - 25 26 - 30 below Name of University/College Name of qualification you are registered for (please state) What year are First 2nd 3rd year you in? year year Do you use online learning at your institution?

If you answered yes above, which online tool do you use?

Ms Teams Blackboard Zoom Moodle

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4th year (if it is a 4 year qualification) Yes No Google meet

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Section B: Online learning use by lecturers at your institution Questions 1-32 are concerned with understanding how you judge the capability of educators from various faculties at your university in using online platforms to conduct lecture online.

1= strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = neither agree nor disagree, 4 = agree, 5 = strongly agree.

Virtual interaction 1 2 3 4 5 1 Get students to work together in online classes.

3 4 5 2 Lecturers are able to overcome the influence of 1 2 adverse student interactions online.

3 4 5 3 Lecturers are able to encourage students to ask 1 2 questions.

3 4 5 4 Lecturers are able to promote online student 1 2 participation.

3 4 5 5 Lecturers are able to project a positive virtual 1 2 social presence (the perception of being real).

3 4 5 6 Lecturers are able to effectively express emotion 1 2 within the online environment.

3 4 5 7 Lecturers are able to use emotion to effectively 1 2 enrich communication.

3 4 5 8 Lecturers are able to adopt a teaching style that 1 2 allows for the facilitation of learning through guidance.

3 4 5 9 Lecturers are able to manage the pace of 1 2 facilitating interaction.

3 4 5 10 Lecturers are able to adequately convey their 1 2 availability for consultations making use of online platforms.

1 2

3

4 5

6

Unit content migration Lecturers are able to prepare the teaching materials to use online.

Lecturers are able to select the appropriate digital media format (PowerPoint, digital photographs, Adobe Flash, etc.) to transfer unit content and materials.

Lecturers are able to select the appropriate online method to effectively convey unit content once used in traditional style (lecture of face-to-face) classrooms.

Lecturers are able to transfer lecture presentations used in face-to-face style units to online formats.

Lecturers are able to transfer assignments and assessments (such as exams) used in face-to-face style units to online formats.

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etc.) to assist with transferring unit materials from face-to-face to online formats.

Lecturers are able to manage the time needed to transfer unit content from face-to-face to online formats.

Online course alignment Lecturers are able to evaluate the degree to which learning outcomes have been met.

Lecturers are able to use strategies to increase students’ ability to remember content covered online.

Lecturers are able to provide students with detailed feedback about their academic progress.

Lecturers are able to determine the most appropriate evaluation method for a particular unit.

Lecturers are able to clearly articulate the learning goals that students are expected to achieve.

Lecturers are able to connect unit assignments with the stated learning outcomes.

Lecturers are able to accurately assess the depth of students’ learning.

Lecturers are able to accurately assess the depth of students’ level of engagement.

Lecturers are able to engage students from a variety of cultural backgrounds.

Lecturers are able to engage students who have a wide variety of familiarity with online learning.

Lecturers are able to use written instructions to facilitate student engagement in online units.

Web-based module structure Lecturers are able to adapt the design of online class content to the needs of students (motivation, interest, prior knowledge, etc.).

Lecturers are able to design online module content in accordance with the requirements of South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA).

Lecturers are able to design online module content that is easy for students to navigate.

Lecturers are able to create appropriate links to module content pages and materials.

Lecturers are able to design a unit that is representative of my institution’s mission, goals and objectives.

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Lecturers are able to design module content that addresses students’ concerns and apprehensions about module content.

Lecturers are able to design module content that another teacher could teach.

Lecturers are able to manage the time requirements needed to develop courses.

Lecturers are able to design module content that meet regulatory agency accreditation guidelines.

Lecturers are able to use digital media to create module content.

Lecturers are able to create module learning content that is consistent and structured.

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Section C: Graduate employability 1= strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = neither agree nor disagree, 4 = agree, 5 = strongly agree.

Employability scale 1 I achieve high grades in relation to my studies.

1 2 3 4 5 2 I regard my academic work as top priority.

1 2 3 4 5 3 Employers are eager to employ graduates from 1 2 3 4 5 my university.

4 The status of this university is a significant asset 1 2 3 4 5 to me in job seeking.

5 Employers specifically target this university in 1 2 3 4 5 order to recruit individuals from my subject area(s).

6 My university has an outstanding reputation in 1 2 3 4 5 my field(s) of study.

7 A lot more people apply for my degree than 1 2 3 4 5 there are places available.

8 My chosen subjects rank highly in terms of social 1 2 3 4 5 status.

9 People in the career I am aiming for are in high 1 2 3 4 5 demand in the external labour market.

10 My degree is seen as leading to a specific career 1 2 3 4 5 that is generally perceived as highly desirable.

11 Currently, there is generally a strong demand for 1 2 3 4 5 graduates.

12 There are plenty of job vacancies in the 1 2 3 4 5 geographical area where I am looking.

13 I can easily find out about opportunities in my 1 2 3 4 5 chosen field.

14 The skills and abilities that I possess are what 1 2 3 4 5 employers are looking for.

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I feel I could get any job as long as my skills and experience are reasonably relevant.

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Section D: Ambition Some people can be regarded as ambitious, that is, they have the drive and the burning desire to achieve something in life. Rate these following statements relating to ambition by either agreeing or disagreeing with their description of you.

1= strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = neither agree nor disagree, 4 = agree, 5 = strongly agree.

Ambition scale 1 I want to be in a position to mostly do work 1 2 3 4 5 which I really like.

2 I am satisfied with the progress I have made 1 2 3 4 5 meeting my goals for the development of new skills.

3 I have clear goals for what I want to achieve in 1 2 3 4 5 life.

4 I regard myself as highly ambitious.

1 2 3 4 5 5 I feel it is urgent that I get on with my career 1 2 3 4 5 development.

6 What I want to do in the future is really 1 2 3 4 5 important.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 21, No. 3, pp. 127-142, March 2022 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.3.8 Received Jan 17, 2022; Revised Mar 2, 2022; Accepted Mar 20, 2022

Challenges of Pre-service Teachers in Rural Places of Teaching Practice: A Decolonial Perspectives Bunmi Isaiah Omodan Walter Sisulu University, Butterworth Campus, South Africa

Abstract. Unlike other countries, rural community schools in South Africa are faced with many challenges that hinder them from discharging their academic responsibilities. This study seeks to understand the challenges faced by South African pre-service teachers deployed to rural communities during their teaching practice. This study adopted qualitative research approach and was viewed from a decolonial perspective and lensed using a transformative paradigm within the participatory research design. The participants comprised ten pre-service teachers who underwent their practice in rural schools and were selected using the snowballing method. The participants were asked to reflect on their experiences, especially their challenges during teaching practice.

Thematic analysis was employed to make sense of the data based on the objectives of the study. The study found out that rural schools lack basic amenities, physical resources, teaching aids. The study also revealed that language of instruction challenges rural students, and another finding showed that absenteeism and truancy are the major challenges in rural schools. The study concludes that inadequate resources, the language of instruction, absenteeism and truancy are major challenges with recommendations that a concerted effort is needed to decolonise the rural communities and their schools towards transformation.

Keywords: rural communities; student-teachers; teaching practice; decoloniality; transformation

1. Introduction Rural education worldwide experiences various challenges due to inadequate resources and students' socio-economic background (Considine & Zappalà, 2002; Kline & Walker-Gibbs, 2015; Moore et al., 2020; Troester-Trate, 2020). These have gone a long way to affect schools' progress in rural areas. Even the universities situated in such environments also have their share of resource allocation deficiencies, and most students attending such universities are from the nearest rural communities. In some cases, especially in South Africa, people from the rural community are regarded as previously disadvantaged because of the segregation

©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

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of white and blacks during the apartheid regime in South Africa (Nyahodza & Higgs, 2017; Sedibe, 2011).

While there is much transformation that has taken place to ensure rural transformation in the country, the majority of rural communities are still wallowing in the illusion of perversity, low level of transformation, low level of civilisation, lack or inadequate social amenities such as electricity, schools and access to health care facilities, potable water, modern market and internet connectivity (Flora et al., 2018; Mfenyana et al., 2006; Omodan, 2020; Sovacool, 2012). One way or the other, these deficiencies form the chrematistic of rural schools. Such schools are also expected to house the pre-service teachers who are currently in teaching training in the various rural universities. In this study, preservice teachers are students studying in the university to become teachers in their future careers. This study will use pre-service teachers and student teachers interchangeably for consistency’s sake. The study will focus on the experiences and challenges of pre-service teachers who have completed their mandatory teaching practice programmes.

In South Africa, as with many countries, the process of becoming a teacher is rigorous and lengthy. Student-teachers are mandated by policy (Department of Education, 2007) to undergo teaching practices for a certain number of times during their studies. The majority prefer to undergo the practice in schools close to their homes. However, in most cases, the practice is far from their residences or hometowns. Teaching practice may be a very positive experience for students because it exposes them to real classrooms before their practicum placement.

Alternatively, it can be highly stressful with lots of pressure, especially on firsttime teachers who are unsure of what to expect or how to handle the situations they encounter during the placement period (Ham & Davey, 2005; Sinclair, 2008).

Therefore, one can argue that teaching practices are aimed at helping education graduates acquire skills required for teaching in schools where student-teachers are attached for specific periods. It is also a practicum that involves supervision.

That is, it uses supervision and structured evaluation to provide feedback on how well students perform in school during their teaching practice (Ibrahim, 2013; Sivan & Chan, 2003). Teaching practice is intended to be relevant to the student's future role as an educator, not just a continuation of academic studies where everything is done for you (Maphalala, 2013; Toom et al., 2015). Furthermore, student-teachers teaching practice should impact their performance after they graduate from college and become teachers themselves. In other words, such a practical process provides an appropriate transition from educational settings in higher education institutions to real classroom situations in actual schools or other places where students teach.

However, as productive as the intention of teaching practice to student-teachers, they still face many challenges in the process. According to existing literature, these challenges affect their performances and hinder them from acquiring the needed tanning. Student teachers face challenges such as stigmatisation and marginalisation due to long commutes; they also tend to spend more money on transport which affects the cost incurred on food, accommodation and other expenses (Ekundayo et al., 2014; Mukeredzi & Mandrona, 2013). This fluctuation

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can strain student teachers' budgets as many come from low-income homes and cannot afford the additional costs that long commutes to practicum sites pose. As an experienced teaching practice supervisor, student-teachers have to manage school timetables and their teaching practice timetables, which can sometimes be confusing.

Furthermore, student teachers face transportation challenges such as poor transport facilities and travel time (Mapinda & Honori, 2022). They often feel stressed due to lack of support and inadequate supervision (Ekundayo et al., 2014; Mukeredzi & Mandrona, 2013; Mapinda & Honori, 2022). Inadequate supervision affects the learning experience of the student-teacher as they do not get sufficient support during teaching practices (Apolot et al., 2018; Ozdemir & Yildirim, 2012).

Student teachers often feel unsupported and might experience reduced morale due to a lack of supervision. Student teachers are less likely to exhibit significant gains when they are not adequately supervised during teaching practice (Naidoo et al., 2012; Naidoo & Wagner, 2020). Inadequate support is attributed to school policy that does not provide enough time for practicum facilitators to spend with student-teachers in the schools where they are placed (Talvitie, 2000), as well as insufficient skills in facilitating student-teachers learning at the schools where practicum sites were located (Cuckle & Clarke, 2002).

The literature above shows that teaching practice is faced with many challenges; the most concern is the teaching practice in rurally located communities where there are limited resources for both the student-teachers and the schools themselves. This was confirmed by findings that rurally located secondary schools lack enough educational resources such as teaching materials, adequate classrooms, internet facilities, computer laboratories, science apparatus for science subjects, among others (Amenyedzi et al., 2011; Kawalilak et al., 2012; SampathKumar & Basavaraja, 2016; Shaban et al., 2021). Also, they are mostly short of adequate human capital, that is, teachers who can serve as the mentor teachers for the student teachers (Ingersoll, 2003; Mathis, 2003). Perhaps, this is why there are recommendations that concerted effort should be put in place to ensure adequate resources are available for the student-teachers in the rural environment during their teaching practice (Owoeye & Yara, 2011; Omodan, 2020). Hence, this study also banked on the experiences of the student-teachers who have served in various rurally located communities in South Africa during their teaching practice to investigate the challenges they face. The study seeks to understand the challenges faced by South African pre-service teachers during their teaching practice. However, this is restricted to rural communities with these experiences as many communities have called for a decolonial transformation because of the seeming marginalisation in their education system. Hence the adoption of decoloniality as a theoretical lens for this study.

1.1 Decoloniality as a Theoretical Framework The decolonial project emerges mainly from Latin America, Harding (2017); Maldonado-Torres and Cavooris (2017); Mignolo (2010); Ndlovu-Gatsheni (2015), but can be used in all contexts where colonisers excluded groups that were considered inferior or foreign to their project (Aman, 2017; Mignolo, 2009).

Decoloniality is a tool that can be used in different contexts and understood as the

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rethinking of educational systems around concepts such as indigeneity, culture, community development and self-determination (Nakata et al., 2012; Shahjahan et al., 2017). Decoloniality understands education not only from a Eurocentric perspective but also from an indigenous perspective, which means that it has a language rooted in local contexts and ways of living together (GaztambideFernández, 2014). That is, decoloniality recognises communal knowledge processes based on the traditions and practices of decolonised groups. These knowledge processes help communities learn about themselves by going back to their ways of doing things in order to relaunch themselves into the world of being (Sindane, 2020). Although decoloniality is not an alternative epistemology, it creates a space where indigenous peoples can learn about their community's knowledge systems that were excluded by the rise of Western academia, which helps people to understand that there are different ways of knowing and not all ways of knowing depend on Western cultures (Ahenakew, 2016). That is, decoloniality is not just an idea or a concept; it is rather a tool for transformation which aims to remove all forms of colonialism within institutions while promoting local and ingenious epistemologies (Ani, 2013; Ndlovu-Gatsheni, 2013). One can argue that decoloniality means undoing colonialism by transforming Western epistemology imposed on indigenous societies through their inclusion into modernity.

Furthermore, one can argue that a system or a community is decolonised only when it removes itself from those elements that have been imposed on them without their own initiative and thus decide for themselves how they want to be.

In contrast, the term "decoloniality" based on this study's argument can also mean a process of redefining own identity, people, cultural norms, beauties abd epistemologies towards transformation. Perhaps, this informed Walsh's (2012) argument that decoloniality is an ongoing transformation process that allows a people or a cultural space to access sovereignty by removing all that imprisons their development. The revelations from all indications show that rurally located communities, including their schools and educational systems, are still wallowing in the abyss of the leftover of colonialism. Many rural students are not achieving adequate levels of literacy and academic achievement (Gardiner, 2008; Gao et al., 2018; Tayyaba, 2012; Wills & Hofmeyr, 2019). Also, Hlalele's (2012) study confirms that high illiteracy levels characterise rural South Africa. Research has shown that rural education faces fewer resources, cultural differences between rural and urban schools, lack of consolidated districts, drug abuse in rural neighbourhoods, poverty among rural families (rural people are more likely to live below the poverty line than their urban cousins) and others (Alemu, 2012; Ngcobo & Tikly, 2010; Oladeinde et al., 2020; Ramnarain, 2014).

The relevance of decoloniality to rural communities means moving away from a previously dependent phenomenon, where rural communities are positioned to work towards their own goals without relying on external powers. This form of self-reliance will give rural communities more autonomy; thus, allowing them to make decisions regarding their own lifestyles and present conditions (without outside influence). This could also lead to the galvanisation of available human strength to create the life they deserve without waiting for the government. That is, going back to traditional, sustainable lifestyles that rural communities once

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lived before colonists is imminent. Therefore, the endpoint will enable the rurally located schools to be readily prepared to receive student-teachers who are positioned to undergo their teaching practice as required without the hurdles and challenges that could hinder them from acquiring the needed knowledge. Based on the problem of the study, the research question; what are the challenges hindering productive teaching practice and possible solutions to the challenges toward rural transformation was answered.

1.2 Research Objectives In order to answer the research question, the following research objectives were formulated to guide the process: • The study examined the challenges student-teachers face in rural places of teaching practice.

• The study recommends solutions to ameliorate the challenges that hinder productive teaching practice experience.

2. Methodology This section discusses the methodological process that was adopted to conduct the research. This was done to explain the research approach, research paradigm, research design, participants and selection of participants, instrumentation, method of data analysis and ethical consideration.

2.1 Research Approach, Paradigm and Design This study adopted a qualitative research approach because it enables the researcher to obtain rich insights into a problem and subsequently generates solutions to the problem using the perspectives of the researched (Alase, 2017; Teherani et al., 2015). According to Landrum and Garza (2015), this entails gathering and analysing non-numeric data (such as text, video, or audio) to understand the people's ideas, beliefs, or experiences under investigation. This approach provides a means for individuals' views/interpretations of the situation to be presented in natural contexts, thus reflecting real-world behaviours (Willig, 2017). Hence, this study used the perspectives of student-teachers who face challenges due to their location during their teaching practice. The students' challenges call for a transformational change into the predicament of rural communities and their schools to enable them to provide adequate training to the student-teachers.

Therefore, a transformative paradigm was adopted as the research worldview that informed the study. This is appropriate because it aims to address the perceived marginalisation of the previously disadvantaged communities (Mertens, 2017), which affect the tanning of the student-teachers. This agrees with the argument that research must specifically seek to understand and involve the people facing the problem in providing solutions to the problem (Mertens, 2004; 2007). Moreover, this is what informs the choice of research design for the study.

A participatory research design was adopted to enable the researcher to work hand-in-hand with the researched in providing solutions to the problem (Farrell et al., 2021; Levac et al., 2019). In view of this, the student-teachers were actively involved in the study process and were made to participate in generating new knowledge (solutions).

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2.2 Participants and Selection of Participants The participants for this study are university students who enrolled under the faculty of education to become teachers. Hence, they are called student-teachers or pre-service teachers who must undergo teaching practices for several months during their university education. The participants are also enrolled in a particular module (course). They are required to observe the state and condition of their teaching practices, especially their challenges in the schools. The selected students are mostly those posted to rural communities during their teaching practices. This is because the study is only interested in the teaching practices training provided to the student-teachers who are posted to the rural schools. Ten participants were selected using snowballing sampling technique because the researcher did not know those posted to rural schools but located them by asking other students to suggest and refer the students posted to rural schools. This is appropriate because snowballing selection method allows researcher(s) to sort for participants by inquiry and referrers (Etikan et al., 2016). This was patiently done until ten participants with adequate required knowledge were found and participated in the process.

2.3 Instrumentation This study adopted student reflection as an instrument to elicit information from the student-teachers who were selected to participate in this study. Reflection is a process that allows teachers to make links of students' experiences towards knowing reality. For example, the reality could be to know the level of their knowledge as a result of a particular experience (Roberts & Westville, 2008). This is appropriate because it enables the research to know their challenging experiences and how they truly feel about them. This was done by asking them to reflect on the challenges they faced in their teaching practices, and their presentations were recorded.

2.4 Method of Data Analysis and Ethical Consideration The study adopted thematic analysis to make sense of the data. Thematic analysis was adopted because it enables the researcher to arrange the data into themes following the objectives of the study. This is in line with the argument that thematic analysis identifies textural materials that could be quantitatively coded by being reduced to their simplest terms to provide an accurate, exhaustive, and objective account of the data (Bergman, 2010). The aim was to analyse the data in a systematic, scientific way to provide meaning for what the participants said.

However, the researcher was careful not to impose preconceived interpretations on participants' experiences, and the data were reported and interpreted within the principle of credulity, transferability, confirmability and dependability to ensure research trustworthiness (Kyngäs et al., 2020). The issue of research ethics was followed by ensuring that all the participants were adequately informed about the research and all consented to participate voluntarily without any reservation. They were promised that their identities would remain anonymous during and after the research. And that no one will be able to link their statement to them after the research is published. Hence, their identities were represented as S1 for student 1, S2 for student 2, S3 for student 3, among others. See below analysis.

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3. Presentation and Discussion This section presents the data and its analysis to answer objective 1, which was done based on the identified themes in the data. The themes are: lack of resources, the language of instruction, and absenteeism and truancy.

3.1 Lack of Resources One of the challenges faced by student-teachers in rural South Africa is the lack of adequate resources, which is not limited to lack of physical facilities, which has led to overcrowded classrooms, teaching materials, social and basic amenities and human resources. This surfaces in the participants' statements below: S1: "The challenges that I encountered in my teaching practice was power failure because even when I planned a lesson well, my lesson did not go the way I wanted because when I arrive early in the morning, there will be no electricity at the school and I discover a delay in buying petrol for the generator. And when they come to start the generator, it is already late for my lessons".

S4: "The other challenge was a shortage of water, whereby learners will be sent home because there is no water and then my work will be not done for the day. Although there is a Jojo tank you will find it without water as we used the water the previous day to cook the learners' food and clean the toilets. The worst part is when we can't wash our hands because there is no water".

S9: "As for me, I encountered internet data shortage. I couldn't access some resources online during school hours".

S4: "Teaching aids were not used, only textbooks were the teaching aid in the classroom sometimes we do not use the textbook or we leave the textbook while teaching".

S6: "Physical education requires materials like tennis balls, soccer balls and other materials. But there were no such materials within the school to support this subject as a learning area".

The above statements confirm a shortage of basic amenities in the rural schools that could enhance the teaching practices of the pre-service teachers. This was confirmed by S1, who encountered frequent power failure. In the same vein, S4 reiterated that the water supply was not adequate, which delayed their teaching, learning time and other relevant duties. Also, according to S9, the rural schools have a shortage of internet facilities that could enhance the student-teacher's teaching practices experiences. Apart from the lack of basic amenities, S4 further complained about the non-usage of teaching aids because they are available and the textbooks that are supposed to represent the teaching aids are not used as and when due. S6 complained that materials like tennis balls and soccer balls are not available to facilitate physical education practices.

Also, the issue of overcrowding was also raised, which could be linked to inadequate physical facilities such as classrooms. S10's statement below confirms this:

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S10: The school is overcrowded and there is a lack of learning resources. Most learners do not have textbooks/books, which leads to low participation in class, disruption, and not writing their class activities and homework.

S2: In one classroom, there are 42 learners, which makes it a challenge to teach in the classroom.

S1: The last challenge in the school is the overcrowded classrooms whereby we have 54 learners in the classroom.

S9: As a student-teacher dealing with diverse learners in large classrooms, it is exhausting and requires serious attention. Remember, a student-teacher is still trying to get used to being in a teaching environment; however, they are expected to ensure smooth and conducive teaching to all the diverse learners in the various classrooms.

The revelation of the overcrowded classroom was not only mentioned by S10. The statement by S2 also confirmed that there are 42 learners in a classroom, which is more than the student-teacher ratio and constitutes a challenge for the studentteacher. S9 also faced the challenge of overcrowded classrooms due to a shortage of physical facilities that must be addressed. S9 also experienced frustration on what it takes to manage large classrooms, especially classrooms laced with diverse students with individual differences.

Based on the above analysis, it was found that rural schools lack basic amenities, physical resources, teaching aids, among others. This, according to the participants, constitutes significant threats to their teaching practice experiences.

This finding corresponds with Mukuna & Aloka (2020) that rural schools in South Africa operate within the low level of resources such as "insufficient personal protective equipment, poor access to network access, and lack of learning devices" which affects productivity. This is also in line with Mtsi and Maphosa's (2016) argument that teaching aids and materials are inadequate in rural schools, incapacitating teachers to discharge their teaching effectively. All these findings may not be unconnected to the unequal distribution of academic resources between the rural and urban metropolis (Grydehøj, 2016), which calls for adequate provision of educational resources to improve education in the rural communities (Owoeye & Yara, 2011; Omodan, 2020).

3.2 Language of Instruction The data collected indicated that student-teachers faced the issue of language in their place of teaching practice. Language in the sense that most rural students are not adequately equipped with the knowledge of English, which is the adopted language of instruction in schools. This, according to the participants, hinders their productivity in the training process. See the statements below: S5: "The major challenge is the use of teaching and learning language, English. Learners cannot grasp the content easily as English is not their mother tongue. Some learners do not even understand what you are teaching as they do not understand the language you are speaking. So, in this case, I had to code-switch to their native language but, the challenge is that when

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you over-explain in their native language, they will not be able to write in English".

S6: "One other challenge identified is attributed to barriers to learning, lack of concentration and understanding of general topics as a result of language.

Students don't understand me when I speak English language only".

S5: "When it comes to writing, they write in their native language and write other English words in the Sesotho version. In addition, these learners lack knowledge of the language of instruction, limiting the teachers from exploring other teaching methods as it is difficult to tell learners procedures for some teaching methods because they don't understand since we are teaching in English".

S7: "During teaching practice, I had a problem with learners whose barrier to learning was the language of instruction. I had to teach using English and a little bit of isiZulu".

S2: "Language barrier whereby the majority of my learners do not understand the language of instruction. It makes our lesson a bit slower because lessons have to be repeated twice if not thrice so that no learner is left behind".

S3: "The issue of language. Most learners are not well exposed to the English language, which brings up the high level of misunderstanding amongst the learners, and it even stultifies the communication between the teacher and the learners".

Based on the revelations from the participants, one can see that rural learners are not very well equipped to learn a second language (English language). This surfaces in the statement by S5 that learners cannot understand easily when English is used to teach, which most time leads the student-teacher to code-switch and ensure that learning takes place. S6 also express the same challenge that learners do not understand general topics as a result of language barriers. The statement by S5 confirms that the learners write in their native language instead of the English language as required by policy. According to the participants, it limited them to the number of teaching methods they could use in the classrooms.

This was also experienced by S7, who was able to manoeuvre the situation by teaching in "English and a little bit of isiZulu". IsiZulu is the language of the Zulu tribe of South Africa. As expressed by S2, this challenge delayed their teaching activities because they need to ensure that learning takes place. Lastly, the statement by S3 showed that the student-teacher also have an issue with the English language as the language of instruction. This may be because the participant also grew up in a rural community with a similar challenge.

Based on the above analysis, the study revealed that language of instruction constitutes a challenge to rural students because the majority of them find it difficult to communicate in English, which affects their learning. This finding is consistent with Mtsi and Maphosa (2016) that second language (English), which is the language of instruction in schools, is a challenge to many rural students because they were not versed in school usage. This is also in line with the finding

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that "code-switching to L1 (isiXhosa) is a common practice in order to sustain continuous communication between teachers and learners" (Makgato, 2014). This may result from the fact that their background is previously disadvantaged, and they have no access to quality basic education in the community. This may also be why Manten et al. (2020) recommend that foundation phase learners must be equipped with basic knowledge of the English language from home.

3.3 Absenteeism and Truancy Lastly, the data also showed absenteeism and truancy on the part of the rural learners, which also constitutes a challenge to the existence of student-teachers.

The statement of the following participants confirms that rural learners come late to schools, and in some instances, they do not come at all. See the statements below: S1: "Learner’s absence was a major challenge when I had treated the certain aspects, I had to go back because of the learners that were not at the school.

Because of the assessments that we do. Weekly you find that these learners don’t know anything about the content, and I had to start afresh again. As well as those always coming late when my periods are the first periods”.

S2: “There are pupils who are absent most of the days, and their parents do not report to the school or class teacher as to why they could not attend school.

Therefore, these learners fall behind and fail to follow the syllabus. This results in poor academic performance”.

S3: “The challenges I have encountered during my teaching practice in the intermediate phase is that some learners skip school days and as a teacher, I have to make sure they do their tasks. It costs others time, so I normally ask those learners to stay after school so we can complete the work that was behind”.

S8: “Learners were behaving in a very bad way; they were so stiff and stubborn and could not perform well because they mostly come late to school or not come at all”.

From the above statements, it was obvious that learners absent in schools was a major challenge to the teaching activities of student-teachers. This challenge, according to S1, has caused them to repeat classes for the students as a result of being absent from their previous classes. Not only that, the same applies to latecomers because the teacher has to make sure that they are taught even when they arrive late. The revelation from S2 also showed that many students are absent most of the days, which makes them fall behind in their learning, resulting in poor performance. This blame of poor performance, in most cases, are shifted on the teachers; therefore, it constitutes stress for student-teachers when their student is absent. This action, according to S3, cost student-teachers extra time to make sure that learning takes place. The statement of S8 also confirm that learners are stubborn and cannot perform well because of truancy; they mostly come late to class.

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These challenges affect the productivity of the student-teachers in the places of teaching practice. Therefore, the study found out that absenteeism and truancy are the major challenges in rural schools, which affect the performance of studentteachers that were posted to such areas. This agrees with the argument that absenteeism and truancy exist in schools and affect student learning activities (Gage et al., 2013; Reid, 2012). Perhaps that is why Reid (2003) recommended that schools change strategies and student support systems should be projected in schools to mitigate absenteeism and truancy to the barest minimum.

4. Conclusion and Recommendation This section responds to objective two by providing a deductive conclusion and recommendations that could ameliorate student-teachers' challenges in their places of teaching practice. Therefore, based on the findings as discussed above, the study concludes that rural schools face challenges such as lack of resources, lack of adequate knowledge of the English language as a medium of instruction, and absenteeism and truancy on the part of rural learners, which affect the productivity and effectiveness of student-teachers. However, the following recommendations were made to ensure rural transformation and a decolonised rural way of living: 1. The study recommends that the concerned authorities (Department of Education and the Department of Basic Education) should ensure that adequate resources are devoted to transforming the predicament of rural schools. This enables them to fulfil all the required responsibilities, including standing as a training guard for the upcoming teachers. This will relaunch the community into an indigenous place where people can learn about their community's knowledge systems to better themselves (Sindane, 2020).

2. The study also recommends that school learners should be exposed to the language of power and economics. This will empower them to remove any undue coloniality and work towards empowering themselves against all oppression (Ndlovu-Gatsheni, 2013). The idea is that you can only challenge Western epistemology when you know the prowess behind the knowledge.

Since the language of instruction in schools is the English language, all efforts must be made to expose learners to the English language to enable them to compete with their urban counterparts academically and economically.

3. Lastly, the study recommends that both the schools and the relevant government agencies strategise on addressing the issue of absenteeism and truancy. This situation may differ from school to school, which will require a situational approach in responding to it. However, home and learners’ socioeconomic backgrounds are paramount in doing this. This suggests that the previously disadvantaged people need to be re-membered into the life they deserve (Hamman, 2006; LeGall & Mboro, 2020).

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 21, No. 3, pp. 143-165, March 2022 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.3.9 Received Jan 12, 2022; Revised Mar 4, 2022; Accepted Mar 12, 2022

A Traditional Game-Based Parenting Model as a Cultural-Inheritance Medium in Early Childhood Education Suteja

, Saifuddin , Farihin , Aris and Widodo Winarso Institut Agama Islam Negeri Syekh Nurjati Cirebon Cirebon, Indonesia

Abstract. Education related to parenting must be provided for parents to have a broad perspective in preparing a child's education. The use of traditional games in parenting can be developed to apply and preserve the local values and norms in the next generation from an early age. Based on traditional games, a parenting model is also an effort to transmit good and wise local culture to pre-school children. This research offers a parenting model based on the traditional games relevant to pre-school child education (PAUD – Pendidikan Anak Usia Dini). This type of research comprises Research and Development, which references ADDIE (Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation, and Evaluation). After the parenting model has been designed, this model subsequently goes through a validation phase with parenting-model subject-matter experts and design experts, in order to elicit suggestions for improvement until this model can be stated as suitable to be categorized as 'good'. After the validation and revision phases, the researchers conducted a trial, in order to understand student perceptions when using the model. A parenting model based on traditional games can be expected to instil an awareness of the importance of local culture, and as an effort to make best use of a child’s formative years, which is seldom done. Parenting, based on traditional games, is of no less interest than other parenting models. The parenting model developed in this research contributes to the development of teaching material for pre-school children's education.

Keywords: Cultural Heritage Transfer; parenting model; pre-school children; traditional games

1. Introduction In the formative years of pre-school age children, they are seldom given the necessary attention by the parents (Budiartati, 2016; Sharry, et al., 2005). The community, in general, has not given sufficient attention to pre-school children’s education (PAUD – Pendidikan Anak Usia Dini); and it is not aware of the importance of parenting, which can be seen in the level of Pre-school children’s ©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

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Education Gross Participation Figures (APK – Angka Partisipasi Kasar) in 20192020 of 41.18 % or 19.118.894 pupils (Kemendikbud, 2020). The conduct of parenting in PAUD is seldom done in earnest. Hariawan et al. (2019) stated that in Mataram City, there are only several PAUD organisations that practice good parenting. Even though parenting, as a mode of the passing on of culture, is very important to do, as noted by Zhang, et al. (2013), inheriting culture can be done in two ways, that is: (a) From the parent to the descendant via the vertical transmission of cultural inheritance; or: (b) from non-parental sources, such as teachers, peers, and media, or what is called horizontal culture.

To date, the studies on the traditional games-based parenting model comprise child-rearing methods, which are multi-dimensional and dynamic. This involves a series of complex behaviors, thousands of decisions, and those interactions that influence a child’s life (Ringle et al., 2019). Additionally, many studies related to parenting also examine the inter-relationship of experience, environmental factors, and internal situations, which make raising children less arduous (Kohl, 2020).

At the same time, Ozpehriz (2020) emphasizes the importance of child-raising, which is democratic, warm, and responsive, and which can help to form cognition flexibility, emotional intelligence, and a child’s subjective welfare. At the minimum, according to Luo et al. (2020), there are five models of child-rearing: parental support, proactive control, punishment control, strict punishment control, and psychological control. Parents’ activities are the principal manifestation of a pattern of child-rearing (Zharikova, 2018). While according to Aplin (2019), inheriting a culture implies the transferring of cultural values and norms by the older generation to the younger generation, in order to preserve their culture, so that it does not become lost. Niglio (2014) says that inheriting a culture is a human process of studying an ongoing culture, while life exists. This culture passed on is in the form of social norms, which should become the individual’s guide in communal living. The process of inheriting a culture itself is done from the time the individual is small with the expectation, which the individual can understand and adapt, according to the place of birth.

The process of passing on culture is first done by the family, as the smallest unit in society. Most families maintain inter-generational relationships, where the older generation always influences the next generation (Santrock, 2017). Based on these related studies, there have not been any studies related to the Traditional Game-Based Parenting Model. The research favours the parenting model, as a medium of cultural inheritance in early-childhood education.

This paper aims to improve on previous parenting studies by showing the significance of the parenting model based on traditional games, as the transmission of a cultural heritage. While the particular aim of the research is to identify the following three problems: (1) to what extent is the significance of parenting in PAUD institutions related to the effectiveness of the passing on of culture from an early age; (2) what are the components of the parenting model, based on the traditional games, which can be used for the transmission of the cultural heritage; and (3) what is the best method of transmission of the culture through effective parenting?

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This paper is built on the argument that the transmission of culture is highly effective, when undertaken in pre-school children. Pre-school children’s involvement is not free from the role of parents in their everyday lives in meeting their physical and their non-physical needs. The physical needs that are completed are those of the body; while the non-physical needs are things, such as parental guidance related to the sound values from traditional games.

Consequently, a continuation of ancestors’ culture can be transmitted to preschool children through successive generations. This can be done through a parenting model that is based on simple traditional games; but it is rich in meaning and easily implemented.

2. The Literature Review 2.1 Parenting Child-rearing is multi-dimensional and dynamic. It involves a series of complex behaviours, thousands of decisions, and those interactions that influence the lives of children (Ringle et al., 2019). Apart from this, experience, environmental factors, and the internal situation make child-rearing more malleable (Kohl, 2020).

While Ozpehriz, (2020) also affirmed the importance of child-rearing, which is democratic, warm, and responsive, which can help form cognitive flexibility, emotional intelligence, and a child’s subjective wellbeing. There are at least five models of child-rearing, according to Luo et al. (2020). These are in the form of parental support, pro-active control, punishment control, severe- punishment control, and psychological control. Parents’ activities are the principal manifestations of child-rearing patterns (Zharikova, 2018; Gardner et al., 2016). In psychological and pedagogical research over the last several years, child-rearing is also considered to be a social institution, a process, a period, a state of consciousness, individual education, competence, or activity (Zharikova, 2018).

From a psychological perspective, child-rearing preparation becomes a vital need and a result of individual maturity and cultivating the best personal qualities (Zharikova, 2018; Greenhaus et al., 2003). Other studies have found that raising children is related to increased life satisfaction (Rizzo et al., 2013). All these aspects clearly reflect that child-rearing is a complex matter.

Jenkins (2012) goes into great depth on child-rearing, by examining four aspects: a) a multi-level perspective allows us to integrate across two nested structures: the biological and the cognitive systems nested within individuals; and how individuals are nested within complex social environments; b) the biological and the cognitive pathways that underlie behavioural continuities across the life course are discussed; c) inter-generational influences involve both mediating and moderating mechanisms; d) one of the most significant challenges in human studies of parenting is to isolate the roles of individuals in relationship formation.

All four of these aspects show how the various aspects of child-rearing are very closely interrelated with biological matters, and with the social environment.

Cultural expectations are then added to beliefs and values, influencing parents’ interactions with their children (Kim & Hua, 2019). The reference to parents here implies the mother and the father. The involvement of the mother and the father is equally important for the child’s well-being (Bastaits & Mortelmans, 2014). This differs slightly from the collaborative, child-rearing model, which involves the

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parents and the carer. In this child-rearing model, the family and the carer are not automatically involved in managing one another. On the other hand, they are structurally connected and continually interact in the child's interests (Larsen, 2017), including realizing a child’s potential. Sağkal (2019) emphasises the existence of strength-based parenting, which is defined as the effort to know and grow potential, as a force for the children themselves.

Societies, in essence, have their patterns of child-rearing. For example, the Mee tribe of central Papua have a child-rearing patterned culture beginning from the process of pregnancy (childbirth) up until the child becomes of school-age (Rerey et al., 2019). The Mee tribe signifies pregnancy as the beginning of the process for the birth of a new life in a family; and, as a result, it is very important to look after the baby’s and the mother’s health, as well as the whole family’s welfare (Rerey et al., 2019).

To this end, food, equipment, activities, and customs need to be given attention; because it is believed that they can determine the pregnancy’s process (Rerey et al., 2019). While pregnant, Mee mothers will consume a lot of prawns caught by themselves (Rerey et al., 2019). This is a form of knowledge-transfer concerning looking after children where capitalization – including food consumption – has begun while the child is still in the womb. Apart from tradition, local values are found in the parenting-education model. Kosim et al. (2021) showed a parentingeducation model that contains Minangkabau’s local wisdom and Islamic education. Two models are developed, namely, Becoming Great Muslim Parents and Creating a Virtuous and Civilized Generation, which has been beneficial to family management activities in West Sumatra (Kosim et al., 2021).

This study also shows that the inclusion of Islamic values and local wisdom in this model is a part of the Islamization effort to realize comprehensive Islamic education, by involving parents and a family-development program cadre (Kosim et al., 2021). Indirectly, it affirms child-rearing as something that is multidimensional.

2.2 The Cultural Inheritance through Traditional Games Culture is a treasure and an inheritance from the ancestors, which constitutes the essence of ideas about the values of a nation. Culture itself is an inseparable part of mankind’s way of living; because culture always lives, grows, and is dynamic, accompanying the development of mankind’s standard of living. As a result, to ensure its preservation, culture has to be continually passed on from generation to generation in what could be called the transmission of the cultural heritage (Ardiansyah et al., 2018). According to Aplin (2019), this process transfers the cultural values and norms from the older generation to the younger generation, in order to preserve a nation’s culture, so that it does not become extinct.

Niglio (2014) says that the inheriting of culture is the human process of experiencing culture, which continues as long as there is life. Culture, which is passed on in social norms, should guide the individual’s formation within societal life. The process of instilling culture itself has commenced from when an individual is of pre-school age, with the expectation that this individual can understand and adapt to the community in which s/he was born. The process of instilling culture itself is done at the outset by the family, as the smallest societal

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unit. Most members within a family maintain inter-generational relationships, in which the older generation will always leave its influence on the next generation (Santrock, 2017).

Zhang et al. (2013) maintain that the means of transmitting a culture can be done in the following two ways: (a) from the parents to their descendants – or the vertical transmission of culture; (b) from non-parental sources, such as teachers, peers, and media – and that is the horizontal transmission of culture. Further, Pereira Roders & Van Oers (2011) state that the transmission of culture covers customs, beliefs, rites, rituals, ceremonies, local knowledge, social customs and traditions, art, handicrafts, music, political beliefs, and ideology, which influence culture and behaviour, history and cultural practices.

Waring and Wood (2020) state that the transmission of culture is done as follows: (1) socialization processes, in which individuals adapt themselves to the surrounding social cultural values. In this socialization process, individuals accept the influences from figures with whom they are the closest family member; (2) internalization – this is the process of accepting socialization. In the internalization process, an individual accepting the socialization process interprets the received values, primarily involving meanings that are seen and heard; and (3) culturalization, which is an individual process occurring when studying or adjusting thoughts and attitudes to the existing culture. The phases are successive, beginning from family influences and peers, and leading to community matters, which are even more extensive.

Games cannot be separated from the world of children, with most experts convinced that happy children are the foundation of parenting success in childrearing (Rakhmawati, 2015). In relation to games, local games are a heritage from the ancestors, which are used for entertainment and have values and messages.

Likewise, local games have become important in training children’s physical movements; and they have high moral value (Hidayati, 2020). Concurrently, using local games can instil the character values of co-operation, solidarity, creativity, responsibility, self-confidence, commitment, and honesty (Sudrajat et al., 2015).

In other words, games have a place as a study medium primarily in relation to the values in life. In this matter, games are based on the real environment encountered by children. As a result, they can then provide new experiences for children (Prastowo, 2018).

Traditional games influence two matters: mental health, and character formation.

The mental health outcome is tangible if the education for a game is based on an effective relationship between the parent and a child (Anggraini et al., 2020). In the same vein, games of importance are used to develop children's social and emotional aspects (Joshi & Stone, 2021). Consequently, in physical activities, playing (Reynolds et al., 2017) should help children to improve their co-ordination and power of resistance to life’s pressures. In addition, they influence the forming of character (Ernawati et al., 2018; Sembiring et al., 2019).

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The situations that are created have specific rules and aims as well as production activities in actions with objectives (Susilo & Salliyanti, 2019). Consequently, children are bound by rules in games, thereby creating a character model (Rihatno, et al., 2020; Genggong, 2018). In this manner, games become an important aspect in forming character and mental health for children.

3. The Method 3.1 The Research Design Research and development (R&D) have been employed to produce a parenting model, based on traditional games. The parenting model is developed as education, which can be applied in the family by using the sources available within the family and in the playing environment, which is in the form of independent learning activities. Apart from this, a parenting model is developed in cultural transmission for the educational participants. In relation to R&D, this references the procedures developed by Thiagarajan (1974) that are ‘4D’, which covers the phases of define, design, develop and disseminate.

The first phase is to define. This phase aims to determine and define the learning conditions in PAUD. The activities conducted in the defining phase are as follows: (1) the initial-final analyses are undertaken, in order to understand the basic problem faced in PAUD learning activities, that is, for the transmission of culture in student circles. New learning materials for the transmission of culture are developed, however, thereby utilizing the existing materials in the developed curriculum; but these are added to by using the traditional games-based parenting model; (2) an analysis of students is done to identify systematically, the details and to compile the main parts of relevance to be studied by students, based on the initial-and-final analyses, (4) a task analysis is done to formulate the learning objectives, which are to be developed by a local games approach oriented to an understanding of parenting concepts, (5) learning objectives, which were derived from the materials’ analytical objective and task analysis, which are stated in the daily student traditional game. The learning objective is formulated on the basis of the PAUD learning outcome.

The second phase is design, with the objectives of designing the parenting model based on local games and a model-assessment instrument. This phase begins after the objectives of the model’s construction have been determined. The activities in this phase are: (1) selecting traditional games by using the exact criteria delivered in the parenting model. This is adjusted by the subject analysis and the available facilities in the school; (2) the selection of the format, adjusted by those factors that have been analyzed in the parenting model objectives. The chosen form sets the design, the appearance, the content, and the selection of the parenting application strategy; (3) the initial design is from the model designed covering the parenting objectives. The parenting objectives include an explanation of the parenting materials, and parents’ implementation procedures.

The third phase of development is to produce learning material in a traditional games-based parenting model. The activities conducted in this phase are: (1) validation of the parenting model, including, amongst others, the contextual validation of the traditional games, which is implemented in the parenting model, the materials’ validation, covering the subject adaptation to the students’ parental

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needs, the materials’ coherence, the adaptation of the concept with the materials, and the construction validity, as well as the students’ cognitive developmental condition, and format validity, including lettering, illustrations, spaces, typing, font, language usage, and symbols; (2) the model trial’s main objective is to determine whether the parenting model usage is implementable and compatible with a local wisdom context for PAUD students. The trial results are used to perfect the parenting-model product.

The fourth phase of dissemination is conducted to produce an analysis related to evaluating the model’s practicality and effectiveness. The model’s practicality is ascertained from a questionnaire given to the students and to the students' parents.

3.2 The Research Subject The research was conducted at the Annawa PAUD, Cirebon Regency, Indonesia.

This early childhood-education school was chosen; because it has a superior parenting program routinely carried out every week. The research subject has been adapted in the research and development phases. It is the target audience that has been made the research subject: students, students’ parents, teachers, and school, including the Principals. Apart from this, the research subject also uses community representatives (school committees).

In the traditional games-based parenting model, the subject validation uses subject-matter experts, language experts, media experts, and parenting experts (PAUD subject-program lecturers).

3.3 The Data-Collection Technique The data-collection technique used in the research includes interviews, questionnaires, and observations. The research instrument before being used, was the first the instrumental analysis carried out. The instrumental analysis uses validity and reliability. It was found that the results of the research instrumentvalidity test met the data-collection standards with valid and reliable categories.

The Interviews included interviewing teachers concerning parental activities in PAUD student circles. The data-collection technique was done through questionnaires completed at the time of the subject matter and local cultural experts’ validations. In addition, the questionnaire field trial was filled out by the educational participants. Observations were used to gain a picture of the parenting activities’ processes by using this model.

3.4 The Data Analytical Technique The data used in the research were both quantitative and qualitative. The qualitative data were analyzed by using the statistical descriptions, the conclusions of which were inputs to improve or revise the product (module of the parenting model), which had been developed. Whereas the quantitative data obtained from the validation results were in the form of assessment scores from subject-matter experts, parenting-model experts, local cultural experts, teachers, and students using a four-point scale, with a span of values from four for the most suitable category: three for suitable, two for not very suitable, and one for not suitable.

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The quantitative data were also obtained from student-response questionnaires on the use of the traditional games-based parenting model; whereas the qualitative data were obtained through interviews. The analysis of the qualitative data was done in three phases, namely, the data reduction, the data display and the data verification (Huberman & Miles, 2002). The data were then analysed descriptively and in depth, in order to obtain a precise model base.

The parenting model’s suitability data-analysis technique used a Likert scale. The scores obtained were then converted to the values on a four-level scale. The suitability of the model development result was ascertained as good from the material and the subject aspects. The data, in the form of a score, were then changed to qualitative data with a four-level scale (Wu & Leung, 2017). The score conversion key is the four-level scale, as seen in Table 1 below.

Table 1. Score Conversion to a Four-Level Scale Score 4 3 2 1

Interval x ≥ 3.1 3.1 > x ≥ 2.5 2.5 > x ≥ 1.9 x ≥ 1.9

Information Very suitable Suitable Less than suitable Not suitable

In the analysis of the model’s use, a data-analysis technique was conducted by using a percentage-data analytical technique (see Table 2). The parenting model’s utilities are seen in the student-response questionnaire results, and also in the students’ parental response questionnaires. The students’ response questionnaire aims to measure the model’s utility in parenting activities, as seen from the aspects of content, presentation, attractiveness and benefit.

The students’ parental response questionnaires aim to assess the model’s utility in parenting activities. The aspects evaluated in the students’ parental response questionnaires include: the material, the appearance, and the parenting implementation in using this model (Mirahmadizadeh et al., 2022).

Table 2. Questionnaire Percentage Analysis Criteria Interval 85-100 75-84 60-74 40-59 0-39

Criteria Very good Good Adequate Deficient Fails

4. The Results 4.1 Conditions and Potential of Parenting-Activity Implementation in PAUD The instilling of culture in pre-school children, undertaken through education, is of great importance, with one means being through parenting activities. Parenting programs can provide education to parents when conducted systematically, at regular intervals, and with clear materials. Parenting materials contain local wisdom in the form of traditional games, which have almost vanished. What is intended by ‘systematically’ here is parenting using teaching materials prepared

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through research, systematically provided with a thematic and regular program, and clear material with the essence of high-quality Cirebon culture. Consequently, parenting activities are of great importance to be undertaken in an effort to transmit Cirebon’s cultural heritage.

The Field data show that parenting activities are an important activity in PAUD. Each PAUD, in its learning activities, pays attention to parenting activities because, among other reasons, teachers are aware that parental activities are very important and beneficial for success in the transmission of culture. An indicator of the importance of this parenting activity can be seen in the data, with 84% of teachers in Cirebon responding with ‘strongly agree’ and 16% ‘agree’; while only 16% disagree or are undecided.

There are 2053 teachers at PAUD, comprising 998 pre-school teachers (Guru Taman Kanak-Kanak) and 1055 play-group teachers (Guru Kelompok Bermain) in the Cirebon Regency. The transmission of high-quality culture through parenting activities would have a significant impact. Cultural transmission can be done extensively over stages from parent to child. Educational activities in PAUD run each day, then become an experimental site and an exploration of local games applied by using this model. In this way, the process of cultural transmission would occur quite naturally.

A traditional games-based parenting model is taught thematically to pre-school children through the pupil’s parents in parenting. The parenting model describes the type of game, the cultural values, and an evaluation, in order for the parents to assess the level of understanding. There is a great potential for this parenting model to become a model that can be used as a parental guide for educating preschool children with the values of traditional games. Remembering that the assault of foreign culture through information technology is currently very vigorously assailing social life. Consequently, this model becomes a quite comprehensive instrument for the transmission of Cirebon’s local culture.

4.2 The Local Wisdom-Based Parenting Model Development Results The Define Phase The define phase aims to define and determine the conditions for the treatment of parenting. The definition phase is undertaken through observation and interview activities. Observations were done through the monitoring of three Cirebon Regency PAUD in Indonesia. In addition, so as to strengthen the research data results, interviews were also conducted with the parents (Respondent Code; RSF), teachers (respondent code; R-XY), school principals (Respondent Code; RAG), and community figures (Respondent Code; R-YY).

The traditional games-based parenting model for pre-school children is taught through parenting activities to the pupil’s parents. Parenting activities were carried out effectively through simple explanations, direct practice involving parents; and the embedded values in the games were explained. As a result, parents were able to teach high-value culture in stages and on a continuing basis to pre-school children. The simple explanations of the parenting material were a consequence of parents already being familiar with the material from when they were children.

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Hands-on practice was undertaken to feel the special nature of the game, and to get an explanation of the values of the game, as being cultural values, which must be preserved. In this way, the model can be structured by the presentation of a simple model, which directly involves pupils’ parents in its implementation. The following is an interview result of a pupils’ parent.

Interview Result 1 (P-CW with R-SF) Question: What has made the parenting program important for you?

Answer: Parenting is important because we have to keep studying as parents.

Question: What material did you get in the parenting activity?

Answer: Game material and Cirebon cultural values, which I have just found out.

Question: Is the use of the parenting model sufficiently effective?

Answer: For me, as a lay person, it is quite effective because it is simple and does not need a deep understanding: but the results can be applied to educate my child, who is still at the PAUD school.

Based on the results of interview 1, the parent’s interest in parenting is clearly quite high. This interest is seen in the awareness of the importance of pre-school education by schooling their child at PAUD, and a desire to study to be a parent, who can serve to the fullest extent in meeting the child’s needs. Schooling is one such opportunity, based on an awareness of fulfilling the children’s formative years, so that they can be part of a brilliant generation in the future. Meanwhile, the effort to meet parents’ study interests can be met in parenting activities. In this way, both aspects complement each other, thereby becoming an inherent ability possessed by the parents.

Parenting activities, actually, are determined by two components, which are: the natural parenting teaching-material load and the parenting-teaching package.

One of the parenting materials to meet parents’ needs can be supplied by the values and traditional games, which have almost disappeared. Cultural transmission is in our best interests; so that there is a continuity of noble values and games from the past to the present.

The parenting package also determines the changes of content, which are not merely doctrinal. The relationship of both entities in this way greatly influences parenting success and effectiveness. Furthermore, the parenting model’s needs are also deepened through the interviews with teachers. The teacher-interview results are as follows:

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Interview Results 2 (P-CW with R-XY) Question: What makes the parenting program important to you?

Answer: Parenting is important because it helps parents in educating pre-school children at home.

Question: What materials did you get in the parenting activities?

Answer: The materials usually given were normally concerned with being pre-school children in learning.

Question: Was the use of the parenting model sufficiently effective?

Answer: For me, in the educational context, it would have a significant impact on pupils and their immediate families.

From the teacher’s perspective, parenting activities are viewed as important because they are a part of education conducted by the school in providing a complete service, not only in the school, but also in equipping pupils’ families to be with their children when they are studying at home.

The importance of parenting activities, given these answers, is to give the best possible education in interactions between the family and the school.

Furthermore, interviews were also conducted with school principals. The results of the interviews with a school principal are as follows: Question: What materials did you find in the parenting activities?

Answer: Everyday material concerning parents’ and pre-school children’s relations, in order to equip the parent at home, and not to panic over the pre-school child’s behaviour at home.

Question: Was the use of the parenting model sufficiently effective?

Answer: As far as I know, for those who participated, it was quite effective; because it represented the wishes of parents needing extra guidance in coming into contact with PAUD activities primarily in the use of current gadgets.

The school principals, as the responsible party for the continuation of learning activities, certainly have a stake in parenting activities, and their views of the daily material, which needs to be mastered by parents, in facing the dynamics of the relationship with PAUD. The anxiety of parents in using gadgets is a common complaint conveyed to school principals; and consequently, parental activities offer a very suitable response to this anxiety, thereby enabling parents to understand and to respond adequately when seeking to overcome daily obstacles.

Consequently, what is needed also is an understanding of the urgency of local games in parenting activities, which are applied to pre-school children among community figures.

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The interview result with a community figure, related to this matter, is as follows: Interview Result 4 (P-CW with R-YY) Question: What makes the parenting program important to you?

Answer: Parenting for me is quite important because I see many parents who have varying levels of education, this matter certainly greatly influences parents’ management of their children.

Question: What material did you get in the parenting activity?

Answer: The game materials and Cirebon cultural values for me are very important, because as a Cirebon resident, these have high-quality values which can be developed and passed on to the younger generation.

Question: Is the use of the parenting model sufficiently effective?

Answer: In my view, it is sufficiently effective; because as far as I know, this model is based on research, which has explored the Cirebon culture and values.

The community figures around the school are those entities who have given close attention to school activities. Their role, without doubt, is very important in the school’s relationship with the community, as also is one of their opinions that the position of parenting in PAUD activities is very important.

This is a strong endorsement of how much parenting needs to be thought about and the quality thereof increased, something confirmed by many among the pupils’ parents with varying levels of education. Certainly, in getting a common perception in educating needs, an activity, which can accommodate this is parenting, which fits. The community figure’s proposal of recommended material to research Cirebon forebears’ values is appropriate for consideration in the implementation thereof.

Design The parenting model has been structured on the basis of a family’s work balance dimension, that is, an increase in the balance of time and commitment of nurturing, playing, routine and discipline. The traditional games-based parenting model comprises six sections. All of the six sections found in the parenting model are presented in Table 3 below, which is a summary of the model.

Table 3. A Summary of The Traditional Games-Based Parenting Model Model Sections Parenting Guide

Method

Parenting Material

Description This section explains the parenting implementation background, basic understanding, the legal basis, the aim of the guidance, and the targeted traditional game-based parenting education users.

There are five methods, which can be used in parenting activities: lectures; group discussions; roleplaying/simulation; field visits, and practical.

Broadly, there are six discussions, which can be developed; and these are: common values; belonging to each other; tolerance; responsibility; and honesty. These are important

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Model Sections

Media/Teaching Aids

Evaluation

Type of Traditional Game

Description components in the traditional games-based parenting process.

The media used in the parenting program include: 1) Information pamphlets (leaflets, brochures, posters); 2) Flipcharts; 3) Audio-visual (VCD, radio, television, projectors, film); 4) Clippings (news compilation from various print media); 5) Booklets; 6) Comics and accompanying reading material related to traditional games.

Traditional games-based parenting evaluation covers the achievement of parenting implementation, improving the processes of implementation, in addition to the feedback in improving the activities, the method and the parenting activity’s implementation.

The traditional games, which can be applied to parenting activities include: slodoran, engklek, injit-injit semut, ular tangga, congklak, lompat tali and more. (See Figures 1 and 2 below.)

Traditional games-based parenting activities comprise four sessions: the first session is about the role of the child’s parents; the second session is about quality time and a parent’s involvement in the child’s world, that is, traditional games; the third session comprises the materials related to the strengthening of shared values, belonging to each other, tolerance, responsibility and honesty. While the fourth session (implemented a week after sessions one, two, and three) is a reflection and sharing session.

In the parenting activity phase, the traditional game-based parenting model is taught thematically to the pre-school children through the pupil’s parent, as part of parenting. This parenting model is presented by portraying the type of game, its cultural values, and an evaluation for the parent to assess the level of understanding. There is very great potential for this parenting model to become a model, which can be used as a parental guide, in order to educate pre-school children in the values of traditional games, remembering that the assault of foreign culture through information technology is strongly assailing present social life. Consequently, this model is a comprehensive instrument, as a Cirebon local cultural-heritage guide.

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Figure 1. Slodoran – A Local Game

The composition of the local wisdom-based parenting model comprises: a description; an explanation; cultural values; an evaluation, and feedback. The descriptions contain brief explanations from the model’s theme, with characteristics of philosophical values or games. Based on Figure 1, for example, Slodoran traditional game is a game comprising two groups of three – to play or guard the fort against the enemy seeking to enter. The explanation contains detailed information on the theme. The cultural values explain the intrinsic aspects of the games’ themes.

The evaluation involves a test, which is administered, in order to measure the parents’ levels of understanding of the theme. The feedback contains aspects obtained from the game, in order that a benefit that can be ascertained and applied to everyday life. Because of this, the model is quite comprehensive, with the provision of additional values in parenting activities. Apart from this, a variety of other traditional games can be used in parenting activities in this model, which among others, appear in Figure 2 below.

Figure 2. Various Traditional Games played in Indonesia

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Development The results of the development of the parenting model are evaluated by subjectmatter experts, media experts, language experts, and parenting-model experts.

The results from all four groups of experts’ assessments are as follows.

Firstly, the subject matter experts assessed the material content, which is found in the local wisdom-based parenting model. The materials’ validation questionnaire comprises three main aspects, that are: the suitability of the contents, the presentation, and the contextual aspects. The revisions from the subject matter experts are presented in Table 4 below.

Table 4. Suggestions from Subject Matter Experts Comment/suggestion The material in the model must provide further explanation in the parenting phase through the traditional games that are used.

This model lacks a manual, which was directed by the researchers and this product also lacks a parentingimplementation procedure; and thus, its organization is unclear.

This model greatly assists parents in parenting, which is suited for millennial children, and which needs to be stressed and clarified with examples of traditional games in the cultural heritage.

This model is easily understood by the parents; because in this model, the explanations are connected to pictures.

Examples from the game’s illustrations need to be increased; and lengthy sentences in the form of descriptions, need to be redesigned, so that the material is interesting for parents to read.

Results of the follow-up The adding of explanations to the traditional game-based parenting phase.

Students were given an additional manual. The organization in the presentation of parenting material was improved; and as a result, it is more systematic.

The model’s material further strengthened the students’ knowledge through the transmission of culture in the form of the traditional games.

The presentation of material in the form of pictures was further sharpened by increasing the quality of the resolution (pixel density) The additional choice of traditional games in the model; as a result, the types of traditional games were increased.

The media experts assessed the aspects of the suitability of the graphics, which comprised various indicators, such as the model’s size, the cover, and the local wisdom-based parenting model’s design. The revisions from the media experts for the validation of the teaching material are found in Table 5 below.

Table 5. Suggestions from the Media Expert No 1.

2.

Initial design Adapting the pictures to the material.

The colour of elements of the layout and in the writing of titles.

Comment/suggestion The pictures were not appropriate to the material.

Elements of colour and picture layout were not compatible; there were too many writing combinations in the titles.

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Results of follow up Improved by adjusting the pictures to the material.

Improved by adjusting the colours and picture layout and not using combinations of lettering styles in titles.

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3.

Model cover illustrations.

The forms of colour, size, and object proportion were distorted.

Improved by adjusting the forms of colour, size, the object’s proportions need to be adapted to reality.

Language experts assessed the language aspects, comprising several indicators that are simple, communicative, dialogical and interactive, adapted to the development of the participants, adapted to the norms of language and the use of terms and symbols/icons. Revisions from the language experts are to be found in Table 6 below.

Table 6. Suggestions from Language Experts No 1.

3.

Comment/suggestion Greater attention to word or sentence usage. Make a distinction with sentences or words that are standard and that are included in the Indonesian Language Comprehensive Dictionary (KBBI – Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia).

More attention is needed to the textual design.

Page layout

4.

Illustrations

2.

Results of follow-up Sentences and words were improved, in accordance with the KBBI standards.

Lettering was improved, no use of combinations of types of texts.

The placing of the titles, sub-titles, illustrations, and illustration captions do not distract from the understanding.

The contents are able to reveal the intent/meaning of the object

In the next phase, the parenting model is assessed by parenting experts. The assessment involves three experts in the field of parenting. It covers three aspects comprising, accuracy, suitability and usefulness. The validation results of these experts are presented in Table 7 below.

Table 7. Parenting Model Experts’ Validation Results Assessement score

Assessment Aspect 1. Accuracy Accuracy of material Accuracy of aim and concept Accordance between pictures and material Average

Expert 1

Expert 2

Expert 3

3 4 3 3.33

3 3 3 3 3.11

3 3 3 3

4 3 3 3.33

4 4 3 3.67 3.44

3 4 3 3.33

4

3

3

2. Suitability Suitability of product Suitability of implementation Cost effectiveness, time and energy Average 3. Use Effectiveness of using the product

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The impact the provision of the product towards the transmission of culture.

Local wisdom-based parenting model becomes parenting which is an alternative and innovative.

Average

4

3

3

3

3

4

3.67

3.00 3.33

3.33

Based on the validation results in Table 7, the traditional games-based parenting model meets all three assessment aspects. Starting with accuracy, suitability and use, all are stated as being in the category ‘very suitable’. This being the case, the model can be used for parenting activities through the application of traditional games.

4.3 The Effectiveness of Applying the Traditional Games-based Parenting Model In the disseminate phase, a trial was conducted with students and students’ parents in Annawa PAUD, Cirebon Regency, Indonesia. In this phase, a traditional games-based parenting model was used, which had been revised in an earlier phase. Further, in this phase an evaluation was done to see the practice and the effectiveness of the parenting model. The practice of the model is seen in the respondents’ and students’ parents’ questionnaire results. The results of both responses are to be found in Table 8 below.

Table 8. Student Responses to The Use of The Parenting Model Aspect Interest Benefit Presentation Contents Average

Percentage (%) 80 76 76 83 79

Criteria Good Good Good Good Good

The research into the benefit was in a student statement, in which they felt that the model which had been constructed gave them direction to develop their knowledge. As a result, they fully understood the material through the application of the games-based parenting model. Furthermore, the questionnaire was assessed by the students’ parents after the parenting activity was conducted by using this model. The results from the students’ parents’ responses are in Table 9 below.

Table 9. Stuents’ Parents’ Responses to The Use of The Parenting Model Aspect Contents Appearance Parenting implementation Average

Percentage (%) 96 100 88 95

Criteria Very Good Very Good Very Good Very Good

The total average of these three aspects is 95 percentage with the criterion ‘very good’. The questionnaire originates from the students’ parents to the implementation aspect in parenting activity, which obtained a percentage of 88%,

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with a criterion of ‘very good’. This indicates that parents did not have difficulty in conducting the parenting activity when using this model.

5. Discussion For the transmission of a cultural heritage to be done effectively and to preserve the high-quality culture, it is very important to use the parenting model (Riany et al., 2017). In this model, the transmission is done by the parents of pre-school children. This parenting is done at PAUD, as an indirect educational process to pre-school children via the parents. The use of the traditional games-based parenting model contains a number of traditional games, which can be taught thematically. The traditional games-based parenting model is taught effectively to pre-school children. It is conducted directly through the parenting activities to the students’ parents (Harf et al., 2015; Van Rijen, et al., 2014).

The use of the traditional games-based parenting model is a breakthrough that schools can do, in order to transmit the cultural heritage and its preservation. In cultural maintenance efforts, it can be provided directly, by choosing themes that are sourced from the traditional games, which have almost disappeared.

Conservation efforts have been undertaken through parenting activities that involve parents at PAUD, which it is hoped, will spread to pre-school children by direct practice. In this way, the processes of transmission and conservation can occur concurrently.

The conservation of culture through parenting activities at PAUD is done with enthusiasm. This shows that parents desire to explore the paths of high-quality culture. This exploration of high-quality culture can only be seen through film screenings that are sometimes sourced from fictional stories. Parents are guided to understand and practice games and exalted values through parenting activities.

As a result, the community is not alienated from its historical roots.

The use of the parenting model, sourced from traditional games, leads to interesting findings, if we look at the research, showing that a community basically has its own pattern of self-nurturing. For example, the Mee tribe, which lives in the central part of Papua, has child-rearing patterns of culture beginning from pregnancy, delivery, until the child enters school age (Rerey et al., 2019). The people of the Mee tribe signify a pregnancy as an early process in the birth of a new life in the family.

Consequently, it becomes very important to ensure the health of a baby, the mother, and the safety of the family (Rerey et al., 2019). To this end, food, equipment, activities, and customs must be given attention because it is believed that these can determine the pregnancy process (Rerey et al., 2019). In pregnancy, the Mee tribe mother consumes a lot of prawns caught by herself (Rerey et al., 2019). It is a form of knowledge transfer concerning looking after the child, where habituation—including food intake—were begun from the time that the child was still in the womb.

Apart from being found within tradition, local values are also contained within the education-parenting model. Kosim et al. (2021) showed the development of the education parenting model, which includes Minangkabau local wisdom values and Islamic education. There are two models, which are developed. These

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are: Becoming Great Muslim Parents and Creating a Virtuous and Civilized Generation. They are practical and have benefits for family development activities in West Sumatra (Kosim et al., 2021).

This study also shows that the inclusion of Islamic values and local wisdom in this model amount to an effort in Islamization, which aims to realize comprehensive Islamic education and involves parents and a family development-program cadre (Kosim et al., 2021). Indirectly, this affirms child rearing as something which is multi-dimensional. Given this, an important matter given great attention in parenting, among others, is to make efforts when selecting the parenting material.

This matches closely the parents desire to know well what is in the past; to take positive values from activities in past periods; and to duplicate traditional games, in order to introduce them to pre-school children.

Culture is a treasure and a heritage of the nation’s ancestors, which comprise the essence of ideas about a nation’s values. Culture itself is an inseparable part in mankind’s life; because culture always lives, grows and is dynamic, at the same time as the development of a human’s life. As a result, in order to ensure its preservation, culture is continually passed from generation to generation, by what can be called the transmission of the cultural inheritance (Ardiansyah et al., 2018).

According to Aplin (2019), the transmission of a cultural heritage is a transfer of values and cultural norms by the older generation to the younger generation, with the intention to preserve culture, so that it does not die out. Niglio (2014) says that the transmission of a cultural heritage is a human process in studying culture, which is continuously moving, as long as life exists. Culture, which is bequeathed, is in the form of social norms, which should be turned into guidance by individuals in the life of the community.

The process of inheriting culture itself is done while individuals are still young, with the expectation that they can understand and adapt to their places of birth.

The process of transmission of a cultural heritage is at first done by the family, as the smallest unit in the community. Most in a family will maintain intergenerational relations, where the older generation always leaves its influence on the next generation (Santrock, 2017).

The parenting activities undertaken to use this traditional game-based model are to be found in the context of the transmission of the cultural heritage, as an effort of accommodation and conservation of Cirebon’s high-quality culture. An attitude of accommodation is shown in the openness of revisiting a high-quality heritage, which has fallen into disuse. In the meantime, conservation is shown by re-instilling the spirit of traditional games by duplicating and teaching pre-school students at PAUD.

6. Conclusion This paper concludes that the traditional games-based parenting model can be used in early childhood-education programs; because it can grow the awareness of the importance of, in particular, the transmission of Cirebon’s cultural heritage.

Apart from this, the insights or understanding related to children’s formative years have been further opened up as a result of making greater use of, in this regard, traditional games-based parenting. Because of this, the application of the

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traditional games-based parenting model is an effective method of transmission of a cultural heritage.

Pre-school children are faster at processing information in these formative years.

Previously, the communication of a cultural heritage was not considered that significant; because parents and the community, in general, tended to idolize foreign culture, rather than traditional culture. Notions of inferiority, such as these, should have begun to be erased.

This research has added to previous findings in PAUD parenting: parenting that contains the values of forbears in traditional games and is no less interesting than parenting themes that tend to be based on modernity. Apart from this, the traditional games-based parenting model has made a tangible contribution; and it offers a new alternative in teaching media development for pre-school education.

Finally, to develop a more comprehensive finding, it most certainly needs a follow-on study, involving a wider community group and a more diverse range of informants. In addition, there is an opportunity for researchers to widen further and disseminate the parenting-model test. To date, a suitability test of this parenting model has yet to be done extensively. The recommendation of this research is to develop model materials that are more comprehensive and tiered, with a view to representing the age span at PAUD.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 21, No. 3, pp. 166-195, March 2022 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.3.10 Received Dec 31, 2021; Revised Feb 16, 2022; Accepted Mar 11, 2022

Students’ Acquisition of Science Process Skills in Chemistry through Computer Simulations and Animations in Secondary Schools in Tanzania Flavia Beichumila African Centre of Excellence for Innovative Teaching and Learning Mathematics and Science (ACEITLMS), University of Rwanda, College of Education Bernard Bahati University of Rwanda, College of Education, Rwanda Eugenia Kafanabo University of Dar es Salaam, School of Education, Tanzania Abstract. Scientists currently advocate the use of integrated science process skills to perform scientific inquiries in the natural world. In Tanzanian schools, however, the situation leaves a lot to be desired as we consider the poor acquisition of science process skills in the country. This article is an attempt to address the impact of computer simulations and animation in the acquisition of scientific skills. We compare the impact of computer simulations and animations to conventional materials on students' acquisition of integrated science process skills in teaching and learning chemistry. We use a mixed method approach in data collection and quasi-experimental research design coupled with the qualitative data collection process, i.e. focus group discussion. The study involved a total of 320 students. The findings revealed that the treatment group scored better (pre-test, mean = 42.26; standard deviation = 12.16, post-test, mean = 65.79; SD = 13.45) after they were exposed to computer simulations and animations than their counterparts in the control groups (pre-test, mean = 41.59; SD, 12.73, post-test, mean = 48.03; SD = 11.72). Furthermore, a statistically significant difference (p = 0.000, α = 0.05) between the control and treatment groups was found using an independent sample t-test on instructional materials. Thematic analysis of data from students focus group discussion indicated that simulations drew their attention to specifics and made the subject easier to grasp than conventional materials. Therefore, the current study proposes that teachers employ computer simulations and animations to support students’ science process skills at secondary school level.

Keywords: computer simulations; animations; conventional materials; science process skills

©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

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1. Introduction Chemistry education is an important part of basic education because it provides students with the scientific information and skills they need in the workplace and the global economy (UNESCO, 2009). As a result, teachers ought to focus on developing scientific abilities, including science processes skills, in order to address issues such as global environmental change, food security, and safeguarding of clean water (Next Generation Science Standards [NGSS], 2013).

For students to fully develop scientific skills in the twenty-first century, science process skills (SPS) become a prerequisite (Bete, 2020). Given the significance of chemistry education, chemistry curricula in many countries emphasises the importance for students to engage in the acquisition of knowledge and scientific skills, particularly SPS (Aydm, 2013; Abungu et al., 2014; Bete, 2020).

Recognizing this important requirement, students’ SPS in both basic and integrated forms is included in Tanzania's chemistry subject curriculum, which is a competence-based curriculum (Ministry of Education Science, and Technology, [MoEST], 2015). In this regard, observing, categorizing, measuring, calculating, data recording, inferring, and communicating are all basic SPS. Aydoğdu et al.

(2014) define integrated science process skills as intellectual skills or abilities utilised by scientists to undertake scientific inquiries in the natural environment.

These include formulating scientific questions, hypotheses, identifying and controlling variables, planning experiments, data recording, interpretation, and drawing conclusions.

Although SPS are vital, and included in the newly revised competence-based chemistry subject curriculum in Tanzania, research in science education confirms that they are not well-developed (Mkimbili et al., 2017). This is due to ineffective teaching methods that focus on teacher-centeredness with rare inquiry activities and occasional practical work (Kinyota, 2020). Nevertheless, lack of laboratories and ICT instructional tools, as well as high-class sizes, is a major cause of ineffective teaching methods (Ngeze, 2017; Semali & Mehta, 2012). In summary, pedagogical approaches that promote inquiry and learning materials that support meaningful learning in chemistry remain a matter of concern in Tanzanian schools.

Moreover, computer simulations and animations (CSA) are one type of ICT tools that have become popular in education as a teaching and learning resource. This is due to their capacity to engage students in inquiry learning using hands-on activities (Moore et al., 2014; Nganyadi, 2021). Computer simulations are computer representations of actual or hypothetical events or natural phenomena that allow users to experiment with the effects of changing or altering parameters (Nkemakolam et al., 2018). It includes virtual laboratories and visualizations (Çelik, 2022). Students can use CSA to conduct scientific investigations through inquiry activities which are essential for SPS acquisition (Haryadi & Pujiastuti, 2020; Plass et al., 2012). Previous studies have reported that use of computer simulations and animations enhance students’ acquisition of basic science process skills (Celik, 2022; Saat, 2004; Supriyatman & Sukarno, 2014; Sreelekha, 2018; Stieff, 2011). However, the mentioned studies were conducted in different

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domains and learning contexts other than chemistry in particular chemical kinetics, equilibrium, and energetics.

Nevertheless, little is known about how computer simulations and animations enhance students’ acquisition of integrated science process skills, which are essential for higher-order thinking in chemistry learning and in daily life application. Thus, this study compares the impact of computer simulations and animations on students' acquisition of integrated SPS in teaching and learning chemistry to conventional materials. The goal of the study is to provide answers to the question: how do computer simulations and animations affect the students’ acquisition of integrated SPS in learning chemistry? Answers to the question would equally shed light on the use of computer simulations and animations in the teaching and learning of chemistry in Tanzanian secondary schools as viable alternative instructional resources.

2. Literature Review 2.1 The Role of Science Process Skills in Science Learning The development of students' SPS is emphasised in various nations' chemistry curriculum. Moreover, in Turkey, the development of students’ SPS is considered a priority in the chemistry curriculum by allowing students to address practical issues (Aydm, 2013). In a similar vein, chemistry curriculum in Nigeria incorporates SPS to inculcate real life applications in students (Jack, 2018).

Similarly, chemistry subject curriculum in Tanzania MoEVT (2010) emphasises on students' development of SPS. This emphasis is based on the importance of SPS in scientific knowledge and an individual's life.

SPS allow students to investigate the environment and build their own meaning during the learning process (Athuman, 2017). When students are engaged in inquiry learning activities that are investigative, such as experiments, hands-on activities, and discussion, they can construct meaning for themselves (Chebii et al., 2012; Mulyeni et al., 2019). Students have the chance to create and test hypotheses, gather and analyse data, make observations, and draw conclusions while participating in these activities (Aydoğdu, 2015). Students develop their own meaning about the world around them through these inquiry activities, which are scientific process skills. As a result, learning chemistry is made simple and relevant by incorporating SPS into the teaching and learning process.

Furthermore, scientists employ SPS to perform scientific studies. Thus, they are used as research skills (Abungu et al., 2014: Aydoğdu, 2015). In addition, scientists identify the problem, formulate hypotheses, conduct experiments including the identification and control of factors, collect, analyse and interpret data (Abungu et al., 2014). To explain the results and reach a conclusion, students may use graphs, tables, phrases, and diagrams to portray the data (Yadav & Mishra, 2013).

Therefore, learning of SPS becomes critical among the primary goals of chemistry instruction (Bete, 2020). Once students have learned these skills, they may be transferred from one learning setting to another (Chebii et al., 2012).

Consequently, students may use them to address issues in real-life situations. In addition, according to Athuman (2017), engaging students in SPS improved their attitudes and enthusiasm in learning science.

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2.2 Teaching and Learning Practice in Chemistry Classroom As a science subject, chemistry needs a constant stream of practical or hands-on activities to explain abstract ideas and inculcate relevant scientific skills required for problem solving (Kinyota, 2020). Therefore, practical works or hands-on activities are the most essential learning technique for involving students in inquiry learning activities that allow students to discover scientific facts and concepts (Bilgin, 2006; Yadav & Mishra, 2013). Furthermore, practical works are more interesting than lectures in the classroom—they provide an opportunity for students to collaborate and engage with one another and their teachers; and enhance their sense of ownership of their learning (Abungu et al., 2014). In summary, in order for learners to become excellent scientists, and develop conceptual knowledge and gain required abilities, utilization of practical works or hands-on activities for inquiry learning should be given priority in chemistry learning.

In contrast, research reveals that, in most developing countries, including Tanzanian school classrooms, chemistry instruction employs teacher-centered setting with rare hands-on activities, and discussions that may engage students in inquiry learning activities (Mkimbili et al., 2017). Practical activities are frequently postponed until when the final national examinations are approaching (Kinyota, 2020), and students seldom acquire knowledge of such experiments instead of following processes and declaring success (Semali & Mehita, 2012). Besides, demonstrations are utilised in very few classrooms. Where demonstrations are done, it is usually by the teacher demonstrating, while students remain passive (Kinyota, 2020; Omorogbe & Celestine, 2013). It is obvious that this type of learning impedes the acquisition of SPS as well as learners' capacity to create knowledge rather than cramming it. One of the reasons is a lack of instructional materials and ineffective teaching techniques. Therefore, the current article explains how computer simulations and animations are potential solutions to the problem.

In Tanzania, students' learning of SPS as a way of building abilities and competences in developing critical thinking and problem solving in students' everyday life experiences is emphasised in Tanzania's newly updated chemistry subject curriculum. It also encourages the use of inquiry-based techniques in the teaching and learning process such as practical activities. However, teachercenteredness continues to dominate chemistry teaching and learning, despite the fact that most of the instruction is done theoretically (Mkimbili et al., 2017; Semali & Mehita, 2012). As a result, students' ability to acquire SPS is hampered (Kalolo, 2015). Furthermore, the curriculum encourages students to have access to and use ICT resources, such as computer simulations (MoEVT, 2007). Despite these suggestions, little is known about the effect of computer simulations and animations on students’ acquisition of integrated SPS. 2.3 Computer Simulations and Animations, and Science Process Skills Acquisition in Learning Previous studies have been carried out to investigate how computer simulations and animations affect students' acquisition of SPS. For example, a study was conducted by Supriyatman and Sukarno (2014) on the role of computer simulation

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in SPS acquisition among student-teachers. The findings indicated that students improved basic SPS in observation, prediction, communication and in making conclusions. Çelik (2022) explored the role of computer simulations in improving science process skills, the findings indicated that although computer simulations improve science process skills, teaching methods is crucial. Furthermore, Stieff (2011) examined the effect of computer simulations and animations in enhancing students’ basic SPS in learning the states of matter at microscopic, macroscopic, and symbolic levels among students in secondary schools. It was found that simulations and animations improved students’ skills in making observations, predictions, analyzing patterns, and making inferences, which are basic SPS. Further, Ardac and Sezen (2002) explored the effectiveness of computer simulations-based instruction on process skills for controlling variables of boiling point elevation and freezing point depletion among students in secondary schools. The findings indicated that students learning with simulations improved SPS by developing the ability to control different variables. Similarly, Saat (2004) investigated students’ ability to acquire SPS among students learning science using simulations. The findings indicated that students could develop skills for controlling variables. Saputri (2021) and Siahaan et al. (2017) indicated that computer simulations can be used as a solution to deal with students’ low science process skills in science teaching. Generally, computer simulations and animations have been shown to be beneficial in helping students to acquire relevant basic SPS. However, little is known on how computer simulations and animations enhance integrated science process skills in chemistry context.

2.4 Theoretical Framework This study employed Levy Vygotsky's social constructivism theory, which considers knowledge production as an active process that includes social interaction between learners, teachers, and instructional materials (Vygotsky & Cole, 2018; Vygotsky, 1978). Students participate in active learning to create meaningful learning through enhanced social interaction with the use of instructional resources. In essence, learners learn best when they actively participate in the production of information in a learning-by-doing setting.

Furthermore, Demirci (2009) believes that learners must learn by doing something rather than merely listening. Therefore, the utilisation of virtual reality technologies, in particular, computer simulations and animations, creates an exploratory learning environment in which students participate in hands-on activities for inquiry learning (Moore et al., 2014).

In this study, students were exposed to inquiry activities and classroom discourse during the teaching and learning process.

This kind of learning enables students to be active participants in constructing scientific knowledge and process skills in lessons (Onwioduokit, 2013). It was assumed that the learning approach could ensure social interaction among teachers, students, and instructional materials to ensure active learning.

Moreover, students working in small groups allow interaction among themselves and with their teachers using computer simulations and animations during the

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teaching and learning process. Thus, it is critical to create a conducive learning environment that encourages learners to generate knowledge through interaction.

On the other hand, to encompass the important components of technology use as supported by CSA, additional theory was required. This was done in order to gain a better grasp of the leaner prior knowledge as well as the utilization of multimedia resources like CSA. In this case, Richard Mayer's Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning (CTML) was applied (Mayer, 2005). According to the CTML process assumption, learners should first choose relevant visual and verbal information into coherent verbal and visual mental representations, and then integrate these mental representations with one another and past knowledge (Mayer, 2001). For example, a student may use a computer simulation and animation to explore chemical kinetics, equilibrium, and energetics. This learner would benefit from the addition of icons for temperature, catalyst, reactant concentration, and molecule movements all of which are important pieces of information for construction of knowledge hence understanding the topic.

3. Methodology 3.1 Research Design and Approach This study used a mixed research method. Quantitatively, a quasi-experimental design using a pre- and post-test design involving both control and experimental groups was employed. Quasi-experimental research offered the benefit of comparing the two groups (control and treatment) based on naturally occurring treatment groups (Cohen et al., 2018). Students in level three were grouped into treatment and control groups to form intact classes that were comparable. An independent sample t-test was used to establish the comparability between the two mentioned groups. Each class had 40 students who were randomly selected to participate in the current research. In addition, quantitative data were triangulated with qualitative data from focus group discussions with students.

This followed the explanatory sequential form of collecting and analyzing first quantitative and then qualitative data (Cresswell & Clark, 2018).

3.2 Sampling and Sample Size

Four schools were involved in this study: two from the Dodoma region and two from the Singida region of Tanzania. These regions were chosen because they have a severe shortage of facilities and resources for teaching and learning chemistry in secondary schools (MoEST, 2019). They are ranked poorly in science, including chemistry (MoEST, 2018, 2019, 2020). Therefore, the chosen research sites could provide a more comprehensive picture of the use of computer simulations and animations in teaching and learning chemistry in terms of instructional resources. In addition, schools from the study sites were chosen based on the availability of a computer laboratory at the school. Hence, twenty secondary school chemistry teachers were involved in this study based on the criteria of inquiry pedagogy. Moreover, the teachers were chosen based on their willingness and experience as secondary school chemistry teachers. The same teachers taught both the control and treatment groups. Moreover, a total of 320 students from the four schools were involved, where 80 students from each school were randomly allocated to treatment (40) and control groups (40) to form eight intact classes.

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3.3 Data Collection Process Consent from both students and teachers was acquired prior to the commencement of data collection. This was done verbally or in writing. The data were gathered using the two stages of study design described below: Stage 1: Pre-test In this study, before the start of teaching and learning, students in treatment and control groups were subjected to a pre-test SPS to determine their prior knowledge of SPS (appendix 1). Students were tested to establish a baseline for the acquisition of SPS. The chemistry SPS test, with 25 items based on the higherlevel cognitive domains of Bloom’s Taxonomy, was used as a data collection instrument (Huitt, 2011). Subject teachers and the research team worked together to gather student scripts for grading and assigning marks, which were set at 100 percent and categorised as follows: 0-20 very poor, 21-40 unsatisfactory, 41-50 average, 51-65 good, 66-80 very good, 81-100 excellent. Moreover, a focus group discussion with students was conducted (appendix 3).

Stage 2: Intervention and Post-test In the intervention, students in the treatment and control groups learned concepts about chemical kinetics, equilibrium and energetics using computer simulations and conventional materials, respectively. The intervention started before the topic was taught in selected schools. A series of classroom observations were conducted, with at least eight at each school, to assist teachers in the appropriate use of computer simulations and animations in chemistry instruction and students’ learning. Level three students in the treatment and control group were exposed to inquiry and hands-on activities. Teaching and learning were framed

by Bybee et al. (2006) 5Es instructional model. Teachers acted as facilitators during the teaching and learning process rather than being the custodians of knowledge.

Moreover, throughout the teaching, students were encouraged to participate in inquiry activities such as exploring problems, making hypotheses, sharing their ideas in small groups, performing experiments, discussing observations, making interpretations, making conclusions, and sharing their observations with classmates. For example, students explored the factors affecting the rate of chemical reactions which they could conduct investigations and observations in classrooms. Nonetheless, the role of the teacher was to promote discourse, reflections, scaffolding when required, and guide students in both the treatment and control groups. Teachers acted as facilitators rather than custodians of knowledge to involve students in learning SPS. Learning activities were designed in a way that require students’ active engagement in practical activities, and allow opportunities for students to reflect on learning experiences. The difference was that the treatment groups used computer simulations and animations while the control group did not.

In the last session, the post-test was administered to check the students’ acquisition of SPS (appendix 2). The test acted as a data collection tool at this point.

The test measured five integrated science process skills (ISPS) which include: stating hypotheses, identifying variables, designing investigations, identifying

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variables, operationally defining, interpreting data, and drawing conclusions. The test was based on previous studies like Burns et al. (1985) and Kazeni (2005), which had a reliability of 0.89 and 0.81 respectively. The questions were changed to fit the current chemistry competence curriculum in the Tanzania context. The reliability of the current SPS test was 0.75, which is good. This multiple-choice test with 25 items was designed to address issues close to students' material applications in everyday life. Teachers and members of the study team graded the test once more. In addition, focus group discussions were conducted with students to gather information on their thoughts about the use of simulations and animation as a substitute resources for real-world chemistry classroom practice (appendix 4). The whole process of data collection lasted for 9 weeks.

3.4 Selection of the Content and Instructional Materials The study focused on the content of chemical kinetics, equilibrium, and energetics for form or level 3 of secondary school education (MoEVT, 2010). This content, according to the curriculum in Tanzania, is about the concepts of chemical kinetics, factors affecting the rate of chemical reaction that is the effect of temperature, surface area, concentration, and catalyst on the rate of reaction.

Other aspects were reversible and irreversible reactions, factors affecting chemical equilibrium, and endothermic and exothermic reactions. The content was selected based on the research findings that students face difficulties in understanding concepts and in explaining how various factors affect the chemical rate of reactions and chemical equilibrium in the topic of chemical kinetics and equilibrium (Gegios et al., 2017; Van Driel, 2002). Moreover, Lati et al. (2012) emphasised the need for engaging students in inquiry learning to acquire SPS as learning rates of chemical reactions following their relevance and usefulness in their daily life activities for problem solving.

In regard to difficulties in learning chemical kinetics, equilibrium and energetics; computer simulations and animations for the intervention were accessed from Yenka chemistry (https://www.yenka.com/en/Yenka_Chemistry), which were installed in the schools’ computer laboratories in the study area. The copyright and intellectual property requirements were observed between the researcher and Yenka. In addition, Yenka chemistry provides these tools when all necessary agreements are met by the customer. Moreover, one model of PhET simulation of reactions and rates (https://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulations/reactions-andrates) was also used as supplement. These computer simulations software were used during the intervention for the treatment group to learn the concepts of rate, collision theory, and the effects of temperature, surface area, catalyst, and concentration on the rate of reaction, reversible reactions, irreversible reactions, the effect of temperature on the position of chemical equilibrium, and endothermic and exothermic reactions. The selection of these computer simulations was based on their features and design, which are based on the school curriculum relevance and level of learners (Çelik, 2022; Zendler & Greiner, 2020).

On the other hand, conventional materials used in the intervention for the control group are those instructional materials that have been traditionally used to teach.

Conventional materials include real materials such as laboratory materials, textbooks, diagrams, pictures, and models to convey concepts (MoEVT, 2010).

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3.5 Validity and Reliability 3.5.1 Validity For content validity of the SPS tests, 4 chemistry teachers were involved during the construction of the tests (pre- and post-test). This helped to improve the tests items by ensuring that the tests covered the Chemistry curriculum and the level of learners. Later on, the tests were given to students in two secondary schools which were not part of the main schools in the study. Again, content validity was ensured for focus group discussion guide by four experts in the field.

3.5.2 Reliability To ensure reliability, Cronbach's Alpha Coefficient of Reliability was calculated using SPSS version 16 (SPSS Inc., 2007). The coefficient of reliability was 0.72 for the pre-test and 0.75 for the post-test, which are both considered as good (Cresswell, 2012). The variance in reliability can be explained by the fact that, as the teaching and learning process progressed, the test items were revised and reviewed for specific content of the chemical kinetics, equilibrium and energetics topic.

3.5.3 Control of Threats to Internal Validity To control some pedagogical extraneous variables, 5Es inquiry learning model to guide students in inquiry activities in chemical kinetics, equilibrium and energetics were used. The model involves students in inquiry learning process in 5 cyclic stages which are: engage, explore, explain, elaborate, and evaluate (Bybee et al., 2006). We also made sure that teachers involved in the study had met the criteria mentioned in the sampling and sample size section.

3.6 Data Analysis To compare the findings of pre and post-test, quantitative data were evaluated using means, standard deviations, paired sample t-test, and an independent sample t-test (Pallant, 2020). However, for qualitative data evaluation, thematic analysis was employed and themes were produced from the data.

4. Results The findings of this study were divided into two main stages: Stage 1: Pre-test The results indicate that the mean for the treatment group was 42.26 while the mean for the control group was 41.59. This indicates that almost all students in the treatment group performed equally as students in the control group though there was little marginal difference (Table 1). The independent sample t-test of the pre-test between the two groups indicated that there was no statistically significant difference in their performance.

Table 1: Means Scores in Pre-test for Control andTreatment Groups

Students’ scores

Students’ groups

N

Control group Treatment group

156 156

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Mean scores for Pre-test 41.59 42.26

Pre-test Std. Deviation 12.73 12.16

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However, responses from students indicates that curricula content is heavy since they have many materials to cover in a short amount of time. Moreover, there is shortage of teaching resources as the result students learn concepts theoretically.

The following quotes were taken from students of the FGDs conducted through this study: [We are required to cover many topics as some were not covered in form two, for example, mole concept and chemical equations, teachers teach many things at once that is hard for us to understand. (FGD, school D)] [We have normally learned chemistry topics through theory and not practical activities because our laboratories lack chemicals, apparatus and other materials. Practical activities are only conducted by level 4 students who are required to perform National examinations. (FGD, school A & B)] Stage 2: Intervention and Post-test Findings (Tables 2 and 3) reveal that the treatment group students scored better (pre-test, mean= 42.26; standard deviation (sd) = 12.16, post-test, mean = 65.79; sd = 13.45) in the SPS test after being treated with computer simulations and animations than their counterparts in the control groups (pre-test, mean = 41.59; sd = 12.73, post-test, mean = 48.03; sd = 11.72). Furthermore, a statistically significant difference (p = 0.000, α = 0.05) between the control and treatment groups was discovered using an independent sample t-test on instructional materials.

Table 2: Independent Sample t-test for the Treatment and Control Group Test

Group

Pre-test

Treatment Control Treatment Control

Post-test

Means 42.26 41.59 65.79 48.03

Std. Deviation 12.16 12.73 13.45 11.72

t

p-value

0.473

0.637

12.436

0.000

Table 3: Paired Sample t-test for Control and Treatment Groups Groups Control Treatment

Test Pre-test Post-test Pre-test Post-test

Means 41.59 48.03 42.26 65.79

Std. Deviation 12.73 11.72 12.16 13.45

t

p-value

-18.192

0.000

-68.990

0.000

Further, there was a high improvement in students’ science process kills performance in the post-test for the students taught with computer simulations and animations as compared to the students taught with the conventional instructional materials. The good post-test performance can be explained by the fact that students in the treatment group had previously completed a series of computer-integrated lessons in class at this point.

Moreover, the analysis of students’ focus group discussion indicated that the usage of simulations drew their attention to specifics and made the subject easier

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to grasp than conventional materials. This could be the reason for high scores in the post-test. The following from FGD with students may serve as evidence: [“The lessons were excellent since the teacher taught us using computer simulations which were engaging and easy to follow. We were able to quickly understand the content. (FGD, school B)] [“Chemical kinetics and equilibrium were good since it connected us with daily uses of different activities at home. But we really liked the use of computer simulations and animations from the lessons as they simplied the concepts. (FGD, school C)] [We were able to make predictions of our investigations; for example, we can tell how the concentration of the reacting substance affects the rate of reaction. We were encouraged by the teacher to observe the computer simulation model and make hypothesis, then tested our hypothesis by performing experiment, recording our observations, making interpretations and conclusions. We learned to develop hypothesis, planning experiments, interpretations and conclusions. This was a unique way of learning chemical kinetics, equilibrium and energetics.

(FGD, A & D)] [In form one we were taught about scientific procedures such as hypothesis, controlling variables, conclusion but we just claimed the definitions because no experiment was conducted and we did not know their application in scientific investigation. But after using computer simulations we understand that if we are investigating the effect of temperature on rate of a chemical reaction, it means we need to control some variables and manipulate temperature which is the independent variable in order to come up with scientific justification that the effect is as the result of temperature and not other variables. (FGD, school B)] Generally, the findings from the study indicated that students taught with computer simulations and animations improved SPS in formulating hypothesis, identifying variables, operational definitions, planning experiments, making interpretations and conclusions in learning chemical kinetics, equilibrium and energetics.

5. Discussion 5.1 Science Process Skills Acquisition in Chemistry

The results in the pre-test showed that students in both treatment and control groups had a very insignificant difference in terms of the science process skills.

Moreover, the independent sample t-test indicated that there were no statistically significant differences in SPS performance between the two groups. This finding implies that students’ overall level of performance may not be regarded as good performance compared to the emphasis placed on SPS in the chemistry curriculum in Tanzania. The findings are slightly similar to those of Athuman (2019), who assessed the level of SPS in secondary schools in Tanzania and found that students had poor acquisition of SPS. Although the current study could not find a precise reason for the poor performance in SPS before the inclusion of

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simulations and animations in chemistry, evidence suggests that the amount and level of difficulty of content are one of the reasons. Another reason is the predominant use of lecture methods, which is a common practice in most classrooms in Tanzania (Mkimbili et al., 2017; Kinyota, 2020).

Furthermore, Athuman (2019) suggests, students need to focus on simple learning activities during the teaching and learning process to understand integrated SPS, which resonates with social constructivism principles (Vygotsky, 1978). On the other hand,Germann et al. (1996) asserted that good performance on SPS depended on students’ experience and domain-specific learning activities on the skills in prior tasks. Therefore, students were required to learn specific skills to learn chemistry scientifically with the aid of computer-assisted technology, guided by CTML theory.

5.2 Effect of Computer Simulations and Animations on Students’ Acquisition of Science Process Skills Findings from the present study revealed that the treatment group students scored better on the SPS subject to computer simulations and animations than their counterparts in the control groups. Supriyatman and Sukarno (2014) revealed that student-teachers improved basic SPS in observation, prediction, communication and in making conclusions through computer simulations.

Nevertheless, Stieff (2011) examined the role of computer simulations and animations in enhancing students’ SPS in learning the states of matter among students in secondary schools. It was found that simulations and animations improved students’ skills in making observations, predictions, in analysing patterns and making inferences, which are basic SPS. However, the target population was different from the one used in this current study as the research.

Moreover, Çelik (2022) and Guevara (2015) reported that, with computer simulation instruction, students have the opportunity to interact with computer simulation learning environments to develop their science process skills. The mentioned authors’ conclusion aligns with the CTML theory, which emphasizes that learners integrate these mental representations with one another and the content through multimedia tools. In a similar vein, the study by Sreelekha (2018) indicated that there was an improvement in students’ SPS in measurement, observation, mathematics, drawing, graphing, and inferring skills for students learned through computer simulation instruction. Other studies (Ardac & Sezen, 2002; Saputri, 2021) suggest the positive role played by simulations and animations in helping students acquire relevant SPS in the teaching and learning process.

Furthermore, the use of computer simulations and animations affects students’ acquisition of SPS in learning chemical kinetics, equilibrium and energetics. It can be argued that students taught with computer simulations have more opportunities to interact, observe, discuss and make interpretations in the teaching and learning process. It is the view of the findings of this study that computer simulations and animations favored more learner-centered learning, which provided more opportunities for students to be involved in inquiry learning as compared to students learning with traditional instructional materials.

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This practice supports the claim put forward by the Tanzania competence-based science curriculum (2010) that the use of an inquiry-based approach could be effective for engaging students in developing SPS. From the social constructivism view, learning occurs through inquiring and classroom discourse which opens to active participation in the learning process (Demirci, 2009).

Nonethless, the findings from the present study indicate that learning chemistry concepts, particularly chemical kinetics, equilibrium and energetics in inquiry using computer simulations and animations, provides an opportunity for students to forecast (make hypothesis), test their ideas through hands-on activities, observe and make relevant interpretations. Through inquiry learning activities, students construct knowledge along with the acquisition of associated SPS. This can be explained further by the fact that using interactive computer simulations and animations enables students to see abstract concepts that cannot be displayed or shown on real laboratory equipment, charts, and diagrams (Çelik, 2022; Guevara, 2015; Haryadi & Pujiastuti, 2020). Also, learning with computer simulations shortens the time of practicum and provides an opportunity for students to repeat experiments for more observations and interpretations.

Nevertheless, students have more time for classroom interaction through classroom discussions and communicating the results based on collected evidence contrary to those students who learn through the conventional materials such as real equipment, charts, or diagrams (Seputri, 2021; Supriyatman & Sukarno, 2014).

6. Limitations Regarding the limitations, this study was limited to only public secondary schools. It can be expanded further in private secondary schools to lay the extended groundwork for CSA implementation. The findings of this study clearly indicate that students' science process skills improve when they are exposed to hands-on activities via computer simulations as compared to conventional materials. As a result, a fascinating avenue for further research would be to investigate the relationship between science process skills acquisition and academic achievement when using computer simulations and animations in chemistry teaching and learning.

7. Conclusion Generally, it can be stated that students score better on the science process skills test when exposed to computer simulations and animations than their counterparts in conventional materials.

Every student should learn the SPS because it is useful in everyday life. Therefore, the current study recommends the use of computer simulations and animations in the teaching and learning of chemistry in Tanzanian secondary schools as a viable alternative instructional resource.

8. Recommendations The use of computer simulations and animations should be given priority by chemistry teachers in secondary schools with similar contexts because of their interactivity. Our findings indicate that CSA can improve students’ acquisition of science process skills as opposed to conventional materials. Therefore, we suggest

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that chemistry teachers employ computer simulations and animations to support students’ science process skills in secondary schools.

Acknowledgement We express our thanks to the management of the African Centre of Excellence for Innovative Teaching and Learning Mathematics and Science (ACEITLMS) at the University of Rwanda's College of Education, who funded the entire study. We also thank all the participants.

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Zendler A., & Greiner, H. (2020). The Effect of Two Instructional Methods on Learning Outcome in Chemistry Education: The Experiment Method and Computer Simulation. Education for Chemical Engineers, 30(1), 9-19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ece.2019.09.001

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Appendix 1: Science Process Skills Test (Pre-test) School code…………Student class………Time: 50 minutes Date…………….

Instructions: This test comprises 25 multiple choice test Items. Read all questions carefully and circle an alphabetical letter indicating the correct answer of your choice in each question.

1. Tunda was investigating the effect of temperature on the dissolving common salt, Sodium chloride. She dissolved 0.5g of sodium chloride in 25mls of cold water and then another 0.5g of salt sodium chloride in 25mls of hot water. How dissolving ability of the salt could be determined or measured? a) Measuring the particles of salt in cold and hot water b) Measuring the time, it takes for salt to dissolve in cold and hot water c) Noting the particles of salt remained in cold and hot water after dissolving d) Noting the particles of salt remained in cold and hot water before dissolving 2. Students were surprised to see a candle continue burning when exposed to air. They hypothesize that air containing oxygen supports combustion.

How could students plan their experiment to test their hypothesis? a) Light two candles and cover all lighted candles with hard glass beakers, then make an observation b) Light two candles and cover one lighted candle with a hard glass beaker while leaving the other lighted candle uncovered and make an observation c) Light two candles and leave all lighted candles uncovered, then make an observation d) Light one candle and leave it uncovered, then make an observation 3. Students carried out experiments to determine the efficiency of liquid and solid fuels. The efficiency of fuel depends on the amount of heat produced per a specific mass of fuel. 500g of kerosene produced 75,600 Jmol-1 of heat, while 500g of charcoal produced 58,800 Jmol-1 of heat. What conclusion can you make from the experiment results? a) Solid charcoal fuel is more efficient than kerosene fuel. b) Kerosene liquid fuel is more efficient than solid charcoal fuel. c) Kerosene fuel and charcoal fuel are equally efficient. d) Liquid fuel is less efficient than solid fuel.

4. Students wanted to investigate the efficiency of water in extinguishing fires from flammable and non-flammable substances. They hypothesized that water extinguishes fire more efficiently from non-flammable substances than from flammable substances. Which plan students should choose to test their hypothesis; a) Apply water to extinguish a fire from flammable substances. b) Apply water to extinguish fires from both flammable and nonflammable substances. c) Apply water to extinguish fire from non-flammable substances. d) Apply water to extinguish fires from different substances.

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A chemistry teacher and his students in chemistry laboratory were interested in investigating the efficiency of solid and liquid fuels. They planned their investigation by taking 500g of charcoal and filing it in a charcoal burner, lighting the charcoal until it burned red hot. They placed 400mls of pure water in a hard glass beaker and recorded its initial temperature, then placed the water on hot charcoal burner and started the stopwatch. Students recorded the temperature raise after 5 minutes interval. They also took a kerosene burner filled with 500mls of kerosene, lighted the burner. They placed 400mls in a hard glass beaker and recorded the initial temperature. Then the water was immediately placed on the blue flame kerosene burner and started the stop watch. Students recorded temperature raise after a 5 minutes interval.

5. What variables were kept constant during this experiment; a) Kerosene and charcoal burners b) The amount of water and the temperature of the water c) The amount of fuel, amount of water used and the type of beaker d) Temperature, beakers and amount of water used 6. Which variables were changed or manipulated in the experiment? a) Mass of charcoal and kerosene b) Charcoal and kerosene burner c) Water and beakers used d) Temperature of water and beakers 7. Students investigated the strength of hydrochloric acid depending on its concentration. The following were the results; Concentration of pH value hydrochloric acid 0.02M 5 0.05M 4.7 1.5M 2.8 3.0M 2 What conclusion can you make? a) The lower the concentration of HCl, the lower the pH value. b) The higher the concentration of HCl, the higher the pH value. c) The higher the concentration of HCl, the lower the pH value. d) The concentration of HCl is equal to the pH value.

8. Kamau planned his experiment by adding 2 tea spoons of sugar to a cup of cold water, and another 2 tea spoons of sugar were added to a cup of hot water. He then observed that sugar in a cup with hot water dissolved more quickly than sugar in a cup with cold water. What is a suitable hypothesis for this experiment; a) Cup affects sugar’s dissolving b) Cold water affects sugar dissolving c) Temperature affects sugar dissolving d) Hot water affects sugar dissolving A study was done to see if the temperature applied to salts has an effect on salt solubility. Salts were placed in 3 beakers of the same size. The first beaker had 0.2g of NaCl, second beaker had 0.2g of NaCl and the third beaker had 0.2g of NaCl and 5mls of water were added in each beaker and placed at different temperature; 0oc, 20oc and 75oc respectively.

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9. What is the hypothesis being tested? a) Temperature affects salt solubility. b) The size of the beaker used affects salt solubility. c) The amount of salt affects its solubility. d) The number of beakers affect salt solubility.

10. What variable was kept constant in this experiment; a) Both the temperature and amount of salt b) An amount of salt and water c) Temperature applied d) Beakers and temperatures 11. What is the responding variable? a) Temperature applied b) Amount of salt c) Both the temperature and solubility of salt d) Solubility of salt 12. What is the manipulated (changed) variable? a) The mount of salt in each beaker b) The amount of water in each beaker c) Temperature d) Number of beakers 13. Maunda hypothesized that neutral soil would produce more tomatoes.

How Mounda can plan experiment to test her hypothesis; a) Planting different tomato plants in buckets with acidic soil, basic soil and neutral soil then counting amount of tomatoes produced in each bucket. b) Planting same tomato plants in buckets with acidic soil, basic soil and neutral soil then counting amount of tomatoes produced in each bucket. c) Planting same tomato plants in buckets with neutral soil then counting amount of tomatoes produced. d) Planting tomato plant in different buckets with acidic soil and basic soil then counting amount of tomatoes produced in each bucket.

14. Students investigated the characteristics of different solutions made from acids and bases. The table below indicates what they found out; Solution pH Strength value Diluted battery acid 1 Strong Lemon juice 5 Weak Vinegar 5.7 Weak Sodium chloride 7 Neutral Sodium hydroxide 13 Strong Sodium carbonate 10 Weak Which conclusion can you make from the information above? a) Solutions with a high pH value are strong acids, while solutions with a low pH value are strong bases. b) Solutions with a low pH value are both strong acids, while solutions with a high pH value are strong bases.

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15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

c) Solutions with a low pH value are strong acids, while solutions with a high pH value are strong bases. d) Solutions with a low pH values are neutral, while solutions with a high pH values are weak.

Students wanted to learn how to change the ice cubes into a liquid state.

They designed an investigation where ice-cubes are placed at different temperatures. In this investigation which of the following could be a hypothesis; a) Ice-cubes are converted to water liquid when pressure is increased. b) Ice-cubes are converted to water liquids when the temperature is increased. c) Ice-cubes are converted to water liquid and gaseous when the temperature is decreased. d) Ice-cubes are converted to liquid water when their size is small and temperature is decreased.

A carpenter found his nails rusted after leaving them outside over the whole night. He wanted to know whether the oxygen and moisture the nails were exposed to were the causes. Which of the hypotheses could he test; a) Keeping the nails away from water and moisture prevents the nails from rusting. b) Keeping the nails away from oxygen prevents the nails from rusting. c) Keeping the nails away from oxygen and moisture prevents the nails from rusting. d) Keeping the nails away from water prevents them from rusting.

Kibo wanted to determine the effect of boiling on removing the hardness of water. He was told that the hardness of the water had been removed from the leather, making it easy to clean with soap. He took water from two different sources and boiled the water. Then, after cooling, the boiled water with soap solution was removed. How could Kibo determine the extent to which the hardness of water has been removed? a) Time it takes for the water to boil and the soap to lather b) Amount of water remained after boiling. c) Observe the amount of leather formed with water after boiling. d) Observe the amount of leather formed with water before boiling.

Juma thinks that the smaller the size of salt particles, the more soluble the salt substance is. To investigate this hypothesis, he prepared salt particles and water. How should Juma test his hypothesis? a) Dissolve salt particles of the same size with a different amount of water. b) Dissolve different salt particle sizes with the same amount of water. c) Dissolve the same salt particle size with the same amount of water. d) Dissolve different salt particle sizes with different amounts of water.

Students noticed that sometimes water used to wash clothes does not form lather with soap, while other times water used forms lather easily.

Students wanted to find out what caused lather formation. They planned their investigation by reacting to different kinds of water with the same amount of soap in a small basin. What best hypothesis could be tested; a) Soft water can wash clothes.

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b) Soft water forms lather more easily than hard water. c) Hard water does not wash clothes easily. d) Water forms leather easily.

20. Mpho wants to know what determines the time it takes for water to boil.

He pours the same amount of water into three containers of different sizes, made of clay, steel, and aluminium. He applies the same amount of heat to the containers and measures the time it takes the water in each container to boil. Which one of the following could affect the time it takes for water to boil in this investigation? a) The shape of the container and the amount of water used. b) The amount of water in the container and the amount of heat used. c) The size and type of the container employed. d) The type of container and the amount of heat used.

21. Form three students investigated the relationship between the quantity of electricity supplied and the masses of the products formed during electrolysis. The following kind of data were collected; Quantity of electricity Mass of Copper (g) (coulombs) corrode from anode 189 0.060 378 0.12 567 0.19 756 0.25 Which of the following graph represents the data above

22. Some students are considering variables that might affect the time it takes sugar to dissolve in water. They identify the temperature of the water, the amount of sugar, and the amount of water as variables to consider. What is a hypothesis the students could test about the time it takes for sugar to dissolve in water? a) The more sugar there is, the more water is needed to dissolve it. b) The colder the water, the faster it has to be stirred to dissolve. c) The warmer the water, the more sugar that will dissolve. d) The warmer the water, the more time it takes the sugar to dissolve.

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23. The following curve shows the graph of solubility of some salts against temperature. Which interpretation is correct;

a) Solubility of KNO3, NaCl and NaNO3 increases, as temperature increases while solubility of Na2SO4 increases and then decreases as temperature increases. b) Solubility of KNO3 and NaNO3 increases as temperature increases, while solubility of Na2SO4 increases and then decreases as temperature increases. c) Temperature increases the solubility of KNO3, Na2SO4, NaCl and NaNO3 d) The solubility of KNO3 and NaSO4 increases as temperature increases, while the solubility of NaCl increases and then decreases as temperature increases.

24. Students wanted to determine the convention of chemical energy in kerosene into heat energy. A kerosene burner was used to heat pure water in a beaker. How was the convention of chemical energy in kerosene converted into heat energy measured? a) Using a thermometer to verify any change in the temperature of water b) Observing the light produced in the kerosene burner c) Measuring the amount of water being heated d) Observing the heat produced in pure water 25. Lisa wants to measure the amount of heat energy a flame will produce in a certain amount of time. A burner will be used to heat a beaker containing a liter of cold water for ten minutes. How will Lisa measure the amount of heat energy produced by the flame? a) Note the change in the water temperature after ten minutes b) Measuring the volume of water after ten minutes c) Measuring the temperature of the flame after ten minutes d) Calculate the time it takes for the liter of water to boil

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Appendix 2: Science Process skills Test (Post-test) School code………Student class……..Examination time: 50 minutes Date…………

Test instructions: This test comprises 25 multiple choice test Items. Read all questions carefully and circle an alphabetical letter indicating the correct answer of your choice in each question.

1. Mbagau wants to find a good way to increase the rate of reaction at which hydrogen is produced between magnesium wire and hydrochloric acid.

He was thinking that the concentration of hydrochloric acid used could affect the rate of hydrogen produced. Which of the following is a good procedure to test the hypothesis; a) Using magnesium wire of different sizes while using different concentrations of hydrochloric acid b) Using magnesium wire pieces of the same size while varying the concentration of hydrochloric acid c) Using magnesium wire of different sizes while using the same concentration of hydrochloric acid d) Use the same amount of magnesium wire while using the same concentration of hydrochloric acid.

2. In an experiment, the teacher investigated the effect of different concentrations of acetic acid on the rate of carbon dioxide gas produced.

He hypothesized that the higher the concentration of acetic acid, the higher the rate of carbon dioxide gas produced. In this experiment, what is the independent or causing variable? a) Concentrations of acetic acid used b) Both the concentration of acetic acid and the rate of carbon dioxide produced c) The rate of carbon dioxide produced d) All the above 3. In Dekaus’s village, people use white and black seeds from local mbuni trees as soap detergents to remove stains from their clothes. Dekau wanted to investigate the effectiveness of seeds in removing stains from clothes.

She hypothesizes that black seeds remove stains more effectively than white seeds. Which procedure should he choose to test his hypothesis? a) Wash clothes with same equal amount of white seeds. Then observe the time taken for the stains to be removed from the clothes b) Wash clothes with an equal amount of black seeds. Observe the time taken for the stains to be removed from the clothes. c) Wash clothes with an equal amount of black seeds and white seeds.

Thereafter, observe the time taken for the stains to be removed from the clothes. d) Wash clothes with an equal amount of mbuni tree seeds. Then observe the time taken for the stains to be removed from the clothes.

4. A student wants to know the effect of acid rain, upon a fish population.

He takes two jars and fills each of the jars with the same amount of water.

He adds fifty drops of vinegar (acid) to one jar and adds nothing extra to

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the other. He then puts 10 similar fish in each jar. Both groups of fish are cared for (oxygen, food) in identical fashion. After observing the behavior of the fish for a week, he draws his conclusions. What would you suggest to improve this experiment? a) Prepare more jars with different amounts of vinegar. b) Add more fish to the two jars already used. c) Add more jars with different kinds of fish and different amounts of vinegar to each jar. d) Add more vinegar to the jars already in use.

5. Five different size of magnesium wire is used to produce hydrogen gas in the industry. The same wire is used for each production. The following table shows the results of an investigation that was done on the amount of hydrogen gas produced in each reaction.

Size (diameter) of magnesium Amount of hydrogen (mm) produced per minute (Litres) 8 1 13 2 20 4 26 7 30 12 Which of the following statements describes the effect of the size of magnesium on the amount of hydrogen per minute? a) The more the amount of hydrogen produced, the more the time used to produce it. b) The smaller the diameter of the magnesium wire, the higher the speed at which the hydrogen is produced. c) The larger the diameter of the magnesium, the more the amount of hydrogen produced. d) The diameter of the magnesium has less effect on the amount of hydrogen produced 6. Students in the laboratory wanted to conduct an experiment involving solid calcium carbonate and dilute hydrochloric acid to produce carbon dioxide gas. They hypothesize that temperature affects the rate at which carbon dioxide gas is produced. How can students plan their experiment to test their hypothesis? a) Carrying out a reaction at different temperatures with different amounts of calcium carbonate and the same amount of hydrochloric acid. b) Performing the same amount of calcium carbonate and hydrochloric acid reaction at different temperatures c) Carrying out a reaction at different temperatures with the same amount of calcium carbonate and a different amount of hydrochloric acid. d) At the same temperature, carry out a reaction with varying amounts of calcium carbonate and hydrochloric acid.

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7. In a radio advertisement, it is claimed that Surf produces more foam than other types of powdered soap. Chudwa wanted to confirm this claim. He put the same amount of water in three basins and added 1 cup of a different type of powdered soap (including surf) to each basin. He vigorously stirred the water in each basin and observed the one that produced more foam. Which of the factors below is likely not to affect the production of foam by powdered soap? a) The amount of time used to stir the water b) The amount of stirring done c) The type of basin used d) The type of powered soap used Sarah wanted to know if temperature affects the rate of reaction between magnesium and water substances. One beaker was kept at 0oC, another beaker was kept at 30oC and another beaker was kept at 60oC. The beakers were observed where the time taken for the reaction to take place was recorded.

8. What is the dependent or responding variable in the experiment? a) Reaction rate of the reacting substances b) Water and magnesium c) Temperature used d) Total number of beakers used at each temperature 9. What is the independent or causing variable in the experiment? a) Reaction rate of the reacting substances b) Water and Magnesium c) Temperature used d) Total number of beakers at each temperature 10. One of the students observed that a reaction involving hydrogen peroxide decomposes slowly to form water and oxygen gas in which effervescence is produced. He was advised that the chemical reaction can be increased when manganese dioxide is used as a catalyst. Which of the following hypotheses is suitable; a) Manganise dioxide increases the rate of water formation. b) Manganise dioxide increases the rate of reformation of hydrogen peroxide. c) Manganise dioxide increases the rate of decomposition of hydrogen peroxide. d) Hydrogen peroxide increases the rate of decomposition of manganese dioxide.

11. The efficiency of the catalyst in the rate of decomposing hydrogen peroxide was studied. Two identical test tubes received an equal amount of hydrogen peroxide, but only in one test tube a few drops of catalyst (manganise dioxide) were added. How would Nyambiti measure the rate of reaction? a) By measuring the amount of time, it takes for the reaction to complete b) By measuring the mass of hydrogen peroxide decomposed c) By measuring the amount of manganese dioxide remained after the reaction d) By measuring the amount of water formed after the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide

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12. Observe the following table below showing the results of investigation made by students. The results show that; Time (min) 0 1 2 3 4 5 Volume of gas 0 34 42 48 50 50 3 produced (cm ) a) The reaction had stopped at three minutes as the gas was not increasing. b) The reaction had finished by four minutes, as no more gas was produced after that. c) The rate of reaction was high as more gas was produced throughout the reaction. d) The rate of reaction was high at the beginning of the reaction and at the end of the reaction.

13. Students added 0.5M of dilute hydrochloric acid to 0.2g of magnesium metal in flask A. As they added more 1M of dilute hydrochloric acid to 0.2g of magnesium metal in flask B students noted the increase of rate of reaction between magnesium metal and dilute hydrochloric acid. What could be the hypotheses being tested; a) The rate of chemical reaction increases as the concentration of hydrochloric acid increases. b) The rate of chemical reaction increases as the concentration of hydrochloric acid decreases. c) The higher the concentration of hydrochloric acid, the higher the difference in the rate of chemical reaction. d) The concentration of hydrochloric acid decreases the chemical reaction between magnesium metal and acid.

14. Monde noticed that the steel wool that she uses to clean her pots rusts quickly if exposed to air after using it. She also noticed that it takes a longer time for it to rust if it is left in water. She wondered whether it was the water or the air that caused the wet, exposed steel wool to rust. Which of the following statements could be tested to answer Monde’s concern? a) Steel wool cleans pots better if it is exposed to air. b) Steel wool takes a longer time to rust if it is left in water. c) Water is necessary for steel wool to rust. d) Oxygen can react with steel wool.

15. Sandile carried out an investigation in which she reacted magnesium with dilute hydrochloric acid. She recorded the volume of the hydrogen gas produced from the reaction. The results are shown below; Time (seconds) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 Volume (cm3) 0 14 23 31 38 40 40 40 Table above shows the volume of hydrogen gas produced per second.

Which of the following graphs show these results correctly?

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16. Amina wanted to determine if there was any difference in the amount of carbon dioxide produced in chemical reaction between calcium carbonate and dilute hydrochloric acid when different sizes of calcium carbonate are used. Ahmad put different size of calcium carbonate in different test tubes with hydrochloric acid. Which of the following variables would be the most important to be controlled in this experiment; a) The weight of the hydrochloric acid used b) time of the day the experiment is conducted c) The amount of hydrochloric acid used in two test tubes d) The number of reactions made during the experiments 17. Okwino placed 10g of ammonium chloride in a flask that was connected to another flask. He applied heat of 4980C to the flask containing ammonium chloride. After the reaction was completed, he measured the weight of products which were collected in the second flask and found 10g of ammonium chloride. What conclusion can you make; a) Products are recombined to form the reactants. b) The reaction remained at equilibrium. c) The reaction involved decomposition. d) The reaction fevered the forward reaction.

Thobiso is worried about how the hot winter will affect the growth of bacteria on the bread he produces. He decided to investigate the effect of temperature on the growth rate of bacteria in breads. He packed the same bread in three identical containers and placed them at different temperatures of -100C, 300C and 800C. The growth rate of bacteria on bread was observed at the end of 5 days. Use this to answer question 18-20 below; 18. What could be the hypothesis in the above experiment; a) The winter is not conducive for bread production. b) Containers affect the growth rate of bacteria on breads. c) The temperature affects the growth rate of bacteria on breads. d) The differences in bacteria growth are associated with containers at each temperature 19. What is the dependent (responding) variable in this investigation? a) Changes in temperature b) The growth rate of bacteria in breads. c) The three containers used d) Breads in three identical containers 20. What variables were kept constant in this investigation? a) Bacteria b) The growth rate of bacteria in breads.

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21.

22.

23.

24.

c) Changes in temperature d) Bread and containers A chemistry teacher heated hydrated copper sulphate in the flask. Then the teacher observed the colour changing from blue to white powder. After allowing the white power to cool, the teacher added a few drops of water, and the colour changed from white to blue. What is the most reasonable conclusion can you make; a) The reaction was irreversible. b) The reaction is reversible. c) The reaction was at equilibrium. d) The reactant only reacts to form products.

The teacher wanted to show students’ whether increasing the concentration of hydrochloric acid with zinc granules increased the rate of production of hydrogen gas. How the teacher and students would determine that the rate of reaction has increased? a) By measuring the time used to decompose zinc granules b) By measuring the volume of hydrogen gas produced c) By measuring the amount of acid used in the reaction d) By measuring the amount of zinc used in the reaction Kwandu was studying the effect of homo soap on removing stains from white clothes. He hypothesizes that the homo soap removes stains easily.

He used different soaps including homo to wash white clothes. How could the rate of removing stains be measured? a) Note the time taken for stains to be removed from the clothes b) The number of stains removed from each piece of clothing washed with a different detergent. c) Note the time taken to complete washing clothes d) The amount of soap used to wash clothes Thabo wanted to show his friend that the size of a container affects the rate of water loss, when water is boiled. He poured the same amount of water into containers of different sizes but made of the same material. He applied the same amount of heat to all the containers. After 30 minutes, he measured the amount of water remaining in each container. How was the rate of water loss measured in this investigation? a) By measuring the amount of water in each container after heating it. b) By using different sizes of the containers to boil the water for 30 minutes. c) By determining the time taken for the water to boil in each of the containers. d) At a given time, by determining the difference between the initial and final amounts of water

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25. Students investigated the effect of catalyst on the rate of reaction and the following data were recorded; Time (s) Volume of O2 cm3 using 1g of MnO2 Volume of O2 using 3g of MnO2

0 0

15 9

30 18

45 26

60 35

75 44

90 50

120 71

150 76

180 80

195 80

0

15

29

42

53

64

75

80

80

80

80

The results show that; a) When 1 gram of manganese (IV) oxide is used, more oxygen gas is collected in a shorter period of time than when 3 g of manganese (IV) oxide is used. b) The volume of oxygen gas collected at each specific time of interval is less when 3g of manganese (IV) Oxide is used than the corresponding volume of oxygen when 1g of manganese (IV) is used. c) When 1g of Manganese (IV) Oxide is added, the reaction proceeds very fast and a lot of oxygen is collected in a short time. d) The volume of oxygen gas collected at each specific time interval is greater when 3g of manganese (IV) Oxide is used than the corresponding volume of oxygen when 1g of manganese (IV) is used.

Appendix 3: Focus Group Discussion with Students (before intervention) School code: ……………………………

Dear students, The following discussion aims at looking at your general feelings and experience in learning chemistry concepts during teaching and learning. Please be free to give your contributions. The information given will only be used for the purpose of this study and not otherwise.

1. How do you learn chemistry concepts?

2. How do teachers engage you to learn through science process skills when learning chemistry concepts?

Appendix 4: Focus Group Discussion with Students (After intervention) School code: ……………………………

Dear students, The following discussion aim at exploring your general feelings and opinions on the use of computer simulations and animations used during teaching and learning. Please be free to give your contributions. The information given will only be used for the purpose of this study and not otherwise.

1. How have computer simulations and animations in teaching facilitated your learning of chemistry concepts?

2. Can you explain how the use of computer simulations and animations has engaged you in learning science process skills when learning chemistry concepts?

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 21, No. 3, pp. 196-230, March 2022 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.3.11 Received Jan 30, 2022; Revised Mar 19, 2022; Accepted Mar 23, 2022

Fostering Scientific Creativity in the Classroom: The Concept of Flex-Based Learning Kurt Haim* and Wolfgang Aschauer University of Education Upper Austria, Linz, Austria

Abstract. To sustainably shape tomorrow’s world, young people must be prepared to develop successful solution strategies for problems that are as yet unknown. Therefore, it must be a core task of schools to train students in their problem-solving skills. The natural science subjects could become established to address this challenge if scientific creativity is explicitly promoted in the classroom. Therefore, the goal of a team of researchers and teachers was to develop a support program for scientific creativity. The developed program is summarized under the term FlexBased Learning and includes a wide range of interventions linked to the most significant aspects of scientific creativity. The interventions have been developed and investigated since 2010 within a long-term designbased research project. The empirical inquiry, both in laboratory and real classroom settings, in which a total of 104 teachers and 3,516 Austrian secondary school students (aged 10–18 years) participated, indicates that Flex-Based Learning is efficient at the student level and is considered by teachers to be practical. In addition, the research also provided deeper insights into the conditions for fostering scientific creativity and the relationship between theory and practice.

Keywords: scientific creativity; divergent metacognition; design-based research

thinking;

bisociation;

1. Introduction In a world of increasing technological progress, it is no longer enough to solve routine tasks; complex problems must be tackled (Autor et al., 2003). In this context, high-order skills, 21st-century skills, and creative problem-solving skills are key competencies to shape tomorrow’s world in an innovative, resourceconserving, and sustainable way. For example, Sternberg (2010) and Ghassib (2010) highlight the importance of scientific knowledge and creativity. To prepare young people for tomorrow’s world, creative and critical thinking must be taught in school (Silva Pacheco & Iturra Herrera, 2021). Students should learn to deal with new situations for which they do not already have a readymade strategy and *

Corresponding author: Kurt Haim, kurt.haim@ph-ooe.at

©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

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handle problems creatively (Kind & Kind, 2007; Marope et al., 2017; OECD, 2014).

As a result, creativity in science education and research on scientific creativity is becoming increasingly important. Scientific creativity can be interpreted as a kind of domain-specific creativity, including both domain-specific and general creativity competencies (Ayas & Sak, 2014; Barbot et al., 2016; Hadzigeorgiou et al., 2012; Hu & Adey, 2002; Huang & Wang, 2019; Sak & Ayas, 2013). Traditional science education in Austria focuses mainly on convergent thinking. Tasks or specific techniques that promote divergent thinking, creative problem solving, or other aspects of scientific creativity rarely occur. The reason for this can be given that teachers often do not know which skills are related to scientific creativity, and furthermore do not know techniques to train and promote these skills (Oyrer et al., 2020). Even in the literature, one can find only a few evaluated programs (Aktamis & Ergin, 2008; Siew & Ambo, 2018); Siew et al., 2017; Ayverdi & Aydin, 2018; Rasul et al., 2018; Hu et al., 2013; Yang et al., 2016) designed to foster scientific creativity. Moreover, these programs cover only one or two aspects of scientific creativity. To promote scientific creativity in secondary schools, the authors developed special teaching materials for science subjects in a long-term design-based research project, beginning in 2010. These novel teaching tools are summarized under the term Flex-Based Learning (FBL), covering a wide range of skills, all related to scientific creativity. In a development project lasting over 10 years, the FBL techniques were integrated into the subjects of biology, chemistry, and physics in a topic-specific manner, and worksheets were created for use in the classroom. This paper presents the theoretical framework of the FBL program, all FBL tools, and the main research findings.

2. Theoretical Framework 2.1. Scientific Creativity Creativity is commonly defined as the ability to produce something novel or original as well as useful, effective, or appropriate (Barron, 1955; Runco & Jaeger, 2012; Stein, 1953). Therefore, it is obvious that the process of scientific research, in the sense of generating new theories or solving complex scientific problems, is closely related to creativity (Ayas & Sak, 2014; Feist, 2011; Heller, 2007; Hu et al., 2013; Hu & Adey, 2002; Lin et al., 2003). Therefore, various studies have investigated the conditions under which scientific research is highly innovative.

For instance, some identified components include metaphors (Miller, 2000), analogies (Dunbar, 1994, 1999), intellectual achievement (Mumford et al., 2005), personality traits like openness and self-acceptance (Feist, 1998), and collaboration, as well as specific work strategies (Barrett et al., 2014). Even in science education, fostering scientific creativity in the classroom is becoming increasingly significant. One reason that should be highlighted in this context is, that young people must be prepared and trained to deal with new situations for which they do not possess a readymade strategy. Students should be able to think flexibly and creatively about overcoming various challenges and problems (DeHaan, 2009; Dikici et al., 2020; Kind & Kind, 2007; Marope et al., 2017; Mukhopadhyay & Sen, 2013; OECD, 2014).

The concept of scientific creativity is significantly influenced by Guilford (1956, 1967, 1968) and Torrance (1966, 2008) and can be interpreted as a kind of domain-

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specific creativity (see Figure 1), which includes both domain-specific and general creativity competencies (Ayas & Sak, 2014; Barbot et al., 2016; Hadzigeorgiou et al., 2012; Hu & Adey, 2002; Huang & Wang, 2019; Sak & Ayas, 2013). Regarding domain-specific skills, science-related activities, such as generating and testing hypotheses (Klahr, 2002; Klahr & Dunbar, 1988; Sternberg et al., 2020), problemfinding (Hu et al., 2010; Hu & Adey, 2002; Sternberg et al., 2020), and problemsolving (Hu & Adey, 2002) are mentioned in the literature. Regarding general creativity competencies, several cognitive creativity skills like creative thinking, especially divergent thinking (Ayas & Sak, 2014; Hu et al., 2010; Hu & Adey, 2002; Sak & Ayas, 2013), association and bisociation, metacognition (Lin et al., 2003; van de Kamp et al., 2015), and imagination (Hadzigeorgiou et al., 2012; Kind & Kind, 2007) are considered. For a detailed review of scientific creativity, see also Hadzigeorgiou et al. (2012), Kind and Kind (2007), and Mukhopadhyay and Sen (2013).

Figure 1: Conceptualization of Scientific Creativity

Importantly, the two components—domain-specific and general-creativity competencies—are closely related and mutually dependent regarding the formation of scientific creativity. For example, it is almost impossible to find different solutions for a problem—i.e., thinking divergently in the ideation phase—without the necessary corresponding scientific knowledge and skills.

Conversely, it is difficult to think of processes at the particle level without a certain degree of imagination. Key aspects of scientific creativity, especially those related to general creativity, are outlined in more detail below.

2.2. Domain-Specific Competences Creative ideas emerge the through variation and recombination of existing knowledge elements (Benedek & Fink, 2019), and thus, a solid conceptual framework is a prerequisite for fostering scientific creativity. Therefore, students should have a solid knowledge of scientific content to provide a foundation for creative thinking and action (Hadzigeorgiou et al., 2012). The development of content knowledge, which is seen as an essential aspect of creativity, is closely linked to convergent thinking, which allows existing knowledge to be processed and retrieved using standard procedures (Cropley, 2006).

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In addition to content knowledge, other competencies primarily related to knowledge acquisition and problem-solving are important. According to the framework of scientific discovery as a dual search (Klahr, 2002; Klahr & Dunbar, 1988), knowledge acquisition and scientific research is based on searching for possible hypotheses and performing experiments.

Another key element is problem-solving (Hu & Adey, 2002), which can be interpreted as closing a gap between an initial state and a goal state. Other researchers have emphasized the initial stage, discovering the gap or so-called problem-finding (Hu et al., 2010; Sternberg et al., 2020). They consider problemfinding to be a key element in scientific research, about which Freeman Dyson has said the following: “It is characteristic of scientific life that it is easy when you have a problem to work on. The hard part is finding your problem” (as cited Csikszentmihalyi, 1997, p. 96).

2.3. General-Creativity Competences Divergent Thinking Divergent thinking occurs through cognitive processes that lead to various answers to a problem via switching perspectives (Kaufman et al., 2008). Three aspects are cited in the literature as necessary for the occurrence of divergent thinking: fluency, flexibility, and originality. Fluency is determined by the number of answers to a given problem, flexibility refers to considering different categories for ideation, and originality results from the uniqueness of a stated solution (Runco, 1999). Thus, divergent thinking leads to the generation of a wide variety of potential solutions when presented with a problem, which statistically increases the probability of successful problem-solving (Kaufman et al., 2008).

Therefore, in the context of scientific creativity, divergent thinking represents a significant indicator of creative problem-solving potential (Runco & Acar, 2012).

In a study by Huang et al. (2017), 15% of the variance in scientific creativity performance could be explained by divergent thinking.

Although divergent thinking contributes significantly to the performance of scientific creativity, the importance of convergent thinking should also be noted in this context (Agnoli et al., 2016; Cropley, 2006). Convergent thinking focuses on finding a prominent, often single correct and well-established answer to a question, leaving no space for ambiguity (Cropley, 2006). A study by Zhu et al.

(2019) showed that convergent thinking acts as a kind of threshold setter. That is, divergent thinking becomes relevant only when convergent thinking reaches a certain level.

Original Association and Bisociation In cognitive science, creative ideas are thought to arise from linking unrelated concepts, themes, or images (Mednick, 1962). Creative thinking is thus based on the fertile generation of original associations and bisociations. Original associations are distant associations within a concept and require the capacity for conceptual extension, whereas bisociations are associations between two very different concepts, requiring conceptual combination skills (Ward et al., 1997).

Thus, bisociative abilities play an important role in linking knowledge and the

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ability to combine units into multiplicities (Silva Pacheco & Iturra Herrera, 2021).

Hence, original associations, as well as bisociations, are considered elementary cognitive processes of creative cognition, with recent scientific literature including bisociation as an essential component of measuring creativity (Benedek et al., 2020). The term bisociation, which applies to all forms of creativity and was defined by Arthur Koestler (1964), thus represents a significant part of the creative process. Therefore, bisociative techniques are also central elements of many creativity techniques (SonicRim, 2001).

Analogical Thinking Analogies aim to compare different concepts and find similarities between them.

If inferences can be drawn about a familiar analogous concept, they can thus be drawn about less familiar concepts (Harré, 1972). The ability to form analogies plays a significant role in students’ learning processes (Venville & Treagust, 1996).

Using analogical thinking, the transfer of the structure of an unfamiliar domain to a familiar environment is possible. This mindset change, from focusing on “matter” to “processes,” can also be facilitated. In addition, the use of analogies in the classroom increases students’ self-efficacy in learning new content, as well as memory performance in recalling features of and interactions with a concept.

A deep understanding of a complex concept can be gained by abstracting the essential characteristics and considering the limitations of the abstraction (Arnold & Millar, 1996).

Creating analogies to understand scientific phenomena and ideas has the potential to increase scientific creativity (Hadzigeorgiou et al., 2012). For example, analogies are helpful in problem-solving when the problem solver recognizes similarities between two problems and remembers how to solve one of them (Condell et al., 2010). Moreover, the use of analogies also helps scientists establish similarities between different domains, allowing them to use known ways of functioning in one domain to innovate in another. Many scientists and inventors have used analogies to achieve significant innovations. For example, James Dyson studied the action of a sawmill cyclone and applied its principle to a vacuum cleaner to increase the latter’s effectiveness (Foreman & Drummond, 2008).

Metacognition Effective thinking processes always require metacognition, as it requires significant planning, direction, and control of cognitive processes to optimize them. For example, especially in the context of creativity, it is necessary to know when, how, and why to use divergent thinking strategies. Therefore, several authors have emphasized the crucial role of metacognition in complex thinking (Silva Pacheco & Iturra Herrera, 2021), divergent thinking (van de Kamp et al., 2015), and scientific creativity (Lin et al., 2003) highlighting the significant positive effects of metacognition on fostering students’ creativity in the classroom (Kaufman & Beghetto, 2013; Lin et al., 2003; van de Kamp et al., 2015). The conceptualization of metacognition comprises several components such as cognitive knowledge and cognitive regulation (Flavell, 1979).

Cognitive knowledge includes knowledge about oneself, the nature of a task and its requirements, and possible strategies (Flavell, 1979; Schraw et al., 2006; Silva

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Pacheco & Iturra Herrera, 2021). In the context of scientific creativity, cognitive knowledge comprises the following examples: o Knowledge about what characterizes divergent thinking, especially in contrast to convergent thinking. o Knowledge about which thinking styles are preferred in different phases of problem-solving. o Knowledge about which personality traits characterize creative people.

Cognitive regulation summarizes the abilities to assess the process, the product, as well as the used strategy and covers the phases of planning, monitoring, and evaluation (Flavell, 1979; Schraw, 1998; Whitebread et al., 2009). Regarding scientific creativity, cognitive regulation contains the following components: o Reflections and assessment of one's own performance regarding fluency and flexibility of the generated ideas. o Assessment of the generated products. o Evaluation of personal strengths and weaknesses during the creative work in the team.

Imagination, Visualization, and Fantasy In psychological research, imagination or “seeing with the mind’s eye,” is a term with a broad definition (Kind & Kind, 2007; Taylor, 2011). In general, it refers to a multi-faceted ability to mentally detach oneself from the current time, place, and circumstances in order to think about what might have been, to plan for the future, and to create fictional worlds (Taylor, 2011). According to this definition, imagination is not only the building up of images. The concept also includes the formation of internal ideas or scenarios (Pelaprat & Cole, 2011; Vygotsky, 2004).

Therefore, imagination plays a central role in creativity because creative thinking requires the interplay of imagination and thinking (Magno, 2009; Smolucha & Smolucha, 1986).

The ability to imagine also plays a central role in the way scientists think and work. To understand the world, scientists need to visualize unobservable entities (e.g., atoms) and explain complex phenomena (e.g., electromagnetic induction) (Hadzigeorgiou et al., 2012). Thus, the ability to imagine is an essential element of scientific creativity (Holton, 1998; Holyoak & Thagard, 1996). Kind & Kind (2007) emphasize that imagination is essential for scientific creativity and a necessary learning tool to access the world of atoms, molecules, field lines, and other scientific entities.

3. Methodology The aim of the research project was to develop different interventions, with each designed to promote specific competencies related to scientific creativity.

Furthermore, deeper insight into the conditions and concrete framework for the effective promotion of scientific creativity was sought. The research project follows the design-based research approach (Barab & Squire, 2004; Design-Based Research Collective, 2003). In contrast to a pure formative evaluation study, where the focus is on optimizing a process or intervention, design-based research also develops or confirms theories. Thus, in addition to the developed products—e.g.,

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specific interventions—research products are also created. Design-based research is interventionist, theory generative, reflective, iterative, ecologically valid, and practice oriented (Cobb et al., 2003; Prediger et al., 2015). Thus, it is very well suited for the purpose of this study.

Design-based research is characterized by a non-linear research process.

Therefore, the development, optimization, and evaluation of each FBL intervention was conducted in several iterative cycles of design, investigation into design experiments, and re-design of the intervention based on the results of the design experiments. The following basic assumptions and considerations underpin the conceptualization of the FBL program, operating as design principles: 1. As scientific creativity includes a wide range of domain-specific and general creativity competencies, the FBL program should comprise a collection of diverse interventions.

2. FBL interventions should foster students’ problem-solving abilities. Especially in real-world problem solving, flexibility is indispensable (Runco, 2004; Thurston & Runco, 1999). The FBL program should focus on promoting students’ flexibility.

3. Current research should be considered when developing FBL techniques to promote all aspects of scientific creativity.

4. Since the promotion of creativity should always be accompanied by elements of metacognition (Lin et al., 2003; van de Kamp et al., 2015), the FBL program should also contain instruments for reflection on metacognition.

5. In team processes, students should work in a multiple-mode discussion cycle called Listen–Think–Pair–Share (Lyman, 1981).

6. Worksheets should be developed for all interventions so that teachers can implement the FBL program in the classroom without additional effort.

3.1. Instruments After initial theory-based interventions developed in 2010 and 2011, iterative cycles of design-based research followed. Throughout this process, design experiments (Cobb et al., 2003) were conducted both in laboratory settings and in real classroom situations. At an initial stage, design experiments were accomplished in laboratory settings with a small group of participants to exclude interfering factors and focus on the intervention. Later cycles (see stage 2 and 3) were situated in classroom settings to explore the effectiveness and the practicability of the interventions (Prediger et al., 2015).

Stage 1: The investigations carried out in the laboratory setting were conducted through micro-teaching sessions with student teachers in a student research lab at the University of Education Upper Austria from 2012 to 2014. In each micro-teaching session, two teacher students carried out one FBL intervention with three to four pupils. Semi-structured interviews and video analysis were used as instruments.

The aim of these studies was to test the practicability and required conditions of the interventions, as well as their acceptance by the pupils and the effect of different settings on the interventions.

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Stage 2: From 2015 to 2017, teachers who are part of the research team tested the interventions in some of their classes. Semi-structured interviews, video analyses, and questionnaires were applied as instruments.

Stage 3: To implement the FBL program in science classrooms, a one-year teacher training program has been offered since 2018. During the program, teachers receive insights into the theoretical aspects of scientific creativity and are introduced to the individual FBL techniques and their concrete applications in the classroom.

The teacher training program provides an opportunity for further development and optimization of the interventions and the evaluation of FBL at both the student and teacher levels.

Student level: To investigate the effectiveness of the FBL teaching concept at the student level, the authors developed a divergent problem-solving ability in science (DPAS) test (Aschauer et al., 2021). Divergent problem-solving ability refers to the trial’s focus—namely, the assessment of students’ potential to design different possible solutions to address a particular scientific problem. To evaluate FBL, DPAS tests have been used in several pilot studies (e.g. Haim & Weber, 2014), as well as in the validation study of the DPAS test (Aschauer et al., 2021). The studies were conducted in a two-group repeated measures design. The test was administered both at the beginning and end of the school year. In the intervention classes, the teachers who participated in the teacher training program implemented the diverse FBL tools continuously throughout one school year. In contrast, no specific interventions were implemented to promote scientific creativity in the control classes, which were primarily taught by the same teachers.

Teacher level: At the teacher level, semi-structured interviews were used, in which the teachers reflected on their experiences implementing FBL techniques in their classes, to investigate the practicality and necessary conditions of the intervention. In addition, a questionnaire was developed (Oyrer et al., 2020) to examine the effectiveness of the course at different levels of impact (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2006).

3.2. Sample At the various stages and levels, a total of 104 teachers, 24 student teachers, and 3,516 Austrian secondary school students (aged 10–18 years) participated in the investigations. Table 1 provides an overview of the sample at each stage.

Table 1: Overview of the participants in the investigations at the various stages Stage 1 2 3

Students

Students

5th to 8th grade ages 10 to 14

9th to 12th grade ages 15 to 18

60 (46% male) 149 (49% male) 2,248 (48% male)

0 76 (30% male) 983 (43% male)

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24 0 0

0 4 100

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4. Flex-Based Learning Interventions as a Design Product All interventions are summarized under the term flex-based learning. “Flex” is used here as an abbreviation of “flexibility” for simplicity, since the focus of this program is on promoting cognitive and experimental flexibility. In this context, flexibility is defined as a person’s ability to adopt a variety of perspectives on a given topic, as well as the ability to implement a wide variety of solution strategies in scientific problems, including experimentally. Therefore, the FBL program focuses on promoting flexibility in divergent, critical, associative, and analogical thinking, as well as in imagination, metacognition, and experimental problemsolving skills.

In many FBL techniques, students work in a multiple-mode discussion cycle called Listen–Think–Pair–Share (Lyman, 1981). This setting creates ideal conditions for creative work because there is a balance between individual and group work. Specifically, in this cycle, students are trained to 1) listen carefully to the task (“listen”); 2) think about it alone (“think”); 3) discuss their answers in small groups (“pair”); and finally, 4) share the results with the whole class (“share”).

The processes of our design-based research resulted in seven interventions and three reflection instruments. Of the seven interventions, five were completely newly developed (see Table 2*). Two interventions—mind mapping and memorization—were adapted for this approach. Finally, three instruments for reflecting on thinking strategies, team competence, and personality were generated (see Table 2**). The up-to-date versions of all interventions are now presented below.

Table 2: Summary of all FBL interventions and reflection tools (* Self-developed FBL techniques ** Survey instruments for metacognition)

Thinkflex* Memorization

Flex Experiments* Mind mapping

WoSeCo* Shorty, Mitty & Flexy**

Nano Live Act* Role Models**

Visual Analogy Training* Be a COMET!**

4.1. Thinkflex The term Thinkflex covers cognitive thinking tasks that aim to increase mental flexibility by consciously changing perspectives. The name Thinkflex asks students to think flexibly to work through problems. A key element of all Thinkflex tasks is the developed Perspective Check. This tool helps students think divergently in different categories by guiding them step by step from one thinking perspective to another. The section is a word–picture guide. As students work through a Thinkflex task, they are asked to imagine what a problem might look like, what impact the problem would have on people, animals, and plants, what advantages and disadvantages the problem would present, and so on (see Appendix 1).

To reflect on both the thinking processes and the ideas themselves at the end of the task, the reflection tool Shorty, Mitty & Flexy is used. It serves to promote students' metacognition about their own thinking strategies by evaluating

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whether the self-generated idea was obvious or whether they broke out of the thought expectation. Three imaginary actors are used for this purpose, which will be described in more detail later.

All of the Thinkflex tasks are linked to the traditional topics of the respective subject and relate to young people’s everyday world and experiences. The tasks target typical scientific thinking, which trains students in various action dimensions of scientific competencies. The following table (Table 3) provides an overview of some of these action dimensions.

Table 3: The most common types of Thinkflex tasks Recognizing consequences & implications Forming hypotheses Finding reasons Asking questions

Identifying opportunities & risks Finding arguments Finding causes of errors Identifying distinctions

Recognizing advantages & disadvantages Finding uses Describing possibilities Drawing conclusions

The following is an example of the Thinkflex type “Advantages and Disadvantages” from the following chemistry subject: “List as many advantages and disadvantages of fireworks as possible. At the end, assign all your answers to specific categories and also think of alternatives to fireworks.” The worksheet for this Thinkflex task, including a Perspective Check, is included in Appendix 1.

Description of the Procedure. In the Thinkflex tasks, students work according to the Listen–Think–Pair–Share method described above (Lyman, 1981). For this purpose, worksheets have been developed for all Thinkflex tasks, which guide the student from one work phase to the next. Specifically, these phases are named and briefly described as follows (see Figure 2):

Figure 2: Four work phases in a Thinkflex task

1. Task: First, the teacher introduces the task to the students. Then each student sketches the problem on their worksheet.

2. Brainstorming: Each student first works out as many different solutions as possible using the Perspective Check. The ideas are entered onto the worksheet.

3. Exchange: The students now exchange their ideas in teams of three to five people and think about other possible answers within the group.

4. Discussion & Reflection: At the end, the student teams present their ideas to the whole class. The teacher reflects together with the students on the originality of the answers using the tool Shorty, Mitty & Flexy and creates a category system into which the solutions mentioned are assigned (see later).

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Thinkflex Tasks in the Context of Scientific Creativity Divergent thinking plays a central role in the context of scientific creativity (Runco & Agar, 2012). The Perspective Check of the Thinkflex tasks has proven to be an ideal promotional tool to promote this kind of divergent thinking. This guided change of perspective makes it easier for adolescents to adopt various viewpoints (flexibility) and thereby generate a variety of responses (fluency). This also allows for the inclusion of ideas outside the expected horizon, increasing originality.

Bisociation is trained primarily in Thinkflex tasks of the type “Uses” by often bringing together two concepts that do not belong together in the first place (e.g., “A gardener gets a truck full of Erlenmeyer flasks delivered. What can he do with it to get some benefit?”).

Imagination and visualization are required at the beginning of each Thinkflex task, as young people are supposed to imagine the task with all their senses and record the thought images in a sketch. This step requires a high level of imagination and is essential for effective ideation.

Metacognition regarding thinking strategies can be achieved on two levels.

Through the pre-determined work phases, each student in the exchange phase recognizes how successful they were in solo-brainstorming or what perspectives they overlooked. On the other hand, through the reflection tool Shorty, Mitty & Flexy, all ideas are reflected and categorized in terms of their genesis in the brain.

4.2. Flex Experiment Flex Experiments are a particular form of problem-solving experiment. The starting point is a realistic and subjectively significant problem formulated to stimulate cognition and enable independent action. The challenge is such that the students should not solve the problem only once but find as many different solution variants as possible and implement them experimentally. The students can choose from a predefined selection of materials, primarily everyday materials, to succeed. To make it easier for teachers to purchase or coordinate these materials, a so-called “flexbox” has been developed, containing all the materials for all flex Experiments for a given class size.

The problems were selected to relate to the most common topics in chemistry, physics, and biology lessons to ensure that flex Experiments can be integrated into any science lesson. The flex Experiments can be divided, for example, into the following types (see Table 4): Table 4: Types of flex Experiments Check hypotheses Construct structures Build models

Check sources of error Synthesize substances Implement possibilities

Conduct analyses Separate substances Identify features

The following are examples from chemistry and physics: “Find as many ways as possible to make a candle flame go out using only gases” and “Find as many ideas as possible to distinguish saltwater from freshwater.” In Appendix 2, both tasks are detailed.

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Description of the Procedure Again, students work according to Lyman’s (1981) Listen–Think–Pair–Share setting. Worksheets were developed for all flex Experiments to guide the youth from one phase to the next. The phases are briefly described below (Figure 3).

Figure 3: Five work phases in Flex Experiments

1. Problem definition: Flex Experiments start with an attractive problem definition, which should be relevant to and, above all, motivating for the students.

2. Brainstorming: Each student first thinks alone about possible solutions. The goal is to generate many different ideas and write them down or sketch them on the worksheet.

3. Exchange & Deciding: Students share their ideas in teams of three to five and decide which ideas to implement and how. They independently plan their approach and sketch possible experimental setups.

4. Experimental Implementation: The student teams work entirely independently. They implement as many ideas as possible with the given materials and re-record their results on the worksheet.

5. Presentation & Reflection: At the end, the student teams present their implementations to each other. Under the teacher’s guidance, the groups reflect on their results and possible unsuccessful approaches.

Flex Experiments in the Context of Scientific Creativity The unique feature of Flex Experiments is the demand for multiple solution implementations. Divergent thinking is explicitly trained through searching for and implementing as many different solution ideas as possible. Finding many ideas (fluency) can succeed in changing perspectives (flexibility), and as the number of solution ideas increases, so does the probability of unorthodox problem solutions and thus the originality of the solution approaches. Through these multiple-solution approaches, young people are provoked to leave their typical thinking routine to follow apparent solution approaches.

However, many solution ideas are only possible in most cases by breaking the provided materials’ functional fixedness (Duncker, 1945). This is significant because functional fixedness, the inability to perceive new relationships or uses for objects, inhibits problem-solving (Anderson, 2005). Thus, young people must find ways to misappropriate the materials in flex Experiments. Thus, by seeking alternative uses, the bisociation that is so important to creativity is fostered.

In flex Experiments, however, the young people are also challenged in their imagination and ability to visualize by being asked to record their ideas or plans in sketches before the experimental implementation. Flex Experiments provide

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opportunities for metacognition on the following three levels: thinking process, team process, and self-efficacy.

The Listen–Think–Pair–Share setting succeeds in reflecting the thinking process in two aspects. Through individual work during brainstorming, each student remains uninfluenced by the ideas of the others. It is not until the group phase that the student becomes aware of how effective they were in brainstorming compared to the others and what thinking strategies their peers used. In addition, at the end of each flex Experiment, all solution attempts are compared in front of the entire class. The different implementations are categorized, the different experimental approaches used by each group are discussed, and failed attempts are reflected upon. Thus, in turn, the thinking patterns of the respective teams are contrasted and compared.

The self-reflection of the team process succeeds through the use of the reflection sheet entitled Role Models. With this tool, the role behaviors during the experimental phase are surveyed and discussed in terms of self-perception and external perception. This tool is especially recommended in cases of insufficient team competence, which is discussed in more detail below.

The authors have developed the reflection tool Be a COMET for the metacognition of one’s own personality traits. After completing a flex Experiment, the Be a COMET tool reflects the typical personality traits necessary for creative challenges. Particular attention is given to promoting positive attributional patterns, such as the controllability and effortfulness dimensions. This tool is also presented in more detail below.

Especially in flex Experiments where students have to follow unknown paths, the probability of failure must be considered. Therefore, to promote a positive error culture, a unique setting was chosen for the experiments that considers the concept of “Productive Failure” by Manu Kapur (2008). According to this idea, three conditions are essential for developing a positive failure culture. On the one hand, problems should be chosen that are challenging but manageable (1).

Furthermore, the learners should have the opportunity to explain or describe failed processes in a reflection phase (2). And finally, the teachers should be able to compare and contrast good and suboptimal solutions (3). And all these 3 conditions are guaranteed in flex experiments. These three frameworks take away the students’ fear of failure, encouraging them to pursue unconventional, unpredictable paths. The real-life implementation of creative ideas plays a central role in building solid and lasting problem-solving skills (Thurston & Runco, 1999), and flex Experiments can help fulfill precisely this requirement. Although flex Experiments usually last only one to two teaching units, they contain the necessary processes of “idea generation,” “idea selection,” “implementation,” and “presentation” that a larger-scale real-world project would also involve.

4.3. WoSeCo WoSeCo is an acronym for word–sentence constructions. In WoSeCo, young people are encouraged in their linguistic competence by generating original

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associations between technical terms. In this way, students are tasked with combining technical terms acquired in class with technically correct sentences in a new context. The goal is to properly use subject vocabulary and link two words from distant topics within the subject. Such distance from the content thus trains the students to “think outside the box.”

Description of the Process Based on a Concrete Example When performing a WoSeCo, usually two students interact with each other. After the teacher has provided a sentence containing a familiar technical word, the students proceed as follows: one student picks up this technical word and combines it with any other technical term to create a meaningful and technically correct sentence. After a second student has recognized the added a technical term, they pick it up and combine it again with another new technical word. This procedure is repeated until the students can no longer think of new sentence constructions. As a rule, a WoSeCo lasts between one and three minutes.

The following is an example wherein the technical term to be built upon is underlined, and the added technical term is shown in bold: There are about 80 metals on our planet. Metals can be found on the left side of the periodic table. The elements are arranged according to the proton number in the periodic table. An element with the proton number 26 is iron. Iron can oxidize quickly.

Oxygen is responsible for oxidation.

WoSeCo in the Context of Scientific Creativity A solid technical vocabulary is an essential prerequisite for a WoSeCo. The student must recall the technical terms and know their technical meanings.

Therefore, this technique is used to practice and consolidate the correct application of technical knowledge.

However, the main goal of WoSeCo tasks is to encourage the construction of original associations. Thus, this intervention challenges the student to form associations between subject terms within a subject. Depending on which combination of terms the student is capable of, the quality of the adolescent’s intellectual originality can be inferred. Thus, low originality is shown when subject terms are used in chronological order according to the course of the lesson.

The more the student can make significant thematic leaps, the greater their potential for highly original thought constructions. The following example with the term sulfur shows a very original association: “Sulfur has the element symbol S. S is also used as a symbol for entropy.”

4.4. Nano Live Act In a Nano Live Act, young people present the microcosm of a scientific phenomenon or experiment through live animation. For this, the students “slip into” the role of the smallest particles and provide a view into the nanoworld using their bodies and selected utensils such as ribbons, cloths, balls, etc. In the Nano Live Act, the pupils have to change their perspective from the macrocosm to the microcosm and back again.

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Description of the Procedure Each Nano Live Act relates to a science experiment along with a specific aspect to be demonstrated. Ten to twelve students form a group, nominate a speaker to comment on the performance, and an interpreter to bring individual excerpts of the Nano Live Act back into scientific presentation form using formulas and equations. Selected materials are provided to the students for the performance.

The entire course of a Nano Live Act lasts about 45 minutes and can be divided into four phases (see Figure 4).

Figure 4: Four work phases in Nano Live Acts

1. Experiment: Students conduct a science experiment in small groups of two to four people. These experiments are usually simple in nature, often requiring little time.

2. Script: Several small groups form a large group of 10–12 participants and then think about a script for the task. In doing so, they rehearse the sequence of the action.

3. Performance: While one large group presents its performance, the others act as an attentive and critical audience.

4. Discussion: With the whole class, the teacher discusses the scientific correctness and the originality of the performances.

The following are two Nano Live Act examples: “Using a Nano Live Act, demonstrate the phenomenon of flame coloration” and “Using a Nano Live Act, demonstrate the influence of the surface area and temperature on the rate of chemical reactions.”

Nano Live Act in the Context of Scientific Creativity Scientific phenomena and content can be better understood when students actively reenact an analogy (Ashmann, 2009). Kinesthetic analogies involving concrete objects or actions facilitate the understanding of particularly abstract scientific processes. Asking students to develop and demonstrate kinesthetic metaphors for science topics leads learners to think deeply about the concepts (Rule & Olsen, 2016).

To complete the task outlined above using Nano Live Act, students must immerse themselves in the microcosmic world. Thus, this intervention specifically trains the imagination, as well as the ability to visualize. Both aspects are necessary for young people to translate their body performance into the language of scientific formulas. This change from a performance to a scientific language is essential for the comprehension of scientific phenomena. In this way, it is possible to transfer observations and results of scientific phenomena to an abstract mental particle level. In this way, students acquire the competence to form hypotheses and interpret the results of scientific experiments.

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Due to this open form of teaching in a Nano Live Act, effective interaction among the students within a group is important. To bring team competence to the required level for this, the authors recommend looking at the metacognition of the team process. For this purpose, employing the reflection tool Role Models again proves useful.

4.5. Visual Analogy Training Visual Analogy Training is a tool in which students are asked to find analogies between taught content and everyday objects or phenomena. For this purpose, students are presented with images that exhibit similarities to specific properties or functions of scientific content. The goal is also to locate the boundaries between the learning content and the analog examples. Through Visual Analogy Training, students first learn to find analogies to generate bionic solutions to scientific problems.

Implementation Before the Visual Analogy Training, the content-related discussion of a given topic should have already taken place in the class. This means that concrete properties, functions, principles, and characteristics of a specific subject have been discussed.

The students are given a worksheet with several pictures from everyday life. On the one hand, the task now is to find similarities or connections between the subject content and the everyday examples. On the other hand, the aim is to point out aspects where the analogy does not match the initial scientific topic. Visual Analogy Training also works in a List–Think–Pair–Share setting. Visual Analogy Training can be practiced at different levels of difficulty by asking young people to work only with the images provided or even by suggesting their own pictures.

Visual Analogy Training in the Context of Scientific Creativity Analogies can enhance scientific creativity (Hadzigeorgiou et al., 2012) by transferring a problem-solving strategy from a known problem to a new one (Condell et al., 2010) or using known ways of functioning from one domain in another (Foreman & Drummond, 2008).

Visual Analogy Training does an excellent job of promoting the ability to form analogies and thus bisociation, as similarities between two completely different ideas or concepts must be established. Therefore, analogies provide an opportunity to introduce the topic of bionics in the classroom. Bionics, a synthesized word between biology and technology, involves transferring natural phenomena to technology. As an interdisciplinary field of research, bionics plays a vital role in developing innovative products.

However, Visual Analogy Training is also ideal for generating “strange” images.

These are of great importance in the creation of mind maps but also for the generation of mnemonic stories, as discussed below.

In the FBL program, analogies are explicitly used with complex topics for cognitive understanding. Thus, Visual Analogy Training facilitates the understanding of complex content and, subsequently, the storage of content knowledge. Since scientific knowledge is considered a prerequisite for creative

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thinking (Hadzigeorgiou et al., 2012), analogies also contribute to increasing scientific creativity in this respect.

4.6. Memo Tools Memo Tools represents a collection of memorization techniques that were selected by the authors from the known literature to effectively memorize natural science data. The integration of these techniques into the FBL program has two goals. On the one hand, the students are taught a learning technique that makes it easier to store basic knowledge in their long-term memory. Second, memorization techniques provide an ideal opportunity to foster imagination in the context of science topics.

Memorization techniques are based on the mental visualization of information in imaginative images. This approach is used in well-known memorization techniques such as Keyword–Method, Memo–Story method, and Number–Story– System. All methods have in common that the inner pictures should be imagined in a colorful, moving, and exaggerated way for successful mental visualization.

Description of a Concrete Example An example of the keyword and number–shape methods preferably used for memorizing numbers is presented here. First, the numbers 1 to 10 are symbolized by objects with shapes similar to the numbers—for example, the number 3 could be represented by an opened handcuff. These symbols are combined with the information to be remembered to form a memory picture. As a concrete example, if it is to be memorized that the third main group of the periodic table of the elements begins with the element boron, using the keyword method first, the term “boron” is converted into the imaginable and similarly written word “boring rig.”

Finally, the keyword “boring rig” is linked using the imaginative picture with the symbol for 3, i.e., a handcuff.

Memorization in the Context of Scientific Creativity Since the availability of specialized knowledge (content knowledge) is considered an essential prerequisite for creative ideas, the sustained memorization of basic knowledge represents a vital role in fostering scientific creativity (Hadzigeorgiou et al., 2012). Memorization techniques, therefore, make a valuable contribution to making scientific creativity possible.

Further benefits can be obtained from memorization techniques if the students themselves generate them. Thus, each self-generated memorization story also provides feedback on its originality. The more original a memo story is, the more sustainably it can be stored in the memory. At the same time, memorization techniques also encourage imagination and fantasy in science subjects, making memo aids another contribution to the promotion of scientific creativity.

As in the number–shape method example presented above, a link is made between two alien concepts such as “boring” and “rig.” This is an impressive example of bisociation, one of the most significant factors in promoting creative problem-solving skills.

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4.7. Shorty, Mitty & Flexy Shorty, Mitty & Flexy is a reflection tool for metacognition regarding thinking strategies. To reflect on their thinking strategies in the brainstorming process of the Thinkflex tasks and the flex Experiments, students are asked to analyze their generated ideas in the respective reflection phase. Here, the assessment tool Shorty, Mitty & Flexy has proven helpful in that the young people assign their ideas to three imaginary actors who are held responsible for the ideas coming up in their brains. Shorty represents our small-minded thinking, which develops obvious ideas with little cognitive effort. Shorty ideas are the first to come to mind and are also the most frequently mentioned. Mitty provides us with ideas that require a little more cognitive effort but can still be counted as average ideas. Flexy represents original thinking that spares no effort to break out of the expected realm. Flexy thoughts occur when unusual perspectives are taken that no one expected. Although flexy ideas may come to mind spontaneously, the perspective check mentioned above can help students break through the expectation zone and generate original ideas.

To show students the entire perspective spectrum of a problem, all ideas are also categorized according to their characteristics at the end of the reflection phase. For this purpose, the students and the teacher look for similarities between their Thinkflex ideas or implemented experiments.

Implementation For metacognition regarding the thinking process, a poster with imaginary actors was developed by the authors. In addition to the pictorial representation of Shorty, Mitty & Flexy, this poster also describes their typical characteristics. The poster is hung up in the classroom so that the three thinking strategies are always present and an assignment based on the ideas can be done quickly and at any time.

Shorty in the Context of Scientific Creativity The moment young people reflect on how and with what effort an idea may have been formed in the brain, they can control their thinking. Whether the mappings are correct, thinking about one’s thinking is key to increasing flexibility and fluency (van de Kamp et al., 2015).

In addition, finding similarities of all the ideas produced is a valuable contribution to metacognition of the thinking process. The categories thus formed provide feedback to the students regarding their thinking flexibility, as it becomes clear which perspectives have been pursued and which have been overlooked. Here, the unique role of the perspective check should be mentioned once again, with the help of how the adopted way of thinking can be consciously changed or controlled. In this way, students are repeatedly shown that they can generate original ideas by observing and engaging with their thinking process.

4.8. Role Models Role Models is a reflection tool for metacognition of teamwork skills. It facilitates self-reflection on role behavior in team activities. Typical role behaviors frequently observed in creative processes are depicted with the help of

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exaggerated characters. Roles such as The Idea Bringer, The Dominant Leader, The Social Leader, The Practitioner, The Fence-Sitter, and The Lazy One are used.

Implementation This reflection tool is often used in flex Experiments as well as in Nano-Live Acts, as the open form of teaching can lead to social tensions within the groups. After all, young people often have to make difficult decisions—for example, which ideas are to be selected for experimental implementation and how they are to be realized in concrete terms.

The reflection sheet on role behavior is thus used after completing the respective techniques. Using worksheets, the students assign themselves to the characters listed above. Afterward, they exchange their reflection sheets and discuss selfperceptions and perceptions of others in the group. Later, the teacher can present best-practice examples of successful teamwork and reflect on them together with the students.

Role Models in the Context of Scientific Creativity In a team process characterized both by an open form of teaching and by the many degrees of freedom in implementation possibilities, effective team interaction is of crucial importance. Therefore, it is essential to make conflicts that have arisen immediately visible and point out concrete strategies for addressing them. The use of the reflection sheet provides a reasonable basis for this, as the team process is examined in terms of self-perceptions and external perceptions.

4.9. Be a COMET The capacity for creative work is also essentially determined by personality (Barron, 1995; Feist, 2010; Kozbelt et al., 2010). Therefore, a reflection instrument for significant personality traits was developed by the authors, including a reflection sheet. Be a COMET presents the most influential personality traits as compared to a comet. COMET is an acronym for the following attributes: “c”: courageous; “o”: open for new things; “m”: mindful; “e”: enduring; and “t”: tolerance for mistakes. The analogy with the celestial object was chosen because, as with a comet that recurrently “comes out of nowhere” and attracts attention by glowing, it is also up to the creative person to retreat at certain stages of the creative process to reflect on the problem to help their creative ideas break through after brainstorming and put these ideas in the spotlight.

In creating the reflection sheet, the concept of “fixed and growth mindsets” by Dweck (1999, 2015) was explicitly integrated for the metacognition of self-efficacy and reflection on fault tolerance.

Implementation In the first step, teachers introduce the topic of creative personality to their students using the reflection tool “Be a COMET.” Afterward, the students are asked to reflect on their personality profile and mindset using a reflection sheet.

The results of this survey are discussed together with the teacher to strengthen positive attribution patterns and build up a positive culture of mistakes. Teachers are advised to integrate personality metacognition into their lessons on a regular

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and situational basis. Especially in flex Experiments and in Nano Live Acts, selfefficacy and fault tolerance should be addressed.

Be a COMET in the Context of Scientific Creativity Creative action requires the complex interaction of various personality traits (Barron, 1995; Feist, 2010; Kozbelt et al., 2010). Especially in creative processes where habitual thinking patterns have to be left behind and failure has to be expected, it is essential to assess one’s strengths and weaknesses. This enables adolescents to recognize how their personality traits influence their selfconfidence and, thus, their performance (Silva Pacheco & Iturra Herrera, 2021).

4.10. Summary The following table (Table 5) shows which FBL techniques promote which aspects of scientific creativity. The last column indicates the reflection tool(s) used in each FBL technique.

Table 5: List of all interventions and their range on promoting scientific creativity (TS .. Thinking strategy, TC .. Team competence, P .. Personality)

Divergent Thinking Thinkflex Flex Experiment WoSeCo Nano Live Act Visual Analogy Training Memo Tools Mind Mapping

Bisociation

Original Association

Imagination Visualization

X

X

-

X

X

X

-

X

X -

X

X -

X

Metacognition TS TS & TC &P TC & P

-

X

-

X

-

-

X X

X

X X

-

5. Research Results 5.1. Research about the Effectiveness of Flex-Based Learning To implement FBL techniques in science classes, the individual FBL techniques have been integrated into Austrian textbooks. In addition, a one-year teacher training program has been offered in Austria since 2018. As part of these courses, the FBL concept was evaluated both at the teacher and student levels. More than 100 teachers from Austria have already participated in this FBL teacher training program. In a study (Oyrer et al., 2020) examining the effectiveness of the course at different levels of impact (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2006), 95% of the teachers stated that their methodological competence for promoting problem-solving skills increased significantly through FBL. In addition, the individual FBL techniques were rated as highly practical. Follow-up studies conducted after two years showed a sustainable change in the teaching practice of the participants. Thus, 87% of the teachers regularly used the FBL techniques in their lessons even two years after the course.

For student-level evaluation of FBL, the DPAS test was used in several pilot studies (e.g., Haim & Weber, 2014) and in a validation study (Aschauer et al.,

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2021). In total, 3,231 Austrian secondary school students (aged 10–18 years) participated in the studies conducted with a two-group repeated-measures design. For each item of the test, fluency and flexibility were obtained. To assess divergent problem-solving ability, the creativity quotient as a composite creativity score including both fluency and flexibility (Snyder et al., 2004) was calculated. A second-order latent difference score approach (McArdle, 2009) was used to model change in the latent means of the DPAS over time. The data from all studies conducted to date show that there was a statistically significant increase in divergent thinking ability within one school year in the intervention classes. On the contrary, no substantial change between pre-test and post-test in the control classes was found.

5.2. Results of the design experiments Conducting design experiments at all three stages also provided deeper insights into the conditions necessary for fostering scientific creativity, as well as the relationship between theory and practice. As a result of this long-term research project, a huge amount of data has been collected. The central results that could be derived from this are presented below.

Thinkflex From investigations in the Student Researcher Lab, the authors were able to determine through qualitative surveys that adolescents had great difficulty shifting their thinking perspectives. To facilitate changes in perspective, a perspective check was developed as a graphic representation depicting the most significant perspectives. To ensure that this aid is always present for students during a Thinkflex task, it is included in all worksheets.

In addition, through student interviews, it was shown that students are not highly motivated to solve a Thinkflex task if the task is highly fictional and has little to do with the young people’s world of experience. Unreal hypotheticals—such as “Imagine that there is no more gravity on earth ...”—generate very little motivation among young people to engage with a given task. Therefore, when creating the more than 100 Thinkflex tasks that have now been developed, we ensured that the tasks largely originate from the lives of young people and have a certain meaning or relevance for them.

Flex experiment From the video analyses of the micro-teaching, it could be observed that the test participants often lost their orientation during the open experiment tasks and switched haphazardly back and forth between the respective work phases. Thus, only formulating the problem on a worksheet was overwhelming for many students. Therefore, the authors developed worksheets for all flex experiments that not only contain the problem but also depict all phases of the creative process.

Furthermore, by interviewing teachers who used Flex Experiments in their own classes, we learned that it was very irritating for the young people not only to solve a problem in one way but to find several solutions and implement them experimentally. This approach was completely new for the young people, and they also did not see any sense in solving an already solved problem again in a

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different way. For this reason, when introducing Flex Experiments in their own classes, we recommend that teachers have each team of students implement only one solution. However, the teachers ensure that each student team works on a different solution variation. In the subsequent discussion, the different solutions are presented and reflected upon. This approach demonstrates to the students the value and usefulness of divergent solutions.

The evaluation of the teacher interviews also revealed that low-performing student teams in particular are often overwhelmed during free experimentation.

Therefore, the authors developed hint sheets for all Flex Experiments. In the case of being overwhelmed, teams can refer back to these hint sheets and plan the next experimental steps.

WoSaCo Reflections by teachers during their professional education course revealed that students initially had great difficulty in conducting a WoSeCo. On the one hand, they were not used to linking terms from different chapters, and on the other hand, the meaning of the terms was often not clear enough to them. Therefore, we recommend teachers conduct a written WoSeCo instead of an oral one at the beginning, where the students are also allowed to use the textbook. This gives the young people more time to think about a correct sentence and to get used to the new technique. Furthermore, we recommend teachers create a glossary together with the students from the beginning of the teaching year, in which new technical terms together with their meanings are entered for every lesson.

Nano Live Act Interviews with teachers who used Nano Live Acts in their lessons revealed that working out a script on their own was a big challenge for the students at first. For example, students found it difficult to focus on the essential elements of the particle level and concentrated, for example, on depictions of the vessel rather than the reactants. To minimize this problem, an introductory variant was developed in which the teacher first takes over the direction of the Nano Live Act, assigning roles to the young people and providing precise instructions on how to perform. In this way, the students learn to focus on the essentials and to design their performance in such a way that it approximates formula writing.

Metacognition One of the final results from a quantitative study in the professional development course was that many students had very low self-efficacy expectations despite good divergent thinking performance. This effect was significantly pronounced in girls. To improve students’ self-efficacy, teachers were encouraged to incorporate metacognitive elements in the classroom, such as having students think about and reflect on personality traits. In this context, the authors are currently developing a reference poster of the main personality traits that can be accessed during student work at any time. An interesting result from the reflection discussions with teachers was also that young people often showed a lack of understanding for a given flex technique and were unwilling to try it out. Only when the teachers explained the meaning, background, and relevance of the flex technique to the students was their willingness to participate significantly

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stronger. This underscores the fact that the knowledge about when and why creative thinking is essential has a major impact on the effectiveness of fostering scientific creativity. Adolescents need to be involved in the entire teaching– learning process and should be educated about the relevance of each technique.

For this reason, we developed special PowerPoint presentations for students for each technique to inform students what a flex technique is intended to accomplish and why the new technique should be learned.

Listen–Think–Pair–Share Cycle Both in the lab environment and through observations in the real classroom, we found that this framework creates a safe and anxiety-free learning environment for students, where young people dare to think outside norms and conventions.

This increases students’ willingness to create original ideas and share them with the class. This aspect is of great benefit in fostering scientific creativity.

6. Discussion and Future Directions In the literature, several evaluated training programs promote scientific creativity.

Using the categorization and terminology of the meta-analysis of scientific creativity interventions from Bi et al. (2020), these training programs can be categorized into the following four groups: problem-solving, collaborative learning, conceptual construction, and scientific reasoning.

The “problem-solving” group includes intervention approaches (e.g., Aktamis & Ergin, 2008) that mainly aim to promote students’ problem-solving skills, which are a central component of scientific creativity. Regarding FBL, Flex Experiments in particular would fall into this group. First, this is because they are structured, reflecting the phases of a problem-solving process. Second, parallel to this intervention, students are also informed about the different phases of a problemsolving approach and which thinking style, divergent and/or convergent, is appropriate at which stage.

Interventions in the “collaborative learning” group focus on student collaboration and its associated promotion of knowledge sharing in group discussions. For example, the work of Siew and Ambo (2018), Siew et al. (2017), and Siew and Chin (2018) can be mentioned here. FBL techniques such as Thinkflex or Flex Experiments belong to this group because they follow the Listen–Think–Pair– Share setting. In addition, collaborative learning plays a vital role during Nano Live Acts because students within a group must be responsive to each other’s conceptions and constantly share knowledge.

In the “conceptual construction” group, students are supported in developing a coherent and organized knowledge structure for scientific concepts because the associated accumulation of knowledge is an essential component of scientific creativity. For example, the work of Ayverdi and Aydin (2018) and Rasul et al.

(2018) can be mentioned here. Regarding FBL, it should be highlighted that interventions like WoSeCo, Memo Tools, Nano Live Act, and Visual Analogy Training not only foster divergent thinking, original association, bisociation,

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imagination, and visualization but also support students in generating scientific concepts, as well as preserving existing knowledge.

The “scientific reasoning” group includes support programs such as the “Learn to think” program (Hu et al., 2013) or the program of “creative inquiry-based science teaching” (Yang et al., 2016). These programs contain thinking training activities for creative and inquiry activities such as problem-finding, problemsolving, questioning, planning, implementing, and concluding. This group is covered by Thinkflex and Flex Experiments. According to Lawson (2004), scientific reasoning comprises mental plans, strategies for processing information, and rules used to derive conclusions. Thereby, the hypothetical–deductive process is considered the core of scientific reasoning. It involves observing phenomena, generating plausible explanations, deriving conclusions, and finally planning and conducting experiments to accept, reject, or revise the hypotheses.

Thinkflex types like “forming a hypothesis,” “finding arguments,” “finding reasons,” or “concluding” train students in these scientific reasoning skills, whereas in flex Experiments, students have to apply these skills.

As shown in the examples above, most training programs comprise only a single type of intervention and focus on one or two aspects of scientific creativity.

Therefore, FBL can be described as novel and unique in that it is a collection of several different interventions, covering all essential aspects of scientific creativity. In this sense, the FBL program covers all four categories according to Bi et al. (2020). FBL thus provides a significant contribution to the promotion of scientific creativity in secondary education.

Another unique feature of FBL is that it is easy to implement. Teachers can maintain most of their traditional way of teaching because our program builds on lessons in which basic knowledge and basic skills were taught prior. Most FBL techniques are applied after knowledge acquisition. However, some interventions such as Nano Live Act, or Visual Analogy Training, should be used already in the learning process since they support students in constructing complex scientific concepts. Investigations in FBL teacher training programs showed that Austrian teachers consider the FBL program very feasible and appreciate the developed worksheets and evaluated procedures that can be used directly in the classroom (Oyrer et al., 2020).

There are various concepts related to problem-solving, such as creative problemsolving (Treffinger et al., 2006), complex problem-solving (Dörner & Funke, 2017), and knowledge-centered problem-solving (Friege, 2001). Despite some conceptual differences, all three concepts understand problem-solving as a process that can be divided into several phases. One of these phases is ideation, wherein many divergent solutions are developed. In this phase, divergent thinking, in particular flexibility, is crucial. Since the focus of the FBL program is on promoting flexibility, the authors developed the DPAS test (Aschauer et al., 2021) to assess students’ divergent problem-solving abilities and used this test to explore the effectiveness of FBL. Notably, the impact of FBL on other skills concerning scientific creativity, like the capability for problem-finding,

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metacognition, or imagination, has not yet been investigated and should be addressed in the future. Furthermore, all results refer to an Austrian sample.

Therefore, only limited statements can be made about the general effectiveness of the interventions.

In addition to designing new interventions to promote scientific creativity, another important goal of this research project was to contribute to theories regarding the fostering of scientific creativity in classrooms. This is important because in the existing literature, few empirical studies regarding to this topic exist. In this sense, the research project was designed to be exploratory rather than confirmatory. As outlined in section 5, initial insights can already be gained from the data collected in the design experiments. However, much is still outstanding— for example, how many and which interventions are necessary for an effective program? What gender differences need to be considered? Do all flex techniques or reflection tools contribute equally to fostering science creativity, or do individual techniques stand out? In which age group does one achieve the greatest promotional effect with regard to scientific creativity? In this sense, this paper is also intended to stimulate further research in this field.

Thus far, FBL interventions for secondary education are available for biology, chemistry, and physics. Work is currently ongoing to optimize the existing reflection tools and to adapt the interventions for mathematics and computer science so that the entire STEAM area will be covered in the future. In addition, the individual interventions are also being revised to adapt them for primarylevel science teaching. The worksheets and documents for the interventions are currently only available in German. Therefore, they will now be successively translated into English.

To cope with future challenges, young people must learn to solve problems without ready-made strategies. FBL perfectly prepares students for solving real problems. To allow students to work on realistic situations, the authors have developed a course system for students called Creative4Science. Together with flex-based learning, this program forms the backbone of the School of Creative Solutions. This initiative aims to establish schools as think tanks for creative solutions to the challenges of our times. More information about this initiative can be found at www.school-creative-solutions.at.

7. Conclusion Schools have to prepare students for future challenges by promoting creative thinking skills and problem-solving abilities (DeHaan, 2009; Kind & Kind, 2007; OECD, 2014). For this goal, science education in particular could make a significant contribution. To foster the scientific creativity of secondary students, in the context of a long-term design-based research project, the authors developed the Flex-Based Learning program for the science subjects of biology, chemistry, and physics. The FBL program as a design product can be considered novel and unique for several reasons, including the following: 1) it includes interventions for all different aspects of scientific creativity; 2) FBL promotes divergent thinking and divergent problem-solving in special experimental settings; and 3) most

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interventions not only promote divergent thinking, original association, bisociation, and imagination but also support students in building up scientific concepts, as well as retaining their existing knowledge.

The design-based research process also pursues the goal of providing contributions to the theory of fostering scientific creativity in classrooms. As a first insight, it became obvious that students’ metacognitive knowledge about why and when to think divergently has a major impact on the effectiveness of the FBL training program. Additionally, students need to be supported to generate different solutions, especially in the ideation phase. The developed Perspective Check makes a crucial contribution to increasing divergent thinking abilities.

Overall, it seems that Flex-Based Learning is highly effective and can provide essential contributions to the promotion of scientific creativity in secondary science education.

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Appendix 1

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 21, No. 3, pp. 231-246, March 2022 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.3.12 Received Feb 10, 2022; Revised Mar 19, 2022; Accepted Mar 24, 2022

The Impact of Production-oriented Approach on Oral English Performance of Senior High School Chinese Students: An Application Study Lixuan Sun Department of Language and Literacy Education, Faculty of Education, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia Adelina Asmawi* Department of Language and Literacy Education, Faculty of Education, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

Abstract. The Chinese education system has traditionally been textbookoriented and focuses on rote learning. Distinct drawbacks and issues from rote learning have affected Chinese students' oral English learning. Thus, there is a pedagogical shift to task-based or project-centered learning approaches in recent years, focusing on applied learning. Wen (2017) created a distinctive foreign language pedagogy known as the Production-Oriented Approach (POA). The past five years have seen research carried out on the effectiveness and applicability of POA on productive skills in university contexts; however, few empirical investigations were carried out on the efficacy of POA on high school students. This study thus attempts to apply POA in oral English classes at a senior high school, specifically focusing on whether POA improves these students' oral performance and explores their acceptance of the POA. After 12 weeks of treatment, quantitative analysis of both the pre and post-tests revealed a significant improvement in the experimental class and minimal improvement in the controlled class. Additional findings discovered by qualitative analysis illustrated that the students were also satisfied with the POA used in oral English classrooms. It is implied that the POA application effectively enhances the students' learning of oral English skills.

Keywords: Production-oriented Approach; senior high school; Oral English instruction; performance; Chinese students

*

Corresponding author: Adelina Asmawi, adelina@um.edu.my

©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

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1. Introduction 1.1 Research background English teaching methods have recently undergone tremendous changes with new lenses through which Chinese teaching philosophy is embraced (Vettorel, 2018; Cumming, 2017). As a language discipline, English has continuously been a critical and difficult skill for Chinese students, therefore, the development of English teaching has been of wide concern for teachers, students, and people from all walks of society.

Most English teachers trapped in the current examination system mainly focused on the written examination to maximize students' English scores. This led to Chinese high school students achieving good results in reading and writing but the opposite for effective listening and speaking (Polio, 2017; Zhang, 2017; Kohn, 2018). As a consequence, even those with outstanding results in their English tests may find it difficult to use English to verbally communicate information. This highlights the importance of teaching oral communication which should not be overlooked and requires a revisit.

Relevant literature demonstrates that the conventional PPP (PresentationPractice-Production) teaching mode is the most commonly used oral English teaching method in China for senior high school students (Vettorel, 2018; Cumming, 2017). However, the PPP may not be the most suitable approach to use for speaking classes. To stimulate students' interest in communication and maximize their potential, teachers should integrate engaging teaching activities by consolidating students’ fundamental knowledge of English and further cultivate their ability to transform the English language into a practical verbal communication tool.

1.2 Theoretical foundation and teaching principles of POA “Production-oriented approach” (POA) is based on the “output driven hypothesis,” which explains that output motivates learners more than input and also improves their desire to learn a foreign language (Wen, 2018). The outputdriven hypothesis is more suitable for social demands as it fosters productive skills such as speaking, writing, and translation. Output focuses both on the process of production and results of output. In early 2014, this hypothesis was revised and called the “output driven input facilitation hypothesis,” and later the production-oriented approach (Wen, 2018).

This method was developed to improve learner’s output such as speaking, writing, interpretating, and translating. POA is based on three principles: firstly, POA is learning-centred which means that instructors employ techniques to activate learning by engaging learners in activities (Fu & Li, 2021). Secondly, once students have learned new linguistic elements or skills through input-based activities, this learning should be linked and integrated into speaking and writing activities. In other words, students read the text, and use it to complete the output task. The third principle is called the whole-person principle (Zhang, 2020). This principle involves humanistic objectives, namely developing learners’ critical

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thinking skills, intercultural competence, and autonomous learning. Here, instructors try to promote cultural exchange between China and foreign countries.

This study explores the integration of oral English teaching and POA in Chinese senior high schools to investigate if the POA can improve the students' oral English performance. This study contributes to research on the integration of POA and oral English teaching in senior high school English classrooms. It forms a new teaching model and could have profound and extensive significance for both teachers and students. This study is also an important attempt at helping teachers to deepen the subject matter knowledge and internalize their own pedagogical practice.

When it comes to students, the output-driven section can effectively stimulate their enthusiasm and curiosity in English learning, focus their attention on the importance of autonomous English learning and improve their language awareness. In the evaluation process, teachers' guiding role and students' initiative are reflected. More attention is paid to the diversification of evaluation methods and establishing a harmonious interpersonal relationship between teachers and students.

The issue in contemporary China is that majority of secondary students focuses only on college admissions and the severe school workload forces English teachers to spend majority of their course time teaching English learning points, which then ultimately leaves little time for oral skills development. As a result, students have a limited understanding of oral production. They are unable to apply their English skills in verbal communication, resulting in a loss of confidence when speaking. In view of this phenomenon, this study formulates the following research questions: 1. How effective is POA in developing students' oral English performance?

2. How are the Chinese high students’ acceptance of POA for oral English classroom?

3. Can POA improve students' fluency and accuracy of Oral English?

2. Literature Review 2.1 The Theory Development The Production-oriented Approach originates from the output-driven hypothesis from Krashen (1992)'s input hypothesis and Swain (2005)'s output hypothesis.

Input hypothesis is one of the five hypotheses of SLA. By observing immersion teaching, Swain thought comprehensible input could be regarded as a necessity but not a sufficient condition for SLA. In this regard, Park (2007) also proposed that if learners want to acquire SLA conditions, they need to combine the comprehensible input language with the actual communication process. Shintani (2016) emphasizes that teachers should combine comprehensible input with interactive output to form a complete communication process.

In international foreign language education, POA research scholars have made significant and critical observation locally and abroad (Wen, 2018). Foreign experts in language teaching and research have also made relevant analysis on

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the role of POA in theoretical extension, classroom implementation, learner demand, and teacher training (Wen, 2012). In what follows, we explain the procedure of POA in the oral classroom.

2.2 Oral English Pedagogical Practice POA pedagogical practice includes three stages: a) motivating learners, b) enabling learners c) assessing learners. In all three stages, teachers play the role of mediator to guide, design and scaffold. In the first stage, instructors should design communicative scenes including cognitively challenging topics to motivate students’ learning. Then, instructors get learners to complete the communicative activities. In this stage, learners become aware of their language capacity or the lack of, and are motivated to develop their language capacity. For instance, the instructor may design the following communicative tasks following the theme of food and beverages. ‘Imagine visiting a food festival in an international college overseas, and your international peers would like to know about the special dishes or Chinese cuisine in your country’. This task encourages learners to use their existing knowledge as well as actively engage with new chunks of knowledge to complete the task. Additionally, they would be familiar with Western and Chinese culture (Wen, 2012) as they complete the task.

To complete the output task, learners need input, language, and discourse structures. In the second stage of the POA which is the enabling or facilitation phase, teachers should provide students with necessary and supplementary input, content, and discourse to complete the output task. For instance, teachers prepared a video about Chinese cuisine and the Chinese New Year festival. It is worth mentioning that teachers should enable activities gradually starting from words, chunks, sentences, and then to a range of texts. Their enabling activities should include role-play, group work, monologue, debate, jokes, stories, and speech. In the POA approach, teachers should gradually reduce their level of scaffolding in the oral classroom.

As for assessment, in POA, students are assessed from the motivation stage until the summative assessment stage. There are two types of assessments in POA, instant or formative assessment, and delayed or summative assessment. The former refers to teachers’ assessment for selective learning, which helps teachers modify the teaching progress. The delayed assessment refers to assessing the completed tasks. These two types of comprehensive and detailed assessments aim to reflect students’ presentation in speaking class and enhance students’ learning.

Teachers assess students in terms of participation in class, their progress, and their output product. Assessment covers students’ critical thinking and use of English language particularly in grammar and collocations. The best methods of assessments are observation, interview, oral communicative presentation, and tests (Sun, 2020).

To date, several studies have confirmed that POA is an innovative transfer of English teaching theories and ideas in China, especially for the younger generation of language learners (Vettorel, 2018). Ellis (2017) believed that POA

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has a rock-solid theoretical foundation and a wide range of research directions.

Schaller-Schwaner (2018) believes that the generation of POA theory was another innovation in education and a new supplement to eradicate existing problems in oral skills development.

As for classroom implementation, Bygate (2016) believes that POA has great value in Task-based Language Teaching BLT. POA emphasizes that students can first realize the lack of existing language knowledge and skills through the output to acquire new, targeted language skills. As per learner demand, Kohn (2018) analyses the practical application of POA theory from the perspective of English as a common, international language.

For teacher training, Polio (2017) proposed that POA can promote teachers' preemployment training to a certain extent as it can help new teachers to quickly realize the problems that exist in teaching. Zhang (2016) applied POA to college English classroom teaching and the feedback obtained from the students were excellent, with significant experimental results. In a follow-up study, Zhang (2017) again applied the POA to college English writing class with findings revealing that the language points learned by students using the POA were utilized more frequently in real writing application.

To the best of our knowledge, most scholars mainly take college students as core participants in POA. No study has investigated the effect of POA on high school students at schools. POA theory stipulates that students who reach the A2 level according to CEFR can be regarded as appropriate participants, and the English level of Chinese senior high school students is able to exceed the A2 standard.

Therefore, there is a gap in the application of POA theory in senior high school oral English teaching classes. This study focuses on high school students and tries to expand the POA theory's application and scope to include the Chinese high school students’ oral skills development.

3. Method 3.1 Research Design and Participants This study aimed at investigating the effect of POA on Chinese secondary students' oral English performance. This study is of a mixed-method design. To answer research question 1, the researchers collected quantitative data. Pre and post-tests were carried out. To maintain reliability and validity of the results, all test questions were adopted from IELTS speaking tests. The public version of IELTS speaking and its rubrics including the accuracy of grammatical structures, fluency, pronunciation, vocabulary, and task achievement were used to assess the speaking performance in pre-and post-tests. SPSS software was used to analyse the pre-test and post-test scores. To answer research question 2, qualitative data were collected through semi-structured interviews to explore POA students' acceptance. Eight students were randomly selected through fishbowl sampling.

Their answers for the questions about testing the acceptance of POA will be analysed to measure whether POA is well accepted by students. Interviewees' responses were carefully observed, recorded, and transcribed for further analysis.

To answer research question 3, the researchers recorded the number of stuck per

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unit time (1 minute) and grammatical errors per unit time (1 minute) during the pre-test and post-test by listening back to the students' oral test recordings.

The participants were two parallel classes of 50 local senior high school students with the same language proficiency level, which is A1 (CEFR). Oxford Placement Test Version 1.1 was administered to ensure the participants are of the same language proficiency level. Students' oral proficiency in both classes is expected to reach A2 or above at the end of the course. The same teacher conducted the Oral English lessons in both the experimental class and the controlled class. The experimental class adopted the POA to teach oral English, while the controlled class used the conventional teaching approach. The experiment duration was 12 weeks.

3.2 Research Instruments The first instrument was Oxford Placement Test Version 1.1 to measure students' language proficiency. The test has 60 questions which mainly include communicative vocabulary and grammar questions. It was scored objectively.

This test was used to assure the English level of students in the experimental class and the control class is consistent. The second research instrument was the IELTS speaking test (part 1 and part 2) to measure students' oral English language proficiency. This test was used as a pre-test and post-test which can be applied to measure whether POA is effective for students’ oral English study (RQ 1). And the number of stuck per unit time (1 minute) and grammatical errors per unit time (1 minute) were recorded to explore whether it can improve students’ fluency and accuracy of Oral English (RQ 3).

The last data collected was from a semi-structured interview conducted with the experimental group participants after the treatment. The interview included ten open-ended questions, validated by three experts. The researchers aimed to explore the students' acceptance of POA through this 15-minute interview.

3.3 Research Procedures Through English proficiency tests, the researchers ensured that the two parallel classes of students had the same language proficiency levels. The teacher conducted a pre-test via IELTS among students in both the control and experimental groups to measure their oral proficiency. Three raters scored the IELTS speaking test results. The teacher taught students in the experimental class and control class for four months. This teacher taught students in the control group using the conventional method (presentation, practice, production). After a teaching session, materials extracted from related guidebooks were used in the oral English class. The same teacher taught oral English by applying POA guidelines in the experimental group. The following part illustrates one of the topics related to environmental protection as an example to explain how the teacher applied the POA to conduct the oral English class.

3.3.1 Task-driven Stage In this stage, the teacher first showed students a video on environmental protection. Then, the teacher described environmental protection issues and assigned students some tasks. The researchers recorded students' answers,

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especially those with production difficulties. Students became aware of their language issues and were motivated to acquire new knowledge to complete the first task production (see Figure 1).

Figure 1: Task-driven stage

3.3.2 Facilitating stage In this section, the teacher illustrated the production task again and clearly explained the standard procedures (see Figure 2). Students were provided vocabulary, phrases, and sentence patterns related to environmental protection to create an optional learning environment to learn, promote, and encourage each other, and prepare for the final production. Then, students began to carry out the trial production activities and independently practice the teacher's output tasks in the group (Miyawaki, 2012). In this section, corresponding input materials were given to students. In line with the "whole person education" concept of the POA, group cooperation is fully applied, so that students learned from active participation and cooperation.

Figure 2: Facilitation section

3.3.3 Evaluation Section The assessment phase of the POA, or Teacher-Student Collaborative Assessment (Sun, 2017), was implemented throughout whole teaching process. The teacher organized students' self-evaluation, peer evaluation, and teacher evaluation in the classroom. Self-evaluation creates an opportunity for students to correct mistakes

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through monitoring ability. Through peer evaluation, students could further recognize their oral production drawbacks and realize their error correction and monitoring capability. Additionally, teachers provided students with feedback and inspired them to express themselves in correct English (See Figure 3).

Figure 3: Evaluation section

Having been trained for four months, students took a post-test (IELTS) which was employed and conducted by the teacher. Simultaneously, a random sampling was carried out through a fishbowl method in the experimental class. Eight students were selected for a semi-structured interview of 15 minutes each consisting of several open-ended questions and collected data on students' acceptance of the POA.

4. Data Analysis and Discussion 4.1 Comparison of Pre-test between Experimental and Controlled Classes To compare whether there is a significant difference between the experimental and control classes, an independent sample t-test was conducted. The experimental results are shown in Table 1 and Table 2.

Table 1: Group Statistics Group level Pre-test Experimental Class

N 50

Mean 5.200

SD .5803

Std Mean .0821

score

50

5.260

.7016

.0992

Controlled Class

Table 1 shows the descriptive statistics of the results of the experimental and control classes. The mean value of the pre-test of the experimental class is 5.200, and that of the control class is 5.260. It can be seen from the numerical value that there is a slight difference (0.060) between the two classes, but whether the difference reaches the level of statistical difference is shown in Table 2.

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Table 2: Independent Samples Test Levene Test of Variance Equation

F

Pre-test Score

Equal Variances Assumed Equal Variances not Assumed

Sig.

t Test of Mean Value Equation

df

95% Confidence Sig. Mean Standard Interval of Difference Difference Error Lower Upper Limits Limits

98

.642

-.0600

.1288

-.3155

.1955

-.466 94.669 .642

-.0600

.1288

-.3156

.1956

t

2.144 .146 -.466

From Table 2, it is found that under the significance level of 0.05, the sig value of the experimental class and the controlled class in the pre-test was 0.642, which was greater than 0.05. Therefore, the results showed no significant difference in the scores of the two classes in the pre-test stage when the POA has not been implemented.

4.2 Comparison of Post-test between Experimental and Controlled Classes In order to compare whether there is a significant difference between the experimental group and the control group, an independent sample t-test was conducted. The experimental results are shown in Table 3 and Table 4.

Table 3: Group Statistics Post-test score

Group level Experiment class

N 50

Mean 6.440

SD .3591

Std Mean .0508

Control class

50

5.560

.6673

.0944

Table 3 shows the descriptive statistics of the experimental group and the control group in the post-test. It can be seen that the average score of the experimental group in the post-test is 6.440, and that of the control group is 5.560. It can be seen from the numerical value that there is a difference (0.880) between the two groups.

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Table 4: Independent Samples Test Levene Test of Variance t Test of Mean Value Equation Equation

F

Posttest Score

Sig.

Equal Variances 19.913 .000 Assumed Equal Variances not Assumed

t

df

8.211 98

Sig.

95% Confidence Mean Standard Interval of Difference Difference Error Lower Upper Limits Limits

.000

.8800

.1072

.6673

1.0927

8.211 75.188 .000

.8800

.1072

.6665

1.0935

From Table 4, at the significance level of 0.05, the experimental group's sig value and the control group in the post-test of performance is 0.000, less than 0.05. The results show a significant difference between the two classes, and the experimental group average score is significantly higher (0.880) than the control group.

4.3 Comparison of Pre-test and Post-test in the Experimental Class To compare the pre-test and post-test results of the experimental class and whether there is a relative improvement, the paired sample t-test is carried out.

The experimental results are shown in Table 5 and Table 6.

Table 5: Paired Sample Statistics

Pair 1

Pre-test Score Post-test Score

Mean 5.200 6.440

N 50 50

SD .5803 .3591

Std Mean .0821 .0508

Table 5 is the descriptive statistics of the results of the pre-test and post-test of the experimental group. It can be seen that the average score of the pre-test and posttest of the experimental group is 5.200 and 6.440, respectively. It can be found that the post-test average score is dramatically higher by 1.240 than the pre-test average score.

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Table 6: Paired Sample Test Paired Difference

Pair 1

Pre-test scorepost-test score

Mean

SD

Std Mean

95% Confidence Interval of t Difference Lower Upper Limits Limits

-1.2400

.3812

.0539

-1.3483

-1.1317

df Sig.

-23.002 49

.000

It can be seen from the numerical value that there is a slight difference between the pre and post test scores. It can also be seen that at the significance level of 0.05, in terms of performance, the sig value of the paired sample t-test of the pre-test and post-test of the experimental group is 0.000, less than 0.05. There is a significant difference (1.240) between the pre-test and post-test results of the experimental group. The post-test results are significantly higher than the pre-test results.

4.4 Comparison of Pre-test and Post-test in the Control Class To compare the difference between the pre-test and post-test results of the control group, paired sample t-test was conducted. The results are shown in Table 7 and Table 8.

Table 7 Paired Sample Statistics

Pair 1

Mean 5.260 5.560

Pre-test score Post-test score

N 50 50

SD .7016 .6673

Std Mean .0992 .0944

Table 7 is the descriptive statistics of the results of the pre-test and post-test of the control group. It can be seen that the average value of the pre-test and post-test of the control group is 5.260 and 5.560, respectively. It can be seen from the numerical value that there is a slight difference between the two, which is illustrated in Table 8.

Table 8: Paired Sample Test Paired Difference

Pair 1

Pre-test scorepost-test score

Mean

SD

Std Mean

95% Confidence Interval of t Difference Lower Upper Limits Limits

-.3000

.3499

.0495

-.3994

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df Sig.

-6.062

49

.000

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From Table 8, at the significance level of 0.05, the sig value of the paired sample ttest of the control group before and after the test was 0.000, less than 0.05.

Therefore, it is considered that there is a difference between the pre-test and posttest results of the control group. The post-test score was higher than that of the pre-test (0.300), and significantly less than that of the experimental group (1.240).

4.5 Stuck and Errors Comparison of Pre-test and Post-test in the Experimental Class The pre-test and post-test of the experimental class are recorded in the form of the whole process. While analysing the data, the researchers carefully listened to students' recordings of the experimental class's pre-test and post-test. The researchers have recorded the number of hesitations in unit time (1 minute) in Table 9 and the number of grammatical errors in Table 10.

Table 9: The Frequency of Students Stuck in Unit Time (1 minute) Stuck times Experiment name Pre-test (number of people) Post-test (number of people)

0-5 times

5-10 times

10-15 times

15-20 times

Over 20 times

1

6

8

16

19

10

24

10

4

2

From Table 9, most of the students were stuck more than 20 times per unit time (1 minute), most of them were 15-20 times, and only 15 students could achieve less than 15 times in the pre-test. In the post-test, the number of stumbling in unit time (1 minute) was mostly 5-15 times, and ten students could achieve less than five times. Only six students had more than 15 times in hesitation. From this data, in terms of fluency of language expression, students in the post-test stage have less hesitation time and more fluent communication.

Table 10: The Frequency of Students Errors in Unit Time (1 minute) Errors times Experiment name Pre-test (number of people) Post-test (number of people)

0-5 times

5-10 times

10-15 times

15-20 times

Over 20 times

4

5

4

24

13

21

20

6

2

1

From Table 10, in the pre-test, the proportion of students making mistakes in unit time is relatively large. 13 students made more than 20 grammatical errors. The number of students who made more than 15 mistakes accounts for the majority of

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the class. Only a few students could control the grammatical errors within five times. In the post-test, the number of grammatical errors was significantly reduced. 21 students could control the errors within five times, most of them could control within 10 times, and only 3 students made mistakes more than 15 times.

The less the number of grammatical errors, the higher the accuracy of using grammar.

4.6 Recordings of the Interview Results Following the 12-week experiment, the researchers randomly selected 8 students from the experimental class for open-ended question interviews in order to learn more about the students' feelings on the use of POA in senior high school oral English classes and to get more feedback from the experimental subjects. The researchers discovered the following information from excerpts of the students' responses.

In terms of acceptance of POA for oral English learning, students' mentality has changed significantly. Student 1 illustrated that the POA employed in oral English class has been quite beneficial to him. Previously, he felt as though the oral English expression was really tough, and had no idea on how to address the deficiencies.

Now he has gained a better understanding of the relationship between output tasks and effective learning as a result of the POA. Furthermore, he also learned how to collaborate with peers during this process (Line 32, Interview 1, 2020).

In the process of learning in the oral English classroom, through the continuous guidance of teacher, students gradually broke through their inner barriers, and gained more confidence to express their own ideas through discussing and cooperating with their peers to complete tasks. This is evident when Student 7 stated that studying POA has increased her awareness of the enjoyment of English learning. When there was a language barrier, the teacher provided her with supplemental information in a timely manner so that she could selectively acquire the required knowledge. Finally, after much effort, her heart felt both proud and gratified (Line 40, Interview 2, 2020). Students' enthusiasm to learn oral English has also gradually enhanced and learning efficiency has significantly improved.

When asked about the differences and effectiveness of the POA compared to the traditional classroom, Student 3, Student 6 and Student 8 believed that there is a clear distinction. They said that they were often embarrassed to express themselves in the previous oral class. They have always admired students who speak English well and express themselves accurately and eloquently, but they were not sure how to improve. They have just begun to participate more actively in the oral class and were increasingly expressing themselves during the POA class. This gave them more confidence to practice the oral English better. And also they agreed that the new teaching method had provided them with more chances to discuss in groups and learn from each other. (Line 24, Interview 3, 2020).

Simultaneously, teacher-student cooperation and mutual evaluation have enabled students to express their own ideas to improve oral classroom efficiency.

For instance, Student 4 and Student 5 believed this strategy was ideal for high

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school students, as they were typically under a lot of pressure with homework and had little time to focus on oral English practice. POA is a really efficient way that she could not only practice oral English in one lesson, but also listen to the expressions of classmates. Finally, they offered suggestions and assisted one another (Line 35, Interview 4, 2020).

Students also hope that teachers continue using this form of oral teaching in the future as the situational teaching mode of POA assisted students in enhancing their oral communication performance. They put forward some valuable advice for the following class. For example, Student 2 pointed that the teacher's materials in class could be more extensive. If the provided materials include not only text, but also audio and video, they would appreciate the variety and would learn more. Student 8 also mentioned that during the evaluation process, students should be given additional opportunity to learn from one another. The duration of each class is limited. If this strategy is extended to after-school or classroom duties, the effect would be enhanced (Line 55, Interview 5, 2020).

4.7 Analysis and Discussion Based on the comprehensive analysis of Table 1 to Table 10, there is no significant difference between the experimental and controlled classes in the pre-test results, which shows that the two classes' initial oral English level is similar. After the POA experiment, there is an obvious difference between the results of the posttest and the pre-test in the experimental class through utilizing POA, and the average results greatly improved, with the specific value of 1.2400. However, the controlled class also showed changes after the end of the post-test results relative to the pre-test results, but the increase was slight, at only 0.300. From the data, it can be concluded that the POA can improve the oral English performance of Chinese senior high school students. Based on the analysis of Table 9 and Table 10, the number of students stumbling in unit time (from 35 to 6) and the number of students making grammatical errors (from 37 to 3) decreased significantly in the experimental class during the post-test. It shows that the POA can improve students' oral performance particularly in improving oral fluency and grammatical accuracy.

From the results of the experimental class students' interviews, students' attitudes about oral English learning have remarkedly been enhanced. Students eventually broke through their interior barriers and dared to share their thoughts during the classroom training process thanks to the constant assistance of teachers. Students' passion for learning spoken English steadily increased as a result of group cooperation as they jointly complete tasks and, in the end, consider that their learning efficiency has significantly improved. When asked about the differences and effectiveness of the POA versus the traditional classroom, students stated that this method gives them a clear direction and method of study. Simultaneously, this mode of teacher-student cooperation and mutual evaluation allowed students to bravely express their ideas and participate more actively in the classroom, thereby improving classroom efficiency. Students expressed hope to use this method of oral teaching in the future as well. Students will be able to truly feel the environment and atmosphere of oral communication thanks to the

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situational teaching model. Focusing on the responses of the students shared above, the researchers noted that POA is highly effective in improving students' oral English ability. Students prefer the new oral English teaching approach, the POA, over the traditional one. Additionally, students have a high level of acceptance and recognition for this approach, indicating that it is consistent with the development of high school students' learning ability.

Based on students' speaking performance in pre-test and post-test of oral English and interview data in the later stage of the study, this paper discusses whether the POA can improve senior high school students' oral English performance. It is found that the lack of systematic training and other objective reasons lead to the lack of vocabulary, improper use of grammar, and other problems in speaking performance, which makes students lose confidence in oral communication.

Therefore, teachers should use suitable and effective teaching approaches like the POA to develop students' oral English performance.

5. Conclusion This study verifies that applying the POA can effectively improve senior high school students' oral English performance as data revealed that POA promotes the average score of students from 5.200 to 6.440 which is a significant improvement. Furthermore, POA has the ability to fully rouse students' enthusiasm for learning. Students will not lose confidence from fear of challenges if they are given a task of reasonable pressure, and instead, gain passion for learning new knowledge, thus constituting conducive stimulation which paves the path for future learning. The results of the interviews demonstrate that Chinese high school students accept POA to a significant extent. Simultaneously, with the support of POA, students' interest in oral learning has risen dramatically.

As long as students cooperate enthusiastically and practice diligently, they can make rapid progress. By comparing the number of stutters and grammatical errors per unit time between pre- and post-tests, the researchers discovered that POA significantly reduced stutters and grammatical errors, demonstrating that POA can successfully improve students' oral fluency and language accuracy.

The POA application does not exclude the integration with other teaching methods like Task-based Language Teaching, Situational Approach, Cooperative learning, etc and can be combined with them. For instance, teachers can design the tasks in the first stage of POA to mobilize the student’s learning interest, trigger their background knowledge, and adopt the cooperative learning method.

At present, the POA is mainly used in College English teaching, and more development and research are required to prove its applicability in junior and senior high schools. Although the POA has been applied to overcome the shortcomings in current English instruction in China, this method might suit other EFL contexts such as Japan, South Korea, Thailand, Indonesia or the Middle East.

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Ellis, R. (2017). The production-oriented approach: Moving forward. Chinese Journal of Applied Linguistics, 40(4), 454-458. https://doi.org/10.1515/cjal-2017-0027 Fu, H., & Li, X. (2021). Spoken English Training of Winter Olympics Volunteers Based on Production-Oriented Approach. Open Journal of Modern Linguistics, 11(3), 327-334. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojml.2021.113026 Kohn, K. (2018). POA meets ELF in intercultural telecollaboration. Chinese Journal of Applied Linguistics, 41(2), 244-248. https://doi.org/10.1515/cjal-2018-0017 Krashen, S. (1992). The input hypothesis: An update. Linguistics and language pedagogy: The state of the art, 409-431.

Miyawaki, K. (2012). Selective learning enabled by intention to learn in sequence learning.

Psychological Research, 76(1), 84-96. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00426-011-0325-8 Park, J. E. (2007). Co-construction of nonnative speaker identity in cross-cultural interaction.

Applied linguistics, 28(3), 339-360. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/amm001 Polio, C. (2017). Reflections on the Production-Oriented Approach vis-à-vis Pre-service Teachers.

Chinese Journal of Applied Linguistics, 40(4), 464-467. https://doi.org/10.1515/cjal-2017-0029 Schaller-Schwaner, I. (2018). Reflections on the Production-Oriented Approach (POA) in China: A new name and a new acronym. Chinese Journal of Applied Linguistics, 41(2), 249-252. https://doi.org/10.1515/cjal-2018-0018 Shintani, N. (2016). Input-based tasks in foreign language instruction for young learners (Vol. 9). John Benjamins Publishing Company.

Sun, S. G. (2017). Reflective Practice Research on "Teacher Student Cooperation Evaluation". Modern Foreign Languages, 040(003), 397-406.

Sun, S. (2020). Optimizing Teacher-Student Collaborative Assessment in the ProductionOriented Approach: A Dialectical Research. Chinese Journal of Applied Linguistics, 43(3), 305-322. https://doi.org/10.1515/CJAL-2020-0020 Swain, M. (2005). The output hypothesis: Theory and research (pp. 495-508). Routledge.

Vettorel, P. (2018). Engaging with the Language-The POA Approach. Chinese Journal of Applied Linguistics, 41(2), 253-255. https://doi.org/10.1515/cjal-2018-0019 Wen, Q. (2012). English as a lingua franca: A pedagogical perspective. Journal of English as a lingua franca, 1(2), 371-376. https://doi.org/10.1515/jelf-2012-0024 Wen, Q. F. (2017). Chinese features displayed in the production-oriented approach.

Modern Foreign Languages, 3(40), 348-358.

Wen, Q. (2018). The production-oriented approach to teaching university students English in China.

Language Teaching, 51(4), 526-540. https://doi.org/10.1017/S026144481600001X Zhang, L. (2020). Motivating in the Production-Oriented Approach: From Theory to Practice.

Chinese Journal of Applied Linguistics, 43(3), 268-283. https://doi.org/10.1515/CJAL-2020-0018 Zhang, W. (2020). Effects of the Production-Oriented Approach on EFL Learners’ Writing Performance in China’s Tertiary Education. Chinese Journal of Applied Linguistics, 43(3), 323-341. https://doi.org/10.1515/CJAL-2020-0021 Zhang, W. J. (2016). College English Teaching Practice Based on POA. Foreign Languages and Their Teaching, 287(02), 110-118.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 21, No. 3, pp. 247-262, March 2022 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.3.13 Received Nov 18, 2021; Revised Feb 5, 2022; Accepted Mar 19, 2022

The Impact of a Debriefing Strategy in Online ESL Classrooms Sasirekha Kandasamy* and Tan Kim Hua Faculty of Education, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Selangor, Malaysia Fazal Mohamed Mohamed Sultan Faculty of Social Sciences & Humanities, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Selangor, Malaysia

Abstract. This paper explores the impact of debriefing in online English as a second language (ESL) classrooms in an urban national primary school. Self-evaluation is essential to enhance teaching and learning. This paper pursues the impact of a debriefing strategy using an exit ticket to assist successful learning in online ESL classrooms. Fifty Year 5 students and eleven ESL teachers participated in this study. A mixed methods approach was implemented to investigate the impact of a debriefing strategy and to gauge teachers’ perceptions on debriefing in an online ESL classroom in the learning process. The students were divided equally into two groups. The group that had a debriefing session scored higher (mean = 19.64, min = 18, max = 20) than the control group (mean = 13.72, min = 9, max = 16), which did not have debriefing. The average test scores from the two groups were significantly different from each other. The teachers gave sufficient explanation related to their understanding on debriefing and its importance in the classroom. To understand teachers’ perceptions of debriefing as a tool in an online ESL classroom, data were generated from a semi-structured interview and analyzed by using chi-square analysis. The p-value was 0.0004226; therefore, there was a significant association or relationship between the answers in this interview.

Debriefing proved to help the students with collaboration, reflective thinking, critical thinking, and ease of understanding. Teachers in schools should consider including a debriefing time in their lesson plans since this strategy has the potential of improving the efficacy of the teaching and learning process.

Keywords: debriefing; ESL; exit ticket; impact; online classroom

*

Corresponding author: Sasirekkha Kandasamy, sasirekha_um@yahoo.co.uk

©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

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1. Introduction The learning process involves making sense of the lessons taught or experienced by the individual learner. Barwani (2014) found that individuals have varied experiences of the same lesson and might interpret these experiences differently and carry this knowledge with them throughout their lives. Therefore, it is important to utilize tools in a lesson or in a classroom to enhance their understanding. As stated by Watkins (2007), these learning experiences could be enhanced through reflective practices and active involvement during the lesson.

The practices of reflection and active involvement can be carried out before, during, or after a lesson. Formal or informal discussions held after the lesson or activity or after any tasks are given are known as “debriefing” (Dennison & Kirk, 1990). Debriefing revolves around the primary objective of the activity (Dennison & Kirk, 1990). It is a useful tool that can be used by teachers to encourage active participation by the students, as well as to increase their understanding.

Furthermore, according to Dennison and Kirk (1990), students’ learning is hindered or disadvantaged because teachers fail to make time for students to review an activity or to debrief them once the lesson has been finished.

In this study, the focus is more on the impact of debriefing in online learning.

Perhaps the most reliable definition of debriefing as related to this topic is that by Raemer et al. (2011), who acknowledged that debriefing is a procedure which includes effective student involvement, and is led by a mediator or instructor, whose major aim is to recognize and close any gaps in the knowledge and skills.

Lederman (1984), a prominent writer on the subject, described debriefing as a post-experience analytical process in which the students and the teacher engage actively in oral discussion intended to steer the students through a reflective process on the basis of their own learning. Lederman (1992) further explained that debriefing is a form of discussion by learners which serves as a platform for evaluating their experience of the lesson according to their intellect and comprehension.

Hammel (1986) defined debriefing as an activity used to convince the participants to incorporate their learning, thereby achieving a sense of closure or comprehension of their experience. Through debriefing, students or learners can entrench their learning experience to utilize it successfully in the future. However, it is necessary for them to take some time to think about it and to interpret the meaning thereof for themselves. As explained by Markulis et al. (2003), normally, debriefing is part of a larger learning process. For instance, debriefing is not an activity on its own; it is usually applied as part of a simulation, or as an experiential exercise in a classroom.

Additionally, Lederman (1992) elaborated that the main purpose and foundation of debriefing in the learning process are to facilitate comprehension of what took place. In addition, it is used to determine what the learners have discovered and to assess what has been taught in light of the learning objectives. Furthermore, Thatcher (1990) maintained that debriefing assists students in their learning to reflect on their own learning. Debriefing improves students’ understanding of

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what they have learned. Lederman (1992) proposed three phases of debriefing, as illustrated in Table 1.

Table 1. Debriefing phases according to Lederman Phase Phase 1

Purpose Systematic reflection & analysis

Phase 2

Intensification & personalization

Phase 3

Generalization & application

Description Phase 1: The participants open up to a methodical self-reflective procedure in relation to their previous experience.

Phase 2: The participants refocus their reflection based on personal experiences and the implications thereof.

Phase 3: The participants move from their personal knowledge and expand towards wider functions combined with the implications of that experience.

Lederman (1992)

The development of an individual’s knowledge, skills, and expertise depends significantly on the lessons learned from an experience (Baker et al., 2002).

Learning occurs when students are able to understand and themselves become involved in the activity or exercise done in a lesson or class. Therefore, the activities done in the class provide opportunities for students to be effective in the learning process. In addition, the debriefing session after such activities provides students a chance to increase their expertise, as well as their knowledge, as is the case with experts (Watkins, 2007).

However, the objectives of teaching and learning become unclear if students cannot comprehend the activities done in class. In addition, the teaching is futile if the objectives are not integrated sufficiently with the lesson and the cognitive level of the students (Berman et al., 2004).

Furthermore, according to Dennison and Kirk (1990), one of the reasons students’ learning is hindered, or at a disadvantage, is due to the lack of opportunity presented by teachers to review the activity, or to debrief students once the lesson is completed. By applying a suitable and yet effective debriefing session, teachers can confirm whether the students have understood the objectives of the lesson and are able to better understand the instructions of the lesson.

Moon (2004) expressed the opinion that the knowledge achieved cannot become established into proper education if the students do not bother to learn at all, or if the knowledge is taught too rapidly. Therefore, these are also important aspects for teachers or educators to consider in their teaching.

In 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic undermined the schooling year, with schools being open for physical face-to-face classes for only about five to six months (Tan, 2021). Online classes started on and off from the beginning of 2020 until the middle of 2021, without any definite end in sight. Furthermore, the impact of this pandemic is not yet over. Online classes or virtual learning are not suitable for everyone. Learners ought to be motivated, self-directed, and keen to work

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independently. Excellent time-management abilities, encouragement, and selfdiscipline are mandatory to achieve the coursework through distance learning.

Online learners must be competent to obtain the knowledge from the various resources offered by the instructor. They must be able to make the necessary modifications and monitor their progress and understand in what way they are progressing.

Limited research has been carried out on debriefing strategy in a language classroom, particularly in the online English as a second language (ESL) classroom. Utilizing a range of methods directs the students to learn efficiently, while concentrating on enhancing their learning experience. Shuell (1986) explained that a teacher’s primary mission is to enable students to become involved in learning activities that would assist them in achieving the intended learning outcomes (ILOs). What the students do is more critical than what the teacher does in the classroom.

Research has shown that exit tickets offer easy and fast educational evaluations that support and encourage students to learn and reflect (Izor, 2019; Marzano, 2012). Exit tickets could provide teachers with information on any misconceptions, attitudes, and knowledge of the content learned during the class period, which is important for accountability (Soto & Anand, 2009). According to Robb (2003) and Sosa (2013), exit tickets have been used in diverse areas as a formative assessment of learning.

In general, exit tickets offer teachers the facility to gauge students’ understanding of a topic or a lesson. Exit tickets also help students to self-reflect on whether they have comprehended the lesson taught. Furthermore, they permit students to express their thoughts on new information. Lastly, exit tickets teach students to think critically, which is vitally important for all future learning.

The current COVID-19 pandemic has revolutionized the education sector. Schools were closed and teaching and learning transformed from a physical classroom to a virtual, online one. It has been conceded that online learning is not as effective as learning in a physical classroom. This is because teachers would not be able to detect whether the students have learnt the lesson and are therefore unable to expand the students’ learning. In this study, we propose use of a debriefing strategy to facilitate successful learning. Debriefing strategies have been used in all fields and its effectiveness established, especially in medical lectures and in the health sector. Nevertheless, use of debriefing strategy in the education sector, particularly in primary schools in Malaysia, has been limited.

There is limited research on debriefing strategy extended to language classrooms in Malaysian primary schools during the current pandemic, in which online classes are conscientiously carried out. A good debriefing is essential and important for a successful learning outcome. Debriefing should assist learners to progress in the practice of self-reflection. Thus, this study seeks to investigate the true impact of debriefing in online ESL classrooms, since the principal objective of debriefing is to improve and strengthen the learning outcomes.

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This study intended to examine the impact of a debriefing strategy in an online ESL classroom at a primary school in the urban city of Subang Jaya, Selangor during the COVID-19 pandemic due to schools’ closure from March 18, 2020. The ultimate aim is to achieve development of students’ learning in an online classroom, and to determine the impact of a debriefing strategy on the learning experienced by students in an online classroom. The objectives of this study are as follows: • To investigate the impact of debriefing in an online ESL classroom.

• To explore the opportunities for students to determine and develop their learning through a debriefing strategy in an online ESL classroom.

• To study teachers’ perceptions on debriefing in the process of teaching and learning.

Based on the review of the research literature, the following three research questions were developed to direct the research: • What is the impact of debriefing in an online ESL classroom?

• How does debriefing provide opportunity for students to determine and develop their learning in an online ESL classroom?

• What are teachers’ perceptions on debriefing in the process of teaching and learning?

2. Literature Review 2.1 Kolb’s Learning Styles and Learning Environments The intended learning objectives in an online classroom can be achieved by integrating the learning style framework into the teaching and learning. Based on Kolb’s learning style inventory, there are four learning styles: accommodating, assimilating, converging, and diverging (Wilcoxson & Prosser, 1984). The online classroom can impact learning greatly when lessons are carried out on the basis of the instructional design choices. These need to incorporate the fundamentals of the lesson delivered, communication between the teacher and students, a variety of appropriate and constructive online tasks and activities, and the functional use of adaptable resources via the online method (Gardiner & Cumming-Potvin, 2015).

2.2 Contributions of Debriefing to Learning Several researchers have successfully proven the contributions of debriefing in learning. Debriefing successfully transforms a learner’s understanding from very low to very high through reflection. Debriefing is a platform for intellectual as well as emotional learning (Letseka & Zireva, 2013). Learning assisted by reflection offers the best method for understanding the lesson better (Schön, 1987).

“Reflective practice” is a term used to describe the act by a learner to evaluate the beliefs, principles, and knowledge that accompany their learning practice.

Debriefing acts as an opportunity for learners to get a response and feedback from their educators as well as their classmates. According to Newell and Rosenbloom (1981), in the learning curve theory, valuable commentary should be applied to reflect the learning process.

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2.3 Reflective Learning and Debriefing as a Teaching-Learning Strategy Debriefing is designed to encourage reflection, thereby inspiring the learners to evaluate individual theories, as well as to predict the ways for improving or expanding further skillful practices. Scanlan et al. (2002) identified the three phases of reflection: consciousness, critical analysis, and brand-new perceptions.

The significance of utilizing reflective or introspective education is that it enables students to employ their discoveries on different levels from the perspective of critical thinking, and then to be able to make decisions.

3. Research Methodology 3.1 Research Design To explore teachers’ perceptions on debriefing in an online ESL classroom in the process of learning, a mixed-methods research approach was implemented in this study. A descriptive case study was carried out to thoroughly explore the learning outcomes in an online ESL classroom through use of a debriefing strategy.

Qualitative and quantitative research methods were employed to obtain comprehensive findings. A semi-structured interview schedule with close- and open-ended questions was designed and interviews conducted with 11 ESL teachers to ascertain their perceptions on debriefing in the learning process in their classrooms.

3.2 Participants The participants in this study comprised 50 Year 5 students from a national primary school located in an urban area in Selangor. Alongside these students, 11 teachers were chosen from the same school. Participants were selected based on the approval by and suggestions from the principal and teachers. The reason that 50 students were chosen and no more than that is due to the limitations of virtual assessment. The students chosen also had to have a virtual device and good internet connection. The study could not be done in a face-to-face environment due to the learning-from-home measures implemented to reduce the impact of COVID-19.

The study focused on Year 5 students due to their accessibility and for convenience purposes. In addition, we assumed that Year 5 students would be mature enough and able to understand the context of this study. Furthermore, Year 5 students are not involved in any important examination. The 11 teachers were chosen to investigate their perceptions on debriefing in the learning process.

3.3 Instruments The research instruments used to collect data in relation to each respective research objective are discussed in this section.

3.3.1 To investigate the impact of debriefing in an online ESL classroom The time duration of this study was three weeks. The student participants in this study were divided into two groups with equal numbers (n = 25). One group conducted a debriefing session for the chosen subject. The other group was a control group, which had no debriefing but only received the normal lesson content for the same subject online. Data were collected through an exit ticket using Google Forms (Appendix 1), after which the test scores of the two groups http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter

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were compared. The impact of debriefing on the test scores of the 50 students was investigated.

3.2.2 To explore the opportunities for students to determine and develop their learning through a debriefing strategy in an online ESL classroom The best debriefing strategy for online classes was investigated by using several functions provided by the platform for online classes. First, Padlet was used as a bulletin-board feature. The Padlet platform enabled the teachers to reach the targeted students for debriefing purposes. The students then discussed what they had learnt and debriefed themselves. Second, another free platform, Google Forms, was used to create an exit ticket that enabled the students to reflect on their learning process with supervision from the teachers. The teachers’ perceptions on debriefing were collected through an interview (Appendix 2).

3.3.3 To study teachers’ perceptions on debriefing in the process of teaching and learning To investigate the teachers’ perceptions on debriefing in the process of learning, data were gathered using a mixed-methods approach involving an interview (Appendix 2). Quantitative data examining the teachers’ perceptions and understanding of the subject of debriefing were collected through 20 YES or NO and 5 Likert-scale questions. In addition, the interview involved 20 open-ended questions to investigate the teachers’ perceptions on and challenges faced during debriefing. The interviews were conducted with the teachers to gain insight on the effectiveness of debriefing in an online ESL classroom.

3.4 Data Analysis Qualitative and quantitative methods were applied. Qualitative data analysis was applied using data from the semi-structured interviews and the exit ticket.

Quantitative data analysis was applied using data from the interview. The quantitative data were compiled using Microsoft Excel, and then analyzed using SPSS.

4. Findings and Discussion 4.1 Debriefing Impacts the Online ESL Classroom The results of this research were ascertained by using the Google Forms exit ticket and comparing the test scores between the two groups. A multiple-choice test was administered at the end of three weeks. The exit ticket was distributed to the students after the lesson had ended for the subject chosen at the end of the three weeks. The test scores of the two groups are shown in the chart below (Figure 1).

The highest score that could be achieved is 20. In general, the control group, which did not have a debriefing session, had an average test score of 13.72, with a minimum score of 9 and a maximum of 16. Meanwhile, the other group, which had a debriefing session, scored an average of 19.64, with a minimum score of 18 and a maximum of 20.

The Welch two-sample t-test was used to determine whether the average test scores of the two groups were equal, or significantly different from each other or not. The average test scores from the two groups were significantly different from each other. The group that had a debriefing session scored much higher (mean =

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19.64) compared to the group that did not have a debriefing session (mean = 13.72).

25

Test Score of Students with Debrief

Score

20 15 10 5 0

Students

Test Score of Students without Debrief

Figure 1. Test scores of the 50 students as per the two groups

The group that had a debriefing session received a higher score than the control group. The debriefed group of students gained more confidence in the lesson and had satisfactory responses in their exit ticket. Debriefing assisted the students to reflect on and make known their understanding of their learning. Consequently, they participated actively and understood what they were learning, and this permitted them to find the time to reflect on their own learning. The students who did debriefing attempted to enhance their learning, or to achieve better in the activities.

Finally, through debriefing, the teachers and the students became better listeners to each other. After debriefing, the students were able to overcome challenges in online learning, address more concerns, and make recommendations and suggestions. The debriefing strategy encouraged and increased the students’ acumen, motivation, and performance. When teachers educate students through debriefing to evoke and recreate what they have learned, they can initiate not only learning of the facts but also a better understanding of the content.

4.2 Debriefing Provides Students the Opportunity to Determine Their Learning in an Online ESL Classroom This study established that debriefing enabled the students to dwell on and synthesize the content from a lesson. They were able to determine what they had learned and how they had learnt it, and then to consider what they should do next to stretch and grow that learning. When the teachers were able to allocate time for a debriefing, the students had the opportunity to customize the lesson and to establish their knowledge.

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learning progress. As seen from the test scores represented in Figure 1, this research has demonstrated that debriefing is suitable for use in an online class as a process of helping students to reflect on their learning and to deepen their understanding.

Debriefing enabled the students to share what they had learnt and to summarize what the learning meant to them. It also provided the teachers the opportunity to review what the students did not understand very well, and to help them connect with their learning objectives.

4.3 Teachers’ Perceptions on Debriefing Strategy in an Online ESL Classroom Twenty questions were formulated to understand the perceptions of the teachers on debriefing in an online ESL classroom. All 11 teachers answered YES to question numbers 4, 6, 14, 15, 20, 26, and 34 (Figure 2). For all the questions, YES was chosen by more teachers than NO, except for question 13 (Do you think pupils understand the importance of debriefing?), to which six teachers answered NO (Figure 2).

Figure 2. Frequency of teacher responses to YES or NO questions

The chi-square test was used to ascertain the significant association or relationship between the YES and NO answers. From the analysis of R, the chi-square test yielded a p-value = 0.0004226. Therefore, there is a significant association or relationship between the YES and NO answers in the interview. However, it is important to note that the chi-square analysis needs a large sample size, randomly drawn from the mutually exclusive independent variables.

The small sample size of 11 teachers in this study might have affected the results of the chi-square test. Therefore, a bigger sample size is needed in the future to generate better and more reliable results. From the YES and NO answers, we may

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conclude that the 11 teachers had had some background in the use of debriefing in the classroom. The teachers were able to sufficiently explain their understanding of debriefing and the importance thereof in the classroom. This is expected and consistent with the teachers’ background, education, and past experiences. Although teachers might think that debriefing is important, and that it could assist both teachers and students in the learning process, the students may not yield a positive outcome through the lack of participation. This could be caused by a lack of interest in debriefing or in the lesson itself; alternatively, they might not understand the importance of debriefing.

In addition, the Likert scale was used in several questions (40–44) in the interview to gauge the teachers’ perceptions on debriefing in an online ESL classroom. For this analysis, the 11 teachers were categorized into two groups. L10 included the teachers that had been teaching for less than 10 years, whereas M10 included those that had been teaching for more than 10 years. Their scores from the Likert-scale questions were added together and generated in a boxplot (Figure 3). The scores were taken directly as per the four scales used, ranging from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (4).

Figure 3. Boxplot of teacher responses to the Likert-scale questions based on years of experience

The boxplot shows that the teachers with less than ten years of experience (L10) scored higher than those with more than ten years of experience (M10). The black line that runs through the middle of the box indicates the respective median scores of the groups (L10 = 33; M10 = 30). Meanwhile, L10 had an average of 34.86, whereas M10 had an average of 31.5. The tendency of L10 to score higher than M10 is a difference significant to this study.

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Because the data were not normally distributed, a non-parametric analysis was conducted to analyze the statistical differences between the two groups (L10 and M10). The analyses showed that the p-value (0.3288) was not significant.

Therefore, even though L10 tended to score higher than M10, the differences in their scores are not significant. It is important to note that the number of teacher participants in this study was 11, which consequently greatly impacted the results of this analysis.

5. Conclusion Debriefing in education, especially in schools in Malaysia, has not yet been adequately implemented. Student participants had not been given an opportunity to reflect on and improve their own learning. Despite this, this study supports effective debriefing methods in an online ESL classroom to determine students’ learning. Debriefing has positive consequences for learning and improves student performance competences, critical thinking, and problem-solving skills.

Therefore, it is necessary to educate responsible teachers in schools on the need to implement and develop debriefing in their lessons. Students should be able to assist the whole class when contributing and sharing their own personal insights with their peers, thereby bridging the knowledge gained from each other’s experiences by engaging in post-activity discussion.

Furthermore, the student participants became dynamic partners in the learning process; and there were no limitations to the transmission of learning from teacher to students. Debriefing enhanced the students’ learning. It was also found to be useful in identifying the strengths and weaknesses of lessons in an online classroom, since an online setup can constrain interaction between students and teacher. The teacher participants were competent to support their teaching approaches and practices in order to enhance the teaching and learning process in the online classroom. The debriefing strategy carried out during the online class helped to broaden the student participants’ viewpoint and assisted them in their thinking process about the world – with an entirely different paradigm.

We recommend that a debriefing strategy be implemented in Malaysian schools, particularly in ESL classrooms. More time should be allowed for students to reflect on their own learning, as this helps them to monitor their learning progress.

Debriefing is highly recommended for teachers, as this can lead to good rapport, planning, and creativity in the classroom. The teacher would be able to reflect on their practices too by examining the relevance of the pedagogy used. Feedback from students may foster revision of the teaching strategy for the next lesson.

Steady contributions and the coherent use of a debriefing strategy would be beneficial to the teacher and students, especially those students who are seeking to make meaning of the world beyond the classroom.

Acknowledgement The publication of this paper is supported by the grant GUP-2021-062.

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6. References Baker, A., Jensen, P. J., & Kolb, D. A. (2002). Conversational learning: An experiential approach to knowledge creation. Quorum Books.

Barwani, A. (2014). Effective debriefing helps achieve learning objectives in the classroom.

Journal of Education and Educational Development, 1(2), 156-165. https://doi.org/10.22555/joeed.v1i2.43 Berman, S. L., Montgomery, M. J., & Kurtines, W. (2004). The development and validation of a measure of identity distress. An International Journal of Theory and Research, 4(1), 1-8. https://doi.org/10.1207/S1532706XID0401_1 Dennison, B., & Kirk, R. (1990). Do, review, learn, apply: A simple guide to experiential learning.

Blackwell Education.

Gardiner, V., & Cumming-Potvin, W. (2015). Conceptual and contextual contradictions: How a group of primary school teachers negotiated professional learning in a multiliteracies book club. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 40(7), 15-31. https://doi.org/10.14221/ajte.2015v40n7.2 Hammel, H. (1986). How to design a debriefing session. Journal of Experiential Education, 9(3), 20-25. https:/doi.org/10.1177/105382598600900305 Izor, K. (2019). The effect of exit slips on student motivation within the classroom. Honors Projects, 446. https://scholarworks.bgsu.edu/honorsprojects/446 Lederman, L. C. (1984). Debriefing: A critical reexamination of the postexperience analytic process and implications for effective use. Simulation & Gaming, 15(4), 415-431. https://doi.org/10.1177/0037550084154002 Lederman, L. C. (1992). Debriefing: Towards a systematic assessment of theory and practice. Simulation & Gaming, 23(2), 145-160. https://doi.org/10.1177/1046878192232003 Letseka, M., & Zireva, D. (2013). Thinking: Lessons from John Dewey’s How we think.

Academic Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies, 2(2), 51-60. https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/56f4/458225d6cc42957bce78ec484089b0f00a07 .pdf Markulis, P. M., Geneseo, S., & Strang, D. R. (2003). A brief on debriefing: What it is and what it isn’t. Developments in Business Simulation and Experiential Learning, 30, pp.

177-184.

Marzano, R. J. (2012). The two purposes of teacher evaluation. Educational Leadership, 70(3), 14-19. https://merainc.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/11/Boogren-The-TwoPurposes-of-Teacher-Evaluation.pdf Moon, J. A. (2004). A handbook of reflective and experiential learning: Theory and practice.

Routledge Falmer.

Newell and Rosenbloom. (1981). Mechanism of Skill Acquisition and the Law of Practice.

Cognitive Skills and their Acquisition. Symposium on Cognition. 16Th, 1980, Carnegie-Mellon University, Symposium on Cognition (16, 1980, Pittsburgh, Pa.) Raemer, D., Anderson, M., Cheng, A., Fanning, R., Nadkarni, V., & Savoldelli, G. (2011).

Research regarding debriefing as part of the learning process. Simulation in Healthcare: Journal of the Society for Simulation in Healthcare, 6(7), S52-S57 https://doi.org/10.1097/SIH.0b013e31822724d0 Robb, L. (2003). 3 strategies for getting the most from textbooks. Instructor, 112(5), 36-39. http://com-sub.info/ScholasticTeacher/Welcome Scanlan, M., Care, D., & Udod, S. (2002). Unravelling the unknowns of reflection in classroom teaching. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 38(2), 136-143. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2648.2002.02157.x Schön, D. (1987). Educating the reflective practitioner. Jossey-Bass Publishers.

Shuell, T. J. (1986). Cognitive conceptions of learning. Review of Educational Research, 56, 411-436. http://dx.doi.org/10.3102/00346543056004411

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Sosa, T. (2013). Using digital exit tickets for formative assessment in a technology integration class. In R. McBride, & M. Searson (Eds.), Proceedings of Society for Information Technology & Teacher Education International Conference, Chesapeake, VA (pp. 2444-2452). Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education.

Soto, J., & Anand, S. (2009). Factors influencing academic performance of students enrolled in a lower division cell biology core course. Journal of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, 9(1), 64-80. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ854879.pdf Tan, V. (2021). Parents in Malaysia fret over academic progress amid prolonged school closure, online learning. CNA. https://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/asia/malaysia-education-homebased-learning-school-closure-covid19-14854924 Thatcher, D. (1990). Promoting learning through games and simulations. Simulation & Gaming, 21(3), 262-273. https://doi.org/10.1177/1046878190213005 Watkins, C. (2007). Learning about learning. Journal of Maltese Education Research, 5(2), 45-61. https://www.academia.edu/8414757/Learning_about_Learning Willcoxson, L., & Prosser, M. (1984). Kolb’s learning style inventory (1985): Review and further study of validity and reliability. Educational Psychology, 66(2), 247-257. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8279.1996.tb01193.x

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Appendix 1 Exit Ticket Questions using Google Forms ______________________________________________________________________________ No. Question 1 Full Name 2 Gender 3 Class 4 How do you feel today?

5 What did you do at English class today?

6 How did you learn English today?

7 Write one thing that you have learned today 8 List down some new words that you have learned today 9 Did you feel prepared for today’s lesson? Why or why not?

10 Did you have fun at English class today?

11 Write one question that you have on today’s lesson 12 How today’s lesson could be used in the real world/outside the classroom?

13 What was challenging or difficult at English lesson today?

14 How did you solve a problem at learning English today?

15 What would help to make today’s lesson more effective/fun?

16 What do you think should be changed in your learning English?

17 What did you do to help yourself to become a better learner at English class?

18 I would like to learn more about ........... ______________________________________________________________________________

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Appendix 2 Teachers’ Perceptions on Debriefing Semi-Structured Interview Schedule Question no.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29

Question What do you understand by the term of debriefing?

Do you think debriefing is the same as reflection?

Why? Please explain Do you think debriefing is important to apply in an ESL classroom?

Please explain Do you think pupils become better learners when they reflect their own learning?

Please explain Do you think debriefing is the best method to get pupils reflection on their learning?

Please explain Did you able to get active participation from pupils to debrief their learning?

If the outcomes from the pupils were positive please explain how did you get them to participate?

If the answer is NO, please explain why?

Do you think pupils understand the importance of debriefing?

Do you believe debriefing can identify and track pupils progress in learning?

Do you think debriefing helps pupils to be better learners in an ESL classroom?

Does debriefing help you to identify students’ weaknesses and strengths in their learning?

How? Please explain Does debriefing gives an opportunity for your pupils to develop and expand their learning beyond classroom?

From your opinion, how does debriefing can help pupils to develop their learning?

Do you think pupils should be given an opportunity to reflect on their own learning?

Please explain why Do you believe learning takes place when pupils reflect on their learning experiences?

Please explain how?

Did you observe any changes in your pupils’ attitude in learning after debriefing?

Please explain the changes that you can observe in your pupils learning attitude after debriefing Do you think debriefing encourages HOTS among your students?

Please explain?

Do you think EXIT TICKET as one of the debriefing methods is the best method to use in ESL classroom?

Please explain why it is the best method?

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30 31 32 33 34

35 36 37 38 39 40

41

42

43

44

45

Does this EXIT TICKET help to a meaningful teaching?

How? Please explain Does this EXIT TICKET give help to meaningful pupils’ learning?

How? Please explain Do you think EXIT TICKET is the best tool to assess pupils’ learning progress and in understanding the lesson?

Do you play an important role in debriefing session with the pupils?

How? Please explain What are your roles as a debriefer in ESL classroom?

Do you think debriefing can be used successfully in all aspect of learning in ESL classroom?

What are the challenges and limitations did you face when applying debriefing in your classroom?

Does debriefing help you as a teacher to create a better lesson plan with more focused objective?

[Debriefing and teaching objectives] Do the learning outcomes relate to your success criteria in your lesson plan? [Learning outcomes and success criteria] Does debriefing after the lesson contribute to pupils’ learning?

[Level of skill] [Level of knowledge] [Level of comprehend the lesson] [Level of expanding their knowledge and skill Does debriefing after the lesson helps pupils to comprehend their learning?

[Objective of the lesson] [Content of the lesson] [Skill/s being taught] Do you think EXIT TICKET could help pupils to connect with their learning in the classroom to the outside world? [Connect their learning beyond the classroom?]

What can be improved in the debriefing strategy for a better learning in an ESL classroom?

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Yes/No Open-ended Open-ended Yes/No Open-ended Likert scale

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Likert scale

Likert scale

Likert scale

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 21, No. 3, pp. 263-280, March 2022 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.3.14 Received Jan 31, 2022; Revised Feb 5, 2022; Accepted Mar 19, 2022

Teacher Unions, Schools and Success: Opportunities and Contradictions Vuyisile Msila University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa

Abstract. Teacher unionisation is among the under-researched themes in South Africa. The few teacher union studies focus on the notoriety of teacher unions’ activities, especially the impact of teacher strikes.

Studies frequently demonstrate how teacher unions disturb education with a tendency to make schools ungovernable. In fact, in many studies, results have shown that strong union activity undermines school effectiveness. Additionally, these studies people revealed how various role-players such as parents, communities and district officials have maintained that effective teacher unions are the missing link to successful leadership as well as meaningful teaching and learning. This case study examined the potentially positive role of unions in two historically black schools in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. In both schools the principals were active members of two of the most powerful teacher unions in South Africa. At the time of the study, one principal was an office bearer in the South African Democratic Teachers’ Union (SADTU) whilst the other was aligned with the National Professional Teachers’ Organisation of South Africa (NAPTOSA). The paradox in both schools was that, despite the strong unionism, the union and school management collaboration appeared to bolster learner success, teaching and school principals’ effectiveness. The conclusions demonstrate that strong teacher unions are pivotal in building selffulfilled teachers, the management of diversity and high levels of learner achievement. Finally, the school leaders proved that, with meaningful cooperation among role-players including teacher unions, underperforming schools have the potential to thrive.

Keywords: cooperation; effective schools; learner achievement; teacher maturity; township schools

1. Introduction The few studies which have been conducted on teacher unions in South Africa illustrate the ways in which teacher strikes thwart school programmes as well as their negative impact on learner achievement (Heystek & Lethoko, 2001; Mafisa, 2017; Msila, 2014, 2021; Wills, 2020). In fact, some literature has shown how schools lose the culture of learning and teaching because of the involvement of teacher unions in education (Heystek & Lethoko, 2001; Mafisa, 2017). Wills ©Author This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

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(2020) examines a disruption hypothesis that learner progress is lost as a direct consequence of teacher bargaining and strike action in South Africa. In 2007 there was a general public servants’ strike and many schools were affected. Wills (2020) spells out a disruption hypothesis which claims that during the 2007 public strike, learning in schools suffered. The effects of the strike were also more pronounced in the poorest schools (Wills, 2020). Teacher unions were heavily criticised by many for neglecting education, especially in historically black schools or township schools where schools stopped functioning as a result of the broad “chalk-down” strike (Wills, 2017). Globally there have been constant criticisms levelled at teacher unions for various issues which include placing their interests above those of learners, neglecting quality education and promoting mediocrity by protecting incompetent members (Ghosn & Akkary, 2020; Ring, 2020). Ring (2020) wrote about ways in which American teacher unions undermine their profession by supporting several anomalies. Among these are ways in which teacher unions “elect their own bosses, negotiate inefficient work rules, have insatiable need for more public funds, and protect incompetent members”. In South Africa there are several teacher unions; these include the National Professional Teachers’ Organisation of South Africa (NAPTOSA), the South African Teachers’ Union (SATU) and the South African Democratic Teachers’ Union (SADTU). Of these, SADTU has been linked to teacher militancy (Heystek & Lethoko, 2001; Sibiya, 2017). The latter is no surprise considering the role SADTU played during the struggle for political liberation in South Africa. It is argued that years after the freedom from apartheid policies, SADTU continues to be a militant organisation. Other unions, including SATU and NAPTOSA, are more linked with professionalism than militancy. Sibiya (2017, pp. iv-v) contended the following: Therefore, SADTU had a dual role to fulfil. The formation of SADTU led to a division within teacher unions that existed then, because of the divergent ideologies that SADTU and they held. Some of them believed in teacher professionalism, while others subscribed to better working conditions and teacher professional development. On the other hand, SADTU kept the militant approach and political affiliation. These two characteristics of SADTU are causing a great concern among stakeholders. This has led to SADTU, through media reports, being blamed for the collapse of education especially in black schools located in townships and rural areas.

Nevertheless, although much literature globally links teacher unionism with negativity and education paralysis, there are a few positive aspects and identified potential benefits of teacher unions (Gaille, 2017; Mafisa, 2017; Msila, 2014). Msila (2014, 2021) found that, when unions cooperate meaningfully with other stakeholders at a school, there are bound to be positive outcomes linked to teaching and learning. Gaille (2017) listed the following few advantages that justify the existence of teacher unions: firstly, they protect teachers from political changes; secondly, highly unionised schools tend to perform better; and thirdly, unionised teachers tend to have a voice. Some researchers have argued that when teachers’ unions collaborate with other stakeholders in South Africa, especially with the Department of Basic Education (DBE), they are likely to work towards positive goals instead of being adversaries (Mafisa, 2017; Msila, 2014).

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The need to recognise these common positive goals is critical so that teacher union members are not perceived as charlatans who frequently disrupt school programmes through teacher strike participation.

This case study explores what happens when teacher unions collaborate with other stakeholders, including school managers, communities and members from different unions other than their own in selected schools. Of critical importance here was to establish whether teacher unions can promote teaching and learning in schools.

The questions posed were the following: • Can strong teacher unions lead to effectiveness in historically disadvantaged schools?

• How will unions help build quality schools?

Aims and Objectives of the Study The aim of the study was to theorise what may happen when teacher unions collaborate with other role-players within a school setting. The study sought to understand critically whether shared vision is possible in the presence of teacher unions and what happens when this prevails.

In order to achieve this aim, data was collected to analyse the following objectives: 1. To identify ways in which teacher unions in a school can work with other stakeholders to engender empowerment, resulting in teacher growth; 2. To investigate how teacher growth and strong unions would lead to quality schools; 3. To examine whether strong unions can ensure learner success in a school; and 4. To determine whether the presence or absence of strong teacher union site committees in schools can hamper the work of school management teams and general school progress.

2. Brief Literature Review Pont et al. (2008) argued that in some countries such as Denmark, Sweden and Hungary there are separate unions for principals and teachers. This is necessitated by the strained relationships that usually characterise school leaders and their teachers when it comes to union activities. Furthermore, Pont et al.

(2008, p.176) shed light on Sweden as follows: “In Sweden, for example, there is an ideological cleft between the two types of representative bodies. The teaching union holds that teachers and school leaders should belong to the same union as they see the educational sector as a single unit with homogenous interests. On the other hand, the school leaders’ union argues that school leadership is a separate profession with separate interests and should therefore be represented in an organisation on its own. Setting up separate principals’ unions is a step towards the development of the profession as separate from the teaching profession.”

Nevertheless, some may argue that the separation of school leaders from their teachers may increase adversarial relationships (Deep Dive, 2016; Msila, 2014). However, others may concur with the different objectives that

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necessitate the separation. This can work if it does not defeat the purposes of teacher empowerment. Ahrari et al. (2021) utilised a teacher empowerment model as they stress the need for teacher cooperation where teachers should encourage one another to be confident in their skills and knowledge. Ahrai et al. (2021) underscore six aspects of teacher empowerment which they have adapted from Short and Rinehart (1992). The six aspects are the following: 1. Status: For motivation to take place, teachers would like to be appreciated and respected in a way that recognises their proficiency.

2. Impact: Teachers who have this (status) support the vision of the school as they make a difference in their classrooms in terms of learner achievement.

3. Professional growth: Professional growth ensures that teachers always develop professionally.

4. Decision making: The ability to make decisions can strengthen teachers’ job satisfaction.

5. Self-efficacy: Schools need teachers who are self-efficacious if school improvement attempts are to bear fruit. As teachers become professionally mature, their competencies are increased.

6. Autonomy: As teachers grow professionally, they would like to gain independence by making professional decisions related to their job.

In post-apartheid schools, transformation and restructuring have been based on teacher empowerment. Arguably, in an environment where teacher activism and politics loom large, district officials should think of working with teacher unions in order to play a role in empowering teachers. Msila’s (2021) study demonstrates why effective districts will support and enhance cooperation between teacher unions and school managers. It is through positive and involved teacher unions that districts can achieve the shared vision of implementing quality education. Contrary to some negative views on teacher unions, recent research shows that unions have the potential to transform education and schooling for the better (Education International, 2017; ETUCE, 2016; Msila, 2021). ETUCE (2016) contends that teacher unions, in addition to improving the conditions of employment and terms of employment, can promote the professional freedom of teachers as well as ensuring that they play a role in formulating education policies. Furthermore, according to ETUCE (2016), teacher unions can play an empowering role, including the improvement of the teachers’ work and meeting their professional development needs.

Msila (2014) also conducted a study in which he found that in schools where teacher unionism is strong, their politics can be used for the uplifting of the school as peers promote social dialogue impacting on parental and community participation in school programmes. History has shown how pivotal unions’ participation is in the transformation of the new curriculum from apartheid education to the present education system in South Africa. SADTU and NAPTOSA played a critical role in the discussions relating to post-apartheid education. In this way the unions can be seen as being empowering as they join the role players who push for social transformation.

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The ETDP-SETA Skills Plan 2020-2021 highlighted the role of trade unions in the promotion of the skills and development of their members. As employers themselves, the trade unions also have a significant role in developing the skills of their employees. The ETDP-SETA (2020) report pointed out that the aims of trade unions are no longer confined to wage negotiations and facilitating collective action such as strikes; they also focus on the empowerment of their members through skills development. According to the South African Council for Educators (SACE) (2020), teachers have various rights, including further professional development. Teachers are also allowed to attend in-service education courses prescribed by the Department of Education and agreed upon by the relevant teacher unions. The SACE (2020) handbook expatiated that teachers must be empowered and made aware of their rights. Additionally, teachers need to be motivated and encouraged to be passionate about teaching and learning. This handbook also emphasised collaboration amongst stakeholders, stating that parents should cooperate with educators as they engage in school activities. These include empowering communities to combat ills such as violence and bullying in schools and communities. This meticulous guidance provides unions with the potential to build professional maturity among teachers. Eberts (2007) stated that parent-teacher organisations should play a role in changing the role of teacher unions as we know them. He posed questions as to how unions can play a collaborative and supportive role that would hone the professionalism of teachers, acknowledging the need for common goals and joint responsibility among teachers.

Msila (2021) opined about the role that can be played by unions in bringing about the professional maturity that all teachers need. He argued that teachers who have reached professional maturity will be able to work with school management teams, thereby leading to a school’s success. The question is “What role can unions play to engender professional teacher maturity?” Effective unions will work with conscientious school leaders to build teacher maturity as unions share a vision and leadership with other role-players at a school. Teacher maturity can only be attained when teachers become learners; hence teacher unions are among the role-players that need to be part of the teachers’ journey in terms of that learning if schools are to succeed. Globally there have been efforts by teacher unions to play critical roles in bargaining for teachers as well as improving the quality of teaching in schools. This means that professionally developed teachers will be able to teach for success. Moreover, research has also shown that teacher unionisation can lead to positive educational outcomes with improved pass rates (Guthrey, 2018; Msila, 2014).

However, Guthrey (2018) contended that the presence of unions in districts brings many complexities and that there is no conclusive evidence that unions can increase the learners’ success. Lott and Kenny (2013) found that learners in districts where the teacher unions are strong fared worse in mathematics and reading than learners in districts where there were weak teacher unions.

Ordway (2019) argued that there are suppositions that teacher unions are a bad influence in education because they shield bad teachers who disadvantage learners through their underperformance in classrooms. However, Vachon and

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Ma (2015) as well as Deldago (2021) maintained that teacher unions do not always impact negatively on education because in the United States, districts with strong teacher unions received more money as teachers used their voice.

Moreover, Vachon and Ma (2015) stated that teachers can bargain for success that would also impact on learner achievement. As teachers influence policy, they gain attention from legislators and this may impact positively upon learner achievement.

Some experts perceive teacher unions in Canada as necessary agents of change that societies need for social justice (Pringle, 2010; Rottman, 2008). However, as seen in the literature sources mentioned above, there are always contradicting accounts when it comes to teacher unions. Heystek and Lethoko (2001) postulated that unions in South Africa should organise activities to understand codes of conduct and why teaching should be an essential service. Additionally, Heystek and Lethoko contended that teacher unions should plan activities that will help restore the culture of learning and teaching in schools. Rubinstein and McCarthy (2014) asserted that when unions, teachers and administrators see value in collaboration, teaching will be more effective and professionally executed. School-level union-management partnerships and teacher collaboration can have a significant impact on learner achievement (Rubinstein & McCarthy, 2014). Brunner et al. (2020) also highlighted what Delgado (2021) emphasised, namely that in strong union districts there is greater expenditure which tends to enhance learners’ achievement in schools.

Farley (2010) cited Weingarten who concurred with this when she stated that American states that have numerous unionised teachers tend to lead in learner success. In South Africa it is the collaboration of all stakeholders that would produce quality education and success of schools (Msila, 2014). The Education International (2020) reported on a seminar on The Future of the Teaching Profession in Africa. This seminar was attended by eight African states and included unions.

A consensus document was adopted which affirmed that governments and teacher unions should work in partnerships to advance the teaching profession and the quality of education, especially in times of crisis (Education International, 2020). However, research shows that teacher unions’ industrial strikes in South Africa are likely to have a negative impact on impoverished schools. During the public service strike in 2007, many poor schools were impacted negatively as many teachers did not attend school and later there was a lack of voluntary time to catch up with the syllabus (Wills, 2017). Wills (2020, p.344) pointed out that the 2007 general strike was not as negative in historically white schools where unions did not support the chalk-down approach: “by contrast, in the poorer three quintiles of schools where participation in the strike was widespread, militant and longer in duration, strike activity appears to be detrimental to learning.”

3. Research Methodology This case study was conducted in two high schools in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. The two schools were selected through purposeful sampling.

Both are characterised by having strong teacher unions as well as committed

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school governing bodies (SGBs). Purposeful sampling is concerned with providing a sample of information-rich participants (Struwig & Stead, 2004). In addition to knowledge and experience, the sample must be willing and able “to communicate experiences and opinions in an articulate, expressive, and reflective manner” (Palinkas et al., 2016, p. 2). The sample consisted of six participants and the three participants from each school were comprised of the school principal, a teacher union site committee member and an SGB member (a parent). Both Apricot High School (School 1) and Apple High School (School 2) were represented by chairpersons of the SGBs. Each of the six participants was first interviewed individually. On average, each interview lasted for approximately 65 minutes. After the completion of individual interviews, a focus group interview which included all the six participants was conducted. In addition, to these interviews, two meetings were observed, one from each school, focusing on professional development training at Apricot and a seminar at Apple.

Dilshad and Latif (2013) pointed out that compared to other research techniques, focus groups may yield shared understanding when conducted well. They can also be worthwhile when the researcher knows less about the participants and the fact that participants express their thoughts and perceptions in their own words (Dilshad & Latif, 2013). In the current study, focus group interviews were used as a form of triangulation. Data analysis of the focus group interview was done after the transcription of audiotapes. The analysis was carried out immediately after the interview session. The focus was on the actual words of the participants as well as paraphrasing what they said (Anderson, 1990). After the analysis each participant was given this summary to read through as this step was vital to ensure that they had not been misquoted.

What was critical about the focus group was their exceptional knowledge of teacher unions and their role in education. The sample composition was also crucial - three women and three men; this ensured that there was less gender bias. Whilst there were commonalities in the discussions, the focus group helped reveal other new aspects of divergences on the topic than the researcher had previously realised (Gundumogula, 2020). “Focus groups have a high chance to catch and consider the people’s feelings, views beliefs and responses while collecting the data” (Gundumogula, 2020, p.301).

After the data gathering, thematic analysis normally used for qualitative data was conducted. By searching across the data, repeated patterns were identified.

As in much qualitative data, it was also possible to interpret data whilst simultaneously selecting codes and drawing themes. The analysis was facilitated by following one method of analysing qualitative data which included familiarising, coding, generating themes, reviewing themes, naming of themes and then writing down the findings. In qualitative research data analysis refers to searching for meaning in interview transcripts, observation notes and other non-textual materials. The notes from individual interviews, the focus group interviews as well as the observations of meetings were critical in the study. In

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analysing the data, the following six steps as highlighted by Maguire and Delahunt (2017) were followed: Step 1: Becoming familiar with the data: Reading the transcripts of what the participants said; Step 2: Generating initial codes: Coding helped in reducing chunks of data; Step 3: Searching for themes: Significant statements about unions and school failure and success were identified; Step 4: Reviewing themes: The preliminary themes drawn were modified; Step 5: Defining themes: Identifying what each theme is about and what each says about unions, including their advantages and disadvantages; Step 6: Writing up: Write about the findings as teased out from the previous steps.

The two schools in the study are both historically black schools situated in townships. These refer to apartheid-created historically black areas. More than two decades after apartheid ended, there are still some schools where the legacy of the apartheid policy looms large. There are no laboratories or libraries and the schools serve impoverished black families in historically black areas. This was less than a year before Apricot High School appointed a new school principal whilst Apple has had their principal for a period of four years. Unlike Apricot, Apple is a ‘better performing’ school and is among the schools preferred by many working-class families who voluntarily migrate their children to such schools within the township. In this sense better performing schools refers to schools where there is a satisfactory attainment of learner achievement as well as teachers who are guided by the vision and mission of the school. In South Africa high schools are usually gauged by analysing their grade 12 results. Grade 12 is a final school class before commencing an undergraduate career at higher education institutions. Apple has been attaining around a 75% pass rate in grade 12 results for the past two years whereas Apricot historically achieved a pass percentage in the 30s, although it has improved slightly in the previous two years by attaining a 40% and 46% pass rate.

4. Findings The study showed how the two principals who both supported teacher unions in their schools did not lose sight of the core business of the schools; instead, union involvement enhanced the performance. Both schools demonstrated that committed teacher unions will prioritise the dreams of the communities and families of their children. The Apricot High School principal had arrived at a conflict-ridden school ten months before. She pointed out that many of the conflicts were caused by teacher unionism where SADTU members would always oppose NAPTOSA members and vice-versa. During conversations with the previous principal who had since retired, he informed her how teacher unions stalled progress in the school as “they fought for the terrain”. She also pointed out that she had been informed by her staff that the previous principal’s time and attention were always occupied by union clashes in the school.

Apparently, the union site committees would hold union meetings during school hours, or some members of staff would leave school early to attend union engagements. While she was not a very active union member, she supported

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unions and frequently gave them opportunities to empower one another in curriculum and teacher leadership matters. She pointed out the following: “In my school our teams have ensured that teacher unions give us opportunities to grow as teacher leaders. I have always maintained that intent teacher unions can help the school by professionally developing all teachers. We all know that unions are about labour issues of teachers, but effective unions will also help teachers strive for school success.”

The school governing body (SGB) chairperson supported the principal as they stated that when the new principal arrived, she brought together all the school’s role-players. The chairperson declared the following: “For the first time we work closely with all role-players and this includes learner council as well as teacher union site committees. As parent governors we did not understand union programmes especially when they deter learners’ progress in classrooms. Our new principal though has forged links between us and unions. The union leadership now informs us beforehand on their programmes of action rather than take us by surprise. Indeed, as parents we are happy.”

The principal maintained that she was satisfied with the cooperation from staff, especially the union members who have committed to turn over a new leaf and work closely with all the other role-players. After several workshops run by school management, the teachers also found that conflicts between unions are detrimental to educational outcomes and negative to school success. Two external organisations were invited to run workshops that revealed ways of dealing with intractable conflicts. However, according to the chairperson of the SGB, the previous principal of the school had viewed the unions as adversaries to school management teams. Nevertheless, the chairperson also attributed the general failure of the school to union presence. The chairperson of the SGB claimed the following: “Mr M was always suspicious of teacher unions in the school, including his own. To him they were the reason why there was less progress. To him the school management was struggling because unions wanted to stamp their feet down and usurp power. He used to say when referring to unions, “It is us and them; we do not want to be them, and they do not want to be us”. The unions and management were always at loggerheads.”

The new principal endeavoured to mend this broken relationship of mistrust and suspicion. She stated that in her very first meetings with the school’s roleplayers, her most interesting and productive meeting was with the two dominant teacher unions at the school. She said she was “bowled [over] by the brilliant ideas” that the teachers had.

The Apple High School principal had been at the helm of the school for four years. In all that time he had been an active SADTU member and two years previously had been secretary of his branch. He pointed out that he had never had problems in the school regarding aspects of leadership because he frequently shared leadership among his staff. He also pointed out that it was his

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philosophy that without strong teacher unions, schools will not have professionally matured teachers and, in turn, learner achievement could not be attained. He also affirmed that when unions are strong, teachers are able to learn from one another. Apple’s principal maintained the following: “I always tell colleagues from other schools that at this age if management is to work, it needs to work closely with unions. Positive unions are critical, and I have been able to inculcate that spirit which makes the school workable. Labour unions in school can be effective without being divisive.”

As in the case of the Apricot High School principal, the principal of Apple had learnt to include union leadership in his leadership training. Furthermore, at Apple the principal had the teachers run what he called professional development meetings once a month. In these meetings the teachers discussed school improvement initiatives with the support of the union site committees. What was remarkable in both schools was that the union members differed among themselves as well. However, the school managers in both schools promoted the debates and, whilst not all the meetings ended amicably, the level of professionalism was always maintained. At Apricot the principal used the concept professional maturity to bring all the staff members together. The two teachers and the SGB members concurred that teacher unity is forged by the spirit of good unionism which, in turn, leads to school success. The SGB member at Apricot also pointed out that in the ten months since the principal’s arrival, learner success was improving in the various grades and teacher solidarity was increasing. At Apple the learner achievement had been improving gradually over the past three years and the participants contended that the unions’ involvement was among the reasons for the attainment of educational outcomes.

The participants also maintained that schools need teacher unions that are goal directed, strong and visionary. Both SGB chairpersons stated that they witnessed the gradual transformation in their schools as supported by teacher union site committees. The Apricot teacher declared: “I have never seen the unity in working together, especially between unions and school managers. It is a new culture for all of us because we were used to that climate of us and them. Things are different now.

There are still many differences among teachers, but the principal has shown the staff ways of professionally dealing with these differences. She always explains, “I may differ with many people, but it does not mean I am looking at them as foes.” She is not an adversary of unions but uses them positively to build the school closely with school management.”

In both schools the building of strong unions was critical to the schools’ success.

Furthermore, the unions served an important function of empowering others.

Seminars and relevant community programmes were facilitated by the union site committee members whose roles were strongly supported by the school principals. The Apple principal stated that he has worked closely with the unions and the cooperation has made his work as a school principal more manageable. The Apple principal added the following:

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“There are so many times that I differ with the union leaders and staff at school and I tell them when I think they are wrong. They also call me to order when they believe that I am on the wrong. In our meetings there is a lot of rigor, but it is rigor with respect and professionalism. We always tell ourselves that our egos are less important, and we are here to build the future of our learners. I believe in strong unions, for me they are the basis of strong schools. Unions need to empower, build and teach. In fact, that should be a slogan throughout; unions should facilitate the actual teaching of one another. As they fight for teacher rights, they should be conscious of other struggles as well.“ The participants highlighted a few concepts that were part of their development as professionals, namely empowerment, cooperation and learner achievement.

All the participants agreed with both principals when they reiterated that teacher unions can help enhance teacher quality and the quality of learning. The Apple principal opined the following: “In all my years as a teacher, I have maintained that if teacher unions cannot empower for teacher quality and learners’ success they might as well regard themselves as running short of what they should be doing.

Intent teacher union site committees in schools will help school leaders in several things including creating more teacher leaders and mentors.”

The Apricot principal added to this by pointing out the following: “We cannot talk about empowerment without talking about cooperation.

Empowerment ensures that we work as a collective. Working as a collective is what should make us learn from one another and that is good for our learners in classrooms. I have never seen any reason that teacher unions could not lead the struggles for effective education. We need to have teacher unions that will always support school success.”

All the participants agreed that educational reforms would not be fully realised when teacher unions do not work with other role-players. Participants from both schools acknowledged the importance of unions working with all the roleplayers, including the communities around the school. The school meetings are a source of sharing common vision, peer support and success. The school principals maintain that reforms cannot be sustained without union committee involvement. Below, the findings are discussed under three headings that were identified after teasing out the themes identified in the findings: • Unions as empowering groups; • School management and cooperation; and • Strong unions and school success.

5. Discussion of the Findings Unions as empowerment groups The two schools in the study openly embraced the teacher unions as part of the reform agenda and as critical partners in guiding the school towards meaningful transformation. Moreover, in both schools the principals were aware of the unions’ negative reputation in communities; nevertheless, they maintained that no school effectiveness would be achieved without the involvement of teacher

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unions. Therefore, they perceived unions as stakeholders that need to be empowered so that they could, in turn, empower the school community. The unions’ strength emanates from the fact that large numbers of teachers in the district are members. Kennedy-Macfoy and Fyles (2020) argued that when teacher unions are in control, schools can become safer for everyone.

Furthermore, these authors state that unions are well placed to mobilise teachers to achieve shared goals and a common vision. In both schools the participants trusted the unions as empowering bodies. Some elements from the teacher empowerment model were revealed as participants spoke about how they tended to embrace professional growth, self-efficacy and their desire to be the best teachers. The workshops coordinated by the teacher union site committees generated more commitment from the teachers. The teachers found the union presence both empowering and engaging.

Strong unions can be the source of innovation and teacher leadership. Many schools fail because teachers do not receive peer support from others while peer support was the pillar of strength in the two schools under study. The union presence emphasised peer support. Special meetings led by union site committees were meant to empower teachers and motivate other role-players such as parents. Education International (2017) related how teacher unions in Pakistan work in empowering teachers. Additionally, it was found that empowered teachers are innovative, while empowerment means learners benefit because they achieve success. These are qualities that were evident in this study.

Empowerment should be a key factor among all conscientious teacher unions.

Besides the labour issues, the most important mission for committed teacher unions is to support members in providing quality education. Linked to quality education is the teacher unions’ promotion of social dialogue which includes parents and communities. The unions at Apple prioritised their community engagement projects, facilitating knowledge regarding human rights and developing resourceful parents who work closely with their children for success at school. At Apricot one union’s initiatives included a garden project as well as advocacy on gender and violence. In the garden project the teachers would harvest from the school garden and divide the vegetables among indigent parents and community members. Many community members worked in the garden whenever requested to do so. The garden project also initiated interest in starting gardens for self-sustenance in the poverty-stricken area. Many families were beginning to live off their gardens.

From these experiences, teacher unions’ influence can spread beyond bargaining. Yet, as the principal of Apple stated, “Only empowered teachers can empower others”. Therefore, in their attempts to transform the curriculum and change education, district officials need to work closely with progressive teacher unions. Furthermore, when unions lead, they teach one another and in this way the nation grows. School reforms will only be as strong as the involvement of teacher unions. In times of diversity in schools, teacher unions should lead in the struggle for equity, social justice and human rights. The operative word for

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school management and teacher unions is ‘cooperate’; unions should always cooperate with all role-players in schools.

School management and cooperation Ahrai et al. (2021) related how, in some countries, principals have different unions from those of the teachers. Indeed, they raise plausible arguments based on sound rationale. However, in this study the participants concurred that cooperation between school managers and teacher unions is critical for engendering school success which includes learner achievement. When teacher union site committees share the school vision in their schools, they also share the schools’ goals and mission. Msila’s (2021) study illustrates the value of cooperation between teacher unions and school managers in South African schools. Msila also pointed out that, in the face of intractable conflicts and power wrangles, teachers can hardly share common goals while school managers will not thrive. When union members regard school managers as partners in school programmes, however, they are more likely to cooperate rather than compete for power.

Moreover, as the participants in the study indicated, many school management teams do not function well because of conflicts that frequently arise between union members and school managers. The participants at Apricot illustrated this point as they described the confrontational nature of the previous principal’s engagement with the teacher unions in the school. Rubinstein and McCarthy’s (2014) research illustrates how teacher unions and management partnerships improve schools as they raise the levels of learner achievement. This might not be easy to attain in schools as power wrangles can divide unions and school managers. However, in this study Apple High School proves that the ideal in any school should be cooperation between teacher unions and managers.

Rubinstein and McCarthy (2014) found communication to be critical when it comes to cooperation between school managers and union members at school level. Communication not only improves learner performance; when it is extensive it can also lead to collaboration, curriculum development, learning about instructional practices and giving or receiving mentoring (Rubinstein & McCarthy, 2014).

In this study the participants were encouraged to build the schools together when they could see the results of collaboration and communication. The principals also highlighted that when all teachers become part of the processes of communication in the school, they start believing that they are part of the strategy and change in that school. Union members like to be part of transformation in the various aspects of the school, from curriculum development and instruction to the improvement of teachers’ conditions of work. School success depends much on collaboration while conflicts defeat the purpose of shared leadership and common goals in a school. A school climate where there is little or no relationship between unions and school management is negative as highlighted by the participants at Apricot when referring to the past. This cooperation in a school leads to innovation in problem solving (Rubinstein & McCarthy, 2014). Cooperation among all the schools’ stakeholders

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is the secret for success in running working schools. This communication can easily be facilitated by school managers and strong teacher unions who continually search for school success.

Strong unions and school success The participants reiterated that schools will be deemed good if quality teaching and learning occur and if there is learner success. This needs conscientious teachers who have their learners’ needs at heart. Strong unions will instil this in their members as those did in this study. The cooperation discussed above leads to strong school management teams and strong teachers, which both translate into learner achievement. However, teacher unions have always been blamed for school failure because learners are relegated to the margins as teachers fight for their rights. Eberts (2007) postulated that for a few years teacher unions were perceived as bodies that have captured schools to prioritise their own needs rather than those of the learners. As Eberts (2007, p.176) succinctly stated, “Many critics of unions believe that collective bargaining has created a tangled web of rules that keep public schools from being able to respond to the changing needs of students and that the bargaining process has influenced public education more than any other factor.”

The study’s findings in line with previous studies show that there is a relationship between strong teacher unions and the learners’ positive educational outcomes (Guthery, 2018; Msila, 2014). However, in South Africa there is a paucity of research that examines the connection between strong unions and educational outcomes. In fact, as seen in the literature section, teacher unions are frequently blamed for several failures, including a drop in quality education, especially in historically black schools. Nevertheless, this study revealed that the schools’ performance was improved although the participants state that unions can do more to enhance this. It was also shown that the lack of cooperation is the missing link where unions are weak.

Meaningful cooperation leads to strong teacher unions and enables the teachers to become loyal to colleagues, to the school and to the learners.

Several studies outside South Africa have shown that strong unions can lead to positive educational outcomes and learner achievement (Delgado, 2021; Vachon & Ma, 2015). In the current study, the school managers ensured that the union members experienced self-fulfilment. Vachon and Ma (2015, p. 411) contended that “when teachers achieve self-actualisation, their work fulfils a broader human need – beyond mere remuneration – and their commitment to selfimprovement and student achievement increase.” In this study the union site committee members supported the concept of being meaningfully involved in teams that guide the school. Frequently unions are ostracised because people believe that the members are not interested in school transformation but only in bargaining for their members’ rights and privileges. The principals demonstrated that there is much potential in working closely with union members in schools that plan for success.

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Eberts (2007) pointed out that teacher unions have a significant role to play in public education. Eberts further contended that collective bargaining agreements lead to the delivery of effective education, and unions end up positively affecting learner achievement and the provision of quality education. In the current study teachers maintained that they were part of the change that was happening in classrooms. The fight for human rights and social justice is possible when teachers highlight the plight of their learners as they negotiate their rights through collective bargaining. This study demonstrates that teacher unions need not be perpetual adversaries with the school’s role-players but can be part of successful schools that value learner achievement. The results of this case study also demonstrate that anyone who contemplates school success cannot keep the role-players outside any initiatives and these include the teacher unions as well. The principals’ arguments hold true when they say the unions’ successes are tied to effective public schools and these translate to learner achievement and successful educational outcomes.

6. Conclusion This study has demonstrated that strong teacher unions can bring about the necessary effectiveness to schools. School effectiveness includes the high expectations that role-players have about schools, namely promoting learner achievement. Conscientious teacher unions fulfil the role of inculcating commitment that leads to success among the teaching staff. Yet strong unions will survive only if there are strong ties of cooperation amongst all role-players.

School managers who sincerely believe in the potential of union site committees in their schools can create a sense of purpose that would engender a spirit of cooperation. This case study demonstrates that when union site committees in schools share the vision with the school leaders, they can form teams that embrace the type of quality that leads to the schools’ success. Among others, successful schools include learner achievement, quality education, teacher leadership and cooperation. School management teams and SGBs ought to be at the forefront in facilitating the involvement of positive teacher unions. Critical, innovative and active teacher unions are vital to school management teams that want to establish well-functioning schools.

This case study was critical in understanding the unique nature of the two schools and the practice of the two principals. Given the inadequacy of research in teacher unionism in South Africa, more large-scale quantitative studies or collections of school survey data are needed to understand the role of unions in not only school management but also in cultivating quality education. The literature reviewed in this report indicated that there is significant potential in teacher unions which see themselves as being instrumental in meaningful transformation, even in the case of public schools serving those families living in poverty.

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https://medium.com/ungei-blog/when-teachers-unions-take-action-schoolsbecome-safer-for-everyone-69ac85cfa039 Lott, J., & Kenny, L.W. (2012). State teacher union strength and student achievement.

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Center for American Progress. https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/education-k12/reports/2014/03/25/86332/teachers-unions-and-managementpartnerships/ Sibiya, T. P. (2017). Key stakeholders’ experiences and perspectives on the role of the South African Democratic Teachers Union (SADTU) in education. [Master’s dissertation].

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Vachon, T. E., & Ma, J. (2015). Bargaining for success: Examining the relationship between teacher unions and student achievement. Sociological Forum, 32, 391-414. https://doi.org/10.1111/socf.12168 Wills, G. (2017). The effects of teacher strike activity on student learning in South African primary schools. Stellenbosch Economic Working Papers: 1/14. University of Stellenbosch/BER, Stellenbosch. https://resep.sun.ac.za/wpcontent/uploads/2017/10/wp-01-2014.pdf Wills, G. (2020). Teachers’ unions and industrial action in South African primary schools: Exploring their impacts on learning. Development Southern Africa, 37(2), 328-347. https://doi.org/10.1080/0376835X.2019.1682969

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 21, No. 3, pp. 281-300, March 2022 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.3.15 Received Jan 24, 2022; Revised Mar 4, 2022; Accepted Mar 29, 2022

Instrument Measuring the Adaptability of University Students to Online Learning (SOLE) and Its Predicting Factors Ateerah Abdul Razak* University of Malaysia Kelantan, Malaysia Azahah Abu Hassan Shaari University of Malaysia Kelantan, Malaysia Lukman Zawawi Mohamad University of Sultan Zainal Abidin, Malaysia Amanina Abdul Razak Mohamed University of MARA Technology, Cawangan Selangor, Malaysia Asma Lailee Mohd Noor University of Malaysia Kelantan, Malaysia Abstract. Online learning has become a practical method in the teaching and learning process, especially during the unprecedented Covid-19 pandemic. Additionally, this situation has forced students to adapt to the new norms of the virtual learning environment. This study intends to validate the instrument used to measure the students’ adaptability to online learning (SOLE). A total of 316 students were selected using purposive sampling from several universities in Malaysia. The validity and reliability of SOLE were both evaluated using exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis. As a result of the findings, the instruments remained at 35 items across four constructs, namely physical, spiritual, and emotional as well as the students’ values. The Cronbach’s alpha coefficient for the scales is above 0.85. The results reveal that overall student adaptability is at a high level across all constructs. It was also observed that there is a significant relation between emotional constructs and SOLE (t=4.726, p<0.000), physical constructs and SOLE (t=6.899, p<0.000), as well as between spiritual constructs and SOLE (t=9.461, p<0.000). Based on this finding, the SOLE instrument has proven to be a suitable instrument measurement to assist students in the

*

Corresponding author: Ateerah Abdul Razak; ateerah@umk.edu.my

©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

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context of adjusting to an online learning condition, even though further research is necessary to be carried out on a more diverse population.

Keywords: instrument; measurement; new norm; online learning; students’ adaptability

1. Introduction Face-to-face learning is a traditional teaching method whereby the lesson materials are taught to a group of learners (Gherhes et al., 2021). To date, the enormous disruption of the Covid-19 pandemic has changed the student perception of depending on physical classes. The pandemic Covid-19 has also led to several problems among the students such as loneliness as well as insufficient access to technological appliances due to their being from a lowincome family (Morgan, 2022). In fact, adaptability to online learning is crucial to educate the learners so that the learning process continues, even in a fully virtual class. The current study endeavoured to develop a measurement for the students’ adaptability (SOLE) to online learning. It is an assessment for students to ensure that they can adapt well and identify the required elements in order to achieve their educational goals.

This study is meaningful since there are several cases of students who struggle to maintain a high level of motivation during online learning as well as engaging in a conducive virtual environment (Bao, 2020). Furthermore, there are some learners who consider physical and virtual learning to be two different aspects (Xhelili et al., 2021). Thus they seem to have difficulty in perceiving online learning as the only method of learning. Regardless of the different perspectives of online learning, students should be constantly reminded that the aim of the process is to achieve the same learning goals.

Consequently, this study can also serve as a guideline for students and educators if they have any issues related to the students’ adaptability to the online learning sessions. This is because the components that have been applied to measure the learners’ adaptability are significant in assessing how students should prepare themselves to access knowledge virtually. This platform is important because it has been mentioned that it could replace the traditional method of teaching (Mukhtar et al., 2020).

In addition, learning virtually is also a viable way of enhancing the students’ satisfaction as well as improving the cost effectiveness (Sadeghi et al., 2014). In addition, the current study is also significant since it involves the human element. This is an essential benchmark to measure education goals. One of the learning process objectives is forming students’ spirituality. This can benefit others and a nation as a whole. Hence, the uniqueness of SOLE is that it contains several items that can be used to measure the level of righteousness among them which relates to the values that are practised in daily life.

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2. Literature Review Previous studies mention that students can adapt to online classes. However, they also face difficulties relating to their Internet connection and they may have insufficient technological appliances. It is also necessary for educators to pay attention to the students' problems to achieve the desired learning goals (Xhelili et al., 2021). Moreover, it has also been shown that the lack of social interaction may reduce the level of motivation and minimise the students’ discipline (Ainoutdinova et al., 2017). Furthermore, it is mentioned that students require there to be several aspects involved such as those relating to physical, emotional and spiritual needs in order to maintain a balanced state of well-being, especially during virtual learning sessions (Razak et al., 2021). Educators are also encouraged to use a suitable teaching aid to ensure that their learners can adapt well during the learning process (Izuli, 2021). This is due to the fact that sustainable well-being is necessary so that the students can balance their lives in terms of the educational aspect as well as the other contexts such as social, emotional and other components that contribute to the students’ well-being.

Another previous study developed a measurement to assess student readiness in online learning. It encompassed the components of self-development, technology, innovation and people (Krismanto et al., 2020). The instrument was reliable when used to assess student readiness. However, it is limited to the external elements and does not emphasise the aspect of well-being among the students, including the spiritual and emotional components.

In addition, another scale that relates to the assessment of student engagement focuses only on the components of observational learning behaviour and application learning behaviour (Dixon, 2015). These instruments are meaningful when assessing the external factors of student engagement. However, it is necessary to identify whether the students can adapt well to the rapid development of the e-learning system. Thus it has been proven that an assessment of the students’ adaptability (SOLE) should be developed to produce a balanced concept for humanising education.

3. The Development of SOLE Constructs The current study develops several domains related to the students’ adaptability to online learning. SOLE encompasses three predictors, namely emotional, physical and spiritual components. In addition, the components used to measure SOLE itself are of internal as well as external value. The instrument was also developed based on the main component of the contributors of well-being. This is to identify whether the students can adapt well to a virtual session.

Furthermore, SOLE will also be used in post-pandemic situations because nowadays there is a great deal of e-learning available that requires students to be well prepared for a lesson.

In terms of the physical aspect, this domain evaluates several components that relate to a conducive environment that can help the students adapt well to online learning. This includes how teachers play a role in sharing their knowledge, particularly during a virtual lesson (Dhuli & Sakshi, 2017). This

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component also measures how the teachers apply their innovative skills when imparting knowledge to their students so that the students can also improve their essential skills in the future (Setiyawati et al., 2018). Upgrading teaching skills is crucial in order for teachers to be fully capable of using the online platform (Muganga et al., 2021).

In addition, this component also analyses the method of teaching. This element is vital to reduce the rate of unpreparedness towards digital learning among educators (Maheran et al., 2021). Moreover, students are also encouraged to engage with the online lesson since it is also a platform of continuous learning (Muganga et al., 2021). Furthermore, there are several students who face difficulties when trying to participate in an online class because of their inadequate Internet access (Jalli, 2020). This might be because of demographic factors as those in rural areas cannot fully adapt to the advancements in technology because of Internet issues (Flynn & Himel, 2020).

Furthermore, students are also required to have a plan when joining in with the online learning so then they can adapt and achieve the learning goals (Rapanta et al., 2020). Hence, it is important for educators to be aware of the students’ situation in order to assist them to adapt well to an online lesson. For example, students can also face financial issues which hinder them from being able to engage fully with the online lesson (Daud et al., 2018). It is understood that educators and students need to cooperate to achieve positive adaptability in online learning.

In terms of the emotional component construct, this domain evaluates how the students prepare to join the online class. It also identifies several aspects such as the level of motivation among them. This element is crucial because it leads to the students’ attaining a level of engagement in relation to the virtual lesson (Meşe & Sevilen, 2021). This attribute also makes the students feel more enthusiastic about the learning process (Koçoğlu & Tekdal, 2020). Moreover, the interaction between the teachers and students is a vital element in the creation of a positive relationship as well as ensuring the learners’ commitment towards the online resources (Çebi & Güyer, 2020).

In addition, the students were also asked about their characteristics as well as their technical and communication management. These issues are also important to highlight among the teachers because they will determine the amount of individual preparation before participating in the virtual class (Martin et al., 2020). This component was developed in order to investigate the learners’ skill of problem solving. This is one of the essential skills, requiring a long and continuous process of education (Fitarahmawati & Suhartini, 2020).

The spiritual aspect was one of the predictors used to assess student adaptability in online learning. It is argued that it is a subjective element and that it is difficult to measure the human level of spirituality. Nevertheless, it is agreed that it has some characteristics which could assist the individual in establishing a well-prepared spiritual practice in their daily life (Razak & Lukman, 2019).

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This basis contains several items that relate to the students’ practice before, during and after attending the virtual class.

For instance, the item asks the students whether they pray before participating in class. This is a righteous attitude and it guides the learners to having a firm faith which relates to the religious attribute (Chotimah et al., 2021). In addition, this construct also identifies the element of compulsory practice, especially among Muslims. This is one of the components used to evaluate Muslim attributes (Zulvia et al., 2020).

Other than that, this construct also measures the level of consistency oristiqamah characteristics among the students. This attitude instils self-discipline among the students and it also improves their daily performance (Wijayanti et al., 2020).

Moreover, it is also compulsory for Muslims to perform five daily prayers. It is one of the five pillars that should be adhered to by Muslims and it is also a way to obtain inner calmness (Abdul Aziz et al., 2020).

The external values relate to how the students manage to interact with people, particularly their educators (Razak et al., 2021). For instance, this item analyses the bond between learners and educators. As mentioned before, teachers also should participate in learning because it is paramount for them to gain a good level of adaptability in the online lessons (Raducu & Stanculescu, 2021). This section also identifies how the students get to know each other. The concept of social relationships is significant since it can develop a firmer sense of community among them, especially during virtual sessions (Tuan, 2015).

In addition, the students’ adaptability could also be measured through time management in terms of how they divide their time, specifically time for studying as well as time for a social life. This is a salient aspect as there are some issues to do with online learning which can lead to the lack of time for social mundane activity (Shivangi, 2020). Furthermore, the students are also encouraged to adapt well to the online learning because during the era of the fourth industrial revolution (IR 4.0), the students should understand how to utilise fully the technology accommodations available so that they can adapt accordingly to an online lesson (Zuriah & Rahmandani, 2020). Similarly, this was also used to evaluate how the students are provided with guidelines by their teachers. The previous study mentioned that the students who receive proper coaching from their educators tend to achieve higher results in their final assessment (Raducu & Stanculescu, 2021).

Regarding the domain of internal values, it contains several aspects that relate to human attributes. This is one of the student indicators that can help them to achieve a good level of adaptability in their online lessons. For example, learners who attain an education goal will have a positive attitude in their daily practice.

This is part of having a righteous character (Ramli, 2016).

In addition, this component identified the attitude of honesty when carrying out their daily responsibilities. This behaviour relates to people being trustworthy

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in terms of both their word as well as their practice (Babang et al., 2016). This also examines how hard students work in their daily lives. This practice can be continued even after the conclusion of the formal online learning process: if they have been trained to work hard, they also will achieve success in the future.

Moreover, it is also an indicator of being a highly principled human being (Erfinia, 2016).

Nevertheless, other virtuous attitudes such as being grateful are also included in this domain because they are part of Islamic religious values (Mila et al., 2019). In addition, the attribute of discipline is regarded as a highly desirable characteristic. It also acts as a symbol of the basic societal attitude that people can adopt to compete globally in the future (Suntonrapot, 2019). Furthermore, the aspect of tawakkal (reliance on Allah) is a righteous practice because it symbolises the high level of reliance of the servant on the Creator. Furthermore, it also relates to the enthusiasm to attain excellence while the final effort that has been made is submitted to God (Jaeni et al., 2020).

4. Method This study used a quantitative method, commencing with reviewing the previous articles on student adaptability. The research instruments were developed based on the literature review and recent scholars’ perspectives on online learning. These include how students can adapt during the online lessons.

This study analysed the previous studies related to student adaptability relating to online learning. This study also identified several related instruments that have been developed and in addition, analysed other elements related to learner adaptability in virtual lessons. The current study then developed several constructs that predict student adaptability in relation to online learning.

Subsequently, some of the items were then organised into components and they underwent the reliability and validity processes. In terms of construct reliability and validity, the items of the current study were reviewed by experts in select fields. They were then revised based on the content validity and pilot testing procedures.

In terms of the sampling method, the current study used the purposive sampling technique. This method is especially useful when randomisation is impossible as in cases where the population is very large (Ilker, 2016). The participants consisted of university students who have experience of online learning. The respondents came from various states. Additionally, the current study also aimed to identify the various perspectives among the different levels of students.

They were selected from semesters 1 – 4 and came from various areas in the state of Malaysia.

The questionnaire was distributed via Google Forms. Later the responses were analysed using Smart PLS 3.2.8. The statistical process involved exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). EFA is a basic technique involved in the process of the development and validation of the measurement scale inventory (Marley, 2018). CFA was used to test the predicted items that had been developed based on certain constructs (Prudon, 2015). After

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performing this analysis, the model was then validated based on certain predictors of SOLE.

5. Results This section reveals the findings focused on the reliability and validity of the SOLE instrument. Table 1 illustrates the value of Cronbach’s alpha (CA), the composite reliability (CR), and the average variance extract (AVE) for each construct.

Table 1: The values of construct reliability and validity in the SOLE instrument Cronbach Alpha

Composite Reliability

Average Variance Extract

Emotional aspect

0.953

0.961

0.78

Physical aspect

0.879

0.906

0.583

Spiritual aspect

0.863

0.901

0.647

Internal values

0.942

0.951

0.684

External values

0.913

0.931

0.66

Constructs

Convergent validity is the assessment used to discover the statistical terms involved, for example, the AVE, loadings, and CR (Gholami et al., 2013; Rahman et al., 2015). Table 1 depicts the SOLE main construct which illustrates the value of reliability and validity for the development of SOLE. It established that the values of Cronbach’s alpha, CR and AVE are of an acceptable range. This proved that SOLE is a reliable measurement that could be used in the current study as well as in future research.

This study applied several elements such as the selected physical, emotional and spiritual aspects as the predictors of student adaptability during virtual learning.

The internal and external values are the components that measure whether the students can adapt to the online lessons.

Based on Table 1, it is indicated that the CA, CR and AVE reached an adequate level of reliability. This references the recommendation which states that the AVE score should be at least 0.5 (Hair et al., 2013). This includes the validity process that was assessed through convergent and discriminant tests. This was applied to evaluate the level to which the multiple predictors correlate with each other.

In accordance with the recommendations of Hair et al. (2014), the construct validity of the outer loading, Cronbach’s alpha, CR and AVE should be more than 0.7. From Table 1, it can be noted that the predictors of SOLE have an accepted value. This shows that they possess a high level of reliability and validity in terms of the statistical results. In addition, it also proves that every component can predict student adaptability to online learning. Table 2 explains the value of the loading factor of each item based on certain constructs.

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Table 2: Loading factors for the items in the SOLE instrument

0.89 0.88 0.89 0.87 0.90 0.89 0.83 0.76 0.87

0.65 0.78 0.54 0.86 0.79 0.87 0.79 0.84 0.73 0.83 0.87 0.84 0.85 0.88 0.79 0.78

External

Internal

Spiritual

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Physical

I always find that online learning is very interesting I always communicate with the teacher during the online learning activities I always enjoy joining in with the online learning activities I am always well prepared before joining the online learning I always solve my problems before attending the online classes I always have a high level of motivation to attend the online classes I get a lot of beneficial information on how to participate in online learning I get the opportunity to explore the guidelines on how to use the e-learning tools I get to learn from teachers who are experienced at preparing the teaching materials I get to learn from teachers who have many skills when conducting online learning I get good Internet data and coverage during the online learning I get to prepare for a Plan A and B while joining the online activities I can subscribe to the Internet data without any financial issues I always allocate time for studying and religious activities I always perform my religious practices consistently I always perform my solah early I always pray for safety and well-being I always have positive impressions of God’s plans for me I learn to be sincere in my daily activities/Saya I learn to be honest when carrying out my responsibilities I learn to work hard to achieve my dreams I learn to be grateful for the blessings and grace that are bestowed upon me I learn to be disciplined in anything I do I learn to rely on God when dealing with everyday life I learn to be brave when giving my opinion

Emotional

Items

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I learn to accept all challenges in life with an open heart Overall, I have learnt many positive values in my life through the online learning activities I form a close bond with the teachers during the online learning activities I get to know many new friends when I participate in online learning activities I manage to allocate time for both studying and social activities I manage to complete the tasks given by the teachers on time I manage to apply good ethics in my life I obtain good guidelines through the online learning activities I manage to share my problems with my teachers

0.80 0.78

0.82 0.72 0.87 0.81 0.84 0.89 0.73

Table 2 indicates that all loading factor values for each item reached an acceptable value of more than 0.30. The item loading factors that have a greater value than 0.30 are categorised as possessing a good internal consistency (Hair et al., 2013). Ramayah et al. (2012) recommended that a range of the outer loading between 0.4 - 0.69 could be retained if the value of the AVE is greater than 0.5.

From Table 2, it can be observed that the outer loading of the entire construct ranges between 0.5 – 0.8 which is an acceptable range. This finding also indicates that the questionnaire has five factors, namely the emotional, physical, spiritual, internal, and external values. Each component contains six, seven, five, eight and seven items respectively, which have been illustrated in Table 2. The constructs confirm the SOLE model and can be used to measure student adaptability, particularly in online learning. Table 3 explains the value of HTMT (a measure of similarity between latent variables) for each construct.

Table 3: The values of HTMT used to measure the discriminant validity Construct

Emotional

External Values

Internal Value

Physical

Spiritual

Emotional External

0.581

Internal

0.397

0.756

Physical

0.466

0.807

0.62

Spiritual

0.375

0.679

0.83

0.669

Table 3 illustrates the value of HTMT which was used to measure the discriminant validity. It is also important to determine the relationships between the identified constructs. Gold et al. (2001) suggested that a HTMT value of less than 0.9 indicates satisfactory discriminant validity. Hence, it is proven that there is discriminant validity among the constructs.

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Assessment of the structural model This section provides the result for the values of the structural model. It comprises the R, F and Q squares. R square is an assessment of the model’s predictive accuracy and it depicts the amount of variance in the endogenous construct. The Q square is utilised to evaluate the original values in relation to the predicted value (Ramayah et al., 2018). The F square measures how strongly the constructs have an influence to explain a given endogenous construct in terms of the R square. Table 4 identifies the value of the R square which was used to analyse how well the data fits the SOLE model.

Table 4: The values of R square used to measure the structural model R Square SOLE

R Square Adjusted

0.681

0.678

Table 4 illustrates the value of the R square. It was used to evaluate the explained variance and to indicate the strength of the prediction, especially in the multiple regression model. A rough rule of thumb is that the R2 values of 0.25, 0.50, and 0.75 are respectively weak, moderate, and strong (Hair et al., 2011). Additionally, Chin (1998) recommended that an R-square can be in the ranges of 0.67 (substantial), 0.33 (moderate), and 0.19 (weak). Thus, it is understood that the R square for SOLE model is substantial as proposed by Chin and Todd (1995). It is proven that if the R-squared (R2) value ranges from 0 to 1, the model has perfect predictive accuracy (Henseler et al., 2009). Table 5 exhibits the path co-efficient in order to identify the correlation where the dependent variable is a function of a single independent variable.

Table 5: The values of regression analysis of SOLE model Construct

OS

SM

SD

T

P Values

Emotional >

0.183

0.184

0.039

4.726

0.000

Physical> SOLE

0.324

0.325

0.047

6.899

0.000

Spiritual> SOLE

0.487

0.486

0.051

9.461

0.000

SOLE

The regression analysis is employed to analyse the significant relationship that exists between the independent and dependent variables. Furthermore, it is applied to determine the significant relationship between constructs. From Table 5, it can be observed that there are significant relations between emotional components towards SOLE (t=4.726, p < 0.005), practice components towards SOLE (t=6.899, p < 0.000), and religious knowledge towards SOLE (t=9.461, p<0.000). Moreover, the positive sign implies that there is a direct relationship between the dependent and independent variables. Figure 1 illustrates the

value of items that are loading on their predicting factors.

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Figure 1: SOLE model and its predictors

Figure 1 shows the value of the loading items. These are the main elements used to predict the students’ adaptability. It shows that each developed item is reliable and valid, and can therefore be used to measure the learners’ preparedness. It reveals that each construct is significant when used to evaluate how the students should prepare for and adapt in relation to online learning.

Additionally, it also proves that the SOLE model can be used in other studies that relate to the students’ well-being. Educators should also pay attention to each component to achieve the learning objective of every session.

6. Discussion The main purpose of the current study is to measure the reliability and validity of the SOLE instrument. According to the findings, it is vital for teachers as well as learners to maintain good communication in order to achieve the learning goals as part of the learning process. It has been proven that the major crises that influence and impact online learning during COVID-19 relate to communication, technical issues, internal and external challenges, and academic achievement. It is also suggested that the students’ satisfaction may boost their performance (Avsheniuk et al., 2021).

The current study also emphasises the importance of the physical, emotional, and spiritual components in adopting virtual learning. It has also been proven that the motivation element and other essential skills are necessary factors in order to adapt well to online learning (Baticulon et al., 2020). Additionally, the elements for students to achieve in and adapt well to online learning include emotional and social well-being as well as motivation (Holliman et al., 2021).

SOLE also can be used to identify whether the students face difficulties during the online lessons. A previous study also found that numerous students face mental health issues, especially during panic-gogy (Aristovnik et al., 2020). The current study highlights several essential items that can be used to measure the condition of the students, particularly during online learning. These also assist

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the learners in solving the problems that they face before starting an online class.

They will further help the students to gain the motivation they need to benefit from the online learning. Furthermore, this study also reveals that the developed constructs are essential elements to avoid the students experiencing depression and anxiety, especially during their online learning.

Apart from being a sophisticated e-learning tool, it is crucial to analyse the students’ condition to determine whether they can cope with the new norms of online learning. Thus, it is important to highlight the virtuous values that are essential components for ensuring that they experience a worthwhile lesson in online sessions. The uniqueness of SOLE is that it identifies the students’ adaptability during the online learning through the practice of spiritual daily habits. The current study reveals that the students recognise the significance of reciting prayers before joining the class. This serves as a practice of soul preparation to instil inner peacefulness among the students. The students also agreed that spending time studying and engaging in religious activities is important to being able to adapt during the lesson process.

The results show that fundamental aspects such as the physical, emotional and spiritual components could assist both learners and educators in producing a high-quality online learning product. Additionally, education in Islam includes the knowledge provided by both internal and external values to instil a good attitude (akhlaq), a balanced lifestyle, virtuous values, a firm faith, and positive attributes among the learners (Badrasawi, 2018).

In addition, this study is also in line with a previous study which explained that internal values such as being grateful contribute to positive feelings and strong characteristics. This is integral to the field of education (Fitra, 2017). SOLE items also encompass various elements that assist the students in adapting well to online learning as well as attaining the objective of their education. This is because the aspects of religiosity, social attributes, and a good personality have a positive impact when it comes to enhancing a student’s character (Zurqoni et al., 2018).

Moreover, the current study is significant since this instrument identifies the internal values that are crucial to human development as well as to the field of education. Moreover, it is stated that righteous attributes such as integrity are some of the central values that strengthen the attributes of an individual’s educational character (Nur et al., 2020). In addition, this study also contributes to the adaptability of Islamic practice among the students. It is agreed that learners who can apply Islamic practice in their daily lives will experience a well-adapted learning environment, including a good relationship with their educators (Ab Halim & Munawar, 2021). Thus, it has been proven that this instrument will lead to the students’ having a righteous attitude whether they are in a virtual learning session or in their physical environment.

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7. Conclusion This study reveals that good quality education should encompass several components which contribute to the students’ adaptability. All aspects such as the physical, emotional and spiritual factors strongly influence the students’ adaptability. It also discusses the internal and external values which form the students’ characters, enabling them ultimately to obtain a sustainable education to improve their well-being.

The current study also proves that it is important to have appropriate measurements to guide the students’ adaptability as part of the learning process.

This is due to the fact that there have recently been serious problems in online learning such as academic dishonesty, academic anxiety, and demotivation when attending online lessons (Simamora, 2020; Al-Kumaim et al., 2021). This points to the value of having a good attitude as contributing significantly to a positive impact on quality education, as well as shaping students towards recognising the significance of education in their lives.

The limitation of this study is that it was conducted during the pandemic. It is therefore proposed to apply SOLE in the post-pandemic period to identify how the students adapt to virtual lessons. In addition, it is suggested that SOLE could also apply to primary and secondary students because SOLE contains an element to assist students’ adaptability such as physical, emotional, spiritual, internal and external values which are necessary to sustain the students’ wellbeing, especially during the pressure and challenges encountered in the online learning period.

In terms of the practical implications, SOLE can be used to assess whether students encounter difficulties during the learning period. This is because SOLE can measure the level of adaptability in relation to the emotional, physical and spiritual aspects. These components are vital when seeking to mitigate mental health problems among the students. Hence, it is understood that a counsellor also could apply this assessment to assist educational institutions to reduce problems relating to the well-being of students.

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Appendix 1 Questionnaire on the Students’ Adaptability to Online Learning PHYSICAL ASPECT/ASPEK FIZIKAL 1.I get a great deal of beneficial information on how to participate in online learning/ Saya dapatbanyakmaklumatbergunaberkaitandenganpem belajarandalamtalian.

2. I get access to many skills that are taught by experienced teachers/ Saya dapatbanyakkemahiran yang diajar oleh guru yang berpengalaman.

3. I get to identify that some of the teachers are still practising the traditional teaching style/ Saya dapatmengesanbahawakebanyakan guru masihterikatdengankaedahpembelajaran lama.

4. I get the opportunity to explore the guidelines on how to use e-learning tools/ Saya dapatberpeluangmenerokacaracaramenggunakanbahanuntukpembelajarandalamtal ian (online).

5. I get to learn from teachers who are experienced at preparing the teaching materials/ Saya dapatbelajardengan guru yang berpengalamanmenyediakanbahanpengajaran. * 6. I get to learn from teachers who have many skills when conducting online learning/ Saya dapatbelajardengan guru yang mempunyaibanyakkemahiranmengendalikanpembel ajarandalamtalian.

7. I get good Internet data and coverage during the online learning/ Saya dapatbekalan dan liputan internet yang bagussemasapembelajarandalamtalian.

8. I get to prepare a Plan A and B when joining the online activities/ Saya dapatmengadakan Plan A dan B semasapembelajarandalamtalian.

9. I can subscribe to the Internet data without any financial issues/ Saya dapatmembelibekalan data internet tanpasebarangmasalahkewangan.

EMOTIONAL ASPECT/ASPEK EMOSI 1.

I always find that online learning is very interesting/Saya selalumendapatibahawapembelajarandalamtalian sangat menarik.

2.

I always communicate with the teacher during the online learning activities/Saya selaluberkomunikasidengan guru semasapembelajarandalamtalian.

3.

I always enjoy joining in the online learning activities/Saya

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selaluseronokmengikutiwaktupembelajarandalamtal ian.

4.

I am always well prepared before joining in with the online learning/Saya selalubersediaawalsebelummengikutipembelajarand alamtalian/ 5.

I always solve my problems before attending online classes/Saya selalumenyelesaikanmasalah yang adasebelummenghadirikelasdalamtalian.

6.

I always have a high level of motivation to attend online classes/Saya selalubermotivasitinggiuntukmengikutikelasdalamta lian.

SPIRITUAL ASPECT/ ASPEK SPIRITUAL 1.

I always say my prayers before attending online classes/Saya selaluberdoasebelummemulakankelasdalamtalian.

2.

I always allocate time for studying and religious activities/Saya selalumembahagikan masa antarawaktupembelajaran dan aktivitikeagamaan.

3.

I always perform my religious practices consistently/Saya selalumelakukanamalan agama secarakonsisten.

4.

I always perform my solah early/Saya selalusembahyang pada awalwaktu.

5.

I always pray for safety and well-being/Saya selaluberdoauntukkesejahteraan dan keselamatan.

6.

I always have a positive impression of God’s plans for me/Saya selalumempunyaisangkaanbaikdenganketetapanTuh an.

INTERNAL VALUES 1. This part will ask how you acquire values through online learning/Kenyataaniniberkaitandenganpandangana ndamengenaikesan yang diperolehhasildaripadapembelajarandalamtalian.

1. I learn to be sincere in my daily activities/Saya dapatmengaplikasinilaiikhlasdalammelakukanamala nseharian.

2. I learn to be honest when carrying out my responsibilities/ Saya dapatmengaplikasinilai Amanah dalammenunaikantanggungjawab.

3. I learn to work hard to achieve my dreams/ Saya dapatmengaplikasinilaikuatberusahamencapaiapa yang diimpikan.

4. I learn to be grateful for blessings and grace that are bestowed upon me/ Saya dapatmengaplikasinilaibersyukurdengansegalanikm at yang diberikankepadasaya.

5. I learn to be disciplined in anything I do/ Saya dapatmengaplikasinilaiberdisiplindalamsesuatupeke rjaan.

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6. I learn to rely on God when dealing with everyday life/ Saya dapatmengaplikasinilaibergantungkepadaTuhandala mmelaksanakanurusankehidupan.

7. I learn to be brave when giving my opinion/ Saya dapatmengaplikasinilaiberanidalammengemukakans esuatupendapat.

8. I learn to accept all challenges in life with an open heart/ Saya dapatmengaplikasinilairedadengansegalaujiandalam kehidupan.

9. Overall, I have learnt many positive values in my life through online learning activities/Secarakeseluruhannya, banyaknilaipositifdapatsayaterapdalamkehidupansa yahasilpembelajaransecaradalamtalian.

EXTERNAL VALUES 1. I form a close bond with the teachers during online learning activities/Saya dapatmenjalinhubungan yang baikdengan guru semasapembelajarandalamtalian.

2. I get to know many new friends when I participate in online learning activities/Saya dapatmengenaliramaikawanbaharusemasabelajardal amtalian.

3. I manage to complete the tasks given by the teachers on time/Saya dapatmenyiapkantugasan yang diberikan oleh guru tepat pada waktu.

4. I manage to apply good ethics in my life/Saya dapatmengamalkanetika yang baikdalamkehidupansaya.

5. I manage to allocate my time for both study and social activities/Saya dapatmembahagikan masa antarabelajar dan aktivitisosial.

6. I obtain good guidelines in online learning activities/Saya mendapat garis panduan yang baikdalampembelajarandalamtalian.

7. I manage to share my problems with my teachers/Saya dapatberkongsimasalah yang dihadapidengan guru.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 21, No. 3, pp. 301-318, March 2022 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.3.16 Received Jan 29, 2022; Revised Mar 23, 2022; Accepted Mar 30, 2022

Relationship between Spirituality, Nature Connectedness, and Burnout of Schoolteachers during Online Classes amid Covid-19 Pandemic: The Moderating Role of Gender Tengku Farhanan Bt Tengku Mohamed Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Malaysia Samsilah Roslan Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Malaysia Zeinab Zaremohzzabieh Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Malaysia Seyedali Ahrari Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Malaysia

Abstract. The substantial changes in the workplace caused by the Covid19 pandemic restrictions have contributed to teacher burnout. The purpose of this study was to gain an understanding of the relationships between spirituality, connectedness to nature, and burnout in schoolteachers, as well as to investigate the mediating part of spirituality in the relationship between connectedness to nature and burnout, and the moderating role of gender. This study was conducted using a quantitative method, with a sample size of 123 schoolteachers in Malaysia. Data analysis using partial least squares-structural equation modeling (PLSSEM) revealed that schoolteachers who had a strong connection to nature were less likely to experience burnout. Spirituality acted as a buffer in the relationship between connection to nature and burnout. The results also differed according to gender for the nature connectedness-burnout relationship. Going forward, the findings of this study offer practitioners better insights about the importance of selected factors, including nature concreteness and spirituality as a promising avenue for reducing burnout among schoolteachers during online classes amid the Covid-19 pandemic.

Keywords: spirituality; nature connectedness; teacher burnout; Covid-19 pandemic

©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

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1. Introduction As demonstrated by a growing body of data, those in the human service professions are at the greatest risk of professional burnout during the Covid -19 epidemic (Raudenská et al., 2020). When applied to education, a poll of US public sector employees released in October 2021 discovered that K-12 public schoolteachers were the most likely to experience increased levels of worry, stress, and burnout during the Covid -19 pandemic (Walker & Writer, 2021). When almost all occupations were affected, many switched over to an online mode of working, including the teaching in schools in which students and teachers had internet access. Many teachers were forced to change their teaching routines in a short period of time, which required them to acquire technology and didactic abilities, as well as to take on a greater role as a learning manager. This put an added external demand on the teachers (Mheidly et al., 2020). High expectations of teachers (for example, the difficult circumstance of school closures because of the COVID-19 pandemic) can harm their mental health and lead to job burnout (Weißenfels et al., 2022). Since teacher burnout is connected to a high incidence of turnover in the profession, increasing public knowledge of the negative implications of online teaching in the Covid-19 epidemic and providing practical methods to cope with its accompanying mental health issues is critical.

In all modes of education, teaching has historically been viewed as a difficult vocation (Richards et al., 2018). Teacher burnout is a significant, work-related threat associated with extended and exhaustive job stress (Foley & Murphy, 2015; Pyhältö et al., 2021). It takes three individual forms: the first is exhaustion, which is formally defined by a lack of effective vigor and a sense of being exhausted at work. The second is sarcasm, which is defined by apathy to engage in work, as well as sarcasm expressed toward co-workers at work. Finally, the third is professional inadequacy, which is formally defined by a reduced sense of individual accomplishment in the workplace (Pyhältö et al., 2021). Many studies have established an association between teacher burnout and various negative outcomes, including less impactful teaching, disruptive behavior in class, reduced relationships with students, and teacher turnover (e.g., Perrone et al., 2019). If teachers have increased levels of burnout, their students also experience increased levels of stress and reduced academic accomplishment (Oberle & Schonert-Reichl, 2016).

A substantial amount of evidence demonstrates that being connected to nature is a useful resource for lowering work-related stress (particularly burnout) (e.g., Yu et al., 2020). Tendais and Ribeiro (2020) discovered that when people are cut off from nature during a pandemic, their anxiety and stress levels increase.

Disconnection is especially critical when seen in conjunction with the Stress Recovery Theory (Bratman et al., 2019), which implies that exposure to natural environments enhances recovery from stressful stimuli. Reduced access to, involvement with, and connection to nature also means that individuals are missing out on the benefits of nature for their overall well-being. This is especially true in a pandemic since research indicates that lockdowns and associated modifications in teaching practices, isolation from school, and fears of contagion have aggravated teacher burnout (Bignardi et al., 2021). Those with more frequent use of green spaces and views of green spaces from their windows fared better in

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a poll of Japanese adults performed during the pandemic. They mentioned reduced anxiety and increased overall subjective satisfaction, proving that nature can reduce the degree of the mental health issues seen by the pandemic (Soga et al., 2021).

Numerous studies indicate that when confronted with stressful conditions, schoolteachers heavily rely on their spirituality (Matiz et al., 2020; Mirshahi & Barani, 2016). Previous empirical studies of public-schoolteachers in a variety of nations have demonstrated how teachers' spiritual beliefs and practices were used to cope with the numerous challenges they confront (e.g., Chirico et al., 2020).

Spirituality is also relevant in understanding the beneficial impacts of nature on lowering burnout among schoolteachers via the ecopsychology theory (Roszak et al., 1995). According to this theory, one’s 'ecological self' improves, based on a wide sense of spiritual and biophysical interactivity with the surrounding environment (Bragg, 1996; Wilson, 1996). This growth entails a shift in one’s perception, a shift beyond the individualistic self-concepts, and towards a “fieldlike sense of one’s self" that encompasses all of life’s forms and the earth itself (Bragg, 1996, p. 95). Additionally, a prior study discovered that spirituality could mediate the relation between nature-connection and psychological well-being among Australians (Kamitsis & Francis, 2013). However, the relationship between spirituality and connectivity to nature and teacher burnout has received little attention. Understanding the roles of spirituality and nature-connection is thus critical for deciphering job stress among schoolteachers during the Covid-19 Pandemic.

Much previous research has identified a variety of socio-demographic characteristics as risk factors for teacher burnout, with gender appearing to be the most significant (e.g., Shadid et al., 2020). The body of literature has documented gender disparities in teacher burnout, connection to nature, and spirituality.

According to the social role theory, men and women display distinct behaviors since they are socialized differently and have distinct responsibilities in society (Saad & Gill, 2000). Men are more proactive and self-directed than women, and they are more willing to take risks (Powell & Ansic, 1997). In contrast, women have more avoidant tendencies than men (Charness & Gneezy, 2012). Tamosiunas et al. (2014) claim that women engage more actively in nature-friendly situations than males do and gain more from them (e.g., mental health and stress recovery).

A prior study discovered that mindfulness meditation had a beneficial effect on the mental health of Italian female teachers during the Covid-19 (Matiz et al., 2020).

Against this backdrop, many studies describing the impacts of nature on wellbeing were first formulated a few years ago but have not been the topic of the new Covid-19 outbreak (e.g., Trigwell et al., 2014). As a result, a better understanding of the link between nature connectedness and teacher burnout during the Covid19 pandemic, as well as the function of spirituality, is needed. Furthermore, although many prior studies have identified a range of socio-demographic characteristics as risk factors for teacher burnout, no studies have looked at gender differences in nature connectivity, spirituality, and occupational burnout. Thus, the goal of this research is to investigate the relationships between connectedness to nature and spirituality, as well as the role of spirituality as a mediator between

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connectedness to nature and teacher burnout, and to show whether gender acts as a moderator in the relationships between spirituality, connectedness to nature, and teacher burnout.

2. Literature Review In this study, Roszak’s (1992) ecopsychology theory and Ulrich et al.’s (1991) Stress Reduction Theory (SRT) are used to determine the relationship between spirituality, nature connectedness, and burnout of schoolteachers. Ecopsychology theory has been widely used in the human-nature connection. Spirituality, which is often thought by ecopsychology theorists to be experienced in and via a sense of connectivity with nature, might be significant to further an understanding of the positive benefits of nature on stress reduction. The formation of an individual's 'ecological self,' according to ecopsychology theory, happens in reaction to a wide sense of biophysical and spiritual connectivity to the natural world (Bragg, 1996). Stress Reduction Theory focuses on promoting psychophysiological stress reduction, based on the idea that natural stimuli may quickly trigger pleasant emotions and diminish physiological arousal and negative thoughts, facilitating stress recovery. Acknowledging these two theories, nature connectedness and spirituality identified as positive factors of schoolteacher burnout in this study, while spirituality and gender were identified as mediator and moderator factors.

2.1 Nature Connectedness and Teacher Burnout Job burnout is a mental condition characterized by a protracted reaction to working pressures (Madigan & Kim, 2021). Its most important characteristic is emotional fatigue, which is defined by a physical stress reaction that is closely linked to work overload (Pogere et al., 2019). One solution is that schoolteachers may psychologically distance themselves from their work in general or work roles as a means of coping with this pressure. According to Reynolds et al. (2018), exposure to nature decreases anger, fear, and stress while increasing pleasant sensations. Results from a previous experimental study of 40 participants with burnout and stress-related complaints indicated that participants in the walk-andtalk group improved more on burnout, stress symptoms, general mental health, and wellbeing than those in the control group (van den Berg & Beute, 2021). In China, Yong (2021) found that increasing students' sense of connection to the environment was a significant method of preventing academic burnout in high school students. To date, however, there has been no clear relationship between nature connectedness and teacher burnout. The current study, therefore, proposed the following hypothesis: H1: Connectedness to nature is negatively associated with teacher burnout.

2.2 Spirituality and Teacher Burnout Spirituality is described as a person's inner experience and/or belief system that gives meaning to life and helps individuals to transcend their current circumstances (Burkhardt, 1989). Spiritual beliefs are linked to reduced levels of burnout, exhaustion, and depersonalization in various situations, according to most research (e.g., Trigwell et al., 2014). According to Lindholm and Astin (2006), teachers with a higher level of spirituality have an increased sense of integration and balance in their professional and personal lives, and improved alignment of

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their values. Specifically, spirituality can be a useful resource. Bickerton et al.

(2014a) found that spirituality was seen as an individual resource that was negatively related to burnout in a study of religious employees. Spirituality is also a common approach adopted by employees to cope with stress and burnout, according to the findings of a prior scoping review (De Diego-Cordero et al., 2021).

In Kamitsis and Francis’s (2013) study on 190 Australians (132 females and 58 males), the mediating role of spirituality was examined in the relationship between engagement with nature and mental wellbeing. Spiritual well-being was validated as a mediator between nature exposure and connectivity to nature and was positively related to psychological health and increased reported spirituality, according to the researchers. Meanwhile, Trigwell et al.’s (2014) study on Australians indicated that spirituality serves as a link between being linked to nature and one of the six aspects of eudaimonic well-being. As a result, we suggest: H2: Spirituality is negatively related to teacher burnout.

H3: Spirituality mediates the association between connectedness to nature and teacher burnout.

2.3 Moderating Role of Gender Scant research has proposed that gender is related to teacher stress and burnout (Ho, 2017). Gender differences in the reaction to greenness have been discovered in a some research concentrating on somatic health (e.g., Richardson & Mitchell, 2010) and workplace greenery (e.g., Lottrup et al., 2013). Green had a greater influence on males than females in some of these studies (e.g., Jiang et al., 2014), while other studies found a moderating role of gender on the relationship between workplace spirituality and organizational citizenship behavior.

However, no research has studied the moderating role of gender in spirituality, nature connection, and teacher burnout. Accordingly, the study hypothesis was proposed: H4. Gender moderates the relationship between the predictors and teacher burnout.

3. Methods Study design, participants and procedure This study adopted a cross-sectional approach. A cross-sectional study is an investigation in which information is gathered from many persons. Variables are monitored without being altered in this kind of study (Check & Schutt, 2017).

Figure 1 shows a conceptual model depicting the relationships between nature connectedness, spirituality, teacher burnout, and gender. According to G*Power (Faul et al., 2009), a sample size of 115 would be needed to detect a small effect size with 80% of the power and a 5% significance.

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Figure 1: Study framework

The UPM ethics committee reviewed and approved the research process. After signing a consent form, the questionnaires were delivered to participating schoolteachers, and permission to distribute questionnaires was obtained from government school instructors from the Ministry of Education via ERAS 2.0.

ERAS 2.0 is an online operating platform created for researchers in Malaysia for applying educational research in schools (Ministry of Education, 2018).

Participants were identified by a special code; their full names and other personal information were withheld.

Of 150 questionnaires distributed to schoolteachers using the snowball method through cluster random sampling from three schools in Malaysia, a total of 123 were received that could be used for analysis (82% return rate). Full-time teachers with a minimum of six months of teaching experience were required for inclusion.

However, researchers were allowed to include teachers with some familiarity and adaption to the working conditions and environment and with a sense of belonging to the job. In terms of demographic information, 69 % of teachers were female. In terms of education, 20% had a diploma, 22% had an associate's degree, 40% had a bachelor's degree, and 18% had a master's degree in education. The bulk of participants (95.9 percent) in the current study were Malay. Age demographics were as follows: 33.3% of teachers were between the ages of 31 and 40, 31.7% between the ages of 41 and 50, and 21% between the ages of 21 and 30.

The remaining responders (13%) were over the age of 51.

3.1 Measures The Spirituality Scale. The Spiritual Values Scale (SVS; Hatch et al., 1998) was used to assess spirituality. The University College of Medical Science, the Institute of National High Education Research, and UPM adopted and adapted this instrument (Kamidin, 2011). The instrument contains 20 items that comprise four negative items. An example item is “I pray for the well-being of others, including plants and animals”. The acceptable Cronbach alpha value for the scale was 0.750.

Connectedness to Nature Scale. This scale was developed by Mayer and Frantz (2004). It includes 14-items and a seven-point Likert scale that ranges from 1 (Every day) to 7 (Never). It was used to estimate the sense of oneness with nature

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surrounding them. A sample item is “I often feel a sense of oneness with the natural world around me”. The Cronbach’s alpha for this measure was .72.

Teacher Burnout Inventory. This is based upon Maslach and Jackson’s (1981) original burnout scale. The exhaustion item comprises Elo et al.’s (2003) singleitem stress scale. The socio-contextual burnout scale was developed by identifying the social context of inadequacy and cynicism (Pyhältö et al., 2011), and comprises nine different items that measure three main factors of socio-contextual burnout, namely, (1) exhaustion (3 items), (2) cynicism to teaching community (3 items), and finally, (3) inadequacy in student and teacher interactivity (3 items) (Pietarinen et al., 2013). An example item is “I feel that I have failed in my school work with students”. This measure had a Cronbach's alpha of 0.756.

3.2 Questionnaire Translation and Pilot Study The questionnaires were translated into Malay from English, and back-translation was undertaken to confirm the translation's quality. Three specialists were consulted for this purpose, and the questionnaires were appropriately changed based on their suggestions. Additionally, tests of face and content validity were undertaken to confirm the product's applicability to the local area. A pilot study with 30 schoolteachers was done to verify the instruments' reliability. The Spirituality Scale had a Cronbach's alpha coefficient of α =.785; the Connectedness to Nature Scale had a Cronbach's alpha coefficient of α =.832; and the Maslach’s Burnout Inventory had a Cronbach's alpha coefficient of α = 0.884. Following their reading of the consent letter and completion of the surveys, respondents were asked to note any difficulties or misunderstandings with the questionnaires. In general, respondents in the pilot study expressed satisfaction with the questionnaire's overall form and presentation. To enhance the measure’s face validity, the survey questionnaire was revised further, based on participant feedback. As a result, these questionnaires demonstrated sufficient dependability in a sample of schoolteachers. The pilot study participants were eliminated from the main study population.

4. Data Analysis The study hypotheses were evaluated using Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modelling (PLS-SEM). This study was carried out by SmartPLS 3.3.7 (Ringle et al., 2015) software. Our measurements were verified first, and then our hypothesized model was evaluated using the SmartPLS 3.3.7 software, following Chin's (1998) and Gerbing and Anderson's (1988) two-step method. The authors used the PLS scripts with a bootstrapping defined at 5,000 samples with the Smart-PLS 3.0 program (Ringle et al., 2015; Sarstedt et al., 2016). The PLS approach was chosen over different regression models because it is capable of handling both the complicated model and the limited sample size (n = 123), indicating its usefulness as an analytic methodology for this work (Carrión et al., 2016). Owing to the categorical nature of gender, the moderating effects of gender were studied using a multi-group comparison (Henseler & Fassott, 2010). To do this, two distinct groups were formed: men and women. The missing data for parcels and items were handled in SPSS software using the mean method. The data were declared normal since the skewness values for all variables ranged from -.915 to 0.218 and the kurtosis values ranged from –.923 to.433. According to Byrne (2016),

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data are considered normal if the skewness value was in the range of –2 to 2, and the kurtosis was in the range of –7 to 7.

Table 1: Construct reliability and validity measure Variable Burnout

Items

I require more time to rest and feel better after teaching than in the past.

Working with my students puts me under an excessive amount of stress.

I feel that I have failed in my schoolwork with students.

I find myself getting so frustrated at work.

My physical illnesses maybe related to my job stress.

After teaching, I need more time than in the past to relax and feel better.

Connectedness to nature I often feel a sense of oneness with the natural world around me.

I consider the natural world to be a community of which I am a member.

Other living species' intellect is something I acknowledge and value.

I frequently feel cut off from nature.

I picture myself as part of a bigger cyclical process of existence when I think of my life.

I have a strong bond with plants and animals.

I believe that all humans and nonhumans on Earth have common life energy.

I feel like I'm a part of the natural environment, as a tree is a part of a forest.

I frequently feel that I am a little component of the natural environment around me, no more essential than the grass on the ground or the birds in the trees.

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α 0.829

rho_A 0.847

CR 0.879

AVE 0.594

0.921

0.946

0.932

0.578

0.732

0.749

0.813 0.779 0.818 0.687

0.702

0.726

0.725

0.715 0.768

0.796 0.803

0.827

0.797

309

When I examine my place on the planet, I believe myself to be at the top of a natural hierarchy.

0.737

Every negative thing that happens, I believe, has a lesson to teach us.

I feel that things that happen in my life are influenced by a bigger power.

My religion assists me in forgiving people.

I always take part in spiritual activities My spiritual beliefs affect [absolutely/no] aspect of my life When I'm having a difficult moment, I can turn to God for assistance.

Life has intrinsic significance.

I pray for the well-being of others, including plants and animals.

0.841

Spirituality

0.895

0.938

0.555

0.556

0.612

0.871 0.765 0.643 0.680

0.718 0.718

5. Results 5.1 Preliminary analysis Table 2 summarises the mean values, standard deviation values, and bivariate correlation values for spirituality, closeness to nature, and burnout among male and female students.

Table 2: Mean, standard deviation, and bivariate correlations for all variables Variable

M

SD 1

1.

2.

3.

Burnout Connectedness to nature Spirituality

Male 2

3.34 (3.28) 5.22 (5.39)

.651(.905) .808 (.770)

1 -.298

1

3.34 (3.28)

.206 (.269)

-.447*

.441

3

1

1

Female 2

1 -.279**

1

-.402

.580**

3

1

Note. N= 123; **p < .01; Results are presented as male (female).

To evaluate the measuring scales' qualities, we determined their convergent validity, reliability, and discriminant validity. The reliability criteria were satisfied, as shown by factor loadings over 0.7. The item-trimming technique was utilised to eliminate items with low loading values. As a result, items with factor loadings less than 0.07 were excluded from further analysis. The Fornell-Larcker and Heterotrait-Monotrait criteria were employed to identify discriminant validity, as highlighted by Fornell and Larcker (1981) as well as Henseler et al.

(2015). Fornell-Larcker mentioned that the square root of every construct's AVE was over the correlation coefficients of the remaining constructs. The HTMT model revealed that the results were in the defined range of 0.85 (0.458–0.746) (see Franke & Sarstedt, 2019).

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5.2 Structural model Researchers can use a structural model to examine the model's explanatory power in predicting an endogenous variable (Sarstedt et al., 2016). In addition, the hypotheses, determination coefficients (R2), effect size values (f2), as well as Stone– Geisser (Q2) values were investigated at the structural model phase. The investigation shows that the data fit the model well since all models produced SRMR values less than 0.08, and NFI values greater than 0.8 (Henseler et al., 2016).

While the structural model revealed a substantial positive relationship between nature connectedness and burnout (β=-.291, t=4.714, p=0.000), spirituality and burnout had a non-significant relationship (β =-.143, t=1.148, p=0.251). As illustrated in Figure 2, the data support only H1. The R2 was used to determine the variance in job burnout which can be explained by nature connectivity and spirituality. A coefficient of determination greater than 0.104 is considered to have a poor coefficient of determination (see Henseler et al., 2015). The function, f2, was shown to estimate the degree to which the exogenous variables (i.e., spirituality and nature connectivity) had an impact on the endogenous variable (i.e., job burnout). Cohen (1988) classed f2 as a small, medium, or big function when its value was 0.02, 0.15, or 0.35. The f2 values for nature connectivity and spirituality were 0.023 and 0.094, respectively, showing that nature connectedness and spirituality both had a small effect on job burnout. Q2 was used to determine the endogenous variable's predictive usefulness (job burnout). Henseler et al. (2015) defined Q2 as small, medium, or big depending on its value of 0.02, 0.15, or 0.35.

The study indicated that Q2 had a value of 0.048, indicating a low predictive value for teachers' job burnout.

Figure 2. Structural model of the variables Note: p <0.01 for all pathways

5.3 Mediating Effect of Spirituality To assess the mediating function of spirituality in the link between natural connectedness and burnout, the statistical significance of indirect effects was determined using the bootstrap technique (Preacher & Hayes, 2008). At the alpha level of .05, an indirect impact was judged significant if the bias-corrected 95% Confidence Interval (CI) based on 5000 bootstrap samples did not include zero

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(Preacher & Hayes, 2008). As indicated in Table 3, these results do not support the rejection of H3. In Table 3, the direct relationship between closeness to nature and burnout is significant in the presence of a mediator (spirituality) (β = -.292, t = 4.035, p<0.001). Spirituality partially mediates the association between connectivity to nature and burnout via indirect effect (β = -0.203, t = 2.761, p<0.001).

Table 3. Mediation result Path

Model “I” Total Effect Coefficient t-value

(95% CI)

NC→BO

-.289 4.349 -.465, -193 Model “III” Indirect Effect NC→SP→ -.203 2.761 -376, -.059 BO

Model “II” Direct Effect Path Coefficient t (95% CI) NC→BO SP→BO SP→NC

-.292 -.059 0.301

4.035 1.690 5.93

-.412, -.153 -0.123,0.284 0.42, 0.71

Note. Connectedness to nature =NC; Burnout=BO; Spirituality=SP.

5.4 Moderating Effect of Gender To address the set of propositions that comprise H4 in this study, a multi-group analysis utilising the PLS-MGA approach was conducted (Henseler, 2012). The results in Table 4 suggest that there are substantial positive and negative differences for H4. That is, we can affirm that gender has a moderating effect on the association between closeness to nature and teacher burnout. Surprisingly, gender had no moderating influence on the effect of spirituality on teacher burnout.

Table 4. Multi-group analysis Hypotheses

Relationship

H4a H4b

SP→BO NC→BO

Female Standardized Parameter -.0261 -0.152 ***

t 0.196 3.554

Male Standardized Parameter -.034 -0.166 ***

t

p-Value

.189 2.165

0.499 0.018

Note. Connectedness to nature =NC; Burnout=BO; Spirituality=SP.

6. Discussion The current study focused on schoolteachers and aimed to examine the association between spirituality, nature connectedness, and teacher burnout, with a particular focus on the role of spirituality as a mediator of the nature connectedness–teacher burnout relationship, as well as the moderating role of gender in those relationships. The outcomes of this study suggest that nature connectivity and spirituality are significant predictors of burnout in schoolteachers, both directly and indirectly. Connectedness to nature and spirituality accounted for 10.4 percent of the variance in teacher burnout.

The findings corroborate prior findings that relate to green spaces and scenes of greenery (e.g., planting, courtyard gardens) that had a beneficial effect on mental health throughout the lockdown (Ribeiro et al., 2021). One study discovered that active interaction with indoor plants can help to alleviate physiological and psychological stress (subjects mentioned feeling more at ease and soothed) compared to mental or computer activity (Lee et al., 2015). After these links, the mechanisms underlying them may be explained by the SRT. Consistent with the

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SRT, exposure to nature can help minimize physiological responses to stress (Ulrich, 1983). Studies have shown that being in natural areas has higher restorative effects than being in more synthetically created outdoor or indoor situations, proving the stress-recovery idea (Yusli et al., 2021). Visitors to natural habitats, as opposed to those who visited a more developed outdoor setting or an indoor sports facility, experienced a substantial reduction in both psychological and physical stress levels following their visit, according to experimental research

by Ewert and Chang (2018). This finding confirmed that nature connectivity is a critical factor to consider when developing healthier education professionals.

Promoting teachers' well-being is critical for their sustainability and productivity, as well as for preventing burnout associated with remote teaching during a time of global crisis caused by the Covid-19 pandemic.

Our data established that there is no correlation between spirituality and teacher burnout, and they indicate that spirituality is unrelated to the mental difficulties and stress experienced by instructors during Covid-19. This outcome was contradictory to prior empirical research examining spirituality as a resource in the JD-R model for burnout development (Bickerton et al., 2014a). This may be related to differences among the samples as Bickerton et al. (2014a, 2014b) examined a sample of religious employees. This might also be due to teachers' and religious staff's differing attitudes and worldviews. Akhondi et al. (2017) also discovered that teachers' feelings of purpose at work and unity between work and life varied from that of other employees.

Spirituality acted as a mediator between connectivity to nature and teacher burnout, according to empirical studies. This suggests that even at the highest levels of spirituality, schoolteachers who were more connected to nature were less likely to experience job burnout. The findings of this study corroborate prior studies demonstrating beneficial associations between contact with nature and psychological well-being, as well as between spirituality and psychological wellbeing (Kamitsis & Francis, 2013). These findings suggest that a teacher's spiritual orientation can include a strong connection to nature. According to recent research (Yıldırım et al., 2020), a more developed spiritual orientation mitigates the detrimental effects of coronavirus stress. Furthermore, these results offer some empirical support for an underlying theoretical premise of ecopsychology theory, namely, that the human-nature interaction is rooted in a sort of engaged spirituality (e.g., Kamitsis & Francis, 2013). While this may be explained by exposure to nature, Kaplan (1995) believes that both exposures to nature and meditation must be tailored to the individual's inclinations, motivations, and talents. He argues that the untrained meditator, who frequently engages in effortful meditation, will have an easier time accessing soft fascination in a restorative atmosphere (Kaplan, 1995).

Finally, gender appears to play a mitigating influence in the relationship between connectivity to nature and teacher burnout. This shows that, for female schoolteachers, nature may be a relatively inexpensive and widely accessible technique for reducing job burnout and preventing the development of poor mental health. Our findings contradict a recent study that revealed that while designed green spaces reduced men's burnout by a statistically significant amount, women's burnout did not decrease in a statistically significant way.

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However, it was confirmed that both men and women had decreases in burnout (Yu et al., 2020). Thus, the current study emphasises the critical importance of gender disparities in teacher burnout research.

7. Conclusion The current findings conclude that engaging with nature can help prevent schoolteacher burnout. Spirituality was one mechanism which contributed to teacher burnout improvement. In addition, spirituality entirely buffered the effect of nature connectedness and teacher burnout. Gender contributed to the moderating relationship of nature connectedness on teacher burnout. These findings support the underlying theoretical assumptions of ecopsychology theory and SRT. In practice, the findings suggest the promotion of nature and spirituality as a strategy of preventing burnout in teachers during the COVID-19 epidemic.

8. Limitations and Recommendations This study comes with several limitations, among them, a relatively small sample size, a self-reported data gathering process, as well as a cross-sectional framework. It is advised that other studies consider larger sample sizes, adopt the longitudinal approach, and integrate more data collection approaches such as observations and face-to-face interviews. Owing to the different sample sizes between the males and females in this study, gender variance analysis for the suggested model was unachievable. It is advised that future studies conduct a gender variance analysis on the proposed model, taking into consideration approximately equal sample sizes for males and females. This study relied on selfreporting, and individuals may overstate their responses to self-report questionnaires for socially desirable reasons. It is reasonable to believe that an interview with each participant would have enabled us to eliminate the aforementioned restriction. Despite these limitations, it should be highlighted that the study used a non-clinical sample and that our findings will be beneficial for schoolteachers who are at risk of burnout. Future research may aim to replicate the current findings in a clinical sample (e.g., schoolteachers with a clinical burnout diagnosis).

9. Implications Despite these limitations, we have made a substantial contribution to practice and research with this study by looking at nature connectedness, teachers' burnout, and the impact of spirituality, all of which have received little previous attention.

Based on the findings, it is critical to consider both the individual's relationship to nature and spiritual practice when treating teacher burnout. To date, numerous organizations have employed nature-based initiatives to promote employees' mental health (e.g., Gritzka et al., 2020). However, due to the outbreak, such direct physical access to nature is currently impractical. As a result, additional solutions are required, particularly those that may be applied to schoolteachers, who are more likely to work remotely and live in confined homes with limited access to natural areas as a result of the pandemic. This study demonstrates that exposure to the outdoors, even through windows, may improve the working life of schoolteachers during the Covid-19 pandemic. According to prior research, increasing the amount of greenery on building grounds and upgrading the

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structure of windows benefits staff wellness (Dzhambov et al., 2021). Providing better views of greenery to confined schoolteachers may help prevent burnout and its associated repercussions. Furthermore, certain additional techniques may be considered. For example, one initiative is utilising virtual reality technology to convey the spiritual advantages of outdoor exposure, which could be beneficial for healthcare and educational systems. Levi and Kocher (1999) stressed the need of using virtual nature to enliven spiritual experiences and foster human growth.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 21, No. 3, pp. 319-341, March 2022 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.3.17 Received Jan 30, 2022; Revised Mar 20, 2022; Accepted Mar 30, 2022

Parental Involvement in Young Children’s Education in Malaysia: A Systematic Literature Review Siti Soraya Lin Abdullah Kamal School of Distance Education Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 USM, Penang, Malaysia Abdul Halim Masnan Faculty of Human Development Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, 35900 Tanjung Malim, Perak, Malaysia Nor Hashimah Hashim School of Education and Human Sciences Albukhary International University, 05200 Kedah, Malaysia

Abstract. This article reviews the literature on parental involvement and children’s education, focusing on the primary school level in Malaysia.

This systematic literature review (henceforth SLR) includes searching, screening, appraising and synthesising of articles on parental involvement published in the last ten years (2012- 2021) from a number of electronic databases, namely SCOPUS, Taylor & Francis, ERIC, Google Scholar, MyCite, and ResearchGate. The findings of this review identify 24 relevant articles and reveal that most of the relevant research was conducted quantitatively with a focus on types and levels of parental involvement as well as particular applied parental involvement models.

Besides that, the researchers utilise multiple conceptualisations of parental involvement including home-based and school-based. This study suggests that more qualitative research is needed to fully comprehend the many forms of parental involvement used by parents. It may also be beneficial for researchers to use the Malaysian Ministry of Education’s Parents/Caregivers Toolkit as a framework or instrument to investigate parental involvement to gain more relevant findings.

Keywords: parental involvement; Malaysian primary school; systematic literature review; Parents/Caregivers Toolkit

1. Introduction Education is one of the main contributors to social and economic development.

As children’s education begins at home, the Malaysian Ministry of Education’s ©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

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(henceforth MOE) educational blueprint 2013-2025, as prepared by the MOE, highlights the role of parents as one of the main stakeholders in the education system (MOE, 2013). The document states that the education system should “have a shared responsibility between parents and teachers to ensure quality learning for students” (2013, p. 21). In other words, parents function as close partners with schools to enhance children’s learning performance. Such a partnership requires parents to actively contribute to the things they can do to improve their children’s educational outcomes (MOE, 2013). Parental involvement has also been highlighted as a fundamental aspect of improving children’s educational outcomes, as highlighted in the National Key Result Areas (henceforth NKRA) and the 12th Malaysian plan (2021-2025) (Prime Minister Department, 2021, pp.

10-25).

Parental involvement is usually regarded as a crucial component of a child’s educational achievement (Hamidun et al., 2019; Saeki et al., 2018) and in children’s first school years (Lara & Saracostti, 2019). It has been argued that because parents are part of a child’s immediate environment, they have a significant impact on their life and development, including with their academic achievement (Bager et al., 2019; Lara & Saracostti, 2019), literacy (Parlindungan, 2017; Torres & CastaedaPea, 2016), engagement, motivation, and social and emotional adjustment (Bager et al., 2019; Menheere & Hooge, 2010). Regardless of the level of involvement, parental involvement has been shown to be beneficial to children’s learning (AlFadley et al., 2018; Hosseinpour et al., 2015; Kamal & Hashim, 2021).

Parental roles in supporting children’s education have been the focus of considerable research interest at an international level, but Malaysia itself remains somewhat understudied. Therefore, the aim of this systematic literature review (henceforth SLR) is to gain further insight into the way parental involvement has been explored based on previous studies and the variables utilised by the associated researchers. Furthermore, this SLR will aid in the development of a thorough understanding of the relevant issues required for critical discussion, contemplation, and recommendations (Renganathan, 2021) concerning parental involvement in the context of Malaysian primary school children.

2. Literature Review Parental involvement has been defined as “the extent in which parents are involved in their child’s education at home and the amount of communication that they have with school.” (Smokoska, 2020, p. 10), or as “the extent to which parents position themselves as authority figures in their children’s education” (Loera et al., 2011, p. 135).

Various approaches to examining and discussing parental involvement in children’s learning have been discovered. Parental involvement has been studied and debated as a single construct (Fan & Chen, 2001) or as a collection of constructs with varying meanings, as described by different researchers (Pek & Mee, 2020; Smokoska, 2020; Tekin, 2011).

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There have also been international studies discussing parental involvement in children’s learning from the perspective of home-based and school-based involvement (Xiong et al., 2019) and academic socialisation (Hornby & Lafaele, 2011; Zong et al., 2017). The term ‘home-based involvement’ refers to parental actions at home that help support their children’s classroom learning, whilst ‘school-based involvement’ refers to parental attendance or participation at school events. On the other hand, academic socialisation can be described as expectations of success on the part of parents.

Besides that, the concept of involvement has become synonymous with “participation”, “cooperation”, “partnership”, “collaboration” (Hosseinpour et al., 2015, p. 1371), and “influence” (Majid et al., 2005, p. 25), leading to the development of various frameworks for parental involvement.

2.1 Models and theories of parental involvement Among the parental involvement models and theories that have been largely used in local and international studies as lenses to contribute to the understanding of parental involvement and issues related to such are those of Epstein, (2002), Walker et al. (2005), Bronfenbrenner (1979), and Vygotsky (1978). Each of these models and theories is explained below in turn.

According to Epstein (2002), there are six different types of parental involvement, including: (1) parenting; (2) communicating; (3) volunteering; (4) learning at home; (5) making decisions; and (6) collaborating with the community.

In parenting, schools are advised to support parents in creating learning-friendly home settings for their children. The communicating part refers to the school’s two-way communication channel for discussing students’ progress and educational programmes. Volunteering is a way in which the school can involve parents in facilitating their own children’s education and helping other parents and teachers. Parents can carry out educational activities with their children in learning at home following information and guides from schools. Encouraging parents to be involved in Parent-Teacher Associations (commonly called PTAs) is an example of how parental involvement includes decision making. In collaborating with the community, schools must determine how the community can help with school programmes to collaborate with them. This comprehensive model explains how schools, families, and communities can work together to improve students’ learning performances (Sheldon & Epstein, 2005). Tekin (2011) notes that Epstein’s model is perceived more as a manual for professionals than a manual for parents and communities themselves.

Previous research from Hoover-Dempsey and Sandler (1997), later revised by Walker et al. (2005), discusses several factors influencing parental involvement in children’s education. In this case, the perspective is that of parents (Tekin, 2011).

The three main factors, according to Walker et al. (2005, p. 88), are: (1) Parents’ motivational beliefs, including their perceptions of their role and their efficacy as parents in regards to assisting children to do well at school, (2) “parents’ perceptions of invitations for involvement with others”, including opportunities for parental involvement from their children, schools, and teachers, and (3)

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“Parents’ perceived life contexts” – the amount of time, energy, skills, and knowledge available to students.

Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model of human development highlights that the social networks that children belong to can directly influence their learning development (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). Development occurs in a system of relationships in which various individuals and parties are involved (Krishnan, 2010). Children are often directly affected by social settings, such as the teacher, parents, family, and friends. In addition, children are also affected indirectly by broader social environments, such as various institutions and settings (Palts & Kalmus, 2015). The model proposed by Bronfenbrenner (1979) consists of four ecological levels, also referred to as ‘onion rings’ (Cole, 1996, p. 84), which are a model of the environments and settings affecting the development of children: microsystems, mesosystems, exosystems and macrosystems.

According to the theory, children spend a considerable amount of time interacting with people in their immediate surroundings, known as microsystems. Those people include parents, family members, teachers, and other students (Jaeger, 2012), and this is the layer that has the most direct effect on the child. The systems are also defined as “activities, roles, and interpersonal relations experienced by the developing person in a given setting with particular physical and material characteristics” (Bronfenbrenner, 1979, p. 22). There is a reciprocal face-to-face relationship between children and their parents, and such interactions influence the interaction between one party with another. The mesosystems are “a system of two or more microsystems” (Hayes et al., 2017, p. 15) such as a child’s school and home relationship. A child’s growth is facilitated when the mesosystems have strong and positive connections between its components.

Exosystems, meanwhile, are one or more settings that do not involve the individual as an active participant but in which events occur that are related to, or affected by the activities within the individual’s setting (Bronfenbrenner, 1979).

These settings include parents’ workplaces, mass media, and education policies, amongst others. It is still possible for students to be affected by what occurs within the settings despite not being actively involved.

Macrosystems refer to the “consistencies, in the form of content lower-order systems that exist, or could exist, at the level of subculture or culture as a whole, along with any belief systems or ideology underlying such consistencies” (Bronfenbrenner, 1979, p. 26). In other words, all lower layers of ecosystems are shaped by the societal blueprint (Krishnan, 2010). Macrosystems incorporate values and norms. These elements of culture are not readily found in the immediate lives of children but are very important to their development.

In the study related to parental involvement that uses Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model of human development, one can argue that children’s learning experiences are not limited to their interactions with teachers and schools, but further involves a broader system that includes parents, families, and communities.

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Understanding a child’s environment provides theoretical support for involving parents in their children’s education (Tekin, 2011).

Vygotsky, in his social constructivist theory, emphasises individuals’ relationships with their environments. According to him, people construct knowledge through interactions with their social surroundings (Vygotsky, 1978); that is to say, it is through the interactions with their environments and other individuals that students develop their knowledge (Roth, 1999). Vygotsky (1978) emphasised the meaning-making process that occurs in the context of cultural and social situations (Au, 1998; Cooper, 2017). Therefore, the role of people surrounding children, such as parents, in facilitating their learning and development is significant (Moll, 1990; Ebrahimi, 2015; Kamal & Hashim, 2021).

Another aspect highlighted in Vygotsky’s theory is the so-called ‘zone of proximal development’ (henceforth ZPD) which is interpreted as the “difference between the child’s actual level of development and the level of performance that he achieves in collaboration with the adult” (Vygotsky, 1978, p. 209). Social interactions are believed to enhance students’ ability to think. Furthermore, the best way to help students progress is to help them advance just beyond their current level of knowledge (Pritchard & Woollard, 2010). Therefore, assistance from other people such as parents is integral to helping children to progress further in their education. Communication is a central part of this theory, as it emphasises how individuals develop from communication (Hayes et al., 2017).

2.2 Parental Involvement Model in the Malaysia MOE Documents In the Malaysian context, the MOE believes that parents’ participation in children’s learning will significantly affect their performance at school since children spend most of their time at home. Therefore, the MOE (2012) has developed a guide called Sarana Ibu Bapa or Parents/Caregivers Toolkit. The aim of this national initiative is to increase parental involvement in children’s learning in and out of school. The guide outlines several benefits of parental involvement to both children and parents. Among the benefits to the children are: i- children will obtain good grades in school assessments, ii- children will have self-worth and higher motivation, iii- children’s attendance will improve, iv- disciplinary issues will decline, and v- school dropout can be avoided.

Besides the above, the MOE (2012) believed that by getting involved in the children’s learning, parents can: i- learn how to help the child completie their homework, ii- find out helpful ways to assist their children, iii- share their parenting knowledge with other parents, and iv- find it easier to provide a comfortable home learning environment.

The Parents/Caregivers Toolkit also provides a self-assessment checklist for parents to identify their strengths and weaknesses in four areas, namely: aCreating a learning environment at home bHaving social interaction cHaving parents-children communication dProviding academic support

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Five items are developed for the construct of creating a learning environment at home: i- provide a learning space, ii- get children to learn at home according to a schedule, iii- reduce noise interference from the television or radio while the child is studying, iv- ensure that the child’s study area is always neat and clean, and vensure that the child has sufficient reference books. Besides these, five items have been constructed for the concept of having social interaction, and parents must specify how many days they spend with their children per week for each activity; chatting, eating, doing activities together, keeping track of children’s locations, and providing religious and moral teaching are all examples of such activities.

Another five items have been developed for the construct of ‘having parent-child communication’, and parents must again identify the number of days they spend conducting certain activities with their children. These activities include: idiscussing children’s academic development, ii- listening to children’s stories about events at school, iii- keeping track of children’s homework, iv- keeping track of children’s activity planning, and v- exchanging opinions with children.

In addition, parents must specify the number of days spent with their children to complete the task for the academic support construct. These include: i- praising the child, ii- encouraging the child, iii- reading aloud as a family, iv- helping the child with schoolwork, and v- providing private tutoring to the child.

After finish completing the checklist, parents can calculate their own score or achievement marks, which will be based on three indicators: basic, advancing, and exceptional by referring to the Kit. The Kit also includes some advice for parents to follow in order to help their children at home. Although the Kit is not sufficiently comprehensive to address the requirements of individual parents, it may provide some ideas for parents to consider in their current parenting practices and focus on areas of involvement that require greater attention (MOE, 2012).

2.3 Research Questions This SLR aims to look at the literature on parental involvement with children, with a focus on the Malaysian primary school context. The focus of this paper is to report the methods applied by researchers in the past. Besides this, this paper also considers the many structures of parental involvement in previous studies. It further examines the benefits and limitations of parental involvement as discovered by scholars. As such, the following research questions have been formulated for this study. i- How has parental involvement in Malaysian primary school children been investigated? ii- How has parental involvement been conceptualised in the research literature?

3. Methodology The authors have applied rigorous standards to identify, evaluate and synthesise all the literature on the research topic (Cronin et al., 2008). The process is explained according to the following sub-titles: search strategy, and identification of the literature adapted from several scholars (Lim& Yunus, 2021; Renganathan, 2021; Xiao & Watson, 2019).

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3.1 Search strategy The following databases and search engines were utilised to assist the researcher in identifying and collecting relevant sources for this review: SCOPUS, Taylor & Francis, The Education Resources Information Center (henceforth ERIC), Google Scholar, MyCite, and ResearchGate. SCOPUS, and Taylor & Francis are accessed through Open Athens and are subscribed to by the authors’ institutions. While Scopus “uniquely combines a comprehensive, expertly curated abstract and citation database with enriched data and linked scholarly literature across a wide variety of disciplines” (Elsevier, n.d), Taylor & Francis is considered one of the world’s main publishers of open access research. On the other hand, ERIC is a user-friendly and all-inclusive online digital library comprising educational research and information. Meanwhile, Google Scholar is a platform for researchers to explore the academic literature of a wide variety of fields and sources, such as research articles in education that also home articles written in Malay, the national language of Malaysia. Besides that, MyCite is the Malaysian Citation Index comprised of Malaysian scholarly journals, whilst ResearchGate is an academic social network that also compiles multiple selections of projects and publications. The selection of the literature was narrowed to current research work published between 2012 to 2021 (approximately ten years). Backward and forward searches were also performed, as suggested by Levy and Ellis (2006).

3.2 Identification of the literature Article selection process

1. Search

1.1 Records from SCOPUS (n = 6)

1.2 Records from Taylor Francis (n = 6)

1.3 Records from ERIC (n = 11)

1.4 Records from Google Scholar (n = 48)

1.5 Records from ResearchGate (n = 8)

1.6 Backward and forward searches (n = 5)

1.7 Records from MyCite

Total Retrieved Records (n = 96)

(n = 10)

2. Screen

3. Appraise

4. Synthesis

2.1 Removal of duplicates (n = 17)

Records appraised by full text (n =79 )

Records included in synthesis (n = 24)

Figure 1: Article selection process

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Records excluded in synthesis (n = 55)

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The article selection process involves four main stages: search, screen, appraise, and synthesis. The first stage in this process is the search for related articles from several main electronic databases, namely SCOPUS, Taylor & Francis, ERIC, Google Scholar, MyCite, and ResearchGate. Keyword searches and the combination of keywords using operators such as ‘AND’ and ‘OR’ are utilised (Ely & Scott, 2007).

In addition, the keywords searched in all the databases incorporated both English and Malay, the national language of Malaysia (Saifi & Matore, 2020). The Malay keywords are utilised in Google Scholar and MyCite because the researcher found a paucity of relevant studies are available in English. Furthermore, articles in Malay are generally shared by researchers on Google Scholar and MyCite. The combination of search terms used in databases is shown in Table 1.

Table 1: Keywords searches in the databases SCOPUS, TAYLOR FRANCIS, ERIC AND RESEARCHGATE

parental involvement, parent participation, parenting style, parental support, parents-teacher partnership, academic achievement, ESL, reading, Science, Mathematics, primary school, children, and Malaysia

GOOGLE SCHOLAR AND MYCITE

parental involvement, parent participation, parenting style, parental support, parents-teacher partnership, academic achievement, ESL, reading, Science, Mathematics, primary school, children, and Malaysia Penglibatan ibu-bapa, gaya keibu-bapaan, hubungan ibu-bapa dan sekolah, pencapaian akademik, Bahasa Inggeris, membaca, literasi, Sains, Matematik, sekolah rendah, kanakkanak, and Malaysia

The total number of records gained from five different databases and backward and forward searches was 96. After searching for the relevant articles, the records were screened by removing duplicates from the records retrieved. This process yielded 79 unique records.

After that, the researcher appraised the records by examining the full text to identify eligible articles to review. This process applied the inclusion criteria typically used in the SLR, as shown in Table 2 adapted from Lim & Yunus (2021).

Finally, the synthesis process is carried out by finalising the records following the inclusion and exclusion criteria in the review, which yielded a final total of 24 articles.

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Table 2: Inclusion and exclusion criteria Criterion Types of article Years of publication Peer-review Context

Inclusion Journal proceedings 2012-2021 Peer-reviewed Primary school

Setting Texts

Malaysia A full text

articles,

Exclusion Books, book chapter, thesis < 2012 Non-peer reviewed Pre-school, secondary school, special education, special needs Outside Malaysia Not a full text

4. Analysis and Findings Research Question 1: The way parental involvement has been investigated.

Table 3: Analysis of the way parental involvement has been investigated Types of research methodology Qualitative

Quantitative

No.

Authors

1.

Ahmad et al.

(2017)

✓

2.

Hashim et al.

(2018)

✓

3.

Hashim et al.

(2015)

✓

4.

Kamal et al.

(2021) Kamal& Hashim (2021) Koh & Wing (2020)

5.

6.

✓ ✓ ✓

7.

Kuan & Chuen (2017)

✓

8..

Latif & Abdullah (2016)

✓

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The focus of the research

Mixedmethods The types and levels of parental involvement The types and levels of parental involvement The relationship between parental involvement and students’ engagement and life goals.

Challenges to parental involvement The types of involvement The types of involvement Challenges to parental involvement The types and levels of involvement The relationship between parental involvement and students’ academic achievement The types and levels of parental involvement

328

✓

9.

Manukaram et al. (2013)

10.

Ramalingam et al. (2019)

11.

Raslie et al.

(2020)

✓

12.

Satar et al.

(2020)

✓

13.

Shahri et al.

(2020)

✓

14.

Simon (2017)

✓

✓

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The relationship between parental involvement and children’s achievement in Science subjects The relationship between parental involvement and primary school children’s selfregulated learning.

The types and levels of parental involvement The relationship between parental involvement and factors of student academic achievement The types and levels of parental involvement The relationship between a specific type of involvement with the children’s reading skill achievement The types and levels of parental involvement The relationship between socioeconomic background and parental involvement The types and levels of parental involvement The relationship between parental involvement and the level of mastery in the practice of prayer (amali solat) among students.

Parents’ perceptions of their relationship with teachers and school

329

15.

Termize et al.

(2021)

✓

16.

Vellymalai (2011)

✓

17.

Vellymalai (2012a)

✓

18.

Vellymalai (2012b)

✓

19.

Vellymalai (2012c)

✓

20.

Vellymalai (2013a)

✓

21.

Vellymalai (2013b)

✓

22.

Vellymalai (2014)

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✓

Limitations to parental involvement The types and levels of parental involvement The types and levels of parental involvement The relationship between educational background and parental involvement The types and levels of parental involvement The relationship between socioeconomic background and parental involvement The types and levels of parental involvement The relationship between school-parents cooperation and parental involvement The types and levels of parental involvement The relationship between socioeconomic background and parental involvement The types and levels of parental involvement The relationship between family size and parental involvement The types and levels of parental involvement The relationship between parents’ socio-economic status and parental involvement The types and levels of parental involvement of low

330

23.

Vellymalai (2016)

24.

Wahab et al.

(2016)

✓

✓

and high achiever students Limitations to parental involvement The types and levels of parental involvement The relationship between schoolparents partnership and parental involvement The types and levels of parental involvement.

Limitations to parental involvement

The analysis in Table 3 shows that the majority of the study was performed quantitatively. Five studies were performed qualitatively, and another two studies combined elements of the qualitative and quantitative approaches. For the quantitative studies, most researchers focus on the types and levels of parental involvement (Ahmad et al., 2017; Hashim et al., 2018; Kuan & Chuen, 2017; Latif & Abdullah, 2016; Raslie et al., 2020; Shahri et al., 2020; Satar et al., 2020; Termize et al., 2021; Vellymalai, 2011, 2012a, 2012b, 2012c, 2013a, 2013b, 2016).

Additionally, from these quantitative studies, some researchers also discussed the relationship between parents’ educational backgrounds and parental involvement (Vellymalai, 2011), the relationship between parents’ socio-economic background and parental involvement (Satar et al., 2020; Vellymalai, 2012a, 2012c, 2013b), and the relationship between family size and parental involvement (Vellymalai, 2013a). Apart from this, the relationship between parental involvement and children’s academic performance (Latif & Abdullah, 2016; Kuan & Chuen, 2017), and children’s reading skills (Raslie et al., 2020) were also highlighted. Additionally, Manukaram et al. (2013) focus on the influence of parental involvement on self-regulated learning of primary school children, while Ahmad et al. (2017) discuss the relationship between parental involvement and students’ engagement and life goals. In other studies, the relationship between school-parents cooperation and parental involvement was also highlighted (Vellymalai, 2012b, 2016).

Additionally, the qualitative studies related to parental involvement explore the types of involvement parents had with their children (Kamal & Hashim, 2021; Koh & Wing, 2020; Wahab et al., 2016), challenges to parental involvement (Kamal et al., 2021), and parents’ perceptions of their relationships with teachers and schools (Simon, 2017). Apart from that, mixed methods research has investigated the types and levels of parental involvement (Ramalingam et al., 2019; Vellymalai, 2014), the relationship between parental involvement and factors affecting

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students’ academic achievement (Ramalingam et al., 2019), and limitations to parents’ involvement (Vellymalai, 2014).

In summary, the analysis of past research on parental involvement in Malaysian primary schools has found that: iThe majority of the studies were quantitative in nature. Five studies were qualitative, and another two combined elements of the qualitative and quantitative approaches. iiMost of the research addressed the types and levels of parental participation. iiiThe relationship between parents’ characteristics and parental involvement was also highlighted in many research studies. ivThe relationship between parental involvement and students’ learning was frequently discussed. vA few studies also highlighted challenges to parental involvement.

Mixedmethods 6%

Research Methods Qualitative research 21%

Quantitatve research 73%

Figure 2: Research methods applied in previous studies

Challenges to parental involvement 13%

Others 5%

Relationship between parents characteritisti cs and Relationship children's between learning… parental involvement and children's learning 17%

Research focus

Types and level of involvement 50%

Figure 3: Research focus of previous studies

Research Question 2: Characterisations of parental involvement explained in the research literature.

From the analysis, the findings show that all authors discuss parental involvement differently. The findings can be categorised into three main focuses, namely home-based, school-based, and others. Each focus is discussed in turn below.

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Home-based involvement Home-based involvement is the most common categorisation of parental involvement used in previous studies (Kuan & Chuen, 2017; Latif & Abdullah, 2016; Satar et al., 2020; Vellymalai, 2012a, c; 2013b, 2014; Wahab et al., 2016).

However, each study defines home-based involvement differently.

Latif and Abdullah (2016) utilise several characteristics to define home-based involvement. These include creating a home learning environment, social interaction with children, communicating with children, and supporting children’s success. According to the authors, these constructions are based on the Parents/Caregivers Toolkit developed by the MOE (2012), which aligns with the microsystem element in Bronfenbrenner’s model of parental involvement (1979).

On the other hand, Satar et al. (2020) constructed several characteristics of homebased involvement, which are: i- giving motivation, ii- providing facilities, iiiobtaining feedback from teachers, iv- discussing children’s interests with them, vassisting children with homework, vi- discussing education planning with children, vii- taking part in religious activities with children, viii- reading together, and viii- taking children to participate in community activities. These constructions are based on the literature review and not based on any models or theories.

In other studies, Vellymalai (2012a,c, 2013b, 2014) highlights parental involvement at home, based on Walker et al.’s (2005) model. These include: idiscussion of future planning, ii- discussion of school activities, iii- identifying academic problems at school, iv- identifying academic problems at home, vassisting with homework, vi- identifying homework, viii- guidance for examination, ix- motivation, x- time limits, and xi- identifying learning patterns.

Wahab et al. (2016) discuss home-based involvement by highlighting aspects of parental support in children’s learning. This model is adapted from the GPILSEO model of parental involvement, which was developed for the Māori community in New Zealand (Bishop & Sullivans, 2005). In another study by Kuan & Chuen (2017), home-based constructions are not specified in their paper.

School-based involvement Apart from home-based involvement, school-based involvement was also utilised by authors to define the concept of parental involvement in their studies (Kuan & Chuen, 2017; Latif & Abdullah, 2016; Wahab et al., 2016). School-based involvement is characterised as parents’ attendance at school events in general (Wahab et al., 2016) and, in particular, report card day, sports day, parent-teacher meetings, and excellence awards ceremonies (Latif & Abdullah, 2016). However, the construct of school-based involvement is not discussed in detail in the study

by Kuan and Chuen (2017).

Other characterisations of parental involvement Other characterisations of parental involvement were also found in many studies.

For example, Wahab et al. (2016) discussed parents’ aspirations and parents’ actions regarding their involvement in their children’s education.

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Adapting the model of parental involvement by Walker et al. (2005), Kuan and Chuen (2017) put forth several other categories of parental involvement, including parental role construction, parental self-efficacy, parental perception of life context, parental perception of specific invitations for involvement from child and the child’s teachers.

Apart from the above, Vellymalai (2011, 2012b, 2013a, 2016), who authored most of the articles, also explains parental involvement by adapting Walker et al.’s (2005) framework, and determined 14 categorisations of parental involvement: idiscussion of future planning, ii- discussion of school activities, iii- identifying learning patterns, iv- identifying academic problems at school, v- identifying academic problems at home, vi- assisting with homework, vii- identifying homework, viii- examination guidance, ix- monitoring academic performance at school, x- motivation, xi- time limits, xii- getting reading materials, xiii- tuition, xiv- monitoring activities.

The parental involvement model by Walker et al. (2005) has also been used by Kamal et al. (2021), who studied challenges to parental involvement. Their study highlights three types of challenges: parents, teachers and school, and children.

Ahmad et al. (2017) investigated parental involvement based on the four aspects of involvement as outlined in the Parents/Caregivers Toolkit by the MOE (2012), which are: creating a learning environment at home, having social interaction with children, having communication with children, and providing support for children’s academic success. Several aspects of parental involvement were highlighted by Ramalingam et al. (2019) based on the parental involvement model

by Epstein (2002). These include parenting, communication, learning at home, decision making, community collaboration, and volunteerism. Conversely, Hashim et al. (2015) conceptualised parental involvement as parenting, learning at home and spiritual support, which is adapted from the parental involvement model by Epstein (1995).

On the other hand, Hashim et al. (2018) split parental involvement into three categories: parental involvement with children, teacher, and school parentteacher association. These categories are adapted from the Inventory of Parental Influence (henceforth IPI). However, no further references are mentioned. In another study, Manukaram et al. (2013) conceptualised parental involvement as parental participation and parental support, and utilised the Perceptions of Parents Scales (Grolilnick et al., 1997) as a guide to measure parental involvement in their children’s lives.

Raslie et al. (2020) specifically focus on parental reading socialisation at home by looking at the frequency of mother-child shared reading sessions. The ideological paradigm of literacy, which regards literacy as a social practice (Street, 2016), acted as the lens for this study. On the other hand, a study by Kamal & Hashim (2021) conceptualises parental involvement by highlighting ESL reading-related activities carried out at home such as school-related activity, entertainment, storybook time, and literacy for the sake of teaching/learning literacy. The findings of the study are discussed based on the perspectives of Vygotsky’s social

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constructivist theory and Reyes et al.’s (2007) domains of activity related to the literacy framework.

A number of other studies are not explicitly based on any models or theories. For example, Simon (2017) studies a particular aspect of parental involvement, namely parent-teacher communication. Termize et al. (2021) discuss parental involvement in the contexts of having discussions with children, communicating with children, and parental support at home. Koh & Wing (2020) discuss parental involvement from the perspectives of music education, including parent attendance at one to-one piano lessons, home environment and home practice, and effective communication. Shahri et al. (2020) conceptualise parental involvement according to two particular concepts: i- interaction and communication and ii- parenting practices.

In conclusion, the analysis of past research on parental involvement in Malaysian primary schools has found that home-based and school-based involvements are the categorisations that are most commonly used in the past research in the context of Malaysian primary school children. Additionally, parental involvement models by Walker et al. (2005) were most frequently used by researchers in their studies, followed by Epstein’s (1995; 2002), the Parents/Caregivers Toolkit by the MOE (2012), and finally Bronfenbrenner’s (1979).

Characterisations of Parental Involvement Home-based involvement 25%

School-based involvement 11%

Uncategorised/ Others 64%

Figure 4: Characterisations of parental involvement in previous studies

Models/theories No models/ theories 18%

Epstein (1995; 2002) 9% Bronfenbrenner (1979) 5%

Others 18%

Walker et al., (2005) 41% Parents/Caregi vers Toolkit (MOE, n.d) 9%

Figure 5: Models/ theories employed in previous studies

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5. Discussion and Implications of the Study

Research Question 1: The way parental involvement has been investigated.

Most studies are performed quantitatively from this SLR with a focus on types and levels of involvement. The quantitative study is a typical way of gathering information on parental involvement to allow for subsequent statistical analysis (Hanover Research, 2016). These types of involvement surveyed have to be predetermined, and they help determine how parents are engaged with their children by using a large sample size. However, researchers agree that quantitative study, unlike qualitative study, might limit the accessibility of different involvement (Hosseinpour et al., 2015; Howard et al., 2014).

Although both designs are undeniably needed, applying a qualitative method to discover how parents engage with their children’s learning could encourage findings to be inclusive (Zwass, 2018), incorporating those who are generally underrepresented, which might also reflect their cultural circumstances (Bailey & Osipova, 2016) such as their beliefs, perceptions, expectations and practices. The use of in-depth interviews, for example, would likely lead to detailed explanations of the ways parents are involved with their children’s learning at home (Kamal, 2020; Latunde, 2017; Lee, 2010; Pendleton, 2017), which is unlikely to be discovered in a quantitative study.

Research Question 2: Constructions of parental involvement explained in the research literature.

From this SLR, the authors note that parental involvement has been researched and explained as a single component or as multiple components with different definitions by different researchers. The diversity of concepts concerning parental involvement suggests little or no agreement among researchers as to how to engage theoretically with parental involvement in their children’s education (Kamal, 2020). A situation such as this makes it difficult to determine the significant factors that influence children’s learning outcomes (Shute et al. 2011).

Further, the inconsistent definition of parental involvement makes it difficult to draw broad conclusions across studies (Jaiswal & Choudhuri, 2017) or to compare and interpret data from studies that define this construct in different ways (Shute et al., 2011).

However, the findings of this SLR also revealed that ‘home-based’ and ‘schoolbased’ have been commonly used as categorisations of parental involvement in a considerable amount of the research in the Malaysian primary school context, similar to the international context (e.g., Hornby & Lafaele, 2011; Xiong et al., 2019; Zong et al., 2017), even though the definitions of each construct differ from one study to the next, further complicating the interpretation of data from various studies.

In addition to that the above, the findings from this SLR indicate that most of the parental involvement categorisations do not reflect the Parents/Caregivers Toolkit developed by the MOE (2012). These findings suggest that the researchers may not be aware of the Toolkit’s existence because most academics who authored the studies work in higher institutions. Had the research adopted parental

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involvement characteristics highlighted in the Toolkit, the study’s findings would be more relevant to Malaysian primary school children.

Besides this, many studies are tied to particular parental involvement models or theories. Having theories or models from prominent academics such as Walker et al. (2005), Epstein (1995, 2002), and Bronfenbrenner (1979) are helpful to help understand the phenomenon under study. However, not many theories or models on which such research is based are discussed appropriately. As a result, these studies present what effectively amounts to misinformation to the reader about the content and propositions of the theory, which may lead to a flawed heuristic tool. Additionally, the way the research is presented may prevent a fair test of the theory, thus preventing proper adjustments to be made (Tudge et al., 2009, p. 198).

Therefore, further explanation and discussion of the findings concerning the theories and models are required to orient readers to the models’ applications in the study.

6. Conclusion In this article, we report on a systematic literature review we have carried out to gain additional insight into the research methods and research focuses of studies of parental involvement. We also explain multiple constructs of parental involvement that existed in such studies. Future studies might include analysis of level of parental involvement variables and the relationship between parental involvement and children’s learning. Otherwise, the SLR can also be performed by focusing on parental involvement amongst preschool and secondary school children. Our focus is limited to the parental involvement with the Malaysian primary school student context. This study concludes that parents’ ability to influence the educational performance of their children appears to be significant in general. All relevant stakeholders must be aware of Malaysian parental involvement practices and their implications for children. Schools and teachers may play an essential role in promoting the involvement of parents in their children’s education.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 21, No. 3, pp. 342-358, March 2022 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.3.18 Received Jan 31, 2022; Revised Mar 22, 2022; Accepted Mar 27, 2022

A Look Back: Assessment of the Learning Outcomes of the Community-Based Research Experiences of the Senior High School Students of a Higher Education Institution in Batangas Joseph Angelou I. Ng, Ph. D., DBA De La Salle Lipa, Lipa City, Philippines

Abstract. To increase the impact of student output for the betterment of people’s lives in the community, a higher education institution (HEI) in the Batangas province has established four institutional strategic directions. This includes social innovation, a goal aimed at delivering 21st century education so that students are empowered to respond to wider issues in their respective communities. Guided by designs on community-oriented capstone initiatives for requirements in all student levels, community-based research is deemed instrumental in the planning of concrete products or programs to help people in need. This study aimed to assess the learning outcomes of the community-based research (CBR) experiences among senior high school students of this HEI in their Practical Research II subject. A descriptive method of research was utilized. A framework for community-based participatory research was used as the theoretical framework. Items from the Community-Based Research Course Survey by Lichtenstein, Thorme, Cutforth and Tombari comprise the data gathering instrument. Findings revealed that the students have a positive assessment of their experiences as the extensive influence of CBR is noted among four out of five CBR learning outcomes. Significant relationships were identified between the strand in which the students are enrolled in and their CBR learning outcomes, as well as between the theme of the accomplished paper and the CBR learning outcomes. All these findings were deemed useful in recommending the continued conduct of CBR in the HEI, and in formulating an action plan for the future conduct of CBR in the Practical Research subjects.

Keywords: community-based research; community service learning; higher education institution; Philippine senior high school

1. Introduction Higher education institutions (HEI) in the Philippines are at the forefront of transformation. Spearheaded by major administrative changes, an HEI in the ©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

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Batangas province embraced four strategic directions or initiatives to ensure the delivery of relevant and quality education. They are likewise geared towards attaining the seven C’s of 21st century lifelong skills: critical thinking, creativity and innovation, collaboration, cross-cultural understanding, communication, computing technology and career learning (Law, 2021). The four directions are social innovation, sustainable futures, stakeholder engagement and shared humanity. In this HEI, the concept of capstone projects has been contextualized through the adoption of an acronym for CAPSTONE: Community-Based Action Projects Addressing Strategically-Themed Learning Objectives through Networked Environments. Capstone initiatives by the students are communitybased, offering real-world solutions to real-world problems (Francisco, 2017). In the senior high school, the practical research subjects of the students are identified as concrete avenues to help them gradually plan for their capstone product or program. Through community-based research writing, senior high school students accomplish qualitative and quantitative research papers to address a societal need or concern in a partner community.

1.1 Related Literature Community-based research is defined as a collaborative learning enterprise between academic researchers and members of the community (Thorme & Hackett, 2014). Khanna (n.d.) has specifically identified community-based research capstone as an effective strategy to increase student engagement in community service, by letting students work with different communities in the design and implementation of survey projects. A number of studies have already proven the effectiveness of employing community-based research in schools. For one, Malerba (2014) identified that community-based research helps students identify problems that are directly relevant to the lives of their community partners. By sharing such findings, people in the community are empowered to employ further evaluation on their own. The activity enhances their research-writing, community relations and community understanding skills. Next, Stenger (2013) reported that according to both K-12 and higher education studies, students benefit from their participation and conduct in highquality community service. These benefits include improved performances in school subjects; better commitment to finish their high school program; enhanced problem-solving skills; improved ability to work within a team; and more effective skills for community planning. Third, Downey (2018) assessed the benefits of conducting community-based research (CBR) and capstone to the undergraduate students and their partner communities. Conducting CBR and capstone reinforced and culminated the students’ educational experiences by providing them opportunities to apply what they learn in the classroom. It also enhanced their research writing and professional skills based on the programs they are taking. The conduct of CBR also increased their service motivation; students were more committed to research activities knowing that they contribute to creating dynamic changes in their partner communities. Similarly, Mayer et al. (2018) conducted a study on the impact of integrating CBR into the school curriculum. Findings revealed that by utilizing CBR, students improve their self-efficacy, research skills and scientific motivation. Fifth, Kornbluh et al.

(2020) explored the outcomes of an interdisciplinary CBR course. Student

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outcomes were positive in the following domains: collaboration, application of knowledge to real-world issues, critical thinking, civic development and enhanced self-concept. In a recent study by Zeydani et al. (2021) which explored the effect of community-based education on the skills of undergraduate nursing students, the authors discovered reinforcement of the following skills: professional, communication, self-confidence, knowledge, critical thinking and teamwork. Lastly, George et al. (2017) assessed the impact of partaking in community-based research among undergraduate and graduate students. Using the same survey utilized in this study, findings revealed that the students’ CBR experiences reinforced four of the five outcomes: civic engagement, educational experience, professional skills and personal growth.

Additionally, there are studies related to select demographic profiles of students and their civic engagement. In a study that assessed the relationship between participation in community service and students’ academic success, Grubisich (2017) found that female undergraduate students are more likely to take an active part in community service than males. Additionally, females are more likely to answer surveys than their male counterparts. On the contrary, Kim (2012) found no significant relationship with gender and age and students’ attitudes towards community service and engagement. Lastly, Geringer et al.

(2013) found no significant difference in gender as far as service learning experiences are concerned.

1.2 Objectives of the Study The study aimed to assess the learning outcomes of the SHS students who have engaged themselves in community-based research through their Practical Research II subject. Specifically, it sought answers to three research objectives.

The first focused on the profile of the students in terms of gender, SHS strand and general theme of the research paper they accomplished. The second assessed the outcomes of their community-based research experiences in terms of academic skills, educational experience, civic engagement, professional skills and personal growth. The third objective determined any significant relationship between the profile of the respondents and their CBR learning outcomes.

1.3 Scope and Limitation This study enjoined 345 SHS students for SY 2017-2018. This research assessed the five outcomes of their CBR experience based on the Community-Based Research Course Survey by Lichtenstein et al. (2011), four American professors whose research interests include CBR. In that year, they convened for this project to construct a valid and statistically reliable survey that codifies student learning outcomes in CBR. Academic skills comprise the cognitive skills for school learning. Educational experience pertains to various affective outcomes.

This includes one’s passion and interest in the course or program where one is enrolled. Civic engagement is composed of the cognitive, affective and behavioral outcomes relative to participation in community development.

Professional skills relate to the capacities for workplace efficacy. Lastly, personal growth comprises the affective outcomes for self-awareness.

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1.4 Theoretical Framework This study utilized the Framework for Community-Based Participatory Research which is presented through the Community Tool Box (n.d) by the Center for Community Health and Development at the University of Kansas.

Figure 1: Framework for Community-Based Participatory Research

On the figure, there are six steps to be taken in the conduct of community-based participatory research. The first step entails the proper identification of a problem or need in a chosen community. The second step is about devising a systematic plan of action to address the problem. The next is about the formulation of research objectives, and design of effective research methodology. The fourth phase is the collection of data. The fifth step is to make sense of the data via interpretation and analysis. Lastly, use of information to celebrate and make adjustments is a two-fold phase: celebrating successes by acquiring answers for the research questions, and using the acquired data to further address the identified problem or need in the community.

1.5 Conceptual Framework The input-process-output framework of the study is illustrated below:

Figure 2: The Conceptual Framework of the Study

On the figure, inputs are the profiles of the respondents in terms of gender, strand and general theme of the research, and indirectly their experiences in the

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conduct of community-based research. The process entailed the completion of the survey questionnaire with items adopted from the Community-Based Research Course Survey. The output of the study is an action plan to decide on the continued use of community-based research in the Practical Research subjects in preparation for the design of the students’ Capstone Initiatives.

Additionally, the profiles of the students were correlated with their CBR outcomes.

2. Methodology 2.1. Research Design The study is a descriptive research, defined by Loeb et al. (2017) as a study concerned with characterizing a phenomenon by looking for emerging patterns in data to provide answers to the “W” questions. The aim of descriptive analysis is to simplify data. As data acquired are in numbers, this research is also a quantitative descriptive research study. Eyisi (2016) described quantitative research as the acquisition and analysis of numerical data and figures. Data are usually calculated with computer software such as a statistical package for the social sciences (SPSS).

2.2. Participants of the Study Originally, 345 male and female students from the senior high school of an HEI in Batangas were targeted to take part in this study. G*Power was used to obtain the sample size (n) from the total population of the students. From a population of 1,233, the sample size was computed at 115 participants for each strand.

Stratified random sampling using proportional allocation was utilized so that the sample size for each strand was comprised of selected students from all sections.

However, in coordination with the Office of Research and Publications of this HEI, it was suggested that only SHS students of legal age (18 years old and above) be included as participants. Only a total of 282 met the criteria in terms of age: 111 from ABM, 56 from HUMSS and 115 from STEM. The 282 respondents represent 81.74% of the required number of participants.

2.3. Data Gathering Procedures and Ethical Considerations The researcher coordinated with the Assistant Principal of the Senior High School for approval to carry out surveys among the students. Coordination with the respective Practical Research II teachers of the sections to take part in the survey followed. After participants per section were determined, survey administration commenced. The respondents filled out an informed consent form which provided details about the aims of the study, the items of the survey questionnaire and their rights as study participants. The form highlighted their rights of confidentiality, anonymity, and withdrawal from the study at any point if they so wished.

2.4. Instrument The instrument is a survey that measured the learning outcomes obtained by the students in their community-based research experience. Items were adopted from the Community-Based Research Course Survey by Lichtenstein, Thorme,

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Cutforth and Tombari. Specifically for this research study, only those items under the “CBR Outcomes” section of the said questionnaire were used in the data gathering process. First, to ensure content validity despite adoption of an existing questionnaire, selected teachers handling the students’ Practical Research subjects were asked to review if the items were applicable to the students’ CBR experiences. They confirmed that all 23 items could be answered by the students. Consequently, reliability testing of the items was carried out through pilot testing. Thirty undergraduate college students who had researched writing experience in school were selected to answer the draft of the questionnaire. After the responses were tallied, Cronbach’s alpha value was computed at a mean of 0.914 for all 23 items, interpreted as having excellent internal consistency (Statistics How To, n.d.). All items were retained for the actual data gathering process.

The survey used in this study is made up of three sections. The first allowed respondents to fill out consent for the research. The second section provided the options for profile components: age, gender, SHS strand and general theme of accomplished paper. The last section contained the 23 items for assessment of the CBR learning outcomes of the students. The first four items measured academic skills. The next seven items were related to civic engagement. The succeeding four items referred to educational experience. The next five measured professional skills. The last three items of the questionnaire related to personal growth. To interpret the mean scores of the responses to the survey items, the following ranges for the verbal interpretations were used: extensively – 3.25 – 4.00; moderately – 2.50 – 3.24; minimally – 1.75 – 2.49; and not at all – 1.00 – 1.74.

2.5. Statistical Treatment of Data Numerical data were gathered from the participants. Through an SPSS software, the statistical tools used were the frequency to determine the total number of responses to each item of the questionnaire; the weighted mean to acquire the average values in measuring their CBR learning outcomes; and chi-square to identify significant relationships between the profile components (which were all categorical in nature) and the CBR learning outcomes.

3. Results The responses of the SHS students to the items of the pilot-tested questionnaire were tallied, compared and analyzed.

Gender 37.9 62.1

Males Females

Figure 3: Profiles of the Students in terms of Gender

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As presented on Figure 3, most of the students who took part in this research study were female, accounting for 62.1 percent of the respondents.

Senior High School (SHS) Strand

39.4

40.8

ABM HUMSS

19.8

STEM

Figure 4: Profiles of the Students in terms of SHS Strand

As presented on Figure 4, most of the students who took part in this research study came from the strand of Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM). They comprise 40.8 percent of the total number of respondents, closely followed by those enrolled in the Accountancy, Business and Management (ABM) strand at 39.4 percent.

HEI's Strategic Directions Social Innovation 23.8

30.8

Sustainable Futures

Stakeholder Engagement 42.2

3.2

Shared Humanity

ORP's Institutional Research Agenda 2.1

0.7

Batangas Studies

6.7 10.3

26.6

27.3 19.2

Education and Lasallian Studies

Culture and Humanities Community Engagement and Social Development Technology and Engineering Business and Management

7.1

Health, Safety and Environment

Figure 5: Profiles of the Students in terms of General Themes of Accomplished Paper

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Figure 5 shows, in two diagrams, the general themes of the CBR papers accomplished by the students through their Practical Research II subject. On the one hand, the majority of the papers are in line with Sustainable Futures, accounting for 42.2 percent of the total responses. On the other hand, in terms of the research agenda, the majority fall in Community Engagement and Social Development at 27.3 percent, closely followed by papers on Health, Safety and Environment at 26.6 percent.

Table 1: Outcome of CBR in terms of Academic Skills Academic Skills

Mean

Verbal Interpretation

Improved my analytical skills Improved my academic writing skills Improved my research skills Enhanced my understanding of academic content Composite Mean

3.35 3.33 3.54 3.36 3.40

EXTENSIVELY EXTENSIVELY EXTENSIVELY EXTENSIVELY EXTENSIVELY

On Table 1 are the mean scores of the responses of the participants to items of the questionnaire which measured the CBR learning outcomes in terms of academic skills. Academic skills consist of analytical, academic writing and research skills, as well as content understanding. The mean scores for all items of the outcome are positive, falling on the verbal interpretation extensively; specifically, it is highest for the statement “improved my research skills.”

Table 2: Outcome of CBR in terms of Civic Engagement Civic Engagement

Mean

Verbal Interpretation

Enhanced my understanding of local/ community issues Enhanced my understanding of social issues Deepened my understanding of others who are not like me Helped me empathize with those from racial or religious backgrounds different from my own Enhanced the likelihood that I will participate in civic activities Enhanced the likelihood that I will vote.

Helped clarify my values Composite Mean

3.49 3.57 3.39

EXTENSIVELY EXTENSIVELY EXTENSIVELY MODERATELY

3.23 3.15 3.15 3.45 3.35

MODERATELY MODERATELY EXTENSIVELY EXTENSIVELY

Presented on Table 2 are the mean scores of the perceptions of the participants on the outcome of their CBR experiences in terms of civic engagement. On this note, civic engagement is characterized by items focusing on the understanding of local, community and social issues; empathic understanding of other cultures and racial backgrounds; participation in community activities; and clarification of values. Similarly, positive influence on civic engagement is reflected on the mean scores that fall on extensively or moderately. The mean is highest for the statement “enhanced my understanding of social issues,” and is relatively lowest for the following two items: “enhanced the likelihood that I will participate in civic activities,” and “enhanced the likelihood that I will vote.”

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Table 3: Outcome of CBR in terms of Educational Experience Educational Experience Increased my interactions with faculty Increased my interest in my major Improved my interest in college Clarified my career path Composite Mean

Mean

Verbal Interpretation

3.15 3.09 3.09 2.98 3.08

MODERATELY MODERATELY MODERATELY MODERATELY MODERATELY

Table 3 presents the mean scores of the responses on items focusing on the outcome of CBR in terms of educational experience. This learning outcome may be distinguished from academic skills in that the former focuses more on the affective influence of school experiences while the latter relates more to the cognitive effects of course works. Items on this outcome center on the interest and commitment to finish schooling and the clarification of career paths. Data show that all mean scores fall moderately on the interpretation.

Table 4: Outcome of CBR in terms of Professional Skills Professional Skills Improved my conflict resolution skills Improved my ability to run meetings Improved my ability to delegate Improved my ability to listen to others Improved my ability to work as part of a team Composite Mean

Mean

Verbal Interpretation

3.13 3.02 3.10 3.65

MODERATELY MODERATELY MODERATELY EXTENSIVELY EXTENSIVELY

3.63 3.31

EXTENSIVELY

As presented on Table 4, the mean scores for the items focusing on professional skills fall on extensively and moderately. The mean is highest for the statement “improved my ability to listen to others,” and is lowest for “improved my ability to run meetings.”

Table 5: Outcome of CBR in terms of Personal Growth Personal Growth Helped improve my personal qualities Improved my ability to consider others’ perspectives Deepened my understanding of myself Composite Mean

Mean

Verbal Interpretation

3.53

EXTENSIVELY EXTENSIVELY

3.63 3.43 3.53

EXTENSIVELY EXTENSIVELY

As seen on Table 5, the mean scores are high for all items focusing on personal growth as they fall on the verbal interpretation extensively. Specifically, the mean is highest for the statement “improved my ability to consider others’ perspectives.”

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Table 6: Relationships between Gender and CBR Learning Outcomes CBR Learning Outcomes

Gender X2-value

Academic Skills Civic Engagement Educational Experience Professional Skills Personal Growth

9.26 13.81 7.36 16.89 3.04

p-value .41 .46 .83 .11 .88

Verbal interpretation NOT SIGNIFICANT NOT SIGNIFICANT NOT SIGNIFICANT NOT SIGNIFICANT NOT SIGNIFICANT

Table 6 presents the relationships between the CBR learning outcomes and gender as a profile component of the respondents. There is no significant relationship between gender and any of the five learning outcomes of CBR. Table 7: Relationships between SHS Strand and CBR Learning Outcomes CBR Learning Outcomes Academic Skills Civic Engagement Educational Experience Professional Skills Personal Growth

SHS Strand X2-value 27.84 25.89 47.37 34.99 15.76

p-value .06 .58 .01 .04 .33

Verbal interpretation NOT SIGNIFICANT NOT SIGNIFICANT SIGNIFICANT SIGNIFICANT NOT SIGNIFICANT

As presented on Table 7, there are two significant relationships when the specific strand in senior high school of the participants is correlated with their CBR learning outcomes. Significant relationships are yielded between the SHS strand and educational experiences as well as the SHS strand and professional skills.

Table 8: Relationships between the General Theme of Accomplished Paper and CBR Learning Outcomes CBR Learning Outcomes

Strategic Directions p-value Verbal interpretation 55.38 .02 SIGNIFICANT 70.61 .09 NOT SIGNIFICANT 70.16 .02 SIGNIFICANT 122.57 .00 SIGNIFICANT 22.54 .76 NOT SIGNIFICANT Institutional Research Agenda X2-value p-value Verbal interpretation 61.83 .52 NOT SIGNIFICANT 88.40 .75 NOT SIGNIFICANT 94.20 .21 NOT SIGNIFICANT 65.15 .83 NOT SIGNIFICANT 37.82 .88 NOT SIGNIFICANT X2-value

Academic Skills Civic Engagement Educational Experience Professional Skills Personal Growth CBR Learning Outcomes Academic Skills Civic Engagement Educational Experience Professional Skills Personal Growth

Presented on Table 8 are the relationships between the profile components relating to the general theme of the research paper accomplished by the respondents, as well as both the HEI’s strategic directions and its ORP’s institutional research agenda. Significant relationships can only be noted between the school’s strategic directions and academic skills, educational

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experience and professional skills. No significant relationship can be noted between the institutional research agenda and the CBR learning outcomes.

4. Discussion From the results presented in the previous sections, the majority of the respondents were females, enrolled in the STEM strand, and have accomplished CBRs relating to community engagement, social development, health, safety and the environment. Having more female participants seems to coincide with the finding by Grubisich (2017) that female undergraduate students were more likely to answer surveys than men. As previously mentioned, each strand was expected to yield 115 participants but due to the limit in age, the other two strands had fewer participants. The figures were expected, as the majority of the grade 12 students belong to STEM (654), followed by ABM (410) and lastly HUMSS (169). In relation to the majority of the respondents belonging to the STEM strand, data are reinforced by the concept of Environmental STEM (ESTEM). One article recounted that STEM students immersed in environmental education are better expected to initiate steps to take care of the Earth in various ways (Engaging Every Student, 2015). Mcguire (2018) likewise reported that STEM courses have real-world applications and can help mitigate climate change. It is by way of STEM lessons where students are offered better opportunities to identify real-world problems and provide equally real solutions (Jolly, 2014). Lastly, in terms of profile, the majority of the research papers were expected to focus on Community Engagement and Social Development, because community-based researches have been required among all SHS classes. More interestingly, use of Sustainable Futures as the strategic direction to address the need for young generations to act on environmental issues and concerns complements the institutional research agenda focusing on Health, Safety and Environment.

In regard to the participants’ learning outcomes, academic skills are extensively reinforced by their CBR experiences. As students take part in research activities for a partner community, they acquire skills that enhance their school performance. These findings coincide with the study by Malerba (2014) which found that CBR enhances the research-writing skills of students. They also agree with one of the findings of Stenger (2013) that engagement of K-12 students in genuine community service leads to better performance in subjects such as reading, history, science and mathematics. Similarly, CBR has extensive benefits on the students’ civic engagement. They become more committed to community participation through CBR experiences. The data are similar with the finding that a community-based research capstone increases student engagement in community service (Khanna, n.d.). Next, they also relate to the finding by Malerba (2014) that CBR experiences enhance student understanding of the community. Third, this result affirms the finding by Kornbluh et al. (2020) that civic development is enhanced through CBR. While results for the students’ educational experience are relatively lower than the two aforementioned outcomes, they still display a positive influence on the CBR experiences of the students. Engaging in research for a partner community helped the students

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discover opportunities to apply the theories they learn in the classroom to more practical situations. As such, students become more committed to education.

This coincides with one of the findings of the study by Stenger (2013) that community-based experiences provide students with a better commitment to finish their high school program. Likewise, data are comparable with the findings made Downey (2018), who reported higher educational experiences among students previously immersed in CBR. Community-based research experiences likewise have extensive benefits on the students’ professional skills.

As such, the data once again relates with a finding by Stenger (2013) that working with the community in the resolution of a problem enhances the problem-solving skills of students as well as their ability to work well within a team. This is reinforced by a recent finding by Zeydani et al. (2021) that community-based education enhances the students’ professional and teamwork skills. Likewise, this finding agrees with the study of Downey (2018) which found increased professionalism among students who accomplished CBR, and with the findings by Mayer et al. (2018) that reveal how CBR enhances student self-efficacy and research writing skills. Similarly, CBR experiences extensively reinforce their personal growth which relates to higher self-awareness. The positive impact of CBR experiences on the last four learning outcomes all relate with the study by George et al. (2017) which identified reinforcement of civic engagement, educational experience, professional skills and personal growth through the students’ CBR experiences.

CBR learning outcomes do not significantly correlate with gender. This result coincides with the findings by both Kim (2012) and Canton et al. (2013) that gender is not significantly correlated with community service learning experiences. However, it disagrees with another study by Grubisich (2017) that shows female students could otherwise better exhibit qualities for civic engagement. Next, only educational experience and professional skills significantly correlate with the SHS strands the students are enrolled in. The results could be expected, as the different academic strands of the senior high school program are really intended to make distinctions in relation to the learning experiences of the students in preparation for college and the world of work. The Department of Education (2015) has made this explicit when it stated in its guidebook for students that applied and specialized track subjects are based on students’ strengths, interests, passions and career goals after college.

Also, Mangaluz (2018) reported that the Department of Education had planned that the K-12 and SHS program better prepare senior high school students for their future career and goals depending upon the track and strand of choice.

Although all strands will have common core subjects, the specialized subjects are geared to contextualize the learning experiences and enhance specific skills among the students.

Lastly, in relating CBR learning outcomes with the general theme of the students’ accomplished research, significant correlations can only be found among academic skills, educational experience and professional abilities. The data suggest that the strategic direction addressed by the research paper of the

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students relates with the learning outcome acquired from the experience. This concept seems to agree with the statement by Cai et al. (2017) in an editorial clarifying the impact of educational research on student learning. There is a need for research to effectively identify the goals needed to be addressed for alignment with the learning goals and opportunities of its beneficiaries, which would include students. Similarly, as the data suggest, there is a need for the identification of the issue addressed by the students’ research related to the learning outcomes acquired from the research experience.

In relation to these results, an action plan or proposal with recommendations on the future conduct of CBR in the Practical Research subjects (I and II) of the Senior High School department of the HEI in Batangas is presented on the next page.

Table 9: Proposed Action Plan for the Future Conduct of CBR in the Practical Research Subjects of the HEI’s Senior High School (SHS) Goals / Objectives

*to give the students the option to choose their own community as a locale and beneficiary for CBR and CAPSTONE Initiatives *to assign topics for CBR among students to ensure equal or proportional representation of the HEI’s strategic directions

Activities / Strategies

* Review the current guidelines in the conduct of CBR in the Practical Research subjects of the Senior High School * Review the existing guidelines of the Department of Education and the compliance of the HEI in the conduct of independent or facilitated out-of-the-campus activities * Make modifications on the guidelines of community selection as a beneficiary for CBR and Capstone Initiatives * Identify the strategic directions that relate with the different academic strands offered in the SHS * Formally assign a strategic direction to be addressed by students enrolled in a particular academic strand

Persons Involved

Assistant Principal for Administration of the SHS, Learning Area Coordinator for Research, Practical Research Teacher, Representative from the Community Involvement Office

Resources Needed

Copy of the CBR guidelines for the Practical Research subjects, Copy of the DepEd guidelines for out-of-the-campus activities, Manual for the strategic directions of the HEI, Copy of the total number of students enrolled in the different SHS academic strands

Time Frame

August to December 2018

Success Indicator/s

Inclusion of an option in the Practical Research I subject for the students in a group to choose one of their own communities as a locale for CBR and a beneficiary for CAPSTONE Each Grade 11 section is identified to prioritize a strategic direction for the Practical Research I subject to be taken up for the next semester

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5. Conclusion This research study assessed the learning outcomes of community-based research (CBR) experiences of the senior high school students of an HEI in Batangas to evaluate the effectiveness of the conduct of CBR through the Practical Research II subject. The majority of the respondents were females, belonged to the STEM strand, completed research papers focusing on sustainable futures, and addressed community engagement and social development. In terms of the learning outcomes from the CBR experience, the majority of the respondents identified extensive influence in their academic skills, civic engagement, professional skills and personal growth, and a moderate influence on educational experience. No significant relationship is noted between gender and the CBR learning outcomes. In terms of the strand to which the students were enrolled in and the CBR learning outcomes, significant relationships were identified with educational experience and professional skills. For the relationships between the general theme of the accomplished paper and the CBR learning outcomes, three significant relationships were identified with the strategic directions (academic skills, educational experience and professional skills), and no significant relationship was identified with the institutional research agenda. It is recommended that community-based research be continued as a requirement for the Practical Research I and II subjects in the SHS. The action plan is likewise recommended for consideration by the senior high school of the HEI in Batangas. The following recommendations are made for future studies: to conduct a similar study to quantitatively assess the learning outcomes of the students from the Practical Research I subject; to assess through qualitative research the learning outcomes and possibly the challenges encountered by the students in the conduct of CBR; and to assess the impact of CBR through each of the four strategic directions of the HEI.

6. References Cai, J., Morris, A., Hohensee, C., Hwang, S., Robison, V., & Hiebert, J. (2017). Clarifying the Impact of Educational Research on Students’ Learning. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 48(2), 118-123. https://doi.org/10.5951/jresematheduc.48.2.0118 Community Tool Box (n.d.).

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Engaging Every Student. (2015). Environmental and STEM Education: A Natural Connection. http://www.engagingeverystudent.com/environmental-and-stemeducation-a-natural-connection/ Eyisi, D. (2016). The Usefulness of Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches and Methods in Researching Problem-Solving Ability in Science Education Curriculum. Journal of Education and Practice, 7(15), 91-100.

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Francisco, C. (2017, August 24). DLSL Gears towards Social Innovation through Capstone Initiatives. De La Salle Lipa. https://www.dlsl.edu.ph/dlsl-gears-towardssocial-innovation-through-capstone-initiatives/ Geringer, S., Canton, A., Stratemeyer, A. & Rice, W. (2013). The Effect of Demographic Variables Upon University Students’ Service-Learning Experiences in Marketing.

The Open Education Journal, 6, 18-24. https://doi.org/10.2174/1874920801306010018 George, C. L., Wood-Kanupka, J., & Oriel, K.N. (2017). Impact of Participation in Community-Based Research Among Undergraduate and Graduate Students.

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Grubisich, K. (2017). The Relationship Between Participation in Community Service and Students Academic Success [Masters Thesis, Eastern Illinois University]. The Keep. https://thekeep.eiu.edu/theses/2620 Jolly, A. (2014, June 17). Six Characteristics of a Great STEM Lesson. Education Week. https://www.edweek.org/tm/articles/2014/06/17/ctq_jolly_stem.html Khanna, M. (n.d.). Community Service Engagement: how our students benefit from this service and how to encourage them to pursue community service. http://www.creighton.edu/fileadmin/user/news/docs/Khanna_article.pdf Kim, M. (2012). Service-learning's impact on dental students' attitude to community service [Master’s Thesis, University of Iowa].

Iowa Research Online. https://iro.uiowa.edu/esploro/outputs/graduate/Service-learnings-impacton-dental-students-attitude/9983777012502771#file-0 Kornbluh, M., Wilking, J., Roll, S., Banks, L., Stone, H. & Candela, J. (2020). Learning and Doing Together: Student Outcomes from an Interdisciplinary, CommunityBased Research Course on Homelessness in a Local Community. Journal of Community Engagement and Scholarship, 13(1), 1-14. https://doi.org/10.54656/xgum9793 Law, P. Y. (2021, October 27). The 7Cs of 21st-Century Teaching and Learning. Europass Teacher Academy. https://www.teacheracademy.eu/blog/the-7cs/ Lichtenstein, G. Thorme, T., Cutforth, N. & Tombari, M. (2011). Development of a National Survey to Assess Student Learning Outcomes of Community-Based Research. Journal of Higher Education Outreach and Engagement, 15(2), 7- 33.

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Descriptive analysis in education: A guide for researchers.National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance. https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/pubs/20174023/ Malerba, H. (2014) Reflections on Community-Based Research. Undergraduate Journal of Service Learning and Community-Based Research, 3, 1-5.

Mangaluz, J. (2018, April 2). K-12 and the Work Immersion Program. Press Reader. https://www.pressreader.com/philippines/philippine-dailyinquirer/20180402/282222306315589 McGuire, P. (2018, May 29). What is Stem and why is it important? The Irish Times. https://www.irishtimes.com/news/education/what-is-stem-and-why-is-itimportant-1.3500407 Mayer, B., Blume, A., Black, C., & Stevens, S. (2019). Improving Student Learning Outcomes through Community-based Research: The Poverty Workshop.

Teaching Sociology, 47(2), 135–147. https://doi.org/10.1177/0092055X18818251 Statistics How To. (n.d.). Cronbach’s Alpha: Simple Definition, Use and Interpretation. http://www.statisticshowto.com/cronbachs-alpha-spss/ Stenger, M. (2013, May 23). Students can Benefit from Participation in Community Service Studies Show. informED.

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https://www.opencolleges.edu.au/informed/other/students-can-benefit-fromparticipation-in-community-service-studies-show-4147/ Thorme, T., & Hackett, B. (2014, February 21). Engaging Undergraduates in CommunityBased Research. http://bonner.pbworks.com/w/file/fetch/105945039/Engaging%20Undergrad uates%20in%20CBR.pdf Zeydani, A., Atashzadeh-Shoorideh, F., Abdi, F., Hosseini, M., Zohari-Anboohi, S., & Skerrett, V. (2021). Effect of community-based education on undergraduate nursing students’ skills: a systematic review. BMC Nursing, 20(1), 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12912-021-00755-4

Appendix 1 Sample Survey Questionnaire PROFILE OF THE RESPONDENT Kindly supply the necessary information on the spaces provided for.

Age: _______ years old Gender (please check):

Male

Female

SHS Strand (please check):

ABM

HUMSS

STEM

General Theme of Accomplished Research Paper (please check): Core Directions (please check one): Social Innovation Sustainable Futures Stakeholder Engagement Shared Humanity Institutional Agenda (please check one): Education and Lasallian Studies Batangas Studies Culture and Humanities Community Engagement and Social Development

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Technology and Engineering Business and Management Health and Safety and Environment Gender and Development My participation in CBR : a b c d e f g h

i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w

Improved my analytical skills Improved my academic writing skills Improved my research skills Enhanced my understanding of academic content Enhanced my understanding of local/ community issues Enhanced my understanding of social issues Deepened my understanding of others who are not like me Helped me empathize with those from racial or religious backgrounds different from my own Enhanced the likelihood that I will participate in civic activities Enhanced the likelihood that I will vote Helped clarify my values Increased my interactions with faculty Increased my interest in my major Improved my interest in college Clarified my career path Improved my conflict resolution skills Improved my ability to run meetings Improved my ability to delegate Improved my ability to listen to others Improved my ability to work as part of a team Helped improve my personal qualities Improved my ability to consider others’ perspectives Deepened my understanding of myself

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Extensively 4

Moderately 3

Minimally 2

Not at All 1

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 21, No. 3, pp. 359-378, March 2022 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.3.19 Received Jan 18, 2022; Revised Mar 18, 2022; Accepted Mar 28, 2022

The Relevance of Learning Methods in Realising Student-Centred Transformative Learning Mariana Simanjuntak* Universitas Diponegoro Engineering Management, Faculty of Industrial Technology, Institut Teknologi Del, Indonesia Merry Meryam Martgrita , Juli Yanti Damanik Bioprocess Engineering, Faculty of Biotechnology Institut Teknologi Del, Indonesia Monalisa Pasaribu D3 Information Technology, Faculty of Vocational Studies Institut Teknologi Del, Indonesia Abstract. This research aims at determining the most appropriate learning method in one cluster of students enrolling in the courses of SPD and EABP. For the data analysis, a survey was performed on the STEM cluster. The sample comprised the students of SPD and EABP, two courses in bioprocess engineering. The sample was determined on the basis of the clustering groups. The next procedures were FGD, interview, and questionnaire distribution. The quantitative data were analyzed with a systematic review. The result showed that the course-learning outcomes were achieved to the maximum percentage with PBL and PrBL. Moreover, the results discussed how students experience learning in SPD and EABP courses, where the activities included collaborative learning in a cluster mode. Learning methods in the bioprocess-engineering study program have been transformed from the traditional model (educator, or supervisor-centred learning) into Student-Centred Learning (SCL).

Learning conduct and the characteristics of PBL and PrBL increase students’ motivation in self-directed learning; while educators or supervisors as instructors allow students to focus on their own learning; and they are not heavily reliant on their educators to give them instructions. PBL and PrBL in SCL promote students’ role as the core of the learning, in which the students themselves investigate and explore the process and design their own learning. This research contributes to STEM-clustering application with student-centred transformative learning in bioprocess engineering.

Keywords: strategies; clustering; learning method; assessment method *

Corresponding author: Mariana Simanjuntak; lisbeth.anna@gmail.com

©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Non-Commercial-No-Derivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

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1. Introduction The clustering method is a process of labelling objects, which is based on minimizing the similarities between classes and maximizing the similarities in those classes, which are widely applied in science (Wu et al., 2016); for example, in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) clusters. STEMcluster collections and processes-learning data can contribute to process-mapping and learning outcomes. The process is based on knowledge and skill-based, observable experience, which is beneficial for the sustainability of learning and students’ carriers. The cluster method contributes to practical learning development, in order to obtain professional high-quality knowledge.

Professional knowledge is the amount of knowledge, skills (soft skills, technical skills, and working qualifications) and other necessary skills in a process of teaching students to have practical skills in high-quality learning (Stanca, Dabija & Pãcurar, 2021).

Therefore, conventional education needs to be transformed into experiential learning with entrepreneurship and practical experience, which is known as Project-Based Learning (PBL) and Problem-Based Learning (PrBL). To improve this learning method, an institute, or faculty, or the study programs of a university must collaborate with the partners, in order to develop and strengthen the collaborative framework. The main direction is to re-engineer the learning methods, to become more relevant to real-life situation in the industry, to facilitate collaboration through various learning environments (face-to-face learning, practicum, workshops, seminars, and web-based opportunities) that provide relevant and modern learning.

Previous research claimed that the cluster method effectively solves the problems encountered during the learning process; while some say that the cluster itself is not the end result – but that it is only one way to find out what method is the most suitable in learning (Wu et al., 2016; Xu, King & Wunsch, 2008). Other research has shown that students who are enrolled in the student group have a high preference for learning styles; while students who study individually show lower results (Abdelhadi, 2017; Toledano-O'Farrill, 2017). These previously mentioned research projects suggest that there are discrepancies in the results.

This state provides possibilities for exploring the implementation of the cluster system in learning. In STEM education alone, especially in bioprocess engineering, research on the implementation of cluster learning with studentcentred transformative learning is still rare. Therefore, in this study, the authors investigated STEM-clustering application with student-centred transformative learning in bioprocess engineering.

PBL and PJBL can be conceptualized, as thorough and coherent learning activities, which are usually applied by the stakeholders of learning activities (educators, educators’ assistants, lab managers, and students) who believe that learning motivation is supported by all learning values and by the characteristics in a certain period. Students’ learning motivation is reflected by their learning pattern.

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By understanding students’ learning model, learning strategies and the main performance predicator, educators or supervisors should be able to provide personalized instructions to their students (Zhang et al., 2021). Learning models can be considered as the data. Determining learning models can be based on content (all behaviours related to the access to learning materials); assessment (all access to learning assessment); assessing grades; behaviours to check all subjects’ grades (this behaviour has been identified as the initial indicator); interactions (all behaviours related to individual interactions, including interactions between students or interactions between educators and students).

PBL and PrBL can be optimized thoroughly to consider what the benefits are for educators and students, curriculum development, the relationship with the educators’ background skills and all the variables to be applied and to achieve better grouping performance. The main contribution of this research is to propose a new method (Wang et al., 2021) in determining which method is the most appropriate to motivate students to learn more independently in the StudentCentred Learning (SCL) approach in PBL and PrBL. SCL requires students to be more active. Educators may use various teaching methods that promote students’ critical thinking and problem-solving skills.

Active learning requires students to apply meaningful learning and to think about what they are doing. PBL focuses on experiential learning, in order to explain and solve any problems. PrBL provides a more challenging approach, thereby motivating, and encouraging fun learning. There can be strong reasons for improving the motivations in learning. Knowledge is resulted from a combination of experiencing and transforming that experience. Therefore, experiential learning is considered as active learning.

This concept is based on the constructivist approach in learning. which believes that students should be actively involved in their learning. Decision-making in collaborative learning promotes critical thinking. Problem-solving based on PBL requires social interactions and cooperation, active and experiential learning, and a critical review of the social issues (Martínez Casanovas, Ruíz-Munzón & BuilFabregá, 2021). Viewed from the perspective of the Goal-Setting Theory, PBL and PrBL learning show that motivation itself is a learning process. Every student is able to achieve learning goals (Locke & Latham, 2020). Learning goals encourage motivation, in order to achieve better performance. The set goals and self-related processes are closely related and significant in improving learning performance (Neubert & Dyck, 2016).

According to the Goal-Setting Theory, PBL and PrBL are objective-oriented, thereby providing sustainable infrastructure to reach successful projects with economic, social, environmental, and organisational benefits. Learning outcomes are directed to the learning-performance cycle, which is built on the basis of the effects of determining learning outcomes that are based on the plan-do-check-act ideology (PDCA) (Liu, et al., 2020).

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The purpose of this study is to determine which learning method is the most appropriate for students in a STEM clusters, and specifically those observed in SPD and EABP. Moreover, the research will investigate in what way these methods could improve the learning performance of students.

2. The Literature Review 2.1. Project-based learning The Goal-Setting Theory (GST) demonstrates that how students learn would determine their learning outcomes (Locke, 2016). Many educators nowadays integrate constructivism into learning; since this method sees educators and students as integral parts of the learning process. In line with the Constructivist theory, learning is an active process in which educators and students are involved together, in order to construct meaning in the learning situation. New knowledge can be attained actively, either by educators or students, by connecting the new knowledge with their background knowledge, which is aligned with the faculty curriculum. Project-based learning (PBL) is one of the pedagogic forms that seek to apply the Goal-Setting Theory (GST).

This approach does not only represents other different teaching methods, but it also revamps the traditional-learning method fundamentally (Maran et al., 2021), because PBL emphasizes the process that is characterised by knowledge and goals, not only as the way of attaining certain final products (Barrane et al., 2020).

GST shows a greater need to develop study programs, which are based on the PBL approach. This approach is often more favourable in teaching science, technology and mathematics (STEM). GST combines constructive ideas by putting the emphasis on the importance of selecting learning modules and implementing industry-based learning, which is related to the subject, the syllabus, and the curriculum, thereby creating a learning environment that attracts students.

A significant learning method is when educators and students are building meaningful learning together, in order to make a creative, innovative, and structured process that they can share with others. The Course of Synthesis and Process Design (SPD), which is combined with advanced technology, is a long process that requires transformation in the learning and working method.

Educators adopt teaching methods, based on knowledge, perceptions, beliefs, and values that influence their teaching methods and responses to educational transformation.

One field where the knowledge of management is necessary is project-based learning. In this study, SPD and the Economic Analysis of the Bioprocess Project (EABP), as can be seen in the curriculum of bioprocess engineering study program, Biotechnology faculty, Del Institute of Technology (IT Del), have been categorized in the STEM cluster, and then analyzed to demonstrate educators as the knowledge managers. PBL suggests that students play active roles, whereby they are able to complete their authentic tasks and learn from designers or instructors in solving problems, while applying their knowledge in SPD and EABP. PBL is well-structured, enthusiastic, and closely related to higher-order thinking skills or level 6 in the Bloom Taxonomy. PBL leads to constructive,

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contextual, realistic, open learning via tutorials (Zadok, 2020), which means that educators only function as the facilitator and as the supervisors in this process.

The educators’ role in project-based learning is as a facilitator/connector. Projects are more authentic, demonstrating real objectives, and closely related to the sources of real-life problems. Educators are responsible for creating a learning environment in which students have the opportunities to experience learning and working. They are responsible for assisting their students to understand how to learn, learning from different perspectives, making learning sources available, and directing their students to be able to apply the knowledge they have acquired optimally.

The objective of GST is to help students, so that they become independent, accountable, harmonious, and focused on completing those projects assigned to them (Latham & Locke, 2006). Educators do not give instructions fully, but they provide information on where their students can access learning references and information about how to use the tools required in the projects. In this case, educators do not dictate to students, or dominate the exchange between them and their students, but they are more like supervisors. In other words, the learning process should not be delivered as a lecture; but it should be providing opportunities for students to ask questions, by offering solutions, and debating with their peers, and defending their analysis.

In PBL, educators function as mentors, guides, resources for students, and managers of long-term projects. PBL provides opportunities for students to develop themselves professionally, to follow all the steps in the learning process, by being fully involved, and to contribute to supporting the vision and the mission of IT Del Faculty of Biotechnology. Del benefits from this business collaboration; because PBL facilitates a unique and direct relationship between industries and their needs. PBL supports the curriculum and the learning process of bioprocess engineering, in order to gain the relevant knowledge, skills, and experience. PBL forces students to complete certain tasks related to collecting information, interviews, and other cases, by developing models and solutions to certain problems, such as developing experimental procedures, finding characteristics, developing worksheets, creating reports, supervising technology in various problems related to the projects, by acquiring soft skills, such as developing and applying communication strategies with all the stakeholders of the projects (Toledano, 2019).

Viewed from a goal-setting perspective, PBL as a learning method emphasizes that learning happens from students’ direct involvement, students’ active participation in constructing meaning by using their ideas to learn and work. PBL as a systematic learning method, involves students in learning knowledge and skills through the structured examination of problem complexities, authentic questions, projects and assignments designed in accordance with the course syllabus (Pan et al., 2020). Usually, in PBL, students are required to apply the knowledge they have acquired, or previous prerequisite subjects, in order to produce several outcomes, such as process or product design, network code,

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experimental simulation and design, and an interpretation of the prerequisite subjects. As an example, for students of Bioprocess Engineering in IT Del, if they are able to follow the course, is it possible for them to join the course without completing the prerequisite course? PBL emphasizes the process required to achieve final goals, which are the main focus of the assignment: the students’ final score in the courses they take, and which they have accumulated as their GradePoint Average (GPA).

The characteristics of PBL design in developing learning outcomes is always started with questions 5W + H; and then the students start and participate authentically in investigating the answers to the questions asked. Students explore the questions, in order to initiate the thinking process; and they apply the important ideas in bioprocess-engineering principles. With projects, students may experience a broader environment, directly involved in communities, actively participating in collaborative activities, developing problem-solving skills, and always be the first to do so (Megheirkouni, 2016). PBL brings significant benefits to students’ problem-solving skills, such as conceptual understanding, learning and working performance, and course-content mastery.

Students who participate in PBL achieve higher grades, which result in higher GPA. PBL has been argued to improve academic programs related to professional competence and challenges in synergizing theory and practicum/application and between knowledge and competence (Belwal et al., 2020). Students who participate in a project may gain working skills, such as collaborative skills, managing projects, communication skills, emphatic, and professionalism, which are in line with the IT Del motto “Godliness – Conscience- Wise”.

The appreciation given by the organization to the project results makes educators and students focus on learning outcomes and partnerships between universities and their local communities, such as Regency institution, in order to encourage further partnership with the community and the industries (nationwide and even global-wide). Therefore, it may be concluded that: H1: PBL promotes students’ achievement, which is shown by the students’ ability to become the learning centre in SPD and EABP courses.

2.2. Problem-based learning Problem-based learning (PrBL) is a student-centred learning approach in which an educator functions as a motivator to advise the students. PrBL requires a constructionist experiential investigation of problems. PrBL affects students’ learning achievement, and it develops their skills in class, namely problemsolving, as well as creative and critical thinking. PrBL starts with providing problems to encourage students’ exploration. This can be in the form of an interesting phenomenon, or an unsolved-learning experience.

PrBL allows students to improve the value of curriculum co-creation, which is in accordance with the stipulations of the study program. Students can identify relevant problems, which they then want to solve. It shows that students may also

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be involved in designing curricula, and particularly student-centred curricula (SCL) (Alexiou & Paraskeva, 2020).

PrBL can be implemented by using several approaches with similarities in coherence, sequence, and roles, which are determined by the students themselves.

The most commonly used PrBL framework is that of systematic-thinking flow: identifying and clarifying 5W + 1H available in the problem scenario and making sure that the problems are well-understood; defining problems through questions and by investigation (Jian, 2019); brainstorming can be used for the students to identify possible solutions or hypotheses, based on their background knowledge; students draw conclusions while identifying ideas that are not well-defined yet; in classifying possible solutions and selecting appropriate solutions.

PrBL provides patterns to define the learning objectives. Study groups, or clusters, set their learning objectives consensually; educators ensure that the learning remains focused, achievable, comprehensive, and appropriate. In independent learning (Cambra-Fierro et al., 2021; Pan et al., 2020), students collect the information relevant to the assigned learning goals. After that, groups of the students share the results of their independent learning, identifying their learning resources; while the educators assess their students’ learning; and they may do an assessment per group. By goal-setting, PrBL is directed deliberately, to improve particular areas or skills, in order to provide practical and flexible tools, which can achieve strategic learning objectives.

Certain learning needs demand PrBL construction, in order to ensure balance between learning needs and learning preferences for dynamic and informal learning activities, which can be conceptualized in strategic lesson plans (Chen & Latham, 2014). Students in PrBL require a critical flow in setting their strategies, and between strategies and their execution. Learning management purpose is to create meaningful learning; since it is correlated with adaptive response patterns that support strategic learning in this setting. When PrBL is conducted, students participate in achieving the knowledge-based learning goals required to identify and develop new ideas to solve problems. Strategic PrBL lesson plans can help motivate and lead students or cluster groups.

As planned in the learning curriculum, problem-solving models for learning are known as the goal-oriented approach. Learning activities are useful for problemsolving and consultation classes. PrBL provides a structured approach for problem-solving as a learning model. Lecturers, when adopting PrBL methods in learning, are the same as those creating the role of Tut Wuri Handayani. Tut Wuri Handayani; and this is the motto of Indonesian education, which means that when the lecturer is behind, and acts as a motivator for the students in front of him, to move forward. There are times when students are at the forefront through active creativity and learning innovation. PrBL encourages social interactions that are possible for study programs, faculties, higher-education institutions, and industries, to work together to construct knowledge, to promote students’ participation in the work and problem-based learning (Soini et al., 2019). PrBL has the potential to meet the need for learning development. By integrating PrBL into

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the study program’s activities, an integrated learning framework can be started and then evaluated. PrBL integrates individual learning, organizational learning, and that between organizations. The learning utilizes an informal learning approach, such as that of problem-solving and structured reflections (O'Brien et al., 2019).

The following is a description of how the model can be applied in students’ learning. Students are encouraged to be actively identifying problems in the learning and work unit in the study program by way of structured reflection. PrBL is known as a trigger for students to find solutions to problems. The trigger is provided in such a way that it leads to an investigation. Students are encouraged to record problems in their courses’ platforms and output (Singer et al., 2018).

Supporting materials, such as references, can guide students to complete each step of the problem-solving challenge. PrBL defines and clarifies problems, which can be done by asking questions and suggesting structured reflection. Brain-storming is performed collaboratively with the students, in order to discuss possible solutions. The learning goals are set by identifying what the students want to achieve from the learning. They are also asked to reflect on their learning at the end of the learning process. By learning independently, together with the literature, the students are given a possible structure, whereby they can collect information to fill the knowledge gap and to solve problems, synthesize and develop plans for implementing the problems. Consequently, it may be concluded that: H2: the problem-based learning method promotes students’ achievements, which are confirmed by their ability to be the centre of learning in SDP and EABP courses.

2.3. Student-centred transformative learning In the cluster-learning method, there is an urgency to develop highly qualified students, who can utilize their knowledge and skills, in order to solve problems related to knowledge and real life, or to industry, in order to meet global economic challenges. Educators or instructors often focus on contemporary issues; and they tend to ignore the complex multi-disciplinary issues faced by their students.

Therefore, one of the main responsibilities of educators nowadays and the challenge to be sustainable is to prepare students, who can solve problems, who can apply their knowledge, and who can collaborate with each other and become life-long learners.

There are five strategies, which could help higher education institutions to provide better learning and education (Hains & Smith, 2012): 1. helping students to have the necessary courage to express, examine, argue, and deliver ideas or solutions; 2. understanding and respecting students’ feelings and developing their cognition; 3. seriously responding to the challenge of the management of emotional intelligence;

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4. offering information, creative ideas, knowledge, skills, and sensitivity to students who are required to grow supportive communities; and 5. helping students to understand the meaning of life and work with the questions about life presented to them.

Together with the previously mentioned strategies, a transformation in academic practice to enhance students’ development is expected, and particularly cognitive development. It is necessary to consider the urgency of meeting the demands from industry, building business and industrial partnerships, and applying academic concepts in the professional context, and by developing students both emotionally and cognitively. It is important to bear in mind that students’ high cognitive skills can be affected by, but are not dependent on, their emotions.

With the above strategies, changes in academic practice are expected to improve students’ development, especially in cognitive development. The learning process needs to pay attention to the importance of meeting industrial demands, building relationships with business and industry, and applying academic concepts in a professional context, in addition to the importance of developing students both emotionally and cognitively. This is important to remember because lecturers or instructors and supervisors often see higher-order cognitive skills as being influenced by, but not dependent on, students' emotions.

Student-Centred Transformative Learning can create adaptive and transformational skills for the students. In addition, the clustering scheme results in critical and evaluative self-reflection and the ability to change the perspective, the understanding and the behaviour of the group. The objective of transformative learning is aligned with the leadership framework that is adjustable and adaptive. Changing from a deductive and empirical approach to a transformative learning includes an adjustment to a problematic frame of reference into a set of assumptions and expectations related to critical thinking habits, meaningful perspectives and mindsets, and thereby making them more inclusive, discriminatory, open, reflective and emotionally capable of any change.

The reflective assessment framework supports adaptive leadership processes and goals; the framework describes the process by which students perceive and acquire knowledge and skills. The process of this transformative-student learning experience is represented in five themes, which include: (1) to challenge the mental-learning models; (2) to build trust among learners; (3) to present freedom and empowerment in the learning process; (4) to deepen the commitment to learning; and (5) to reframe oneself and the learning attitude. In addition, students' approaches to learning change throughout learning – shifting from dependence/independence towards interdependence (Haber-Curran & Tillapaugh, 2014).

Transformative SCL and PBL are driven by the students’ commitment, collaboration and reflective learning processes, in which students are faced with real-world problems that are similar to the problems that they might face in learning. PBL challenges traditional approaches to teaching that emphasize what

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students need to know. SCL and PBL challenge the traditional approaches to teaching, which rather emphasize what students need to know. PBL and PrBL in a way, tend to enforce students to be active and to become used to learning independently and/or building small group discussions in cluster rooms (Cui, Laugsand & Zheng, 2021). Therefore, it may be concluded that: H3: Problem-Based Learning and Project-Based Learning methods improve the Student-Centred Transformative Learning method.

3. The Research Design This study adopts a semi-quantitative data approach in qualitative analysis (Yi et al., 2021), taking a comparative case study of multi-teaching methods, namely Project-Based Learning (PBL) and Problem-Based Learning (PrBL). The data were collected through observation and by distributing questionnaires, using the same data-collection method as that of the Bioprocess-Study Program, the Faculty of Biotechnology, at the Del Institute of Technology, in two different subjects with a few adjustments made to special cases in class experience, both during practical and theoretical classes.

This allows for comparison and triangulation, in order to ensure the construct validity of the study. The data collection was carried out from the fifth semester in the year 2020. Two courses in the STEM cluster became the variables of analysis for this research, called the Synthesis and Process Design (SPD) course and the Economic Analysis of the Bioprocess Projects (EABP). The method implementation in both courses was planned and supervised respectively by the Dean of the faculty, the Head of the study program; and they were specifically supervised by a supervising lecturer. Since the lecturers received the SPD and EABP Teaching Assignments, they adjusted the syllabi to the PBL and PrBL methods. Then they grouped students into two groups, according to the method in each course. During the class that lasts for one semester, the lecturer observed the learning practices and the results. The researchers obtained the data from the lecturers, who were directly involved; and they then conducted participatory observations (Luth-Hanssen, Fougner, & Debesay, 2020).

To obtain valid data, apart from distributing questionnaires to clusters of the lecturers, FGDs were also held, in order to discuss cluster activities, learning methods, assessment methods, the number of students per group, and the learning strategies. Thereafter, the benefits for the students and the lecturers were also discussed. Consequently, cluster correlation with the learning methods and achievements could thereby be obtained.

The data-collection method is carried out in several stages, as has been done in previous studies (Konrad, Wiek & Barth (2021), with some adjustments to the educational conduct in the Faculty of Biotechnology, as mentioned in Table 1.

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Table 1. Data collection in the two methods of the sustainability courses Methods Observations

Interviews

Specific applications Class sessions (3 sessions) Student-team meetings (3 hours) Instructor-team meetings (2 sessions) Dean and stakeholder meetings (2 hours) Stakeholder engagement events (2 hours) Cultural context (continuous) Individual students; Individual instructors; Individual stakeholders; Group interviews of SPD and EABP Class

Focus groups discussion

Individual team (2 hours); Across teams of SPD and EABP Class (2 hours)

Questionnaire

Learning processes in the tracking of teams both in and outside of class (continuous); Session of Collective reflection (the conduct is combined with focus group)

Covered aspects External researcher’s perspective on: Processes in Teaching and learning; environment in Teaching and learning; Dispositions and performances of students; and Other data collection including the institutional and cultural contexts Emic perspectives on: Processes in Teaching and learning; Environment in Teaching and learning; Dispositions and performances of students; and Other data collection including the institutional and cultural contexts Students’ reflections on the following: Processes in Teaching and learning; Environment in Teaching and learning; and Teaching and learning outcomes (Concluded data collection) Students’ emic perspectives on: Processes in Teaching and learning; Environment in Teaching and learning; and Outcomes in Teaching and learning (Concluded data collection and provided opportunity for reflection)

Determining and analyzing the most appropriate learning methods for the STEM cluster of the Faculty of Biotechnology, Bioprocess Engineering Study Program were done by focusing on the courses of SPD and EABP. At the beginning of the study, observations were made on the preparation and implementation of classes, including in the dormitories, classrooms, laboratories and other faculty environments that might affect the scheduling and implementation of educational, training and experimental activities. Observation results showed the clusters, learning methods, assessment methods, the number of students and the learning strategies.

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Thereafter, it was continued with interviews to FGDs, in order to ensure a unified understanding of the 5W+1H (Who, What, When, Where, Whom and How) of the learning methods in the STEM cluster. SPD and EABP courses are chosen and adjusted, in order to represent STEM clusters. In the final stage, the data were completed by the distribution of the questionnaires.

Thereafter, open questions were given to the lecturers from two classes (SPD and EABP) to ensure the level of student analysis in answering what learning methods had contributed the most in improving their academic achievement. The answers to these questions would then form the basis for evaluating and assessing the most appropriate learning processes and methods for the clusters and the students.

Table 2. Open-Ended Questions from the Learning-to-Learn Course Evaluation No. 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Question How can the assessment method used show the achievement of the course objectives?

What is the average percentage of the number of students who can achieve all course objectives when the SPD/EABP is self-taught?

What is the average percentage of the number of students who can achieve all course objectives when the SPD is taught in a cluster with EABP (and vice versa)?

If the number of students who reach CPMK have not reached 100%, what strategy has been carried out, or will be carried out, by the lecturers in the cluster to increase the percentage of the number of students who are able to achieve all the course objectives?

In your opinion, what is the relation between course objectives achievement and the scores obtained by the students in the SPD and EABP course clusters?

Based on the questions above, it was found that the condition of the learning process for the SPD and EABP courses described was as follows: Table 3. Learning Activities on SPD and EABP No.

Activity

1.

Learning methods independent class

2.

3.

4.

5.

SPD

EABP

during

Small Group Discussion

Small Group Discussion

Learning methods during EABP implementation in the SPD cluster Learning methods during EABP implementation in the SPD cluster Assessment method during the implementation of SPD in the EABP cluster Learning methods during EABP implementation in the SPD cluster

Small Group Discussion

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100%

Collaboration

Report, Interview

100%

100%

Report

100%

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4. The Results 4.1. Learning Methods in the STEM cluster The results showed that the PBL and PrBL methods were the methods appropriate in the STEM cluster. In addition, both the PBL and the PrBL methods showed designs that are equally capable of improving the learning performance. Thus, recommendations for other courses and/or in other clusters could use PBL and PrBL simultaneously.

The results of the analysis also showed several findings from the data analysis on how students experienced the learning process in the SPD and in the EABP cluster. Firstly, the STEM cluster through two SPD and EABP courses was proven to be able to shift the learning methods from traditional (lecturers or supervisors as learning centres) to a new, transformative model, in which the students became the centre of the learning process; and the learning outcomes became superior and competitive. In the case study, two courses grouped in one cluster, and both using the PBL and PrBL methods, thereby making students able to increase their motivation to study independently.

Moreover, lecturers and supervisors/instructors provided students with the necessary flexibility to focus on their own process, without waiting for instructions from the supervisor. PBL and PrBL allowed SCL learning models, in which the students, being at the core of the learning itself, experienced it for themselves, discovering their own process, building self-confidence, finding freedom and self-empowerment by exploring the potential that exists within themselves, deepening their commitment to learning, and designing their own learning pattern. In addition, three key stages of learning were discussed by the students, including being more independent learners, understanding that it is necessary to collaborate and to discuss with other students, in order to be able to improve themselves, whereby they indicated an increase in their academic score.

Thus, hypotheses 1 and 2 are confirmed and proven.

Both PBL and PrBL are innovative and radical strategies that eventually become learning trends that emphasize improving and optimizing learning outcomes because they are student-centred, contextual, integrated and able to promote independent learning, collaboration, and reflective learning (Silva et al., 2018).

PBL and PrBL learning methods are likely to be influenced by the cluster environment and are likely to be implemented in a group of subjects. The characteristics of PBL and PRBL integrated in a cluster scheme are that students are encouraged to be creative, innovative, independent and collaborative.

Instructions or information from the lecturer only serve to guide the students for discussion or learning. Finally, the process becomes a valuable condition required, in order to get the best results. Process and outcome-oriented learning should motivate the students to become life-long learners.

As for the learning process, lecturers/supervisors informed the students to prepare group reports, with the following information included: problem description, definition of the cause of the problem, and hypotheses to help understand the cause of the problem. A number of techniques can be used to

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describe the definition of plans, such as the 5W+1H method (Silva et al., 2018).

Group reflection is necessary upon the proposed solution. At this stage, the group elaborated the difficulties encountered in the problem-solving process. Reflection should reveal the factors that accommodate or hamper the group activities. The group also needed to answer the critical questions, and to suggest a suitable solution to the problem in the project.

Since transformative SCL reflects the context, the learning activities and the learning processes, in addition to the student-centred notion; therefore, the students have full responsibility for the learning, as well as for setting goals and for the learning and evaluation processes. In the application of a student-centred approach, it is necessary to use issues relevant to the curriculum and course syllabus, within relevant topics related to industries. Understanding student perspectives and addressing previous student experiences are also necessary in transformative SCL. Consequently, this permits curriculum and syllabus adaptation, as required for the students.

Transformative SCL principles also focus on innovative abilities and on the sense of learning innovation, student interaction, and assessment. Transformative SCL facilitates learning by providing wide opportunities for students to be involved in decision-making on the learning objectives, content, activities and assessments.

Students set their own learning goals and ways to actualize them, as stated by the Goal-Setting Theory (Locke & Latha, 2006): 1. Students' willingness to learn and collaborate to achieve learning goals is one of the main keys to learning motivation.

2. Clear, specific, and uneasy goals are a more-substantial driving factor than easy, general, and unclear goals.

3. Specific and clear goals lead to greater output and better performance.

4. Learning objectives must be realistic and in accordance with the syllabus.

5. Transformative SCL promotes self-pride for students and boosts their selfconfidence, in order to render it possible for them to achieve their goals.

6. Avoiding misunderstanding of the expected objectives is necessary. This can be achieved by setting unambiguous, measurable and clear goals and setting a reasonable deadline for each learning objective.

7. The more challenging the goal, the better the result, and the greater the enthusiasm of students for achieving it.

For students, feedback serves as a way to indicate their achievement – reflected by their GPA and to gain rewards, as well as wider opportunities in pursuing a future career. In addition, how lecturers or supervisors adjust their relations with students is a determining factor to examine to what extent SCL is implemented (Sabah & Du, 2018). Based on the meta-analysis, the relationship between students and lecturers in the cluster remained student-centred. Thus hypothesis 3 is confirmed, in which Problem-Based Learning and Project-Based Learning methods can improve the Student-Centred Transformative-Learning method.

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4.2. Learning outcomes and teaching methods The learning process in higher education recommends effective and efficient teaching methods. The teaching aims to learn and avoid the division of learning and teaching (Yu, 2017); while learning management aims to develop the capacity of clustering in planning and managing learning and improving professional development, and to produce excellent graduates, as the mission of the institute (Singer-Brodowski et al., 2018). These teaching methods are promoted by the institute, in order to guide the transformation of students (Singer-Brodowski et al., 2018). As the saying goes "Feeding fish to someone will only feed him for a day; but teaching him how to fish will serve him for a lifetime”. This proves that the PBL and PrBL learning methods can create transformative SCL values.

The purpose of the learning method is to disseminate the latest and the most advanced knowledge, in order to develop the ability to initiate ideas and use information, to develop students' ability to test ideas, and to prove them (Perander, Londen & Holm, 2020), in order to develop students' ability to generate ideas and evidence, to facilitate the development of students’ personalities, and to develop students’ capacity to plan and manage their own learning.

5. Discussion Strategies in Learning Management PBL and PrBL are able to synthesize teaching-learning strategic constructionism that was applied within the two courses. Each case shows which, as well as how many, teaching and learning strategies have been applied. In addition, PBL and PrBL methods distinguish teaching strategies from learning strategies. This study has identified that this strategy is not limited to the design of SPD and EABP; because it can also be applied to the courses in one cluster (Saghafi, 2020); and therefore, it is likely to be implemented in other clusters or fields as well.

The most appropriate teaching-method strategies, as discussed in the results of this study, are the PBL and PrBL learning methods. Both of these methods succeeded in bringing students to apply transformative SCL and in connecting theoretical courses with practicums, and completing within one semester with excellent results, as evidenced by the achievement of a high GPA. PBL and PrBL are able to be integrated in the same semester, or in different semesters in parallel, or in a series of relationships between courses, to compare two courses by using two lecturers in a team approach, and by connecting theoretical subjects to practice, as well as by applying the same topic/project/case to both subjects: as indicated, integrating knowledge and skills can occur in other STEM clusters.

Both methods support the classroom atmosphere and discussion (Jennings, 2002); and learning outcomes embody the purpose of an integrated curriculum and pedagogical level by applying the appropriate teaching/learning strategies of two courses that serve as models for other courses under a systemic level of organization and delivery of curriculum and syllabus by educators and their interrelationships, as in a collaborative team.

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The most important learning strategy is interaction, where students become the central issue and the focus, and where students actively participate in the learning process of transformative SCL. This suggests that the emphasis in the strategy process should be on developing a culture of thinking; that is, it should focus on creating an intellectually stimulating environment, by asking provocative questions and by encouraging students' responsibility to construct their own learning constructs (Vänttinen & Pyhältö, 2009).

This type of knowledge stimulation involves not only individual learning, but also participation in which the lecturer with the study program deliberately promotes active and shared learning. Therefore, students would consider themselves as agents of renewal in the learning community. This condition would develop a successful mindset in dealing with changes and in implementing innovation in studies. This shows that strategic management must encourage and empower students. Moreover, study programs are expected to be collaborative, active and to involve independent-oriented learners.

This also requires the school management, including the Dean and the study program coordinators, to impart their role as a motivator (Tut Wuri Handayani), as members of the learning community who benefit and master the art of active learning – both as part of their professional expertise, and as a skill to be developed amongst the local teaching staff.

The findings of this study indicate that the PBL and PrBL methods are the main methods for developing students' interpersonal competence, which leads to the transformative SCL method; because some learning processes require students to be focused, active, confident, communicative and independent. The findings show that projects in class or practicum make students feel that they have an active role in solving problems, and that there are problems that must be resolved within a specific time-frame.

The findings on collaborative attitudes facilitate lecturers and students to further develop their knowledge and interpersonal skills. This may apply even beyond the development of interpersonal competence in SPD and EABP learning.

Sustainability of project-based clusters has been proven to develop students' core competencies in sustainability, with increasing GPA and further course requirements.

This study goes further, by firstly identifying and describing a conducive learning process (related to the teaching methods) and, secondly, by highlighting the importance of collaboration and transformative student-centred learning (SCL) (Belwal et al., 2020). A collaborative attitude encourages the development of other key competencies, such as those applied in classroom settings, communication and solutions. This study found that the problem and project-based teaching method allowed students to develop and strengthen the SCL method, thereby creating group knowledge. The collaboration model has been proven to be able to make students learn independently, as well as in groups. Teamwork that can be

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applied later, helps to develop cluster skills and attitudes. Consulting and coaching have the same effect.

In addition, external factors, such as selected student groups with high motivation, the time pressure and stakeholder policy can encourage learning competencies, according to the cluster method.

6. Conclusion This study presents cluster management with the emphasis on PBL and PrBL methods, when using student-centred transformative learning in bioprocess engineering. Grouping, based on clusters in STEM, allows the learning process to be more focused; and it facilitates the determination of the best learning methods to improve learning performance and student achievement. Improvement of learning performance can be seen in the collaborative attitudes that facilitate lecturers and students to further develop knowledge and interpersonal skills; while student achievement is found when students participate actively in solving problems that must be resolved within a specific time-frame.

In addition, by emphasizing goal-setting through the PBL and PrBL methods, a complete track record is created, and in the end, it can be used easily during the study program accreditation process through cluster-development activities. The PBL and PrBL methods show that students actually enjoy learning and learning more. These methods create students who are able to achieve learning objectives, which are not only suitable for cluster development, but also for developing students as individuals. PBL and PrBL methods in STEM clusters show that learning can improve proactive performance. The main contribution of this research is to present an efficient learning-management scheme based on cluster grouping, and to establish a method with students as the centre, designed in PBL and PrBL patterns, in bioprocess engineering.

7. Recommendations 7.1. Theoretical implications The Goal-setting theory is able to cover PBL and PrBL, in order to focus on transformative SCL. GST separates learning goals (because they focus more on goals), and in some ways to combine the learning goals with the performance goals.

For example, starting with the learning goals; and then, secondly, combining the performance goals, continuing with the different types of goal-framing (success versus avoidance of approaches) and joining the goals and the cognition, including all cognitive psychology, goal hierarchies, and macro-goals with clusters, or between individuals, as implied.

7.2. Practical implications This research has documented the indications of PBL and PrBL learning methods to render students more focused and independent, which is acknowledged by the transformative SCL method. The interaction between students in the SPD and EABP courses, and in the same cluster, indicates the transfer of information and an increase in students’ motivation.

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7.3. Limitations and future research This research is limited to two SPD and EABP courses in one cluster. The limitation of the research sample causes this research very likely to be obsessed by the ideal learning method. Therefore, future research should be conducted, when practised on a larger sample in a university, for the better development of learning methods.

8. Acknowledgments The authors would like to thank Euro-Asian Collaboration for Enhancing the STEM Education (EASTEM) Project for funding this research and to the Del Institute of Technology for their full support in conducting this research.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 21, No. 3, pp. 379-395, March 2022 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.3.20 Received Feb 7, 2022; Revised Mar 8, 2022; Accepted Mar 30, 2022

Content Learning through Languaging: Translingual Practices in a Graduate-level Teacher Preparation EMI Course in South Korea Hyunjin Jinna Kim University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA Yong-Jik Lee Woosuk University, South Korea Yue Li Woosuk University, South Korea

Abstract. A shift in the global teacher education landscape has led to an increase in the number of teacher candidates from all over the world seeking out degree-granting programs in non-Western, Asia-Pacific countries, including South Korea. While teacher education programs in Asia-Pacific countries are accepting more teacher candidates from abroad, few studies have examined teacher education practices and their effectiveness in this context and whether they prepare teachers to deal with the diversifying student population worldwide. While many higher education institutions in Asia-Pacific countries use English as a medium of instruction (EMI) in response to the increasing number of students from abroad, research contends that high-quality learning opportunities for these students are limited. This study explored alternative approaches to facilitating teacher candidates' acquisition of content knowledge and promoting fluid stances in languaging. The purpose of this study was to examine international teacher candidates' content learning and languaging experiences in a graduate-level multicultural education course that employed EMI and translingual practices. Data collection consisted of two questionnaires, and individual in-depth interviews in the 2021 fall semester (September to December). Study results report the impact of EMI and translingual practices on prospective teachers' content and language acquisition, as well as their evolving perceptions of bilingualism and multicultural education. Implications for research and teacher education practice are discussed.

Keywords: international teacher education; asian lingua franca; Englishmedium instruction; translingual practice; translanguaging

©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

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1. Introduction The acceleration of globalization has increased students' higher education mobility. The number of students receiving education outside the countries of their citizenship has quadrupled since 1990. According to a OECD report quoting UNESCO Institute for Statistics data, the number of students seeking education abroad reached 5.6 million in 2018 (OECD, 2020). While countries such as the United States (US), United Kingdom (UK), and Canada are commonly known as leading destinations for students desiring to study abroad and achieve an international education, in the last two decades, Asia-Pacific countries have started establishing policies and programs to invite more international students.

A number of global events (e.g., the economic slowdown in China and the election of Donald Trump) stimulated the third wave of international student mobility – the US and UK are no longer the most desirable destination countries (Choudaha, 2017). Instead, students, particularly from China, seek alternative destinations for higher education – destinations that offer economic incentives and more welcoming immigration policies than the US and UK (Choudaha, 2017). South Korea (Korea hereafter), an Asia-Pacific country, has promoted scholarships and programs, such as the Study Korea Project and the Brain Korea 21 Program, to attract more students from abroad (Kim et al., 2014). These global trends have contributed to a drastic increase in the number of international students studying for degrees in Korea.

The majority of investigations concerning international education and education mobility was done in English-speaking and so-called Western countries, such as the US, UK, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand. Many international education contexts and student experiences in non-English-speaking countries remain unexamined, despite the increasing demand for education in Asia-Pacific countries, such as China, Singapore, Japan, and Korea. This study intended to gain insight into the experiences of international graduate students in a teacher education course at a university in Korea that uses English as a medium of instruction (EMI), and translingual practices.

2. Background 2.1 English as a Lingua Franca English as a lingua franca (ELF) in academic settings gained attention when the internationalization of higher education and global mobility became common practices. ELF refers to the contemporary use of English as a 'contact language between people from different first languages' (Jenkins, 2014, p. 2). ELF makes it possible for international students to study abroad, and has accelerated the internationalization of higher education through increased student and faculty mobility (Murata, 2019). ELF communication facilitates transcultural and translingual settings in higher education institutions; it promotes the use of English beyond the traditional Anglophone or Western country settings (the US, UK, Canada, Australia, etc.). While society is experiencing global migration and changes to education mobility, it is crucial to examine ELF communication in nontraditional or non-English-speaking countries.

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ELF developed as a popular area of research in the last two decades, in an attempt to understand the global phenomenon. Although ELF research in Asian contexts is increasing, the reality is that the majority of research has taken place in European contexts, rather than the Asian context, even though ELF is largely spoken in Asian international education contexts (Cheng, 2012; Sung, 2016). While about 2,300 languages are spoken in over 40 countries in Asia, there are over 800 million ELF speakers (Bolton, 2008). Notably, English was adopted as the sole working language of the Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN), which highlights the importance of English as an Asian lingua franca (Kirkpatrick, 2007; Sung, 2016). With the increasing attention and emphasis on English as an Asian lingua franca, scholars emphasize that ELF should be viewed as independent of native language norms and that ELF speakers should be acknowledged as legitimate users of English (Jenkins, 2014).

This study examined the notion of ELF as an lingua franca in Asia by exploring Chinese graduate-level prospective teachers studying in Korea. As the common contact language between the Chinese international students and the Korean professor proceed to the classroom in English, ELF functions as an Asian lingua franca. The Korean professor in this study implemented EMI, in addition to translingual practices, which invites valuable insights into understanding the language dynamics in Asian education settings involving students from multiple countries.

2.2 English as Medium of Instruction EMI can be defined as 'the use of the English language to teach academic subjects in countries or jurisdictions where the first language (L1) of the majority of the population is not English' (Dearden, 2014, p. 4). The spread of EMI implementation promotes the internationalization of higher education institutions (Tsou & Kao, 2017). Thus, non-English-speaking countries greatly improve their global competitiveness by offering courses and programs for nonlanguage subjects, using EMI (Tsou & Kao, 2017). For instance, Reilly (2019) states that EMI could be perceived positively, and English language learners (ELLs) view improved English skills as a valuable resource. Also, ELLs and school staff displayed positive attitudes towards and perceptions of EMI courses, because EMI could enhance their competitiveness in the globalized education market. In another study, Lin and Lei (2021) report that EMI classes could significantly predict ELLs' academic outcomes, and promote their English proficiency.

Although studies have explored the pros and cons of EMI implementation, courses with EMI have been reported to face difficulties and challenges.

Specifically, some scholars argue that ELLs with EMI courses struggle to understand lectures with EMI, which could prevent students from benefiting from the EMI lecture (Macaro et al., 2018; Reilly, 2019; Tong et al., 2020). For example, Dalton-Puffer (2011) states that presenting the course content in English might hinder students' comprehension of EMI lectures and cause their course instructors to water down content; thus, it could undermine students' mastery of the subject content. In addition, research regarding students' self-assessments of their English proficiency has found that students may indicate a lack of

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confidence, which could be a barrier to effective content learning (Macaro et al., 2018; Tong et al., 2020).

Kim et al. (2014) found that Korean ELLs encountered language challenges during EMI courses. The findings indicate that insufficient English proficiency of Korean ELLs presented the greatest hindrance to their content learning and lecture comprehension. Moreover, research on students' and lecturers' beliefs and perceptions about EMI found that students tend to find it easier to learn content in their mother tongue (L1) than in a second language, such as English (Lei & Hu, 2014). For instance, Lei and Hu (2014) report that Chinese students found it easier to understand and learn content in Chinese than in English. Therefore, there is a need to rethink and reevaluate the EMI program at the university level, and to reconsider language policy and content objectives (Lei & Hu, 2014).

Studies on the effectiveness of EMI implementation have addressed various challenges facing EMI programs in higher education, such as curriculum adjustment and the need for assistance with faculty development. These challenges can increase the emotional and psychological pressure on students and faculty (He & Chiang, 2016; Kim et al., 2014). Given these challenges, this study focused on a graduate-level classroom where English functioned as a lingua franca and medium of instruction, but which had a fluid stance on languaging and translingual practices.

2.3 Translingual Practices Translingual practices, translingual orientation, and translanguaging are emerging as alternative language ideologies in an effort to move away from a monolingual ideology and orientation. In this paper, we use the term translingual practice to refer to practices of flexibly drawing on linguistic resources from multiple, unified language systems that are appropriate to the context and interlocutors involved in the interaction (Anderson & Lightfoot, 2018; Canagarajah, 2013). In particular, this study focused on multicultural education content, to shift students' orientation from monolingualism to multilingualism through a translingual approach.

Attempts have been made in Asian countries to implement translingual approaches in language classrooms. For instance, Tsai (2020) examined Chinese English as a foreign language (EFL) writers' use of Google translate as a tool of translingual practices. The results of data analysis show that, if EFL writers outline papers in students' L1 and then used Google Translate, they could construct a more complex and lengthy paper, with greater use of higher-order vocabulary and expressions. A few studies echo these findings and state that AI-based translation tools help to reflect students' true knowledge, eliminate barriers to advancing students' content knowledge, and improve students' English proficiency – contrary to common beliefs that translation tools are ineffective in language learning (Kol et al., 2018; Lee, 2014).

Anderson and Lightfoot's (2018) research on translingual practices in English lessons in India contends that these practices are approached in a monolingual

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stance described as 'guilty multilingualism' (Coleman, 2017). The study also states that national and state-level policies in India discourage instructors from incorporating languages other than English, such as students' L1, in English language classrooms. Due to policy restrictions and societal norms, many teachers hold and operate under monolingual ideologies. Durairajan (2017) recommends explicitly promoting and encouraging translingual practices in teacher education, to reflect the multilingual and translingual norms of the current global society.

In this study, translingual practices were emphasized and highlighted in a graduate-level teacher education course through explicit explanations, the design of course syllabi, and instructional practices. Through these approaches, the study aimed to explore changes in the reflection and perceptions of prospective teachers after they had participated in a teacher education course that had implemented EMI and translingual practices.

3. Research Methodology 3.1 Research Setting According to the Ministry of Education in Korea (2021), 153,695 international students were studying in Korean universities at the time. Overall, degree-seeking students from abroad numbered 120,018, and non-degree-seeking students from abroad numbered 32,263. However, due to COVID-19, this number has decreased slightly since. Of the diverse student population, most international students were from China, with 67,348 registered students, which made up 44.2 percent of the total international student population. Vietnamese students were the second majority of international students in Korean higher education. Various graduate programs at local private universities in Korea have benefitted from the enrolment of international students, who study in Korea to obtain job promotions (Lee et al., 2021).

The current study was conducted at a private university located in the southwest region of Korea. Southwest University (pseudonym) had several programs that catered for a diversity of international students from China, Uzbekistan, Vietnam, and other countries. Southwest University did not require students to submit official language test scores, such as TOPIK (Test of Proficiency in Korean) or TOEFL scores. Instead, the university provided basic Korean language classes, so that international students could understand lectures and keep up with the coursework. As a result, only a handful of international students submit their Korean language test scores upon enrolment in a graduate program. Since some international graduate students experience difficulty understanding Korean professors' lectures, the university decided to provide an interpretation service.

Each class has an interpreter student who can translate the professor's lecture into Chinese.

This study recruited ten graduate-level Chinese teacher candidates who were enrolled for an education course with students from other countries. These students were teacher candidates who intended to become university lecturers or high school teachers after completing their respective programs. Teacher candidates in this course ranged in age from 20 to 30 years, and their time in the

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graduate program ranged from being in their first semester to being fourth semester Master's students. There were four male and six female teacher candidates.

3.2 Data Collection The data were collected in the spring semester of 2021 – from March to June in Korea. At the start of the semester, students completed consent forms. Ten teacher candidates who were enrolled in this graduate-level multicultural education course, provided by the general education department, participated in this study.

Online questionnaires were distributed at the beginning of the semester (March) and the end of the semester (June). Sample questions were as follows: (1) List your first language (L1) and other languages as your second language, if you consider any (e.g., Mandarin Chinese, English). (2) How often does your professor incorporate your first language (L1) through a student translator in the classroom?

(3) For what purpose(s) do you use Chinese when you are studying for this class?

(4) How much did you know about multicultural education at the beginning of this semester? (5) To what extent do you agree with the idea: 'Foreign language education should be thought of as bilingual education.'

From the ten participants, six interview participants were selected through criterion-based sampling. Three participants who had indicated in the questionnaire that they had former study-abroad experience, and three participants who had indicated they had no former study-abroad experience, were selected. Structured one-on-one individual interviews lasting 40–60 minutes were conducted by the research assistant of this study with these six participants after they had completed the end-of-semester questionnaire. All interviews were conducted virtually via Zoom, in Chinese, and were video-recorded. Table 1 shows detailed information about the interview participants.

Table 1: Interview participants Pseudonyms of teacher candidates

Gender

Status in the graduate program

Previous studyabroad experience

Bao

Female

1st semester

Yes

Yin

Male

3rd semester

Yes

Huan

Male

3rd semester

Yes

Tao

Male

2nd semester

No

Jie

Female

1st semester

No

Wei

Female

1st semester

No

3.3 Data Analysis An online questionnaire was developed based on previous studies (Fang & Liu, 2020; Kuteeva, 2020; Yuan & Yang, 2020). The questionnaire was finalized with a total of 30 items. Specifically, the items elicited information on the following: (a)

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The participants' personal background information, (b) The use of L1 in the multicultural education course in an EMI setting, (c) The use of English, (d) Course reflection, and (d) Perceptions and experiences of translanguaging. SPSS 26.0 was used to carry out descriptive statistics for quantitative data analysis.

Qualitative interview data were transcribed and analyzed in four phases of thematic analysis, as proposed by Vaismoradi and colleagues (2016). Transcripts were read carefully, and initial inductive open coding was done in the initial phase. Next, initial codes and notes were compared, labeled, organized, and constructed. In the third phase, general categories and themes were generated, to analyze the data deductively. General categories include (a) Everyday language use, (b) Study-abroad experience, (c) Advantages of using Chinese, (d) Advantages of using ELF, (e) EMI course experience, (f) Change in perspectives, (g) Views of multicultural education, and (h) Misconceptions. The final phase of data analysis developed a storyline, which improved the interpretation of the themes.

4. Results: Descriptive Analysis of Quantitative Data Ten graduate students majoring in education participated in this research. The questionnaire was designed to understand prospective teachers' content learning through languaging, specifically, as it integrated with translingual practices in an EMI course. All the participating graduate students were Chinese, and they had been learning English as a foreign language for less than ten years. Table 2 lists participating students' background information.

Table 2: Students' background information Gender

Male students – 6 (60%) Female students – 4 (40%)

Age

20–25 years - 5 (50%) 25–30 years - 5 (50%)

Previous studyabroad experience

Yes – 4 (40%) No – 6 (60%)

Type of English courses taken previously

General English– 9 (90%) Reading – 9 (90%) General writing – 6 (60%) English academic writing – 2 (20%) English for academic purposes – 2 (20%) English for specific purposes – 2 (20%) Conversation – 4 (40%) Listening – 8 (80%) Grammar – 8 (80%) Other – 2 (20%)

The questionnaire consisted of 12 questions, and enquired about native language usage, English usage, content knowledge, and attitudes toward bilingualism.

Table 3 presents descriptive statistics from the questionnaire results.

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Table 3: Descriptive statistics for questionnaire Questions

Always (80– 100%)

Often (60– 80%)

Someti mes (40– 60%)

Seldom (20– 40%)

Rarely (1– 20%)

Never (0%)

Native language(L1) usage 1. How often does your professor incorporate your first language (L1) through a student translator in the classroom?

40%

50%

10%

0%

0%

0%

2. How often do you use Chinese during the group actitivites?

10%

40%

20%

30%

0%

0%

3. How often does your professor allow you to use Chinese in your classroom?

10%

50%

30%

10%

0%

0%

English usage 1. How much do you use English in your daily life?

0%

0%

20%

50%

20%

10%

2. How much do you utilize (this includes speaking, writing, reading, thinking through, or translating) English in this class?

0%

10%

40%

30%

20%

0%

Question

Not at all confident

Slightly confide nt

Somewha t confident

Fairly confide nt

Complete ly confident

English usage 3. How confident did you feel about your English proficiency level at the beginning of the semester (March 2021)?

10%

30%

50%

10%

0%

4. How confident do you feel about your English proficiency level now (June 2021)?

0%

20%

50%

30%

0%

Content knowledge Question

Not at all confident

Slightly confide nt

Somewha t confident

Fairly confide nt

Complete ly confident

1. How much did you know about

10%

40%

30%

20%

0%

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multicultural education at the beginning of this semester (March 2021)?

2. How much do you know about multicultural education now (June 2021)?

0%

10%

0%

80%

10%

Attitude towards Bilingualism Question

Totally agree

Slightly agree

Netural

Slightly disagree

Totally disagree

1. To what extent do you agree with the idea that 'foreign language education should be thought of as bilingual education'?

0%

10%

0%

50%

40%

2. To what extent do you agree with the idea that 'I am bilingual'?

20%

20%

20%

30%

10%

3. When studying English in Korea, I want to learn and use translanguaging.

0%

0%

0%

40%

60%

With regard to native language usage, half the students indicated that the professor often incorporated their L1 (Chinese) during the course, and a student interpreter provided support (often: 50%, always: 40%). In addition, most students expressed that using their L1 to learn the course content effectively was a positive experience (often: 50%, sometimes: 30%). Specifically, when the professor provided advice and explanation in their L1 (Chinese), students' reflection on the content learning experience was improved. Students also believed that using their native language, Chinese, during the course was necessary to help them to understand complex concepts and cultural items (100%), understand new vocabulary (90%), comprehend course texts (80%), and interpret what they had read before the lesson (often: 40%, always: 10%).

About half the students indicated that they seldom used English for communication purposes in daily life (seldom: 50%, sometimes: 20%, rarely: 20%).

Students also reported not using English frequently during the lessons (sometimes: 40%, seldom: 30%, rarely: 20%). However, students were positive about the course improving their confidence in English. Some students indicated that they had not been confident about their English ability at the beginning of the semester (slightly confident: 30%, not at all confident: 10%); however, they were more confident at the end of that semester, after taking the course (confident: 30%).

In students' responses on content knowledge and learning, most of them admitted that they had had limited knowledge about multicultural education at the beginning of the semester (slightly understand: 40%, moderately understand:

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30%, not at all understand: 10%). However, after taking the course, almost all of them indicated having a better understanding of multicultural education at the end of the semester (understand the content: 80%, completely understand the content: 10%).

Concerning students' attitudes towards bilingualism and people who are bilingual, almost all the students agreed with the statement that 'foreign language education should be thought of as bilingual education' (agree: 50%, strongly agree: 40%). Also, students' attitudes regarding using translingual practices while studying English were positive overall (strongly agree: 60%, agree: 40%). Some of them believed that they were bilingual because they could use English and Chinese simultaneously (bilingual: 30%, moderately bilingual: 10%). However, others believed they were not completely bilingual, due to their limited English proficiency (not at all bilingual: 20%, slightly bilingual: 20%).

5. Findings: Qualitative Analysis of Interview Data A few important themes emerged from the qualitative data analysis process with six interview participants: Bao, Yin, Huan, Tao, Jie, and Wei. One important theme was the participants' positive feedback regarding the implementation of ELF and EMI in the multicultural education course. Second, promoting L1 and translingual practices contributed to students' content learning while also complementing their understanding of translanguaging and translingualism. Lastly, participants' perceptions of study abroad and multicultural education reflected their social norms regarding what diversity of languages and cultures constitutes.

5.1 Advantages of ELF and EMI Experiences Participants found the EMI setting convenient and helpful for learning the content and using ELF to communicate easily. One of the advantages of ELF was the convenience of communicating without confusion, especially with the professor.

Using ELF was more effective in class, because they could communicate their questions to the professor clearly, instead of having the interpreter student repeat the question and answer in Chinese.

Participants also mentioned how ELF allowed them to gain more confidence and comfort in using English. The EMI approach improved many participants' English proficiency and confidence, especially those who perceived themselves as not being proficient English speakers. For instance, Tao admits to his discomfort with using English because of his proficiency level. However, he acknowledges the contribution EMI made for him to acquire English.

Tao: To me, using English is very uncomfortable… It's because I lack English proficiency. And because the professor speaks English well and because I listen to it continuously, it was helpful to develop sensitivity to English. (Interview, NSA P1, p. 3) Although Tao also mentions that his English proficiency had not improved, because he is not intentionally learning English, he finds himself responding more sensitively to English. He had responded to the first questionnaire – the one administered at the beginning of the semester – in Chinese, while he used English to respond to the second questionnaire, administered at the end of the semester.

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This shows his increased level of comfort in using English from the beginning of the semester. Through the EMI approach and the course activities, participants felt more comfortable and confident, and experienced an improvement in their English proficiency.

Many participants recognize the advantage of learning through EMI, especially for learning the course content. Consistent with using ELF to communicate with the professor and clarify the concepts learned in class, Yin describes how EMI was used in the process of learning.

Yin: When I learned the content, I learned it via English. If there is a major term that you do not understand, I need to study this major term again through Chinese literature. (Interview_SA P2, p.5) Yin describes how he mainly learned the course content through English, instead of translating everything into Chinese. The EMI setting was also effective when the class was discussing technical concepts and terms. Bao and Yin were the two participants who, specifically, illustrated their extensive study-abroad experience using ELF with references to teaching Chinese through a Confucius Academy in Zambia and Thailand respectively. They expressed their confidence in using English because of their past study-abroad experience and now found it easier to communicate course content in class through ELF. Because most of the course material was either in English or Korean, the students were more comfortable with the EMI setting and ELF. In a transnational classroom where neither Chinese nor Korean is the best language to use, ELF effectively bridges the communication gap between the instructor and the students. The EMI approach in the classroom also helped students to learn the course content more efficiently, while providing an opportunity for them to become more comfortable and confident about using English.

5.2 Utilizing L1 and Translingual Practices Another central theme that emerged in the interviews concerns L1 use and translingual practices regarding the multicultural education content. The course provided an encouraging environment for students to apply translingual practices and build L1 (Chinese Mandarin) repertoire. All the participants discussed the advantages of using their L1 and translanguaging to learn the course content. Huan explains how communicating in Chinese, instead of English, reduced his anxiety and helped him feel at ease.

Huan: When I use English, I think a lot about whether it is appropriate to express it like this. With Chinese, I am only concerned about conveying the meaning accurately, but with English, I am more concerned with the appropriateness of speech… When communicating or expressing using your mother tongue, you can express your thoughts accurately. And I felt more comfortable. (Interview_SA P3, p. 2) Huan explained that conveying meaning in English was more difficult and disconcerting than doing it in Chinese. Using Chinese in class made students feel more comfortable, and the process was more practical for communicating with accuracy. All participants mentioned the efficiency of using Chinese, especially during small group discussions in class.

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Participants also explained their processes of learning the course content through more than one language resource. Such translingual practices were helpful to learn difficult course concepts and to confirm their understanding of the advanced, graduate-level content. Jie illustrated how she used English when Chinese translation was not a viable option, while also using Chinese to read English literature.

Jie: The professor mainly lectures in Korean and English, so I tried to understand myself. If not, I listened to the Chinese explanation of the interpreter again. If the professor sends us Korean materials, there are often… no corresponding expression translated into Chinese… Then I will find the major term in English. At that time, I learned through English. Whenever I read English materials, I always translate them into Chinese and read them. (Interview_NSA P2, p. 5) By using her Chinese and English linguistic repertoire, Jie fully understood the course content and made an appropriate decision to use different language resources interchangeably.

Participants also found translingual practices helpful to understand the media resources provided in class. The Chinese subtitles helped eliminate the language barrier the same way it did with the multimodal presentations students were asked to give in class. Students demonstrated their ability to code-switch and apply translingual practices through visuals and various linguistic resources to convey meaning.

Although translingual practices were used beyond students' perceptions, there were misconceptions regarding translanguaging, bilingualism, and foreign language acquisition. Despite their agreement to participate in language teaching and learning through bilingual education and translanguaging, some participants believed translingual practices are limited to code-switching and translation—a tool for language learning, instead of a stance of being. For instance, Bao said that she did not use translanguaging to learn the course content, because she is confident in her English language skills (Interview_SA P1, p. 6). Bao's misconception of translanguaging stems from the idea that the act of translation equates to translanguaging. Thus, she believed that translanguaging is unnecessary for learning course content.

This misconception and the transitional bilingual method were prevalent when participants described their perspectives on translanguaging and bilingual education. When asked about the EMI approach and translingual practices in the multicultural education classroom, Wei elaborated on her perspective of seeing these practices as the transitional method.

Wei: My English is not very good… I can understand easily if I take the class through an interpreter... However, since most of us are firstsemester students… our English is not good, so it is more convenient to use Chinese in class. Later, in the 3rd and 4th semesters, when our English skills improve, it would be better to use Chinese moderately in class and focus on English. (Interview_NSA P3, p. 4)

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Most participants understood translanguaging and bilingual education to be methods to help students feel comfortable in a multicultural education setting. A few participants emphasized the importance of total immersion in order to master a foreign language. Because the EMI and translanguaging classroom setting was not designed to entirely immerse students in English, the students believed they were not learning the language, but were, instead, learning the content while acquiring a few complex vocabulary words. Learning and studying in a setting where more than one language is used and promoted was a new environment for many students, which may have caused such misconceptions.

5.3 Perceptions on Diversity and Multicultural Education The final theme that emerged from interview data was students' shifting perceptions on diversity and multicultural education. The multicultural education course affected the participants who had no previous study-abroad experience to a greater extent than the participants who had reported having study-abroad experience. For instance, Bao mentioned that the course had not influenced her perspectives significantly, while Yin stated that the only thing he learned was to incorporate more than one language in the classroom. These teacher candidates also reported teaching experience abroad in Thailand and Zambia respectively, and expressed their interest in learning the course content, not a language – neither Korean nor English. Another participant, Huan, had spent extensive time in South Korea learning Korean. Huan's definition of multicultural students and multicultural education was broader than Bao and Yin's viewpoint.

Huan: In my opinion, multicultural education is people from diverse cultural backgrounds studying in the same environment. It is not a multilingual background, but a diverse cultural background. People don't have diverse cultural backgrounds because of the variety of languages they use, but because people grew up in diverse cultures, various languages appeared. (Interview_SA P3, p. 4) Huan demonstrates a broad view of multicultural students – beyond the boundaries of national origins. Later in the interview, he acknowledges that he is also a multicultural student, living in South Korea. When he was asked about teaching students at an international school in China, mainly Chinese Americans, Huan envisioned interacting with students in different ways, culturally, based on a particular student's home background (Interview_SA P3, p. 5).

Huan and the other two participants with study-abroad experience explicitly referred to the importance of teaching and learning the Chinese language in China, regardless of students' linguistic backgrounds. Their monolingual orientation is reflected in their interview responses, which was a distinctive theme that did not appear in the interview data of participants with no study-abroad experience.

Participants who reported having no study-abroad experience were Tao, Jie, and Wei. All three of them reported that the course had changed their perspectives significantly and had expanded their views on multicultural education. For example, Wei explained how she used to conceptualize multiculturalism as one person experiencing multiple cultures, but had learned that her understanding

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was incorrect. Wei learned that multicultural education means teaching students from diverse cultures, races, and national origins. Wei also described her plans to incorporate visuals, other languages, and paintings from other cultures in her future classroom to accommodate students from a variety of backgrounds (Interview_NSA P3, p. 4).

Another participant, Tao, also elaborated on how the course helped him to distinguish between comparative education and multicultural education. The course taught him that multicultural students might carry diverse perspectives and views, beyond the so-called 'culture' boundaries.

Tao: At the beginning of the semester, I thought multicultural education was similar to comparative education… I learned that multicultural education is about effectively teaching students born in another country … when a child born in America returns to China, they might have American perspectives or ways of thinking. As they study in China, we can teach them to also hold Chinese perspectives and the process of fostering people who can have both American and Chinese perspectives is multicultural education. (Interview_NSA P1, p. 6) In Tao's explanation, he highlighted how multicultural education does not assimilate students into the mainstream culture but, rather, promotes pluralism.

Compared to the three participants with prior study-abroad experience, Tao exhibited a less monocultural and monolingual orientation. Instead, he advocated for embracing multiple cultures and perspectives, and pluralism as part of practicing multicultural education.

6. Discussion This study aimed to explore the experiences of prospective teachers studying abroad in a graduate-level EMI course in Korea. Descriptive analysis of the questionnaires conducted at the beginning and end of the semester, in addition to qualitative analysis of findings of interview data, suggest a few implications. First, the EMI approach, integrated with translingual practices, yielded positive experiences, including better overall confidence about English and higher efficiency in content learning. Although participants reported in the questionnaire and the interviews that there were limited opportunities to improve their English, many of them gained more confidence about their English proficiency. Many participants answered the final questionnaire in English instead of Chinese, which demonstrates their increased comfort level about using English. These results are consistent with previous studies, which found that EMI with a translingual approach could positively impact ELLs' confidence regarding English proficiency (Fang & Liu, 2020; Kuteeva, 2020). Also, this finding implies that integrating translanguaging in EMI courses could reduce ELLs' language anxiety and increase ELLs' confidence about languaging (Fang & Liu, 2020; Kuteeva, 2020).

Second, EMI and ELF experiences in a multicultural education course contributed to changing prospective teachers' perceptions and orientations about bilingualism and multicultural education. In the interviews, participants reported having an in-depth understanding of multicultural education. A few participants even expressed specific plans to accommodate linguistically and culturally diverse students in the future. Questionnaire responses also indicate that participants

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experienced a change of perceptions toward bilingual education and translanguaging. The experience of integrating EMI with translingual practices encouraged prospective teachers to be more open-minded about translanguaging and to realize the effectiveness of translingual practices for learning content. These results align with previous studies, which had found that EMI could enhance ELLs' content knowledge and academic achievement (Graham et al., 2018). In addition, studies report that EMI could enhance students' content knowledge and language learning simultaneously (Graham et al., 2018).

Third, a single course was not enough to transform prospective teachers' monolingual orientation or uproot the influence of colonialism. Interview participants were initially selected on the basis of observing different experiences in those who had studied abroad in the past and those who had not. However, interview data indicates that students reported on their previous study-abroad experiences differently, depending on the length of their stay and the primary language used in the particular country. Furthermore, participants did not believe their English proficiency had improved, because many of them considered that an English immersion experience is the only way to acquire another language. In particular, participants who had studied abroad in an English-immersion setting expressed strong opinions about a full immersion experience to learn English, and believed that translanguaging is meant as a transitional program. These results are consistent with studies that had found that EMI faces limitations and challenges (Graham et al., 2018). Furthermore, other studies report on the pros and cons of EMI implementation in higher education settings. This point indicates that EMI implementation could have a variable impact on ELLs' language proficiency, previous academic achievement, etc. (Macaro et al., 2018; Tong et al., 2020).

7. Conclusion This study promotes the translanguaging of Chinese students who are studying abroad to advance their language acquisition and knowledge of content. The findings of this study have implications for research and teacher education practices. In terms of research, further investigation to examine the long-term effect of EMI and translingual practices will benefit our understanding of translanguaging and international education in Asia-Pacific countries. In addition, future research needs to analyze prospective teachers' monolingual orientation, and its impact on the global education landscape. Regarding practice, it is crucial to develop a comprehensive curriculum for international teacher education, to promote translingual practices and bi/multilingual education.

Furthermore, teacher education programs need to encourage teacher candidates to engage in critical reflection, to examine their language orientations and ideologies, in order to meet global society's expectations. Lastly, it is recommended that universities provide an intensive professional development opportunity for EMI faculty, so that they can apply EMI with translingual practice.

Some faculty may believe that content teaching is their job, not language teaching.

However, this study shows that teaching content and English simultaneously is the best approach to preparing prospective teachers in teacher education

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programs. The quality of EMI faculty is key to successful translingual-integrated teacher preparation programs worldwide.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 21, No. 3, pp. 396-414, March 2022 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.3.21 Received Jan 30, 2022; Revised Mar 24, 2022; Accepted Mar 31, 2022

Case-Based Instruction in the Forensic Chemistry Classroom: Effects on Students' Motivation and Achievement Epiphania B. Magwilang Mountain Province State Polytechnic College Bontoc, Mountain Province, Philippines

Abstract. Forensic chemistry students need to be motivated and develop critical thinking, problem-solving, and higher-order thinking skills and not just accumulate many facts to be good evidence collectors and investigators in the future. As case-based instruction has been utilized in various fields to this effect, this study aimed to determine the effects of such a method on students' motivation towards forensic chemistry learning and their success in understanding the taught concepts through their achievement scores. A pre-test post-test control group design was employed to involve two forensic chemistry classes with 42 students each, identified through the purposive sampling technique. One class was taught through case-based instruction, while the other through the lecture method. The classes were assigned to experimental and control groups to examine the study's treatment process effects through a coin toss. The ttest for independent samples was used to determine significant differences in students' pre/post-test scores in the treatment and the control group for the motivation and achievement tests. The two groups of respondents exhibited increased motivation and achievement mean scores with significant differences. However, those exposed to case-based instruction had higher mean scores than those taught with the lecture method. Thus, the use of case-based instruction in the forensic chemistry classroom promotes critical thinking, problem-solving, and higher-order thinking skills leading to significant positive changes in the motivation and achievement of students in the course. Therefore, case-based education is recommended as it is expected to make positive contributions to the forensic chemistry teaching process and science education.

Keywords: case-based instruction; Forensic chemistry; motivation; achievement

©Author This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

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1. Introduction Students' motivation and achievement are essential for consideration in any educational process. Motivated students tend to be more engaged with learning activities, assignments or tasks and work harder to overcome difficulties, accomplish some extent of mastery in their field, and, thus, increase their academic achievement (Reev as cited in Yousefy et al., 2012). Academic motivation and achievement in criminology education, such as in forensic chemistry, are as important as that in other fields of studies. In a state college in the northern part of the Philippines, it was a common observation that criminology students have low achievements in their forensic chemistry courses compared to their other forensic science courses. They consider it a minor course even when given a fiveunit credit. Forensic chemistry is a course that applies chemical concepts to the criminal investigation, collecting and examining diverse physical evidence gathered at the crime scene using chemical principles. Criminology students must be sufficiently motivated to receive a significant volume of information on chemical concepts and acquire the related skills to be adept at collecting, handling, and preserving crime scene evidence.

A common reason for students' low achievement in their forensic chemistry course is difficulty understanding the chemical concepts or relating to the material in a meaningful way. Indeed, students experience many difficulties understanding chemistry ideas and concepts (Sirhan, 2007). Also, students consider chemistry as an uninteresting subject and do not appreciate the significance and applicability of learning chemistry concepts to their daily lives and surroundings (Hutchinson, 2000). As a result, students' interest in and enthusiasm for learning forensic chemistry has been low. Educators are trying their best to find methodologies to help change students' perceptions of chemistry and increase their motivation and achievement in the subject. One strategy for increasing learners' enthusiasm is to provide course content in a more student-friendly setting by making it more engaging or applicable to their lives (Testa, 2019). The higher the motivation, the higher the students' achievement; therefore, achievement can be considered an indirect indicator of motivation. (Pintrich & Schunk, 2002). Proper teaching modalities can serve as stimulants for students to learn and enhance their understanding of lessons and increase their achievement. Science teachers are adopting new teaching approaches to promote active learning, such as in-class conversations, games, and learning reflection opportunities for students to improve student engagement in lecture-based courses. Integrating case-based tasks into the curriculum is a technique for fostering an active learning environment (Shahmuradyan & Doughan, 2021).

Case-based instruction is a flexible teaching method that uses actual situations to help students develop analytical and problem-solving skills (Herreid et al., 2011).

It involves solving and examining real-world problems and situations and encouraging group discussion, participation, and interaction, promoting an active learning environment (Tarkin, 2017). The real-life nature of cases presented in meaningful learning contexts promotes critical thinking that involves analyzing, evaluating, and applying instead of just recalling knowledge. Data presented in the case must be organized and analyzed by the students, and relevant theory

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must be considered before the conclusion and solutions (Stanford University, 2018). Similarly, such cases can connect theory and practice as theories, concepts, skills, and strategies learned in specific academic topics are used and applied in solving real-world societal issues (Bonney, 2015). In case-based instruction, the teacher shifts from disseminating information as practiced in the traditional lecture method to a facilitator who guides students to build their knowledge. At the same time, the students become active participants who openly reveal their ideas in discussions.

Case-based instruction was used in business and medical education for years before being adopted in other scientific disciplines such as psychology, biology, nursing, and chemistry (Kaddoura, 2011). A limited number of research works have investigated the effect of case-based teaching on students' chemistry learning (Tarkin & Knodakci, 2017). There is also limited literature on the method's effectiveness in meeting learning objectives (Bonney, 2015). Although there are studies on using case-based instruction in other countries, only a few were performed in the Philippine setting, especially on science education, and none specifically for forensic chemistry. Also, most studies on the impact of case-based instruction on students' learning were conducted through a one-group research design (Agyildiz & Tarhan, 2012).

With the nature of the forensic chemistry course, case studies will be critical in achieving the course's learning objectives. As an active learning philosophy, a case-based discussion could help prepare criminology students for the challenges they will encounter in this world, especially in their profession. The segments of forensic chemistry, such as Techniques in the Forensic Chemistry Laboratory, Forensic Drug Analysis, and Blood and Bloodstains, are timely, essential, and could be linked to crimes happening around the country. Thousands of illegal drug cases are reported yearly; thus, actual local drug cases could be used to study forensic drug analysis. Blood and bloodstains are the essential biological evidence in violent crimes in this country and worldwide. Many crime cases and case simulations on blood and bloodstains could be used to help students understand the lesson better. Technology improvements mean forensic chemistry laboratory techniques to analyze this crime evidence are constantly changing, and students' knowledge and skills on such must be updated. Case-based learning could give students a deeper understanding of how forensic chemistry concepts apply to the real world and what skills are required. Case discussion encourages the development of strong listening and speaking skills, critical and analytic thinking, and an appreciation of the values of forensic chemistry in the criminology profession.

Considering the nature of case-based instruction, it might help make forensic chemistry learning closer to the lives and interests of criminology students. For example, Herreid et al. (2011) found that giving students controversial science problems encountered in the news makes science relevant to their lives. In the same way, using real-life cases might improve students' interest in forensic chemistry, improve their attitudes, motivate them and enhance their understanding of lessons and their achievement. A Philippine study on case-based

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instruction by Talens (2015) also found that students acquire an in-depth understanding of the lessons to solve real problems and make sound judgments and decisions.

As forensic chemistry deals with evidence collected in crime scenes, case-based instruction may improve students' understanding of the chemical nature of such.

Furthermore, problem-solving and higher-order thinking skills and deciding correctly on the proper collection, preservation, and examination may be improved. Therefore, this study's significance lies in its potential contribution to educational research as it considers case-based teaching as an effective strategy to increase the motivation and achievement of students in a forensic chemistry classroom. In addition, it could be a basis for forensic chemistry instructors to determine how to teach the course effectively. Furthermore, this study will help future researchers understand forensic chemistry's teaching and learning phenomenon.

Case-based instruction was investigated to determine its impact in promoting meaningful forensic chemistry learning. The study considered the possible implications of using case teaching to improve achievement and motivation in forensic chemistry and the lack of research on the effects of case teaching in forensic chemistry education through a pre-test post-test control group design. In addition, the study aimed to ascertain how the case study teaching technique affected students' motivation to learn forensic chemistry and how well they understood the subjects. Specifically, it aimed to answer the following problems: (1) What is the effect of case-based instruction on students' motivation towards forensic chemistry learning?

(2) Is there a significant difference in the motivation scores towards forensic chemistry learning of the students exposed to a case-based instruction and those who were not?

(3) What is the effect of case-based instruction on students' achievement scores in forensic chemistry?

(4) Is there a significant difference in the achievement scores of the students exposed to case-based instruction and those who were not?

2. Review of Related Literature 2.1 Case-based Instruction Case-based instruction is a constructivist teaching methodology that focuses on students and actively improves their learning as they are challenged to solve a dilemma through studying a case based on everyday life and thus gain higher skills (Bernardi & Pazinato, 2022). It is a teaching and learning technique that employs case studies as active learning aids; case studies analyze specific cases and make conclusions in similar situations. As case-based instruction engages students in the classroom, they use their knowledge to actively solve complex problems identical to those confronted in real-life situations (Etmer, 2005). Cases usually consist of two parts: (a) the case status of the investigation and (b) the questions related to the case. Case study teaching is flexible teaching that emphasizes problem-based learning and develops analytical skills (Herreid et al., 2011).

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A more active instructional method, case-based instruction, appeals to students who may be unengaged with a lecture format that concentrates on facts and content rather than developing higher-order and critical thinking skills (Prince, 2006). Case-based instruction helps assess the application of the concept to appropriate professional practice. Case studies help students connect their information to decision-making ability and distinguish between high-priority and low-priority factors by putting students in a real-world situation and requesting decisions. Cases are proposed as a better way for teachers to see if a student has applied knowledge of the subject compared to a lecture and better long-term memory of the subject and student satisfaction (Thistlethwaite et al., 2012).

2.2 Effects of Case-based Learning on Student Motivation and Achievement Case-based instruction has been reported to increase students' motivation, curiosity, and engagement (Bernardi & Pazinato, 2022; Gholami et al., 2021; Nag, 2020; Raza et al., 2019; Yoo & Park, 2014; Yoo et al., 2010; Yalcikaya, 2010). Nag (2020) demonstrated students' interest in case-based learning in both face-to-face and synchronous virtual classrooms by reviewing and integrating introductory biochemistry concepts through a case-based activity. Yalçinkaya's (2010) study looked at the impact of case-based learning on students' academic accomplishment and perceived motivation in the unit of the human reproductive system and found it enhanced students' academic achievement and task value.

Case-based learning effectively stimulates students' interest in the self-directed exploration of course materials on symmetry-related topics and critically processing information to achieve the most acceptable result. (Dong& Zheng, 2021).

Some educators also tried comparing case-based learning with the lecture method.

Gholami et al. (2021) established significant differences between the lecture-based learning and case-based learning groups in students' total learning motivation score and all its subscales after the case-based learning intervention. They suggested that the case-based learning method applied through multi-episode cases is a method for increasing nursing students' perceived problem-solving skills and learning motivation. Yoo and Park (2014) also found that the case-based learning group showed significantly greater learning motivation than the lecturebased learning group at post-test. They concluded that case-based learning is a successful teaching strategy based on this and other data. Yoo et al. (2010) found substantial group differences in learning motivation, with the case-based learning group's post-test scores being statistically higher than the control group. They went on to say that case-based learning with video is good in motivating students to study because it encourages self-directed learning and increases interest and curiosity in the subject.

A review of research studies conducted on case-based chemistry instruction in the past decade by Bernardi and Pazinato (2022) suggests that such a technique can help improve higher-order abilities like critical thinking and communication and encourage curiosity and engagement. Similarly, Hereid (2004) and Yadav et al.

(2007) also posit that, aside from critical thinking skills, case studies improve

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students' understanding, problem-solving skills, higher-order thinking skills, their conceptual change, and motivation to study. Through case-based learning, students can grasp topics discussed in class and develop their skills (Raza et al., 2019). It could also improve students' perceptions of learning, increase performance on assessment questions, enhance motivation for learning activities, and promote critical thinking, learning, and participation among learners (Bonney, 2015). Shahmuradyan and Doughan (2021) created a case study project for third-year analytical chemistry students to investigate a fictitious illness epidemic. Because of the case study, students could practice essential skills, including investigation, critical thinking, problem-solving, and communication.

As evidenced by course assessments, the assignment was greatly welcomed by students.

Most of the studies that literature has to offer on comparing the effects of casebased instruction with the traditional lecture method on student achievement give positive feedback in favor of case-based learning. For example, Cam (2009) evaluated the impact of case-based learning against traditional learning on the knowledge of solubility equilibrium concepts by eleventh-grade high school students. She also looked at the experimental and control groups' attitudes towards chemistry and epistemological beliefs, which differed significantly from the experimental group. Sendur's (2012) study of case-based learning's effects on first-year students' academic performance in chemistry found that case-based training resulted in a more vital comprehension of gas laws than standard instruction. Furthermore, students in the experimental group could apply gas laws to real-life instances quicker than students in the control group. Adesoji and Idika (2015), in a study involving Nigerian secondary chemistry students, determined the effectiveness of case-based learning in enhancing students' chemistry achievement and attitude. However, residents in a graduate medical education program showed similar engagement and satisfaction with case-based education compared to lectures ((Demetri et al., 2021). There was comparable information gained in an orthopedic resident anatomy course, implying that both case-based learning and lecture-based education are beneficial for highly motivated learners.

These current research studies give possible effects of case-based learning and teaching on students' motivation and achievement in different disciplines but provide limited evidence on the effect in the forensic chemistry classroom in the Philippine context. As Bonney (2015) recommended, it could be informative to compare the effectiveness of case-based instruction with other teaching methods.

This study, therefore, addresses this gap in the literature by investigating the effects of case-based instruction on students' motivation and achievement in the forensic chemistry classroom.

3. Methods 3.1 Research Design Pre-test-post-test control group design was used with an experimental group and a control group. The participants were not randomly assigned to the groups as classes were already set during enrolment. However, the classes were assigned as experimental and control groups through a coin toss. This design uses two forensic

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chemistry classes; only one class was given the treatment while the other served as the control. Over the same period, the control group received no treatment but took the same tests. Both groups were given pre-tests using the Science Motivation Questionnaire II (SMQ II) and unit achievement tests (AT) before the intervention.

Both groups were again given the SMQ II and unit achievement tests as post-tests after the experimental process. The study's experimental design is presented in Table 1.

Table 1: Experimental Design Used in the Study

---------------------------------------------------------Experimental Group

T112

X

T212

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Control Group T112 T212 ---------------------------------------------------------------------Where: X - treatment T11– SMQ II (pre-test) T12- academic achievement test(pre-test)

T21- SMQ II (post-test) T22- academic achievement test(post-test)

3.2 The Study Context The study was conducted in Mountain Province State Polytechnic College, Bontoc Campus during the 1st Semester of the School Year 2019-2020. Mountain Province State Polytechnic College is situated at the heart of the Mountain Provinces in the Northern part of the Philippines, with a student population of about 4,000.

3.3 Participants of the Study The study's participants were identified through a purposive sampling technique.

Two forensic chemistry classes of forty-two (42) students in each class were chosen from five classes in Mountain Province State Polytechnic College. All members of the two classes were Bachelor of Science in Criminology students who took the course for the school year 2019-2020. They were chosen due to their enrolment in the class as registered at the Admissions Office. Before the study, the control group was designated to one class and the experimental group to the other through a coin toss. Consent of participation in the study was sought from the participants before the conduct. They were well-informed about what participation entailed.

Those who had second thoughts upon consultation were reassured that declining was okay, that they could withdraw their participation verbally, and that their grades would not be affected. All members of the chosen classes signed an informed consent form, and the researcher signed a non-disclosure agreement.

3.4 Instrumentation In this investigation, two data collection tools were used. First, the Science Motivation Questionnaire II (SMQ II) chemistry-specific version designed by Glynn et al. (2011) presented in Appendix 1 was utilized to assess the students' motivation to learn forensic chemistry. The survey has 25 items on a five-point Likert-type scale: never (0), rarely (1), sometimes (2), often (3), or always (4). The instrument consists of five factors: intrinsic motivation, career motivation, self-

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determination, self-efficacy, and grade motivation. Each factor has 20 as its highest score as it has five items to be rated on a scale of 0-4 and a total score of 100. Such an instrument was already reliable and valid and, as suggested by the developers, may be used by instructors, researchers, and research advisers to assess students' motivation to learn science in college courses. Second, the researcher developed achievement tests on the three chosen topics based on the units' objectives to gather data on the students' academic achievement in forensic chemistry. There were 20 multiple choice type questions in each unit test which were reviewed and validated by three forensic chemistry instructors, their suggestions being incorporated in the questionnaires. Each test was also tried out on a forensic chemistry class of 40 students which was not part of the experiment. The tests' reliability was established through split-half methodology using Microsoft Excel Real Statistics Resource Pack. The correlation coefficients ranged from 0.80 to 0.83, indicating highly reliable tests.

3.5 Data Gathering Procedures The college president's approval was sought to conduct the study, which was granted with a research contract. The researcher chose three units from the forensic chemistry syllabus: Techniques in the Forensic Chemistry Laboratory, Forensic Drug Analysis, and Blood and Bloodstains. The researcher pre-tested both groups to determine their knowledge of the lessons before starting each unit, using the developed achievement tests. In addition, both groups were also asked to answer the Science Motivation Questionnaire II before the intervention to determine their pre-experimental motivation levels towards forensic chemistry learning.

Case-based teaching was then used to teach the treatment group. Real-world situations were presented at the start of the lessons, and the forensic chemistry concept required to understand the situation was given subsequently. Students were given real-life situations, events, or circumstances to pique their interest.

They were asked how and why such events occurred, and the whole class explored them. The researcher prepared relevant and appropriate cases for each unit from news clippings, criminal cases, observations, and everyday life. These were given to the students to investigate, discuss in groups, analyze, and relate to given forensic chemistry concepts. Representatives from each group presented their results to the class, including cases and questions regarding them. As forensic cases were usually associated with evidence, discussions usually ended at pointing out the possible sources of evidence being investigated. The instructor's role was to encourage students to analyze the case and share the analysis and results with the class. The control group was likewise taught the same concepts through the usual lecture format, which may have been enhanced with PowerPoint presentations. The lessons were for one-hour periods, three times a week. Thus, the three units were taught for 24 lecture hours and 42 laboratory hours. The researcher was the instructor for both the experimental and control groups. She distributed the data gathering instruments to the respondents and was able to retrieve all of them.

After the experimental period, the researcher distributed the SMQ II and the achievement tests to both groups as post-tests. The students' pre-test and post-test

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scores were gathered for statistical analysis. Research data, especially the students' achievement scores in the pre-tests and post-tests, were protected from their collection to the paper's publication.

3.6 Data Analysis The t-test for independent samples was used to establish a significant difference in the groups' pre/post-test scores for the SMQ II and the achievement test using Microsoft Excel Real Statistics Resource Pack.

4. Results 4.1 Effects of Case-Based Instruction on Students' Motivation towards Forensic Chemistry Learning Table 2 reveals an increase in the mean motivation scores of the students in both the control and experimental groups from almost the same pre-test mean scores.

The mean score of the experimental group had an increase of 28.55, while that of the control group was only 6.12. These values show that case-based instruction and lecture methods increase students' motivation for forensic chemistry learning.

However, case-based instruction has a more significant effect than the lecture method. This finding implies more and better learning for the students taught through the case-based method than those taught through the lecture method, as indicated by the higher mean post-test scores.

Table 2. Mean Motivation Scores of the Students in the Two Groups of Respondents

---------------------------------------------------------------Groups

x̄ x̄ (pre-test) (post-test) ---------------------------------------------------------------------Experimental 42 49.38 77.93 ---------------------------------------------------------------------Control 42 49.86 55.98 ---------------------------------------------------------------------ɳ

4.2 Differences in the Students' Motivation Scores towards Forensic Chemistry Learning An independent samples T-test was employed to establish differences between the two groups' motivation levels towards forensic chemistry learning before conducting the case-based approach in teaching. Table 3 compares the means of the students' pre-test motivation scores in the experimental and control groups.

Table 3. Comparison of Mean Pre-test Motivation Scores of the Two Groups of Respondents

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Groups ɳ x̄ Std. Dev. Df t p --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --Experimental 42 49.38 3.44 ---------------------------------------------------------------------65 0.44 0.66 Control 42 49.86 6.06 -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------*p> .05; t(65)= 0.44 < 1.9971 = tcrit

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The experimental group's average score was found as x̄experimental = 49.38+3.44, and the control group's average pre-test scores as x̄control= 49.86+6.06. Since t(81)= 0.44 < 1.9971 = tcrit (or p-value = .66 > .05 = α). At 0.05 level, the results show no statistically significant difference between the mean pre-test motivation scores of the two groups of students. Before the experiment, the two groups had almost the same motivation towards forensic chemistry. They were comparable in terms of motivation level prior to the experiment. Post-tests were done after the experimental period, and the scores were evaluated to determine the students' mean post-test motivation scores in each of the experimental and control groups.

These were compared using independent samples t-test as presented in Table 4.

Table 4. Comparison of Mean Post-test Motivation Scores of the Two Groups of Respondents

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Groups ɳ x̄ Std.Dev. Df t p ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Experimental 42 77.93 3.04 -------------------------------------------------------------------------80 35.31 0.00 Control 42 55.98 2.65 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ---------*p< .05; t(80)= 35.31 > 1.9900= tcrit

The mean post-test motivation score of the experimental group was found as x̄experimental = 77.93+3.04, and the mean post-test motivation score of the control group as x̄control= 55.98+2.65. Since t(80)= 35.31 > 1.9900 = tcrit (or p-value = .000 < .05 = α). The results show a noteworthy difference between the mean post-test motivation scores of the group exposed to case-based instruction and those who were not. This further means the students taught using case analyses felt a significantly higher motivation towards forensic chemistry than those taught the same lessons traditionally.

4.3 Effects of Case-Based Instruction on Students' Achievement Table 5 shows the mean scores of both the control and experimental groups for the 20-item achievement tests given for each lesson. An increase is shown in both groups' post-test mean scores from almost the same mean score in the pre-test.

However, the experimental group had a higher increase of 9.93 in their mean score than the control group, with only an increase of 4.29. These values show that casebased instruction increased the achievement level of the students in forensic chemistry. The traditional method used in the control group's class also increased students' achievement level, but to a lesser extent than the case-based method.

Table 5. Mean Pretest and Post-test Achievement Scores of the Experimental and the Control Groups

---------------------------------------------------------------Groups

x̄ x̄ (pre-test) (post-test) ---------------------------------------------------------------------Experimental 42 6.26 16.19 ---------------------------------------------------------------------Control 42 6.07 10.36 ----------------------------------------------------------------------

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4.4 Differences in the Students' Achievement Scores in Forensic Chemistry To ascertain if the experimental and the control groups exhibit statistically significant differences concerning their pre-knowledge of the lessons to be tackled on Techniques in the Forensic Chemistry Laboratory, Forensic Drug Analysis, and Blood and Bloodstains, independent samples t-test was utilized. Table 6 presents the statistical analysis results of the experimental and control groups' mean pretest achievement scores.

Table 6. Comparison of Mean Pre-test Achievement Scores of the Experimental and the Control Groups

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Groups ɳ x̄ Std. Dev. Df t p ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ---------Experimental 42 6.26 1.95 ---------------------------------------------------------------------80 0.48 0.63 Control 42 6.07 1.66 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ --------*p> .05; t(80)= 0.48 < 1.9900 = tcrit

The experimental group's average score was found as x̄experimental = 6.26+1.95, and the control group's average pre-test scores as x̄control= 6.07+1.66. Since t(80)= 0.48 < 1.9900 = tcrit (or p-value = .63 > .05 = α). These results show that at a 0.05 level of significance, no statistically significant difference exists between the mean pre-test achievement scores of the two groups of respondents. When lessons were introduced prior to conducting the experiment, both control and experimental groups had about the same level of understanding about the forensic chemistry lessons, specifically on Techniques in the Forensic Chemistry Laboratory, Forensic Drug Analysis, and that of Blood and Bloodstains. In terms of achievement prior to the experiment, the two groups of students were equivalent.

Post-tests were conducted at the end of the experimental period, and the scores were analyzed to determine their mean post-test scores. Table 7 compares the experimental groups' post-test achievement scores to the control group using independent samples t-test.

Table 7. Comparison of Mean Post-test Achievement Scores of the Experimental and Control Groups

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Groups ɳ x̄ Std.Dev. Df t p ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Experimental 42 16.19 2.00 -----------------------------------------------------------------82 13.49 0.00 Control 42 10.36 1.96 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ---------*p< .05; t(82)= 13.49 > 1.9893 = tcrit

As revealed in the table, the mean post-test score of the experimental group is x̄experimental = 16.19+2.00, and the mean post-test score of the students in the control group is x̄control= 10.36+1.96. Since t(82)= 13.49 > 1.9893= tcrit (or p-value

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= .000 < .05 = α). A significant difference exists between the post-test achievement scores of the students taught through case-based instruction and those who were not, as shown by the results. This further means that the group who learned through case-based instruction obtained significantly higher post-test scores than those who received the same lessons through the lecture method.

5. Discussion 5.1 Effect of Case-Based Instruction on Students' Motivation towards Forensic Chemistry Learning The study determined that case-based instruction increases students' motivation towards forensic chemistry learning. Raza et al. (2020) corroborate such findings as they found out that case-based education boosts learning motivation.

Yalçınkaya (2010) also found out that, in Anatolian high schools, students' attitudes and motivation towards chemistry were increased by case-based learning.

Real-life cases indeed spark students' interest, especially when these are relevant to their lives. As students relate the circumstances with things and activities in their surroundings, they become more interested and excited to work on such cases. Thus, intrinsic motivation is ignited. Students realize that the concepts they are learning are relevant to their lives, making learning more engaging, meaningful, and enjoyable. As Cheng (as cited by Sendur, 2012) found, case studies make students actively involved when done in groups; thus, they become enthusiastic about the lesson. They then increase their self-determination by putting enough effort into learning, preparing well, and studying hard for their lessons and examinations, leading them to enjoy learning. Students can be motivated and engaged in learning a task if they are interested and enjoy learning (Pintrich & Schunk, 2002). Thus, case-based education increases learners' interest and enjoyment of education (Yalcinkaya, 2012) and leads to higher satisfaction (Thistlethwaite et al., 2012).

Forensic chemistry cases usually involve evidence in the crime scene and thus link learning concepts to students' careers or jobs in the future. The presentation of possible actual evidence in given cases, such as blood and bloodstains, would attract the students' interest and stimulate them to work and look for what is asked in each case. An analysis of a drug case could ignite their interest and motivation as they relate the given case to actual drug cases in the country. A poisoning case, for instance, could be presented in such a way that students have to determine the possible poison used based on post-mortem observations. Students realize the importance and usefulness of their course to their careers, thereby increasing their career motivation. Again, these will keep them motivated as cases would relate the students' expected career path to their learning concepts. They will realize that their career will involve forensic chemistry and that learning it will help them secure a good job, a career advantage, and the good problem-solving skills needed in their future careers. Students regard case-based training as realistic, demanding, intriguing, entertaining, artistically stimulating, and beneficial to learning, according to Mayo (2002). Students are also more interested in learning while using cases because they participate actively in actual problem situations and

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reflect on their personal experiences. According to Kaplan (2019), students' fascination with crime investigation can be exploited in all chemistry classrooms to spark students' attention and evoke a strong response when asked to learn something often seen as boring and useless.

5.2. Difference in the Motivation Scores towards Forensic Chemistry Learning of Students Exposed to Case-Based Instruction and Those Who Were Not A significant difference exists between the post-test motivation scores of students exposed to case-based instruction and those who were not, as shown by the results. This means that the students taught using case analyses felt significantly higher motivation towards forensic chemistry than those traditionally taught the same lessons. This study's findings showed that the case-based learning group exhibited significantly greater learning motivation than the lecture-based learning group was supported by other researchers for different groups of students (Gholami et al., 2021, Yoo & Park, 2014; Yoo et al., 2010). Given that, in case-based learning, students deal with real-life scenarios which could ignite their interest as they realize the relevance of their lessons to their lives. In case-based instruction, students are also better able to express their views, interests, and ideas and learn about the viewpoints of their classmates and friends as they work together on given cases. This will pique their interest and urge them to inquire further.

Students become more interested and satisfied as they collaborate rather than listen to lectures. Case-based instruction appeals to students who may be unengaged with a lecture format that concentrates on facts and content rather than developing higher-order and critical thinking skills (Prince, 2006).

5.3 Effect of Case-Based Instruction on the Achievement Scores of Forensic Chemistry Students For its effect on the students' achievement, the findings imply that learners taught through case-based education learned more and better than those who took the same lessons through the lecture modality, as indicated by the higher mean posttest scores. This is similar to Sendur's (2012) findings that case-based learning positively influences the students' learning and constructs relationships between real-life situations with chemical principles. This also shows that better learning occurred when students were given cases from everyday life to discuss forensic chemistry concepts. With questions and problems posed for students to answer after understanding the given cases, they must critically think as answers must be based on given circumstances. Therefore, students should have critical thinking skills, which will help them solve complex or straightforward problems (Setiana et al., 2021). In a suspected murder case, for instance, where bloodstain samples are analyzed to determine the perpetrator, students must study and understand each examination's results before concluding. This is similar to the unit on laboratory techniques where the cases must be read and analyzed to determine possible evidence that could be collected and, from the pieces of evidence, which technique should be used for analysis. As guessing is not an option, and critical thinking is exercised, it leads to an increased understanding of forensic chemistry concepts and higher achievement. Learning activity cases increase students' achievement by understanding chemistry concepts. This is because critical thinking and understanding are promoted by case-based instruction, as stated by Hereid (2004), Prince (2006), and Yadav et al. (2007).

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5.4 Differences between the achievement scores of the students exposed to casebased instruction and those who were not A significant difference exists between the mean post-test achievement scores of students who received case-based education and those who did not. The students taught with the case-based instruction achieved significantly higher post-test scores than those taught the same lessons through the lecture method. Gunter and Alpat (2019) corroborate that a higher increase in the post-test achievement scores of the case-based learning group may indicate that case-based instruction effectively improves academic achievement in given topics. Also, Cresswell and Loughlin (2017) observed sustained improvements in students' assessment outcomes in first-year forensic science after introducing the case-based scenario.

When students analyze cases, they try to study actual data, apply systematic tools, communicate issues, reflect on their related experiences, and draw decisions, thereby acquiring substantive content knowledge and developing analytic, collaborative, and communication skills. In contrast to lecture-based instruction, where students examine the content, those working with cases engage with the material, making their learning experience more dynamic as they imagine themselves acting in a real-world situation. The learners are no longer passive observers but active participants. Presenting cases brings the lessons to life and helps learners synthesize ideas by putting them in actual settings. Learning and remembering lessons are much more manageable when linked with real-life cases, thereby giving a feel of how essential it is to everyday life. Students are active creators of knowledge rather than passive users of knowledge. They acquire the material more deeply and engage with it at a higher level. They remember more of what they do than what they read, hear, or see.

6. Conclusion This study investigated the effectiveness of case-based learning on the motivation and achievement of students in forensic chemistry and compared it with the traditional lecture-style format of the content delivery. It is safe to conclude that case-based instruction results in significant positive changes in Forensic chemistry students' motivation in the course. Students exposed to case-based instruction have higher motivation towards forensic chemistry than those who were not. By linking actual scenarios, circumstances, and activities in the real world with the lessons, students' appreciation of forensic chemistry increases in their personal lives and future professions. Students' opinions of chemistry being too theoretical gradually change to more curiosity, enthusiasm, and attention towards the sessions, motivating and encouraging them to love learning forensic chemistry.

Also, case-based instruction increases the achievement level of students in forensic chemistry; those exposed to case-based instruction have higher achievement scores than those taught with the lecture method. It promotes critical thinking and better understanding combined with better motivation and positive attitudes, which lead to better learning. Therefore, case-based instruction is an effective learning and teaching method for enhancing the motivation and achievement of students in forensic chemistry. Forensic chemistry educators may consider utilizing case-based instruction to increase their students' motivation

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and achievement, positively contributing to the forensic chemistry teaching process and science education. Further, case-based learning will motivate forensic chemistry students and develop their significant reasoning, problem-solving, and higher-order thinking skills to be good evidence collectors and investigators.

With all these findings and conclusions, the researcher notes that these may not apply to other groups of students in other universities in the Philippines or other countries. Thus, more studies should be conducted to determine appropriate learning and teaching methods that could increase the motivation and achievement of students in the forensic chemistry classroom.

7. References Adesoji, F. A., & Idika, M. I. (2015). Effects Of 7e Learning Cycle Model And Case-Based Learning Strategy On Secondary School Students' Learning Outcomes in Chemistry. JISTE, 19(1). https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1177065.pdf Bernardi, F.M., & Pazinato, M. S. (2022). The Case Study Method in Chemistry Teaching: A Systematic Review. Journal of Chemical Education, 99(3), 1211–1219. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jchemed.1c00733.

Bonney, K. (2015). Case Study Teaching Method Improves Student Performance and Perceptions of Learning Gains. Journal of Microbiology & Biology Education,16(1), 21-28. https://doi.org/10.1128/jmbe.v16i1.846 Cam, A. (2009). Effectiveness of Case-Based Learning Instruction on Students' Understanding of Solubility Equilibrium Concepts. [Doctoral Dissertation, Middle East Technical University, Ankara]. http://etd.lib.metu.edu.tr/upload/3/12610890/index.pdf Cresswell, S., & Loughlin, W. (2017). A Case-Based Scenario with Interdisciplinary Guided-Inquiry in Chemistry and Biology: Experiences of First Year Forensic Science Students. Journal of Chemical Education, 94(8), 1074–1082. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jchemed.6b00827 Demetri, L., Donnelley, C. A., Mackechnie, M.C., & Toogood, P. (2021). Comparison of Case-Based Learning and Traditional Lectures in an Orthopedic Residency Anatomy Course.

Journal of Surgical Education, 78(2), 679-685. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsurg.2020.08.026 Dong, Y., & Zheng, S. L. (2021). Resolving Space-Group-Choice Dilemma in SmallMolecule Crystallography for Chemistry Students Using Case-Based Learning Modules.

Journal of Chemical Education, 98(10), 3180–3188. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jchemed.1c00267.

Educationevolving.org. (2016). Our Working Definition of Student Achievement and School Quality. https://www.educationevolving.org/ Gay, L. R., & Airasian, P. (2000). Educational Research: Competencies for Analysis and Application (6th Edn.). New Jersey: Prentice-Hall Inc. Glynn, S. M., Brickman P., Armstrong N., & Taasoobshirazi, G. (2011). Science Motivation Questionnaire II: Validation with Science Majors and Nonscience Majors. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 48(10), 1159-1176, http://stelar.edc.org/sites/stelar.edc.org/files/Glynn-et-al-2011.pdf Gholami, M., Changaee, F., Karami, K., Shahsavaripour, Z., Atefeh Veiskaramian, A., & Birjandi, M. (2021). Effects of multi-episode case-based learning (CBL) on problem-solving ability and learning motivation of nursing students in an emergency care course. Journal of Professional Nursing, 37(3), 612-619. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.profnurs.2021.02.010

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Herreid, C. F. (1994). Case studies in science: a novel method of science education. Journal of College Science Teaching, 23, 221–229. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ487069 Herreid, C., Schiller, N., Herreid, K., & Wright, C. (2011). In Case You Are Interested: Results of a Survey of Case Study Teachers. Journal of. College. Science. Teaching, 40(4), 76-80. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ921535 Hutchinson, J. (2000). Teaching introductory chemistry using concept development case studies: interactive and inductive learning. University Chemistry Education, 4(1), 3–9. https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Teaching-IntroductoryChemistry-using-Concept-CaseHutchinson/a0f87fe21b0c9f8891adae65e4a98eb1bc0c0c91 Kaddoura, M. (2011). Critical thinking skills of nursing students in lecture-based teaching and case-based learning. International Journal for the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, 5(2), 1–18. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1136284.pdf Kaplan, L. J. (2019). Chemistry and Crime: Investigating Chemistry from a Forensic Science Perspective. In A. S. Harper-Leatherman & L. Huang (Eds.), Teaching Chemistry with Forensic Science (pp.

13-34).

ACS Publications. https://doi.org/10.1021/bk-2019-1324.ch002 Mayo, J.A. (2002). Case-based instruction: A technique for increasing conceptual application in introductory psychology. Journal of Constructivist Psychology, 15, 6574. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/107205302753305728 Nag, A. (2020). End of the Semester Review of Biochemistry Using a Case Study on Phosphoglucose Isomerase Deficiency. Journal of Chemical Education, 97(9), 2664– 2668. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jchemed.0c00540 Onen, A., & Ulusoy, F. (2014). Developing The Context-Based Chemistry Motivation Scale: Validity and Reliability Analysis. Journal of Baltic Science Education, 13(6), 809-820. http://www.scientiasocialis.lt/jbse/files/pdf/vol13/809820.Onen_JBSE_Vol.13_No.6.pdf Prince, M., & Felder, R. (2006) Inductive Teaching and Learning Methods: Definitions, Comparisons, and Research Bases. Journal of Engineering Education, 95(2), 123-138. https://www.engr.ncsu.edu/wp-content/uploads/drive/1MORshfST1zjmfEqk33HF1PCYP-HbW3L/2006Inductive%20learning%20paper%20(JEE).pdf Pintrich, P. (2003). A Motivational Science Perspective on the Role of Student Motivation in Learning and Teaching Contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 667– 686. http://funab.se.df.gov.br/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/ Pintrich-2003.-AMotivational-Science-Perspective-on-the-Role-os-Student-Motivation-inLearning-and-Teaching-Contexts.pdf Raza, S. A., Qazi, W., & Umer, B. (2020). Examining the impact of case-based learning on student engagement, learning motivation and learning performance among university students. Journal of Applied Research in Higher Education, 12(3), 517-533. https://doi.org/10.1108/JARHE-05-2019-0105 Sendur, G. (2012). The Effects of Case-based Learning on Freshmen Students' Chemistry Achievement. Energy Education Science and Technology Part B: Social and Educational Studies, 4. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/275891670_The_effects_of_casebased_learning_on_freshmen_students%27_chemistry_achievement#fullTextFil eContent.

Setiana, D. S., Purwoko, R. Y., & Sugiman (2021). The application of mathematics learning model to stimulate mathematical critical thinking skills of senior high school students. European Journal of Educational Research, 10(1), 509-523. https://doi.org/10.12973/eu-jer.10.1.509

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Shahmuradyan, A., & Doughan, S. (2021). Students as Investigators: Promoting Active Learning through a Case Study Assignment in a Lecture-Based Analytical Chemistry Course. Journal of Chemical Education, 98(12), 4088–4093. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jchemed.1c00602 Sirhan, G. (2007). Learning Difficulties in Chemistry: An Overview. Journal of Turkish Science Education, 4(2), 2-20. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/26474914_Learning_Difficulties_in_ Chemistry_an_Overview.

Stanford University.

(2018).

Case Method Teaching Overview. https://teaching.stanford.edu/resources/learning-activity-case-methodteaching.

Testa, S. (2019). On Utilizing Forensic Science To Motivate Students in a First-Semester General Chemistry Laboratory. In A. S. Harper-Leatherman & L. Huang (Eds.), Teaching Chemistry with Forensic Science, (pp. 93-108). ACS Publications. https://doi.org/10.1021/bk-2019-1324.ch006 Talens, J. (2015). Students' Learning and Participation in a Case-Based Science Instruction.

International Journal of Humanities and Management Science (IJHMS), 3(2). http://www.isaet.org/images/extraimages/P315217.pdf Tarkin, A., & Kondakci, E. (2017). Implementation of Case-Based Instruction on Electrochemistry at the 11th Grade Level. Chemistry Education Journal and Practice, 18, 659-681. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/316909100_Implementation_of_Cas e-based_Instruction_on_Electrochemistry_in_11th_Grade_ Level Yadav, A., Shaver, G., & Meckl, P. (2010). Lessons Learned: Implementing the Case Teaching Method in a Mechanical Engineering Course. Journal of Engineering Education, 99. https://www.amanyadav.org/yadav-shaver-meckl-2010/ Yalçınkaya, E., Boz, Y., & Erdur-Baker, O. (2012). Is case-based instruction effective in enhancing high school students' motivation toward chemistry? Science Education International, 23(2), 102-116. https://www.academia.edu/10006768/Is_case_based_instruction_effective_in_ enhancing_high_school_students_motivation_toward_chemistry Yalçınkaya, E. (2010). Effect of case-based learning on 10th-grade students' understanding of gas concepts, their attitude and motivation [Ph.D. - Doctoral Program]. Middle East Technical University. etd.lib.metu.edu.tr/upload/12610321/index.pdf Yoo, M., & Park, H. (2014). Effects of case-based learning on communication skills, problem-solving ability, and learning motivation in nursing students. Nursing and Health Sciences, 17(2), 166-172. https://doi.org/10.1111/nhs.12151 Yoo, M., Park, J., & Lee, S. (2010). The Effects of Case-Based Learning Using Video on Clinical Decision Making and Learning Motivation in Undergraduate Nursing Students. Journal of Korean Academy of Nursing, 40(6), 863-871. https://doi.org/10.4040/jkan.2010.40.6.863 Yousefy, A., Ghassemi, G., & Firouznia, S. (2012). Motivation and academic achievement in medical students. Journal of Education and Health Promotion,1, 4. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3577361/

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Appendix 1 Science Motivation Questionnaire II (SMQ-II) © 2011 Shawn M. Glynn, University of Georgia, USA To better understand what you think and how you feel about your Forensic Chemistry course, please respond to each of the following statements from the perspective of "When I am in a Forensic Chemistry course…"

Always 4

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Often 3

I like to do better than other students on forensic chemistry tests.

Getting a good forensic chemistry grade is important to me.

Rarely 1

Never 0

Intrinsic Motivation The science I learn is relevant to my life.

Learning forensic chemistry is interesting.

Learning forensic chemistry makes my life more meaningful.

I am curious about discoveries in forensic chemistry.

I enjoy learning forensic chemistry.

Self-Efficacy I am confident I will do well on forensic chemistry tests.

I am confident I will do well in forensic chemistry labs and projects.

I believe I can master forensic chemistry knowledge and skills.

I believe I can earn a grade of "A" in forensic chemistry.

I am sure I can understand forensic chemistry.

Self-Determination I put enough effort into learning forensic chemistry.

I use strategies to learn forensic chemistry well.

I spend a lot of time learning forensic chemistry.

I prepare well for forensic chemistry tests and labs.

I study hard to learn forensic chemistry.

Grade Motivation

Sometimes 2

Components (Scales) and Statements (Items)

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It is important that I get an "A" in forensic chemistry.

I think about the grade I will get in forensic chemistry.

Scoring high on forensic chemistry tests and labs matters to me.

Career Motivation Learning forensic chemistry will help me get a good job.

Knowing forensic chemistry will give me a career advantage.

Understanding forensic chemistry will benefit me in my career.

My career will involve forensic chemistry.

I will use forensic chemistry problem-solving skills in my career.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 21, No. 3, pp. 415-433, March 2022 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.3.22 Received Jan 31, 2022; Revised Mar 21, 2022; Accepted Mar 31, 2022

Teachers’ Levels of Knowledge and Readiness in Integrating 4IR Technologies: The Primary ESL Classroom Context Nur Maechea Avelino Sekolah Jenis Kebangsaan Cina Ladang Grisek, Johor, Malaysia.

Hanita Hanim Ismail Faculty of Education, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Selangor, Malaysia

Abstract. Students’ language performance as well as their educational development are affected by English as a second language (ESL) teachers’ ability to integrate technologies into their teaching practices. It is therefore necessary to assess teachers’ levels of knowledge and readiness in integrating Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR) technologies into their teaching practices. This paper assesses ESL teachers’ levels of knowledge and readiness in integrating 4IR technologies into their teaching practices.

Two variables were used to form research questions: ESL primary teachers’ (1) level of knowledge and (2) level of readiness. A quantitative research design was employed in this research involving 306 respondents. The findings of the research indicated that teachers’ levels of knowledge and readiness influence their integration of 4IR technologies into their teaching practices. Teachers should acquire knowledge regarding 4IR technologies to ensure that they are able to meet the demands of the present education system as well as to help their learners become more proficient in learning the English language. In conclusion, the integration of 4IR technologies is an important aspect that needs to be utilized in teachers’ teaching practices.

Keywords: English language learning; fourth industrial revolution; knowledge level; readiness level; malaysian teachers

1. Introduction At present, numerous methodologies are used to enhance the process of teaching and learning (e.g. through e-learning, e-books, and blogging) due to the emergence of the Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR). Expeditious transformations have been observed across different sectors, including the education sector. The 4IR has led to a reduction in the use of traditional teaching methods. Predictions have been made that there will be more changes to teaching and learning methods (Hussin, 2018), explaining the need to develop new educational programs to meet ©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

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future demands that seem to be bleak and uncertain. At the same time, the emergence of Education 4.0 has also caused English to become a preferred medium of instruction (Hariharasudan & Kot, 2018). In fact, there are claims that the implementation of technology in the teaching and learning process has been inspired by the use of English as a medium of instruction (Anggraeni, 2018).

The 4IR is responsible for changing not only users’ way to implement actions but also their identity, since the 4IR evolves exponentially fast, thus affecting the entire educational system (Oosthuizen, 2016). On that account, knowledge and readiness in integrating 4IR technologies into teaching practices are important to teachers. Razak et al. (2018) concurred with this, recommending teaching skills that meet the present global demands, where teachers need to ensure that their knowledge, understanding, and readiness are aligned with the current economics.

However, in this regard, scholars (Ahmad et al., 2019; Aprianti & Sahid, 2020; Erboz, 2017; Hussin, 2018; Lawrence et al. 2019) have posed certain common questions: Do people understand the 4IR? Are they, especially teachers, ready to integrate 4IR technologies?

There is an urgency to compel English as a second language (ESL) teachers to be commonly aware of the function of the language as an enabler to compete rigorously at the international level. In fact, Woolf et al. (2013) asserted that teachers need to possess 21st century skills as pre-requisites for transforming any educational system. These skills include cognitive, intrapersonal, and interpersonal skills (Naim & Razak, 2020). In lieu of that, teachers need to be ready to integrate 4IR technologies into their teaching practices. Hussin (2018) emphasized that teachers need to relearn these skills in preparation of the 4IR developments as part of aligning with the future demands. In other words, teachers, specifically ESL teachers, must be equipped with knowledge and skills in technology as well as 4IR elements to ensure that learners can efficiently acquire English. To address this problem, we formulated two research questions: 1. To what extent does ESL primary teachers’ level of knowledge of the 4IR help them to integrate 4IR technologies into their teaching practice?

2. How does ESL primary teachers’ level of readiness affect their integration of 4IR technologies into their teaching practice?

As such, the hypotheses for this research are: 1. There is a significant relationship between ESL teachers’ level of knowledge in integrating 4IR technologies into their teaching practices in an ESL classroom context.

2. There is a significant relationship between ESL teachers’ level of readiness in integrating 4IR technologies into their teaching practices in an ESL classroom context.

2. Literature Review 2.1 The Fourth Industrial Revolution The 4IR focuses on devising smart conditions and technological advancements that can enhance capabilities for humans and machines to simplify the daily workload. In education, elements of the 4IR that facilitate teaching and learning

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processes are autonomous robots, simulation, cloud computing, system integration, the internet of things (IoT), cyber security, 3D printing, augmented reality (AR), big data, and analytics (Erboz, 2017). As such, 4IR technologies help humankind in many ways, such as use of autonomous robots that are able to help with the solving of complex tasks, especially in manufacturing industries.

2.2 The Fourth Industrial Revolution in Education Since technology is integrated into the process of teaching and learning daily, teachers need to know how to integrate it into their teaching practices (Aprianti & Sahid, 2020; Hariharasudan & Kot, 2018; Naim & Razak, 2020; Ramli et al., 2020).

As such, it is important for teachers to be vigilant with and conscious of the advancements in technologies that are spurred by the 4IR as an effort to stay relevant and future-ready in serving the community.

The 4IR is beyond a technology-driven revolution, with the clear objective of impacting many sectors in society positively, including the education sector. For education, 4IR emergence has been considered to cause a transition from traditional teaching to digital teaching in the 21st century, where laptops, holograms, social media, and artificial intelligence are important educational tools in school, especially in ESL classrooms. Hashim (2018) postulated that mobile phones, smartphones, tablets, laptops, or netbooks are used by ESL learners for downloading and uploading purposes or doing online work, irrespective of time and place.

2.3 Integration of the Fourth Industrial Revolution in ESL Primary Classrooms ESL teachers need to be aware that the integration of elements of the 4IR, such as multimedia technology, is necessary in second language acquisition (SLA). Bull and Ma (2001) stated that technology helps to supply unlimited resources in language learning among learners. This has led to many research studies investigating the effects and advantages of using technology in SLA or language learning (cf. Hashim et al., 2019; Ilias & Aladin, 2019; Razak et al., 2018; Yunus 2018), which has proven that language learning can be efficiently improved by using technology. This is because technology provides teachers with many opportunities to improve their teaching practices, eventually leading to a better learning environment.

Nowadays, changes are inevitable as technologies are rapidly developed to meet the demands and needs of the 4IR. Hence, teaching approaches also need to be changed, with Pazilah et al. (2019) implying that teaching approaches and methods will also change over time. Yunus (2018) also agreed that education, especially in Malaysia, is also changing with technologies beginning to be implemented in classrooms where projectors, laptops, and wireless internet are used. Similarly, ESL classrooms also witness the use of technologies, where multimedia and social media are used as a medium to teach English. Teachers and educators are also resorting to cloud computers, which is one of the elements of the 4IR, to store information or share it with their learners. Besides it being a better means to share resources, software, and information since it is an internet-based-computing platform, cloud computing is also flexible and offers

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new prospects for teachers to improve the process of teaching and learning (Hashim, 2018).

2.4 ESL Teachers’ Levels of Knowledge and Readiness in Integrating 4IR Technologies There are many research studies on knowledge and readiness to embrace the 4IR in education (cf. Ghazali, 2020; Hizam-Hanafiah et al., 2020; Junid et al., 2019; Lapammu & Mahamod, 2018; Mpungose, 2020; Razak et al., 2018; Romy et al., 2019). These research studies focused on the levels of knowledge and readiness among teachers and learners as an effort to integrate 4IR technologies into the process of teaching and learning. Opinions on knowledge to embrace the 4IR are divided. Lapammu and Mahamod (2018) believed that learners are able to improve their language acquisition as well as enhance their skills in using computers and the internet to find their learning material independently.

Nonetheless, Romy et al. (2019) found that trainee teachers need more practice to improve their 4IR knowledge since their knowledge is moderate. On the other hand, Razak et al. (2018) discovered regarding teacher readiness that teachers should attend training programs that can help them to improve their technological skills. A systematic review by Hizam-Hanafiah et al. (2020) revealed that there are two angles in 4IR readiness models: (1) applicability of readiness model, and (2) investigation on users’ readiness by using readiness models.

However, most of the research on readiness models are considered intellectual property and none has been publicized, causing a research gap in this specific area (Hizam-Hanafiah et al., 2020). These researchers indicated that levels of knowledge and readiness in integrating 4IR technologies into the teaching and learning process have been carried out at different levels of education at learner or teacher level.

2.5 Technology Acceptance Model 3 This research is based on the theoretical framework proposed by Avelino and Ismail (2021) derived from the technology acceptance model (TAM) 3 (see Figure 1).

Figure 1: Theoretical framework (Avelino & Ismail, 2021)

Venkatesh and Bala (2008) proclaimed that TAM3 can be used to present a complete nomological network of the determinants on how individuals adopt and

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utilize technologies. TAM3 was developed based on a merger of TAM2 with the model of the determinants of perceived ease of use. The focus of TAM2 is to present two theoretical processes, (1) social influence and (2) cognitive instruments, that can affect the various determinants of perceived usefulness and behavioral intention (Venkatesh & Davis, 2000). This is in contrast with TAM3, with Venkatesh and Bala (2008) claiming that the determinants of perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use will not affect each other.

Other than that, TAM3 also proposes that experience will moderate three relationships not empirically tested in TAM2: These are: (1) perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness, (2) computer anxiety and perceived ease of use, and (3) perceived ease of use and behavioral intention (Venkatesh & Bala, 2008). Based on TAM3, perceived ease of use will affect perceived usefulness more when users’ experience increases. This is because users will be able to gauge their own capability to achieve high-level goals with information they have gathered from their experience. This also affects users’ computer anxiety on perceived ease of use, as they will be less anxious when they have had more experience in utilizing technologies. Hence, as users familiarize themselves with technologies, they feel that perceived ease of use is less important and behavioral intention will fade into the background. Consequently, they are able to form behavioral intention without being affected on how they perceived ease of use in utilizing technologies.

Therefore, for this study, we use the theoretical framework based on TAM3 to assess the levels of knowledge and readiness in integrating 4IR technologies into teaching practice among ESL primary school teachers.

3. Methodology 3.1 Research Design This research is descriptive research due to its ability to describe trends of the 4IR without any influence from the researcher (Faryadi, 2019) in a simple and understandable language. In line with the research aim, which is to explore ESL teachers’ levels of knowledge and readiness in integrating 4IR technologies, we employed a quantitative approach. Since the 4IR is a current phenomenon trending in the education sector, the use of a descriptive design helped to elicit data concerning the 4IR among ESL teachers. Thus, as this research employed a quantitative approach, we decided to use a descriptive design to gather the required information.

3.2 Research Sampling A good sample should represent the entire population of the research (Brown, 2006). We identified 1526 ESL teachers (including English option and non-option teachers) in 74 primary schools in Pasir Gudang, Johor – a state at the southern part of Malaysia. Upon referring to Krejcie and Morgan’s (1970) sample size determination table, sample selection was carried out using stratified random sampling. Initially, 417 respondents completed the questionnaire, of which only 306 (M = 110; F = 196) were selected for data analysis. Table 1 provides the age ranges of the respondents.

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Table 1: Respondent age ranges Age

Frequency

%

20 – 30 years old

94

31

31 – 40 years old

160

52

41 – 50 years old

44

14

51 years old above

8

3

Total

306

100

Table 2 summarizes the teaching experience of respondents in teaching ESL, which was the main criterion in selecting the sample for this research. Of the 417 initial respondents who completed the questionnaire, 313 (75%) were English option teachers, while 104 (25%) were English non-option teachers.

Table 2: Respondents’ English language teaching experience Years of teaching English

Frequency

%

1 – 5 years

57

18

6 – 10 years

152

50

11 – 15 years

64

21

16 years and above

33

11

Total

306

100

3.3 Research Instrument The data collection instrument used in this research was a 35-item questionnaire, which was adapted from TAM3 constructs (Appendix 1). All the items have been validated by Venkatesh and Bala (2008), who analyzed TAM3. Three major TAM3 constructs, namely (1) perceived ease of use, (2) perceived usefulness, and (3) behavioural intention, were operationalized using items adapted from Davis (1989) and Davis et al. (1989).

Section A consisted of five items that elicited the demographic information of respondents. Respondents had to indicate their gender, age, teaching experience, teaching option, and prior knowledge of the 4IR. Section B consisted of items on (1) perceived usefulness and (2) subjective norms on teachers’ levels of knowledge and readiness of the 4IR. Lastly, Section C consisted of items on perceived ease of use and its determinants. Sections B and C included items measured with a 5point Likert scale, with 1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = neutral, 4 = agree, and 5 = strongly agree.

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3.4 Data Collection Procedure This research was conducted after having obtained permission from the Ministry of Education (MoE) Malaysia, through the Research Application System (eRAS), and from Johor State Education and Pasir Gudang District Education. Final approval was obtained from the identified participating school administrators before proceeding with data collection. Subsequently, we contacted English head panels from the schools via online platforms to share the link for the survey. We gave respondents one month to complete the questionnaire before collecting the questionnaire. We distributed questionnaires to 1526 ESL primary school teachers. However, only 417 teachers (27%) completed the questionnaire, despite numerous reminders being given. The remaining teachers refused to participate, which is the main reason for the small number of respondents. This number barely qualifies for the minimum number of respondents needed to represent the population. Of the 417 respondents, only 306 were selected based on Krejcie and Morgan’s (1970) sample size determination table.

3.5 Data Analysis Since this research employed a survey design, the data obtained were analyzed using IBM Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 26. Descriptive analysis was used to describe and summarize data, which included measures of frequency, percentage, central tendency (mean), and mean scale. In this study, descriptive analysis was used to describe the demographic profile of the respondents and the responses received for Section C, which consisted of items on perceived ease of use and its determinants. The descriptive analysis was used to answer the second research question. Furthermore, inferential analysis was used to answer the first research question. We also used one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) to investigate to what extent teachers’ level of knowledge helps them to integrate 4IR technologies into their teaching practices.

4. Findings and Discussion 4.1 Level of Knowledge Five categories were used to gauge the respondents’ level of knowledge regarding the 4IR, namely (a) nothing, (b) little, (c) something, (d) a lot, and (e) fully understand (Table 3). This helped to provide an answer to the first research question in response to the dependent variable of respondents’ level of knowledge.

Table 3: Respondents’ level of knowledge of the Fourth Industrial Revolution Level of knowledge

Frequency

%

Nothing

48

16

Little

125

41

Something

113

37

A lot

15

5

Fully understand

5

1

Total

306

100

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As seen in Table 3, 48 respondents (16%) knew nothing about the 4IR, compared to the 5 respondents (1%) who fully understood the 4IR. The majority of the sample (125; 41%) reported that they knew a little about the 4IR, followed by 113 respondents (37%) who knew something about the 4IR. The last 15 respondents (5%) knew a lot of things regarding the 4IR. This shows that most teachers know a little about the 4IR, reiterating Romy et al.’s (2019) concern for the lack of knowledge on the 4IR among Malaysian ESL teachers.

4.2 ESL Primary Teachers’ Level of Knowledge in Integrating 4IR Technologies Data gathered were analyzed using inferential analysis to identify the relationship between the independent and dependent variables. Whereas the independent variable is teachers’ integration of 4IR technologies into their teaching practices, the dependent variables in this research are teachers’ (1) level of knowledge and (2) level of readiness in integrating 4IR technologies into their teaching practices.

Before conducting the inferential analysis, we carried out a normality test to choose which type of t-test to use to analyze the data (Creswell, 2012). Based on the normality of data, parametric statistics is used to analyze normal data, while non-parametric statistics is used to analyze abnormal data (Cohen et al., 2018).

Mishra et al. (2019) emphasized that data should be normally distributed to represent the data since the wrong selection of data might give the wrong interpretation. Distribution of data for this research was determined using the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test (K-S test), where the normality of data in this research was tested through skewness and kurtosis values, a histogram, and a Q-Q graphic plot.

The sample chosen in this research included more than 300 respondents, hence the need for the use of a histogram and the absolute values of skewness and kurtosis (Kim, 2013). Any absolute skewness value larger than 2 or an absolute kurtosis value larger than 4 can be used as reference values for determining the normality of data collected (Mishra et al., 2019). The skewness values for all variables in this research were between -2 and 2, while the kurtosis values were between -4 and 4, indicating that data distribution was normal.

After conducting the normality test, a one-way ANOVA was performed to investigate if the respondents’ level of knowledge helped them to integrate 4IR technologies into their teaching practices. Significance is indicated with a p-value of 0.05, with p > 0.05 indicating the test is significant, while p < 0.05 indicating the test is insignificant. When the test is insignificant, this means that the respondents’ level of knowledge of integrating 4IR technologies does not help them to integrate 4IR technologies into their own teaching practices.

The ANOVA results revealed that perceived ease of use is affected by the respondents’ level of knowledge in the integration of 4IR technologies into their teaching practices (F[4, 301] = 42.932, p = 0). This therefore shows that different levels of knowledge do affect teachers’ integration of 4IR technologies into their teaching practices. This aligns with Romy et al. (2019), who suggested that teachers must possess the knowledge and pedagogical skills needed so they can

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utilize technologies in their teaching practices to meet the demands and needs of the 4IR. Regarding computer self-efficacy, the ANOVA results showed that the respondents’ level of knowledge did not affect their computer self-efficacy (F[4, 301] = 15.557, p = 0). This also shows that the respondents’ different levels of knowledge affect their motivation, cognitive skills, as well as behavior in integrating 4IR technologies into their teaching practices. Furthermore, for perception of external control, the ANOVA test yielded the following value: F(4, 301) = 15.29, p = 0. The second hypothesis is therefore rejected. The findings of Lapammu and Mahamod (2018) can also be applied to teachers. These researchers found that learners were able to improve their language acquisition and usage of technology independently because they possessed knowledge on it.

However, the ANOVA test yielded a significant value (more than 0 but less than 0.05) for computer playfulness (F[4, 301] = 4.416, p = 0.002). This finding also supports rejection of the second hypothesis. This shows that teachers’ level of knowledge contributes to their improvement in computer playfulness. Mpungose (2020) concurred with this, claiming that teachers who do not have any notion of advanced knowledge to integrate 4IR elements are unlikely to improve their skills in integrating 4IR elements even though they have a good level of knowledge on standard content, pedagogy, and technology.

The ANOVA result for computer anxiety indicated support for the rejection of the second hypothesis with its value (F[4, 301] = 4.1, p = 0.003). This also showed that the respondents with a good understanding of 4IR technologies felt less anxious in using computers when integrating 4IR technologies into their teaching practices and vice versa. Besides that, perceived enjoyment showed the following value through the ANOVA test: F(4, 301) = 21.673, p = 0), also supporting rejection of the second hypothesis. Hariharasudan and Kot (2018) indicated that when teachers are able to induce joy in learners’ learning, learners will be able to pay attention and learn better, a finding also applicable to teachers.

In conclusion, the ANOVA test showed that all variables supported rejection of the second hypothesis. The findings indicated that level of knowledge affected respondents’ integration of 4IR elements into their teaching practices.

4.3 ESL Primary Teachers’ Level of Readiness Affects Their Integration of 4IR Technologies Frequency, percentage, mean, and mean scale were used to measure and analyze the data of the descriptive analysis. The mean score was measured by using the interpretation by Nunnally and Bernstein (1994), as shown in Table 4.

Table 4: Nunnally and Bernstein’s mean score interpretation table Mean scale

Level

1.00 – 2.00

Low

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2.01 – 3.00

Medium low

3.01 – 4.00

Medium high

4.01 – 5.00

High

4.3.1 Perceived usefulness Table 5 shows the descriptive data on the perceived usefulness of integrating 4IR technologies into teaching practices. There are four items in this section that measure how the respondents perceived the usefulness of integrating 4IR technologies into their teaching practices.

0 (0%)

0 (0%)

67 202 (22%) (66%)

37 (12%)

4

Medium high

2

I find using technology of 4IR in my job increases my productivity as an ESL teacher.

0 (0%)

2 (1%)

68 195 (22%) (64%)

41 (13%)

4

Medium high

3

I find using technology of 4IR enhances my effectiveness as an ESL teacher.

0 (0%)

2 (1%)

68 193 (22%) (63%)

43 (14%)

4

Medium high

4

I find integration of 4IR is useful for me as an ESL teacher.

0 (0%)

2 (1%)

45 191 (15%) (62%)

68 (22%)

4

High

4

Medium high

Overall

Strongly agree

I think technology of 4IR improves my performance as an ESL teacher.

Statement

Agree

Disagree

1

Item no.

Neutral

Strongly disagree

Table 5: Perceived usefulness

Mean

Mean scale

Table 5 shows that the mean scale for Item 1 (I think technology of 4IR improves my performance as an ESL teacher) was medium high, with 202 respondents (66%) agreeing and 37 (12%) strongly agreeing with the statement. None disagreed or strongly disagreed with the statement, while 67 (22%) were neutral about it. Based on this data, most respondents agreed that the integration of 4IR technologies into their teaching practices improved their performance as ESL teachers. This finding aligns with Ramli et al. (2020) and Hashim (2018), who argued that classroom

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activities and language learning processes can be enhanced by using technology.

Findings further proved that the integration of 4IR technologies into teachers’ teaching practices helps them to improve their teaching performance.

The mean scale for Item 2 (I find using technology of 4IR in my job increases my productivity as an ESL teacher) was also medium high, with 195 respondents (64%) agreeing with the statement. The respondents thus acknowledged that 4IR technologies help increase their productivity as ESL teachers. Productivity can be enhanced through the many uses of gadgets available at present, such as tablets, smartphones, and laptops, which allow quick access to work despite the teachers’ whereabouts (Hashim, 2018).

For Item 3 (I find using technology of 4IR enhances my effectiveness as an ESL teacher), the mean scale was also medium high, with the majority of the respondents either agreeing (193; 63%) or strongly agreeing (43; 14%) that 4IR technologies enhance their effectiveness as ESL teachers. In earlier research, Naim and Razak (2020) indicated that teachers with high digital competency are able to have a positive impact on learner achievement in school because they are able to manage technology-rich environments better.

Item 4 (I find integration of 4IR is useful for me as an ESL teacher) had the highest mean scale. It measured the usefulness of 4IR technologies for respondents as ESL teachers, where 191 respondents (62%) agreed and 68 strongly agreed (22%) with the statement. They thus agreed to the usefulness of integrating 4IR technologies as an ESL teacher. It is interesting that only a small fraction either disagreed (2; 1%) or remained neutral (45; 15%) with the statement. This finding is echoed by Golonka et al. (2014), who found that learners are able to engage better in the progression of language learning and have more fun when technology is involved. Thus, teachers who utilize 4IR technologies in their teaching practices will find that the technologies are useful for their teaching practices.

To conclude, most respondents agreed with Item 4, as they thought that the integration of 4IR technologies is useful for them as ESL teachers. It also had the highest mean scale among all the items in this section. The emergence of the 4IR has caused technology development to increase greater than before, predominantly in the education sector. This is supported by Hashim (2018), who proclaimed that the use of technologies in the education sector has been escalating. This is because technology provides many opportunities for teachers to improve their teaching practices. Teachers have experienced major changes in the education sector these past few years as a result of 4IR emergence. This finding shows that teachers’ level of readiness in integrating 4IR technologies improves their teaching performance as ESL teachers. The results for the determinant of perceived usefulness correspond with research by Junid et al. (2019), who concluded that if teachers felt that the integration of technologies does not improve their job performance, they will feel reluctant to integrate 4IR technologies into their teaching practices.

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4.3.2 Subjective norm Table 6 summarizes the subjective norm of respondents in integrating 4IR technologies into their teaching practices as primary ESL teachers. There are four items in this section measuring the impact of surroundings or norms on respondents’ level of readiness in integrating 4IR technologies into their teaching practices.

0 (0%)

11 (4%)

74 203 (24%) (66%)

18 (6%)

4

Medium high

6

People who are important to me think that I should integrate 4IR in my teaching practices as an ESL teacher.

4 (1%)

43 (14%)

167 77 (55%) (25%)

15 (5%)

3

Medium high

7

My administration and colleagues think that I should integrate 4IR in my teaching practices as an ESL teacher.

2 (1%)

7 (2%)

39 193 (13%) (63%)

67 (21%)

4

High

8

In general, my school supports the integration of 4IR.

2 (1%)

6 (2%)

28 (9%)

132 (43%)

4

High

4

Medium high

Overall

138 (45%)

Strongly agree

People that influenced my behaviors, such as my colleagues and pupils, think that I should integrate 4IR in my teaching practices as an ESL teacher.

Statement

Agree

Disagree

5

Item no.

Neutral

Strongly disagree

Table 6: Subjective norm

Mean

Mean Scale

As Table 6 shows, the mean scale for Item 5 (People that influenced my behaviors, such as my colleagues and pupils, think that I should integrate 4IR in my teaching practices as an ESL teacher) was medium high, indicating that most respondents agreed with the item. The table shows that 203 respondents (66%) agreed and 18 (6%) strongly agreed with Item 5. Only 11 respondents (4%) disagreed with the statement, whereas 74 (24%) remained neutral in their response. This shows that

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most respondents agreed that their colleagues and pupils think that they should integrate 4IR technologies into their teaching practices.

For Item 6 (People who are important to me think that I should integrate 4IR in my teaching practices as an ESL teacher), results showed that most of the respondents were neutral (167; 55%) regarding the statement. In addition, only 77 respondents (25%) agreed and 15 (5%) strongly agreed with Item 6. To conclude, most respondents were informed by the perception of their immediate circle of influence regarding the importance of integrating 4IR technologies into their teaching practices.

As for Item 7 (My administration and colleagues think that I should integrate 4IR in my teaching practices as an ESL teacher), 193 respondents (63%) agreed and 67 (21%) strongly agreed with the statement. Only 7 (2%) disagreed and 2 (1%) strongly disagreed in response to the statement, while 39 (13%) remained neutral. This shows that respondents’ working environment provided them with sufficient support to integrate 4IR technologies into their teaching practices. It is therefore incomprehensible if teachers do not integrate technology as a medium of communication in the teaching and learning process (Ahmed & Nasser, 2015).

This sentiment is supported by the results of Item 8 (In general, my school supports the integration of 4IR). For this item, 138 respondents (45%) agreed and 132 (43%) strongly agreed. Only 6 (2%) disagreed and 2 (1%) strongly disagreed, making up a small fraction in opposition to the statement, along with 28 respondents (9%) who remained neutral.

5. Conclusion The integration of technology into teaching and learning already started after the Third Industrial Revolution, where teachers’ role changed from being the sole informant to a facilitator in helping pupils acquire the knowledge and skills needed. This research therefore aimed to assess ESL primary teachers’ levels of knowledge and readiness in integrating 4IR technologies into their teaching practice. Integration of 4IR technologies can be achieved, since 4IR technologies can help to optimize the learning environment for learners. However, researchers have found that most previous research on levels of knowledge and readiness in integrating 4IR technologies focused more on learners and trainee teachers than on teachers currently teaching in school. As such, this research saw the significance of pursuing ESL primary teachers as its population. We hope that this research will pave the way for more research opportunities, since teachers’ professionalism and skills are crucial to ensuring better delivery of exceptional teaching quality.

This research has several implications for both teachers and policy-makers. At the teacher level, vast changes are observed in teachers’ pedagogy, especially with the change of time and teaching methods. The chalk-and-talk pedagogy is no longer practical, since technology has been integrated into every aspect of daily life.

Nowadays, teachers are expected to know how to integrate technology into their teaching practices as a way to ensure that their teaching and learning sessions can be carried out efficiently. New pedagogy in teaching and learning is needed due

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to the advancements in digital technologies and the 4IR. This research will also be beneficial to policy-makers in their efforts of reforming a new curriculum that suits both teachers and learners. Such a policy will allow learners to better meet the demands of the 4IR in the future. Furthermore, this finding also provides insights on the current levels of knowledge and readiness of ESL teachers in integrating 4IR technologies, which will assist policy-makers in their implementation of new policies. Thus, future research studies ought to explore these impacts at other levels of education. Such exploration will ensure the success of integrating 4IR technologies in different levels of teaching practices, be it at national or international level.

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Exploring Engineering (IJITEE) 9(2S3), 511-519. https://doi.org/10.35940/ijitee.B1122.1292S319 Mishra, P., Pandey, C. M., Singh, U., Gupta, A., Sahu, C., & Keshri, A. (2019). Descriptive statistics and normality tests for statistical data. Annals of Cardiac Anaesthesia, 22(1), 67-72. https://doi.org/10.4103/aca.ACA_157_18 Mpungose, C. B. (2020). Student teachers’ knowledge in the era of the Fourth Industrial Revolution.

Education and Information Technologies, 25, 5149-5165. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-020-10212-5 Naim, S., & Razak, N. A. (2020). Effect of personal and professional characteristics towards ESL lecturers’ digital competence. International Journal of Advanced Science and Technology, 29(4), 1029-1049. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/343523864_Effect_of_Personal_and_ Professional_Characteristics_towards_ESL_Lecturers'_Digital_Competence Nunnally, J. C., & Bernstein, I. H. (1994). Psychometric theory (3rd ed.). McGraw-Hill.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 21, No. 3, pp. 434-447, March 2022 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.3.23 Received Dec 7, 2022; Revised Mar 28, 2022; Accepted Mar 31, 2022

Development of the Love for Writing and Publishing Journal (LWPJ) Module for Higher Education Syaidatun Nazirah Abu Zahrin

, Mohd Izwan Mahmud*

and Norzaini Azman Faculty of Education, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Malaysia Abstract. This paper details the development of the Love for Writing and Publishing Journal (LWPJ) Module, which encourages writing in a scientific and simple way through the approach of the Self-Determination Theory, Social Constructivism Theory, and Successful Intelligence Theory. The content of the module was constructed through information obtained from a literature review and interviews with six experts who have produced many high-impact journal articles. The developed module was used in a two-day online training course, with participant monitoring before, during, and after the course through WhatsApp. This study used a mixed methods approach of design and development research. Using this method, the research was carried out in three phases. The first phase involved needs analysis; the second phase included design and development; and the third phase involved evaluation of the module. The research led to the successful development of the LWPJ Module by fostering a love for writing and publication of scholarly writing among course participants.

The module benefits postgraduate students and academics at the higher education level by ensuring that scholarly articles are successfully completed and submitted for publication. This study has implications on the development of a culture of excellence and a culture of love for scholarly writing and publication among postgraduate students and academics from various walks of life at school and university levels.

Keywords: academic writing; higher development; publication; journal

education;

love;

module

1. Introduction Journal article publication has become a prerequisite for the graduation of postgraduate students at most faculties of institutions of higher learning, as well as a mandatory condition for the promotion of all lecturers. Since article *

Corresponding author: Mohd Izwan Mahmud: izwan@ukm.edu.my

©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

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publication is one of the important research outcomes for universities and colleges, this has led most faculties to require their postgraduate students to publish articles in journals (Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 2021). Some university faculties have made various efforts trying to promote academic writing by holding seminars and conferences on and off campus. This has been done in addition to creating compulsory courses for students in relation to journal article writing, such as research methodology and academic writing courses.

There is a need to focus on article writing and publication to ensure that researchers are able to report research results through writing and highlighting their research to students and other academics. Article writing can help adding to the number of reference materials or sources. In addition, it can increase the integrity of article writing and publication by curbing plagiarism, an offense that should not be committed by researchers. Nabee et al. (2020) explained that educators are concerned about plagiarism activities in higher education. As a result, an objective has been set by academia to identify the causes behind plagiarism activities in order to put a stop to them. Furthermore, Nabee et al.

(2020) explained that awareness of plagiarism and understanding of the institution’s plagiarism policy were two predictors of plagiarism practices among university students.

Understanding plagiarism involves various factors. One has to know what plagiarism is and be aware that copying without correct recognition of the source is unacceptable. In addition, one has to be able to properly cite, and know how to use plagiarism detection software. Students are also required to be aware of university-wide academic plagiarism rules and punishments. Nabee et al. (2020) also contended that awareness of plagiarism and the regulations and punishments that will be imposed if found guilty of committing it will have a favorable influence on plagiarism practices. This means that university students will be obliged to be more aware of their writing abilities and will be less inclined to engage in academic dishonesty. However, putting an end to plagiarism has ramifications for university administrators. Not only educators but even more so managers or administrators will have to work to increase university students’ level of skill to where they do not plagiarize. Workshops held for article writing and publication can train participants to continue writing and to understand the conditions required for the publication of articles in journals which are systematic and characterized by scientific concepts.

In an effort to build modules and provide appropriate training for researchers comprising graduate students and academics, several challenges in article writing and publication have been identified. These include emotional instability (Janke et al., 2020; Zahrin et al., 2020), financial and time constraints (Brutus et al., 2013), lack of experience (Alharbi, 2019), rejection from article publishers (Jha, 2014), and individual attitudes (Pineteh, 2014).

Emotional instability was found to be one of the major hindrances and challenges faced by young academics in article publication. They are anxious that their writing will not conform to standards, a feeling which drags on throughout the

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publication process, because more time and effort are required for editing. The tedious editing process, which involves re-reading, repetitive writing, multiple formatting, and other steps in journal article writing, causes emotional instability among young academics. Kara (2013) asserted that academic research involves a lot of emotions, and that emotions are inevitable in research work. Kara (2013) suggested that writers should learn to channel emotions in their academic writing in order to better present their research to readers. Sword et al. (2018) pointed out that academics are also often frustrated in article publication because they often face rejection from reputable journals. This frustration also contributes to a sense of despair and failure to rise in rank and strengthen scholarship on a global scale.

Having identified the challenges and gaps in previous studies, this study aims to improve the skills that postgraduate students and academics in higher education institutions (HEIs) need to possess for article writing and publication. Among these skills are researching, reading scientific materials, managing information, and writing scientific reports in the form of journal articles. The skills that will be improved through the use of the Love for Writing and Publishing Journal (LWJP) Module are expected to help academics and postgraduate students achieve excellence in their careers and studies.

2. Theory-Based Design of Teaching and Learning Materials Theories aim to define and explain an event or phenomenon (Silverman, 2017).

Three theories were used in the development of the LWPJ Module, namely Self-Determination Theory (SDT), Social Constructivism Theory, and Successful Intelligence Theory. These theories were chosen because they meet the criteria requiring course participants to be able to make decisions and take actions for self-success, while leveraging a conducive and encouraging environment in producing quality journal articles.

2.1 Self-Determination Theory SDT is applied to activities that are engaging, challenging, or fun, and that require no experience or extrinsic reason to be performed (Deci & Ryan, 2004). SDT is a theory that connects personality, human motivation, and optimal performance. It claims that there are two sorts of motivation, intrinsic and extrinsic, and that both are strong influences in determining who we are and how we act (Deci & Ryan, 1985). This theory evolved from research on motivation by Edward Deci and Richard Ryan in the 1970s and 1980s.

SDT is in line with the teaching of Islam which encourages the individual to look upon themselves in any aspect of life. Though the individual can determine their well-being, they are prone to look upon themselves for more understanding of their undertakings. The Qur’an mentions in chapter az-Dhariyat verse 21: “And in yourself. Then will you not see” (Dar Qiraat, 2016). This verse highlights the importance of understanding one’s own personality, motivation, and functioning. The verse calls upon readers to reflect on themselves and to determine the best options for their life.

In the context of journal article writing and publication, the internal motivation of course participants is expected to be a catalyst for their success in completing

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a given assignment within a set period of time. The expected internal motivation is a feeling of love for the activities that make the efforts of writing and publishing journal articles successful. On the other hand, external motivation comes from the facilitators and other participants who exhibit their progress during the training or course. The most effective external motivation is when course participants manage to submit to a journal publisher, regardless of whether it is the Malaysian Citation Index Database (MyCite), Excellence in Research for Australia (Era), Scopus (Elsevier’s abstract and citation database), or Web of Science (WoS) journals. It is more exciting, however, when participants are able to submit their articles to WoS journals, as the meta data procedure is more complicated and takes longer when compared to MyCite index journals.

2.2 Social Constructivism Theory According to Yildirim (2014), constructivism is a contemporary theoretical approach that greatly influences educational systems around the world. It is a student-centered educational strategy that uses the link between previous experiences and new knowledge to give the material presented meaning and structure. According to Sivan (2010), motivation in the classroom is based on theories that focus on the intrapsychological properties of the individual or their cognitive and/or affective functions. In contrast to the individualistic perspective, social constructivism features motivations derived from external influences such as training and a conducive environment.

In the context of this study, Social Constructivism Theory features a culture of academic writing and publication that involves more than only journal articles.

In addition, extensive exposure is given to the production of research proposals, abstract layouts, conference papers, and early exposure, helping graduate students prepare their theses and journal articles. A culture based on a love for knowledge and a love to disseminate knowledge for the benefit of the world’s population makes this study highly impactful in building a social environment that builds and promotes academic excellence.

2.3 Successful Intelligence Theory According to Sternberg’s Theory of Successful Intelligence, intelligence is divided into three functioning components which complement each other: analytical, practical, and creative intelligence. The higher order mental processes involved in problem-solving are referred to as analytical or extraction intelligence. In the process of analyzing, assessing, critiquing, reasoning, and evaluating, analytical aptitude is necessary. People with strong analytical intelligence are known to do well in standardized academic aptitude tests (Sternberg & Rainbow Project Collaborators, 2006).

In the context of this study, this theory is used to strengthen motivation to achieve success in the course. Considering the time constraints of academic and postgraduate students, the success of completing article writing and the opportunity to submit it to a journal publisher is very meaningful and exciting.

The analytical, practical, and creative aspects of this theory play a role in the thinking and actions of course participants to achieve the envisioned success.

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3. Theoretical Framework of The Study We used the above three theories as a platform to produce the LWPJ Module. The theoretical framework used in the study is depicted in Figure 1. This learning theory became the framework and acted as a basis in the design and construction of the LWPJ Module.

Self-Determination Theory

•Motivation for writing and publishing journal articles

•Critical thinking Social Constructivism •Past experience Theory

LWPJ Module

•Analysis Succesful Inteligence •Practicality Theory •Creativivity Figure 1: Theoretical framework used to create the LWPJ Module

The three theories were used as a basis in the development of the LWPJ Module.

We selected SDT based on the research problems that have been identified. Since this research aimed to develop the LWJP Module, Social Constructivism Theory and Successful Intelligence Theory were identified as backup theories in building the module. These theories are appropriate because they contribute to motivation for article writing and publication, critical thinking, use of past experience, as well as a determination to achieve success through intelligence in analysis, practicality, and creativity.

4. Methodology The content of the LWPJ Module was determined by collecting interview data and visiting the library for information from books, theses, journal articles, reports, and relevant policies. This method was appropriate for gathering adequate data to accurately justify the research, as well as for the scope of the research, which was to develop the module (Mahmud et al., 2017). The different phases and steps of the module construction process are described in Table 1. The construction process was based on the first phase of this research.

Table 1: Construction process of the Love for Writing and Publishing Journal (LWPJ) Module Phase Goal construction

Steps In general, module construction is intended as an intervention for postgraduate students and academics. In the goal-formulating process, the results of the needs analysis were used to identify the theme of the needs of the module or activities in the module. For example, the results of the needs analysis showed that the module requires integration of theory and practice. Therefore, the

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Identifying theories, concepts, targets, and duration of the course/workshop

Requisite study

Setting objectives

Content selection

Strategy selection

Logistics selection

Media selection

Consolidation of module drafts

goals were formulated in line with the theme of how to combine theory and practice and being able to explain the content of the activities.

This phase included identifying relevant theories to explain the variables measured in accordance with the problems faced by postgraduate students and academics. In addition, the concepts used in the construction of the LWPJ Module were identified as user simplicity and effective mentoring through continuous monitoring of the participants’ WhatsApp group. The targets were postgraduate students and academics, in a two-day online course/workshop.

To determine the module construction requirements, a requisite study was undertaken. The requisite study was carried out in this study using two methods: document analysis and surveys. The findings of the requisite study have been discussed under the research problems of the study.

Two types of objectives, namely the general and particular objectives, were determined in the beginning. The general objectives explain the overall objectives that must be met throughout module implementation. The specific objectives are the respective aims of each submodule or activity executed.

Content was selected and constructed based on theory, because each activity is able to explain the variables, which are falling in love (with journals), writing, and publishing journal articles.

Furthermore, the content chosen has an impact on the goals of each activity. The appropriate content was chosen based on the relevant domain.

The facilitator’s degree of expertise, the participants’ suitability, the site or location where the course will be presented, and the appropriateness of the meeting time were all included into the strategy selection. All these criteria were taken into account when determining the module’s seamless deployment and, as a result, its efficacy.

The materials to be utilized in each activity, the suitability of the venue or site of the course, the facilitator’s training, and participant safety are all factors to consider while planning logistics. We compiled a checklist that facilitators will have to complete to confirm that the logistical needs are adequate and fulfil the standards that have been established for presentation of the module.

The module must be presented based on the needs of the activities. This may include a combination of several methods of delivery, including through the Microsoft Teams platform.

Furthermore, educational tools such as the internet, video clips, WhatsApp, and PowerPoint can be used to encourage participants to actively participate in each activity.

The completed module draft for each activity was collected and organized in a systematic manner in the second phase of this study. The creation phase of the draft module has been completed, which means that the module can proceed to the next step, in which it will be evaluated by the experts.

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4.1 Design Phase The LWPJ Module was designed based on the needs analysis and research problem discussed in this study. The next step was to select and organize the content, select effective technology for the activities, and select resources that suit the needs of the students. The selection of theories and models also guides lecturers and students to consider the findings from the analysis phase as input for the design phase. In the previous phase, the findings of the student questionnaire were enriched with lecturer questionnaires along with interviews with lecturers and experts. Figure 2 shows the module preparation framework at the design phase.

Identify

Select

Construct

Execute

Assess

Course format requirements • Learning objective • Student needs and desires • Context

•

Pedagogical strategies

• •

Theory of Self-Determination Theory of Social Constructivism

•

Theory of Successful Intelligence

Figure 2: Design phase of the LWPJ Module

Figure 2 shows the design framework of the LWPJ Module preparation. The entire division of this module is illustrated in detail in Figure 3. There are two domains in the production of this module, namely love motivation and skills. There are four basic skills for researchers, namely researching, reading, writing, and publishing. The two main domains of the module are broken down into three submodules, namely Falling in Love, Writing, and Publishing. The submodules become the main topics or chapters in the LWPJ Module. The Falling in Love submodule is the first section that will discuss the love for writing and serve as introduction to journal articles. The second part is the Writing submodule, which will focus on writing, writing a draft, journal components, and the characteristics of a quality journal article. When users are exposed to this information, they will be able to understand the basic concepts of a journal article. The last section is the Publishing submodule, which will discuss potential journals in which to publish articles, the process of submitting to publishers, and the costs that are to be incurred to publish articles. These three submodules are broken down into five activities each. This is done so that each theory is put into practice so that users can better understand the process of article writing and publication.

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LWPJ Domain

Submodule

Unit

Activities Activity A.1 Activity A.2

MOTIVATION OF LOVE

Falling in Love

Activity A.3

Unit 1

Activity A.4 Activity A.5

Activity B.1 Activity B.2

Writing

Unit 2

SKILLS:

Activity B.3 Activity B.4

• Researching • Reading • Writing • Publishing

Activity B.5

Activity C.1

Publishing

Unit 3

Activity C.2 Activity C.3 Activity C.4 Activity C.5

Figure Error! No text of specified style in document.: LWPJ Module preparation design framework

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4.2 Development Phase The development process begins with the determination of equipment for writing, which includes the formation and selection of appropriate teaching materials according to the content of learning through a two-day course. The development phase also considers the formation of more efficient and appropriate teaching strategies. Once the software and equipment have been determined, the module authoring activities are done in detail based on the information from the design phase. Module development is divided into three parts, namely introduction, writing, and publication. Once the LWPJ Module is ready to be developed, the draft module will be piloted in a two-day course.

The development phase involves creating intuitive pathways (intuitive awareness), identifying learning objectives, and creating teaching methods, materials, and interactive communication methods. In addition, it involves creating support materials for students to foster a love to write and publish journal modules according to predefined design specifications in module form.

At the end of the module development, module testing is conducted by a fourperson panel of expert evaluators. The purpose of this testing is to verify whether developed modules meet the specified specifications, with the module improvement process being based on the results of expert feedback (Harun et al., 2003).

The panel of expert evaluators was given a draft of the modules that had been produced along with an expert validation checklist detailed according to the subsections of the instrument based on their respective areas of expertise. Expert confirmation will be given through feedback in the checklist for the LWPJ Module testing process. In the context of module content, academic writing experts or experts in research methodology were asked to provide feedback based on the content of each LWPJ Module unit. Multimedia experts provided feedback on slides, audio, and graphics. Instructional design experts responded to the design of the LWPJ Module with self-directed learning methods and problem-based learning methods to determine whether the module met these criteria. All written responses were recorded and analyzed for the purposes of this study.

In addition, module testing was also conducted among postgraduate students and academics during the pilot study. The results of the checklist feedback from the experts and participants of the pilot study were recorded and analyzed according to the theme of the term code that had been determined for the purpose of improving the LWPJ Module. A pilot study on the use of the module was conducted in a two-day writing workshop. The participants of this pilot study met the same criteria as those of the actual study. The pilot study was conducted to test the module and identify any content problems or procedures for the use of LWPJ modules. The problems identified will be addressed and corrected until there are no more problems during the actual study.

4.3 Results of Module Testing Based on the two-day writing workshop using the module, we found a significant difference in the perception of writing skills and publication of journal articles before and after use of the LWPJ Module (t = -6.42, p = 0, p < .01) for the workshop

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participants. The findings showed that the post-study results (mean = 4.50, SP = 0.682) for the perception score of writing and publishing journal article skills using the module were higher than those of the pre-study (mean = 3.07, SP = 1.081). Reflection of participants’ feedback is very important to evaluate the success of the LWPJ Module through the workshop. The qualitative data collected through WhatsApp showed that participants had success in writing through the submission of their articles to publishing journals. Of the 30 participants, 15 (50%) successfully submitted their scholarly writing to publishers after a few days of completing the course. This showed that the internal awareness experienced by participants made them more motivated to produce journal articles. The percentage of participants who admitted their love for writing and publishing articles also increased compared to before completing the LWPJ Module.

Quantitative data collected through Google Forms also showed that the postgraduate students in this study’s level of understanding and application in writing and publishing articles increased when compared to before they had completed the LWPJ Module in the two-day course.

4.4 Participant Selection Procedure The research population refers to the total number of individuals found in a study area. According to Wiersma (2000), in social science studies, researchers need to take the population into account when determining the size of the sample that needs to be selected to represent the population under study. Neuman (2000) argued that a study sample taken at random allows the researcher to make an accurate generalization with respect to a selected population. In this study, the study population consisted of postgraduate students of Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia and academics (aged 25 to 50 years) in 2020.

A postgraduate student is an individual who pursues education for a higher degree. This includes individuals learning and studying for an academic or professional degree, certificate, or diploma, or other qualification that requires a first or bachelor’s degree and is usually considered part of higher education. At the postgraduate level, students should prepare their respective research topics while they enroll and get good information in their proposed field of research.

Furthermore, they should also have basic presentation skills, be knowledgeable about research ethics, and be dedicated to and accountable for their own research (Krish et al., 2017). Specifically, for this study, the postgraduate students involved were pursuing studies at the master’s, doctor of philosophy, and doctor of higher education levels at Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia in 2020.

Academic is an honorary title given to full members of academies who have a significant impact on national scientific life. Academics have a strong influence in the organization of the educational environment, including connections, structure, communication, and atmosphere (Göksoy, 2018). The career success of an academic can be measured through reputation, recognition, promotion, and research productivity (Said & Rasdi, 2012). The academics involved in this study were university lecturers and educators serving at Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia as well as other institutions of higher learning.

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4.4.1 Characteristics of the needs analysis phase participants For the needs analysis phase, ten postgraduate students of the 2019 cohort and ten academics were selected for the purpose of analysis. They were selected using purposive sampling, because they were expected to provide comprehensive feedback on the needs of the study (Creswell & Creswell, 2017). All the study participants met the criteria that had been set, which is to possess high levels of expertise and knowledge, qualifications exceeding five years, and agreement to being a participant for a long period. The sample size was selected based on the views of Fraenkel et al. (2012), that a qualitative study requires between 1 and 20 participants. However, Spencer and Spencer (1993) discovered that as few as seven research participants are sufficient to gather useful qualitative data.

Meanwhile, Patton (2002) argued that using a small number of participants helps researchers acquire information in more depth. Our determination of the sample size is also based on the recommendations of researchers in the field of analysis and system design. In this regard, Satzinger et al. (2007) argued that a small number of participants is sufficient if the design objectives are clear and limited.

4.4.2 Characteristics of the design and development phase participants The results of the analysis and feedback in the needs analysis phase were recorded and used as a guide in the module design process. The design phase is an important phase because the selection of study participants influences the quality of the study. In the development phase, four expert evaluators acted as a panel to review and validate the module in terms of content, illustrations, information organization, and graphic content. According to Hsu and Sandford (2007), a panel of research specialists should be chosen among individuals who have experience in the topic under investigation, are capable and eager to engage in research, and have communication skills. The usability test of the module was conducted during the testing phase on 15 postgraduate students and 15 academics during a pilot study conducted on the two-day journal article writing course.

4.4.3 Characteristics of the evaluation phase participants For the evaluation phase, 20 postgraduate students and 20 academics were involved in the study. Participants of this study registered online through course announcements. However, after the course was conducted, only 15 postgraduate students and 15 academics met the set criteria. The criteria included the following: the agreement to be a study participant, to not yet have the rank of associate professor, and to study or work at Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia.

Once the course registration was finalized, we formed a WhatsApp group to join all course participants together. We reminded them again that this course was suitable for those who are trying to write journal articles, do not have article writing experience, and who want to publish articles in high-indexed journals.

The selection of study participants as discussed above for the various phases was based on the three phases of the LWPJ Module development workflow process, as shown in Table 3.

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Table Error! No text of specified style in document.: Study participants for the three phases Phase Needs analysis

Sampling Aim

Development • Module testing • Pilot study

Aim

Assessment and evaluation • Actual study

Aim

Participants Postgraduate students Academics Panel of expert evaluators Content experts Postgraduate students Academics Postgraduate students Academics

No. 10 10 5 6 15 15 15 15

5. Conclusion and Recommendations The LWJP Module designed in this study motivates and inspires those in academia to produce various credible scholarly writings, such as research proposals, conference proceedings, journal articles, and theses/dissertations, although this study specializes in the production of journal articles. The module designed emphasizes the need to produce quality scholarly writings. The module was tested on postgraduate students and academics by integrating it into a two-day course, and their quality of writing measured before, during, and after the course. Through this module, students and academics can identify and improve the skills needed for academic writing. The use of information technology, especially WhatsApp, Microsoft Teams, and web searches of journal articles through Google Scholar and other search engines, made the experience and process of writing and publishing journal articles easy and realistic in the set time. The module helps dedicated academics to produce journal articles that will be successfully published according to the quality set by the publishing journal.

This study provides added value in terms of increasing talent and excellence among academics and postgraduate students. The developed module can be used as a supplement for article writing and publication courses. In addition, the developed questionnaires can be used to measure the effectiveness of the module and the mastery of skills possessed by participants before and after the course.

This LWPJ Module can be utilized by universities and college communities, resulting in increased outstanding talent and improved academic leadership in publications. Talent management carried out in a planned, comprehensive, and holistic manner in an HEI will help the organization to realize their mission and vision in sustaining excellence (Norzaini et al., 2020).

Overall, it can be concluded that a love for writing and publishing can be instilled in academics and postgraduate students in HEIs through the LWJP Module that has been designed. In addition, the study also found that the teaching and learning of the module through courses or workshops, as well as monitoring through WhatsApp and internet searches, were extremely valuable and aided participants’ success in producing journal articles as planned. The positive attitudes and emotions implanted in participants during the training motivated

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them to write more than one scientific paper. Reliance on information technology in research and development in HEIs has become very important, especially during the COVID-19 pandemic that hit the world in December 2019. We recommend that this module be patented and utilized by students and academics from various institutions of higher learning in- and outside Malaysia.

Acknowledgement This study was financed by Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia grants (GG-2019078 and GG-2020-009). We also forward our appreciation to Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia for sponsoring the higher education doctorate that contributed to this study.

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