Vol 10 no 4 march 2015 by ijlter.org

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching And Educational Research

Vol.10 No.4

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research

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VOLUME 10

NUMBER 4

March 2015

Table of Contents A Study of Consonant Clusters in an EFL Context ............................................................................................................ 1 Ruhollah Khanbeiki and Seyed Jalal Abdolmanafi-Rokni Do Emotional-Social Intelligence, Caring, Moral Judgment and Leadership of Physical Therapy Students Predict their Clinical Performance? ................................................................................................................................................ 15 Hélène Larin and Jean Wessel Integrating Teaching Resources and Assessment Tasks to Enhance Student Experience........................................... 28 Dr Sujana Adapa Clustering Analysis of Attitudes of Prospective Computer Programmers towards Programming .......................... 40 Özcan ÖZYURT and Hacer ÖZYURT Does Inquiry-Learning Support Long-Term Retention of Knowledge? ....................................................................... 51 Sarah Schmid and Franz X. Bogner Enhancing Agricultural Education Lecturers’ Teaching Effectiveness in Nigeria Colleges of Education: The Human Resource Supervision Perspective ........................................................................................................................ 71 Camilus Bassey Ben and Ajigo Ikutal Middle School Students Academic Motivation: A Missing Element in a General Education Quality Improvement Program in Ethiopia ............................................................................................................................................................ 84 Abebe Kinde Getachew Evaluating Asynchronous Discussion as Social Constructivist Pedagogy in an Online Undergraduate Gerontological Social Work Course ................................................................................................................................... 94 Cari L. Gulbrandsen, Christine A. Walsh, Amy E. Fulton, Anna Azulai and Hongmei Tong The Amalgamation of Conventional Universities and Open/ Distance Learning and their Effects on Students’ Performances ...................................................................................................................................................................... 112 Saher H. EL-Annan Ph.D

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 10, No. 4, pp. 1-14, March 2015

A Study of Consonant Clusters in an EFL Context Ruhollah Khanbeiki English Department, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Gorgan, Iran Seyed Jalal Abdolmanafi-Rokni English Department, Golestan University, Gorgan, Iran

Abstract The objective of the present study was to provide answers to the questions whether Persian learners of English would have the same number of vowel insertions in the initial and final consonant clusters and also to see if the phonological system of the Persian students' mother tongue would have any effect on their learning of the pronunciation of the initial and final consonant clusters. To this end, sixty female intermediate EFL learners were administered a pronunciation test. The analysis of the participants' performances in the test showed that the number of vowel insertions they had in the initial consonant clusters was not the same as that of final consonant clusters, and using a chi square displayed that the problem of vowel insertion was found to be much more severe with initial consonant clusters as the participants highly added vowels to such clusters. Furthermore, it was found that Persian language's syllable structure does really affect the learning of consonant clusters (i.e. transfer from mother tongue). Keywords: pronunciation, consonant clusters, transfer, EFL learners

Introduction

Pronunciation is one aspect of the language teaching process that is tackled by every L2 learner in his journey to acquire native-like proficiency in the target language. For any learner to become proficient in an L2, he has to improve all aspects of language, one of which is pronunciation. Mastering the pronunciation of a language is highly important in terms of communication since in many cases the replacement of one sound for another will result in changes in meaning, hence affecting the flow of communication. Therefore, one of the aims of the teachers must be training the students to pronounce sounds as native speakers of the target language. Accordingly, analyzing the problems learners may face in learning the accurate or at least an acceptable pronunciation of the target language deserves to be thoroughly and intensively inspected.

Playing the central role in face to face communication, pronunciation should also be highly taken into account by English teachers. In fact, teachers should adopt the approach that best helps students acquire native-like or intelligible pronunciation so that they can become efficient members of the Englishspeaking community in which they communicate and also so that they are not known to have non-native pronunciation errors as such errors may place the speaker at a professional or social disadvantage (Morley, 1991). Although there has been little research on the teaching and learning of pronunciation, "there is theoretical and technical work to help us understand the processes involved in developing phonology in a second language and the factors that contribute to it" (Lightbown & Spada, 2006, p. 104). The thing that has helped a lot to explain some aspects of first language influence on second language learners' phonological development has been contrastive analysis. One example of L1 influence on L2 phonological development is Persian learners' inability to correctly pronounce English consonant clusters. Actually, Persian learners of English usually tend to insert vowels into English consonant clusters, especially those that occur in the initial position. To Cook (1991), L2 learners do this to make English conform to the syllable structures of their first languages. According to Keshavarz (2008a), such a tendency on the part of Persian learners of English is because Persian syllable structure does not allow initial consonant clusters. To him, Persian learners of English say ‘I e-speak e-Spanish’ instead of ‘I speak Spanish’ because they are unaware of the ways English consonants can be combined to form the so-called consonant clusters and also because they have got used to Persian syllable structure. Cook (1991) maintains that some of the problems L2 learners have regarding the issue of pronunciation learning is related to the differences between the syllable structure of the two languages, i.e. the combinations of consonants and vowels, rather than the differences between single phonemes. Thus, the failure of the Persian learner to correctly pronounce the word 'speak' without the epenthetic vowel is because he/she is unaware of the ways consonants can be combined in English- the permissible consonant clusters. Therefore, one way to explain the problems Persian learners have in learning the rules of consonant cluster present in English syllable structure is through CAH (contrastive analysis hypothesis). As the name implies, the most important aim of CAH is to compare and contrast two specific languages to find the similarities and differences between them. Using the findings of CAH, contrastivists try to predict the probable errors learners will encounter during their process of learning a second language with the aim of preventing learners from making those errors in advance (Keshavarz, 2008b). James (1980) claims that CA is done at different levels of language consisting of phonology, morphology and syntax. Therefore, as related to the present study, one of the aims of CAH is to find the similarities and differences between two specific languages in the area of phonology.

According to Ziahosseiny (2006), teachers and textbook writers use CAH to find out which aspects of language are similar to or different from the students' mother tongue. The general belief is that the degree of the difference between the learners' native language and the target language can bring about greater difficulty. Lightbown and Spada (2006) point out that the evidence supporting the CA hypothesis originates partly from the observation that it takes learners longer to become highly fluent in a particular second or foreign language if that language is considerably different from their first languages. Thus, the learners' first language plays an important role in the development of second or foreign language phonology. As Lightbown and Spada (2006) continue, there are some other factors, such as the amount and type of exposure to the target language and the degree of use of the first language, that substantially contribute to the development of pronunciation. Piske, Mackey, and Flege (2001), based on some studies, have found that the longer the students are exposed to a language, the more their pronunciation will improve (Lightbown & Spada, 2006). They also found that the greater they continue to make use of their first language, the stronger their accents in the second language will be. Therefore, CAH enables the teacher to know how easy or difficult a particular aspect of language will be for a particular group of students with a particular mother tongue (Ziahosseiny, 2006). In fact, Ziahosseiny (2006) maintains that if the aspect is easy, the teacher will devote less class time to that aspect, and if it is difficult, more time and more exercises will be devoted to that particular aspect of the language. He also points out that the other users of the findings of CAH are textbook writers whose intention is to decide which aspects of the language should be presented first and which later, based on the degree of difficulty. Transfer from Mother Tongue and the Learning of Consonant Clusters Hudson (2000), discussing the main reasons for the superiority of child first language acquisition over adult second language learning, points out that the reasons for this dominance are rooted in ‘cognitive, affective, and biological differences’ between adults and children. He explains that cognitive differences refer to the ability on the part of adults to consciously process their knowledge of things, including knowledge of language. To him, adults' ability to consciously process language is due to their having analytic and meta-linguistic knowledge about the language, i.e. their ability to talk about language and how it works. Moreover, as he continues, adults have ‘prior knowledge of their native language’. Lightbown and Spada (2006) maintain that this prior knowledge can be an advantage in the sense that learners have an idea of how languages work. However, they continue that it can also be a drawback when it causes learners to make interferential errors. In fact, according to Hudson (2000), adults have some expectations, based on their native language, about the target language. Interferential errors, to him, occur when their expectations about the target language are incorrect because the two languages are different from each other

with respect to a specific rule. That’s why transfer, as contrastivists maintain, plays an important role in learning a second language. Actually, to Lado (1957), language transfer has always been fundamental to any theory of second language phonological development. The terms that seem necessary to be explained here are transfer, interference, and overgeneralization. Followers of behavioristic psychology think that when a person learns two specific things successively, the first learning affects the second one (Ziahosseiny, 2006). To Carl James (1980) this influence is called ‘transfer’. In fact, he (p. 11) defines transfer as "the effects of one learning task on a subsequent one". According to Hudson (2000), transfer is the influence that earlier knowledge has on the acquisition of later knowledge. Ziahosseiny (2006) and Hudson (2000) declares that transfer can happen in two ways: positive or negative. To them, if the first learning is similar to the second one, then positive transfer happens. The outcome of positive transfer is that the first learning helps the second one, i.e. makes it easier. However, if the first learning is different from the second one, then negative transfer happens; that is, the first learning causes difficulty for the second one. According to Brown (2000), negative transfer can be referred to as ‘interference’. Hudson (2000) maintains that negative transfer occurs when categories in L1 and L2 are similar to each other in some ways but different in others. He continues that such categories may present persistent problems of transfer referred to as interference. To him, foreign accent, which is so common in adult language learning, is mostly because of transfer of phonological categories. Ziahosseiny (2006) maintains that more time and exercise is needed for the learner to be able to overcome the difficulty made by interference. As far as the acquisition of second language phonology is concerned, Kranke and Christison (as cited in Richards & Renandya, 2002) declare that interference from learners' first language affects the acquisition of the second language sound system more than other systems (such as grammar). That’s why, as Jones and Evans (1995) claim, a large number of teaching pronunciation materials include sections on contrastive analysis. These sections, though helping teachers predict where their students will make a mistake and which forms are more difficult for them to learn, are often misleading because these predictions are usually made for individual sounds and sound segments not for supra-segmental features that are usually overlooked in these books. The important question which is very much in debate is "the extent to which inter-language phonology is affected by L1 transfer" (Richards & Renandya, 2002, p. 181). According to contrastive analysts, the most important factor that affects language learning in general and pronunciation learning in particular is interference from mother tongue. Actually, as Brown (2000) maintains, the early stages of learning an L2 are especially in danger of inter-lingual transfer from the native language, or interference (Cook, 1991). They continue that in these beginning stages, before getting familiar with the system of the second language, the learner makes use of his native language as the only easily accessible

linguistic system. To Brown (2000), while all errors cannot be the result of transfer from mother tongue, many such errors can be seen in learner speech. He believes that once learners have passed the beginning stages of learning an L2, more and more 'intra-lingual' transfer is manifested, i.e. more universal processes of acquisition common to both L1 and L2 can be seen in the learners' speech. Thus, his suggestion for teachers is that they should be familiar with their learners' native language so that they can more easily detect and analyze their errors. While transfer from mother tongue, as explained above, has been known by contrastive analysts as the only source of pronunciation errors made by learners, other sources are also explained by different researchers during the past century. Tarone's (1978) claim is that transfer forms only one of the factors affecting the inter-language phonology while other factors such as overgeneralization, approximation, and avoidance are much more important. Fledge (1987) points out that learners, once facing a new sound system, compare it with their L1 sound system. He continues that if they find the two systems similar to each other, they use their existing categories; however, when they run into unknown features, they create new categories. Eckman (1977) uses the term ‘markedness’ to talk about the features that are naturally more difficult than others irrespective of the learners' first language. According to Ziahosseiny (2006), contrastivists believing in the strong version of CAH assume that the degree of difficulty depends upon the degree of differences. In other words, the more different the items are, the more difficult they will be for learners to learn. Thus, based on the strong version of CAH, it is interference due to negative transfer that is the only source of all errors. In other words, as Brown (2000) asserts, based on the strong version of CAH, second language learning is principally a process of acquiring whatever items are different from the first language. However, this is not true because, as Ziahosseiny (2006) maintains, interference forms only one third of the errors made by second language learners and such a narrow view of interference overlooks the intra-lingual effects of learning. Therefore, based on the strong version of CAH, it is the syllable structure of Persian language that causes errors on the part of Persian learners of English to accurately pronounce English consonant clusters (Keshavarz, 2008a). According to Keshavarz (2008b), when encountering a word that contains initial consonant clusters, the Persian learner of English negatively transfers his knowledge of Persian syllable structures to pronounce that specific word. He continues that this is because of the fact that initial consonant clusters are not allowed in Persian; therefore, Persian speakers insert a vowel before or in between the cluster to make it easier to pronounce. Thus, they pronounce the word ‘street’ as /ɛstɛrit/ and ‘tree’ as /tɛri/. Cook (1991), explaining the reason why most L2 learners find it difficult to learn English consonant clusters, states that part of interlanguage phonology is the rules for forming syllables. To him, L2 learners, before leaning the rules

underlying English syllable structure, often try by one means or another to make the L2 syllables fit their L1s. Simply stated, they make L2 syllables conform to the syllable structures of their first languages by inserting extra vowels among English consonant clusters. Examples are Koreans saying /kəla:s/ for 'class' or Arabs saying /bi læstik/ for 'plastic'. Prator (1967), a proponent of the strong version of CAH, has made a hierarchy that shows the degrees of difficulty of different items of language (Keshavarz, 2008b). Based on this hierarchy, initial consonant clusters can be put in level 4, which is over differentiation. Keshavarz (2008b) and Brown (2000) define over differentiation as: a new item which is completely different from the native language must be learned entirely. According to Keshavarz (2008b), initial consonant clusters must be very difficult for Persian learners of English to learn. However, according to the weak version of CAH, as Ziahosseiny (2006) asserts, when a phonological error (such as the Persian learner being unable to correctly pronounce the English sounds [θ and ð]) occurs, it is not due to the interference of the first learning with the second one; rather, it is owing to the fact that the learner has not yet learned how to say the English sounds, so he draws upon the sounds from his first learning. In other words, he gets help from Persian, not that Persian interferes with his learning. Therefore, based on the weak version of CAH, and as far as the learning of English consonant clusters is concerned, the Persian learner's adding epenthetic vowels to initial consonant clusters is not due to the interference of the first learning (Persian) with the second one (English); rather, the learner gets help from Persian to pronounce English consonant clusters via the use of the Persian syllable structure or as Cook (1991) maintains he carries over a feature of his first language phonology into English. As opposed to the strong and weak versions of CAH, which state that learners of a foreign language learn on the basis of differences, the moderate version of CAH assumes that errors are made on the basis of similarities, not differences (Ziahosseiny, 2006). In other words, as Ziahosseiny (2006) claims, learners make errors in learning a specific item because they consider that particular item to be similar to the one they already know. To explain, the more the new item to be learned is similar to the one the learner already has in his mind from his first language, the more difficult it will be for him to learn that particular item. As for initial consonant clusters, the Persian learner has not yet come across such a structure (initial consonant clusters) in his L1. Thus, he thinks it is similar to the one he already knows (the syllable structure of Persian language). That is why he makes use of Persian syllable structure instead of the structure of English syllables to pronounce initial consonant clusters. As a result and based on the literature existing in the area of pronunciation learning, the conclusion Keshavarz (2008b) offers is that errors made by Persian learners of English in pronouncing consonant clusters can be classified as interlingual errors (interference), rather than intra-lingual ones (overgeneralization). In other words, the source of error is not found in the students' target language (English), but in their mother tongue (Persian). He explains that this

phonological error (mispronouncing English consonant clusters by Persian learners) is made because of the differences in the syllable structure of the two languages (English and Persian). According to him, no initial consonant cluster is permitted in Persian, i.e. each consonant in the initial position is either preceded or followed by a vowel. As a matter of fact, he claims that students usually tend to transfer the pronunciation features of their mother tongue to the sound system of the L2. Hence, he continues that it is not surprising that Persian-speaking learners of English pronounce words such as ‘school’ and ‘street’ as /esku:l/ and /esterit/, and ‘try’ and ‘class’ as /terai/ and /kelas/, respectively. Having discussed the reasons for student errors in the area of pronunciation, the research will now offer the methods presented by different approaches to language teaching in the 20th century for how to remove such errors from the students' speech. It will also review the researches done in this area. The two common methods presented by the various approaches to language teaching over the past century for the teaching of phonology, as mentioned earlier in this paper, have been explicit versus implicit and there has always been a hot debate about which one is more effective.

Objectives of the Study

To achieve the purpose of the study, the following two null hypotheses are formulated as follows: H1: Persian learners of English have the same number of vowel insertions in the initial and final consonant clusters. H2: The phonological system of the Persian students’ mother tongue has no effect on their learning of the pronunciation of the initial and final consonant clusters.

Methodology Participants

The sample in this study included 60 female intermediate EFL learners studying English at a language school in Gorgan. They aged between 15 and 17 and were selected from a whole population of 152 students who were initially asked to participate in the study from three different language schools in Gorgan, Iran.

Instrumentation

A pronunciation test was used in this study. The aim was to see whether the selected sample had vowel insertion while pronouncing the English words with initial or final consonant clusters and if yes, whether the amount of vowel insertion was the same in such clusters. The statistics performed on this test could help the researcher accept or reject the first hypothesis. Moreover, comparing the number of times the students had vowel insertion in the initial consonant clusters against those in the final consonant clusters and performing statistics on these numbers could help the researcher decide whether the students' native language (Persian) had any effect on their pronunciation of the initial or final consonant clusters, thereby accepting or rejecting the second hypothesis. The test included 50 words, half of which contained different initial

consonant clusters and the other half covered different final consonant clusters. The words chosen for the students to pronounce were those they already were familiar with; therefore, the researcher was sure that the words' level of difficulty is in accordance with the participants' knowledge of the English language. The students were asked to read the words aloud while they were voice-recorded. The test was by no means difficult for the students to read as no word was new and unfamiliar to them. In fact, the words in the test were chosen from their own textbook so that the researcher could make sure that the words' level of difficulty is appropriate to the students' level of English knowledge. However, before each test was given to them, they were asked to carefully scan the words to see whether or not they knew the meanings of all words. In the test the researcher listened to how each student read the words, giving a score to that student based on the way he pronounced initial or final consonant clusters. For the scores to be reliable, two other English teachers analyzed the students' pronunciations and scored them, counting their errors in pronouncing different consonant clusters. It is worth mentioning that the three scorers had attended teacher training periods, and thus were highly experienced and skilled in doing so. In this study, they were asked to score the students only based on their pronunciation of consonant clusters, and to pay no attention to other aspects of pronunciation, such as stress. This way the scores given by the three scorers could be reliable. The scales used for rating the results of the tests were interval.

Data Analysis

Since the two hypotheses dealt with frequencies, and also because the variables in them were nominal (i.e. categorical) in nature, the number of times the students inserted vowels in the initial and final consonant clusters in the test were counted and the percentages of such vowel insertions were calculated. The results could show whether or not Persian learners of English insert vowels in the initial or final consonant clusters. Using a chi square (x2), the frequencies of the vowel insertions in the initial consonant clusters were then compared with those in the final consonant clusters. The results would show whether or not Persian learners of English would have the same amount of vowel insertion in the initial consonant clusters with those in the final ones. The significance level for the chi square (x2) was set at .01 (p < .01). Moreover, counting the number of times the participants had vowel insertion in the initial or final consonant clusters could show whether the syllable structure of the Persian language would have any effect on the learning of each cluster (initial or final).

Results First Hypothesis

H1: Persian learners of English have the same number of vowel insertions in the initial and final consonant clusters. Table 1 shows how many vowel insertions the samples had for the initial consonant clusters in the test. It is worth mentioning that there were 50 words in the test 25 of which contained initial consonant clusters and the remaining 25 contained final consonant clusters.

Table 1: Number and Percentage of Vowel Insertions for the Initial Consonant Clusters

Words Number of words Number of words containing initial pronounced with pronounced Percentage of consonant undue vowel without vowel vowel insertion clusters insertion insertion 25

88%

As Table 1 shows, in 88% of the cases the sample inserted vowels in the initial consonant clusters. Thus, it can be concluded that Persian learners of English highly add vowels in the initial consonant clusters. Table 2 shows how many vowel insertions the sample had for the final consonant clusters in the pre-test. Table 2: Number and Percentage of Vowel Insertions for the Final Consonant Clusters

Words containing consonant clusters

Number of words Number of words final pronounced with pronounced Percentage of undue vowel without vowel vowel insertion insertion insertion

16%

As Table 2 shows, only in 16% of the cases the sample inserted vowels in the final consonant clusters. Thus, it can be concluded that Persian learners of English do not have much vowel insertion in the final consonant clusters. Since the first hypothesis deals with frequencies and because both the independent and the dependent variables in the hypothesis were nominal (i.e. categorical), the chi square (x2) was used to compare the frequencies and to determine whether the number of times the samples had vowel insertion in the initial and final consonant clusters were the same. The results of the chi square analysis, based on Table 3, shows that there is a significant relationship between having the same or different number of vowel insertions in the initial and final consonant clusters at the alpha level of .01 (x2:23.12; df:1; p<.01). In other words, Persian learners of English do not have the same number of vowel insertions for the initial and final consonant clusters. Based on the findings illustrated in Table 3, the first hypothesis is rejected at the alpha level of .01. Table 3: Chi Square Tests

Value Pearson chi square Continuity correction a Likelihood ratio Fisher's Exact test Linear-by-Linear

Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)

25.962b 1 23.157 1 28.905 1

.000 .000 .000

25.442 1 50

.000

Exact sided)

.000

Sig.(2- Exact Sig.(1sided)

.000

Association N of valid cases

12.50.

a. computed only for a 2x2 tables b. 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. the minimum expected count is

Second Hypothesis

H2: The phonological system of the Persian students' mother tongue has no effect on their learning the pronunciation of the initial or final consonant clusters. Like the first hypothesis, this hypothesis also dealt with frequencies. In fact, the aim of the second hypothesis was to decide whether or not the syllable structure of the Persian language has any effect on the pronunciation of the English words containing the initial and final consonant clusters. Again, as the dependent variable was nominal in nature dealing with frequencies and with respect to the results acquired from the first hypothesis, only descriptive statistics were needed and the only thing the researcher had to do was to compare the percentages of the times the samples inserted vowel in each kind of consonant cluster. As Tables 1 and 2 show, because in 88% of the times the selected sample made a mistake in pronouncing the initial consonant clusters, the conclusion is that it is the syllable structure of the Persian language that is causing them to add extra vowels to the English words containing initial consonant clusters. This outcome agrees with the findings of the recent researches saying initial consonant clusters do cause great difficulty for Persian learners of English since such clusters are not allowed in Persian language (Keshavarz, 2008b). However, with respect to the words containing the final consonant clusters, it cannot be claimed that the Persian syllable structure is deterring them from learning the rule because in only 16% of the cases they made a mistake in pronouncing the words with the final consonant clusters while the test showed that they were unaware of the rule. Thus, the second hypothesis can be rejected because Persian language does really affect the learning of consonant clusters. Actually, with regard to initial consonant clusters, the effect is negative (i.e. the Persian syllable structure is preventing them from learning the rule) while regarding final consonant clusters the effect is positive (i.e. it is not preventing them from learning the rule).

Discussion & Conclusion

The goal of the present study was to find out whether initial or final consonant clusters are more difficult for Persian students to pronounce correctly, i.e. without vowel insertion. The other secondary aim was to investigate whether other factors such as the phonological system of the students' mother tongue have any effect on the learning of the rule. The study was conducted inside an educational environment and under real conditions pervasive in language institutes so that the findings could be applicable in Iranian schools.

Moreover, the reason why some consonant clusters, such as those starting with stops followed by approximants (as in the words 'dress', 'tree', 'green' and 'blue'), were difficult for the participants to pronounce correctly, i.e. without vowel insertion could be the existence of a gap between explicit knowledge and use. In fact, as discussed by DeKeyser (2003), it takes a long time and needs much practice for the explicit declarative knowledge to develop into fully implicit, automatized procedural knowledge. That is why the participants' being aware of the English consonant cluster rules did not guarantee their correct production of such clusters. Thus, the only thing that can gradually bridge the gap between explicit knowledge and use is practice. In other words, more time, more practice and also more exposure are needed for the automatic processing to occur. Regarding the objectives of the study, the participants' performances on the test were analyzed and the finding showed that Persian learners of English do not have the same number of vowel insertions in the two kinds of consonant clusters. It was also found that the problem was much more severe with initial consonant clusters as some of such clusters were too difficult for the students to pronounce correctly. The differences between the phonological systems of the two languages were found to be the source of a great number of participants' mistakes in correctly pronouncing the words containing initial consonant clusters. As Persian does not allow initial consonant clusters, Persian learners of English would face serious problems in accurately pronouncing such clusters. However, the problem was not found to be so serious for final consonant clusters where the participants had nearly no vowel insertion. In fact, and based on the results, only in 16% of the times, the sample inserted vowels in final consonant clusters. This percentage is too low to conclude that the participants have vowel insertion in final consonant clusters. This is because Persian syllable structure allows two consecutive consonant clusters in the final position. Thus, it can be said that they are familiar with such clusters in their own mother tongue, causing them to have no problem pronouncing the words containing two final consonant clusters (as in the words 'bend, pant, cold') and even to tolerate those containing longer final clusters (i.e. to have no undue vowel insertion) (as in the words 'texts, words, girls, things, crafts). Even when a word, containing long final consonant clusters, was too difficult to articulate without vowel insertion, they resorted more to 'elision' rather than 'vowel insertion', the act which is also common to native English speakers themselves. Actually, it is noticeable in English that in casual conversational speech, large consonant clusters, especially those occurring in final position, are frequently reduced as they are usually difficult for even native speakers to pronounce (Keshavarz, 2008a). Thus, it is not surprising to hear them pronounce the word 'depths' as /dÉ&#x203A;ps/, and similarly the word 'acts' as /ĂŚks/. Sometimes, the participants also managed to avoid elision without having undue vowel insertion by reducing the speed of pronunciation, leading them to having artificial articulations. In fact, reducing the speed of articulation is one of the solutions through which foreign speakers of a language manage to keep their accuracy. But this way they lose their fluency (i.e. the effect of accuracy on

fluency). Therefore, explicit knowledge about language rules can affect learners' fluency. The only final consonant clusters for which the participants couldn't help inserting vowels were those containing dental fricatives such as /ɵ/ and /ð/ followed by /s/ and /z/, respectively (as in the words 'strengths', 'depths', 'twelfths', 'truths', 'breathes'). The combination of affricates such as /ʤ, ʧ/ followed by /d/ was also difficult for them to pronounce at first, but again the participants managed to solve the problem by reducing the speed of articulation (as in the word 'changed'). Nearly all of the words containing initial consonant clusters in the test were found to be difficult for the participants to pronounce correctly. The fact that in 88% of the words, the participants inserted vowel in initial consonant clusters is suggestive of the depth of their difficulty regarding such clusters. However, the problem was not the same with all such clusters. In other words, the participants did not have the same degree of vowel insertion in all initial consonant clusters. The problem was found to be more severe in clusters with three consonants in the initial position beginning with /s/, such as 'spring, strong, stress'. However, in the words containing two clusters in the initial position, the combinations of fricatives such as /f/ or /ɵ/ and approximants /r/ or /l/ in the words 'fresh, flash, throw' were the easiest for the participants to learn (i.e. although they had vowel insertion at the beginning, they learned such clusters sooner than the others). However, the combination of /k/ and /l/ in the word 'class' (especially when /l/ was followed by /ɒ/ in the word 'clock') was a little more difficult for the participants to learn. The most difficult combinations were those of /dr/, /tr/, /gr/ and /bl/ (i.e. the combinations of stops and approximants) in the words 'dress', 'tree', 'green' and 'blue'. The findings of the research are highly consistent with the CA hypothesis, based on which the degree of difference between learners' native language and the target language can bring about greater difficulty. According to this hypothesis, the more different the two languages are, the more difficult it will be for learners to learn the target language. Therefore, initial consonant clusters must be much more difficult for Persian learners to learn than their final counterparts as the degree of difference between English and Persian is greater in such clusters. In fact, based on the CA hypothesis, they will need much more practice and exposure to such clusters to be able to learn the true articulation of English words containing initial consonant clusters. Furthermore, it was found that Persian language's syllable structure does really affect the learning of consonant clusters. In fact, based on the results of the first hypothesis, it can be concluded that it is transfer from mother tongue, rather than over generalization, that affects the students' learning of consonant cluster rules. To explain, because the phonological system of Persian students' mother tongue is completely different from that of English language with respect to initial consonant clusters, negative transfer happens in such clusters. However, because the two systems of Persian and English are not so different in final consonant clusters, positive transfer occurs for such clusters. In fact, due to the

fact that Persian language's syllable structure is not so restrictive with respect to the final consonant clusters, its speakers, being familiar with such clusters in their mother tongue, do not find it so difficult to pronounce the English words containing such clusters. Therefore, the conclusion is that the pronunciation system and patterns of the learners' mother tongue strongly influence the learning of those of the target language, and learners probably make more mistakes in areas in which the two systems do not match. The study also showed that language transfer plays a highly fundamental role in the early stages of phonological development. With respect to the teaching of English consonant clusters to Persian learners, the study proved that Persian learners highly use their knowledge of L1 of syllable structure to pronounce the English words containing such clusters. It also showed that due to the rule's being semantically redundant, the students are unable to learn the syllable structure of English regarding consonant clusters by themselves. Thus, they need to be explicitly instructed. Moreover, the fact that many advanced learners of English can also be observed inserting vowels in consonant clusters can verify the results. To explain, due to the fact that the rules underlying English consonant clusters are not salient, Persian learners of English continue inserting vowels unless they are instructed by the teacher in the classroom or unless their errors are corrected by native speakers in naturalistic settings. Thus, the authorities in charge of planning the educational strategies in Iran should reconsider their perspectives on the issue of pronunciation.

References

Brown, H.D. (2000). Principles of language learning and teaching (Fourth edition). White Plains: Longman. Cook, V. (1991). Second language learning and language teaching. New York: Edward Arnold. DeKeyser, R. (2003). Implicit and explicit learning. In Doughty & Long, The handbook of second language acquisition. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. Eckman, F. R. (1977). Markedness and the contrastive analysis hypothesis. Language learning, 27, 315-330. Flege, J. (1987). A critical period for learning to pronounce second languages? Applied linguistics, 8, 162-177. Hudson, G. (2000). Essential introductory linguistics. Massachusetts, USA: Blackwell Publishers Ltd. James, C. (1980). Contrastive analysis. Bangor, Wales. Jones, R. H., & Evans, S. (1995). Teaching pronunciation through voice quality. Retrieved September 17, 2011 from http://eltj.oxfordjournals.org/content/abstract/html. Keshavarz, M. H. (2008a). Contrastive analysis and error analysis. Tehran: Rahnama Press. Keshavarz, M. H. (2008b). A practical course of English phonetics and phonology. Tehran: SAMT. Lado, R. (1957). Linguistics across cultures. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. Lightbown, M. & Spada, N. (2006). How languages are learned. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Morley, J. (1991). The pronunciation component in teaching English to speakers of other languages. TESOL Quarterly, 25(3), 114-153.

Piske, T., Mackey, I. R. A. & Flege, J. E. (2001). Factors affecting degree of foreign accent in an L2: A review. Journal of phonetics, 29, 191-215. Prator, C. H. (1967). Hierarchy of difficulty. University of California, Los Angelos. Richards, J.C. & Renendya, W.A. (2002). Methodology in Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Tarone, E. (1978). The phonology of interlanguage. In J.C. Richards (Ed.), Understanding second and foreign language learning (pp.15-33). Rowley, MA: Newbury House. Ziahosseiny, S. M. (2006). Questions and answers on contrastive analysis and error analysis. Tehran: Rahnama Press.

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 10, No. 4, pp. 15-27, March 2015

Do Emotional-Social Intelligence, Caring, Moral Judgment and Leadership of Physical Therapy Students Predict their Clinical Performance? Hélène Larin Ithaca College Ithaca, NY, U.S.A. Jean Wessel McMaster University Hamilton, ON, Canada Abstract. Although non-cognitive characteristics are increasingly valued in physical therapists, their contribution to the development of physical therapy students has not been well established. The purpose of this study was to ascertain whether measures of emotional-social intelligence (ESI), caring, moral judgment and leadership predict clinical performance of physical therapy students. Sixty physical therapy students, mean age 21.4 years, from two Masters entry-level programs, volunteered to participate in the study. At the beginning of their professional studies (entry), before and after 2 clinical affiliations, and at the end of their academic programs, the students completed four selfreport questionnaires (independent variables): the Caring Ability Inventory (CAI), the Defining Issues Test (DIT-2) for moral judgment, the Self-Assessment Leadership Instrument (SALI), and the Bar-On Emotional Quotient Inventory Short (EQ-i:S) for ESI. For each instrument, higher scores represent higher levels of the construct being measured. The students were evaluated at each clinical affiliation by means of the Clinical Performance Instrument (CPI) (dependent variable). Correlations and regressions were performed to determine the relationship between the independent variables and the scores on the CPI. Results indicated that the EQ-i:S Total at entry was the only independent variable significantly correlated (r=0.25-0.43) with the average CPI scores (total and selected performance criteria) from the first two clinical affiliations. The CPI from the final affiliation could not be used in the analyses because most scores were close to the maximum score of 100 (mean=98.8). In conclusion, ESI was significantly correlated to clinical competence, but the non-cognitive measures of ESI, caring, moral judgment and leadership could not adequately predict the clinical performance of physical therapy students. Keywords: emotional-social intelligence; caring; moral judgment; leadership; clinical performance © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

Introduction Over the course of their studies, physical therapy students in North America are expected to develop competencies in the cognitive, psychomotor and affective domains. Professional knowledge and clinical skills are continuously measured and graded against standards of practice. Attitudinal competencies are often inferred although there is also a need to assess them through observations of the students‟ actions and interactions (Danielsen & Cawley, 2007). The attitudinal aspects of professionalism are associated with the core values of physical therapy (Ries, 2013). Students are expected to develop as „caring‟ and „ethical‟ health care professionals with „leadership‟ qualities and skills (American Physical Therapy Association, 2004a; American Physical Therapy Association, 2004b; Gersh, 2006; Schafer, Lopopolo, & Luedtke-Hoffmann, 2007). Moreover the American Physical Therapy Association (APTA) has developed continuing education modules in emotional intelligence and ethics, and increasingly encourages students to participate in various leadership programs (American Physical Therapy Association, 2013). Not only do educators want to instill these core values in their students, but they would like to be able to measure these attributes and determine whether they can predict success in the profession. Academic scores such as grade point average (GPA) and Graduate Record Examination (GRE) have been correlated with clinical performance of occupational and physical therapy students (Balogun, 1988; Howard & Jerosch-Herold, 2000; Tan, Meredith, & McKenna, 2004; Watson, Barnes, & Williamson, 2000). However, other investigators have found no relationship or weak correlations between GPA and clinical performance (Balogun, 1988; Opacic, 2003; Thieman, Weddle, & Moore, 2003). Few non-cognitive variables have been researched. Balogun (1988) reported that an interview accounted for a greater percentage of the variance (34.6%) in clinical performance of physical therapy students than GPA (7.5%). More recently, Opacic (2003) found „self-efficacy‟ of physician assistant students, measured at the beginning of their clinical year, to be significantly correlated (r=0.16, p˂0.01) with their second-year clinical performance, while GPA and previous experience were not. Nearly all authors suggested that non-cognitive variables might assist in predicting students‟ clinical performance.

Review of Literature Emotional-social intelligence (ESI), a relatively new, non-cognitive construct in physical therapy has been investigated for its potential role in students‟ academic and clinical performance (Lewis, 2010; Lewis, 2011). Bar-On defined ESI as “a multi-factorial array of emotional and social competencies that determine how effectively we relate with ourselves and others and cope with daily demands and pressures.” (Bar-On, 2002, p31). Boyce (2001) studied the ESI of master‟s level physical therapy students using the Multifactor Emotional Intelligence Scale. He reported low correlations between ESI and general cognitive ability (on the Wonderlic Personnel Test), and between ESI and academic success (GPA). Lewis (2010) showed no relationship between ESI measured on the Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test and success on the Clinical Performance Instrument (CPI) of 56 students enrolled in 4 different physical therapist entry-level education programs (2 at doctoral and 2 © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

at master‟s levels). It appears from the study description that ESI was measured after the CPI scores were obtained, and therefore could not be evaluated as a predictor of clinical performance. In another study, Lewis (2011) found that the ESI of 87 physical therapy students did not change over the course of their 3year education programs and had a low correlation with the CPI scores at the end of the first and third years of study. However, Lewis did not provide correlation coefficients between ESI and CPI for the various time periods. Therefore, the potential of ESI as a predictor of future clinical performance could not be determined from this study. Caring is viewed as a critical component of physical therapy and also as a dynamic, ethical relationship (Resnik & Jensen, 2003; Romanello & KnightAbowitz, 2000). It includes being client-centered and manifests itself in communication (including listening), organization of infrastructure, and advocacy for clients (Greenfield, Anderson, Cox, & Tanner, 2008; Resnik & Jensen, 2003; Ries, 2003). Greenfield and colleagues (2008) conducted a qualitative study of physical therapists in their first year of clinical practice. The therapists valued caring, but struggled in providing „caring‟ services because of difficult clients, stress, fatigue, time constraints and interdisciplinary issues. These investigators (Greenfield et al., 2008) recognized that the attitudes and skills required for caring accrue over time. They recommended that these elements be developed during the physical therapy studies through the integration of simulated patient cases followed by reflection and targeted clinical experiences. Moral Judgment is the reasoning process used to determine the moral thing to do and the ability to behave in a moral manner (Bebeau, 2002; Rest, Thoma, Narvaez, & Bebeau, 1997; Rest & Narvaez, 1994). Moral judgment has been said to include three levels of functioning: codes of conduct imposed on the individual, ethical concepts serving as guides of behavior of members of a profession, and values broadly held by society (Thoma, 2006). Mature moral reasoning measured on the Defining Issues Test (DIT) has been labeled „principled‟ reasoning (Rest et al., 1997) represented initially as a P index and in the DIT-2 as the N2 index. The few studies conducted on the DIT scores of physical therapy practitioners or students have produced inconsistent findings. Swisher (2010) reported lower P scores in practicing therapists compared to other health professional practitioners and students. Dieruf (2004) found no change in the P score of physical therapy students over the course of their educational programs while Larin, Geddes and Eva (2009) and Geddes, Salvatori and Eva (2009) described a significant increase in the N2 scores. Moral judgment has been found to be predictive of clinical performance in several health care professionals including physical therapists. Sisola (2000) studied 58 physical therapy students in three programs and reported a significant relationship (r=0.28) between the P scores at entry to the programs and scores on the Clinical Competence Scale at the end of their first clinical affiliation. Leadership has been defined as “the means through which the content of practice is professionally applied to the problems facing the physical therapist.” (Schafer © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

et al., 2007, p2). Although the physical therapy literature has described philosophies and skills of leadership, little research has been conducted on the effect of leadership on clinical performance. Gersh proposed Greenleaf‟s philosophy of „servant-leadership‟ as a “unifying matrix for the enhancement of professionalism and the focus of professional behaviors in physical therapy.” (Gersh, 2006, p13). Using Delphi method and a national survey, investigators (Lopopolo, Schafer, & Nosse, 2004; Schafer et al., 2007) have identified leadership, administration, management and professionalism skills that practitioners believe entry-level therapists should have. However, no studies have examined the relationship of leadership ability and clinical performance (Lopopolo et al., 2004; Schafer et al., 2007). There are some associations among the variables of ESI, caring, moral judgment and leadership. In an investigation of physical therapy and nursing students entering their programs, ESI was correlated to two subscales of the Caring Ability Inventory (CAI): Knowing (CAI_K) and Courage (CAI_C) (Wessel et al., 2008). Leadership has been correlated with ESI in the field of administration (Goleman, Boyatzis, & McKee, 2013), and in health science students (including those in physical therapy) (Wessel et al., 2008). In the latter study, no relationship was found between ESI and the N2 score of the DIT-2 (Wessel et al., 2008). The physical therapy profession views non-cognitive concepts as extremely important, but few studies have measured these concepts and their ability to predict the clinical competence of students. The purpose of this study was to determine if ESI, caring, moral judgment and leadership of physical therapy students are predictors of their clinical performance.

Participants Physical therapy students from Ithaca College, Ithaca, New York and McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario were recruited to participate in the study. Students in the Ithaca program were in the third year of an undergraduate program but in the first year of their 3-year professional studies leading to an entry-level master‟s degree in physical therapy. The McMaster students had completed an undergraduate degree and were enrolled in the first year of a 2year (22 months) entry-level master‟s degree. The students were informed about the study by e-mail or through an announcement in a class session. They were offered a pizza snack or a $5.00 food voucher for their participation. The interested students contacted the research assistant of their respective program.

Methods Design: The data for this study was taken from a longitudinal investigation of ESI, caring, moral judgment and leadership of physical therapy students as they progress through their professional education program (Larin, Wessel, & Williams, 2009; Larin, Benson, Wessel, Martin, & Ploeg, 2014). In the main study, physical therapy students completed measures of ESI, caring, moral judgment and leadership at entry to the program, following their first two clinical placements (post-clinical) and at the end of their academic program. An additional ESI measure was obtained just prior to their first clinical experience (pre-clinical). Data were obtained from their performance in their first two and © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

their final clinical affiliations. Figure 1 illustrates the measures and time points of interest in the present study.

Figure 1: Flow chart showing time points of data collection in the two physical therapist education programs. T1-T4: Time 1 to T4; EQ-i:S: Emotional Quotient Inventory Short; CAI: Caring Ability Inventory; SALI: Self-Assessment Leadership Inventory; DIT-2: Defining Issues Test-2; CPI: Clinical Performance Inventory.

At entry, 60 students (39 from Ithaca College and 21 from McMaster University) volunteered to participate in the study. The groups of students and their characteristics at the beginning of the study are illustrated in Table 1. The project received ethical approval from the ethics review boards of both institutions involved in the study, and all subjects provided written informed consent. Table 1: Characteristics of Subject Groups at Entry to their Programs.

Program

N Class Size Ithaca Physical Therapy 39 67 McMaster Physical Therapy 21 59 Total 60 126

% of Class 58 36 47.6

Male/Female Subjects 7/32 1/20 8/52

Age Mean (SD) 20 (2.1) 24 (4.0) 21

Educational Programs: The concepts of ESI, caring, moral judgment and leadership are covered to some extent in both physical therapy programs. Within the Ithaca College conventional curriculum, the subject of caring was addressed during the discussion of the professional code of ethics and core values in pre-clinical courses. Students delved into the topic further in a course on psychosocial aspects of patient care, in the semester following their second clinical affiliation. A set of professional behaviors was also outlined for the students at the beginning of their program. Knowledge related to leadership was found in two administration courses. At McMaster University, the subjects of caring, moral judgment and leadership were intricate parts of the case scenarios discussed during the problem-based tutorial sessions and were addressed in a series of seminars on professional issues. Professional behaviors were explored by the students in their tutorials and in the professional issues seminars. The ESI topic, however, was not a primary focus of either program. Instruments: The four independent variables were measured with self-report instruments: the Bar-On Emotional Quotient Inventory Short (EQ-i:S) (Bar-On, 2002), the Caring Ability Inventory (CAI) (Nkongho, 2003), the Self-Assessment Leadership Instrument (SALI) (Smola, 1988), and the Defining Issues Test (DIT2) (Bebeau & Thoma, 2003). These instruments are described in detail in a previous publication (Larin et al., 2014). In summary, the EQ-i:S is a measure of emotional and social intelligent behaviors (Bar-On, 2004; Bar-On, 2006). The instrument comprises 51 items in the form of short sentences that the respondents rate from 1 (very seldom or not true of me) to 5 (very often or true of me). Standard scores, based on a mean of 100 and SD of 15, are reported for a total EQ-i:S and 5 subscales: Intrapersonal, Interpersonal, Stress Management, Adaptability, and General Mood. A higher score indicates greater ESI. Standard scores of 85-115 are considered „effective functioning‟, greater than 115 „enhanced skills‟ and less than 85 „area for enrichment‟. The CAI is a questionnaire designed to measure the degree of a person‟s ability to care for others (Nkongho, 2003). It comprises 3 sub-scales: Knowing (understanding of self and others), Courage (ability to cope with the unknown) and Patience (tolerance and persistence). Respondents rate, on a scale of 1 to 7, how much they agree or disagree with 37 statements (14, 13, 10 respectively per subscale) reflecting their thoughts and feelings about other people in general. After reverse scoring of some items, the subscale scores are calculated by summing the items in each subscale. Higher scores indicate a greater degree of caring. The DIT-2 is a measure of moral judgment (Bebeau, 2002). Persons are presented with moral dilemmas. They must rank, on a 5-point Likert scale, the relative importance of a series of 12 statements in determining the appropriate action. The N2 score was used in the present study. Lastly, the SALI is a measure of leadership characteristics (Smola, 1988). Respondents rate, on a 5-point scale (0 to 4), how frequently they behave in the manner described in each of 40 statements for a possible total range of 0 to 160. A higher total score indicates higher self-assessment of leadership characteristics. The dependent variable was measured using the first version of the APTA CPI (American Physical Therapy Association, 1997) which was available at the time this study was conducted and used by most programs. This tool comprises 24 © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

performance criteria; each criterion is evaluated on a 100-mm visual analog scale representing the span from novice to entry-level to practice. A total score for each clinical affiliation is the mean of all criteria that are scored. Inter-rater reliability of the total score has been reported as good (intraclass correlation coefficient=0.87), and construct validity supported by various correlations (American Physical Therapy Association, 2002). The CPI scores show significant change as students progress through clinical placements, but tend to plateau (with less variance) during the senior placements (Adams, Glavin, Hutchins, Lee, & Zimmermann, 2008; Proctor, Dal Bello-Haas, McQuarrie, Sheppard, & Scudds, 2010). Analysis: Previous analyses of our data indicated minimal difference between the scores of the two groups of students (Larin et al., 2009). Therefore, analyses were performed using the total cohort of students. Pearson or Spearmanâ&#x20AC;&#x;s coefficients were used to examine the correlation of all the variables. If correlations with the CPI were at least 0.2, the variable would be included in a regression equation to predict clinical performance. Regression equations were originally planned as follows: 1) independent variables: EQ-i:S, CAI, SALI, DIT-2 at entry; dependent variable: mean of CPI 1 and 2 2) repeat with dependent variable CPI final 3) independent variable EQ-i:S pre-clinical; dependent variable: mean of CPI 1 and 2 4) repeat with dependent variable CPI final 5) independent variables: EQ-i:S, CAI, SALI, DIT-2 after first 2 clinical experiences; dependent variable: CPI final.

Results A total of 59/60 students (Ithaca 38, McMaster 21) completed the study from entry to the end of their first two clinical placements. Two additional students dropped out of the Ithaca program before the final clinical placement. The clinical placement of another student was delayed. The means and SD of the variables at all time-points are listed in Table 2 and the correlations in Table 3. Some analyses were omitted or changed due to the nature of the data and the results of the correlations. The variance of the final CPI scores was small among the students, and therefore, correlations and regressions involving this variable (intended analyses #2, #4, #5) were not performed. Because predictor variables had weak or no correlation with the total score of the CPI, individual performance criteria of the CPI were considered for analyses. It was thought that questions relating to the studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x; manner of behavior in clinical interactions (rather than technical skills or knowledge) might be better predicted from the non-cognitive variables. The chosen performance criteria concerned professional behavior (#3), ethical practice (#4), appropriate communication (#6), and respect for individual differences (#8). The scores for each criterion were the average of CPI 1 and 2. Only EQ-i:S Total was significantly correlated with these variables (r=0.43, 0.35, 0.35 and 0.38, respectively). No regression analyses were performed because only one independent variable, EQ:i-S Total at entry, was significantly correlated with CPI scores.

Table 2: Scores of emotional social intelligence, leadership, caring, moral judgment and clinical performance.

Entry to Program n=59 Mean SD

Before Average of Placements Clinical 1 and 2 n=59 n=59 Mean SD Mean SD 81.7 10.7

CPI EQ-i:S 102.6 10.6 100.6 11.9 Total SALI 102.9 16.1 CAI_K 78.6 5.4 CAI_C 67.9 8.5 CAI_P 61.9 4.7 DIT-2 N2 45.1 12.8 CPI: Clinical Performance Instrument EQ-i:S: Bar-On Emotional Quotient Inventory Short SALI: Self-Assessment Leadership Inventory CAI_K: Caring Ability Inventory Knowledge subscale CAI_C: Caring Ability Inventory Courage subscale CAI_P: Caring Ability Inventory Patience subscale DIT-2 N2: N2 score from the Defining Issues Test

Final Clinical Placement n=56 Mean SD 98.8 2.5 105.0

12.6

Table 3: Correlation of scores of emotional social intelligence (ESI), caring, moral judgment and leadership at entry to the physical therapist education program and (ESI) immediately before first clinical placement with average of scores of first two clinical placements (CPI 1 and 2).

Average of EQ-i:S Total SALI CAI_K CAI_C CAI_P CPI 1 and 2 (entry) n=59 EQ-i:S Total .25* (entry) EQ-i:S Total .14 .78 (pre-clinical) SALI -.05 .35* CAI_K .05 .50* .36* CAI_C .06 .63* .36* .39* CAI_P -.07 -.03 .07 -.02 DIT-2 N2 -.04 -.01 -.02 -.02 CPI: Clinical Performance Instrument EQ-i:S: Bar-On Emotional Quotient Inventory Short SALI: Self-Assessment Leadership Inventory CAI_K: Caring Ability Inventory Knowledge subscale CAI_C: Caring Ability Inventory Courage subscale CAI_P: Caring Ability Inventory Patience subscale DIT-2 N2: N2 score from the Defining Issues Test *correlations significant at p<0.05

-.16 .21

-.03

Discussion This study was the first longitudinal examination of the ability of a group of non-cognitive variables (ESI, caring, moral judgment and leadership) to predict the clinical performance of physical therapy students. The variables were not found to be strong predictors. Only one independent variable, EQ:i-S Total at entry, was significantly correlated with the CPI scores (total and selected performance criteria) from the first two clinical affiliations. However, these correlations were weak. Similarly to Lewis (2010; 2011) we found little change in ESI over the course of the physical therapist education programs and a low correlation between ESI and the total CPI score. Although the correlation between ESI and CPI was significant at the p<0.05 level, ESI accounted for less than 7% of the variance in CPI. Our study included additional non-cognitive variables (caring, moral judgment and leadership), but these variables failed to predict clinical performance. In spite of differences in the ESI measurement tool and the timing of the measurements, our study and Lewisâ&#x20AC;&#x; study had similar results. Some properties of the CPI contributed to the results obtained in the present study. As indicated in the Results section, we were unable to use the final CPI scores because of low variance. Even the average score of the first two clinical placements was high (81.7 out of a possible 100), suggesting that the clinical educators used only a small range of the scales. The 1997 version of the CPI (American Physical Therapy Association, 1997) was the most recognized and ÂŠ 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

utilized clinical assessment tool at the time of this study. Roach et al. (2012) summarized several problems that could account for the low variance in scores. These include: a lower completion rate for certain performance criteria and difficulty discriminating performance on the visual analog scale. In addition, clinical therapists likely evaluated students against the expected performance for the clinical level of the student rather than against expected performance at entry to the profession. The latest version of the CPI has attempted to address these issues (American Physical Therapy Association, 2008). This version could not be used in the present study because it was introduced after the completion of data collection. Changes to the CPI included combining criteria, modifying wording, providing additional examples of behavior for rating, and placing more anchors along the visual analogue scale. Perhaps higher correlations will be found between predictor variables and the revised CPI. The outcomes of this study reinforce the point that ESI, caring, moral judgment and leadership remain attributes that are not well understood, are difficult to measure, and have yet to be found predictive of clinical performance. The delivery method of the two physical therapist educational programs (problembased and conventional) did not differentiate students‟ outcomes. The ideal approach to maximize the desired non-cognitive attributes has yet to be established. Would students in entry-level doctoral programs produce different results from students in entry-level master‟s programs? Rigorous research of non-cognitive attributes of physical therapy students remains scarce, although educators continue to underline the value of these variables. Current measures of these characteristics do not detect significant changes nor predict clinical performance. Development of more sensitive tools should be considered. Investigators also need to pursue the scholarship of teaching, and study the impact of psychosocial courses on clinical practice. The clinical educators‟ role in determining the level of performance of physical therapy students remains invaluable. While the profession has offered training in the use of the CPI, only a small percentage of therapists have participated. Clinical educators need training to ensure a standardized, valid and reliable method of clinical evaluation. More low-cost training and use of media such as webinars should be considered.

Limitations The selection process of physical therapist education programs might contribute to the high scores (and low variance) obtained on the CPI and the independent variables. The programs may attract students that already have well-developed non-cognitive and cognitive skills. Furthermore, all participants were volunteers who may have had a special interest in the concepts evaluated in this study. One additional factor was the self-report nature of the tools used for the independent variables. Use of performance measures of these variables might have resulted in different outcomes. However, Lewis (2011) had similar correlations between ESI and CPI using an ability-based ESI measure.

It is possible that the measures of caring, moral judgment and leadership changed from entry to pre-clinical as a result of the physical therapist education programs. If so, students with low scores at entry may have improved prior to their first two clinical affiliations, thus minimizing any potential correlation with CPI. These constructs were not measured immediately prior to the first two clinical affiliations. However, as reported previously (Larin et al., 2011; Larin et al., 2014), there were no substantial changes in these variables later in the programs.

Conclusion The present study examined the combined effect of four non-cognitive variables as potential predictors of clinical performance of physical therapy students. ESI was significantly correlated to clinical competence, but the non-cognitive measures of ESI, caring, moral judgment and leadership could not adequately predict the clinical performance of physical therapy students. Further studies are needed to deepen our knowledge of non-cognitive variables that forecast the ability of the physical therapist to provide high quality patient care.

Acknowledgements We wish to thank all the students who volunteered to participate in this study. This project was supported by two grants from Ithaca College (Seed Research Fund, School of Health Sciences and Human Performance; Small Grant for Faculty Research, Office of the Provost).

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 10, No. 4, pp. 28-39, March 2015

Integrating Teaching Resources and Assessment Tasks to Enhance Student Experience Dr Sujana Adapa University of New England UNE Business School, Armidale NSW Australia Abstract. This paper outlines the importance of integrating teaching resources with assessment tasks and continuous feedback in creating a unique student experience through effective student engagement and interactive learning. These activities are undertaken in two undergraduate services marketing and strategic marketing units offered in an off campus teaching mode in a regional Australian university. The resultant impact upon the overall student satisfaction, academic performance, retention rates and attrition rates has been studied. Results indicate that student engagement increased and, also, that students focused on deeper learning approaches because of the integration of technology-enabled teaching resources with authentic assessment tasks. Continuous feedback provided by the academic staff member acted as a feed forward element that gauged studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; deep interest in the unit offerings. Key words: student experience; student engagement; student learning; interactive resources; authentic assessment; feedback

1. Introduction Rapid changes are evident in teaching and assessment related activities in the higher education sector throughout the world due to forces such as globalisation, privatisation, technological evolution and migration. The higher education sector is significantly influenced by processes of rapid globalisation, frequent policy changes and international movement of students (Kirkwood & Price, 2014). The changes in the higher education sector are evident in many areas including the internationalisation of classrooms, changes in teaching and study modes, changes in unit offerings and changes to assessment and grading methods. Technology has an undeniable impact on these changes and so contemporary educational institutions are embracing technology to a greater extent in their service offerings (HEFCE, 2009).

On the other hand, modern day students cannot be expected to access higher education institutional offerings without any knowledge of the subject content. Students have information at the forefront of their concerns and go to tertiary institutions with greater knowledge than before. Students are also increasingly looking for unique experiences from tertiary institutions rather than just aiming for degrees or awards. These students’ expectations place immense pressure on teaching staff and tertiary institutions in outlining their curriculum, courses and unit offerings. Coupled to this, modern students’ attention span is less (Coates, 2007) and academic staff have to design unit content and assessment tasks differently to maintain student engagement throughout the unit offering, to offer an authentic learning experience and to create a unique study experience (Coates, 2007). This paper outlines the importance of aligning teaching resources with authentic assessment tasks and continuous feedback to promote unique study experiences through better engagement and learning strategies for distance education students in two marketing units offered in a higher education institution in Australia. These intervention strategies not only improved students’ academic performance but also had an impact upon the students’ deep learning processes, as well as student retention and attrition rates.

2. Literature Syntheses 2.1. Teaching Resources Pedagogical changes in the contemporary higher education sector cannot be ignored. Technology now plays a pervasive role in the enhancement of teaching resources that further student engagement and the overall student experience. Technology Enhanced Learning (TEL) commonly is used in many countries to foster student learning (Kirkwood & Price, 2014). TEL promotes efficiency of existing processes, enhances learning outcomes and the transformation of existing processes (HEFCE, 2009). Technology supported interventions have been used in the higher education sector to improve teaching resources that generate inherent interest in subject content, making the learning process interesting, informative and useful for students (Kirkwood & Price, 2014). TEL is often linked to learning outcomes and defined graduate attributes in order to foster deeper learning among students. As contemporary students are well equipped and connected to various technologies, TEL is widely used by many higher education institutions to foster active student learning. TEL promotes interactive student learning and facilitates student deeper engagement with the subject content. 2.2. Assessment Tasks © 2015 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

Assessment tasks are important components of active student learning. Assessment tasks may be divided into formative and summative tasks. Formative assessment tasks include a set of tools to effectively monitor students’ progress during learning (Dunn & Mulvenon, 2009). Such tasks are oriented towards the provision of continuous feedback to students through various activities while instruction is under way. They are directed towards understanding the students’ viewpoint and further preparing them towards achieving higher grades and improved learning (Heritage, 2007). Thus, formative assessment is considered an ongoing activity to enhance students’ participation and active learning (Perie et al., 2007). Inclusion of formative assessment tasks will engage students in continuous learning. However, summative assessment tasks remain important tools for grading the performance of the students (Knight, 2002). Gradable summative assessment tasks motivate students to progress further in their learning activities and foster achievement-oriented academic learning. Students’ academic performance is measured through the inclusion of summative assessment tasks in the curriculum. 2.3. Student Engagement Student engagement has attracted considerable attention since the 1990s. It has been a topic of interest in North America, UK and Australasia due to collaborative efforts between government bodies and the higher education sector and the commissioning of large-scale national surveys on an annual basis (Trowler, 2010) in order to gather student related data. As such, student engagement is related to student representation, student feedback, learning spaces and learning development. Student engagement has been linked with sense making, belonging and feelings (Harper & Quaye, 2009a). The three most important dimensions of student engagement relate to behavioural engagement, emotional engagement and cognitive engagement (Fredricks, Blumenfield & Paris, 2004). In behavioural engagement terms, students tend to comply with acceptable positive behavioural norms and tend to score less on disruptive and negative behaviour. Emotional engagement refers to the students’ affective reactions such as enjoyment, interest in the subject matter, sense of belonging etc. Cognitive engagement relates to students’ deeper involvement with the learning activities and students’ interest in taking on challenging work. Student engagement is an important concept and is attracting global attention in the higher education sector in order to improve retention and avoid student attrition and withdrawals (Trowler, 2010). Coates (2007) outlined four types of student engagement styles on the basis of academic and social patterns. These student engagement styles refer to intense, independent, collaborative and passive forms. Students having an intense form © 2015 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

of engagement are deeply involved in their academic studies and view learning environments as supportive, responsive and challenging. An independent style of engagement scores high within an academic context but less in terms of social orientation and these students generally are less interested in collaborative forms of study. Collaborative engagement is characterised by involving students in activities that fall beyond a formal higher education context. Passive engagement reflects a lack of interest in productive learning and as well as general inertia in educational terms (Coates, 2007). Student engagement is linked to student learning and how the process of learning and learning activities are influenced by a student’s active participation in educationally meaningful activities (Coates, 2005). 2.4. Student Learning The traditional models of student learning have undergone several changes in order to suit current pedagogical approaches. There seems to be an upsurge in embedding online or virtual learning environments into curricula to suit different study modes, and also to enhance the level of student interaction and engagement (Dale & Lane, 2007). Many higher education institutions are focusing on creating stimulating learning environments through the incorporation of technology in their learning and teaching strategies (Graham et al., 2007). Debates related to online versus offline study modes, and criticisms oriented towards low levels of student participation in these study modes, spurred interest among higher education institutions and teachers to embrace interactive online resources in order to foster student learning oriented towards the development of high order critical thinking and problem solving skills (Trowler, 2010). Students’ learning differs widely. Distance students additionally have family and work commitments meaning that they often have to pace their learning differently to the traditional face-to-face students. Enhancing student learning through effective engagement has been widely debated (Graham et al., 2007). Similarly, the existing literature on student engagement is linked directly or indirectly to improving students’ learning (Coates, 2005). However students are further classified into active versus passive and/or surface versus deep learners. In order to transfer the skills and competencies acquired through higher educational learning to the work environment, students need to be active, achievement-oriented and deep learners. The impact of student learning is directly reflected in their academic achievements and performance and is indirectly reflected through metrics such as student retention rates, student attrition rates and their enrolment in other unit offerings. Therefore, it is normal to expect that students’ learning will have an impact on the overall student experience gained within the higher educational context. © 2015 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

2.5. Student Experience Higher educational institutions are increasingly moving away from the traditional model of just offering educational services to students. While students are viewed as the most important stakeholders, the notion that they are ‘consumers’ of service offerings is losing popularity. In contrast, the contemporary focus within educational institutions is not only to foster students’ academic success, but also to embrace overall student experiences beyond the university setting in order to create value for their service offerings. Students are also increasingly focusing on matching their experiences with their educational expectations in order to enhance their deeper learning capabilities. 3. Methodology This paper is based on the interactive teaching resources developed for distance students enrolled in Marketing units at a regional Australian university. The information presented reports the teaching interventions undertaken by the researcher, who is an academic staff member coordinating Marketing related units for undergraduate students. The staff member focused on developing interactive resources to foster student engagement and student learning in order to create an enhanced overall student experience in two third year undergraduate units (Strategic Marketing [MM316] and Services Marketing [MM314]). The staff member, who is also the unit coordinator, deliberately focused on the weekly release of interactive teaching resources as a way of simplifying the content included within these units. These particular units were offered only to the distance students. This specific mode of offering made it difficult for the unit coordinator (initially, at least), to fully understand the needs and expectations of those enrolled in the courses. These students lacked the advantage of having physical contact with the staff member and focused on learning the subject content on their own at their own pace. This setting seemed to provide a passive delivery of the unit with minimal or no interaction between some students with their peers and/or the unit coordinator. The latter focused upon utilising available technology and developed resources that gauged student interaction with peers and the teacher, and motivated students to engage in online interactive discussions. A number of formative and summative assessment strategies were linked to the interactive resources and these were supplemented with feedback on both kinds of assessment tasks that indicated students’ interest and self-regulated learning skills.

4. Results and Discussion Strategically, course development was focused upon the provision of weekly interactive resources and aligning these resources to assessment tasks (see Figure 1). Initially teaching resources were updated and rewritten, incorporating real life examples, with an emphasis upon the provision of appropriate readings. Later, module-based and topic-based interactive resources were developed for release to learners on a weekly basis. Module-based resources consisted of interactive case scenarios and concept maps that provided an overview of the topics in that particular module. Topic-based resources presented related information to learners in various interactive formats such as concept maps, power point slides, activities, audio podcasts, summaries, and case studies on a weekly basis. In doing so, unit supervisor focused upon simplifying subject content and presentation within interactive formats for easy access by learners. In unit evaluations completed by students, these were appreciated as ‘excellent resources, which were of great assistance’; other students stated that ‘content guidance and resources made this subject a pleasure to study!’ (MM314 2012); ‘the material content is relevant and very applicable to marketing strategies’ (MM316 2012); and the reworked course material ‘provided great resources, in particular the audio summaries’ (MM314 2013). The unit supervisor also focused on integrating technology enabled learning through the development of the interactive teaching resources. Students also commented on the relevance of the resources. Their comments included the ‘learning material seemed very relevant and useful for a future career in marketing’, providing scenarios ‘really like the real life case studies’ (MM316 2012); others noted the ‘excellent resources’ and the ‘interesting and diverse subject matter’ (MM314 2012). In the second step of the overhaul of the courses under discussion, the focus was upon developing assignments in the form of ‘Marketing Plans’ and ‘Strategic Marketing Plans’, whereby students needed to apply critical thinking skills to problem-solving and draw logical conclusions. This was further supplemented with ‘assignment tips’ that provided an overview of the entire assignment. Learners appreciated that ‘the assignments were highly relevant’ (MM316 2013) allowing them to ‘create our own marketing plan… rather than spend assessments simply reciting definitions’ (MM316 2011). These revised weekly interactive resources and assessment tasks were complemented by a feedback system in order to develop distance learners’ core competencies and their ongoing development; in this respect a student noted that the academic staff member ‘provided thorough and timely feedback to enquiries and assessment submissions’ (MM316 2011); other comments included ‘feedback provided areas for improvement’ (MM314 2013); © 2015 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

and ‘outstanding feedback’ was provided (MM316 2012) in a distance education context.

Weekly Interactive Resources Module-based Resources Interactive Case Scenarios Concept Maps Feedback

Student Engagement Behavioural Engagement Emotional Engagement Cognitive Engagement

Topic-based Resources Concept Maps PPTs Activity Audio Podcast Audio Summary Case Study

+ Marketing Plans (Summative) Assignment Tips (Formative) Feedback (Continuous)

Student Experience

Student Learning Active (Deep) Learners High Student Retention Low Student Attrition Overall Grades Enrolling into Marketing units

+ Figure 1: Constructive alignment of weekly interactive resources with assessment Assessment Tasks tasks

The interactive case scenarios within the module-based resources and activities and case studies within the topic-based resources included questions that allowed students to provide responses on a weekly basis at their convenience (Figure 2). The focus of the unit revision has been to introduce a combination of learning resources. These weekly interactive case scenarios, activities and case studies were intended to be formative, whereby feedback was provided student learning and participation but did not form part of student assessment. As Biggs & Tang (2007) highlight, active learning goals require the communication of clear objectives and expectations. Students commented that ‘I've followed Moodle conciensciously and found all of your feedback extremely constructive and well-explained’ (MM316 2012). These interactive case scenarios developed © 2015 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

largely focused on embedding the subject content with the real life experience to motivate students to gain virtual work related learning experience, thus enabling them to focus on the acquisition of work-ready skills. Through the enhanced forms of engagement with the subject content in the two Marketing units, students developed skills, capabilities and competencies that are sought by employers.

Mr Jones also gets market research-related information by way of identifying the critical policies related to product, price, place and promotion. The preliminary information obtained by Mr Jones sends signals that assessing market and industry attractiveness is critical and therefore Mr Jones asks his staff to conduct macro and micro trend analyses.

Maybe we should conduct a macro and micro trend analysis. Product, Price, Place, Promotion

Click to continue

Let’s go ahead with this model.

Relevant market research, conducted in the form of surveys and market tests, also provides sufficient assurance about the younger generation’s intentions of acquiring the economical model proposed. Quite happy with the market research, and the industry reports, Mr Jones takes up the production of small cars in Carco. Click to exit

Figure 2: A snapshot of interactive case scenarios

Assessment is an integral part of the learning process. Assessment tasks implemented in these units complemented the weekly interactive resources; they also encouraged students to think beyond the unit content and the university environment to expand their knowledge, skills and competencies to real world situations. The aim of the unit supervisor was to enhance the quality of student learning by aligning the assessment tasks with the weekly interactive resources as students learn most effectively through relevant activities (Biggs, 1999). Assessment tasks were used as learning approaches in the teaching practice (Earl, 2003) because well informed assessment tasks aid the deep learning process and develop goal setting and critical reflection. In authoring clear and comprehensive assessment tasks, the aim has been to to transform students’ approaches from being passive and surface learners in the online environment to deep and active learning by way of stimulating critical thinking and interpretation abilities. © 2015 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

For example, assessment tasks developed in the forms of a ‘Marketing Plan’ and ‘Strategic Marketing Plan’ received very positive feedback from students; one noted that ‘the assignments are highly relevant’ (MM316, 2013) while another commented that these kind of assessment tasks would be ‘useful for a future career in marketing’ (MM316 2012). Other comments included; ‘I am planning to use this business plan and start the AusAdrenalin business in the next month’ (MM316 2012); ‘this subject has been extremely enlightening and my managers are extremely happy that I have been able to develop a comprehensive plan after doing this course’ (MM316 2012); ‘I have based my second assignment on a current marketing project I am working on (my manager was rather happy that I volunteered to write the strategy)’ (MM316 2012); and ‘I will definitely take everything this unit (and others) have taught me onboard, and look forward to taking all the knowledge and skill set into the real world with success!’ (MM316 2012). These assignments were made interesting by enabling students to develop marketing plans that aligned with the teaching material. Placing a greater emphasis on application-based learning, students also commented that the best aspects of this unit related to ‘the plan itself’ (MM316 2011) and ‘the opportunity to put into practice the concepts and create our own marketing plan’ (MM316 2011). The staff member also provided ‘Assignment Tips’ to students in advance that helped enhance students’ problem-solving and critical thinking abilities. Assignment tips consisted of relevant information about how the assignment question needed to be logically argued and critically evaluated. Additionally, these assignment tips highlighted the structural and the general components of assignments that sometimes were overlooked by unit coordinators and were identified as much needed for fostering students’ engagement and learning. Students found the assignment tips to be highly relevant, commenting that ‘the assignment tips were great, thanks again for doing them up for us’ (MM316, Moodle Discussion Forum, 2011); ‘Thank you for the assignment 2 tips. I feel that I have been able to make a good start on the assignment’ (MM316 2011); and ‘I really enjoyed the article (…refers to assignment tips), it was a great exercise and I thoroughly enjoyed the critical thinking required to answer the assignment’ (MM316 2012). Crucial to the revised teaching process has been the implementation of a thorough feedback system that enables students to acquire and develop core competencies (Hattie & Timperley 2007). Prompt feedback was provided to students on their assessment submissions as well as the interactive case scenarios and activities included in the weekly interactive resources. Thus regular support was provided to distance learners in MM314 and MM316 units. Emphasis was placed upon the provision of constructive, respectful criticism highlighting areas for further development. Students’ comments included: ‘I © 2015 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

found that her speedy and thorough replies to questions on Moodle were really helpful. I would definitely take another marketing unit if she were the lecturer’ (MM316 2011); ‘thorough and timely feedback to enquiries and assessment submissions’ (MM316 2011); ‘she is especially helpful and quick to reply to questions. The unit was made more inviting by having her teach this unit’ (MM316 2011); ‘…. responded quickly, with helpful responses to questions regarding assignments’ (MM316 2011). The formative assessment tasks were designed after identifying the extent of distance students’ disengagement with existing online discussion forums. Emphasis was placed upon the development of technology embedded formative assessment tasks in the form of interactive case scenarios that encouraged students’ involvement and engagement with learning activities. The formative assessment tasks provided effective training and empowerment and their success was evident through increased grade point averages, increased retention rates and decreased attrition rates. Emphasis was placed upon providing continuous critical feedback to students. The learning progression developed through this process enabled students to break down one large learning goal into several smaller achievable sub-goals (Popham, 2008). For example, the larger goals of submitting assignments or taking an examination were divided into several weekly formative assessment tasks. Distance students provided in-depth answers to the questions asked in the discussion forums and this activity encouraged students’ critical thinking and reflective writing abilities. These short-term learning goals helped students to develop confidence in managing their studies and promoted self-regulated learning, an important facet of successful distance education provision. Both formative and summative assessment tasks were planned to align with student progression in the courses under discussion (Forster & Masters, 2004).

5. Conclusion The overall comments obtained from students in their unit and teaching evaluations demonstrated that the effective integration of teaching resources with the assessment tasks positively influenced students’ overall study experience. The division of students’ larger learning goals into simpler and more manageable weekly learning goals through the inclusion of formative assessment tasks enhanced student engagement and learning. Student engagement is evident at behavioural, emotional and cognitive levels and student learning is evident through academic performance and other measures such as attrition rates, retention rates and enrolment in other marketing related units.

As higher educational institutions are increasingly grappling with retaining the satisfaction levels of their students and are focusing on creating experiences that foster deeper learning skills it is important for academic staff to focus on developing meaningful assessment tasks. Students appreciate the learning process if the creative development of teaching resources provides authentic assessment tasks. The focus of the higher education institutions has been on developing interesting course content through the creation of teaching resources that are interactive, stimulating and target maximum student interest. Students are no longer considered passive receivers of learning material and are increasingly looking for subject content that offers most value to them. Students are also looking for learning experiences beyond the traditional university context and are focusing on the development of appropriate skills, capabilities and competencies that foster both their deeper learning capacities and employment opportunities. It is the responsibility of teaching staff to harness student interest in the subject content through the creation of subject material that is current, interesting, stimulating and informative. Teaching material should address contemporary challenges and include real life case-based scenarios to foster students’ interest and engagement. Academic staff should focus upon integrating teaching resources with authentic assessment tasks and the provision of a worthwhile feedback system that fosters students’ overall learning experience.

References Biggs, J. (1999). What the student does: Teaching for enhanced learning? Higher Education Research and Development, 18 (1), 57-75. Biggs, J. B. and Tang, C. (2007). Teaching for Quality Learning at University. Open University Press, McGraw-Hill Education. Coates, H. (2005). The value of student engagement for higher education quality assurance. Quality in Higher Education, 11 (1), 25-36. Coates, H. (2007). A model of online and general campus-based student engagement. Assessment and Evaluation in Higher Education, 32 (2), 121-141. Dale, C. & Lane, A. M. (2007). A wolf in sheep’s clothing? An analysis of student engagement with virtual learning environments. Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism Education, 6 (2), 100-108. Dunn, K. E. & Mulvenon, S. W. (2009). A critical review of research on formative assessment: The limited scientific evidence of the impact of formative assessment in education. Practical Assessment, Research & Evaluation, 14 (7), 1-11. Earl, L. (2003). Assessment as Learning: Using Classroom to Maximise Student Learning. Crowin Press, Thousand Oaks, California. Forster, M. & Masters, G. (2004). Bridging the conceptual gap between classroom assessment and system accountability. In M. Wilson (Ed.), Towards Coherence between Classroom Assessment and Accountability: The 103 rd Yearbook of the National

Society for the Study of Education. Part II, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 51-73. Fredricks, J. A., Blumenfield, P. C. & Paris, A. H. (2004). School engagement: Potential of the concept, state of the evidence. Review of Educational Research, 74 (1), 59-109. Graham, C. R., Tripp, T. R., Seawright, L. & Joeckel, G. L. (2007). Empowering or compelling reluctant participators using audience response systems. Active Learning in Higher Education, 8 (3), 233-258. Harper, S. R. & Quaye, S. J. (2009a). Beyond sameness, with engagement and outcomes for all. In: Student Engagement in Higher Education. New York and London, Routledge, 1-15. Hattie, J. & Timperley, H. (2007). The power of feedback. Review of Educational Research, 77 (1), 81-112. Heritage, M. (2007). Formative assessment: What do teachers need to know and do? Phi Delta Kappan, 89 (2), 140-146. Higher Education Funding Council for England (2009). Enhancing Learning and Teaching through the Use of Technology: A revised approach to HEFCE’s strategy for e-learning. Bristol: Higher Education Funding Council for England. Retrieved from http://www.hefce.ac.uk/pubs/hefce/2009 Kirkwood, A. & Price, L. (2014). Technology-enhanced learning and teaching in higher education: What is ‘enhanced’ and how do we know? A critical literature review. Learning, Media and Technology, 39 (1), 6-36. Knight, P. T. (2002). Summative assessment in higher education: Practices in disarray. Studies in Higher Education, 27 (3), 275-286. Perie, M., Marion, S., Gong, B. & Wurtzel, J. (2007). The Role of Interim Assessments in a Comprehensive Assessment System. The Aspen Institute, Washington, DC. Popham, W. J. (2008). Transformative Assessment. Alexandria, VA, ASCD. Trowler, V. (2010). Student Engagement Literature Review. The Higher Education Academy, Lancaster University.

Reviewed: 5 March 2015

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 10, No. 4, pp. 40-50, March 2015

Clustering Analysis of Attitudes of Prospective Computer Programmers towards Programming Özcan ÖZYURT and Hacer ÖZYURT Department of Software Engineering Faculty of Technology Karadeniz Technical University Trabzon, Turkey

Abstract. This study aims to determine the clustering tendency of attitude variables of the students studying at computer programming department regarding computer programming. The study secondly aims to inspect whether factors such as gender, grade and type of education have an influence on the clusters obtained from the analysis. The study is conducted in fall semester of 2013-2014 academic year. The sample of the study consists of 947 students from 12 universities in different regions of Turkey. “Attitude Measure Regarding Computer Programming “is used as a data collecting tool. Clustering tendency of attitude variables are determined by hierarchical clustering analysis. Independent t-test is used to determine whether gender, grade and type of education influence these clusters. Attitude variables of the students are collected under six clusters. It has been seen that gender factor has an important effect on three clusters and, grade factor has an important effect on four clusters. Type of education factor has no statistically important effect on these clusters. Keywords: Computer Hierarchical Clustering

Programming,

Cluster

Analysis,

Attitude,

Introduction Rapid development in information technologies makes the teaching and learning of these technologies necessary and important. In terms of computer teaching, computer programming approach and teaching the information and skill relating to this approach come first (Korkmaz & Altun, 2013; Tüfekçi & Köse, 2013). Skill for computer programming requires to have high level thinking skills. These skills consists of firstly problem solving, logical and mathematical thinking (Fang, 2012; Korkmaz, 2012; Lau & Yuen, 2009). Computer programming courses are perceived as boring and difficult than a lot of courses by the students (Aşkar & Davenport, 2009; Başer, 2013a; Farkas & Murthy, 2005). The fact that the students towards the computer programming © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

course as difficult from the beginning can be resulted in the failure of the students in these courses (Tan, Ting, & Ling, 2009).There are lot of studies in literature dealing with the difficulties relating to the computer programming learning (Hawi, 2010; Gomes & Mendes, 2007; Jenkins, 2002; Katai, Juhasz, & Adorjani, 2008; Korkmaz, 2012; Lau &Yuen, 2009; Milne & Rowe, 2002; Tan, Ting, & Ling, 2009). Furthermore there are several studies searching for the reasons for the difficulties encountered in learning the computer programming and some of these studies emphasize the fact that the difficulty arises from the perception of the students. The perception about the computer programming, difficult and boring, causes the students’ developing low attitude towards the computer programming (Başer, 2013a). There are also other studies emphasizing the fact that physiological factors such as negative perception, motivation and especially low attitude may affect the computer programming learning negatively (Anastasiadou & Karakos, 2011; Erdogan, Aydın, & Kabaca, 2008; Hawi, 2010; Hongwarittorrn & Krairit, 2010). Furthermore researches made in educational sciences’ support this situation. Accordingly there are lots of studies arguing that attitudes of students attitudes towards the grade affect their success rate directly (Başer & Geban, 2007; Hwang, Wu, & Chen, 2012; Singh, Granville, & Dika, 2002; Tüysüz, 2010; Van De Gaer, Grisay, Schulz, & Gebhardt, 2012). Education given to the students of computer programming departments in universities aims to provide them knowledge and skills required by this occupation. Furthermore it is aimed to help students to be more effective in their occupational life with these knowledge and skills. One of the preconditions of the individuals’ success in their occupational life is to develop positive attitudes towards their occupation. It is known that attitude is one of the factors determining the behaviour (Pehlivan, 2010). For this reason, it depends on developing positive attitude towards occupation to display some behaviours created by the occupation (Çağlar, 2013). It is possible to encounter with the studies about the attitudes towards computer science in general and computer programming in specific. The results of these studies have not a common point. While some of these studies argue that the attitude towards the computer programming has not a relation with gender (Lau & Yuen, 2009; McDowell, Werner, Bullock, & Fernald, 2003), the others argue that male students have more positive attitude towards programming (Chang, Shieh, Liu, & Yu, 2012; Korkmaz & Altun, 2013; Stoilescu & Egodawatte, 2010). At the end of the literature survey, it is seen that, existing studies about the attitudes towards computer programming become dense in engineering departments and computer education and instructional technology department. A comprehensive study dealing with the attitudes of students studying in computer programming department has not been encountered. This is a huge lack for the studies made in educational sciences. The lack of these studies may cause the insufficiency of feedback of the education given in this field. In this regard it is very important to know the attitudes of the individuals towards programming who choose computer programming as an occupation and will engage in this occupation. Accordingly knowing this may contribute to the © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

improvement activities of educational institutions (Korkmaz & Altun, 2013). In this context this study aim to determine the clustering tendencies of the attitude variables of students towards computer programming who studying in computer programming department. Furthermore these clusters are examined by the factors such as gender, grade and type of education. It is thought that this study will fill an important gap in literature and will enlighten the following studies.

Methodology Descriptive approach of the general scanning methods and relational scanning model are used in this study. In relational scanning model, existence and degree of covariance is tried to be determined. (Karasar, 2006).

Participants This study is conducted in the fall semester of 2013-2014 academic year. 947 students studying at computer programming department in 12 universities in different regions of Turkey have participated in the study. Universities are code as A ... L. Numbers of the students by gender, grade and type of education are given in Table 1. Table 1: Distribution of students according to the university, gender, grade and type of education

Universities A B C D E F G H I J K L Total

Gender Female Male

22 9 18 14 17 13 35 7 42 37 18 52 284

65 28 31 42 33 19 74 24 99 80 61 107 663

Grade 1

33 8 21 42 17 47 58 68 34 97 425

54 29 28 14 50 15 62 31 83 49 45 62 522

Type of education Daytime Evening educatio education n 57 30 27 10 33 16 25 31 33 17 10 22 83 26 6 25 64 77 65 52 34 45 95 64 532 415

Total number of students 87 37 49 56 50 32 109 31 141 117 79 159 947

As it is seen in Table 1, the sample group consists of 284 female and 663 male students. 425 of these students are in first grade and 522 of them are second grade. 532 of them are registered in daytime education, others are in evening education.

Instrument Attitude Scale toward Computer Programming (AStCP) developed by Başer (2013a) is used as a data collecting tool in this study. AStCP consists of 38 items and it is designed as 5-point Likert scale as to give answer to the choices such as “strongly disagree”, “disagree”, “undecided”, “agree”, “strongly agree”. © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

Answers given to the each item by the students are listed as a numerical value as 1-5. Validity and reliability examination of the scale is conducted by the researcher (Başer, 2013a) and Cronbach-α reliability coefficient is found out as 0.953.

Data Analysis This study has two objectives. The first one is to research the clustering tendencies of attitude variables of students of computer programming department towards the computer programming. The other one is to determine whether these clusters have any difference in terms of gender, grade and type of education. Hierarchical clustering method is used in accordance with the first objective. Ward method is used for calculating the similarities. Squared euclidean distance is chosen as similarity-difference measure in calculation of distance between the variables. Similarities between the attitude variables are presented with dendrogram. The influence of gender, grade and type of education factors on these clusters is examined with independent t-test accordance with the second objective. Negative items are inverted before the data are analyzed with independent t-test and attitude points in accordance with the clusters are calculated in that way. SPSS 16.0 statistical pocket program is used for data analysis.

Findings In this study clustering analysis of attitude variables of the students studying computer programming towards the programming is conducted. Responses given by the students to the AStCP are subjected to the hierarchical clustering analysis. Items in the AStCP are coded as M1 … M38. The dendrogram obtained from this analysis is presented in figure 1.

As it can be seen in Figure 1, attitude variables of students towards computer programing are collected under four main clusters listed as A, B, C and D. And cluster A consists of sub clusters listed as A1 and A2, accordingly cluster D consists of sub clusters D1 and D2. Items included in A, B, C and D including their sub clusters are listed as follows. Custer A A1: (M15) (M16) (M14) (M17)

Winning a prize in programming competitions is a wonderful thing for me. It makes me happy to be the first in programming competition. It makes me happy to get the highest point in programming course. It is an important situation for me to be regarded as a smart student in programming course. It makes me happy to be perceived as a magnificent student in programming course. It makes me proud to be a student taking the attention in programming course.

(M12) (M13) A2: (M25) To know programming will help me find a job. (M26) Programming is important and useful. (M24) I make effort for programming course, because I know how much it is necessary. (M27) I will make use of programming in my occupational life in many way. (M23) I will need for programming in my following studies. Cluster B (M3) I think I can cope with more difficult programming problems. (M5) When it comes to programming, I have self confidence in high level. (M2) I am certain that I will learn programming. (M4) I can take good marks in programming class. (M1) I feel confident in solving the computer programming problems. (M33) When I encounter with a programming problem, I struggle to solve it till the end. (M35) In the case of an unanswered question in programming class, I carry on think about it afterwards. (M34) Computer programming problems that I cannot understand quickly whip me up. (M36) When I start to work on a program, I have difficulty in stopping it. Cluster C (M9) I find programming highly difficult, even though I study it. (M10) I can cope with lots of course, but I have no skill for programming problems. (M11) The most unsuccessful class that I take is computer programming. (M6) I am not good at programming. (M8) I am not a person who can make computer programming well. (M7) I do not think, I will success in computer programming course in the future. Cluster D D1: (M19) If I get good marks in programming course, I ignore it. (M20) If I get good mark in programming course once, I do not want again. (M21) If I become a successful student in programming course, people will love me less than before. (M22) I do not want people think about me as a successful student in programming course. (M18) It does not attract me to win a prize in a competition relating to the programming. D2: (M37) The fact that the programming problem is difficult does not take my attention. (M38) I cannot understand that people spend long time for writing program and enjoy it. (M28) Programming has no importance for my occupational life. (M29) Programming will not have importance in my occupational life. (M31) Taking programming classes is a waste of time. (M30) I will rarely use the programming in my occupational life. (M32) I guess there will be few place to use the programming after school.

Items included in the clusters and sub clusters arising from the hierarchical clustering analysis are examined and named. The names of the clusters and sub clusters in which there are attitude variables of the students towards the computer programming and the items they include are presented in Table 2.

Table 2: The clusters and sub clusters in which there are attitude variables of the students towards the computer programming Clusters A

Sub clusters Variables A1 M15,M16,M14,M17,M12,M 13 A2 M25,M26,M24,M27,M23

B C D1 D2

M3,M5,M2,M4,M1,M33,M 35,M34,M36 M9,M10,M11,M6,M8,M7 M19,M20, M21,M22,M18 M37,M38,M28,M29,M31,M 30,M32

Names of Clusters To become prominent in programming Need for programming and importance of it Interest for programming and success rate Failure in programming Indifference in programming Unimportance of programming

Influence of the factors such as gender, grade and type of education on clusters obtained from the hierarchical clustering analysis is researched. Results of independent t-test showing the influence of gender factor on clusters can be seen in Table 3. Table 3: Result of independent t-test of the attitude clusters of students towards computer programming by gender Cluster (A1) To become prominent in programming (A2) Need for programming and importance of it (B) Interest for programming and success rate (C) Failure in programming (D1) Indifference in programming (D2) Unimportance of programming

Gender Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male

n 284 663 284 663 284 663 284 663 284 663 284 663

Mean 4.2394 4.1528 3.8887 3.8371 3.2218 3.3488 3.0968 3.3095 4.2289 4.0483 3.7470 3.6783

Sd .84217 .99010 .65993 .84925 .65993 .84925 .95106 1.06434 .80063 .86158 .79117 .95546

t 1.288

p .198

0.743

.458

-2.245

.025*

-2.906

.004*

3.018

.003*

1.065

.287

p < .05

As it can be seen in Table 3, there is a significant difference in attitudes of students towards computer programming in clusters “Interest for programming and success rate” (p=.025), “Failure in programming” (p=.004), “Indifference in programming by gender” (p=.003) statistically. It is seen that attitudes of male students are more positive than that of female students in cluster “Interest for programming and success rate” and “Failure in programming”. But it is seen that attitudes of female student are more positive than that of male student in cluster “Indifference in programming”. In other clusters, “To become prominent in programming” (p=.198), “Need for programming and importance of it” (p=.458) and “Unimportance of programming” (p=.287), there is not a significant © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

difference in attitudes in terms of gender statistically. The result of independent t-test showing the influence of grade factor on clusters can be seen in Table 4. Table 4. Result of independent t-test of the attitude clusters of students towards computer programming by grade Cluster (A1) To become prominent in programming (A2) Need for programming and importance of it (B) Interest for programming and success rate (C) Failure in programming (D1) Indifference in programming (D2) Unimportance of programming

Grade 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2

n 425 522 425 522 425 522 425 522 425 522 425 522

Mean 4.2325 4.1351 3.9181 3.7992 3.3864 3.2490 3.3702 3.1443 4.1642 4.0521 3.7903 3.6245

Sd .93259 .96002 .98031 .97673 .76711 .81959 .97979 1.06947 .81103 .87343 .87404 .93151

t 1.574

p .116

1.860

.063

2.640

.008*

3.356

.001*

2.029

.043*

2.799

.005*

p < .05

As it can be seen in Table 4, there is a significant difference in cluster “Interest for programming and success rate” (p=.008), “Failure in programming” (p=.001), “Indifference in programming” (p=.043) and “Unimportance of programming (p=.005) in terms of grade statistically. Attitudes of students in the first grade are more positive that the ones in second grade in all these four clusters. Attitudes do not display any significant difference in terms of grade in clusters “To become prominent in programming” (p=.198) and “Need for programming and importance of it” (p=.458) statistically. The results of independent t-test results showing the influence of type of education on clusters can be seen in Table 5. Table 5: Result of independent t-test of attitude clusters of students towards computer programming by type of education Cluster (A1) To become prominent in programming (A2) Need for programming and importance of it (B) Interest for programming and success rate (C) Failure in programming (D1) Indifference in programming (D2) Unimportance of programming

Type of education Daytime Evening Daytime Evening Daytime Evening Daytime Evening Daytime Evening Daytime Evening

Mean

532 415 532 415 532 415 532 415 532 415 532 415

4.1438 4.2237 3.8474 3.8593 3.2705 3.3622 3.2265 3.2703 4.1192 4.0810 3.7054 3.6905

.94422 .95333 .95488 1.01155 .77625 .82529 1.00247 1.07769 .81336 .88966 .86355 .96609

-1.287

.199

-0.186

.853

-1.756

.079

-0.645

.519

0.688

.491

0.250

.803

p < .05

As it can be seen in Table 5, there is not any significant difference in attitudes of students towards computer programming in terms of type of education in all clusters statistically.

Discussion and Conclusion Studies relating to the attitude have an important role in understanding how the thoughts in education are shaped, measured and change (Maio & Haddock, 2010). Determining the attitudes of the students has an importance for designing the teaching methods and materials of the subjects (Grandell, Peltomäkı, Back, & Salakoskı, 2006). In this regard, this study aims to determine the clustering tendencies of the attitudes of students studying in computer programming department towards the programming. Hierarchical clustering method is used in accordance with this aim. Ward method is used for creating optimum clusters according to the similarities and differences of variables. Attitude variables of students are collected under four main clusters listed as A, B, C, and D according to the analysis of the data obtained from the study. And cluster A have two sub cluster as A1 and A2, accordingly cluster D have two sub clusters as D1 and D2. Among them, clusters A and B include positive attitude variables, clusters C and D include negative attitude variables. Names of clusters A and B including their sub clusters are stated as “A1: To become prominent in programming”, “A2: Need for programming and importance of it”, “B: Interest for programming and success rate”. Accordingly names of clusters C and D including their sub clusters are listed as “C: Failure in programming”, “D1: Indifference in programming” and “D2: Unimportance of programming”. Clusters obtained from the study are analyzed by the gender, grade and type of education factors. There are studies in huge number having such a result that male students develop more positive attitudes towards the computer programming than female students (Başer, 2013b; Chang, et al., 2012; Özgen & Korkmaz, 2013). In the analysis made by gender factor in this study, it is seen that attitudes of male students are more positive than that of female students in clusters “B: Interest for programming and success rate” and “C: Failure in programming”. In terms of this, result of the study supports the literature. However in cluster “D1: Indifference in programming”, it is seen that attitudes of female students are more positive than that of male student. In other word female student have a bigger interest for the programming than male students. Kormaz and Altun (2013) state that belief of students for the necessity for learning computer programming are generally in high level, but their eagerness for learning are in middle level. Bennedsen (2003) states that students are eager to learn the programming but they find learning the programming difficult. Attitudes of female students are more negative than that of male students in clusters “B: Interest for programming and success rate” and “C: Failure in programming”, while they have more positive attitudes than male students in cluster “D1: Indifference in programming”. In terms of this situation, it can be concluded that female students are interested in programming, but they cannot succeed in programming and they have difficulty in the learning process. Apart from these, in clusters “A1: To become prominent in programming”, “A2: Need for programming and importance of it” and “D2: Unimportance of programming”, it is seen that attitudes of the students do not display any difference in terms of gender. Literature includes the studies showing that both male and female students display the same attitude in terms of importance of

learning programming and programming skill (McDowell, et al., 2003; Lau & Yuen, 2009; Pioro, 2004). Finding of this study support the literature in that way. Clusters obtained in the study are compared by taking into consideration the grade and type of education factors. In terms of grade factor, a significant difference is seen in clusters “B: Interest for programming and success rate”, “C: Failure in programming”, “D1: Indifference in programming” and “D2: Unimportance of programming” statistically. In all these clusters, students in first grade have more positive attitudes that the ones in second grade. This may be arise from the fact that students in first grade haven’t encountered the difficulty in learning programming. Because students in second grade spend more time for programming than the ones in first year. For this reason the positiveness in the first grade may decline in second grade. It is seen that there is not any statistically significant difference in other clusters “A1: To become prominent in programming”, “A2: Need for programming and importance of it” in terms of grade factor. There is not statistically significant difference in all the clusters obtained at the end of the analysis made in terms of type of education. The reason for this situation may be the fact that both the daytime and evening students get the same education. Therefore these students getting the same education display the same attitudes towards the computer programming. In conclusion, both male and female students think computer programming is important and necessary. However when their responses are compared, male students give more positive response in terms of their success in programming than female students. Therefore they display more positive attitudes in clusters including the variables of interest and success rate for the programming. It is seen that attitudes towards the programming differs in terms of grade. All the students in both 1st and 2nd grade think programming is important and necessary. However success in programming and interest for programming are in low level for the student in 2nd grade. Type of education does not influence the attitudes of students towards the programming. The difference between the students’ attitudes towards the programming can be examined in detail in the following studies. Hence, new steps for overcoming the difficulties encountered in the process of computer programming education can be taken.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 10, No. 4, pp. 51-70, March 2015

Does Inquiry-Learning Support Long-Term Retention of Knowledge? Sarah Schmid and Franz X. Bogner Z-MNU (Centre of Math & Science Education), Institute of Biology Didactics, University of Bayreuth, University Campus, NWI, D-95447 Bayreuth, Germany

Abstract. Structured Inquiry-Based Science Education (IBSE) provides the theoretical base for our 9th grader lesson, labeled ―The Hearing of Sound‖. Participation in the 3 consecutive lessons enables participants to explore the phenomenon of hearing. Participants complete matching hands-on experiments, learn about the theoretical background of these experiments, describe observations and formulate explanations. The study followed a quasi-experimental design with 138 students. The participants‘ content knowledge on the subject was monitored 4 times: 2 weeks prior to the lesson (T0), on the day of the lesson (T1), 6 weeks (T2) and 12 weeks after it (T3). Students gained a significant short-term and a long-term increase in knowledge scores after 6 weeks. Furthermore, students showed a constant level of content knowledge when tested after 12 weeks, indicating that students did not forget information within the last six weeks. Furthermore, our inquiry lesson was suitable for both genders, as well as students with both high and low pre-knowledge. In their pre-knowledge boys outperformed girls. However, there was no influence of gender on the knowledge score after the lesson (T1, T2, T3). Conclusions for everyday teaching in school, by using inquiry teaching more frequently are discussed. Keywords: Inquiry-based science education; secondary school; gender; long-term retention

Introduction Inquiry approach According to constructivism, knowledge cannot directly be transmitted from one person to another. Instead knowledge construction occurs through active thinking of the learner (Cakir, 2008). Inquiry based learning is a constructivist approach of learning. It enables the learner to construct concepts from experience and from verbal interaction. Through inquiry learning, students have

the opportunity of getting first-hand experience in doing science and, to develop inquiry skills (Tamir, 1985). Inquiry can be defined as ―the intentional process of diagnosing problems, critiquing experiments, and distinguishing alternatives, planning investigations, researching for information, constructing models, debating with peers and forming arguments‖, (Linn, Davis, Bell, 2004, p.XVi). Therefore, inquiry-based teaching is increasingly favored as an improvement tool in science education (Osborne & Dillon, 2008; Rocard et al., 2007). For example, the German national science education standards propose four main competence domains: subjectspecific content knowledge, communication, judgment, and methodological knowledge (KMK, 2005a, 2005b). Within ―methodological knowledge‖, many inquiry-learning related activities are listed and their importance for teaching Biology and Physics is underlined. Although the benefits of using inquiry-based science education (IBSE) are controversial (see Furtak et al., 2009), the proposed benefits have often been confirmed (Wilson et al, 2010; Lynch et al., 2005; Minner and Levy, 2009). Concerning reduction of the increase of knowledge and the gender gap, Geier, Blumenfeld, Marx, Krajcik, Fishman, Soloway, and Chambers (2008) and Secker and Lissitz (1999) found results promoting inquiry based science. However, especially studies regarding long-term retention are rare, which is why the present study was undertaken. Inquiry-based teaching can be further subdivided into levels of student‘s autonomy. Blanchard et al. (2010) provide a clear table of the inquiry levels, based on Abrams, Southerland and Evans (2007) and adapted from Schwab (1962) and Colburn (2000), which describes four levels of inquiry: Level0/verification, level-1/structured, level-2/guided and level-3/open. The higher the level, the more student autonomy is linked to a block of investigation. For example, in level-0 the teacher decides the question, the method for data collection and also interprets the results. In level-1, interpretation is already up to the students. In level-2, interpretation as well as finding a method for investigation is up to the student. In level-3, the formulation of a question to investigate is also the students‘ responsibility. Abrams et al. (2007) stated that for level-3 students need prior experience with inquiry-learning to learn appropriately. In our quasi-experimental study, for comparison reasons, all students needed to work on the same content. Therefore, the inquiry lessons were constructed as ―level-1‖ or ―structured‖ inquiry, where the students focus on understanding the link between experiment and theory, and as well on the interpretation of the results they obtain (Staver and Bay, 1987). Similar to Quintana et al. (2004), we see scaffolding as a key element of cognitive achievement. The teacher coaches, structures tasks in a meaningful way and gives hints, without explicitly giving the solutions to the students. Furthermore, we agree with Mayer (2004), who stresses that a certain way of guidance is always useful in learning instructions. In his review of studies between 1950 and 1980, he found evidence in favor of guided approaches to learning, like guided discovery, whereas unguided, problem-based instructions such as pure discovery learning did not work well. Mayer (2004) defines guided discovery methods [like structured or guided inquiry] as receiving problems to solve

where a teacher provides ―hints, direction, coaching, feedback and/or modeling to keep the student on track‖. The main activity of a teacher‘s work takes place before the actual lesson. It is his/her responsibility to develop and provide high qualitative learning material. That is, a teacher‘s role is reduced to the promotion of inquiry-learning by asking open-ended questions like ―Tell me what you think about this.‖; giving students time to think of an answer; responding to questions by repeating and paraphrasing what students said without praising or criticizing; avoiding telling students what to do; and maintaining a disciplined classroom (Colburn, 2000).

Inquiry-learning material ―Clearly, the contemporary view of how students learn implies content that is deeper than facts and information, a curriculum that is richer than reading, […], and teaching that is more than telling‖: In line with this view of Bybee (2002; p.29), inquiry material should contain the content knowledge that a teacher wants to impart, but leaves space to explore the content. This can be done with the help of questions raised during engagement with the material. A student needs to find a satisfactory answer to such questions, by using his or her motivation und curiosity. This is in line with the claim of Novak (1988) that ―most students are not aware that learning is a responsibility they must accept. Teachers have a responsibility to select meaningful material and seek to share his meaning with students, but only the student can choose to learn. They can choose to learn by rote or to learn meaningfully‖. The questions raised in the material should have a connection with the everyday life of students and, therefore, connect school contents with relevant scientific problems that might occur throughout a student‘s life. Consequently Bransford, Brown and Cocking (2000; p. 139) had stated: ―Ideas are best introduced when students see a need or a reason for their use - this helps them see relevant uses of knowledge to make sense of what they are learning‖. In the strategy of inquiry-based science learning, students are the main actors during a lesson. Hands-on working is an important part of inquiry-learning that helps to facilitate the understanding of theoretical knowledge and ideas. However, we agree with Mayer (2004) who stated that ―activity may help promote meaningful learning, but […] the kind of activity that really promotes meaningful learning is cognitive activity (e.g., selecting, organizing, and integrating knowledge). Instead of depending solely on learning by doing […], the most genuine approach to constructivist learning is learning by thinking‖. This is what is meant by the difference of a ―cookbook‖-level-0-instruction and higher level inquiry. Furtak et al, (2009) stated that the ―procedural facet of inquiry-based science‖ does not involve students proceeding mindlessly through scripted laboratory procedures. Lord and Orkwiszewski (2006) agreed that ―While active learning suggests students are physically participating in the lesson, inquiry-learning requires that they are also mentally participating in it‖. The structured inquiry lesson we invented for this study was designed to turn the responsibility for learning to the students, by centrally involving them in the

thinking process about what the given experiments where for and in linking their observations to the theory provided. The lesson topic was the human ear and acoustics. Students were expected to learn how sound is created, how it is transferred to our ears as well as about the ear‘s anatomy, including the organization and function of the ossicles and the organ of Corti. As they also learned about the characteristic of sound waves, they were expected to use this newly acquired knowledge when learning about the function of the organ of Corti and the basilar membrane, as well as incorporating this knowledge to derive causes why noise is dangerous for our ears or the natural limitation of human hearing to a certain range of frequencies. In summary, the main learning goal of our inquiry-based lesson was the learning of science – defined as ―acquiring and developing conceptual and theoretical knowledge‖ (Hodson, 2014, p.2537). Within the three hours, four-person-groups worked on their own, using a provided working booklet. From time to time the teacher was questioning a student group, without involving the attention of the other groups, why they decided to write down a certain answer and let them explain their opinion. It was not sufficient to know what the result of an experiment was, but the material yielded on students understanding why this was the correct answer. Therefore, the teacher only turned to another group, if the students could explain why their answer was correct from their viewpoint. In case a student of the group did not know why the answer the group had decided for, was correct, he let another group member explain it to him. In case the group as a hole was not yet sure of why they decided for their answer, the teacher encouraged them to reread the text and/or observe the experiment again and would come back to them in a couple of minutes, meanwhile questioning another group. Summed up, students needed to read information texts to their group mates fetch and put together experimental set-ups, conduct experiments and answer questions regarding their observations and interpretations of them in regard to the theory provided. It was the students‘ responsibility to read the texts, fetch the setup, built it up and conduct the experiment in order to be able to answer the provided questions. When students e.g. asked ―What do I need to fetch for this experiment?‖, the teacher would advise them to read the work booklet again. If questions like ―Is this the correct answer?‖ would occur, the teacher would let them explain why they think it may or may not, and therefore let them reconsider their own answer. The students had the opportunity to test the experiments as many times as they liked and also to adapt them to their needs, if they were curious about it expanding the given questions. The teacher only asked groups to stay focused, when their exploration would shift to mere play without longer concentrating on the questions to answer or when they were behind the other groups – although both rather rarely took place. Provided material consisted of simple devices like springs, cards, rulers or paperclips etc. but also musical instruments, laptops and freeware software to display graphs of sound waves produced by the students. The phenomena in the texts were carefully selected to connect to students‘ everyday experiences: like, when questioning how sound is created to think about a rattling window when a truck

passes by to focus their attention to vibration. Or when introducing sound intensity and how to protect your inner ear by enlarging the distance to the sound source, with questioning what opportunities they had in a discotheque, when they stand near the speakers. Or when questioning, why the eardrum is larger than the oval window, leading to recognition of a force concentration, giving examples of e.g., why pins are designed the way they are and let them explain observations made with a matching experiment in regard to force concentration and pressure increase. Our study objectives were three-fold: (i) Classes that learned lesson contents via our structured inquiry unit were analyzed for their capability to comprehend and remember the lesson content, i.e. their content knowledge was repeatedly monitored. Although inquiry is postulated to support many soft skills, in our study we focused merely on cognitive achievement (since it is the main component on which students are assessed for during their school life): If IBSE did not lead to a satisfying learning outcome concerning content knowledge, its soft skill component would be insufficient justification for its use as a daily teaching strategy. Therefore, the first hypothesis was that participating in the provided structured inquiry unit would lead to a significant knowledge increase. (ii) Second, we hypothesized that learning science contents through structured inquiry would lead to a deeper understanding of the content and hence to secure long-term retention. (iii) Third, we hypothesized that our structured inquiry lesson may lead to significant learning in both genders.

Methods Our study followed a quasi-experimental design (Mertens, 2010) in which 138 9graders (Gymnasium), from ten classes and 4 schools participated. The sample size contained 47.83% females. The mean age of the participants was 15.1 years (SD=+/-0.55). To all students the taught topic was new. Before grade 9, human senses (NT 5.2.2) only are taught in an overview-like manner with some introduction to air and sonic (NT 5.1.2) in grade 5. A control sample of 64 students from 3 classes was monitored, with 42.19% females and mean age 14.80 years (SD=+/-0.52). This control sample did not take part in the inquiry classes and received no instruction on the topic during data acquisition. A repeated measurement ANOVA was applied. The control group did not learn through repeated completion of the knowledge questionnaire: there was no significant impact on the knowledge score at the four measurement times, p=n.s., F(3, 192)=1.09, partial eta-squared=0.017. The applied knowledge scale was embedded into a larger questionnaire which was completed within approximately 40 minutes. All questionnaires were completed within a 14 week schedule. Total data acquisition was completed within one year. The intervention â&#x20AC;&#x2022;The Hearing of Soundâ&#x20AC;&#x2013; consisted of three consecutive school lessons of 45 minutes each, forming an interdisciplinary inquiry unit about how humans hear and what sound is. The content knowledge covered, therefore,

combined issues from Biology and Physics. A commented excerpt of the working

booklet is attached in the appendix. The four topics of the lessons were: 1. ―What is sound?‖: a) Sound creation & Movement, b) Frequency & Amplitude 2. ―How do we hear?‖: a) The outer ear, b) The middle ear 3. ―How do we distinguish frequencies?‖: a) Resonance and Eigen Frequency, b) The inner ear 4. ―The limits of hearing‖: a) Natural limits of hearing, b) The risks of noise The topics within the ―working booklet‖ were arranged roughly according to the following scheme: 1. Title focusing the students on the sub-topic 2. Introductory text about a phenomenon students may have encountered in their life 3. Raising the question about how that phenomenon could be explained 4. Giving an example that helps students to understand the phenomenon 5. Asking questions to be investigated with an experiment or model (setup provided) 6. Students investigate these questions with the experiment or model 7. Students are asked to combine their results with the knowledge gained through the experiment or model, link it to the science behind it, answer questions, as well as fill in clozes to verify their knowledge. Each group member was given a special task that was rotated between the four group members to ensure every student was engaged and to prevent ―the couch potato phenomenon‖, described by Lord (1999). These roles were: a) reading the text aloud, b) fetching the right experimental material from the box, c) conducting the experiment d) writing down the group‘s conclusions. The student groups worked without tight time constraints. The teacher had the role of a guide. The teams worked on their own and were asked to contact the teacher just when something could not be solved within the group. The inquiry lesson was the only source of information on the topic. Students were not aware of the repeated testing cycle. Beside the participation in the three hour course, no additional learning phase took place. Therefore, the acquired knowledge is dedicated to the learning during participation in the structured inquiry course. All lessons were conducted by the first author to minimize teaching style dependent effects, and to verify that the teaching material was not changed due to personal preferences of teachers, and was therefore used in the same way in each class. Questionnaires for evaluating students‘ content-knowledge were applied about two weeks prior to the school lesson (T0), directly after the school lesson (T1), as well as six (T2) and twelve weeks (T3) after it. We also opted for a further longterm measurement after a period of twelve weeks, since many studies report a

decline of content-knowledge in their retention-test (e.g., after six weeks), but the development after this time gap is rarely researched (Bogner, 1998; Dean and Kuhn, 2006).

Figure 1: Testing schedule. Back area= lesson. T0= two weeks prior; T1= directly after; T2= six weeks after; T3= twelve weeks after the lesson.

The ad-hoc content knowledge questionnaire consisted of 20 multiple choice items with four possible answers each, only one of which was correct. The itemdifficulty-index (Zöfel, 2002) was calculated for each item; subsequently 3 questions were excluded as they were correctly answered by over 80% of persons in the pre-test and thus were not meaningful for analyzing knowledge gain (Zöfel, 2002). As repeated application of an identical test might influence achievement scores due to repetition (Keeves, 1998), students were never aware of any testing schedule or of any repeated testing situation. Additionally, the order of the questions and the position of the right answer were randomly distributed for each time point. All questionnaires were handed out as paper and pencil tests to be completed under controlled conditions. The maximum possible score of the knowledge test was 17. In classical test theory the mean-item-difficulty is the percentage of participants that answered the item correct. Over all testing time points it was 50.3% (T0=30.2%, T1=67.0%, T2=52.9% T3=51.1%). Classical test theory was applied for Cronbach‘s Alpha. The multiple choice test had a mean reliability index of .67 (Cronbach‘s Alpha; T0=.632, T1=.709, T2=.647, T3=.679). All items aim for measuring content knowledge and had a positive discrimination index.

Figure 2: Example questions from the multiple choice knowledge questionnaire.

For statistical analyses SPSS (version 20) was used. Missing data was excluded list-wise. Raw-data was transformed to gain homogeny of variance needed for parametric tests (knowledge scores: log(10)+1; knowledge gain: log(10)+13). All statistical tests concerning knowledge scores or gain take these transformed data as source. However, for a more meaningful interpretation graphs are based on the untransformed data. Data was analyzed by t-test, repeated measurement ANOVA (mixed design) and one-way independent ANOVA.

Results

Figure 3: Bar chart of the mean number of right answered knowledge questions grouped for each time point of measurement. T0 =2 weeks prior, T1=directly after, T2=6 weeks after, T3=12 weeks after the inquiry lesson. Max=17 right answered questions. Error bars = 95% CI.

Repeated measurement ANOVA was applied to test if the consecutive time points of measurement differ significantly. Knowledge scores differed significantly over the time points: p<0.0001, F(2.1, 286.22)= 173.52, partial etasquared =0.561.Students learned significantly through the inquiry lesson. The knowledge score of T0, two weeks before the lesson, was significantly lower than the knowledge score of T1, directly after the lesson, p<0.0001, F(1,136)=351.24, with a large effect size partial eta-squared=0.721. Afterwards, some content knowledge was lost again, comparing T1, directly after the lesson and T2, six weeks after the lesson, p<0.0001, F(1,136)=105.36, eta-squared=0.437. However, a further six weeks later (T2 -T3), the students lost no more knowledge, meaning that they are capable of recalling as much after twelve weeks as they could recall after six weeks, p=n.s., F(1,136)=0.05, partial etasquared=0.0001. A second repeated measurement ANOVA was used to test, if the knowledge scores for short and long-term learning were significant. The inquiry

intervention lead to a significant short term increase in knowledge scores directly after the lesson (T0-T1) p<0.0001, F(1, 137)= 322.41, with a large effect size of partial eta-squared=0.702,as well as to a long-term increases in knowledge scores after six weeks (T0-T2) p<0.0001, F(1, 137)= 148.12, with a large effect size of partial eta-squared=0.521, and after 12 weeks (T0-T3) p<0.0001, F(1, 137)= 135.50, with a large effect size of partial eta-squared=0.497.

Figure 4: A/Left: Bar charts of the knowledge score at successive time points of measurement, separated for male and female. X-axe: Gender, Y-axe: mean number of questions answered right; max=17. B/Right: Bar charts of the median gain (or loss) of knowledge, grouped for the time span between consecutive time points of measurement. F.l.t.r.: T0-T1, T1-T2, T2-T3.T0=2weeks before, T1=directly after, T2=6 weeks after, T3=12 weeks after the inquiry class. Error bars= 95% CI.

Figure 4a shows the knowledge level throughout the different time points of data acquisition for boys and girls. To test a potential gender discrepancy regarding pre-knowledge score (T0), a t-test was applied. As the genders differ in their pre-knowledge, with boys outcompeting girls (meanT0â&#x2122;&#x201A;= 0.8115, SE=0.20; mean T0â&#x2122;&#x20AC;=0.65, SE=0.23, p<0.0001, r=0.35), a repeated measurement ANOVA with mixed design was applied for further analyses. The interaction of gender and the time-points of measurement of knowledge scores was significant, p=0.002, F(2.11, 286.22)=6.39, partial eta-squared=0.045. This means that the overall knowledge scores are different for boys and girls. In detail, gender produced a highly significant effect when comparing two weeks before the lesson (T0), and directly after the lesson (T1), p<0.0001, F(1,136)=11.22, partial eta-squared= 0.076. This is due to boys starting with a higher pre-knowledge than females (see t-test above).However, gender did not influence further learning. There was no influence of gender on the knowledge score directly after the lesson (T1) to six weeks after the lesson (T2), p=n.s., F(1, 136)=1.44, partial eta-squared= 0.010. Nor was there a significant gender effect in knowledge level six weeks (T2) and twelve weeks (T3) after the lesson, p=n.s., F(1,136)=0.21, partial eta-squared= 0.002. This means that boys and girls reached

the same knowledge level, despite different pre-knowledge, as well as that the levels of recall of content knowledge were the same for both genders. Figure 4b shows the knowledge gain of boys and girls. For analysis a one-way independent ANOVA way applied. The knowledge gain from T0 to T1 was greater for girls than for boys. This difference in knowledge gain was significant F(1,136)=4.0, p=0.048, r=0.17. The higher direct benefit from the inquiry lesson for girls was due to the females starting with a significantly lower preknowledge in T0 (see above/ figure4a). The knowledge loss from T1 to T2, as well as from T2 to T3 were not significantly different for boys and girls, FT1T2(1,136)=0.147, p=n.s, r=0.03, FT2-T3(1,136)=0.003. p=n.s., r=0.001.

Discussion

Inquiry lesson leads to substantial learning First of all, our data (figure 3) follow typical learning pattern with a short-term peak and long-term decrease (e.g., Heyne and Bogner, 2012; Geier and Bogner, 2010): students learn and partially forget content-knowledge, but the level never drops below the before lesson level. So students learned substantially through a structured inquiry lesson. As no additional learning phase on the course content took place, the knowledge reflected in the test-scores must have been learned through the active participation in the course. This finding is in line with Von Secker and Lissitz (1999), who described teacher-centered instruction as negatively associated with general science achievement, while mean science achievement is expected to increase by about 0.4 SD for every SD increase in the amount of emphasis placed on laboratory inquiry. Marx et al. (2004) also showed that in a year-long study in an urban school area, where students were historically low achievers in science, students were able to significantly improve scores via inquiry as demonstrated by post-tests after the school year. Lederman, Antink and Bartos (2014) also described inquiry-based learning as very helpful for learning science contents as well as hands-on work as effectively supporting conceptual understanding. Bases on data of the PISA-study 2006, increases in science achievement are especially provoked by structured inquiry; i.e. the same level our inquiry-based unit was based on, where students conduct hands-on activities and draw conclusions upon them. Interestingly, higher, more open levels of inquiry resulted in much lower science achievement (Jiang and McComas, 2015). Inquiry lesson leads to formation of long-term retention Even after twelve weeks, students could recall as much as they did six weeks after a lesson, indicating a constant level for six weeks. This result strongly suggests that learning through inquiry-lessons substantially contributes to the formation of long-term retention. There are very few studies about long-term effects of inquiry lessons. Anderson (1997) stated that neurocognitive theory supports learner-centered science instructions: â&#x20AC;&#x2022;Active involvement by the learner maximizes activation of schemata, [â&#x20AC;Ś] especially when the tasks are perceived as being facilitatory for problem-solving [â&#x20AC;Ś]. Multimodal learning promotes more stable schema

formation by simultaneously activating different cortical modules and enhances linkages among the [neural] networks. This stabilizes the information and makes it more accessible for reconstruction later […]‖. This would explain why students retained information from week 6 to week 12 after the inquiry intervention. The level of knowledge formed within the first six weeks after a lesson would remain long-term. Nuthall (1995) observed how students use their knowledge and experience to respond to achievement tests by using multiplechoice questionnaire before an intervention and directly after. Selected interviews two weeks after the intervention yielded reasons why specific answers had been given and where students obtained their information from (e.g., school or family and media). A further 12 months later, participants completed the questionnaire again, and thought ―aloud‖ about how and where their information originated from. In total, recalling relevant item answers was closely associated with the recollection of the episodic and/or semantic content of the original learning experience. Since the original learning experience was so important for recall, this suggests why our structured inquiry lesson apparently helped students not to forget information between week 6 and 12. As they took responsibility for working through the learning material and conducting experiments with their group, students were actively involved at every stage of knowledge building about a subtopic of the lesson. For instance, they read about the phenomenon, tested models, were asked how the model relates to the real phenomenon, were asked to decide if the fillings of a cloze were right or wrong, were urged to discuss problems and results with their peers and write their answers and conclusions down. This probably provided a broad base from which to retrieve a correct answer to the content-knowledge test. As Nuthall (1995) concluded, ―students who have learned more in classrooms may perform better on achievement tests, not because they have learned more answers, but because they have more alternative parallel ways of solving the problems posed by the test items‖. Matching results also come from Blank (2000), who described students as recalling significantly more content-knowledge, two and six months after the end of an inquiry intervention, when they had been asked to make explicit their prior knowledge and to discuss the status of their conceptions and ideas throughout the course (meta-cognitive group), compared to students who completed the same inquiry lessons, but were not asked to record their thoughts. The actual learning gains of both groups were similar, directly before and after the treatments. However, long-term retention two and six months later differed: Students of the metacognitive learning cycle could recall significantly more. The students in our inquiry lesson were required to think actively to make sense of the written information, the experiments and their observations, while discussing the content with their peers. We conclude that active participation by hand and brain made the experiences during the lesson very ―vivid‖ in the memory of the students, so that the learned content could be retrieved relatively easily, even 12 weeks after the intervention.

Although our inquiry lesson lasted just for half a day, significant learning outcomes and long-term effects on content learning were achieved. Together with the study of Geier et al. (2008), that indicates that a higher frequency of inquiry units results in higher achievement, this should be a signal towards the more frequent use of well-organized inquiry lessons. The meta-analysis of Furtak et al. (2009), also found indications that an inquiry treatment of between five and seven weeks had a higher impact on students learning than those lasting up to one week, supporting the higher frequency. Inquiry can close the gender gap and is suitable for strong and weak students Although males scored significantly higher on pre-knowledge before the lesson, our inquiry lesson made this gender difference in content-knowledge disappear. Immediately after the lesson, the female‘s mean score no longer differed from the male‘s one, although both genders had significantly increased knowledge through the lesson. Even with lower pre-knowledge females were able to fully catch up. Supporting results come from Geier et al. (2008), who found that participation in at least one inquiry course resulted in a reduction of the gender gap. AfricanAmerican boys, who are reported as often being outperformed by girls in US urban schools, closed the gender gap by gaining relatively more from an inquiry unit. This is in line with our results. Therefore, our study adds to the body of research that shows that inquiry-learning can help to reduce the gender gap, especially by being relatively more helpful for the disadvantaged group of learners without ignoring the needs of the rest of the class. Achievement gaps in science classes can probably explain a high percentage of the skewed decision between the genders for later career opportunities in science. We would therefore welcome more inquiry-based science lessons throughout a student‘s school life, to increase decisions for a career in science. Especially if a more equal distribution in science careers between genders is desired by policy makers and politics, structured inquiry-teaching could be the solution. Inquiry does not especially suitable for a certain gender, rather inquiry is suitable for all students, but it reduces the barriers for learning and retention. The student centered way of teaching inquiry, where students can work and learn in small groups, in their own pace, and with less competition gives room to students to not to be afraid of asking questions or discussing with peers by tasks that are engaging, foster curiosity and motivation. These are circumstances especially beneficial for students that otherwise may not even want try to investigate the learning content, because they feel not capable or are afraid of social pressure. These may be the reasons why the learning environment of inquiry based teaching seems to be especially fruitful for thitherto disadvantaged students.

4. Pre-knowledge is not crucial for achievement Females not only caught up directly after the intervention, but their later scores did also not differ from the boys‘ in week 6 and 12. Thus, although girls needed

to learn more new facts, they were able to remember these new facts for at least 12 weeks. As they did not forget more than the boys, this indicates that they were capable of remembering more facts in total (T0-T3. As a conclusion, girls were able to gain more from our inquiry lesson which brought both gender to the very same level of content-knowledge without disadvantaging either. This result precludes pre-knowledge as a limiting factor for learning by inquiry and demonstrates that this teaching method can be an especially positive way of learning when the class consists of strong or weak students. Therefore, we can confirm Johnson and Lawson (1998), who found that prior knowledge did not account for a significant amount of variance in final science exams of college students, regardless whether taught with [open] inquiry or expository methods.

Conclusion Our study showed the hypothesized positive effects of inquiry-based science teaching, leading to a better learning outcome and showing its suitability for both genders, but especially supporting female learning needs (Rocard et al 2007). Our inquiry-based lesson was shown suitable for students with both high and low pre-knowledge. Additionally, it also seems equally suitable for both genders, as both ended up with a similar learning outcome despite significant differences in pre-knowledge. In summary, this inquiry lesson led to a wellinformed class, despite individual differences between participants. It also led to a class that evidently has successfully organized long-term retention, as they are capable of recalling information and have understood principles needed to answer content knowledge questions. With regard to what students go to school for, and why teachers are actually teaching, an at least 3-month recall ability seems to be a very strong argument in favor of structured inquiry. This long-term retention was formed using a structured inquiry approach, and we agree with Mayer (2004), who states, â&#x20AC;&#x2022;Activity may help promote meaningful learning, but instead of behavioral activity per se (e.g., hands-on activity, discussion, and free exploration), the kind of activity that really promotes meaningful learning is cognitive activity (e.g., selecting, organizing, and integrating knowledge). [â&#x20AC;Ś] the most genuine approach to constructivist learning is learning by thinking. Methods that rely on doing or discussing should be judged not on how much doing or discussing is involved but rather on the degree to which they promote appropriate cognitive processing. Guidance, structure, and focused goals should not be ignoredâ&#x20AC;&#x2013;. To achieve long-lasting knowledge students need to be given demanding learning goals. It is quite an effort to create learning environments that are more than a lecture talk and more than discovery learning. Students need directions and the possibility to think for themselves. This needs time, but it seems that the actual value of doing and understanding something oneself is that these facts can be remembered better (Nuthall, 1995; Blank, 2000). A very important point when students are engaged in active understanding is that a teacher has confidence in his students. If a student asks how a certain word is spelled correctly, the teacher should not divulge the answer, but teach the student to

look it up in the dictionary. The student will not only learn and remember how the word is written, but he will learn additionally how to solve similar questions. Essentially this is what structured or guided inquiry is about. It‘s about teaching content through the understanding of mechanisms that can be applied in general, and it teaches students to take responsibility for their learning. Staying with the example of the dictionary, in a modern classroom, walking to the shelf to look up a word must not be classified as disturbing the lesson, but as taking advantage of the learned mechanism. With the background of this and other studies that show that learning with structured or guided inquiry is beneficial, there is a demand for change in classrooms and schools. To be able to teach by inquiry-learning, teachers need to be given professional development on the difference between what is ―too much‖ and ―too little‖ guidance for their students. This is not only necessary for class management, but in the creation of learning tasks or worksheets with which the students can learn long-term. Divulging the answer too quickly and using ―cookbook‖ labs will probably lead to the ―couch potato‖-effect (Lord, 1999) and students who learn by rote learning rather than by understanding. When lab time is to be applied of which students should do more than do the given steps of an experiments and copy the meaning of the results in their documents, time is needed. Therefore there is a need to extend the time in which students are confronted with science subjects in school. Science should be taught in e.g., two consecutive hours instead of two single hours, and there should be time for ―science days‖ or ―research weeks‖. It is probably necessary to reduce the gender gap long before university entry. Inquiry-learning seems to be a good tool to narrow or close this gender gap e.g., in middle school. Politics now need to emphasize the goals they proposed in the teaching standards in 2005 (KMK, 2005a, 2005b), and provide teachers and schools with matching support to increase their expertise e.g., in teaching activities similar to inquiry-learning (see ―methodological knowledge‖-goals). Inquiry is not the only teaching method that can be used. It is clear that it cannot be used to the full, e.g., because of time constrictions. But teachers can use inquiry by focusing on certain aspects whenever they see the chance to take advantage of it. For example, the focus can be set on formulating hypothesis on the base of background information, planning experiments for a desired outcome, predicting outcomes of experiments, collecting data, structuring data, evaluating data, formulating explanations and results, comparing predictions to results, communicating results, or discussing results and interpretations. Teachers should also demand that their students be more pro-active when the circumstances allow for it – for example, when inquiry-based lessons are undertaken. Already a single event of a three hour inquiry lesson had a positive effect on the long-term retention of content knowledge in the study presented here. As other studies, like the one of Geier et al. (2008) and Stohr-Hunt (1996), the present study suggests a cumulative effect of the frequent use of inquiry

during a studentâ&#x20AC;&#x2DC;s school life. More frequent use of structured or guided inquiry in school will probably increase the benefits for students in science classes. It needs to be clear that students need not remember each single activity or experiment years after they have left school, but they need to remember how they can approach a certain type of problem, or how they can assess scientific debates in the media relevant to their lives.

Acknowledgments Our study was funded by the European Commission (PATHWAY, FP7Science-in-Society-2010-1, THEME SiS-2010-2-2.1-1; 266624). Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the European Commission.

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Osborne, J., & Dillon, J. (2008). Science education in Europe: Critical reflections. London: The Nuffield Foundation. Quintana, C., Reiser, B. J., Davis, E. A., Krajcik, J., Fretz, E., Duncan, R. G., et al. (2004). A scaffolding design framework for software to support science inquiry. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 13, 337–386. Rocard M., Csermely P., Jorde D., Lenzen D., Walberg-Henriksson H. and Hemmo V., (2007) Science Education Now: a renewed pedagogy for the future of Europe. European Commission, ISBN - 978-92-79-05659-8 KMK (Sekretariat der Ständigen Konferenz der Kultusminister der Länder in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland) (Ed.). (2005A). Bildungsstandards im Fach Biologie für den Mittleren Schulabschluss [Biologie education standards for middle school graduation]. Neuwied: Luchterhand. KMK (Sekretariat der Ständigen Konferenz der Kultusminister der Länder in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland) (Ed.). (2005B). Bildungsstandards im Fach Physik für den Mittleren Schulabschluss [Physics education standards for middle school graduation]. Neuwied: Luchterhand. Schwab, J. J. (1962). The teaching of science as enquiry. In J. J. Schwab & P. F. Brandwein, The teaching of science. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Staver, J. R., & Bay, M. (1987). Analysis of the project synthesis goal cluster orientation and inquiry emphasis of elementary science textbooks. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 24, 629-643. Stohr‐Hunt, P. M. (1996). An analysis of frequency of hands‐on experience and science achievement.Journal of research in Science Teaching, 33(1), 101-109. Tamir, P. (1985). Content analysis focusing on inquiry. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 17(1), 87-94. Von Secker, C. E., &Lissitz, R. W. (1999).Estimating the impact of instructional practices on student achievement in science. Journal of research in science teaching, 36(10), 1110-1126. Wilson, C. D., Taylor, J. A., Kowalski, S. M., & Carlson, J. (2010).The relative effects and equity of inquiry‐based and commonplace science teaching on students' knowledge, reasoning, and argumentation. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 47(3), 276-301. Zöfel, P. (2002). Statistik verstehen: ein Begleitbuch zur computergestützten Anwendung. Pearson Deutschland GmbH.

Appendix Exemplary workbook material. Topic 1 ―What is sound?‖, part a) ―Sound creation & Movement‖. Extracted is the part on the movement of sound. The comments added to this excerpt intend to let the reader better understand how students where actively engaged in the learning activity. Remember that all student groups worked on their own. They were not told by the teacher what to next within the three hours and could not ask for a simple yes/no-reply if their conclusion was right or wrong as the teacher would ask them back why they would think so either way and let them explain to him, instead of providing information to them. Therefore, students needed to read their booklet with attention, as skipping paragraphs and guessing answers would leave them without feedback if they guessed right or wrong. If the teacher would from time to time ask a team about why they wrote down a certain answer and they could not explain why they decided so, he would recommend them to read the text

again. Students darting to ask ―is this the right answer?‖ to get through the material faster soon understood that if they would not know how to explain their answer they would not get a satisfying feedback but were asked to invest effort into the activity. Students mostly changed from asking for a right/wrongfeedback to asking if their way of understanding was correct or stopped asking the teacher for help but instead discussed within their team. … 3. Do air molecules and sound travel the same distance? After the air particles at the sound source are set in vibration by the vibration of the sound source, the air particles next to them vibrate as well and these bring their neighbors to vibrate as well, and so forth. The sound is moving in a wave pattern through the air. Scientists call it sound wave. Comment: Before students made assumptions on how the sound might be moving from the sound source by plugging a rubber band which was stretched over a small box. The short paragraph above summarizes the broad theory for sound movement through a sound wave.

Question:

But how does the sound cross the broad distance from the sound source to your ear? We will compare the sound with something we already know to understand that. Comment: Here students are introduced to a new and more explicit question about sound movement. Before introducing another experiment, students read about a phenomenon with similar function. The Mexican wave serves as a functional model of how a wave is moving, although the ―particles‖ the wave consists of, do only oscillate around their starting position. Students sometimes have the misunderstanding that air particles travel all the way from the sound source to the recipient. Therefore students‘ focus is set to analyze what happens to a single air particle when a sound wave is created in the following experiment afterwards. 3.1 Comparison: The Mexican wave Figure 1: Fans do a Mexican wave at a A sound wave behaves like a Mexican Wave: sports game. the wave moves forward and travels big distances while the air particles that move when the wave passes only move around their original position. People only move their arms Photo not part of display to create the Mexican Wave, they do not go anywhere themselves.

3.2 Experiment 2: The spring Imagine the spring as the air between the sound source and your ear. Each ring of the spring is an air particle. One air particle was marked by us. The sound wave moves rythmically when there is a sound, and it stops when there is silence. Question: You still want to find out how the sound does travel from the sound source to your ear.

sound source

ear

Excecution:  Place the slinky with the marked air particle on the table.  Stretch the slinky. Hold both ends of the slinky (sound source and sound receiver)  Strongly push one end of the slinky rhythmically in the direction of the other hand, and pull it back to its starting point. Repeat the movement. Observations: 1. Does the marked part of the spring travel all the way from the sound source to the sound receiver side? _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ 2. When you stop the movement, where is the marking positioned in the spring? _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ 3. Each air particles in a sound wave behaves like the marked point in the slinky when a sound wave is moving across a room. Is the following statement right or wrong? Give reasons! ―Each air particle of a sound wave moves through the whole room, from the sound source to your ear.‖ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________

Comment: In the next passage students need to transfer their understanding of the traveling sound wave, which they gained through the experiment to the questions below. They thereby learn about the density of the air particles at certain time-points in the sound wave. 3.3 Sound waves Do you see the similarity between the wave in the spring, the movement of the Mexican wave and the movement of a sound wave through the air? Let us exploit these similarities! 1.

Draw the denseness of air particles (use little dots) in the tube under the corresponding pattern of the moving slinky. Both, the compression of the spring and of the air tell you how the sound wave moves.

Try to make sense of the following text by filling in the missing words, and choosing one of words in brackets by crossing out the other. â&#x20AC;&#x2022;A sound wave is actually a wave of ____________ and ____________ of air particles in a certain part of the air. Scientists describe it as well as pressure wave. In the zones where the air is compressed the air pressure is therefore (higher/lower) as the normal background air pressure. In the zones where the air is rarefied the air pressure is (higher/lower) as the normal background air pressure.â&#x20AC;&#x2013;

â&#x20AC;Ś

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research

Vol. 10, No. 4, pp. 71-83, March 2015

Enhancing Agricultural Education Lecturers’ Teaching Effectiveness in Nigeria Colleges of Education: The Human Resource Supervision Perspective Camilus Bassey Ben and Ajigo Ikutal University of Calabar, Calabar, Nigeria

Abstract. This study was conducted to determine the extent to which human resource supervision relates with teaching effectiveness of Agricultural Education lecturers in Nigerian Colleges of Education. Two null hypotheses were formulated to guide the study. A 30-item questionnaire was structured to obtain data for the study. Expost facto research design was adopted for the study. Sixty three Agricultural Education lecturers were involved in the study. The Pearson Product Movement Correlation and Population t-test were the statistical tools used in data analysis. The results of the study revealed that there was significant relationship between human resource supervision and Agricultural Education and that lecturers’ teaching effectiveness in Nigeria colleges of Education was not significantly high with respect to teachers’ self-control, classroom design techniques, teaching of appropriate behaviour and students’-lecturers’ relationship. To enhance Agricultural Education lecturers’ teaching effectiveness, it was recommended among others that Agricultural Education lecturers should be involved in human resource supervision in Colleges of education in Nigeria. Keyword: Agricultural Education; Agricultural Education lecturers; institutional variable, human resource supervision, teaching effectiveness, human resource

Introduction Education is the pivot to the development of the society. Apart from being the most powerful instrument for social progress, it is also the greatest power for self-improvement. The fundamental considerations upon which most educational institutions are established are productivity, profitability and efficiency made possible through teacher education. Agriculture is one of the core subjects in Nigeria education system. This important accorded it in the school curriculum reflects the recognition of the vital role it plays in

contemporary society. Teacher education in Nigeria is aimed at encouraging innovativeness in prospective teachers and the provision of professional background for operation. Agricultural Education is a formal academic programme of instruction systematically organized for in-school learners who are willing and ready to be prepared for a teaching career in agriculture. As an academic programme, Agricultural Education stresses in its content those professional skills required by a learner in professional education and vocational/ technical areas of agriculture. The vision is to produce globally competitive teachers who will contribute significantly to development through quality research and teaching. Agricultural Education Programme is hinged on the national philosophy of agriculture. It emphasizes self-reliance based on the production of professional teachers of agriculture endowed with balanced approach between principles and practice of agriculture for academic and skill development ends. The objectives of Agricultural education programme at the Nigeria College of Education level among others; 1. The production of teachers with the appropriate attitude, knowledge, and professional competences in agriculture 2. The production of teachers who will be capable of encouraging students to acquire interest in and attitude for agriculture occupations. 3. The development of in prospective agricultural educator required communicative skills for successful communication of agricultural information and skills to the students 4. The equipment of the prospective agricultural teacher with adequate knowledge and ability to establish and manage model school farm. 5. The provision of a sound background to enhance further academic and professional progress of prospective agricultural teachers. 5. The provision of high-level academic manpower in agricultural education needed at various levels of education (Ben, 2010). The professional training of teachers of agriculture in Nigeria is achieved through pre-service and in-service training. The Nigeria Colleges of Education as one of the major teacher training institutions established to provide pedagogical and technical training to prospective teachers in these regards. Graduates of these colleges are assigned to teach at the nation's pre-school, primary and junior secondary school levels. The Nigerian colleges of Education have generally been observed to be affected by issues bordering on human resources supervision. This adversely impacts on teaching and learning effectiveness of lecturers. Teachers hold the key that unlocks the door to modernization (National Universities Commission (NUC), 2006). If Nigeria will achieve success in the production of wellinformed and effective Agricultural Education lecturers, sustained attention should be given to human resource supervision. According to Okure (2001), effective teaching of agriculture is indispensable of well supervised appropriate workforce and proportionate staffstudent ratio among other factors. It was against this backdrop that this study was conceived. Statement of problem

The formal teaching of Agricultural Education in Colleges of Education in Nigeria emanated when the then Federal and Regional Governments of Nigeria with technical assistance from UNESCO established advanced teachers training colleges in 1962 across the country as an emergency measure for the purpose of producing well qualified non-graduate teachers for the lower forms of secondary school. Science education, including Agricultural education was accorded top priorities in these colleges (Ben, 2010). Then Agricultural Education human resources were relatively adequate (Fafunwa, 2004). As students’ enrolment increased with years, the human resources became grossly inadequate as there was no corresponding additional provision of human resources to match with the demands. The available ones were improperly supervised as some the relevant staffs of Agricultural Education Department for instance were rarely carried along on staff recruitment, deployment, and development matters. Consequently, Agricultural Education lecturers were faced with the problem of excess workload which culminated into ineffective and inefficient job delivery and students’ poor academic performance. Besides, it has generally been observed that this trend is still maintained inspite of the introduction of e-learning technologies which have the capabilities of educating an infinite number of students with a few teachers. Findings from related researches in this regard points to the fact that most of Agricultural Education lecturers in Colleges of education in Nigeria are not yet at home with this new initiative. As pointed out by Agbulu and Ademu, (2010), although the application of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) has caused significant fast changes in lectureship, where digital and electronic software complement, and in some cases replace conventional settings but the problem is that agricultural education lecturers who are confronted with this radical change experience shock, confusion and become disoriented. In other words, some agricultural education lecturers are still out of touch with reality of utilizing ICT facilities e.g. e-learning technology in the performance of their work roles. It was upon this basis that this study was conceived; to establish the relationship between human resources supervision and Agricultural Education lecturers’ teaching effectiveness.

Purpose of the study The purpose of this study was to ascertain the relationship between human resource supervision and Agricultural Education lecturers’ teaching effectiveness in Nigeria Colleges of Education. Specifically, the study sought to: 1. Find out the relationship between human resources supervision and Agricultural Education lecturers’ teaching effectiveness in Nigeria Colleges of Education. 2. Ascertain the status of Agricultural Education lecturers’ teaching effectiveness in Nigeria Colleges of Education.

Statement of hypotheses

The following hypotheses were formulated to guide the study: 1. Human resources supervision does not significantly relate to teaching effectiveness of Agricultural Education lecturers in Nigeria Colleges of Education 2. The teaching effectiveness of Agricultural Education lecturers in Nigeria Colleges of Education is significantly high

Literature review Human resource supervision and teaching effectiveness Colleges of Education need adequate and well supervised human resources at its disposal to achieve its goals. A major human resource in this regard is the human workforce in lecturers’ category. Human workforce is very important for optimization of academic programmes including Agricultural Education. There is a consensus among academic institution administrators, educational planners and researchers that human resource is essential ingredients for effective teaching and learning outcome and ensures the achievement of objectives. A study by Okedara (2001) on administrators’ human resources supervision and teachers’ productivity revealed that teachers’ productivity was dependent on administrator’s supervision. In the same vein, Effective supervision of available workforce can lead to satisfaction which can enhance teachers’ teaching effectiveness. This is because when the personnel to be used are adequately supervised, the assurance that the lecturers use them to facilitate their teaching effectively is ensured. In a situation where the human resources are not effectively supervised, Agricultural Education teachers are forced to make choices which are unpleasant and often compromising. The teachers may be forced to resort to verbal explanations of practical-based lessons or may resort to giving assignments to students who will have to undertake an uphill task of searching for the required solution. Besides some teachers may skip or totally abandon some courses when faced with the challenges of paucity of essential workforce. This is an aberration on teaching effectiveness. The concept of teacher effectiveness can be viewed broadly as the integration of characteristics, competencies, and behaviors of teachers at all educational levels that enable students to reach desired outcomes, which may include the attainment of specific learning objectives as well as broader goals such as being able to solve problems, think critically, work collaboratively, and become effective citizens. It involves building strong relationship with students that cultivate the socially as well as intellectually behaviour and working collaboratively with other teachers and administrators to create a culture of excellence and active encouragement. As identified by Sinha (2008) there are four core components of teaching effectiveness which are self-control, classroom design techniques, teaching appropriate behavior, and students’ teachers’ relationship. However, the key elements towards achieving high teaching effectiveness encompasses prioritizing key tasks and remaining dedicated, focusing on team work, good leadership role, and good relations with students, good quality of workforce and a sound organizational culture.

Gregory (2002) pointed out the importance of teaching effectiveness to include increase in the staff degree of control over their work, providing staffs the opportunity for participative decision making, enhancing the professional competency of the teachers through in-service training, organizational communication and delegation of authority among others. Robbins (2000) collaborating this maintained that to enhance teaching effectiveness, the administrators should give effective supervision to lecturers directly to know how well they are doing. Supervision will engender the agitation for the lecturers’ pay and promote policies that that can ginger high performance. Enumerating the importance of teaching effectiveness, Robbins (2000) asserted low performed teachers skip work more often and more likely to resign; that teachers who are satisfied in his/her teaching effectiveness have better health and job satisfaction and this can be extended to the life outside the job. An effective teacher helps students to learn, and build strong relationship with students hence aids them socially as well as intellectually. Components like selfcontrol strategies, classroom design techniques, teaching to appropriate behavior and student teacher relationship could be used to achieve teaching effectiveness. An effective administrator has pertinent role to play in supervising the staff for enhanced output and for achievement of the goals of the organization. This is because human resources play prominent role in effective utilization other resources, such as materials, equipment, facilities and finances. According to Udo and Ankpa (2001), human resource is of great importance to any organization because it constitutes a usable commodity as well as decides how much can be achieved with other resources. In the same vein Onwuka (2008) sees human resource as the most important resource because it is saddled with the onerous task of coordinating other available resources for the attainment of the goals of the organization. Human resource supervision could be seen as “the harnessing of the totality of the people’s skills, energies, talents, talent capacities, social characteristics and the like to achieve educational objectives and simultaneously making the people to be part of organization in fulfilling the goals. It involves utilizing, coordinating and checking the activities of the staff for the purpose of realizing the goals. On importance of human resources supervision Peretomode (2005) pointed out that it is recognized by laws as a functional areas of supervision that must be practiced and that in Nigeria, it is enshrined in National Policy on Education in Nigeria and in the Civil Service Reform Degree No. 43 of 1988. Besides, human resource supervision ensures that the staffs regularly undergo developmental programmes It assists personnel in building up a good career; ensures that the selection and placement of staff are done devoid of favoritisms ; assists in the formation of staff policies; staff, boosts staff morale; ensures the maintenance of staff record and bio data; ensures staff are rewarded based on merit; and provides guidance and counseling to staff . Many activities are involved in human resources supervision, but the include human resources planning, recruitment and selection, induction and orientation, development programmes, performance appraisal and promotion, retirement as well as industrial relations. Human resource planning as defined by Graham © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

(2009), is an attempt to forecast how many and what kind of employee will be required in future, and to what extent this demand is likely to be met. Here it is seen as is a process of providing the required number of staff to achieve the future objectives of the organization. The activities in human resource planning predicting in advance the needs of various types of staff, comparing those needs with present staff strength as well as determining the number and category of staff to be appointed or retrenched. Human resource planning ensures that the organization maintains the right numbers of staff who has acquired the right skills for the available job and who are capable of carrying out these tasks effectively. Human resource planning is very essential if lecturers must be functional in their jobs. In the first place the administrators or the bodies that employ lecturers in the various colleges o must know the staff need in terms of types of skills, levels and age category, present number available and then forecasting future needs in areas of changes. This process ensures that the wrong people are not employed i.e. people who may not have the required skills for teaching the course. The number of lecturers should be proportional to the number of students. In this connection, lecturers’ teaching effectiveness becomes possible where they are properly utilized by the administrators. Recruitment and selection of lecturers into our Nigeria colleges of Education is a very important process. The departmental heads have roles to play in this process. The initial application for employment is usually expected to be rooted through the heads of departments who is officially required to comment on the suitability or otherwise of the applicant and thereafter on the Provost, the chief executive who reserves the mandate to recruit or not depending on the situation at disposal. The administrator should be in the panel so as to determine who should be employed and who should not. They also have to supervise the lecturers well so as to enhance retention. On a study to determine the extent to which staff recruitment and retention correlate with institutional task performance, Ukpong (2000) found out that the level of teaching effectiveness and supervision relates positively with lecturers’ level of effectiveness in the job performed; that supervision and other related variables significantly influenced lecturers’ level of task performance and their degree of intention to stay in the job. Aguokoagbuo (2003) revealed that most often applicants with strong personality behind them are generally selected for appointment. This has often resulted in the incompetent workers in the system. It leads to proliferation of mediocrity. Besides, the incompetent lecturer would surely breed poor results and undesirable attitudes in students towards studies. It might even be easier to supervise a competent lecturer. Also, if the necessary working conditions are put in place, such lecturer may perform very high in in instructional delivery. Therefore if the departmental heads must supervise the lecturer effectively and efficiently, they must have a hand in the recruitment and selection process. Staff development is another pertinent aspect of staff human resource supervisory process in Nigeria colleges of Education. It involves training and

retraining of the lecturers through various development programs. Training or development programs are designed to increase the knowledge, skills, experience, attitude as well as release staff talent potentials so as to meet the present and future job requirements and thus achieve the college objectives. Specifically, staff development program performs functions of utilization and supervision. It provides the capacity for the staff to perform effectively on the assigned work role. Adamu (2007) aptly coined the term “continuous professionalism development” (CPD) to describe this type of training. Ajidahun (2007) sees staff development as the imprint of human resource supervision which contributes immensely to success of any organization. A genuine way of enhancing the productivity of academic lecturers is training. In other words effective training is sine quo non in today’s dynamic work environment thereby calling for the exposure of staff to new technological innovations. According to Bland (2000), every lecturer in the Nigeria Colleges of Education has a high degree of personal responsibility for assembling and presenting the course content to achieve instructional objectives, and therefore they need should give every positive encouragement to the lecturer to perform to the best advantage. The head of department can encourage a lecturer by recommending him or her for development programs such as in-service for graduate study depending on his academic status. Other aspects of such development programs are workshops, conferences, seminars and symposia. Staff high and low performance through career development, has positive relationship with the staff feeling of personal and financial fulfillment derived from the job. To him job fulfillment is achieved when the job provides those things which the staff feels are important in life. If the employer can provide the opportunity for continued growth and advancement, then an attitude of loyalty and high satisfaction is developed which will lead to enhanced performance and increased productivity. Graham (2009), Peretomode (2005) and Idih (2007) outlined the importance of development programs to include, greater productivity, qualitative performance, adaptability to new methods, lower labour turnover and reduced absenteeism, acquisition of higher qualification for greater responsibilities and status, keeping in touch with counterparts and new developments within and outside the country in professional growth. A pertinent human resource supervisory role of the head of department should be able to appraise the teachers’ performance. Adequate performance appraisal is the process of assessing the degree of the staff performance in carrying out his assigned duties in other to achieve the goals of the institution. Rao and Rao (2000) defined performance appraisal as a method of evaluating the behavior of staff at work. Schermerhorn, Hunt and Osborn (2008) submitted that performance appraisal is a process of evaluating performance and providing feedback for making of performance adjustment. Denga (2000) stated that the administrator should use assessment instrument that will reflect items such as commitment level to work, attitude to work, productivity rate, extra performance or unusual initiative amongst others. The head of Department, in appraising lecturers should ensure that there is no favoritism or victimization. Fairness and objectivity should prevail. This can also make a committed lecturer

to be self-actualized in the job. Based on this, the strength and weaknesses of the staff can be identified easily and recommended for development training programs as the need arises. Oduegbulem (2003) maintains that lecturer’s participation in decision making; organizing workshops and enlightenment programs for staff among others are relevant staff supervision strategies that could be adopted by administrators. It is therefore evident that when staffs are involved in some aspects of college organization and administration, it creates a “we-feeling” of togetherness and comradeship, resulting in improved teaching effectiveness.

Methodology The Ex-post facto research design was used for this study. This research was conducted in the six states that constitute the south-south geo-political zone of Nigeria namely, Akwa Ibom, Bayelsa, Cross River, Delta, Edo and Rivers State. The population of the study was 63 lecturers. This comprised all the lecturers in Colleges of Education that offer Agricultural Education programme in southsouth Geo political Zone. The total population of the Agricultural Education lecturers from both federal and state Colleges of Education in south-south geopolitical zone of Nigeria was small therefore no sampling was carried out hence the entire population of Agricultural Education lecturers were involved in the study. A structured questionnaire was used as instrument for collecting data for the study. The items in the study instruments were developed personally by the researcher. The items were developed on the basis of the major independent and dependent variables that directed the study. To determine the reliability of the instrument, a trial testing was done using 20 lecturers drawn from Colleges of Education located in south East zone of Nigeria. Test retest method of reliability was used to determine the reliability estimate of the instrument. This method yielded reliability coefficients as follows: Institutional variables of human resource supervision strategy (0.68); Teaching effectiveness: self-control (0.85), classroom design techniques (0.82), teaching of appropriate behavior (0.831), student’s lecturer relationship (0.88). These indicated that the instrument was reliable. The research instrument was administered personally by the researcher with the help of a research assistant who was trained specifically for this purpose. The hypotheses postulated for this study were tested at 0.05 significance level using Pearson’s Product Moment correlation Coefficient, the Population t-test and multiple linear regressions for hypothesis 1, 2 and 3 respectively. The decision rule that guided the result interpretations was that the null hypothesis was accepted if the calculated tvalue was less than or equal to the critical t- value and vice versa.

Results Hypothesis one Human resource supervision is not significantly related to of Agricultural Education lecturers The dependent variable in this hypothesis was teaching effectiveness of Agricultural Education lecturers (categorized into self-control, classroom design techniques, teaching of appropriate behaviour and Students’– lecturers’

relationship. The independent variable was human resource supervision strategy. To test this hypothesis, the Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient (r) analysis was used. The results of the analysis are presented in Table 1 Table 1: Pearson Product Moment Correlation analysis of the relationship between human resource supervision and Agricultural Education lecturers’ teaching effectiveness

Variable

∑X∑Y

∑X2∑Y2

∑XY

r-cal.

p-val

Self-control

915.0

2380.3

1599

0.563*

.000

Classroom design techniques Teaching of appropriate behaviour Students’– lecturers’ relationship Teaching effectiveness

1002.0

2114

1438

0.387*

.000

1022.0

2229

1483

0.357*

.002

1067.0

2018

3755

0.410

.003

869.0

5154

N = 63, *Significant at P<.05, df = 61, Critical -r = 0.195 (2 tailed) Data in Table 1 indicated that all the calculated r-values of 0.563, 0.387, 0.357 and 0.410 were found to be greater than the critical r-value of 0.195 needed for significance at 0.05 alpha levels with degrees of freedom. With these results the null hypothesis was rejected in terms of self-control, classroom design techniques, teaching of appropriate behaviour and Students’– lecturers’ relationship. This meant that human resource supervision and teaching effectiveness of Agricultural Education lecturers were significantly related. Further indications were that the calculated r-values were all positive. This meant that the more the lecturers are involved in human resource supervision, the more the Agricultural Education lecturers’ teaching effectiveness and vice versa. Hypothesis Two The Agricultural Education lecturers’ teaching effectiveness in Nigeria Colleges of Education is significantly high To test this hypothesis, population t-test statistical analysis procedures were applied. The results of the analyses are presented on Table 2. Table 2: Population t-test analysis of Agricultural Education lecturers’ teaching effectiveness in Nigeria College of Education

Variable

Cal. T value

P-value

Hypothesized mean Self-control

12.50 13.816

2.433

7.019*

.000

Classroom 14.812 design techniques Teaching of 15.464 appropriate behavior Students’– 17.377 lecturers’ relationship

3.214

10.713*

.000

2.816

14.672*

.000

2.2499

27.007*

.000

N = 60, *Significant for all groups at P<.05, df = 62, critical value t = 1.968 (1 tailed) In Table 2, the calculated t-values of 7.019, 10.713, 14.672 and 27.007 were all found to be greater than the tabulated t-value of 1.968, at 0.05 significance level, with 62 degrees of freedom. With these results, the null hypothesis was rejected. This meant that the teaching effectiveness of Agricultural Education lecturers in Nigeria Colleges of Education was significantly low in terms of teachers’ selfcontrol, (13.816), classroom design technique 14.812), teaching of appropriate behaviour (15.464) and Students’– lecturers’ relationship (17.377). By this analogy, the respondents in this study perceived lecturers’ teaching effectiveness as poor in terms of students’– lecturers’ relationship teaching of appropriate behaviour, classroom design technique and teachers’ self-control.

Discussion of findings Human resources supervision and Agricultural Education lecturers’ teaching effectiveness The findings in this aspect of the study revealed that human resource supervision is significantly related with the teaching effectiveness of Agricultural Education lecturers in Nigeria Colleges of Education. Furthermore, the more the lecturers are involved in human resource supervision, the higher their teaching effectiveness. These findings agree with Udo and Ankpa (2001) who in their separate studies recognized human resources supervision as being of great importance to any organization because it constitutes not only a usable commodity but also a factor upon which the achievements as well as advancement in society depends upon. Corroborating the above facts, Onwuka (2008) and Peretamode (2005) whose separate studies see human resources supervision as an onerous task of coordinating of all other resources of a nation (or of an organization like an academic institutional set-up) to achieve not only the objectives of the organization but also the satisfaction and development of the staff.

This study also concurs that of Hunt and Osborn (2008), who in their studies identified that such supervisory activities like human resource planning, recruitment and selection, induction and orientation, development, programmes, performance appraisal and promotion, retirement as well as industrial relation, are all related to the role of heads of department as supervisors. Human resource planning is an essential human supervisory function in the college of Education system. The Provost must know the requirement in terms of types of skills, levels and age category, present number available and then predict future needs in area of changes. This process further ensures that only the people who possess the right skills are employed, and in correct proportion to the number of students admitted in the programmes. In this case, lecturers’ teaching effectiveness becomes possible where they are properly and effectively utilized by the institution, The extent of teaching effectiveness of Agricultural Education lecturers in Nigeria Colleges of Education The findings in this aspect of the study revealed the fact that the teaching effectiveness of Agricultural Education lecturers in Nigeria Colleges of Education is not significantly high with respect to self-control, classroom design techniques, teaching of appropriate behavior, and students’- lecturers’ relationship. This implied that all Agricultural Education lecturers perceived themselves as fairly effective in teaching Agricultural Education in their various Colleges. This could be human resources supervision besides other related variables. Earwood (2009) is in concurrence with this finding when he said that apart from human resource, other factor such as level of finance, level of security, and work conditions have significant influence on teaching effectiveness of and teachers. Job fulfillment is achieved when the job provides those things which the staff feels are important in life. If the employer cannot provide the opportunity for continued growth and advancement for example, then lackadaisical disposition, disloyalty and apathy is developed towards work which will ultimately lead to ineffective performance and reduced productivity.

Conclusion Based on the findings of the study, it was concluded that there was significant relationship between human resource supervision and Agricultural Education lecturers’ teaching effectiveness in Nigeria College of Education. When the lecturers are well supervised and also involved in human resource supervision activities, effective teaching is bound to ensue this will be reflected in classroom design technique, teaching of appropriate behaviour, students’-lecturer’ relationship, and self-control.

Recommendations On the basis of the findings, the following recommendations were made: 1. The college administration should not independently employ and impose staff on heads of departments.

2. Agricultural education lecturers should be carried along in issues of human resource supervision in Nigeria College of Education 3. The agricultural education lecturers should be given opportunity to develop their professional capacities, through in- service courses for higher degree 4. Agricultural Education lecturers should be sponsored by the College authorities to attend conferences and workshops to acquire new ideas through interaction with their peers from other institutions. 5. The Federal and state governments as major stake holders in the Nigeria college of Education system should employ more Agricultural Education lecturers in Nigeria College of Education. 6. The college administration should not independently employ and impose staff on heads of departments.

References Adamu, T. S. A. (2007). Knowledge and practice of accounting professional development among professional librarians in State Owned University libraries in Ghana. Ghana Libraries Journal 190, 1-4. Aguokoaguo, O. N (2003). Educational administration and resources management for effective instruction in Nigeria tertiary institution Journal of WCCI Nigeria 4(1), 247254 Agbulu, O. N. & Ademu, A. (2010). Assessment of Agricultural Science teachers’ knowledge and utilization of information and communication technology in Nigerian secondary schools. Journal of Emerging Trend in Research and Policy Studies. (1), 1-9 Ajidahun, C. O. (2007). The training development and education of Librarymanpower in Information technology in University Libraries in Nigeria. World libraries 17.1 http://www.worlib.org . Akpama, M. A. (2003). Secondary school resources management effectiveness of teachers’ teaching effectiveness in Cross River State. Unpublished Ph.D Dissertation. University of Calabar Ben, C. B. (2014). Quality Assurance for Effective Agricultural Teacher Preparation and School Administration in Nigeria. Proceedings of INTCESS14- International Conference on Education and Social Sciences. Proceedings.3-5 February 2014. Istanbul, Turkey, 1706 -1712 Ben, C. B. (2010). Fundamentals of Agricultural Education. Calabar: El-Summer Publishers Bland, D. E. (2000). Managing higher education. Great Britain: Cassel Educational Limited Denga, D. I. (2000). Education at a glance: from cradle to tomb. Calabar: Rapid Educational publishers Earwood, L. (2009). Employee satisfaction through career development. The personnel Administrator 1, 34-40 Fafunwa, A. B. (2004). History of Education in Nigeria. London: George and Arwin Graham, H. T. (2009). Human resource management. Plymouth: Macdonald and Evans

Gregory, S. U. (2002). The application of Douglas McGregorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s theory in administration of secondary schools in Enugu State, Unpublished M.Ed Thesis University of Calabar Idih, E. I. N. (2007). Human resource management for effective business education.The Researcher . 2(1), 36-42 National Universities Commission (2006). NUC Brochure(6th edition) Abuja: NUC Odoegbulem, A. (2003). Strategies for improving human resources management for effective instruction in secondary school in Owerri educational zone. The Journal of WCCI 4(2), 107-113 Okedara, J. T. (2001). Preliminary study of secondary school resource management in Lagos state. Unpublished B.Ed Project. University of Lagos Okure, S. J. (2001). Quantitative techniques in educational planning for economic development. Owerri: Executive publishers Onukwa, J. O. (2008). Management of Agricultural Education programmes in institutions of higher learning in Nigeria. Problems and suggestions: Journal of Nigerian Vocational Association, 2(4).121-126) Peretomode, V. F. (2005). Introduction to educational planning and supervision. Lagos: Joja Educational Research publishers. Rao, P. S. &Rao, V. S. P. (2007).Personnel and human resource management: Tests cases and games. Delhi:Konark publishers PUT limited Schermerhorn, J. R. Hunt, J. G. & Osborn, R. N. (2008).Organizational behaviour (6thed). New York: John Wiley Sinha, J. (2008). Streamlining processes to achieve organizational goals. Accessed from http://www.buzle.com on February 23, 2015. Udo, S. U. & Ankpa, G. O. (2001).Management of quality education in Nigeria. Jose: NAEA Ukpong, R. (2000). Staff recruitment and retention as correlates on institutional task performance of teachers in Federal government Colleges of Eastern-zone of Nigeria. Unpublished M. Ed Thesis University of Calabar, Nigeria

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 10, No. 4, pp. 84-93, March 2015

Middle School Students Academic Motivation: A Missing Element in a General Education Quality Improvement Program in Ethiopia Abebe Kinde Getachew Jimma University, Jimma, Ethiopia Abstract. This research was conducted to show policy makers and quality improvement personnel how the classroom and personal goals related to academic effort and intrinsic motivation employing the revised goal theory of motivation. 809 middle school students were taken from different schools by stratified and systematic sampling techniques from Jimma zone, Ethiopia. The study found out mastery classroom goal was high (Mean =2.49, S=.42) relative to performance-approach classroom goal (Mean =2.48, S=.42) and performance-avoidance classroom goal (Mean =2.28, S=.57); and also mastery goal was high (Mean =2.89, S=.24) as compared to performance avoidance goal (Mean =2.52, S=.49) and performance approach goal (Mean =2.38, S=.57). A test of one-way ANOVA revealed a statistically significant mean differences in students’ mastery goal between grade 6 and 7 students and between grade 6 and 8 students, F (2,647) = 6.085, p=.002. 7% of the variance in students’ intrinsic motivation in the academic task was explained for by the linear combination of the independent variables. Similarly, 11% of the variance in students’ effort in the academic task was explained for by the linear combination of the independent variables. Moreover, the study found out mastery goals and performance goals had positive and negative outcomes, respectively. The study implies the General Education Quality Improvement Programs (GEQIP) in Ethiopia should be revisited in a way that addresses explicitly the motivation of middle school students at a classroom level. Key Words: Classroom Goal Perception; Personal Goal Orientations; Revised Goal Theory of Motivation

Background A number of research works affirmed poor quality of education characterized by low academic achievement and low level of students’ motivation in Ethiopia. © 2015 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

Prominent among these were Students National Learning Assessments (NLA) (2011, 2007) which found out low student's motivation for learning; and academic achievements of grade four and eight students in different subjects (English, Mathematics and other subjects) were far less than the minimum expected standard (50%) of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopian Education and Training Policy (1995). In response to this, the government of Ethiopia introduced and implemented a General Educational Quality Improvement Program (GEQIP) in schools. The GEQIP addressed the following components since its inception: Curriculum, Textbooks and Assessment and Inspection; (ii) Teacher Development Program (TDP), including English Language Quality Improvement Program (ELQIP); (iii) School Improvement Program (SIP), including school grants; (iv) Management and Administration Program (MAP), including EMIS; and (v) Program Coordination, including Monitoring and Evaluation Activities. (GEQIP, 2008:3).

However, the average academic achievements of students in grades 4 and 8 have not improved. For example, the fourth National Learning Assessment (2011) showed the average scores of students’ in various subjects were below the expected standard. Similarly, the Education Sector Development Program reported: Notwithstanding major investments in improving the numbers and the qualifications of teachers and the availability of equipment, student achievements have not sufficiently improved. The gains in access are of little meaning if they are not accompanied by improved student learning. If students do not acquire significant knowledge and skills, Ethiopia will not be able to compete within a global economy. (ESDP IV, 2010: 10).

Different explanation could be forwarded as to why the quality improvement program failed to bring the intended target in relation to students’ academic achievements. One of the explanations could revolve around students’ motivation. Though the third NLA (2007) found out students lacked the potent psychological factors such as motivation which could be cultivated in the classroom, the quality improvement program did not address explicitly what should be done at the classroom level to enhance students’ motivation. Moreover, the School Improvement Program Guidelines (2010), one sub-components of GEQIP, and the GEQIP II (2013) did not address adequately the components of motivation and how to promote students motivation at a classroom level. However, various scholars advocate the importance of motivation in influencing students’ academic achievements (Areepattamannil, Freeman, & Klinger, 2011b).

Thus, this research was conducted to show policy makers and quality improvement personnel how middle school students perceived a classroom goal structures; and how these variables and students’ personal goals related to academic effort and intrinsic motivation employing the revised goal theory of motivation. By doing so, the policy makers and others concerned bodies working on ensuring quality of education in middle school students of Ethiopia could get invaluable insight and may consider students motivation explicitly for their future intervention. Therefore, the study deals with:    

To what extent do classroom goal and students’ goal orientation related? What are the magnitudes of these variables? Are there significant mean differences among these variables by grade level? How did these variables predict academic effort and intrinsic motivation?

Theoretical framework Even though researchers have used diverse motivational approaches, achievement goal theory of motivation is the prominent theory which explains students’ academic motivation and engagements in relation to classroom practices (Meece, Anderman & Anderman, 2000). The theory assumes that motivation and behaviors are explained by the reasons students forwarded for engaging in academic work (Ames, 1992; Dweck & Legget, 1988). Achievement goal theory of motivation has attested the importance of classroom goal structure as an important determinant of student learning goals, and academic outcomes (Ames, 1992). Moreover, motivation and achievement are influenced by the classroom goals which include practices and policies as dictated by the classroom teacher (Ames & Archer, 1988). These goals, according to the revised goal theory of motivation are mastery, performance approach and performance avoidance goals (Harackiewicz, Barron, Pintrich, Elliot, & Thrash, 2002). In a classroom in which students perceive the importance of the task at hand and expectations of success are high, the tendency to adopt mastery goal would be maximized (Midgley Kaplan & Middleton, 2001). On the other hand, in a classroom in which students perceive that teachers emphasize ability grouping and performance evaluation, the tendency to adopt performance-approach goal would be high (Cauley et al., 2005). Similarly, in a classroom in which students perceive that failure is not considered as an opportunity for learning/teaching or failure is considered as a lack of ability, adoption of performance avoidance orientation is more likely (Svinicki, 2005). The different goals students adopt resulted in different educational outcomes. Mastery goal related to a number of positive behavior ( Dweck &Leggett, 1988 ; Midgley et al. , 2001 ; Pintrich , 1999) and on the contrary, performance approach goal oriented students for excelling others and documented their ability while

performance avoidance goal oriented students to conceal their inability or avoid difficult task ( Pintrich, 1999 ).

Methods and Materials The populations of this study were 8,090 middle school students (grade 6, 7.and 8) located at Jimma zone, District town, Ethiopia. 10 % (809) of students from the population were taken from different schools by stratified and systematic sampling techniques. Data for the achievement goals, effort and intrinsic motivation were secured by means of scales adopted from Midgley et al. (2000) and Motivation Inventory website (http://selfdeterminationtheory.org ). Students rated the various items on a three point scale (1=Not at all true, 2= somewhat true, 3= very true). The personal goal scale contains 14 items. 5 items measure mastery and performance approach goal whereas the performance goal scale contains 4 items. The classroom goal scale contains 14 items. The mastery goal scale contains 6 items, the performance approach goal scale contains 3 items and the remaining 5 items assessed performance avoidance goal structure. The effort and the intrinsic motivation scales contained 5 and 7 items, respectively. Pilot test was carried out on 50 middle school students with the aim of checking the reliability coefficient of the various scales. Moreover, professionals from psychology department checked the contextual relevance of the various items. The internal reliability estimates of the various scales were acceptable, ranging from .62 to .86 and also some items were modified based on the comments of expert analysis.

Result Socio demographic characteristics of the respondents 671 (83%) students filled out the questionnaire correctly. The rest 138 (17%) of participants did not complete the questionnaire correctly and thus avoided from the final analysis. 314 (46.8%) of the respondents were males and 357 (53.2 %) were females. 131 (19.5%), 214 (31.9%) and 326 (48.6%) students were taken from grade eight, seven and six respectively. The mean age of respondents was 14.02 with a standard deviation of 1.63. Relationship of classroom goal and personal goal There were significant relationship between students’ mastery goal and mastery classroom goal (r = .135, p < .01), performance approach goal and performance approach classroom goal (r = .440,21p < .01) and performance avoidance goal and performance avoidance classroom goal (r = .416, p < .01). The regression analysis also indicated that almost 2% of the variance in students’ mastery goal was explained by mastery classroom goal. Mastery classroom goal significantly © 2015 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

predicted students mastery goal (b=.076, t=3.357, p = .001). Similarly, the proportion of variance in performance approach and performance avoidance goals explained for by performance approach and performance avoidance classroom goals were 19.4% and 17.2% respectively. Performance approach classroom and performance avoidance classroom goals significantly predicted students’ performance approach and performance avoidance goals (b=. 611, t= 12.01, p = .000; b =.358, t=11.39, p = .000). Magnitude of perceived classroom goal and personal goal As indicated in the table below, the mean score of the three types of classroom and personal goals were above the scale mean (2.00). Students perceived the middle classroom goal as more of mastery support (Mean =2.49, S=.42) and performance approach support (Mean =2.48, S=.42) while the mean score on performance avoidance classroom support (Mean =2.28, S=.57) was relatively low as compared to the mastery and performance approach classroom structures. Table 1: Mean score of students’ perception of the classroom goal and personal goal __________________________________________________________________________ Variables Mean Std. Dev. Mastery classroom goal 2.49 .42 Per Performance approach classroom goal 2.48 .42 Performance avoidance classroom goal 2.28 .57 Ma Mastery goal 2.89 .24 Pe Performance approach goal 2.38 .57 Per Performance avoidance goal 2.52 .49

Similarly, the mean score on mastery goal (Mean =2.89, S=.24) was higher than both performance approach and performance avoidance goals. The mean score on performance avoidance goal (Mean =2.52, S=.49) was greater than the average score on performance approach goal (Mean=2.38, S=.57). Students’ personal goal by grade level As indicated in the table below, the mean scores of grade 6 students on mastery goal was higher than grade 7 and 8 students while the mean score on mastery goal for grade 7 students was higher than grade eight students. A test of one way ANOVA indicated statistically significant differences on mastery goal at least in a pair of grade levels , F ( 2,647 )= 6.085, p=.002, η2 = .018. The post hoc comparison test indicated that there was statistically significant mean differences on mastery goal between grade 6 and 7 students (MD=.003); and between grade 6 and 8 students (MD=.008). The rest was not statistically significant.

Table 2: Mean score of students personal goal orientations by grade levels

Grade level 8 7 6 8 7 6 8 7 6

Mean Mastery goal 2.83 2.91 2.91 Performance approach goal 2.40 2.42 2.36 Performance avoidance goal 2.55 2.52 2.52

Std. Dev. .32 .23 .19 .53 .59 .57 .45 .49 .51

Though there were not statistically significant mean differences on performance approach and performance avoidance goals by grade level , the mean scores of grade 6 students on performance approach goal was lower than grade 7 and 8 students; the performance approach goal for grade 7 students was higher than grade 8 students ; the performance avoidance goal for grade 6 students was lower than grade 7 and 8 students and the performance avoidance goal for grade 7 students was lower than grade 8 students. Perceived classroom goal structures analysis by grade levels Though there was not statistically significant mean differences on the various types of classroom goals by grade levels , the mean score of grade 8 students on mastery classroom goal was higher than grade 6 and 8 students; the mastery classroom goal for grade 6 students was higher than grade 7 students ; the performance approach classroom goals for grade 8 and 7 students were higher than grade 6 students; the performance avoidance classroom goal for grade 8 students was higher than grade 6 and 7 students; and the performance avoidance classroom goal for grade 6 students was higher than grade 7 students. Table 3: Mean score on perceived classroom goal structures by grade levels

Grade level 8 7 6

Mean Mastery classroom goal 2.55 2.46 2.50

Std. Dev. .44 .42 .41

8 7 6 8 7 6

Performance approach classroom goal 2.50 2.50 2.47 Performance avoidance classroom goal 2.38 2.25 2.26

.41 .45 .40 .56 .56 .57

The final analysis was to find out the how well socio-demographic variables, students’ personal and classroom goals predicted students’ effort and intrinsic motivation. 7% of the variance in students’ intrinsic motivation in academic task was explained for by the linear combination of performance avoidance and mastery classroom goal, mastery and performance approach goals. The performance avoidance classroom and performance approach goals negatively predicted students’ academic intrinsic motivation (b= -.089, t= -3.704, p = .000), (b= -.072, t= -2. 747, p = .006), respectively. Students mastery and mastery classroom goals positively predicted students’ academic intrinsic motivation (b=.177, t=3.164, p = .002) , ( b=.076, t= 2. 181, p = .030), respectively. The socio-demographic, the rest of the classroom and personal goals variables were not statistically significant predictors of academic intrinsic motivation in middle school students. Table 4: Predictors of academic intrinsic motivation

Constant Performance avoidance classroom goal Mastery goal Performance approach goal Mastery classroom goal

Beta coefficients 2.12 -.90 .18 -.07 .08

t test 12.79 -3.70 3.16 -2.75 2.18

Sig. .000 .000 .002 .006 .030

With respect to effort, 11 % of the variance in students’ effort in academic task was explained for by the linear combination of performance avoidance, performance approach, mastery and performance avoidance classroom goals. The performance avoidance, performance avoidance classroom and performance approach goals negatively predicted students’ academic effort (b= -.088, t= -2.565, p = .011), (b= .075, t= -3.031, p = .003), (b= -.066, t= -2. 276, p = .023), respectively. Students mastery goal positively predicted students’ academic effort (b=.224 , t=3.831, p = .000).

Table 5: Predictors of academic effort

Constant Performance avoidance goal Mastery goal Performance avoidance classroom Performance approach goal

Beta coefficients 2.37 -.09 .22 -.075 -.066

t test 14.45 -2.57 3.83 -3.03 -2.28

Sig. .000 .011 .000 .003 .023

Discussions and implications The study found out middle school students perceived classroom goal as more of mastery support, followed by performance approach and performance avoidance. It seems that middle school classrooms in the study setting emphasize multiple goal messages which were consistent with the finding of Ames (1992). According to Ames, the tendency to adopt multiple goals would be high in a classroom that emaphaisze multiple goals structures. Accordingly, scholars indicated that the multiple goal messages resulted in adoption of various goals. Pintrich, Conley & Kempler (2003) propound that varieties of instructional strategies in classrooms containing different messages and signal could resulted in the adoption of multiple goals. Thus, it is not surprising to find out that middle school students at Jimma Zone had a high level of mastery, performance approach and performance avoidance in line with the multiple messages of the classroom goal. Several researches also indicated the existence of multiple goal orientations based on the reality of the classroom goal structures (Pintrich, 2000; Pintrich & Garcia, 1991 as cited in Pintrich et al, 2003). The study also indicated that the mean score of grade 6 students on mastery orientation was found to be higher than grade 7 and 8 students and in turn grade 7 students mean score on mastery orientation was found to be higher than grade eight students. Research in other contexts also confirmed the deterioration of middle school students’ motivation as they go higher (Bong, 2001) due to various factors including characteristics of the learning environment. However, there were no statistically significant differences on classroom goals across the three grade levels as it seems teachers in these grade use similar strategies. Dozens of researches have also evidenced the influence of mastery and performance goals on students’ academic outcomes. In this study it was discovered that performance avoidance and performance approach classroom goals negatively predicted students’ intrinsic motivation; performance avoidance, performance avoidance classroom and performance approach goals negatively predicted students’ effort consistent with the findings of other researches (Ames, 1992; Dweck & Leggett, 1988; Pintrich, 1999). Similarly, students’ mastery and mastery classroom goals positively predicted students’ intrinsic motivation; mastery goal positively predicted students’ academic effort consistent with the findings of other studies. © 2015 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

Various studies also indicated the positive side of mastery goal such as high level of intrinsic motivation and effort (Ames, 1992; Midgley et al., 2001; Pintrich, 1999). The study came up with important implications for the policy makers, Ministry of Education of Ethiopia, the District Education offices, School Director, and middle schools teachers. As various scholars advocated and the present findings showed classroom practices and policies should get attention in the realm of promoting students academic learning. Specifically, the concerned bodies should work on promoting mastery goal as it is related to a number of positive outcomes. In this regard, it is imperative to create middle school classroom practice and policies characterised by interesting, challenging tasks, autonomy support and evaluation processes that emphasize effort rather than ability. On the other hand, classroom practices and policies characterised by competition, performance and ability demonstration should be discouraged as such type of classroom resulted in a number of negative educational outcomes. Moreover, minimizing a classroom policies and practices in which failure is not considered as an opportunity for learning/teaching or failure is considered as a lack of ability should be high on the agenda of promoting middle school students academic motivation and academic achievements in Ethiopia. Thus, the General Education Quality Improvement Packages (GEQIP) in Ethiopia should be revisited in a way that addresses explicitly the motivation of the middle school students at a classroom level as scholars expound the benefit of such interventions in bringing about high-quality educational reform with a minimum cost (Cohen, Garcia, Purdie- Vaughns, Apfel, & Brzustoski, 2009).

Limitation The study employed a cross-sectional design which resulted in a limitation of establishing causal relationship between variables. Similarly, the study used a self reported questionnaire which is characterised by inherent biases in which the researcher could not establish whether the participants truly respond to items presented. Lastly, though the study came up with important findings to the policy makers with limited sample and coverage, further study should be conducted taking larger samples in other areas to generalize the findings of the present study.

References Ames, C., & Archer, J. (1988). Achievement goals in the classroom: Students’ Learning strategies and motivation processes. Journal of Educational Psychology, 80, 260– 267. Ames, C. (1992). Classrooms: Goals, structures, and student motivation. Journal of Educational Psychology, 84, 3, 261-271. Areepattamannil, S., Freeman, J. G., & Klinger, D. A. (2011b). Intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation and academic achievement among Indian adolescents in Canada and India. Social Psychology of Education. Bong, M. (2001). Between and Within Domain Relations of Academic Motivation Among Middle and High School Students: Self Efficacy, Task Value and Achievement Goals. © 2015 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

Journal of Educational Psychology, 93, 1, 23-29 Cauley et. al . (2006). The relationship between classroom assessment practices and student Motivation and engagement: A literature review . Metropolitan Educational Research Consortium, Virginia Common Wealth University. Cohen ,G. L., Garcia J., Purdie-Vaughns V., Apfel N. & Brzustoski P. (2009). Recursive Processes in Self-Affirmation: Intervening to Close the Minority Achievement Gap. www.sciencemag.org Dweck, C., & Leggett, E. L. (1988). A social-cognitive approach to motivation and personality. Psychological Review, 95, 256–273. Education Sector Development Program IV Program Action Plan, (2010) . Federal Ministry of Education of Ethiopia . Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (FDRE) , (1995). Education and Training Policy Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. General Education Quality Improvement Programe II , (2013). Federal Ministry of Education of Ethiopia . Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. General Education Quality Improvement Programe , (2008). Federal Ministry of Education of Ethiopia Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Harackiewicz, J. M., Barron, K. E., Pintrich, P. R., Elliot, A. J., & Thrash, T. M. (2002). Revision of achievement goal theory: Necessary and illuminating. Journal of Educational Psychology, 94, 638–645. Intrinsic Motivation Inventory website , http://selfdeterminationtheory.org. Meece , J. L., Anderman, E. M., & Anderman L. H. (2006). “Classroom Goal Structure, Student Motivation, and Academic Achievement”, Annu. Rev. Psychol., 57, 487-503 Midgley, C., Maehr, M. L., Hruda, L. Z., Freeman, K. E., Gheen, M., Kaplan, A., Kumar, R., Middleton, M. J., Nelson, J ., Roeser, R., & Urdan, T. (2000). Manual for the patterns of adaptive learning scales. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan: Midgley, C., Kaplan, A., & Middleton, M. (2001). Performance-approach goals: Good for what, for whom, under what circumstances, and at what cost? Journal of Educational Psychology, 1, 93, 77–86. National Learning Assessment of Grade Four Students (2011). Addis Ababa, Ethiopia National Learning Assessment of Grade Eight Students (2011). Addis Ababa, Ethiopia National Learning Assessment of Grade Four Students (2007). Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. National Learning Assessment of Grade Eight Students (2007). Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Pintrich , Conley, & Kempler (2003). Current issues in achievement goal theory and Research. International Journal of Educational Research, 39, 319–337 Pintrich, P.R. (2000). Multiple goals, multiple pathways: The role of goal orientations in learning and achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 92, 544-555 Pintrich, P.R. (1999). The role of motivation in promoting and sustaining self-regulated learning. International Journal of Educational Research, 31, 459-470. School Improvement Program Guidelines. Final Draft Improving quality of education and Student results for all Children at primary and secondary schools, (2010). Federal Ministry of Education of Ethiopia. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Svinicki , M. D. ( 2005 ). Students Goal Orientation, Motivation, and Learning . University of Texal , Houston .

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research

Vol. 10, No. 4, pp. 94-111, March 2015

Evaluating Asynchronous Discussion as Social Constructivist Pedagogy in an Online Undergraduate Gerontological Social Work Course Cari L. Gulbrandsen, Christine A. Walsh, Amy E. Fulton, Anna Azulai and Hongmei Tong University of Calgary Calgary, Alberta, Canada Abstract. Our design-based research project used constructivist grounded theory methodology to determine if specific pedagogies used in an online gerontological social work course stimulated learners‟ critical reflection and reflexivity. The purpose of our study was to describe the learning that occurred in response to an instructional design based on social constructivism and to identify strategies for improving the instructional design in future iterations of the course. Our analysis focused on two specific pedagogies that are grounded in social constructivism; the asynchronous discussion and the use of problem-based learning to better understand how learners construct meaning and to determine whether these pedagogies are effective means of stimulating critical reflection and reflexivity. Social work education scholars have suggested that critical reflection and reflexivity are higher-level cognitive operations that are conducive to learners‟ developing capacity for anti-oppressive social work practice with older adults. Keywords: online instruction; constructivism; critical reflection; reflexivity; gerontology

Introduction This article outlines how an instructional team co-created, co-taught and evaluated an online undergraduate gerontological social work course. Our design-based research project involved examining learners‟ responses to two social constructivist pedagogies. The focus of our evaluation was to examine the effect of asynchronous discussion and case-based learning on learners‟ articulation of critical thinking and reflexivity. Critical thinking is a key objective of social work education identified by social work scholars (Bay & MacFarlane, 2011; D‟Cruz, Gillingham, & Melendez, 2007; Lay & McGuire, 2010), who have promoted critical thinking and reflexivity as valued outcomes of constructivist instructional designs. Our findings support the © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

assertions of social work scholars who have suggested that asynchronous discussion and case-based learning as effective catalysts for the development of higher order cognitive skills (Bellefuille, 2006; Domakin, 2013, Majeski & Stover, 2007). Excerpts from the asynchronous discussion threads on the online discussion board illustrate how learners demonstrated varying degrees of critical reflection and reflexivity. As social work educators, our own critical reflections on learners‟ responses prompted us to discuss how we could more effectively encourage learners to engage more deeply and critically with the course content and how we could better support their progress towards more complex cognitive activities in future iterations of the course. Based on the recommendations of researchers who have developed focused approaches to teaching critical reflection and reflexivity (Ash & Clayton, 2004; Lay & McGuire, 2010, Ryan & Ryan, 2013), we anticipate that future iterations of our instructional design will adopt more structured pedagogical approaches and provide scaffolding that will more closely attune learners to the value of critical reflection and reflexivity in their social work practice and support their development of these complex cognitive skills.

Instructional Design The course, an elective BSW course in gerontology, was the only gerontology course offered in the faculty of social work in one Canadian province. Therefore, for many students, it would be sole course in their program of studies that focused exclusively on gerontology. Thus, with a goal of introducing social work students to gerontological social work, we identified five key sub-topics as most relevant to social work practice in order to promote further engagement in gerontology education and facilitate linkages between students‟ personal experiences and social work practice. We began our instructional design process by formulating the following course objectives: (1) sensitize learners to the needs and characteristics of older adults; (2) develop learners‟ capacity for critical reflection and reflexivity; (3) introduce theories about aging; (4) identify specific practice issues that gerontological social workers encounter; (5) identify structural factors to consider when working with older adults in practice contexts; and (6) prepare learners for anti-oppressive practice with older adults. One significant challenge was to select topics that would provide an adequate foundation of knowledge for social work practice with older adults, given the considerable breadth of possible course material. Consistent with the recommendations outlined by Damon-Rodriguez et al. (2006), we began with a comprehensive definition of gerontological social work: 1) A professionally responsible intervention to enhance the developmental, problem solving and coping capacities of older adults and their families 2) promote the effective and humane operating of systems that provide services for older adults and their families 3) to link older adults with systems that provide them with services, resources and opportunities 4) contribute to the development and © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

improvement of social policies that support persons throughout the life-span. (Berkman, Dorbrof, Harry, & Damon-Rodriguez, 1997, p. 143) We also identified contemporary issues related to aging in Canada including: diversity, Aboriginal seniors, healthcare services and victimization/elder abuse (Statistics Canada, 2006). From the selection of possible topics, we created five modules that aligned with our areas of expertise as individual scholars.

Course Overview The course was delivered via an electronic learning management system, Desire2Learn (D2L), which provided the architecture for the course and contained the content, readings, discussion boards and assessment tools. Specific learning objectives were provided in the course syllabus, which was posted online in D2L. The course comprised a brief introductory module, which introduced the instructors and outlined the course expectations and objectives in detail, followed by five standardized content specific modules, each of which was taught by one of the instructors. Modules lasted for two week and covered the following topics: a) Physiological correlates of aging and gerontology theories; b) Diversity and aging; c) Abuse of older adults; d) Chronic health conditions and the Continuing Care System; and e) End of life-care and death and dying. Each module featured a pre-recorded lecture presentation, created using a combination of Microsoft PowerPoint and Adobe Presenter software, several required and supplementary readings and a choice of one of three case-based asynchronous discussions. Persistent links to the readings and cases were provided within D2L, allowing seamless access to the course materials from the university library or other Internet databases, such as youtube.com. The course contained two asynchronous discussion elements with questions related to case studies that were primarily based on online videos sourced from youtube.com and discussions related to the module content. These were formulated to engage learners in a process of grappling with various issues and complexities that gerontological social workers encounter in real-life practice, as well as encouraging the application and synthesis of new theoretical knowledge while stimulating critical reflection and reflexivity. Other course assignments consisted of a group project on one of the module topics and a written paper, which involved a case study analysis. Instructors conveyed expectations that learners would engage in critical thinking and reflexivity for each course assignment via evaluative rubrics, which were posted within the online environment. Criteria were outlined in concrete terms-articulating specific actions, cognitive skills, or capacities that learners should be developing or engaging in. The evaluation purposefully aligned with the aims of social constructivist learning and higher order cognitive skills required for exemplary performance. ÂŠ 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

Literature Review Social Constructivist Pedagogy According to Jonassen (1994), social constructivism proposes fundamental epistemological assumptions about the nature of learning; this theoretical framework emphasizes multiple interpretations of reality, construction of knowledge, interaction, authentic tasks and reflection. Social constructivist pedagogy, founded by Vygotsky (1978), emphasizes that meaning construction in the learning process occurs through and is inseparable from social interaction within a specific sociocultural context (Paily, 2013; Woo & Reeves, 2007). Vygotsky‟s (1978) theoretical framework for social constructivism, with its emphasis on social interaction, metacognition, analysis, problem solving, authentic learning tasks that reflect the complexity of real world problems, is complementary to online learning environments where learners assume an active role in their learning and in constructing and co-constructing new knowledge (Pailey, 2013). Social constructivists propose that learning and thinking are situated in social contexts, which is compatible with our instructional design that incorporates authentic and applied learning activities and opportunities for interaction which challenge learners to develop beyond their cognitive abilities and support them to achieve higher levels of skill and depth of knowledge (Woo & Reeves, 2007).

Cornerstones of Social Constructivism: Critical Reflection and Reflexivity Critical reflection and reflexivity are essential aspects of anti-oppressive social work practice, conducive to challenging neoliberalism, capitalism, inequality and oppressive structural conditions, and serving as a catalyst for social change (Brookfield, 2009; Fook & Askeland, 2007; Morley & Dunstan, 2013). Instructional design scholars and educators have advanced pedagogical strategies grounded in social constructivist epistemologies, with connections between reflexivity and critical reflection (Bellefeuille, Bellefeuille Martin, & Buck, 2005; Bye, Smith, & Rallis, 2009; Paily, 2013; Ruey, 2010; Thormann, Gable, Fidalgo, & Blakeslee, 2013). Additionally, the Canadian Social Work Education Policy and Accreditation Standards (CSWE, 2008) core competency of critical thinking aligns with the social constructivist demand for critical reflection in educational processes (Colby, 2014). The subtle distinctions that differentiate critical reflection and reflexivity have implications for instruction, yet are often used interchangeably in academic literature (Brookfield, 2009; Fook & Askelund, 2007). Distinctions between critical reflection and reflexivity arise in relation to differences in focus. Brookfield (2009) noted that critical reflection differs in its “foregrounding of power dynamics and relationships and its determination to uncover hegemonic dimensions to practice” (p. 294). According to Bay and Macfarlane (2011):

Critical reflection provides one way of stepping back from practice. By locating ourselves directly within the incident or event, we subject our practice to a critical gaze, unraveling the meanings and discourses embedded in our sense making and narratives, scrutinizing knowledge claims – our own and others. (p. 748) They further suggested that critical reflection focuses on juxtaposing theoretical perspectives with lived experience and deriving meaning from lived experience, including the lived experience of practicing social work. Learning environments should provide ample opportunities for critical reflection, which then can become a catalyst for constructing meaning from personal and practice experience (Bay & Macfarlane, 2011). Critical reflection is a contested concept whereby, “how the term is understood reflects the ideology of the user” (Brookfield, 2009, p. 275), underscoring the importance of making explicit what exactly what is meant by critical reflection in any given context. Morley and Dunstan (2013) proposed that critical reflection can be a mechanism for resistance to the forces of neoliberalism that contribute to the oppression that constrains social workers in their practice and in their efforts to create social change. Critical reflection, DeCruz et al. (2007) argued, occurs in response to an action or an incident, whereas reflexivity is concerned with action and interaction as it transpires and within the processes of challenging and analyzing knowledge claims. They conceived of three variations of reflexivity: (a) individual directions and making choices about courses of action; (b) a critical stance that involves examining the process of constructing knowledge; and (c) exploring the role of emotions. They also described a dimension of reflexivity that is concerned with bridging gaps between theoretical and practice knowledge. Although Dean (2007) acknowledged the challenges involved in teaching to supporting reflexivity, she suggested that the pursuit of reflexivity is worthwhile as it emphasizes praxis; forging a link between learning and personal action towards social change, consistent with the broad aims of social work education. Brookfield (2009) differentiated critical reflection and reflexivity, acknowledging that reflexivity considers one‟s own social location and the implications of that social location in analysis. Although the significance of critical reflection and reflexivity have been promoted, few suggestions for incorporating these practices into instructional design of online gerontological social work courses are available. Instructional design scholars have, however, identified that social constructivist pedagogies are compatible with online learning environments (Bye, Smith, & Rallis 2009; Thormann, Gable, Fidalgo, & Blakeslee 2013) and can facilitate depth of learning in gerontology, specifically (Cotter, Welleford, & Drain, 2008; Hill & Edwards, 2004).

Discussion Boards and Co-Constructing Knowledge Social constructivist pedagogy emphasizes meaningful interaction that is based on the principle of “intersubjectivity” defined as “mutual understanding that is © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

achieved between people through effective communication” (Woo & Reeves, 2007, p. 19). In an online learning environment, asynchronous discussion that takes place via discussion boards can support a constructivist framework as it provides a context for peer and instructor communication (Levine, 2007). Asynchronous discussion promotes higher-level thinking, collaboration, problem solving, reflection, shared knowledge and social and cognitive knowledge construction (Domakin, 2013; Majeski & Stover, 2007; Penny & Murphy, 2011; Wyss, Freedman, & Siebert, 2014). We implemented an online discussion board to align with constructivist theory‟s stance that, “knowledge is socially situated and is constructed through reflection on one‟s own thoughts and experiences as well as other learners‟ ideas” (Ruey, 2010, p. 707). However, despite the numerous advantages of online discussion boards, their potential is not always actualized and therefore learners do not always progress beyond information sharing to a point of deep learning that occurs through debate, reflection and application of critical thinking skills (Domakin, 2013). In order for discussion boards to deliver the desired learning outcomes, the interaction that occurs among discussion board participants must be “meaningful” such that learners are engaged in negotiating, arguing points, responding, and offering alternative perspectives (Woo & Reeves. 2007).

Authentic Learning Authentic learning tasks, based in the real world and representative of the complexity of social work practice (Bellefuille, 2006; Bellefuille, Martin, & Buck, 2005; Fire & Casstevans, 2013) are central to social constructivist pedagogy (Woo & Reeves, 2007). Characteristics of authentic learning tasks in online learning environments include real-world relevance, complexity, inclusion of multiple perspectives and conducive to reflection (Reeves, Herrington, & Oliver, 2002). Although an online course in gerontological social work cannot typically provide direct interaction with older adults, case-based learning through case studies can approximate authentic learning, thereby providing learners with opportunities to engage in critical analysis, draw on personal and practice experience, and learn from collaboration, dialogue and the perspectives of other learners (Bellefuille, 2006). Case-based learning can provide learners with exposure to clinical or real life client situations they wouldn‟t otherwise have access to (Popil, 2011). Case-based instruction promotes, “problem solving transfer by providing learners with contextualized situations in which they can deliberately work with and apply theoretical knowledge to teaching scenarios” (Abercrombie, 2013, p. 149). Case discussion enhances depth of learning and the development of problem-solving skills in a learning situation where they can discuss issues and experiences with other learners (Forsegren Christensen, & Hedemalm, 2014; Loghmani, Bayliss, Strunk, & Altenburger, 2011). In the context of an online asynchronous discussion board, Harrison, Mulloy, Harris, and Flinton (2012) asserted that the potential of © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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case-based learning is enhanced because learners can take the time to reflect on the case scenario and engage in additional research to apply to their analysis and understanding.

Social Constructivism and Assessment Instructional design that is informed by social constructivist pedagogy is ideally paralleled by complementary assessment practices that evaluate the extent to which the potential of social constructivist pedagogy is being realized. As an example, Wyss, Freedman, and Siebert (2014) recommended explicitly informing learners about what constitutes scholarly contributions to an online discussion board. In turn these explicit expectations can serve as a basis for assessment tools, such as rubrics, which are helpful in informing learnersâ&#x20AC;&#x; understandings of instructorâ&#x20AC;&#x;s expectations regarding quality performance, level of participation, and standards for written work. Social work educators suggest that assessment criteria need to be related to specific skills and competencies including reflection, reflexivity and problem solving, which aligns with social constructivist pedagogy (Majeski & Stover, 2007; Woo & Reeves, 2007).

Methods Approach Barab and Squire (2004) conceived of design-based research as a selection of methodologies chosen according to their relevance for the research design depending on the characteristics of the specific learning context. They outlined the following defining characteristics of design-based research: (1) situated in real life settings where learning occurs; (2) concerned with multiple dependent variables; (3) focused on characterizing the complexity of learning situations; (4) involving cycles of flexible designs and successive improvements to learning designs; and (5) involving complex social interactions and participants who share ideas (Barab & Squire, 2004, p. 4). A design-based research approach is suitable for our course as we intend to apply study findings to improve future iterations of the course and to inform scholarship on teaching and learning in social work education. Prior to engaging in the study, ethics approval was obtained from the university ethics board. At the beginning of the course, students were informed of the opportunity to participate in the research project. Students who were interested in participating in the study provided written informed consent to access discussion board content once final grades were submitted. Of the 30 students enrolled in the course, 27 consented to participate in the study and the data for analysis was drawn from the discussion board responses for these students.

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Data Analysis The computerized data analysis software program NVivo was used to manage the qualitative data. Data analysis proceeded according to constructivist grounded theory methodology (Charmaz, 2006). Initially, the data was analyzed line by line to identifying text-based codes. Distinct units of meaning were then assigned with conceptual labels, with attached theoretical memos to capture researchers‟ reflexivity during the coding process. The constructivist grounded theory coding process involves two main phases; initial coding; the coding of words, lines, or segments of data, followed by focused coding, which involves categorizing the codes identified in the initial phase (Charmaz, 2006). Discussion board responses were analyzed with critical reflection and reflexivity as possible sensitizing concepts, which for researchers are, “tentative tools for developing their ideas about processes that they define in their data” (Charmaz, 2006, p. 17). Themes and subthemes are represented by illustrative anonymous quotes drawn from the discussion board. The illustrative quotes provide “thick description” which Bowen (2010) described as fundamental to validity in constructivist grounded theory analysis.

Results Learners‟ discussion board posts represented their efforts to express their critical reflection and reflexivity. Critical reflection was evident when learners‟ analyzed personal or practice experiences or reflected on case study examples. In contrast, reflexivity was evidenced by responses where learners reflected on their learning as it occurred.

Sub-themes related to critical reflection illustrate: (a) how learners reflected on significant incidents in their personal or practice experiences; (b) how learners reflected on critical incidents featured in case examples; (c) how learners identified significant factors related to identity differences and oppression that shape the experiences of older adults; and d) how learners identified structural factors that shape the experiences of older adults.

Sub-themes related to reflexivity illustrate: (a) learners‟ appraisals of their own knowledge about and experience with older adults; (b) learners‟ references to future social work practice with older adults; (c) learners‟ expressions of emotionality in response to learning about aging; and (d) learners‟ consciousness of the need for action towards improving the circumstances of older adults.

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Critical Reflection Critical reflection on practice or personal experiences. The questions and prompts provided by instructors in each module encouraged learners to construct and reconcile meaning related to their personal and professional experiences with older adults. As an example, one learner initiated a discussion thread by reflecting on her practicum experiences. This learner described how reading course material about older adults‟ experiences with poverty prompted her to reflect on her practicum experience working in a health care setting with older adults: While reading the vignettes, it occurred to me that they were the similar to the profiles of the senior hospital patients that my practicum supervisor and I are trying to find appropriate monetary and physical assistance for. It appears that finances influence how low income seniors view their lives. Financial strain at any age is difficult and at a later age it can increase, as there are fewer resources available to increase income. Another learner described how their critical reflection involved recognizing and challenging their own assumptions about older adults: I, too had some preconceived notions about seniors before I started working at a legal not for profit organization, which were proved very wrong when I started to see the financial and legal troubles that many older adults find themselves in. I think I had the idea in my head that once you reach a certain age it's time to relax and live comfortably. The reality is so different from that idea. The author of the post concluded by posing a question to stimulate further reflection, “ Seeing it in my work and now again in these vignettes, I am struggling with how to effectively advocate for these clients when the need is so great – where do we start?” An instructor responded to the learner‟s question by critically reflecting on how difficult it can be for social workers to encounter older adults who are struggling with a myriad of complex issues and to determine how to advocate for social change: I can relate to your comment about struggling to find the best means of advocacy. It is indeed overwhelming when there are so many interrelated issues that impact older adults. It can be particularly overwhelming if you are an individual who has a desire to confront systemic issues. Individual frequently discover they are isolated in their advocacy efforts. Further, participation in advocacy can be a contentious in some organizations.

Critical reflection on case examples. One learner reflected on how a video case study about a palliative care program encouraged her to reflect on the value of healthcare alternatives for clients who are dying. She described how the case © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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example helped her to understand the significance of dying with dignity, which was introduced in a module lecture. I find it comforting to know that hospice-palliative programs take a more individualized approach to dying by helping to ease the process for the person rather than solely treating the disease. I also like that the family is seen as crucial in end-of-life care in hospice-palliative care services, especially when it comes to decision-making and helping a client to have a “good death”, as discussed in the lecture. Another learner explained how the same case study prompted her to reflect on what “person-centered palliative care” means: So what would I like to see…. compassion, of course. Doctors, nurses, volunteers, social workers and anyone who works near a palliative care unit or in a hospice to understand that dying is normal and nothing to be afraid of. Respect for the family and for the person dying or in need of palliative care, especially since being palliative can be for years! Person-centered means letting the person retain their self-determination or letting the family have input. Like the hospice, let any age or any number of family members and pets stay for as long as they want or need to without judgment. Critical reflection on identity factors and oppression. Drawing from her family‟s experiences and her own practice experiences working with First Nations older adults, one respondent began a discussion thread about how ethnicity and culture influence the experiences of First Nations older adults. This learner‟s post encouraged her peers to consider the influences of colonization and residential schooling experiences on First Nations older adults: Now, as I live on the reserve, I see elders who struggle with so many health-related problems; deteriorated housing, not enough social programs and limited education. Most elders need an advocate to help them navigate in today‟s world. The biggest challenge or disadvantage is their teachings are not utilized. Elders are forgotten and not accessed enough for their historical language/customs. Health problems and low economic status contributes to low quality living. Others have sub standard housing that needs repair. I find that my kokum (grandmother) who is 88 can still speak her language and lives independently. She is not religious and has retaught herself the traditions once lost to her. To encourage peers to reflect more deeply on and engage in further dialogue about the resilience and circumstances of First Nations older adults, the author of the post concluded by directing a question to their peers, “When working with aging First Nations peoples who struggle with addictions, grief and loss or other traumas, do you take into account the historical shift that residential school had on ones cultural experience?” Another learner responded by expressing their appreciation for the personal experiences shared by the author of the post about First Nations older adults. © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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Thank you for sharing your personal story. I appreciate the opportunity to continue to learn about the impact of residential schools that was never acknowledged or taught in public schools. As an adult, I am still learning about all of the horrific atrocities experienced by Indigenous individuals. Critical reflection on structural factors. Consistent with generalist social work education practices, learners used micro, mezzo and macro factors to understand aging related issues. Learners demonstrated their consideration of structural factors in their critical analyses of issues related to residential health care settings for older adults. A video case study featuring an existing care setting prompted one respondent to share their critical reflection on the case study with their peers. The video really demonstrated person-centered care as it applies to seniors living in care facilities and I believe it provided hope and evidence that this approach can be effective in nursing homes. It was very clear that the staff featured in the video not only know the residents who live there, but also care for them and their well-being. One sentiment expressed by a staff member that resonated with me was the importance of recognizing the person for who they are, and not for what their diagnosis is. This learner concluded her post with a question to encourage her peers to consider other structural factors and the complex issues that arise: It can be (for myself, at least) overwhelming to think about how more care facilities can transition to person-centered approaches that promote the mental, physical, social, emotional well-being of residents and staff alike. What do you think is the first step needed for nursing homes to begin to transition to this approach? Another learner responded to the question by suggesting that structural change involves fundamental changes to relationships between staff that care for older adults in facilities and the older adults they are caring for: I think the first step needed for transition to person-centered care is a change in the attitudes towards people in care. Specifically, the staff should perceive the person as a person, rather than a diagnosis, thus acknowledging diversity of people and their needs and wants.

Reflexivity Self-evaluation. Reflecting on the course content prompted learners to assess their skills, experience and knowledge and to identify opportunities for more in-depth learning in key areas. As an example, one student reflected on death and dying and how cultural factors influence how the topic of death and dying is approached: I consider death and dying a very important component of my social work practice because death is inevitable and it does not discriminate on the basis of class, gender age, culture, sexual orientation or disability. Once it strikes, it hurts almost everyone ÂŠ 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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involved no matter how prepared we think we are. Therefore, learning how to intervene and what to say to someone or a family that is experiencing grief or anticipating a loss will help equip me with any population. Areas I would like to more about include how issues of death and dying are communicated among families in the various cultures and whether there are responses that are not allowed or discouraged. For instance, coming from an African culture, death is not something that is dealt with just by the family; it usually involves the whole community. Another learner contributed to the discussion thread about how death and dying fits in their social work practice by commenting on their lack of knowledge or experience with talking to clients about death and dying. I have not had any conversations regarding end of life plans and care with clients so far. I find the topic uncomfortable, since this class is the only class I have been able to receive any education on this topic. I find it to be sort of a grey area because I am a little unsure as to what to expect or how I would approach a situation like this. I feel like I should know how to approach clients experiencing situations like these because death is inevitable. Application to practice. Participants identified ways in which their new knowledge and awareness of gerontological social work could be applied to future practice with older adults. As one respondent shared: I need to do some critical thinking about how I can bring these [elder abuse] issues to the forefront in my own work. I suppose a first step would be to learn to read the signs of elder abuse so that I can recognize it in my clientsâ&#x20AC;&#x; lives. A small first step, I know. From there, I could do something to educate my colleagues so that they are also able to see if there is a problem with their own clients and abuse. Another learner responded to the authorâ&#x20AC;&#x;s post by identifying further considerations for social workers to address by advocating for improved living conditions and care for older adults. I agree with you, the first step would be to become educated on the signs so that you can notice them when they are presented. The more the public and those who work with older adults are aware, hopefully the better the chance that they will be able to address the issues. I also think that there needs to be a lot of change at the institutional level, meaning better care options for older adults and improving longterm care facilities by ensuring that staff is valued, properly trained and not overworked. Emotionality. Learners engaged in reflection on their emotional reactions to the course material. One respondent shared her personal reaction to a local community qualitative research report that highlighted the lived experiences of older adults who struggle with issues related to poverty:

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After reading vignettes about poverty and issues in relations to low incomes, I was shocked and almost ashamed of myself, as I guess I have always had a preconceived notion that elderly people have enough money but were somehow cheap or hoarding what they had because of their experiences in the past with the Depression, but I was amazed at how wrong I am. I was deeply troubled by the fact that being able to afford one avocado was a monthly luxury for someone. An instructor reinforced the learner‟s effort to engage in reflexivity by examining their assumptions about older adults. Engaging in reflexivity and recognizing our own assumptions is an ideal place to start, particularly with respect to learning about a practice area or about a population you are not familiar with. I agree that the older adults' stories that were included in the report are very powerful! It occurred to me how many of their experiences are relatively hidden from the outside world. You could meet an older adult who is struggling with poverty, and not be able to tell how dire their circumstances are. Identifying possibilities for social change. Students described their increasing awareness of various oppressions experienced by older adults and their need for advocacy and social justice. As one learner elaborated on how circumstances could be changed for older adults in the city she lives in: According to the World Health Organization‟s Guide for Global Age-Friendly Cities (2007), I would grade my city‟s age friendliness at a moderate level. For instance, the treacherous winter conditions can make it intimidating for older citizens. Sidewalks can be a grave issue; walking on the city‟s sidewalks feels intimidating due to icy conditions, so I can only imagine the fear and hesitation of an older person may experience. There are many things that the city is doing well, yet there are considerable areas for growth, especially in regards to housing to be improved upon. One such way would be advocating for better housing options for seniors in accessible and affordable neighborhoods where they would feel safe and involved. Several learners formulated recommendations for improving the circumstances of the older adults in their community and readily responded to peers‟ posts on the topic of age friendly cities. Another learner shared her recommendations for making the smaller centre she lived in more “age friendly”. As a social worker interested in structural change, I envision myself working to improve intergenerational connections by advocating for seniors to become more involved in the elementary school system. Perhaps, children could read with seniors and seniors can tell stories about their lived experiences. This relationship could increase understanding between generations, and reduce social isolation in seniors.

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Discussion The excerpts from the asynchronous discussion represent learners‟ engagement in critical reflection and reflexivity. Thus, our findings support researchers who have suggested that constructivist online instructional designs are suitable contexts for learners to apply and advance their higher order cognitive skills (Levine, 2007; Majeski & Stover, 2007). Fulfilling requirements for contributing to the asynchronous discussion in each module presented learners with frequent opportunities to engage in and articulate their critical reflection and reflexivity. The frequency of responses that are representative of critical reflection and reflexivity is promising. However, we also observed that overall, discussion posts varied in depth, clarity and coherence. Although many students contributed to asynchronous discussion with responses that represented critical reflection and reflexivity, responses representing this depth of analysis were not consistent throughout the asynchronous discussions. As Domakin (2013) proposed, adopting asynchronous discussion as a pedagogical strategy does not guarantee that learners will surpass information sharing. We acknowledge that several discussion board posts lacked significant levels of depth and took the form of summaries of course content and representations of knowledge acquisition rather than critical reflection or reflexivity. The inconsistency of the quality and depth of reflexivity and critical reflection among learners prompted us to examine how future iterations of the course could more explicitly teach students about critical reflection and reflexivity and challenge and support learners to advance to higher cognitive levels. Ash and Clayton (2004) suggested that students often need guidance, “connecting their experiences to course material, with challenging their beliefs and assumptions, and with deepening their learning” (p. 138). Similarly, Lay and McGuire (2010) cautioned that social work learners might have yet to develop a critical approach to practice. Ash and Clayton (2004) and Lay and McGuire (2010) recommended adopting a structured approach to explicitly teaching critical reflection and reflexivity that identifies the specific activities involved in these cognitive processes. Scholars have begun to develop pedagogical strategies to support social work learners in developing higher order cognitive skills (Dean, 2007; Morley & Dunstan, 2013). Bay and Macfarlane (2011), for example, advocated for explicitly teaching critical reflection as an essential skill for social work practice and suggested that educators provide a balance of challenge and support within their specific teaching and learning contexts. Ryan and Ryan (2013) recommended that educators use specific prompts to coach learners towards more reflective responses and direct learners to engage in critical reflection. Examples of their prompts for eliciting critically reflective responses include, “Highlight in detail the significant factors underlying the incident or issue and explain and show why they are important to understanding the issue. Refer to relevant theory or literature to support your reasoning. Consider different perspectives” (Ryan & Ryan, 2013, p. 254). Similarly, Lay and McGuire (2010) described how they incorporated social work related questions as prompts to structure the process of critical reflection and to guide © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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graduate students in articulating their learning. Examples of these questions include, “Why is this important to you as a social worker?” and, “How will you use this learning in your practice?” (Lay & McGuire, 2010, p. 544). Ash and Clayton (2004) proposed a pedagogical model that can be used to provide coaching and support for learners. They created an acronym, “DEAL” to identify and describe the specific cognitive activities they associate with critical reflection; describing, explaining and articulating learning. Lay and McGuire (2010) recommended engaging learners in continuous reflective writing and providing consistent instructor feedback that asks questions to prompt further reflection. We suggest that the asynchronous discussion is ideally suited for implementing their recommendation. However, we acknowledge that responding to learners‟ discussion posts consistently and in a manner that encourages learners to engage in deeper critical reflection requires intensive instructor involvement in the asynchronous discussion and frequent responses to individual learners. Our study required us, as educators to engage in critical reflection and reflexivity as we examined the effectiveness of the asynchronous discussion component of our instructional design in stimulating learners‟ critical thinking and reflexivity. The findings of our study establish a rationale for evaluating and selecting pedagogical strategies that will focus our future instruction more intentionally on teaching critical reflection and reflexivity. Based on the recommendations of Lay and McGuire (2010) and Ryan and Ryan (2013), our next cycle of design-based research will involve reconstructing our asynchronous discussion questions and prompts so that we can more effectively and explicitly guide learners towards engaging in higher order levels of thinking and identifying pedagogical strategies that involve modeling critical reflection and reflexivity and providing feedback that encourages learners to advance these cognitive skills. We anticipate that our own critical reflection and reflexivity as educators will continue to be an enduring aspect of our design-based research as we implement pedagogical strategies that explicitly teach students to engage in higher order thinking and to envision the role of critical reflection and reflexivity in their future social work practice with older adults.

Acknowledgement The authors would like to thank the students in SOWK 553.03 - Gerontology course for their participation in the course evaluation. This research was supported by a grant from the Taylor Institute for Teaching and Learning, University of Calgary.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 10, No. 4, pp. 112-125, March 2015

The Amalgamation of Conventional Universities and Open/ Distance Learning and their Effects on Studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Performances Saher H. EL-Annan Ph.D Arab Open University Beirut, Lebanon

Abstract. Conventional and Open and Distance Learning (ODL) are areas that have had major contradictions in relation to addressing the major issues of ensuring that quality of higher education has been retained and at the same time guaranteeing the improvement of human capabilities aimed at achieving an economy that is knowledge-based. Various researches have shown that ODL programs success is due to coordinated efforts among skilled and knowledgeable practitioners, committed learners and organizational systems (Owen and Demb, 2004; Yooon, 2003). The heightened setting up of conventional institutions across the Arab World and in various demographic regions has not fulfilled nor served the main objective of high education of ensuring quality over youths in different economic and social backgrounds. In addition, the high cost of expanding works in conventional higher education has been a major constraint. In such circumstances, the task of expanding quality higher education opportunities becomes the responsibility of conventional universities that are in existence, as well as those offering ODL. The increased number of conventional learning institutions around the Arab world has meant that there is a need to deviate out attention and embrace Open Distance Learning.

Keywords: open learning, virtual knowledge, incubator, hub, conventional institutions

Introduction In order to gain a proper comprehension of this new concept, this paper will lay emphasis on the identification of new strategies that will help in the strengthening and creation of space in higher education, which is in line with Arab World universities. The paper provides solutions and recommendations of the challenges present in this process. In a bid to ensure cost effectiveness in quality education, @2015 Saher H. El-Annan and IJLTER.ORG. All Rights Reserved

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documentation of collective interviews will be done. This will help in documenting unique lessons how ODL will look like in the future. This will be carried out in a bid to examine the attitude that executive students have towards new methods in ODL and establish the relationship between attitude (the dependent variable) and behavior intention (the outcome). In todayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s workplace, the main pillar for learner advancement is the changing learning methods. A quality teaching-learning process begins with smooth governance. This process begins with friendly processes and structures from the students that result in improvement in participation, quality, retention, and accessibility. To link ODLâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s structural features, there is a need to examine the conventional high education institutions and incorporate new learning processes for individuals that are not in close proximity to cities. In addition, irrespective of the income of an individual, technology has become part of his/her life. It is both an important communication tool and survival instrument. It is important to note that one of the major ways of implementing education and knowledge is through ODL. This is a viable method, which supports the attainment of economic, social and academic development across the globe. It can help to enhance access to education since it is inelastic and expandable (Siddiqui, 2007). This method represents an approach where access to education is improved by reducing place and time constraints on the students, it ensures, at the same time, that learning opportunities among individuals and group learners are flexible. With the advancement of Information Communications Technology (ICT), distant learning has been made possible and easy. This study bases its foundations on the developments that have taken place in conventional learning and Open and Distant Learning (ODL) in Saudi Arabia, as well as the effects and outcomes of the amalgamation of these institutions. The contribution of ICT is also among the key concepts that will be discussed.

Literature Review Various factors have led to the development and growth of ODL. These include major economic changes across the globe, technological innovations as well as increase in pressure to get hold of education opportunities (Brindley, 1995). Ultimately, innovations in microprocessors and telecommunication technology have been credited for ODL growth. This has made it easy to achieve educational needs of people across the divide (Keagan, 1994). McLoyd (1998) reports that persistent poverty has more detrimental effects on IQ, school achievement, and socioemotional functioning than transitory poverty, with children experiencing both types of poverty generally doing less well than never-poor children. A research conducted by Stecher, McCaffrey, Hamilton and Klein (2000) on the relationship between participation of students in reduced or free lunch programs and school test score showed that the number of students engaging in these school programs was a predictor of the mean school in the institution irrespective of the test type. Sirin (2005) made use of a three sections questionnaire survey to carry out a knowledge

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audit. It had three sections. The first section focused on the examination of knowledge management as a strategy availability and identification of organizationâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s knowledge management in a public institution in Libya. The second involved an identification knowledge gap, key experts and knowledge assets. The third involved an examination of information and communication technology (ICT) tools that were in use. The case study was a public construction company. The research ascertained that the organization lacked a knowledge management strategy and had a poor ICT strategy. In the recent past, educational institutions have increased their interest in the development in their global space (Altbach, Reisberg, and Rumbley 2009). This has been accompanied by changes in the technological front as well as the demand of the students. In order to fulfill learning services and techniques as a business, it is important for institutions to understand the needs of the students as well as the quality that can help to achieve these needs (Ibid.) For this reason, in coming up with a framework proposal, the base for choosing method will be referred to as Choosing Technique (CT) design while implementation from universities administration and facilities will be referred to as Facility Team (FT) with proposals for multimedia for reasoning and data. This will help in identifying priorities and realize the demand for students in qualification levels. The time individuals spend in academic activities has been noted as an important factor with a strong effect on face-to-face instruction (Rocha, 2007), online education (Cavanaugh, 2007) as well as blended programs (Cavanaugh, 2009). Newlin and Wang (2000) are of the opinion that activities engaged in by students in the process of online learning can have an effect on their final scores. Students participating in academic activities on high levels have better performance than those who do not. The frequency at which a student logs on into LMS is considered a major predictor of how the student will perform in online learning (Dietz, 2002; Dickson, 2005). In the current study, the frequency in which the students were logged into LMS as well as the period they spent was documented in the log file of the student in the entire semester as they took their course. To some extent, the above information could be taken as the period that a student spends in online academic front (Fry, H., Ketteridge, S., and Marshall, S., 2009). However, no data is present on the activities of the student while logged into LMS. The failure to properly invest in ODL skilled practitioners is a major problem since it puts into jeopardy the ODL product quality in the Middle East. However, there are countries such as Egypt and Lebanon where skilled practitioners look for jobs outside their countries. In these countries, ODL system development can help in enhancing meta-economics and job placement. New institutions offering ODL can offer certificates, diplomas and degrees in fields that do not require laboratory activities.

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Institutions that promote ODL take pride of reflecting the essence of quality in their normal practices and learning outcomes. Irrespective of the successful record of accomplishment of ODL, it is important for it to prove that the quality of education is similar to face-to-face teaching (Kirkpatrick, 2005). Walsh is of the opinion that established ODL institutions such as Penn State, Maryland University College, Phoenix and to some extent nimble publishers have a better chance of utilizing online provision, coming up with better business models, as well as structures and cultures. If the institutions examined in Walsh study could make online education more fundamental in their instructional models by expanding or better serving the existing students, the attitude towards distance and online education would change (rf. Ross, 2014). While it may not be in black and white the use and own provision of e-learning for these institutions, there have been significant changes in higher education front. With the increased favor by government agencies and private foundations for open education schemes due to their scalability and access, these providers will need to wake up and act. Various studies have concluded that variables such as anxiety, beliefs and motivation have a major impact on foreign or second learning and performance (William and Burden, 1999; Horwitz, Horwitz and Cope, 1986; Ehrman, Leaver and Oxford, 2003; Dornyei, 2003). These interrelated variables have an effect on learning. For example, beliefs and motivation are two elements that are closely linked. Motivation is regarded as a fragment of self-system of a learner (Dornyei, 2009, p.29). Other researchers have established that the beliefs of a learner may influence his strategy use and motivational maintenance (Higgins, 1987; Graham, 2006; Bown, 2006). The beliefs of a learner are also said to have an effect on anxiety (Horwitz et al., 1987; Bandura, 1993). Anxiety, beliefs and motivation are clearly associated with the autonomy of the learner (Victori and Lockhart, 1995, Cotterall, 1995). Among these three variables, the element that has the greatest effect on learning is motivation (Rubin, 1975; Coterall, 1995; Ehrman et al., 2003, Doryei, 2003). In this case, motivation refers to the choice is taken for an action, its persistence, as well as the efforts, portrayed (Dornyei, 2005, p.8). Cheng and Dornyei (2007, p.153), hold that the lack of proper motivation even among the best learners may make them not to persist until the period they can achieve proper proficiency. Motivation is especially more important in distance learning. Here, more self-management is required for the learner to meet the demands present among conventional learners (Hurd, 2006; Andrade and Bunker, 2009). Curtis, Duchastel and Radic, (1999) and Bown, (2006) finally holds that drop in motivation in learning is one of the major challenges that distance learners have to face. According to Cavanaugh (2007, p. 6) is a major concept in online learning. In the current study, the frequency of teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; feedback and comment is a part indication of interaction between the student and the teacher. Teacher-student interaction in the form of open and frequent communication helps in establishing a virtual learning environment which is supportive (Murphy, Mahoney and Harvell, 2000; Lin, 2001). This, in turn assists student to improve their performance in virtual

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learning environment (Ronsisvalle and Watkins, 2005; Wang and Newlin, 2000; Lin, 2001) through the provision of social support and at the same time promote their interest and involvement in academic activities on the online front (Wang and Newlin, 2000). O'Dwyer, Carey, and Kleiman, (2007) are of the opinion that online students hold teacher-student interaction with great regard. Phillips and Merisotis (2000) holds that constructive and timely feedback and comments from the teachers are the pillars of quality online education. Lowes, Lin and Wang (2007) believe that quality and frequency of feedback and comments from the teachers have an effect on the satisfaction of the student. In the current study, the frequency of teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; comments on the projects and assignments of teachers was ascertained by the virtual institution as well as the effect in had on the final score of the student in the online course was examined (rf. Orey, 2010).

Methodology One of the most important things to note is that the virtual body of university students comprises of individuals with different learning deformities (Ferdig, et al., 2005, Dickson, 2005). These institutions support or offer personal education plans for these individuals in the learning process. For this reason the learning abilities level can be determined by whether the student possesses an education plan. In this study, there was no student in the education plan would be referred as gifted (Ibid). However, they had the necessity and capacity to be promoted and excelled in the workplace. The virtual university learning environment can help to bridge the gaps in these factors in relation to online learning success opportunities. The use of technologies among individuals with different learning levels can be useful in reducing their disadvantage. This is as compared to those who are illiterate in the technology front in relation to access to course materials in the process of online learning. According to Oâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Conner (2000), online students with illiterate computer usage (ICU) can adopt technology-infused education, which can be essential in online learning. However, Kinash and Crichton (2007) believe that ICU online students have not been fully represented in online education. It is, therefore, safe to say that ODL has helped in transforming learning and has enabled better interaction as well as effective learning results for the workplace. Method 1 The conventional method of delivery of tacit knowledge involves interaction between the teacher and local learner. This is due to limited and confined technology access.

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The required correspondence between conventional learning and ODL has been achieved through internally prepared rules. Method 2

Under this method, new concepts of learning and teaching tools through video and mail knowledge transfer are adopted to improve access to individuals in rural areas and outside the country. This method shows innovativeness is capturing prospective candidates and being in line with the need of accessing higher education irrespective of their location Method 3

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The introduction of CD Rom has been critical in the delivery of high education. However, it has not been very successful due to lack of interaction between the concerned parties. The use of this ODL method provides a solution for education democratization in the end. Such a method provides the possible in developing countries that education systems can be improved and expanded. Method 4 Under this method, new concepts are provided in learning technology innovation, which have a positive impact on delivery and design of programs of distance learning. This method measures costs are well as the impact in relation to enhancement of learner experience especially in terms of improvement of engagement of the learner, mobility, flexibility, reduced isolation, and support.

One of the main positives of this technology is that it leads to the creation of efficient social interactive. Under these initiatives, developmental possibilities are activated in open education resources. Under them, developing nations can improve and expand the systems of education and hence help in the creation of sociological concepts through a background that is both uncommon and diverse. Under this experience, one gets to realize that automation does not only involve technology, but involves mindsets and attitudes of stakeholders, both primary and secondary, together with leadership that helps in the facilitation of this process. This approach can be referred to as â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;e-educational governanceâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;. However, its greatest weakness is its failure to make use of resources such as manpower that exists in conventional institutions. On many occasions, due to this failure, schools of open learning (SOL) students do not get to use infrastructure that has been funded by the state in conventional institutions. Due to this, fewer students participate in interactive learning. Individuals who have been registered with SOL are regarded as individuals collaborating with the government in its policy of inclusive growth. For this reason, these individual ought to be allowed a chance to make educational choices in the teaching-learning process, as well as activities that are creative and productive inside the conventional institutions. The lack of policy guidelines for

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concerned parties in relation to convergence is also another reason why this may happen. Apex bodies that are in control of grants, as well as central ministries, issue these guidelines (Apex, 2006). Another issue that is observed relates to cross subsidy. SOL students tend to provide a considerable portion of financial resources. Through them, institution requirements such as examination are fulfilled for students in both open and conventional learning systems. Moreover, agencies from the government provide conventional systems with funding for better resources, an activity that is not present in SOL. Therefore, electronic governance as well as better convergence in conventional and open systems is key quality indicators. These systems complement each other in the utilization of inherited potentialities. In ODL, students may make use of manpower, library, and infrastructure present in conventional system and hence take advantage of opportunities in the conventional system through engaging in problem-solving sitting. On the other hand, conventional students may make use of e-learning materials and resources that ODL students have prepared. Interactive sessions between students in both systems can also be planned. The desire to follow and design guidelines that central authorities have issued aimed at breaking the periphery-enclave relationship and convergence is self-evident. It is, therefore, important to increase face-to-face interaction between the two sets of students through the identification of learning resources, infrastructure and resource persons. There are also efforts to ensure that there is employment opportunities for students at SOL during admission, in an approach referred to as â&#x20AC;&#x153;earn while you learn. Examining the Arab region exposes the mistrust that exists between competent teachers claiming to possess the skills and tools that are adaptable in ODL. To be in line with ODL, it is important to become aware of the new trends in the provision of minimum opportunities for those in rural areas and those who may not be able to travel long distances to acquire education. In addition, socio-economics have an important role to play while a personâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s venture is surprised by per capital income. To become accessible to everyone, higher learning institution, and the government need to become more involved in ODL. A good example is the Saudi Electronic University, which recognizes the importance of creation of new opportunities especially for the female gender irrespective of cultural constraints. The institution was open to the public on 20 June 2012 and became a major front for women to access education. Arab News, a Saudi newspaper, states that the University provides rigorous programs aimed at preparing Saudi students to venture into business and industry, and research and development. Various courses are offered in electronics and nonelectronic fields, and at the same time providing bachelors and masters degrees. According to King Abdallah (2011), the country depends on electronic systems largely. Saudi is considered one of the nations that is increasingly relying on electronic applications. He claimed that by 2015, the consumer electronic market in

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the country, including audio and gaming, video and mobile handsets and computer devices would reach $5.5 billion. In addition, a new cohort of process-driven technology-enhanced education (TEE) is quietly surfacing with transformative education for junior level institutional empowerment and learning. Through ensuring learners are more involved in their learning process, ODL has become the vehicle of choice for social conception of learning. It answers the question of what we are becoming (mixing identity), where we belong (community), what our culture and experience is (meaning) and what we do (practice) It also raises questions of how educators and institutions in developing countries perceive the new education environment. Therefore, contextualization and proper use of ODL is dependent on social practices and educational practices that are in existence where a team ad share, collaborate and build a new process, which one cannot take for granted. Wenger, McDermott and Snyder (2002) are of the opinion that activities that encompass ongoing learning and common interest through shared knowledge and practice are the main elements that build trust. This is followed by a joint enterprise as renegotiated and understood my members as well as sustainability established through mutual engagement that binds members together into one group. Therefore, ODL tends to foster the appearance of knowledge-creating and innovative communities, putting into consideration innovation, learning and working as harmonizing forces that ensure sustainability of these efforts on a long term. In these communities, the systems are self-organizing since they structure learning through knowledge development and boundaries interaction. Expansion through learning, growth and development happens through understanding concepts together. This same thing happens in ODL. However, extensive designing should be carried out to expand such initiatives. Integration of virtual environment through radio, video and ICT and at the same time providing students with a chance to interact with individuals in the resource front through coming up with counseling and problem solving sessions are important initiatives that can be incorporated into dual model system. Together with improving, quality, retention and accessibility of education, it is important to ensure the participation in the whole process of the student and community at large. It is important to convert open learning into a mission that empowers students using face-to-face and virtual counseling together with reorienting attitudes and mindsets at the top. Big pushes are required to change the imbalances present together with democratization of quality higher education through facilitation in order to achieve a vision of a society with knowledge that is equitybased. In addition, the concept can no longer be regarded as a hypothesis or theory. It is, however, a pre-condition for economic development and society progression. Through ODL, students can reflect how diverse learning has become. Through it,

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underrepresented groups can come up with higher educationâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s social dimensions, and provide proper support services for students while reducing inequalities. In reflecting upon the history of ODL, the chart below can show our testimonial test on this concept.

DL: Distance Learning, OL: Open Leaning, DL: Open Distance Leaning QA: Quality Assurance, A.O.U. Arab Open University

Examining the diagram above, it is important to note that ODL should be in line with the UK Open University strategy alongside the A.O.U infrastructure adaptation. In addition, quality assurance should be a major priority in the creation of trusted, competent and valuable educational venture. From ODL perspective, the use of technology in scaling up provision and ensuring more focus on learning and teaching is an old concept. However, according to Walsh reports, universities can benefit from it in the online platform. For example, capturing of repeated lectures can help individuals to allocate more time for tutorial activities. On important thing to note is that despite some institutions in the case study having been in the forefront in coming up with courseware for public, they have not been able to transform their pedagogical activities. However, one familiar concept is the resistance of staff to incorporate change in pedagogy. Redundancy,

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loss of autonomy and cost cutting are some of the major resistances. Migrating to full online provision may prove to be a challenging concept especially on the hightouch model present in elite institutions that have enabled them to give high-quality services and maintain their top ranks. On the other hand, Walsh note major financial needs as well as an urge to provide services to in-state students had led to emerging undertones to develop an online course in University of California (rf. Ross, 2014). This leads to the question of whether these developments can put into jeopardy the appeal that this and other universities has on conventional students. Questions that have been asked are whether these individuals can favor online learning in place of conventional means, its cost, whether it would be more flexible, and how quality can be maintained.

Conclusion In conclusion, Arab World governments have a mandate to reorganize their rules and regulations in their ministries of higher education to ensure investment in ODL as also ensure the degrees are recognized. ODL 2 (recognized graduate degrees) will not only provide motivation to graduates to continue learning, but will also improve the learning process, and enable them to acquire new knowledge through interconnectivity and reflection with tutors and other students. Lastly, in adopting this method, it will include entering into new technology and improving the quality of education. It will also encourage further research on this front.

Recommendations Countries in Middle East and North Africa should consider the following. An Accessible education: A. Ensure proper access to university courses not matter an individual’s location. B. Eliminate official requirements of entry. Flexibility: A. It can be adjusted to fit into the schedule of an individual B. One can balance personal commitments and university commitments Innovativeness A. Innovative technologies and learning designs such as multimedia and computer conferencing can be integrated B. In adopting this method, one is incorporated into a ‘learning community.' In line with one’s needs Irrespective of whether the course is for professional development of personal enrichment, the use of ODL should assist one come up with a program that is in line with his personal needs.

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