Vol 11 no 2 may 2015 by ijlter.org

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p-ISSN: 1694-2493 e-ISSN: 1694-2116

International Journal of Learning, Teaching And Educational Research

Vol.11 No.2

PUBLISHER London Consulting Ltd District of Flacq Republic of Mauritius www.ijlter.org

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research

The International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research is an open-access journal which has been established for the disChief Editor Dr. Antonio Silva Sprock, Universidad Central de semination of state-of-the-art knowledge in the Venezuela, Venezuela, Bolivarian Republic of field of education, learning and teaching. IJLTER welcomes research articles from academics, edEditorial Board ucators, teachers, trainers and other practitionProf. Cecilia Junio Sabio ers on all aspects of education to publish high Prof. Judith Serah K. Achoka quality peer-reviewed papers. Papers for publiProf. Mojeed Kolawole Akinsola Dr Jonathan Glazzard cation in the International Journal of Learning, Dr Marius Costel Esi Teaching and Educational Research are selected Dr Katarzyna Peoples through precise peer-review to ensure quality, Dr Christopher David Thompson originality, appropriateness, significance and Dr Arif Sikander readability. Authors are solicited to contribute Dr Jelena Zascerinska to this journal by submitting articles that illusDr Gabor Kiss trate research results, projects, original surveys Dr Trish Julie Rooney Dr Esteban Vázquez-Cano and case studies that describe significant adDr Barry Chametzky vances in the fields of education, training, eDr Giorgio Poletti learning, etc. Authors are invited to submit paDr Chi Man Tsui pers to this journal through the ONLINE submisDr Alexander Franco sion system. Submissions must be original and Dr Habil Beata Stachowiak should not have been published previously or Dr Afsaneh Sharif be under consideration for publication while Dr Ronel Callaghan Dr Haim Shaked being evaluated by IJLTER. Dr Edith Uzoma Umeh Dr Amel Thafer Alshehry Dr Gail Dianna Caruth Dr Menelaos Emmanouel Sarris Dr Anabelie Villa Valdez Dr Özcan Özyurt Assistant Professor Dr Selma Kara Associate Professor Dr Habila Elisha Zuya

VOLUME 11

NUMBER 2

May 2015

Table of Contents From Cave Prisoners to Future Educators: from an Ancient Text to New Interpretation. Decoding Thinking Processes through On-line Dialogue .................................................................................................................................... 1 Yonit Nissim and Iris Pinto Learning by Going Social: Do We Really Learn from Social Media? ............................................................................ 14 Minakshi Lahiri and James L. Moseley j A Pedagogical Synergy of Visualization Pictures and Scenarios to Teach the Concept of Parallelograms .............. 26 Marie-ThĂŠrĂ¨se Saliba Self-Efficacy in Career Planning: A New Approach to Career Exploration ................................................................. 40 Despina Sidiropoulou-Dimakakou, Kostas Mylonas and Katerina Argyropoulou The Civic Education in Greek Kindergartens. The Views and the Practices of Greek Kindergarten Teachers Concerning Civic Education ............................................................................................................................................... 55 Kostis Tsioumis, Argyris Kyridis, Despina Papageridou and Elena Sotiropoulou Applying the Theory of Simplexity in Home Economics Education for the Acquisition of Transversal Competencies to Face Complexity...................................................................................................................................... 71 Erika Marie Pace, Paola Aiello, Maurizio Sibilio and Suzanne Piscopo Student-Centered Learning in a First Year Undergraduate Course .............................................................................. 88 Saras Krishnan Hispanic Doctoral Students Challenges: Qualitative Results ........................................................................................ 96 Bobbette M. Morgan, Ed. D. and Luis F. Alcocer, M.A.M

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 11, No. 2, pp. 1-13, May 2015

From Cave Prisoners to Future Educators: from an Ancient Text to New Interpretation. Decoding Thinking Processes through On-line Dialogue When depth gives way to surface, under-standing becomes interstanding. To comprehend is no longer to grasp what lies beneath but to grasp what lies between. (Taylor & Saarinen, 1994, p. 2)

Yonit Nissim and Iris Pinto

Ohalo Academic College of Education, Sciences and Sport, Katzrin, Israel

Abstract. This article is based on thorough observation of forum discussions of an on-line course that took place during the 2013 academic year. The research observes the thinking processes of students when interpreting and providing augmented analogies for “The Allegory of the Cave” in Plato‟s Politeia (Republic). These processes are found to enable students: to reach insights concerning the characteristics of the optimal educator that are necessary to meet the challenges of the 21st century; to develop a narrative through the appropriation the allegoric tale to create meaning associated with the modern education system and their own future professional role; and finally, to mediate through on-line discourse to bring about collaborative learning and constructivist dialogue within the axis of tension between the old and the new. In other words, learning within this framework appears to be a direct process of knowledge construction.

Research Background As part of the “Introduction to the Philosophy of Education” course, a virtual forum was set up to enable on-line dialogue with the aim of sharing knowledge and insights (collaboration). A virtual “community of learners” was formed (Pringle, 2002), and together they created layer upon layer of new knowledge.

Levi (2006) defined the process as the creation of a world of shared meaning, suitable for daily existence. Contemporary research in the field of on-line learning is concerned with a variety of means, including forums that enable on-line communication and support collaborative discussion (Karacapilidis & Papadias, 2001). It was found that a virtual environment is seen as less “threatening” and “controlled by routine conventions” than face-to-face discussion. Moreover, this environment seems to encourage constructivist creation of knowledge through the creation of high level cognitive products. Some scholars see student participation in on-line courses as the expression of over-involvement and commitment in the context of the course contents (Dorman & Fraser, 2009). Online asynchronous discussions may create opportunities for students to construct meaning together and to integrate new knowledge into their prior experience. As shown in a recent study, the effectiveness of a discussion forum in teaching and learning depends on several factors, including the students‟ engagement, the quality of discussion, and the interaction. Without the full involvement of students, however, the advantages of the discussion forum will not be achieved (Durairaj & Umar, 2015). According to Birenbaum (2002), forums provide an advantageous environment for dialogue and discussion, an environment that is appropriate to Socratic discourse. Tredway (1995) explained that Socratic discourse is a discussion of moral ideas and dilemmas through working on and analyzing certain texts. The quality of discourse depends on the speakers‟ consideration for each other, and discussion components include: expression of ideas, posing of questions, and expression of doubt. This leads to understanding and learning of another “truth” or alternative knowledge. Discourse of this kind leads the participants to: the creation of meaning, deep thinking, doubt, and a new and different consideration of ideas. The results of the discussion include the development of knowledge through cooperation as well as the creation of ideas. In this way, the advantages of Socratic discourse appear to be suitably illustrated in on-line forums.

Literature Review Decoding and interpretation of texts through dialogue has been the subject of consideration in various research studies: Tadmor (1997) defined dialogical education as an influential, shaping event that occurs between teacher and student who jointly foster a community of autonomous subjects, equal in value, and liberated. The learners observe, think, and search for meaning together, as they conduct discussions and communicate through intellectual and emotional human contact. The cultural-literacy model suggests that individuals wishing to understand a text should have knowledge of the background that influenced the author. Valsiner (2007) suggested that personal systems of terminology develop from socio-cultural systems of meanings adapted for the individual, allowing individuals to create meanings for their lives, for their world, and for their

connection with it. In other words, dealing with texts supports the process of personal identity development. Hirsch (1987) claimed that, for individuals to understand written texts, they need to be familiar with the underlying core of cultural knowledge: individuals who communicate with their peers in a particular culture assume the existence of a common background and culture. As this information is considered by authors to be „obvious‟, it is not included in their texts. Thus, in order to understand and communicate in an effective manner, the individual in any culture is required to share access to knowledge and meanings that stem from that culture. Banks (2004) claimed that teachers can help learners to develop their identities through identification with, empathy with, and critical reading of the text; or through integration of the contents with their own situation. Texts that represent the knowledge that influences the cultural identity of learners can support the confirmation of their cultural identities and thus encourage dialogue. Readers identify the arguments that are meaningful for them in the text at the level of their personal or professional identity, and locate themselves as allies or opponents relative to the text. Miller and Schulz (in press) pointed out that: "students need the critical capacities necessary to engage with sophisticated topic content and complex social and cultural practices” (as cited in Miller, A., 2015, p. A23). Wadham, Pudsey and Boyd (2007, p. 266) argued that “this means reading assessment tasks, topic readings, research data, and lecture materials with a critical eye; it also means reading people and social contexts with a critical eye. The capacity to read and unpack texts to discover their many and varied meanings and strategies is referred to as „critical literacy‟. Critical literacies go beyond literary criticism and critical comprehension, to questions about how texts defend and/or disguise positions of power, prejudice, exclusion, and vested interest” (cited in Miller, A., 2015, p. A23). The Tasmanian Department of Education (2013) suggested that, as a multi-literacies framework for university teaching practices, critical literacy “shows us ways of looking at written, visual, spoken, multimedia and performance texts to question and challenge the attitudes, values and beliefs that lie beneath the surface” (cited in Miller, A., 2015, p. A24). Miller (2015, p. A24) goes on to clarify that “critical literacy is more than just reading texts closely; it has a socially critical edge and involves complex interactions and social practices”, and Miller and Schulz (in press) suggested that “ We are also expanding our understanding of „text‟ to include the un-spoken, unwritten, and in-visible forms of communication circulating at different levels (cited in Miller, A., 2015, p. A24). Côté and Levine (2002), who designed a complex understanding of identity in the Western world, claim that students‟ qualities and virtues allow them to think about issues of identity through their consideration of meanings in texts with cultural value. They note that humans have a natural narcissistic tendency to focus on themselves and to see themselves as the center of the world. Thus, it is important to develop a sense of belonging to a moral code, to a society, to a culture and to a nation; and if appropriate, to encourage students‟ ability to

change and forgo their preconceived personal, historical, cultural and social identities. Content analysis of student statements identified several categories of images and metaphors that characterize the following subjects:

Figure 1 : Summary of prominent images and metaphors derived from analysis of the propositional content of the forum.

Research Design The purpose of the present research is to examine how the decoding of Platoâ&#x20AC;&#x;s â&#x20AC;&#x153;Allegory of the Caveâ&#x20AC;? contributes to the construction of thinking processes amongst student-teachers, at the inception of their career, through the acquisition of meanings, values, perceptions, and modern ideals or analysis.

Research Questions: 1. How does the decoding of an ancient text contribute to the construction of thinking processes amongst student-teachers? 2. What are the thinking processes that occur in the study and discussion of an analogical text? Research Methods:  Mixed methods research.  A combination of qualitative content analysis, and quantitative analysis of the responses written in answer to the questions posed in the course forum. Research Procedure: Analysis of dialogue and examination of the contribution of metaphors in consideration of the allegory along the axis of time (from past to future), while also identifying the role of metaphors in constructing the studentteachers‟ identities. Research Tools:  Presenting an open question on the on-line forum.  Statistically analyzing the statements and numerical mapping of the statistics in Atlas software.  Content analysis according to categories.  Use of models of thinking processes. Research Population: A multicultural group of sixty-nine 1st year students (a cross-stream course) of a B.Ed. course in Education and Teaching at the Ohalo Academic College. Hypothesis:  Learning the “Allegory of the Cave” contributes to the development of critical, creative thinking.  The decoding of the text through the use of augmented metaphors enables the clarification of professional attitudes and moral perceptions in the teaching of future educators. “The Allegory of the Cave”: a trigger for thinking about past, present and future: Plato‟s “Allegory of the Cave” is recognized as a text that inspires discourse and thinking in many fields of knowledge. Within the framework of studies concerning the “principles of education according to the great philosophers of ancient Greece”, this text was chosen as the first one to be analyzed in the online forum. A Hebrew translation of the text was uploaded to the on-line course site and the students were asked to read the text, interpret it, link it to contemporary education, and to examine the extent of its relevance in our postmodern era. In order to motivate the process of on-line dialogue in the spirit of the 21st century, the following question was asked: „in your opinion, is the “Allegory of the Cave” still important in the modern era or is it no longer relevant? Explain your opinion.”

This question, one of many to be presented on the forum during the semester, received a lot of interest: the highest number of reactions (46 responses), with a large gap between it and other questions presented for debate. The discussion that arose amongst the students illustrated reflective thinking about the question, and this process played an important role in helping students to construct an optimal image of the 21st century teacher within the teacher training process. The dialogue that evolved, along with student answers, exactly as written and word for word, served as units of content - some of the analysis and meanings are presented in Figure 1 above. The insights derived from the analysis of student statements were examined through communication models, data processing and augmented allegories. Following Fiske‟s (1990) semiotic model, we examined cultural influences on the deciphering of the text. According to Fiske, “decoding is a sort of recreation of the text” conducted against the background of the complex cultural baggage of the decoder. The method used to decode communication is derived from the data-processing procedure; it relates to both the acquisition of knowledge and the behavioral results that follow the processing of this new knowledge. This procedure provides standards that help to evaluate, process, and integrate the information received from the outside world with internal information. In the present context, the data processing procedure described in Figure 3 explains how the students integrate the information they have drawn from the ancient text with their own internal knowledge, especially in such an Message unconventional environment as the Text class virtual forum. The process is performed in the “black box”, i.e. the human brain, and results are expressed in the student statements. Meanings

Kaniel and Arazi‟s data processing model (Kaniel, 2003) enables us to Creates External Reads reality present a visual picture of the dataprocessing procedures carried out by the students: from reading the allegory Figure 2 : Fiske’s Model of semiotic to their final deduction of conclusions communication. expressed in their definition of the present-day role of the teacher. The proposed model (see Figure 4) suggests the reason for the choice of particular parts of the allegory and not others. For example: the consideration of the teacher‟s role, but not of the danger overshadowing their life during the teaching/ exposure of the reality. Moreover, the student interpretation of the allegory facilitated understanding concerning the way in which the text is seen by students today.

Figure 3 : The brain as a “black box” during the data-processing procedure.

The covert and overt messages in the “Allegory of the Cave” arouse student response and personal interpretation, along with the desire to share their thoughts and insights with the forum. The ancient text gives rise to interesting intrapersonal and interpersonal interactions, revolving mainly around the perception of the teacher‟s role within the education system in the modern era. It leads students to make associations that create a context for the delineation of present-day needs in technology assisted teaching. A large part of the interpretation revolves around the teacher-student relations axis, so that each component of the ancient text is associated with a parallel in the reality of their professional lives. Furthermore, they took the moral of the story one step further by identifying perceptions, insights and responses in order to reduce existing gaps in the education system and to modify educational activity. As a result of their reflective thinking processes, students were inspired to propose solutions and to crystallize a declarative statement. This Figure 4 : The processing procedure and personal can be defined as a decoding sequence. cognitive-conscious process, as the students, who will be the teachers of the future, work through the decoding of the allegory. Working together, they constructed insights regarding

the desirable professional method for work in their classes, alongside suggestions for suitable solutions to issues of teaching and learning posed by the 21st century, although at present this remains solely at the conscious declarative level.

Findings: analysis of responses and statements The significance of the allegory: Statistical analysis of answers to the question “is the allegory important even in our modern era” indicates that most students recognized the significant importance of the text and its relevance today. This is No response despite the fact that the 24% allegory relates to a group of prisoners shackled since childhood in a gloomy cave, Relevant unaware of the outside world. 8.7%

May be appropriat e 8.7%

Important 13%

Very important 54%

The teacher-student interaction interpretation of the allegory: was perceived by most students to be very meaningful and was repeated with different nuances during the discussion, for example:

Figure 5 : Distribution of responses concerning …the ideal teacher is a teacher who the relevance of the allegory in the present day. acts to create constructive

teaching, for whom each day is a new day and this is also so for his teaching method … so that students will learn to think further, learning much from discussions, developing skills such as the culture of speaking, and dialogue between students. From the metaphor of the chains – to an interpretation of fixation: …The allegory clarifies the view of those teachers who are stuck in their thinking and are unwilling or afraid to liberate themselves from their old teaching methods, and to recognize that there are new, better methods, more effective, that see the child at the center and that are open to responding to the students‟ opinions and feelings. …the cave‟s boundaries limit the thoughts of the „fixated‟ teacher, who is not willing to escape beyond those boundaries and prefers to teach in the traditional manner, while the teacher who sees the light is the teacher who allows them self to break through the boundaries, to arouse the child‟s curiosity and to be open to new aids that are effective and good for today. …the cave represents the thoughts of the “fixated stagnant” teacher, and the continued use of the old teaching method, despite the fact that technology and the modern era have many advantages. In contrast to the word “chains” that appears in the text, students more often used the term “fixation” in the on-line dialogue. The question therefore arose as to why the word chains was given almost no attention, while the word fixation

became the dominant metaphor. One possible interpretation is that the words “cave” and “chains” were seen as representing a sense of “stagnated thinking” in the education system, and the teachers assumed that this feeling of stagnation was projected onto the students and consequently affected their motivation. The following are some of the responses on the forum relating to chains and fixation: Examples of statements relating to perceptions of the teacher’s role: …as future teachers, we need to continually develop our teaching methods, to always stimulate the students‟ curiosity and interest. Not to be stuck with particular methods rather to continually evolve and develop our teaching methods. …Future teachers should get out of their fixation and be more open to innovation, to new techniques that will increase students‟ effective interesting thinking, that will expand their horizons and enlarge their curiosity. We as teachers must leave the „darkness‟ – the less interesting learning methods that are less likely to lead to shared learning … and as it were we should leave the cave with new teaching, and different and interesting methods. …I think it's important that the teachers should not be stuck, that they will be open to innovations and new ideas, and this will awaken the children‟s curiosity and motivation to learn … the teacher should focus on technological development and use it with alternative methods in order to arouse students‟ curiosity and desire to develop and learn new ideas. The allegory of the cave highlights the role of the educator as someone who helps students to turn their gaze in the right direction and to overcome the obstacles as was done in the allegory. The role of the educator is to help but he cannot do this for them unless he himself takes on the role of liberator. This last assertion can be linked to the deep metaphorical meaning of “chains” and “fixation”. Fixation occurs when a person remains stuck in a particular stage, due to lack of resolution of the crises that characterize this stage (Freud, 1962). Fixation stands for constricted thinking processes; the creation of restricted and defined thinking patterns that do not allow the individual to see beyond. It symbolizes what is old, ancient and traditional, and is rooted in the past; this is outdated thinking, or thinking that is frozen, in contrast with the dynamic spirit of time. It is also interesting to observe that the decoding of the text led to the new interpretation described above: an “ending” that is significantly different in meaning to Plato‟s original ending. In the conventional interpretation, scholars argue that the messenger is murdered and the prisoners remain in darkness. In the student decoding of the allegory in the on-line dialogue, the difficulties and meanings at the end of the process moved in a positive operative direction, and students learnt to cope with the lesson in an empowering manner, suggesting practical solutions in both the personal and systemic dimension. When students were asked to “describe the connection between the prisoners of the past and teachers of the future”, their feelings were succinctly reflected in their responses. Figure 5 relates to the process the students underwent on the forum. The students noted:

…we can draw a link along the time axis between “prisoners of the past and educators of the future” since in my opinion, in the “Allegory of the Cave”, for the prisoners of the past, the departure towards the light, to the revelation of knowledge, stems from the same motivation, a sort of impulse that the prisoner in the cave feels that he must go out and be exposed to the world that he saw from behind the shade, the aspiration to know, to satisfy curiosity. And we also, as the educators of the future, should be pushed to expose new and different methods and to always search for what is new and for beneficial change. Although there is change over time, the goal remains the same: to expose and know what is new and more effective. …The prisoners of the past were imprisoned within their representation of particular things and they did not question their knowledge; rather they accepted their representation in a fixated manner. Future educators Figure 6 : The decoding model and its products. need to aspire to educate their students to investigate, to create, to construct knowledge and not to fear being exposed to knowledge that differs from the knowledge they already have. The use of progressive innovation, along with teacher assistance, brought about a “release” in students that allowed them to “think outside the box”, “not remain fixated”, and “to alter perceptions”. This constitutes the implementation of what Duffy and Cunningham (1996) referred to as “knowledge as a creeping rhizome". Students shared the view that learning involves an active process of knowledge construction, and that teaching is about supporting and upholding that process rather than simple transmission of knowledge from teacher to student (Duffy & Cunningham, 1996). This branches out into different meanings and creates shared dialogue - on-line dialogue in the present case - within a community of learners. The student responses link the metaphorical world with the real world, and the past with the present and especially the future. We found that they consolidated opinions and insights concerning the role of the teacher and educator. This included the suggestion that the teacher or educator should “release the prisoners” from the cave, as well as the examination of the moral meaning of the teacher‟s role. Lastly, they used reflective thinking about teacher training processes that they had experienced during the academic year.

Discussion and conclusions: from prisoners of the past to future educators Students gave original, innovative and modern interpretations of the ancient Platonic text. They saw the “Allegory of the Cave” as a textual “starting point” constituting a trigger for thinking from which they marched towards the future in a quest for personal and professional self-discovery; they also conducted a deep interpretation relating to the education system. The metaphorical “cave” and the departure from it seemed to them to represent a transition from the past to the future. Going out into the light, the sun, and leaving the cave‟s darkness, symbolized the revelation of knowledge and insight, as well as the use of knowledge to create new thinking, alternative pedagogy, and teaching-learning “outside the box”. Kozminski and Kalvier (2010) indicated that a stance of inquiry can assist dialogue on teachers‟ professional identity. They cite Cochrane-Smith and Lytle (1999), who suggest that, throughout their lives teachers should act together as an investigative community, maintaining continuous dialogue. This dialogue helps to construct local knowledge concerning teaching, creating personal theories concerning practice, and testing these theories in comparison with other research. Investigative communities conduct both social and political activity, and raise questions concerning teaching routines and ways in which knowledge is created and awarded use and respect. An investigative stance allows critical discussion about teachers‟ professional identity and the role of the teacher in bringing about educational change, both as individuals and as a group, leading towards what Stephen, Fraser and Marcia (1992) dub “identity achievement”. To summarize, most students felt the “Allegory of the Cave” to be a very meaningful text, even today. Most identified an analogy in the allegory to the restrictions of the present day education system. They identified with the need to be released from chains and fixation in their use of teaching methods, and advocated an approach that encourages the use of novel means and advanced technologies as part of the teaching process. The results of the forum discussion include clear and sharp definitions of the “dos” and “don‟ts”. The “don‟ts” include warnings to teachers lest they remain fixated, chained in their way of thinking, imprisoning their students and adhering to traditional and outdated teaching methods; in other words, remaining in the dark obscurity of the cave. On the other hand, the “dos” are more encouraging: innovation, consideration of student needs, propagation of values and adaptation to the changing reality of the post-modern era; progress and development of principles and new directions of thinking while promoting creativity and curiosity; development and implementation of new teaching methods (especially dominant in the online discourse) while demonstrating ability to create interest and to be open to new technologies and sophisticated, adapted teaching means. It is interesting to discern that the teacher-student interface was perceived as a challenging, complex space that facilitates meaningful learning through metaphorical thinking that motivates thinking, dialogue, a community of thinkers, and a community of learning. Undoubtedly, discussions on the forum added a significant aspect to the bridge between the old and the new, and it contributed to the departure of the cave prisoners and the formation of future educators.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 11, No. 2, pp. 14-25, May 2015

Learning by Going Social: Do We Really Learn from Social Media? Minakshi Lahiri and James L. Moseley Wayne State University Detroit, Michigan, USA Abstract. With the ever increasing ubiquity of smart phones and mobile devices, social networking has become a trend that has captured attention and interest of one and all. Young people, middle aged, and older generations are all engaged to certain extent in some sort of social networking over the web. While there are both pros and cons attached to the use of social networks, the usage of social media interestingly has always shown an upward trend in popularity and consumption. Are there real benefits in getting connected to people using social networks? Or does the use of web based social media actually isolate people and diminish the necessity of meeting face to face? Do we really learn from using social media? Does the use of social networks enhance collaboration and promote motivation and collective intelligence and learning? This research based discussion evaluates social media as an emerging educational and performance improvement tool from the perspective of social cognitive theory and social constructivist theories. We discuss some existing research that used social media as a teaching learning tool. We end this discussion with a decision making framework matrix for educators contemplating using social media within their course pedagogy. Keywords: technology; social media; social learning theory; emerging technology

Introduction According to the 2014 Horizon Report, “Growing Ubiquity of Social Media” is one of the fast trends that will impact significant changes in the higher education arena in the foreseeable future. As mentioned in the Horizon Report, a report from Business Insider indicates 2.7 billion people, almost 40% of the world population, use social media. According to Pew Research Center (2013) report published December, 2013, around 73% of adult online users use social media of some kind. According to Pew Research Center‟s Internet Project, Facebook dominates the social media playground with 71% of online adults using Facebook for social networking and interaction. Figure 1 illustrates the

popularity of Facebook as a social media in comparison to other prominent social media currently in vogue.

Figure 1. Popularity of Facebook as a Social Media

Several studies have investigated the impact of social media on learning both in the formal and in informal settings. With the increase in the popularity and usage of various social media, it is important to carefully consider the implications or direct and indirect benefits of engaging with social media, in order to harness the potential of this increasingly popular emerging technology. In this article we review research on social media in educational settings to investigate the impact of social media in formal and informal learning. Social Media and Social Networks According to Merriam Webster online dictionary (http://www.merriamwebster.com), Social media means: â&#x20AC;&#x153;forms of electronic communication (as Web sites for social networking and microblogging) through which users create online communities to share information, ideas, personal messages, and other content (as videos) .â&#x20AC;?

Merchant (2011) identified SixDegrees.com launched in 1997 as the first Networking website. According to Merchant (2011), social networks are web based services where individuals could create their profiles and connect to other users with similar interest and share information within the network. With the increasing popularity and use of Web 2.0 and Web 3.0, Social Networking Sites (SNSs) have increased membership over the years and have grown to be technology powerhouses (Alloway, Horton, Alloway, Dawson, 2013). Table 1 lists some of the most popular social media and social networking sites that are used in educational and instructional settings. Table 1. Popular social media sites used in educational settings

Social Media delicious

Flickr

Facebook .

Google+

Instagram LinkedIn Myspace Ning

Pinterest Tumblr Twitter

Brief description and URL Social bookmarking; users are able to locate and save websites that match their own interests https://delicious.com/ Used for sharing photographs, networking with photographs, https://www.flickr.com/ General networking and communication: Share Photos, Videos, Blogs, Apps https://www.facebook.com/ General social networking site https://plus.google.com A photo and video sharing site http://instagram.com/# Used primarily for business and professional networking https://www.linkedin.com/ General social networking site https://myspace.com/ Users create their own social websites and social networks, building a community http://www.ning.com/ Online pin-board for organizing and sharing ideas, recipes, craft etc. https://www.pinterest.com/ Microblogging platform and Social Networking Website. https://www.tumblr.com/ General. Micro-blogging, RSS, updates https://twitter.com/

Social Learning â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Cognitive and Constructivist Perspectives Many recent researches in education have been inspired by social theories on learning (Vygotsky, 1978; Wenger, 1998). Social learning perspectives emphasize ÂŠ 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

learning as a social process, that involves both personal interpretations of events and meaning making through social negotiation (Jonassen & Land, 2000). Acquisition of knowledge and performance from social learning perspective is perceived as a social process (Littleton & Häkkinen, 1999). Social Cognitive Theory helps to analyze the relationship between personal, behavioral and environmental factors that can influence the abilities for individuals to set goals and self-regulate learning (Wang & Lin, 2007). Social Cognitive Theory, founded on the works of Albert Bandura and J. B. Rotter focuses on the impact of social environment on learning. Rotter (1954) suggested that basic behavioral instincts are mostly acquired in social situations. He suggested that individuals behave in a certain way depending on the situation and how the individual values the outcome of the behavior in the situation in relation to the other possible outcomes. Albert Bandura‟s social cognitive theory, based on observational learning (1997) was expanded on Rotter‟s theory of social learning. It was based on the idea that people learn from observing the behavior of others through observation, imitation and modeling. Bandura‟s social cognitive theory assumes that the learners draw information by observing other people and making decisions on which to accept and perform. According to Bandura this observation, as well as decision making process to accept or ignore a behavior, is vital to learning, acquiring, and performing a behavior. Like cognitivists, social learning theories and their impact on learning have also been recently studied and discussed by many social constructivists. Social constructivists view learning as a social, conversational and interactive knowledge construction process. Jonassen, Howland, Marra & Crismond (2008) suggest the use of technology as a social tool to enhance learning. They suggest using technology ● for collaboration ● for discussion, building argument, and building consensus among members ● for supporting communication between knowledge-building communities According to Jonassen (2000), meaningful learning is intentional, active, conscious, constructive and includes reflective activities. Many contemporary learning theorists focus on the social aspect of learning, through negotiating and meaning making. While behavioral and cognitive theorists focused on how an individual acquired knowledge, social constructivists believe that learning involves social exchange and negotiation. According to social constructivists, learning is an internal as well as a social process. Savery and Duffy (1995) define learning as inherently a social-dialogical process. Social Learning in the 21st Century: Learning with Social Media and the Web Kamel Boulos and Wheeler (2007) suggested, Web 2.0 as the „Social Web‟, because, it encourages interaction and communication. As we have progressed from Web 1.0 to Web 2.0 environment and now moving towards Web 3.0, social © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

networking has evolved to make it possible for people to communicate with others from anywhere, at any time. Social networking sites are cloud based online services that enable users to create personal profiles and help to make connections with others. Social networking refers to applications such as Facebook, MySpace, Twitter, Google+, Linkedin, where members set up personal profiles, connect with people, communicate, and share preferences and interests. Sites such as YouTube and different blogs are classified as social publishing websites. Another important Web 2.0 social learning tool that is being used extensively in educational settings is the wiki that enables collaborative creation over time and editing of documents on the Web by multiple users. With the current trend in the increased number of online and blended courses, and the increased use of web based educational resources, creating a learning environment with social interaction components and social exchange among learners as well as the instructor poses a challenge to the instructional designer. According to Bandura (2002), technology plays a large role in the “globalization of human interconnectedness” (p. 2) thus influencing how people use and apply technology within their societal and cultural environments. According to Bandura, high self-efficacy and high motivation are necessary for individuals in order for them to be successful and productive in the information age. If individuals have a low perceived self-efficacy, they may not be able to access, process, and evaluate the information obtained from an Internet search. Conducting searches from the web for information to enable the construction of knowledge, or to perform an Internet-based inquiry, is a complex task that requires higher level thinking skills (Bandura, 2002). Bandura (2002) recommends that our educational environments focus on the instruction of skills, and not force the retention of subject matter, for the 21st Century students to be adaptable, proficient and self-directed learners. Facts can easily be attained by researching the many online libraries, museums and databases. As a result, individuals are no longer receivers of information, but are involved in their own learning as “agents of learning” (Watts, 2011). In a study at Queensland University of Australia, by Carroll, Diaz, Niland & Adkins (2012), an interactive, online social media was integrated into the course as an assessment component. Students utilized the online forum Wikispaces (http://www.wikispaces.com/) to showcase their research on complex and contemporary health issues and also for peer review and critique of their work. It was discovered that at the end of this assessment, students developed deeper and long term learning with higher overall academic writing standards. This study verified Bandura‟s social cognitive theory that modelled behavior can impact self-motivation positively. The learning in this study used a social setting, and the learning process was iterative, collaborative, as well as competitive where students observed peer works, and then become both imitated and innovated in their own work.

Gunawardena, et. al. (2009), define social networking as technology that promote collective intelligence by means of social negotiation among group of individuals that are engaged in working towards a common goal or a shared practice. Gunawardena et. al. (2009) analyzed a variety of Web 2.0 tools to assess their utility towards learning. The researchers concluded that self-efficacy was an important component that directly impacted collaboration in social learning process. Gunawardena, et. al. (2009) suggested that self-efficacy is also an important component that contributes to success for individuals who are new to online experiences. A complicated set of instructions and processes for using social networking tools can also be daunting to an Internet novice and that could add to the learning curve. Slow introduction to the newcomers to technology and tools, and structuring online participation for learning success can help learners in online or blended courses to boost their self-efficacy and be successful. The rapid proliferation and innovation of web technologies and mobile devices have influenced how people communicate, learn and behave. Yu, Tian, Vogel and Kwok (2010) investigated the impact of individuals‟ online social networking engagement from a pedagogical perspective. Based on analysis of results in their research, they concluded that online social networking influenced students‟ learning outcomes, and also helped the students to adapt and adjust to the university culture, which played an important role in successful learning. Social networking also facilitated development of virtual and real relationships with peers or models, and also encouraged integrity and a sense of community and belonging to their universities. Online social networking had a positive impact on students‟ mental health and encouraged technical skill development. The researchers concluded that online networking sites, such as Facebook, can be used to design learning activities, e.g., orientation practices, to increase interaction among individual students and to build a collegial and peer supportive environment. Other research on social networking and its educational impact have found better health, affective development and academic success (Morrow, 1999; Steinfield, Ellison & Lampe (2008) for students who engage in some kind of social networking. Treisman‟s (1992) study concluded that time spent in networking and communicating with peers form a critical factor in determining performance for college students. Hwang et al. (2004) also concluded that social networking with peers and instructors helped college student gain information and knowledge and achieve higher performance. All of these studies indicated that students' online social networking engagement with peers as well as instructors helped to raise self-esteem of students and helped students feel motivated and succeed academically. Steinfield et al. (2008) in their study suggested that instructional use of Facebook helped to reduce barriers that students with lower self-esteem might experience. Social influences play a major role in in motivating people to share knowledge or participate in social communities. Strong community ties, for example provided important environmental conditions for knowledge exchange © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

(Snowden, 1998; Wellman & Wortley, 1990). Langerak, Verhoef, Verlegh & Valck (2004) concluded that satisfaction with interactions among individuals influences member participation positively. Trust is also a key factor that enables fostering higher level of participation in many virtual communities (Ridings, Gefen, & Arinze, 2002; Andrews, Preece & Turoff, 2002). Dholakia, Bagozzi & Pearo(2004) found that belonging to a group or a community had a strong effect on group intentions to participate online or in virtual communities. There were other studies which concluded that a sense of community (Hars & Ou(2002); Yoo, Suh & Lee (2002)) and social identity (Dholakia, Bagozzi & Pearo, 2004) enhanced participation and contribution in a virtual community. Assessing Credibility of Including Social Media/Networking in Instructional Design Social media is a current and emerging trend that impacts learning both in the formal as well as the informal setting. To fully harness the potential of social media in learning, prior to any formal implementation, it is essential to critically evaluate the benefits that the use of social media would add to the coursework. Benefits and limitations of including social media within course pedagogy are listed in Table 2. Table 2. Benefits and Limitations of using Social media in educational settings

Benefits   



Social media encourages collaborative learning Social media enables modelling of behavior Social Media motivates the learner to become active creators of content and more participation Social media promotes building of learning communities and foster productive discussions and sharing of knowledge and information. Social media can be used by instructors to enhance student engagement Social media can be used to improve communication among learners and instructors Alumni group can connect and grow with social media

Limitations 



Making a safe community presence is a challenge. Use and access of social media when used in school work must be monitored closely by the instructor. Social media can pose as a distraction for the learners and shift the focus from learning to other stuff on web. Social media can easily become a tool for cyberbullying and other forms of cyber-crimes. Instructors need to be vigilant of any such possibilities and address civil and respectful cyber behavior. Use of social media for communication might be a discouraging factor for face to face communication or human interaction.

Implementing social media within the teaching learning process without careful considerations, for the sake of using the technology, might result in frustration, distraction, inequity, and deviation from the primary focus of the course. The table below, Table 3, is a checklist of some of the critical considerations for educators contemplating including social media within pedagogy as a means to engage learners in social learning. If majority of the answers to this checklist yields a â&#x20AC;&#x153;Yesâ&#x20AC;?, it implies that social media in this course would actually enhance learning experiences of students in the course. Table 3. Considerations while Implementing Social Media in Courses. Critical considerations before integrating social media in pedagogy Overall Learning Perspective 1

Does the implementation of social media lead to in depth learning for the learners for this course?

Does the implementation of social media lead to increased student engagement for this course?

Does the implementation of social media lead to increased critical thinking by students?

Does the implementation of social media lead to innovation in teaching learning styles and preferences for a particular course?

Does the process lead to increased collaboration and exchange of information among the faculty and the students?

Does the implementation of social media make teaching learning more interactive?

Can we ensure that including social media will cause minimal to almost no distraction for the students from the main focus of the course?

Will the implementation of social media enable timely and prompt feedback to learners?

Will the implementation of social media act as a digital bridge and minimize the digital divide in this particular course?

Will the implementation of social media address equity?

Can we ensure that the implementation of social media will not result in a steep learning curve for learners who are new users and hence not overwhelm the learners?

Will the social learning provide extra motivation for learners to engage in learning?

Yes

Will the social media used for the course provide a stable platform for the learners to interact over a period of time?

Will the social media enable reliable and valid indication for individual learner evaluation?

Will the inclusion of social media in this course promote selfefficacy of the student?

Will the inclusion of social media in this course promote active and critical reflective thinking by learners?

Will the social media use in this course enhance independent inquiry and problem solving skills by the learners?

Will the implementation of social learning enhance communication skills of the students?

Can we ensure privacy and safety of learners if the social media is included within the course?

Will the social media promote connections among alumni and help grow the alumni body as a community of professionals? Social Cognitive Theory Perspective

Does inclusion of social media in coursework provide opportunities of social interactions, observations, modelling and imitation for the learners? (Bandura‟s Social Cognitive Theory)

Will there be significant, observable and measurable positive changes in a learners‟ behavior due to the inclusion of social media? (Bandura‟s Social Cognitive Theory) Social Constructivist Theory Perspective

Will the social media use in course work encourage collaborative learning among learners? (Jonassen, Howland, Marra & Crismond; 2008)

Can the instructors utilize social media within course work to promote conversation and dialogue for problem solving and critical thinking on various issues among learners? (Jonassen, Howland, Marra & Crismond; 2008)

Will the inclusion of social media within course pedagogy encourage interactive and social knowledge construction process among learners? (Jonassen, Howland, Marra & Crismond; 2008) Total Score

Conclusion Pew Research Center‟s (2011) report The Digital Revolution and Higher Education, predicted an increase in the trend of university and colleges offering online classes during the next ten years. The report also predicted that most students would access digital text books over mobile devices in the coming years. With this exponential rise and growth of online and web based learning environments and ubiquitous learning, further research on social learning theories in web based environments and design of instructions for online learning environments is extremely important. Instructional designers and online instructors need to investigate effective strategies to promote quality online social interactions, build effective online learning community, promote online collaborative work thus eliminating the perceived feeling of isolation in online educational settings, and promoting motivation, self-esteem, participation and engagement in web based learning. Social media when used effectively within the pedagogy can serve as a platform for promoting effective online interaction between a community of learners for engagement as a community and for sharing and coconstruction of knowledge.

References Alloway, T. P., Horton, J. , Alloway, R. G. & Dawson, C. (2013). Social networking sites and cognitive abilities: Do they make you smarter? Retrieved from http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S036013151200262X Andrews, D., Preece, J., Turoff, M. (2002). A conceptual framework for demographic groups resistant to on-line community interaction. International Journal of Electronic commerce, 6 (3), 9–24. Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: Freeman. Bandura, A. (2002). Growing primacy of human agency in adaptation and change in the electronic era. European Psychologist, 7(1), 2-16. doi:10.1027//1016-9040.7.1.2. Carroll, J., Diaz, A., Niland, C., Meiklejohn, J., & Adkins, B. A. (2012). „Show Me Your Wiki and I‟ll Show you Mine‟: Using Online Interactive Media to Improve Academic Writing and Research in a Public Health Under-Graduate Cohort. In Martellini, Lorenzo (Ed.) The Future of Education Conference Proceedings 2012, Simonelli Editore, Florence, Italy, pp. 43-48. Dholakia, U.M., Bagozzi, R.P., Pearo, L.K. (2004). A social influence model of consumer participation in network- and small-groupbased virtual communities. International Journal of Research in Marketing, 21 (3), 241–263. Gunawardena, C.N. , Hermans, M.B., Sanchez,D. , Richmond, D., Bohley, M., & Tuttle, R. (2009): A theoretical framework for building online communities of practice with social networking tools. Educational Media International, 46:1, 3-16. Hars, A. & Ou, S.S. (2002). Working for free? Motivations for participating in opensource projects, International Journal of Electronic Commerce 6 (3), 25–39. Horizon Report (2014). Horizon Report. Retrieved from http://cdn.nmc.org/media/2014- horizon-report-he-EN-SC.pdf Hwang, A., Kessler, E. H., & Francesco, A. M. (2004). Student networking behavior, culture, and grade performance: an empirical study and pedagogical recommendations. Academy of Management Learning and Education, 3(2), 139–150. Jonassen, D. H. (2000). Learning: as Activity. Retrieved 30, March, 2013, from http://www.learndev.org/dl/DenverJonassen.PDF Jonassen, D.H. & Land S.M. (2000). Theoretical foundations of learning environments. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

Jonassen, D. H. , Howland, J, Marra, R, M., Crismond, D. (2008). How does technology facilitate learning? Retrieved March 31, 2013 from http://www.education.com/reference/article/how-does-technology-facilitatelearning/?page=2 Kamel Boulos, M.N. & Wheeler, S. (2007). The emerging Web 2.0 social software: an enabling suite of sociable technologies in health and health care education. Health Information and Libraries Journal, 24, 2–23. Langerak, F., Verhoef, P.C., Verlegh, P.W.J., Valck, K. de.(2004). Satisfaction and participation in virtual communities. Advances in Consumer Research, 31, 56–57. Littleton, K., & Häkkinen, P. (1999). Learning Together: Understanding the Processes of Computer-Based Collaborative Learning. In P. Dillenbourg (Ed.). Collaborative Learning: Cognitive and Computational Approaches (pp.20-29). Amsterdam: Pergamon. Merchant, Guy (2012). Unravelling the social network: theory and research. Learning, Media and Technology, 37 (1), 4-19. Morrow, V. (1999). Conceptualizing social capital in relation to the well-being of children and young people; a critical review. Sociological Review, 47, 744–765. Pew Research Internet Project (2013). Social Media Update 2013. Retrieved from http://www.pewinternet.org/2013/12/30/social-media-update-2013/ Pew Research Social and Demographic Trends. (2011). The digital revolution and higher education. Retrieved from http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2011/08/28/overview/ Ridings, C. ,Gefen, D., Arinze, B. (2002). Some antecedents and effects of trust in virtual communities. Journal of Strategic Information Systems, 11 (3–4), 271–295. Rotter, J. B. (1954). Social Learning and Clinical Psychology. Prentice-Hall. Savery, J. R. & Duffy, T. M. (1995). Problem based learning: An instructional model and its constructivist framework. Case Studies in Instructional Design, 135-150. Retrieved March 31, 2013 from http://cauepublishing.net/files/duffy_publ6.pdf Snowden, D. (1998). A framework for creating a sustainable programme, in: S. Rock (Ed.), Knowledge Management: A Real Business Guide, CBI/IBM, London, 1998. Steinfield, C., Ellison, N. B., & Lampe, C. (2008). Social capital, self-esteem, and use of online social network sites: a longitudinal analysis. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 29(6), 434–445. Treisman, P.U. (1992, November). Studying students studying calculus: a look at the lives of minority mathematics students in college. The College Mathematics Journal, 23(5), 362- 373. Vygotsky, L.S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes (M. Cole, V. John-Shteiner, S. Scribner, & Souberman, Eds.). Cambridge, MA: HarvardUniversity Press. Wang, S.L. & Lin, S. S. J. (2007). The application of social cognitive theory to web-based learning through NetPorts. British Journal of Educational Technology, 38, 600–612. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8535.2006.00645.x. Watts, C. (2011). Social Cognitive Theory Applications for the Acquistion of Information Literacy Skills. In M. Koehler & P. Mishra (Eds.), Proceedings of Society for Information Technology & Teacher Education International Conference 2011, Chesapeake, VA: AACE. Retrieved from http://www.editlib.org/p/36932. Wellman, B., Wortley, S. (1990). Different strokes from different folks: community ties and social support, American Journal of Sociology 96 (3), 558–588. Wenger, E. (1998). Communities of practice. Learning, meaning, and identity. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 11, No. 2, pp. 26-39, May 2015

A Pedagogical Synergy of Visualization Pictures and Scenarios to Teach the Concept of Parallelograms Marie-Thérèse Saliba Université de Montréal Faculty of Science Education Montréal, Québec, Canada

Abstract: Many problems in geometry require students to perform a number of steps in a particular order using congruence theorems. According to “the Mathematics Intermediate Level – 8th year Book, Puissance Collection” set by the mathematics curriculum in Lebanon, a new spirit conserving the individual construction of notions is advised. However, in practice this new spirit is not smoothly delivered to students. In this study, we observed the effect of the Active Learning Process in the chapter of “Parallelograms” in the 8th grade Math classes on students’ academic realization, concept learning and approach changes, according to their results combined with their feedback. It was detected that after comparing the test scores of the active learning model which uses figures and models is more successful than the traditional teaching methods since there was a rise in success in students’ results. Keywords: Parallelograms; Lebanese curriculum; 8th grade; active leaning

Introduction Context Many problems in geometry require students to perform a number of steps in a particular order. According to my teaching practices advanced students not only remember the steps, they know when to use particular congruence theorems, they understand why they are doing what they are doing, and they know when the order of steps does or does not matter. As stated by its authors, the Mathematics Intermediate Level – 8th year Book, Puissance Collection, deals with the mathematics program in Lebanon with a new spirit conserving the individual construction of notions, formation of communication and critical thinking skills, and preservation of the link between mathematics and the situations of our daily life. However, in practice this new © 2015 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

spirit is not smoothly delivered to students, and some major constructs in geometry are not delivered properly.

Research problem Furthermore, some Geometry notions are introduced by using the direct instruction strategy. Specifically, in the topic of Parallelograms, as covered in the above mentioned textbook, Grade 8 students often do not recall and visualize the convenient properties of parallelograms required for proofs and problems involving reasoning skills. This may be due to the fact of pure memorization which eventually might increase the risk of memory loss. Students normally memorize properties; hence they are not visualizing the problem in all its aspects and making the required connections to remember the needed properties for every exercise(Cobb, 1988). Thus concepts will not be built up properly in the students mind, and eventually less proficient students may need extra help in understanding the reason behind every step of the problem1.

Interest of the Study The proposed approach to help overcome this research problem is using the cognitive theory (Bandura & Ross, 1961; R. M Gagné, 1959; R.M Gagné, 1985; Piaget, 1969) and the constructivist theory (Bruner, 1986). It will be implemented using the active learning strategy: The teacher will be organizing the work by creating an active learning situation (Prince, 2004; Race, 1993; Vellas, 2008) formed of a series of activities where the student will answer a series of guided questions allowing them to recognize and deduce the properties of parallelograms which will be discussed later. Accordingly, this will test the enhancement of the learning by discovery and the comprehension of properties rather than having them being listed on the board or dictated to the students. The use of active learning in this approach is aiming to ensure the grasping of the concept where the students can now visualize and verbalize mathematics. The aim of this study is to explore the constructivist active learning strategy through visualizing pictures and scenarios in addition to its effects on: 1. 2.

Student’s Academic Achievement Concept learning of Parallelograms

Outline of the Solution Theoretical Framework Constructivism approaches to teach and learn are the results of the work of psychologists and educators such as (Bruner, 1986; Piaget, 1969). (Piaget, 1969), the pioneer in the constructivist theory, believes that “every learner is a constructor”.

National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, Commission on Standards for School Mathematics. Curriculum and Evaluation Standards for School Mathematics. Reston, Va.: The Council, 1989

Accordingly, there are two major aspects of the constructivist perspective: Cognitive Constructivism and Social Constructivism: For the cognitive constructivism “Learning is something that takes place inside a person’s head in the brain”(R. M Gagné, 1959). For this author, the brain is similar to a processor that manages, treats and resolves situations. The social constructivism (Vygotsky, 1934) adds to the inner learning process the dimension of the contact with others to build knowledge. However in this study we are interested in the common points of those two strands. According to Piaget every learner could construct his own understanding. ”Knowledge is actively constructed by the learner and not passively received from the environment”. (Piaget, 1969). (Jonassen, 1994) description of the general characteristics of constructivist learning environments is a brief summary of the constructivist perspective. This author proposed that there are eight characteristics that differentiate constructivist learning environments: 1. “Provide multiple representations of reality. 2. Multiple representations avoid oversimplification and represent the complexity of the real world. 3. Emphasize knowledge construction instead of knowledge reproduction. 4. Emphasize authentic tasks in a meaningful context rather than abstract instruction out of context. 5. Provide learning environments such as real-world settings or case-based learning instead of predetermined sequences of instruction. 6. Encourage thoughtful reflection on experience. 7. Enable context- and content- dependent knowledge construction. 8. Support collaborative construction of knowledge through social negotiation, not competition among learners for recognition." (Jonassen, 1994). In this research, I will enhance my strategy development founded on the above mentioned characteristics. In the classroom, the constructivist approach brings out different teaching practices. In this strategy, I usually encourage students to be active by choosing several techniques as experiments and real-world problem solving. They should be encouraged to search, create, reflect and negotiate their knowledge and their understanding in order to rectify them if necessary. My role as a teacher is to guide the students and to act as a mediator who organizes the students’ understands and controls their activities. Constructivist teachers encourage students to constantly assess how the activity is helping them gain understanding. By questioning themselves and their strategies, students in the constructivist classroom ideally become expert learners2. This gives them ever-broadening tools to keep learning. With a wellplanned classroom environment, the students learn how to learn.

http://www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/constructivism/index.html

Based on the above, it is clear that the active learning process complements the constructivist theory and is a fundamental asset for teaching and learning. It is in fact a realization of the constructivist theory. “The normal way of acquisition is not observation, explanation and demonstration; it is the experimental trial and error, natural and universal approach”(Freinet, 1964). (Akınoğlu & Özkardeş, 2007) indicated that in the student-centred active learning process the teacher is merely a guide, which is the focal point of contemporary educational systems3. According to (Akınoğlu & Özkardeş, 2007) “the active learning is a process in which the learner takes responsibility of his or her learning and is given the opportunity to make decisions and inferences for the goal of self-regulation. In this way, learning will no longer be a typical process, but it transforms into a personalized process based on every student’s needs and reflections”. This author believes that active learning provides the learner a background to selfcriticism and an autonomy to choose his own path to resolve problems. Moreover, students will develop their skills of problem-solving and critical thinking to learn (Bonwell & Eison, 1991). In this process, the students shall be ready to solve any problems they encounter in their everyday lives. On another hand, the study shows that as (Akınoğlu & Özkardeş, 2007) concluded “the problem based learning model turns the student from a passive recipient to an active self -learner and problem solver shifting the emphasis of educational programs from teaching to learning” (Akınoğlu & Özkardeş, 2007). In this strategy the student becomes responsible of his own acquisition and learning. Not to forget that students attitude in the areas of problem solving, thinking, communication, group work, information acquisition and information sharing are affected positively. Note that the students’ feedback is to be considered but not fully reliable (Al‐Issa & Sulieman, 2007; Boysen, 2008). In fact, even though, gathering information from the students’ feedback is suggested, their comments and observations remain highly subjective and not mature.

Functional Framework Grade eight students4 consider problems in geometry as something abstract, complicated, and incomprehensible. On another hand, students are introduced to the concepts of proofs and statement/reason which in its turn requires a lot of visualization and conceptual understanding. This is because in each exercise students explore a new situation and are required to use their prior knowledge to make decisions, inferences, and generalizations.

Mentioned in: 2007 Moment, Eurasia J. Math. Sci. & Tech. Ed., 3(1), 71-81 8: 13- 14 years old

4 Grade

The purpose of this research is to conclude whether the application of the active learning model in â&#x20AC;&#x153;Parallelogramsâ&#x20AC;? chapter of the 8th grade in the Intermediate Education brings out major modifications to studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; academic accomplishment regarding their concept learning and their approach towards the math class. This framework will be implemented using the active learning strategy. The teacher will be organizing the work by creating an active learning situation formed of a series of activities where the research group students will individually answer a series of guided questions about parallelograms allowing them to recognize and deduce the properties of parallelograms by themselves. In this way, they would be able to perform similar analysis on any problem they occur and require higher order thinking skills. For the other group, the control group, a traditional strategy is applied: In the School Book5 this chapter is normally introduced using the direct instruction approach, that is the uni-directional transmission mode of learning: The teacher provides the students with the definition of parallelogram, its properties, and then listing the conditions required to prove that a quadrilateral is a parallelogram. There was neither discussion nor exploration of the concept (See Figure 1). In general, the teacher reveals the Parallelogram proprieties as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4.

A parallelogram has opposite sides parallel and equal in length. A parallelogram has its diagonals bisect each other. A parallelogram angles opposed to same extent If an uncrossed quadrilateral has its parallel sides of the same length, then it is a parallelogram 5. If an uncrossed quadrilateral has diagonals that bisect then it is a parallelogram.

5 Mathematics - Intermediate Level - Collection Puissance - 8th Year - 2007 - Al-Ahlia

Figure 1: Passive method

In this research, I will prepare in advance an activity concerning the parallelograms chapter and explain it to the research group. Students will answer the sequential questions in the assistance of two faculty members: A colleague and myself. Both faculty members had previously taught the â&#x20AC;&#x153;parallelogramâ&#x20AC;? chapter. Consequently, students deduce the definition, rules, and properties of parallelograms. Noting that, the two groups are equivalent and homogeneous; they have been following the same program in the same school from the early elementary classes.

Exploring Parallelograms will be as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Draw any 2 points A and B Use the ruler to draw from each point two parallel lines Connect point A to B Draw a fourth line parallel to (AB). Name it (DC) Answer the following questions: a. Measure AB and CD. Compare the results b. Measure AC and BD. Compare the results c. Find the measure of đ??´, đ??ľ, đ??ś, đ?&#x2018;&#x17D;đ?&#x2018;&#x203A;đ?&#x2018;&#x2018; đ??ˇ. Compare: đ??´ and đ??ś Compare: đ??ľ and đ??ˇ d. Connect AC and BD. Name their point of intersection M e. Measure MA, MB, MC, and MD. Compare.

Figure 2: Active method to teach parallelogram properties

Eventually, there will be class discussion about the results. Accordingly, students will deduce the definition of a parallelogram, its properties, and the requirements to prove that a quadrilateral is a parallelogram. The parallelogram properties to be discovered by the students are the following: 1. Two pairs of opposite sides are equal 2. Two pairs of opposite angles are equal 3. Diagonals bisect each other

How to Analyse the Method The analysis will be done objectively by the two faculty members, a teacher and myself as the researcher. A unified test is assigned to both groups: The control and the research. Then the results are recorded separately by the two faculty members. To be noted that, for the research group, the method is introduced and completed interactively before the students perform the unified test. These assessments will ensure the reliability of the results. Moreover, studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; feedback taken by the two faculty members from oral opinions and comments will be a source of evaluating the new method in terms of interest and motivation for the math lesson and opinion about the problem based learning. Since one should not forget the role of studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; motivation in the grasping of the concept acquisition. Motivational issues play a strong role in the development of conceptual skills (Klausmier, 1915). Therefore, a combined, quantitative and qualitative analysis research methods were used in this study

by both faculty members. In quantitative research dimension, the test model is based on the unified test given to the control and the research groups. In qualitative research field, students’ attitudes and reflections were noted for evaluation.

Methodology Situation This study was performed on the students who were at the 8th grade of the Intermediate Division of Sagesse High School in Lebanon during the 2012/2013 academic school year. The 50 homogeneous students were randomly divided into two sections encompassing 25 students in each section. In addition every group receives 6 math sessions per week, and the number of contact hours that were required for this task were 6 periods (hours) for every group. Moreover, the students’ academic achievement and concept learning levels regarding “Parallelograms” were considered.

Application With the above mentioned aim and objectives, I prepared a unified test including 12 questions. This test was presented to the 8th grade students in the attendance of their teacher. 50 students were participated in the research in total. After completing the traditional model, the unified test for the control and research groups was the following (Figure 3):

Figure 3: Test given to the Control group

For the control group, studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; test feedback had varied. Some students did really well, but the majority did not meet the requirements. Consequently, the research group had the time for the active method implementation stimulating the brain with the activity about the parallelograms and answering the guided questions (Figures 4 and 5). The results of the students had changed remarkably. They showed a notable interest to the learning by discovery and were so excited to the deduction of properties and making generalizations.

Figure 4: Studentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; activities following an Active method

Figure 5: Studentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; answers following an Active method

After completing the sequential questions, the unified test (Figure 3) prepared in accordance with the objectives and the acquisitions in the subject matters of “Parallelograms”, was given to the research group in the presence of their teacher and myself. This topic was divided into sub concepts and the 12 questions asked covered the knowledge, comprehension, and analysis of the concepts. Through this process, we noticed that from our observation using a studentcentred strategy, knowledge and connections were transferred to the students and among the students as well. To be noted that, this active method has been prepared and implemented after having the approval of the subject coordinator and the educator. This test gained positive feedback from students especially those who had difficulty in grasping the concept of parallelograms inductively.

Data Collection Knowing that the expected learning outcomes are: 1. Construct parallelograms having a specific given condition 2. Recognize a specific parallelogram property and apply it in a problem situation 3. Prove that a quadrilateral is a parallelogram using a logical reasoning. In accordance with what was previously mentioned, the results of the test presented to the control and research groups are summarized in the Figure 2 below:

Control Group Research Group

Meeting the expectations

Below the expectations

Total

Figure 6: The results of both groups

On another hand, the students’ valuable feedback present part of the qualitative data collection. Some relevant opinions expressed by students from the research group during the activities are given below. They had mentioned that they now understood the reason behind every property. A.M: “I liked this very much. The guided questions helped me to think about the properties of the parallelogram independently.” J.K: “In this process of learning by discovery, it is so easy to answer the questions, and it is so good and fruitful to discuss them with the whole class.”

C.C.H: “I like this system in math very much. I can now understand the Math course better because the activity is hand into us earlier. The problems are made so easy now.” T.R: “In my opinion, this active learning approach attracted me. It is a good method. We are learning by having fun.”

Analysis of Data The analysis of the implemented method can be considered at two levels, the quantitative analysis, and the qualitative analysis. Starting with the quantitative analysis, we can see that before the active learning method has been implemented, 58% of the students were having the results below the expectations according to their teacher and myself as the conductor of this research. However, after the implementation of the active method, this has decreased to become 26%. This ensures the improvement in the performance of 55% of the students who had difficulties6. (See Figure 7)

Figure 7: Student’ test answers from the research group

At the qualitative level, the students’ feedback about my active method showed that they find great interest and enthusiasm when they learn parallelogram 6

More details about students’ answers to be requested from the author

through an active engagement process and in a problem-based active learning application. Moreover, even if every student happened to construct a parallelogram with different dimensions, they noticed that the properties end up being the same. In addition, translating figures or flipping them in the pages created a class discussion process which allowed students’ communication and sharing ideas. Therefore, the active method had a constructive effect on the students’ concept development by teaching them self-sufficiency and autonomy in acquisition new skills. Thus the concepts learned become more effective and a long-term stable. “We learn by understanding, not by following a path all drawn” argued (Piaget, 1969), learning the material comes with understanding and not only from listening. (Gremmels, 1995, p.89) advocated: “When we use the dump truck method, we overwhelm our students with more skills and strategies than they can possibly absorb in an hour. That’s our first mistake. Then we fail to give students the opportunity to practice any of the strategies and skills, virtually guaranteeing that they won’t be internalized.”(Gremmels, 1995, p.89) In this study, the result of implementing an active method to learn “Parallelograms” supports and joins the author’s opinion about the passive method whereby: 1. All the students receive the same content from the teacher, despite their mind capacities. 2. The students are passive recipients. Their critical thinking is short-cut. 3. The students are not encouraged to self-learning; they remain dependent on me as a transmitter of knowledge. 4. The teacher goes on with the advancement in the math curriculum whatever is the understanding of his students. 5. The collaborative learning in group is minimized. 6. The students may not transmit their knowledge in future skills It was what (Gremmels, 1995, p.89) meant about the disadvantages in adopting a passive method in teaching which I strongly approve according to data analysis of my active method.

Conclusion and Perspective In this study, in which the effect of the Active Learning Process in the chapter of “Parallelograms” in the 8th grade Math classes on students’ academic achievement, concept learning, and attitude changes were examined, following results were obtained. It was observed that after comparing the test scores, the method which uses the active learning model is more successful than the traditional teaching methods since there was a rise in success in students’ results. Therefore this verifies the hypothesis claiming that “Teaching Parallelograms in geometry using the active learning constructivist approach has effect on student achievement”. In fact, (Akınoğlu & Özkardeş, 2007) showed that “the active learning methods are more effective than the classic method by relying on the findings of their research conducted on the basis of problembased learning, brain storming, and cooperative learning”. @2015 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved

When examining the students opinions about classes in which active learning strategies and problem based learning is used, it is noted that the visualization through pictures and scenarios of the problem models were very successful in capturing the attention of the students to the classroom. Thus this has been quite influential regarding the attitude of the students towards the math class. At the end of the studies carried out with the students through the active learning strategy regarding a simple yet basic concept in math, Parallelograms. I observed that their cooperation with each other, accepting others perspective and opinions, and social development were positively enhanced in addition to improvement in the knowledge construction. As a conclusion, it is revealed that the active learning constructivist approach affects both the teaching and learning process positively. The rise of the students’ social development, information dissemination, and problem solving is unavoidable in the class encompassing an active learning process. These qualities are essential in term of academic math education at all levels and in diverse cultures. Nevertheless, there exist some limitations and barriers to the use and implementation of the constructivism and active learning practices. They include the following: 1. The limited time frame that bounds the completion of the academic program in a school year might not allow the teacher to use the active learning and constructivism strategies properly. 2. The number of students per class might create a barrier to the proper implementation of the theories discussed above. 3. Not to forget, the willingness of teachers and their encouragement to those topics and educational approaches, especially those who have years of experience and might be not very cooperative in doing any development/update in their teaching strategies. 4. Last but not least is the constant and regular accordance of the superiors and coordinators that should exist in order to legalize the implementation of the latest trends in education.

References Akınoğlu, Orhan, & Özkardeş, Ruhan. (2007). The Effects of Problem-Based Active Learning in Science Education on Students’ Academic Achievement, Attitude and Concept Learning. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science & Technology Education,, 3(1), 71-81, Copyright © 2007 by Moment(Tandoğan, Marmara Üniversitesi, Istanbul, TURKEY, Received 07 June 2006; accepted 12 November 2006). Al‐Issa, Ahmad, & Sulieman, Hana. (2007). Student evaluations of teaching: perceptions and biasing factors. Quality Assurance in Education, 15(3), 302-317. doi: 10.1108/09684880710773183 Bandura, & Ross, S. A. . (1961). Transmission of aggression through the imitation of aggressive models. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 63, 575-582. Bonwell, C.C., & Eison, J.A. . (1991). Active learning: Creating excitement in the classroom.(Rep. No. 1) Washington, DC: George Washington University, ASHEERIC Higher Education.

Boysen, G. (2008). Revenge and Student Evaluations of Teaching. Teaching of Psychology, 35, 218-222. doi: 10.1080/00986280802181533 Bruner, J (1986). Actual Minds. Possible Worlds, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Cobb, P. (1988). The Tension between Theories of Learning and Instruction in Mathematics Education. Educational Psychologist, 23, 87-103 Freinet, Celestin. (1964). Bandes enseignantes et programmation. Cannes: Editions de l'Ecole Moderne Francaise. Gagné, R. M. (1959). Problem solving and thinking. Annual Reviews of Psychology, 10, 147– 172. Gagné, R.M. (1985). The Conditions of Learning and Theory of Instruction. New York: CBS College Publishing. Gremmels, G. S (1995, p.89). Active and cooperative learning in the one-shot BI session. Paper presented at the presented at the meeting of the National LOEX Library Instruction Conference, Ann Arbor, MI. Jonassen, D. (1994). Thinking Technoogy: Educational Technology. Klausmier, Herbert. (1915). Individually Guided Motivation. Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin. Piaget, J. (1969). Psychologie et pédagogie. Paris: Denold. Prince, M. (2004). Does active learning work? A review of the research. Journal of Engineering Education, 93, 223-231. Race, Phil. (1993). How Students Learn A Review of Some of the Main Theories- Centre for the Enhancement of Learning & Teaching. Vellas, E. (2008). La mise en œuvre des pédagogies actives et constructivistes. Enjeux pédagogiques, n°10: p. 5.(Université de Genève. FPSE). Vygotsky, L. (1934). Pensée et langage. Paris.

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 11, No 2, pp. 40-54, May 2015

Self-Efficacy in Career Planning: A New Approach to Career Exploration Despina Sidiropoulou-Dimakakou, Kostas Mylonas and Katerina Argyropoulou National and Kapodistrian University of Athens Athens, Greece

Abstract. Through two consecutive studies we attempted to explore the beliefs of personal efficacy in respect to oneâ&#x20AC;&#x2DC;s career and in relation to the continuously evolving patterns in career planning as these issues seem to have consequences to theory and research of career counselling as well as to the use of psychometric tools. We aimed at developing a research framework for assessing career self-efficacy for use in counselling services. In Study 1, a model describing six theoretically driven beliefs was psychometrically tested, arriving at a 21-item Perceived Self-Efficacy in Career Scale (PSECS); in this study, mainly item analysis and exploratory factor analysis methods were applied to Greek adults' data (N=126). In Study 2 we subjected the PSECS to confirmatory analysis testing on Greek high-school students' data (N=276). All analyses supported four dimensions, namely Career Management, Career Skills, Flexibility at Work, and Creativity at Work. The PSECS may offer an additional perspective for counselling about the way individuals evaluate their skills in order to effectively manage related career issues. Moreover, the scale may theoretically contribute and aid research in career counselling with respect to how people plan and adjust their careers within a changing economic landscape. Keywords: Perceived career self-efficacy; Career skills; Item-analysis methods; Convergent validity; Confirmatory Factor Analysis

Introduction Significant changes have been taking place in several areas of human activity and in the nature of career over the last few decades. Societal and environmental changes, such as financial crises, technological advancements and labour market changes have increased workforce diversity and have altered traditional work contexts, creating changes in how individuals manage and construct their career. In this paper, we consider career as a range of working aspects and other relevant

experience shaping a unique path through individual‘s life including jobs, occupations, professions, employers, and industries, as well as individuals‘ perceptions of career events, career alternatives, and outcomes or individuals‘ adaptation to multiple roles and transitions (Herr & Cramer & Niles, 2004; Sidiropoulou-Dimakakou, 2006). An individual‘s career is influenced by numerous contextual factors such as national culture, economy, the political environment, as well as by personal variables which play an important role, such as relationships with others (Greenhaus, Callanan, & DiRenzo, 2008). In Greece additional contextual factors may influence career (e.g., military service, educational system). Changing labour markets, obligations to others, shifts in job (Mylonas & Furnham, 2014) along with life roles, all make career and work quite challenging tasks. Nowadays, the urgent need to find occupational meaning and connection may be getting stronger across the life span (Bloch, 2005; Plimmer, 2012). At the same time, management scholars claim that the concept of career has largely lost its traditional features related to the notions of linearity and predictability and we are heading towards new forms of careers that are often attributed to the term ―boundaryless‖ (Arthur, Khapova & Wilderom, 2005), ―protean‖ (Hall, 1996), ―customized‖ (Benko & Weisberg, 2007), ―kaleidoscope‖ (Sullivan & Mainiero, 2008), ―dual‖ (Gari & Mylonas, 2006), and ―portfolio‖ (Handy, 1998). The new career conceptualization is challenging in its nature (i.e., employment and economic insecurity, psychosocial difficulties, multiple transitions within a job/across vocations, new forms of work, and lifelong vocational education and training) and requires complicated judgments about the self and the world. All these issues seem to have consequences to theory and research of career counselling as well as to the use of psychometric tools. Therefore a question arises: How can career counsellors manage social developments, and how can they respond to the demands of their clients and support them to reflect on their future and find convenient solutions to their problems? Career counselling practitioners may need to develop new scientific approaches and modify the existing theoretical concepts to meet current needs (Sidiropoulou-Dimakakou, Argyropoulou, & Drosos, 2013), thus they need to a) support the emergence of new concepts, which are viewed as being more appropriate to satisfy new demands and challenges, and b) support the development of new tools that will meet the needs and expectations of their clients. Perceived self-efficacy in career planning The reviewed literature demonstrates that Bandura‘s (1982) self-efficacy concept has inspired vocational research and practice (Betz & Hackett, 2006). In particular, the concept of self-efficacy in career planning refers to the individual‘s belief in terms of his/her ability to implement the appropriate actions required to effectively manage occupational roles and career issues. Therefore, the construct of self efficacy reflects a dynamic process rather than a simple match of personal and job characteristics (Lawler, 1994). Employees of high perceived efficacy are likely to perform occupational roles innovatively, whereas those of low perceived efficacy are prone to process occupational

duties conventionally with little personal embellishment (Gregersen, VincentHöpe & Nienhaus, 2014). For the reasons mentioned up to this point, people experience a high rate of change either within or across vocations over the full course of their working lives. To come through, people must be in charge of their own self-development. Thus, occupational transition can be moderated by the perceived sense of efficacy (Audia, 1995; Bandura, 1997), and this also relates to skill development and competency levels with respect to new occupational roles. Nauta et al. (2010) stressed the importance of exercising control over various complicated career situations, such as the explanation of employability orientation, turnover intention, and employee motivation. Jobs vary in their degree of clarity about the roles employees are expected to play and how their role performance is evaluated. Thus, employees of high sense of efficacy exhibit marked gains in performance, whereas those of low perceived efficacy improve only slightly (Bandura, 1997; Stajkovic & Luthans, 1998). Experimental analyses reveal that perceived efficacy is a major mechanism through which goals affect motivation and performance, as individuals with high self-efficacy beliefs tend to be highly devoted towards the achievement of their career goals (Latham, Locke & Edwin, 2002; Locke & Latham, 1990). Substandard performance diminishes effort in those who doubt their capabilities but lead self-assured individuals to strengthen their efforts towards success. Consequently, they expect positive outcomes from their efforts to perform better in their work and enable themselves to work flexibly on multiple research projects at the same time (Vrugt & Koenis, 2002). According to Parker, Williams, & Turner (2006) individuals who are flexible in role orientation tend to face difficulties as challenges and adopt proactive problem solving behavior and pursue improvement within various complicated-hard tasks and situations. Additionally, they exhibit a higher sense of personal responsibility in achieving their career goals, gaining this way a sense of accomplishment. Taking into account a) the theoretical background of self-efficacy in mastery and in enactment of occupational roles, b) the rapid social and economic changes, which create new challenges in careers and c) a short number of pilot interviews with career counsellors, the present article describes a new career guidance research approach through the ―Perceived Self Efficacy in Career Scale‖. Through this scale, we have attempted to develop a framework for assessing self-efficacy in career planning for further use in counselling services. Our scale examines the beliefs one forms with respect to his/her ability to effectively manage various career issues that is the self-appraisal of the skills that a person activates so as to fulfill a variety of requirements and functions related to career.

Study 1 This first study aimed at the development and initial testing of the Perceived Self Efficacy in Career Scale (PSECS).

1. Method PSECS was developed on the basis of the following six theoretical dimensions: (a) Psychological Resilience: refers to one‘s ability to cope with change even when circumstances are discouraging or disruptive (Bimrose, & Hearne, 2012), (b) Work performance: reflects a person's confidence and performance capability at work along with the sense of accomplishment he/she can gain from it (Waldman, 1994), (c) Social awareness: the level to which one actively responds to society demands (Goleman, 2001), (d) Personal skills of flexibility: as reflected in the skills developed by being actively interested in a career; this is not restricted only to employment but also includes learning (Sidiropoulou, Argyropoulou & Drosos, 2010), (e) Social support network: reflects how efficient one is in receiving career support by his/her social network (Thoits, 1982), (f) Action plan: highlights people‘s beliefs in their efficacy to determine the goals they adopt and the strength of their commitment to them (Nathan & Hill, 2006), (g) Ability of adaptation to transition: the individual‘s readiness to respond to changes in work roles and to career transitions (Savickas, 1997). The authors generated 39 novel items reflecting the aforementioned theoretical perspectives and operational definitions from the literature and through a small number of exploratory interviews with the intent to expand content coverage and create more specific scales. Psychometric methods described in detail in the results section were employed in our attempt to arrive into a shorter and consistent set of items. Participants The first study was conducted during March and April 2012. The participants were 126 employed (63%) and unemployed (34%) adults, including 23 Second Chance Schools students (schools for adults who have not finished basic education), and 46 postgraduate students. The sample included 36 male and 90 female participants; their average age was 32 years. These participants responded to the 39-item scale by indicating the extent to which they agreed or disagreed with each statement using a 5-point scale, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). 2. Results Using item-analysis methods (including exploratory factor analysis, item-scale correlations, convergent validity testing, and internal-consistency computation), we iteratively deleted 18 items due to redundancies and limited relation to the proposed construct. The procedure is explained hereon in more detail. An initial item analysis was conducted to eliminate those with extremely low (<1.0) or high means (>4.2), and items with low item-total correlations (<.40) within each respective proposed scale. Item-total correlation indices and descriptive statistics such as kurtosis and multivariate outliers were estimated for each of the 39 items and on the basis of extreme skewness and/or other statistical assumptions violation, eight items were removed and 31 items were subjected to the next stage of analysis. In order to explore the underlying dimensions of Perceived Self Efficacy in Career the structure of the questionnaire was calculated through Principal Component Analysis. Oblique (instead of ©2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

orthogonal) rotation was used as the preferred rotation method, since the dimensions which were initially produced through orthogonal rotation of the axes resulted in moderately correlated factors. We initially imposed no restrictions and five dimensions emerged with a number of cross-loadings masking the dimension‘s identity. Based on the communality indices and on the reproduced correlation matrix, both indicating the items with the largest metric discrepancies, we progressively deleted six and then four more items, reaching a pool of 21 items which was subjected to Principal Component Analysis afresh. An oblique rotation was again calculated for the reasons mentioned earlier. A four-factor solution, accounting for approximately 58% of the total variance was found and satisfied all psychometric and theoretical criteria set up to this point (Table 1). The first factor, Career management represents the individual‘s ability to cope adequately with career issues of practical and/or emotional nature. This factor consists of five items and accounts for 37.8% of the total variance. The second factor, Career skills, comprises six items that mainly have to do with the development of skills of organization and performance at work especially when working under harsh situations (7.83% of the total variance is explained by this factor). The third factor, Flexibility at work, highlights the ability of adaptation to transition, and/or represents the individual‘ ability to respond to the changes occurring in the work place; the factor is formed by four items and accounts for 6.88% of the total variance. The fourth factor, Creativity at work, represents the development of skills related to the active interest in career through creativity, ingenuity and PR skills. This factor (four items) accounts for 5.69% of the total variance. Based on this analysis, and although two items did not load on any of the factors, no further items were excluded as further deletion of items would start having an effect on the overall scale validity. The means, standard deviations, Cronbach's α internal-consistency reliabilities and correlation estimates across factors for the final 21-item version of the PSECS are presented in Table 1.

Table 1. Principal Component Analysis for the Perceived Self Efficacy in Career Questionnaire (Study 1 sample) Percent of variance explained 37.8

7.83

6.88

5.69

Σ=58.2

Q1 I believe I am able to achieve most of the career goals that I have set for myself despite the current social and economic difficulties

0.92

0.07

-0.05

-0.03

0.77

Q6 Even when things are difficult in my career, I can find alternative solutions and do quite well

0.68

-0.21

-0.11

0.13

0.57

Q7 Even when conditions are very difficult, I can achieve my goals

0.66

-0.17

-0.03

0.08

0.64

Q22 In general, I can find ways to face practical and emotional consequences created by the economic and social crisis in my country

0.46

-0.33

0.30

-0.08

0.49

Q29 I think I know how to go about in order to fulfil my goals

0.40

0.29

0.35

0.23

0.61

Q19 I believe I can efficiently find the necessary connections in order to achieve my career expectations

0.36

0.10

0.32

0.26

0.47

Q9 In comparison to others, I can produce error-free work swiftly

-0.04

-0.82

-0.09

0.03

0.64

Q10 Even when I face difficulties while performing work-tasks, I can think of ways to overcome them and become more efficient

0.17

-0.73

0.02

0.01

0.65

Q11 In general, I can think of alternative ways to better organize my work and become more efficient

-0.04

-0.72

0.14

0.17

0.70

Q21 When facing difficult work-tasks, I am confident I can accomplish them

0.00

-0.45

0.10

0.32

0.47

Q25 I can resolve most problems provided I activate the necessary levels of responsibility and effort

0.13

-0.44

0.30

0.02

0.46

Q5 I believe I can handle negative emotions (e.g. anger, frustration, self-pity), which hinder my career

0.27

-0.41

0.10

0.05

0.40

Q34 Even when duties in my job change, I am able to perform efficiently

-0.21

-0.18

0.87

-0.05

0.74

Q33 In comparison to others, I can efficiently change work-places

-0.04

0.09

0.82

0.11

0.68

Q31 I believe I can materialize my plans by taking the appropriate steps in order to achieve an important career goal

0.34

-0.05

0.52

-0.03

0.52

Q28 I think I can efficiently manage both my workload and my leisure time, if I give it the necessary effort

0.07

-0.30

0.43

0.17

0.53

Q32 I find it easy to remain focused to my goals and make my plans come true

0.32

-0.08

0.34

0.05

0.37

Q16 Thanks to my resourcefulness, I know how to handle unexpected events in my work (e.g. difficulties in relationships with colleagues, prejudice due to iscrimination in the labor market, personal and professional needs conflict)

0.00

0.08

-0.11

0.91

0.74

Q27 Thanks to my resourcefulness, I know how to deal with unexpected situations in my work

-0.12

-0.13

0.10

0.81

0.74

Q23 In comparison to others, I can express my creativity successfully (e.g. through an innovation, the development of an idea, the implementation of a project, or product planning)

0.02

-0.07

0.06

0.63

0.48

Q13 In comparison to others, in my work-place I can efficiently handle any intentional or unintentional discrimination action against me, thanks to my PR skills

0.35

-0.15

-0.11

0.47

0.53

Internal consistency ( Cronbach's α ) estimates

.79

.81

.74

.76

Means (N=126)

3.51

3.75

3.66

3.61

Standard deviations (N=126)

.60

.67

.65

Oblique rotation, 21 items, N=126

Key: F1= Career Management, F2= Career Skills, F3= Flexibility at work, F4= Creativity at work

(all four distributions followed the Normal distribution with K-S z non-significant)

Note: Correlation estimates between factors: F1-F2: -.30, F1-F3: .36, F1-F4: .45, F2-F3: -.31, F2-F4: -.35, and F3-F4: .36

Dimension scores across sample subgroups We carried out a series of analyses of variance comparing across educational levels and across occupation status for each of the four PSECS dimensions. These analyses revealed mean score differences for the Career Skills and Flexibility at work dimensions, where students from Second Chance Schools scored lower in Career Skills and the unemployed scored lower in Career Skills and Flexibility (Figure 1). None of the factors of the PSECS was associated with gender.

Employed

F(1, 124)=10.02, p<.001, eta-sq=.08

Unemployed

Employed

F(1, 124)=5.89, p<.05, eta-sq=.05

Unemployed

2nd chance school

M.Sc.

B.Sc.

F(2, 123)=4.39, p<.01, eta-sq=.07

3 Career Skills

Career Skills

Flexibililty at work

Figure 1. Analysis of variance results across the three educational and the two occupational groups (significant results only).

Concluding this first study, the results show that PSECS and its dimensions provide a reliable assessment tool for the self-appraisal of an individuals‘ selfefficacy in career. However, this was just the first step towards the finalization of the scale. In Study 2 we proceeded to a second, hypothesis-testing step by attempting to confirm the four PSECS dimensions through confirmatory factor analysis modelling in a different sample.

Study 2–Confirmatory factor analysis of PSECS The goal in Study 2 was to test the dimensional structure of the PSECS using confirmatory factor analysis methods in an educational setting (high school students and teachers). 1. Method Participants We collected our data from high school students and teachers from the Prefecture of Attica (mainly Athens and Piraeus) during March and April 2013. The high school students were 276 and their average age was 16.43 years (sd=1.36). Approximately 40% were males and 60% were females. The participating teachers (of all education levels and from the prefecture of Attica) were 141 with a mean age of 44.44 years (sd=9.16). With respect to gender, 37.6%

were males and 62.4% were females. Their average years of teaching were 16.63 (sd=8.23) and approximately 25% of them had received postgraduate education. Instruments The 21-item PSECS version as reached via Study 1 was employed for this second hypothesis-testing study. A demographic questionnaire was also employed to collect the data on the participants' gender, educational status, age, teaching years, educational and occupational decisions among other personal information. Finally, Generalized Self-Efficacy data were also collected using the New General Self-Efficacy Scale (NGSE, Chen et al., 2001) which consists of 8 items (e.g., I will be able to successfully overcome many challenges), as adapted for the Greek population (Sidiropoulou-Dimakakou, Mylonas, Argyropoulou & Tampouri, 2012). Individuals were asked to rate items on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (5). The final score is the sum of responses for each participant. According to the authors of the original scale, construct validity and reliability are satisfactory, and the scale has implications for research in organizational settings (Chen et al., 2004). For the current data, the NGSE internal consistency levels (Cronbach‘s α) reached .83 with its PCA structure being unidimensional (Chen et al. 2001). Procedure Participants filled-in the questionnaires during a regular class period. Prior to administering the instruments, students were advised that their responses would be anonymous and would be used for research purposes only. Standard written instructions were provided with each instrument, and oral clarification of the instruments was provided upon request. Τhe procedure remained anonymous throughout all research stages. 2. Results Confirmatory factor analysis We computed confirmatory factor solutions for three models, a null model with all parameters uncorrelated, a unifactorial model and, a four-factor model specifying factors as they had emerged in Study 1. For each model, the statistical criteria evaluated were the Least Squares Chi-square criterion and its statistical significance, the χ2 over df ratio, the Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) and its confidence limits, the Root Mean Square Residual (RMR), along with the Goodness of Fit Index (GFI), the Adjusted Goodness of Fit Index (AGFI), the Comparative Fit Index (CFI), and to compare across models where applicable, the difference between the Chi-square criteria (Δχ2) and the statistical significance of this difference along with the Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI) for model improvement as compared to the null model. The uncorrelated-independence model was easily rejected, with goodness of fit indices not exceeding .35 (Table 2).

Table 2. Confirmatory Factor Analysis results

Criteria χ2 df p χ2/df RMSEA [CI 90% ] RMR GFI AGFI CFI Δχ2 Δdf p TLI

Null model 3,029.20 210 < .001 14.42 .31 [.30, .32] .30 .34 .27 .00 -

Unifactorial model 469.58 180 < .001 2.61 .063 [.056, .070] .047 .90 .87 .91 2,559.62 30 < .001 .88 *

Four-Factor model 415.41 174 < .001 2.38 .058 [.051, .065] .045 .91 .88 .93 44.27 6 < .001 .90 *

* as compared to the null model.

The outcomes for the unifactorial model were satisfactory but the four-factor model showed a much better fit to the data while both models showed significant improvement in respect to the null model. Although a unifactorial solution might be considered more parsimonious, the Parsimony Goodness of Fit Indices (PGFI) were lower than acceptable levels for both models (<.90) but Δχ2 for the four-factor model was statistically significant suggesting improvement in comparison to the unifactorial one. The estimated loadings for the final solution computed through this four-factor model are provided in Table 3. Table 3. Standardized solution and item loadings for each factor through confirmatory factor analysis (four-factor model)

Items Q1 Q6 Q7 Q22 Q29 Q19 Q9 Q10 Q11 Q21 Q25 Q5 Q34 Q33 Q31 Q28 Q32 Q16

Factor Career Management Career Management Career Management Career Management Career Management Career Skills Career Skills Career Skills Career Skills Career Skills Career Skills Career Skills Flexibility at work Flexibility at work Flexibility at work Flexibility at work Creativity at work Creativity at work

Loadings .70 .62 .72 .55 .62 .58 .58 .63 .66 .52 .48 .61 .58 .54 .55 .56 .51 .61

Q27 Q23 Q13

Creativity at work Creativity at work Creativity at work

.68 .65 .66

Our CFA models revealed the expected pattern of the four factors in our data and confirmed the four dimensions as these were theoretically described and as they emerged during Study 1. Reliability, convergent validity and group differences For the final four factors reliability estimates (Cronbach's α) were computed and all reached satisfactory levels (.77, .79. .71, and .78 for factors 1 to 4 respectively). The correlation of each factor with Generalized Self-Efficacy reached high levels (.61, .67, .57, and .60 for factors 1 to 4 respectively), so convergent validity was generally supported. Several models of analysis of variance were computed to estimate the relations between the four PSECS factors with gender, educational group (students, teachers), students' decision status with respect to occupation (decided or not), teacher's degree levels (B.Sc. vs. M.Sc. & Ph.D.) and other variables. Statistically significant differences were observed across the two genders and across the two educational groups, but the η2 indices were very low (below .03). However, across the two groups of students with respect to their career ―decision‖ status, the students who reported having focused on a specific career also reported higher expectations about their future work creativity (Mn=3.61, sd=.63) than the students who have no concrete sense of their future career (Mn=3.26, sd=.77) (F 1, 272 = 16.08, p < .001, η2 = .06). Finally, for the teacher sample only, three statistically significant differences across their degree levels were observed, namely for the Flexibility at Work factor, the Creativity at Work factor, and to a lesser extent for the Career Skills factor. Specifically, for the Flexibility at Work factor the B.Sc. teachers reported the lowest score (Mn=3.55, sd=.73) in contrast to the higher Degree teachers (Mn=3.92, sd=.65); for this comparison, F 1, 139 = 7.47, p < .01, η2 = .05. For the Creativity at Work factor the B.Sc. teachers reported the lowest score (Mn=3.44, sd=.82) in contrast to the higher Degree teachers (Mn=3.85, sd=.71); for this comparison, F 1, 138 = 7.4, p < .01, η2 = .05. For the Career Skills factor the differences were less strong (η2 = .04) but still significant (F 1, 139 = 6.14, p < .05) with the B.Sc. teachers reporting the lowest score (Mn=3.45, sd=.65) in contrast to the higher Degree teachers (Mn=3.95, sd=.52). In brief, through these analyses, it became evident that the four PSECS factors a) present good internal consistency, b) converge in meaning with Generalized Self-Efficacy –a finding indicating good validity levels, and c) can depict interpretable group differences, wherever a relation with demographic and other population characteristics exists.

Discussion The goal of the present research was to explore the beliefs of personal efficacy in respect to one‘s career (evaluations of skills a person engages in order to fulfill a variety of career-related functions and requirements). The model describing

these beliefs was derived following systematic psychometric testing for sequential solutions on progressively smaller sets of items. By arriving at the 21item PSECS through Study 1 and its item analysis methods, we then subjected the PSECS to confirmatory analysis testing. The exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses supported four dimensions which are indeed distinct, even though they are not independent. In our models, a first strong factor is followed by three less strong factors with respect to percentage of accounted variance. The first factor is indeed a core dimension but does not support a unidimensional structure as was evident through CFA as well. Based on Study 1 findings, Career Skills factor is negatively correlated with all other three factors, so the adult respondents (employed and unemployed) seem to contradistinguish these career characteristics to Career Management and mostly to Flexibility at Work and Creativity at Work, with these three factors being positively correlated to each other. This may be an indication for a secondorder factor structure but this question is beyond the aims of the current paper. This finding though seems to indicate that career skills are a relatively stable personality trait not directly dependent to other self-efficacy factors affecting career planning, but being linked to previous successful and failed career experience. Some further psychometric evidence concerns discriminant validity levels as we observed statistically significant differences (although Îˇ2 indices do not allow for psychological interpretations) between the students who reported a clearer focus on a specific career and those who did not for three of the four PSECS factors. Although the differences are small, they are indicative of the scale's discriminative properties across differential groups. The reliability indices in both studies are also indicative of the limited measurement errors and this corroborates to the discriminative power of the four factors present in PSECS. Brief discussions on convergent validity and the differences across groups follow. For the PSECS relation with generalized self-efficacy, according to the outcomes of our studies, the correlations of the four PSECS factors with the Generalized SelfEfficacy Scale reached high levels. This concurs with self-efficacy theory supporting an internal-dependency relation linking the sense of self-efficacy with respect to a specific behavior and the generalized sense of self-efficacy; this relation reflects the link between a person's self-appraisal for work-ability levels with the person's overall self-confidence levels regarding his/her ability to fulfill a number of tasks (Bandura, 1997). The higher a person's perception about his/her own ability in fulfilling a variety of tasks, the higher the perceived selfefficacy in career planning he/she develops. Generalized self-efficacy is in fact largely related to previous experience and evolves as a personality trait across the life-span as success and failure accumulate (Chen et al., 2001; Shelton, 1990). With respect to gender differences, only weak differences were found on the factors of the Perceived Self Efficacy in Career questionnaire. This indicates that although self-efficacy has been suggested as an important occupational choice

predictor, it may not influence male and female subsequent careers differently. These findings are consistent with previous research (e.g. Bush, 1995; Chung, 2002; Mathieu et al., 1993) suggesting that gender differences in career selfefficacy found by Betz & Hackett (1986) may not be generalizable. This finding is in accordance with self-efficacy's stability as a personality trait, a trait not depending on demographic factors, but being a grid of all previous success and failure experience, including that within occupation (Kaliris, SidiropoulouDimakakou, Argyropoulou & Fakiolas, 2013). When directions of study groups (arts, science, and technology) were compared, no significant differences were found although we might expect such differences. This result seems to indicate that students of the sample (Study 2) do not relate the educational paths they may choose to their career planning. They seem to rely more on their own personality characteristics (i.e., Generalized Self-Efficacy) to describe their perceived future Career Self-Efficacy facets. Finally, with respect to educational-level differences (B.Sc. vs. higher Degree), for the teacher sample, statistically significant differences were observed across their degree levels, for the Flexibility at Work factor, the Creativity at Work factor, and to a lesser extent for the Career Skills factor. This finding suggests that the teachers' educational level has an important effect on achieving self-efficacy in career skills as it may spark more profound knowledge, behavior and value processing (Kozina et al., 2010) possibly leading to a better career planning and management.

Limitations Several limitations of the current studies should be considered. Results of the present investigation should not be generalized beyond the populations studied (students and educators). In the future, establishing norms for specialized settings and age groups may prove useful to counsellors. We also believe that future research needs to cross-examine the current factor structure through CFA designs for other groups as well. As the PSECS addresses content especially relevant to beliefs of personal efficacy in respect to oneâ&#x20AC;&#x2DC;s career, more research on other populations is warranted (e.g., high school to postsecondary, school to work, midcareer change, long-term unemployed and retirement). Finally, another challenge for future research would be to further explore the relations of an individualâ&#x20AC;&#x2DC;s perceived self-efficacy in career selection with a network other self-efficacy and personality variables.

Implications We believe that this measure offers an additional perspective for counselling practice on the way individuals evaluate their skills in order to manage effectively career-related issues. Moreover, this scale aims to contribute to career counselling theory and research concerning how people combine cognitive, social and behavioral skills in order to plan and adjust their career within a changing economic landscape. Additionally, researchers and practitioners could be better informed on career development needs and resources to aid individuals navigate through career changes during the current complex era.

If career counselling is viewed as counselling in selecting a career, one of the main roles of counsellors would be to guide the client to explore their career situation and subsequently to develop the necessary skills in order to fulfill a variety of career-related issues. Any assessment based on the four PSECS factors should allow clients to make more accurate self-appraisals so as to deal with the development of their essential career skills, thus facilitating their own careers. This interactive procedure involves helping individuals and counsellors select tools that are tailored to investigate career paths and also help counsellors to increase their intervention effectiveness. Having assessed the four skills levels, counsellors can employ methods to train individuals towards skills enhancement by a) developing career adaptability by encouraging individuals‘ responsibility for their own career development, b) asking individuals to tell their career stories and manage career experience, c) guiding skill perfection in role playing scenarios, d) teaching individuals using exploratory strategies to find reemployment, e) improvement of career skills through mentoring/coaching.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. Funding The publication of this article was financially supported by the Career Counselling Research and Assessment Centre of the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 11, No. 2, pp. 55-70, May2015

The Civic Education in Greek Kindergartens. The Views and the Practices of Greek Kindergarten Teachers Concerning Civic Education Kostis Tsioumis, Professor and Argyris Kyridis, Professor Aristotle University, Thessaloniki, Greece Despina Papageridou, MA, Intercultural Education Elena Sotiropoulou, PhD candidate in Educational Politics

Abstract. The purpose of this study is to investigate the perceptions of kindergarten teachers on the content of the term citizenship, on the importance of actions associated with citizenship education and on their performance at school and finally on the relation of the kindergarten curriculum to this topic. The survey was conducted in spring of 2013, using a questionnaire with five open questions. In our research took part 171 teachers (kindergarten teachers) who were asked to describe their opinions about citizenship education and it’s importance the degree of their agreement, the degree of significance of certain proposals as long as ,the degree of frequency in related activities with civic education, as long as the assistance of school curriculum on this . Our findings indicated that the kindergarten teachers knew quite well about citizenship education, and recognized the importance of this approach for kindergarten, performed particular actions (national days, elections , actions on local problems, but they were not satisfied from the “assistance” given by the curriculum. Keywords: citizenship; curriculum; kindergarten teachers

Introduction During the past two decades interest in the capacity of citizenship has grown dramatically especially in democratic societies, while significant revival is observed during periods of crisis or major changes. In the modern society of globalisation, which is based on new socioeconomic conditions arising from the technological equipment and the speed of change in all aspects of life, the emergence of new needs, the rapid development of science (Karalis & Ball, wd: 2; Hahn, 2010; Baldwin et al., 2009) lead us to the conclusion that the traditional notion of the term citizenship tends to change. The concept of citizens who pass the largest part of their lives in one country and share a common national identity appears to have started to wane. Completely conflicting events take

place in societies where people have been deprived of their political rights, because they cannot become citizens in their motherland, while others officially possess the capacity of membership of the nation-state, nevertheless they do not enjoy many of their rights. Hence, we are perforce led to a new examination of the notion of citizenship to go with the contemporary reality we experience (CastlesinBanks, 2012: 75). During the lapse of time many definitions of the term citizen have been given. According to the definition of Goncalves e Silva “A citizen is a person who works against injustice, not for individual recognition or personal advantage but for the benefit of all people. In realizing this task - shattering privileges, ensuring information and competence, acting in favour of all – each person becomes a citizen” (Banks, 2012: 56; Millei & Imre 2009; Nutbrown & Clough, 2008). Concerning citizenship, Marshall provides the following definition: “Citizenship is a condition provided to all members of a community. All those possessing it have equal rights and obligations. There is no universal principle to define the rights and obligations, making the distinction into three components, civil, political and social” (Marshall & Bottomore, 1995: 62; Millei & Imre, 2009; GOLLOB etal 2010). However, the concept is not very clear through the definition only, so we present three of its most characteristic models: The first model is called liberal, according to which citizenship is comprehensible as all rights and obligations which provide each citizen with equality within the political community, but has the disadvantage that the citizen is passive, except for the elections. The second model views the citizen as a consumer of public services, who, therefore, maintains consumer rights. There is no sense that in this citizen model there is social activity, or democratic character. The third model, which holds the minority opinion to the public, is that the citizen not only maintains his rights, but is actively involved in shaping the lifestyle, which requires more time and leaves doubts about expediency. (Miller, 2000: 27-28; Marshall, 1950: 10-1; Delanty, 2007: 289-292). The steady growth in racial, ethnic, cultural and linguistic diversity in nationstates around the world, and the increasing recognition and legitimization of diversity puts again the focus on issues related to citizenship (Banks, 2012: 55; Hahn, 2010; Baldwinetal, 2009). Nowadays it is universally accepted that societies are composed of different groups that maintain their cultural traditions and historical elements, stressing the unity in diversity (Seefeldt, 2005). A multicultural society functions more harmoniously on the basis of pluralism, which encourages all citizens to participate actively in shaping this society under the shared values, practices and procedures. Education can be a major factor of this task (Nikolaou, 2005; Banks, 2012; Gundara, 2011). Through education in citizenship, the goal is that young people should express their thoughts clearly, in writing, orally or in many other ways, including both respect for others and self-expression. This process involves the knowledge of

political and social institutions, which is important for people to be able to understand how decisions are made, what is their nature, their obligations, the way they handle them and more importantly the way they can be involved in this. Education for citizenship provides students skills, knowledge, whether it is about skills or about values and behaviors (Berg & Gonçalves, 2007: 326; Banks, 2012; Phillips, 2009; Atubra, 2009; Tassoni, et al 2002; Torney- Purta & Vermeer, 2004). What happens when we talk about civic education in the early years of formal schooling? Education for citizenship in early childhood coincides with sociological theories of childhood and children's rights (Ailwood, etal, 2011: 641642; Millei & Imre 2009; Nutbrown & Clough, 2008). Moreover, it offers children early introduction to financial knowledge and welfare support and knowledge of where to go for help when they need it (Phillips 2010; Mitchell 1999; Kerr, 1999; McKinom, 2007). Children participation is supported firmly in bibliography and it is even considered that the lack of confidence of parents in their children's abilities creates barriers. The citizens’ critical participation and acceptance of diversity is essential for democracy. In contemporary free societies different facets of citizenship such as political literacy, social and moral responsibility and community engagement are essential (Crick 1998; Silva-Dias T./Menezes I. 2014:250-251). This means that children must be prepared. Regarding the content of citizenship, Dunne brings the debate on the interdependence as basic value as opposed to individualism in modern neoliberal economies and societies (Dunne, 2006). Education for citizenship in preschool age is considered nowadays an obvious case (Millei & Imre 2009; Phillips, 2010). It is important to highlight that social, historical, political and educational dimensions are involved in education for citizenship in preschool and elementary school age. Children are often treated as children-citizens, semi-citizens or future citizens, but not as ordinary citizens. From the childrens’ perspective on the other hand, it is known that they consider their schools as undemocratic institutions (Lister, 2007). Citizenship puts children to work together on issues that interest them. It is important that children deal with the problems of communities and so their voices become stronger. According to Adams involvement with problems is essential to learn to be citizens. In early age accession climate means changes in space and teachers. Young children formulate political and cultural preferences from very early age (Phillips L., 2010). Democratic citizenship requires teaching democratic values for which it is important:  Teachers to share power and be interested in how students feel.  Teachers to cultivate practices of respect and concern for children.  The model of the teacher to cultivate respect for others.  To support freedom of thought and expression and teachers to support them in this direction with specific activities.  Children are not oppressed by the power of others.  Children make decisions essential in a democratic society. @2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

 

To create a sense of community. To comply with rules (Seefeldt, 2005).

It is important to note that research on political education of children reached the following conclusions:  The concepts of politics begin to grow in early childhood and are continuous.  Children view politics individually and positively.  Political roles can be developed from this age (Brett, Mompoint & Salema, 2009). Modern sociology of childhood views children as competent citizens. There has been has been considerable debate on the content of children's citizenship. Several authors have expressed views and suggested various ways to look at it. Specifically, Millie and Imre (2009) argued that the term is problematic because children do not have access to the rights conferred by citizenship, such as freedom of property and the right to vote. Indeed, even for children of foreigners born in a country, the right to vote by birth is not universally recognized in all countries. Finally, the teachers’ role is to help students understand that community and cultural knowledge they bring along to school, which could seem a little bit similar, but at the same time differ from school knowledge and other students’ knowledge. Equally important is that teachers help students understand the ways in which values encompass students’ knowledge and how to interpret through them the knowledge of school.

Research Methology and Sample

Research purpose and objectives The purpose of this research is to assess the views and practices of kindergarten teachers on citizenship education in kindergarten. The objectives of this research are the investigation of perceptions of kindergarten teachers of the concept of citizenship education, perceptions of the importance of the subject in kindergarten and whether they deal with this, their relevant activities options and how they assess the contribution of curriculum. Research questions and hypotheses  Kindergarten teachers do not have a complete picture of what citizenship education is.  Kindergarten teachers will recognize the value of education for citizenship.  Activities will focus on key objectives of the curriculum.  They will not consider the contribution of curriculum in their management satisfactory. Research sample The sample consisted of responses from 171 primary school teachers in a questionnaire which consisted of five questions on "Citizenship in kindergarten." The vague wording of the issue serves our basic research specification, i.e.

mainly the recording the axes of thought and expression of kindergarten teachers for the term "citizenship". The sample was selected randomly without prior stratification of subjects. The following table shows the distribution of the sample according to their studies and their years of service, both in homogeneous population classes as well as in mixed ones.

SAMPLE Frequency

Percent

STUDIES Α Two-year Four-year

44 122

26,5 73,5

Total

166

100,0

50 12 1 2 65

76,9 18,5 1,5 3,1 100,0

13 34 56 60 163

8,0 20,9 34,4 36,8 100,0

32 23 13 9 77

41,6 29,9 16,9 11,7 100,0

STUDIES B Teaching Faculty Postgraduate PhD Other faculty Total YEARS OF SERVICE 1-5 years 6-10 years 11-19 years 20 or more Total YEARS IN MULTICULTURAL CLASSES 1-5 years 6-10 years 11-19 years 20 or more Total

Table1: Distribution of subjects according to studies Α, Β and the years of service, both in homogeneous population classes as well as in mixed ones. In table 1 we initially observe that kindergarten teachers with two-year university studies were 44, i.e. 26.5% of total, while those with four year university studies were 122, i.e. 73.5% of total. Subsequently we observe that kindergarten teachers who have attended the teachers' school curriculum programme were 50, i.e. 76.9% of total, teachers with postgraduate studies were 12, i.e. 18,5% of total, while there was 1 teacher with PhD (1.5%) and 3 (3.1%) which had graduated from a second faculty. With respect to years of service, there were 34 kindergarten teachers with 6-10 years of service, i.e. 20.9% of total, 56 teachers with 11-19 years of service, i.e. 34.4% of total and 60 teachers with 20

or more years of service, i.e. 36.8% of total. Finally, with respect to years of service in multicultural classes, there were 32 kindergarten teachers with 1-5 years of service, i.e. 41.5% of total, 23 teachers with 6-10 years of service, i.e. 29.9%, 13 teachers with 11-19 years of service, i.e. 11.9% of total and 9 teachers with 20 or more years of service, i.e. 11.7% of total. Research tool In this research the semi-structured questionnaire was chosen as a tool for reviewing and recording the attitudes of teachers towards education for citizenship in kindergarten. The survey was conducted during the academic year 2012-2013, specifically in May 2013. Questionnaire Presentation The questionnaire was addressed to kindergarten teachers and included five questions. The first four were open-ended questions, while the last one was closed-ended Likert rating scale (Not at all – a little – So and So – A lot – Very much). Data analysis The processing of responses and charting was performed with descriptive statistical analysis, using the statistical package SPSS 15.0. The responses of the subjects were studied according to the principles of Classical Thematic Analysis. The "topic» was used as the unit of analysis (Lasswell & Leites, 1965). Research results For methodological and analytical reasons we attempted to form a classification chart, in which we have incorporated in a more or less arbitrary way the entire contents of the reports we studied. We point out that the attempted classification, despite methodological weaknesses, can be particularly useful as it allows us to monitor and utilize more easily the archival material. The following figure exhibits the thematic classification of the reports content:

1.Citizenship

2.Activities on Citizenship

3.Citizenship VS Curriculum

1.1.Definition

2.1.Elections,

3.1.Very much

National Holidays, Dealing with local problems, 1.2.Importance

3.2.A lot

Decision for rules 3.3.So and So

1.2.1.Yes

1.2.2.No

2.2.Games, songs, poems, literature 3.4. A little 2.3. Activities on traffic education, environmental education, health education, intercultural education

2.4. Discussion on Freedom, justice, Human rights

2.5.Diversity Mores-customs

2.6.Visits

2.7.Project

Thematic categories

3.5.Not at all

The data analysis of kindergarten teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; answers showed that the issue triggered their interest with 2704 reports in total. Table 1 presents reports according to studies A & B and the years of service in homogeneous and mixed population classes. Tables 2 and 3 relate to the thematic categories 2 & 3. Table 4 presents reports topics and their appearance rate. Table 1: Distribution of reports according to demographic characteristics DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS Frequency Percent STUDIES Î&#x2018; Two-year Four-year Total STUDIES B Teaching Faculty Postgraduate PhD Other faculty Total YEARS OF SERVICE 1-5 years 6-10 years 11-19 years 20 or more Total YEARS IN MULTICULTURAL CLASSES 1-5 years 6-10 years 11-19 years 20 or more Total

529 1661 2190

24,2 75,8 100,0

642 143 13 15 813

79,0 17,6 1,6 1,8 100,0

173 448 710 805 2136

8,1 21,0 33,2 37,7 100,0

522 243 125 91 981

53,2 24,8 12,7 9,3 100,0

In table 1, with regard to Studies A, we observe that all reports by kindergarten teachers with two-year university studies amounted to 529, i.e. 24.2% of total and reports by teachers with four year university studies to 1661 i.e. 75.8% of total. With regards to Studies B, we observe that all reports by kindergarten teachers who have attended the teachers' school curriculum programme amounted to 642 (79% of total), reports by teachers with postgraduate studies amounted to 143 (17.6% of total), reports by PhD teachers amounted to 13 (1.6% of total) and reports by teachers who have graduated from a second faculty amounted to 15 (1.8% of total). With respect to years of service, we observe that reports by kindergarten teachers with 1-5 years of service amounted to 173 (8.1% of total), reports by teachers with 6-10 years of service amounted to 448 (21% of total), reports by teachers with 11-19 years of service amounted to 710 (33.2% of

total) and reports from teachers with 20 years of service or more amounted to 805 (37.7% of total). Finally with respect to years of service in multicultural classes, we observe that reports according to teachers’ years of service amount to 522 (53.2% of total) for 1-5 years of service, 243 (24.8% of total) for 6-10 years, 125 (12.7% of total) for 11-19 years and 91 (9.3% of total) for 20 years or more. Table 2 : Distribution of reports according to response (positive / negative) YES/NO Frequency Percent YES 480 NO 2 Total 482

99,6 0,4 100,0

In table 2, we observe that responses to the question whether kindergarten teachers carry out activities on citizenship are 480 positive (99.6% of total) and 2 negative (0.4% of total). Table 3: Distribution of reports according to scale SCALE Frequency Not at all 121 A little 31 So and So 175 A lot 63 Very Much 68 Total 458

Percent 26,4 6,8 38,2 13,8 14,8 100,0

Mean=2,84 &SD=1,354 In table 3, we observe that responses to the question whether kindergarten teachers are covered by the curriculum and the kindergarten teacher guide are 121 “not at all” (26.4%), 31 “A little” (6.8%), 175 “So and So” (38.2%), 63 “a lot” (13.8%) and 68 “Very much” (14.8%). Three main topics (thematic categories) emerged, while the main topics were specified further to categories using the data obtained. Table 4: Topics (thematic categories) on citizenship TOPICS 1.Citizenship 1.1.Definition 1.2.Importance 1.2.1.YES 1.2.2.NO 2.Activities on Citizenship 2.1. Elections, National Holidays, Dealing with local problems, Decision

Ν 1099 617 482 480 2 684

% 49,0 27,5 21,5 21,4 ,1 30,5

448 20,0

for rules 2.2. Group games, mimetics, role games, songs, poems, fairytales, literature

2,1

2.3. traffic education activities, environmental education, health education, intercultural education

1,7

2.4. Discussion on Freedom, justice, Human rights, diversity

4,4

2.5.Mores, customs of other people

1,0

2.6.Visits to business premises, museums, parents, experts, local authorities

2.7.project

3.Citizenship VS Curriculum 3.1=very much

459 20,5 68 3,0

3.2=a lot 3.3.So and So 3.4=a little 3.5=not at all Total

63 175 32 121 2242

Topic 1: Citizenship Is is a fact that we are not born citizens, but we become citizens through a complex process via which education plays a significant role (Karakatsani, 2004). Many definitions have been formulated for citizenship (617 references), however, education for citizenship, can be defined as the education of children from preschool age in order to be able to participate in decisions affecting the community and the broader society. The main objectives of this education is the knowledge of the institutions that govern the operation of the state and the awareness that laws are set and applied in social relations, but in relations among people (Crick, 1998; Osler & Starkey, 2005; UNESCO, 2002 at Dimitriou 2009). «.. Education aims to prepare children as future citizens with rights and obligations, the participation of children in society, to instill in children concepts such as participation, solidarity, ie social and moral values.…». A constructive social sciences programme contains knowledge, skills, values, attitudes, which are essential for children's participation in the democratic way of life, for their application to social problems and the socialization of children. A social science programme, which is based on the development of scientific culture and research should include all elements of knowledge -physical, social and logical mathematical - and most importantly should encourage children to collect data, interpret, classify and present them (Koutsouvanou, 2005). «… The shaping of social consciousness and behavior, which is characterized by team spirit and respect aiming to smooth

2,8 7,8 1,4 5,4 10

cohabitation in an organized society …». The citizen’s way of thinking and action is found that in all cases it should cover three dimensions: the universal (belief in freedom and justice), the pluralistic (social diversity - diversification, pluralism) and critical thinking (Karakatsani, 2004). «… Education for peace, solidarity, social participation, human rights, intercultural tolerance and sensitivity…». «… As in all skills that should be to acquired in order to cope with modern society, education for citizenship is an asset as well as a value. The ecumenical and universal human values that link education to citizenship are a supply for the contemporary child and a requisite for the good of humanity and world peace…». Topic 2: Activities for citizenship Kindergarten teachers carry out on a daily basis many activities which contribute to the development of citizenship (684 references). They utilize occasions such as national holidays, elections, dealing with local problems, decisions on rules (448 references), also group games, mimetics, role games, songs, poems, fairy tales, literature (46 references), activities of road safety, environmental education, health education, intercultural education (39 reviews), through discussion on freedom, justice, human rights, diversity (99 references), by learning about the manners and customs of other people (22 references), through visits to business premises, museums, parents, experts, local authorities (14 reports). Finally, through projects on issues related to the concept of citizenship (15 references). «… Organised activities: representation of electoral process, visits to business premises, Citizen service centres and civil services (KEP, post offices etc.), archaeological and cultural sites. Reading texts with corresponding objectives (eg "the person up and the person down"), outings and walks with a view to cultivating traffic education. Letter to the mayor or some other public figure for thanks giving or filing complaints. Spontaneous: Education in companionship, at play, at lunch time, in the use of transport…». Play, individual or collective, not only is an integral part of the child's life but also is an effective pedagogical method in preschool education. It constitutes a key factor for socialization and the formation of his personality. C.Cooley & H.Mead (1922), consider that play, individual and collective, is a key factor in shaping the social self. The formation of the social self in C.Cooley is closely linked to the integration of the individual in social groups, particularly in the primary ones, ie the family, the community and the group of children of the same age (Kiridis, 1996). «…Establishment of rules together with the children, team games, role playing games, elections, voting, national holidays, discussions in the group with the speaker listener process, literature on diversity and multiculturalism…».

Also, through drama at school, values, ethics and rights can be a dealt, achieving a deeper understanding of the concepts of cultural diversity and recognition, of the concept of transformation of the civilizations, of the collective being, of change, of expression of freedom, of will and of practical democracy (Alkistis, 2008). Topic 3: Curriculum VS Citizenship The Curricula are structured proposals relating to the content and form of school knowledge, the way knowledge and processes by which knowledge is acquired and utilized by students should be organized (Dalkos, 1998; Gkliaou, 2003). However, 68 teachers are very much covered by the present curriculum, 63 a lot, 175 so and so, 32 a little and 121 not at all. The role of curriculum is important in the educational process since it is the 'tool' used by the teacher in every day practice and guides education to the development of the kind of person every society wants. Promoting cross-thematic leads to improved curricula quality, given that through this approach basic values are cultivated, essential positive attitudes are acquired and skills required by the modern European knowledge society are developed. The aims of teaching in preschool and compulsory education are: mental development (fostering knowledge, understanding the deeper meaning and purpose of life), moral development (helping students to critically evaluate issues of freedom, equality, justice, human rights), social, economic, civil and cultural development (acquisition of national and cultural identity, understanding the role of different groups, respect for pluralism and diversity) (Karakatsani, 2004). «… Although the new curriculum is improved compared to the previous one it does not provide specific answers to such issues. It simply provides guidelines. Nevertheless, there is a positive side to this because it enhances the flexibility of kindergarten teacher and the ability to adapt activities to the particular conditions prevailing in each class..». In the section "Child and Environment" and in particular in the subsection "Manmade environment and interaction” and find goals such as: in an environment rich in stimuli (in the classroom and outside it) children are given opportunities to develop their self-esteem by participating in classroom activities, undertaking initiatives and responsibilities and expressing freely their opinions and experiences. Opportunities are also given to develop collaboration skills to interact, to question, to present and discuss their ideas and to understand the value of teamwork and co-discovery (DEPPS-Cross thematic curriculum framework, 2003). Important elements are also considered the interaction with the others, and the social rules that define and shape the framework of this interaction (Karakatsani, 2004). Children are encouraged to negotiate any conflicts or tensions arising in cooperation, to evaluate their behavior, to understand their limitations and to be led to commonly accepted rules essential for common cohabitation (DEPPS, 2003). They realize their uniqueness through appropriate activities and they identify similarities and differences with others and they respect them. They learn religious traditions and develop feelings of love and brotherhood for all

creatures of the earth (DEPPS, 2003) «… The curriculum and the guide should respond to current needs of the teacher. There are vague references in it, not analyzed adequately, nor it touches upon issues currently occupying social reality such as racism, xenophobia, social stereotypes and in general intercultural education and citizen education issues are not touched upon …". The experiential participatory processes and methodologies which organize the material around concepts and values related to the concept of citizenship is the best way to help students to become responsible and participatory citizens (Karatzia, 2003).

Conclusions-Discussion During the 90s the concept of citizenship emerged as a key term in social sciences. Certainly this is not at all new. The renewed interest shown several decades after the thorough elaboration by the British T.H. Marshall in postwar Britain is no coincidence. It is closely related to the social and political conditions in the late 20th century, immigration, the European Union, the fall of communist regimes and the phenomenon of re-emerging nationalism, and new social movements like feminism, while it is also associated with changes in political orientations, e.g. neoliberalism and re-orientation of welfare policies (Marshall, 1995; Gillborn 1992; Coulby & Jones, 1995). The analysis of teachers’ questionnaires provided us with important information about the way in which education professionals approach issues of critical importance for the education of young citizens. The perceptions and visions these teachers transmit to the youngsters they teach, are directly related to the way in which themselves perceive social and political life, moral values, the concept of society and the virtues of the good citizen. The teachers of primary education surveyed give the following definition of citizenship: “Education for citizenship is to design appropriate activities and organize a school environment conducive for children to be able to communicate with the world, coexist with others peacefully, respect diversity, resolve problems, and actively participate in learning. Children learn to function independently and responsibly as members of a small community. Education aims to prepare children as future citizens with rights and obligations and the child's participation in society and to instill in children concepts such as participation, solidarity, i.e. social and moral values." This definition is consistent with the importance of cultivation of political socialization in school as the kindergarten is the place where the child is socialized and contributes to the creation of an integrated entity so that children form behaviors and attitudes. The coexistence of children in school helps them to understand the problems and to generalize about the political world. Activities contributing to the development of political socialization are: rules of order in general, national holidays (Polytechnic, October 28, March 25), issues concerning the local community (for example who is responsible for repairing the school road),

tradition - mores - customs of the area, visits to museums. In the Cross Thematic Curriculum Framework and the New Kindergarten Curriculum the approach to civic education and education on human rights is not apparent but takes place in all learning areas and through various activities. Teachers, however, believe that the Cross Thematic Curriculum Framework does not provide for substantial citizenship education. Group cooperation, interdisciplinarity and projects help, but are not a panacea. The curriculum is one-dimensional, single-cultural and superficial and does not help implement activities towards this direction and teachers resort to the use of Internet and additional literature from the market to cover citizen education learning objectives and consider cooperation with other kindergarten teachers a significant advantage. Concepts penetrating curricula such as the concept of teamwork, the individual-community interaction, communication, contribute to the attainment of political socialization in kindergarten. The kindergarten class is approached as a team and emphasis is put on the principles of participation, collective responsibility and interaction.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 11, No. 2, pp. 71-87, May 2015

Applying the Theory of Simplexity in Home Economics Education for the Acquisition of Transversal Competencies to Face Complexity Erika Marie Pace1, Paola Aiello2 and Maurizio Sibilio3 University of Salerno, Salerno, Italy

Suzanne Piscopo4 University of Malta, Msida, Malta

Abstract. The principal goal of Home Economics has always been that of empowering people to increase control over their lives. Home Economics education has effectively kept up with emerging needs, prioritising the competencies necessary for family and community wellbeing. Within the complex contemporary society, there is no doubt that the main concern should be to equip individuals with the tools necessary to deal with the rapid cultural and technological evolution they will face throughout life. The theory of simplexity offers a new way of perceiving and dealing with this complexity. It suggests that, based on simplifying principles, the brain finds solutions â&#x20AC;&#x153;to process complex situations very rapidly, elegantly, and efficiently, taking past experience into account and anticipating the futureâ&#x20AC;? (Berthoz, 2012, p.3). Thanks to its adaptive interdisciplinary nature, both as a subject and a profession, Home Economics provides the ideal setting for reflection on the simplex properties and principles identified as the tools for life. Home Economists and students alike may well find that gaining awareness of these properties and acquiring the meta-cognitive ability to apply simplifying principles such as detours, inhibition, redundance, vicariance and selective attention, can help to face the complexity in their work, studies and daily lives with a new mindset. This proposed approach suggests a consideration of curriculum reform in Home Economics education and teacher training. Keywords: Curriculum Reform; Home Economics; Lifelong Learning; Simplexity; Transversal Competencies E. M. Pace, PhD student in Didactics, Inclusive Education and Technology, is the author of the article (Corresponding Author) 2 P. Aiello, Associate Professor, Special Pedagogy and Didactics, is the co-author of the article 3 M. Sibilio, Full Professor, Special Pedagogy and Didactics is the Scientific Coordinator of the Research 4 S. Piscopo, Senior Lecturer, Nutrition, Family and Consumer Studies is the author of the section: Simplex Principles as tools for life in Home Economics Education 1

Introduction Education systems of the twenty-first century are facing numerous challenges deriving from globalization and modernization. The fast social, cultural, economic and technological change has put pressure on the education sector to ensure it provides students with the competencies required to confront and manage the complexity they are faced with effectively. Some of the salient challenges of this complex world are issues of diversity within a uniformed globalized world, an unpredictable environment in constant evolution (Fowler & van der Walt, 2004), and the obsolescence of knowledge and skills (Michel, 2001) within knowledge-based economies (Organisation for Economic Development [OECD], 1996). What set the stage for rethinking education was therefore the acknowledgement that no amount of information, whatever its vastness, can ever be enough to prepare students for adult life and the world of work within this era of complexity. As a result, a “survival kit in terms of knowledge, competencies and values” (OECD, 1994) needed to be identified, with the suggested areas to be covered being “orientation in the political, social, and economic world, problem solving capacity in everyday and critical key situations, communication skills, degree of autonomy (measured through self perception), and ... perception of critical human values (e.g., prejudice versus tolerance, solidarity, etc).” (Salganik, Rychen, Moser & Konstant, 1999 pp. 13-14). This, in turn, set forth the focus towards finding suitable didactic and assessment strategies to ascertain the acquisition of transversal competencies within a lifelong learning perspective. Throughout its history, the mission of Home Economics education has always been that of empowering people to increase control over their lives by passing on the knowledge and skills considered fundamental for a healthy and productive life. All over the world different names are attributed to it, such as family and consumer studies, home science and domestic economy and is offered as a compulsory or elective subject from as early as the first years in nursery school up to post-graduate courses. However, there are still countries such as Italy, where Home Economics is not offered and although there have been some initiatives, they are short sporadic projects and their implementation is at the discretion of school directors. What gives this subject its avant-garde characteristic is that it has always drawn from multiple disciplines, “synthesising these through interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary inquiry” (IFHE, 2008). As further stated in the IFHE position statement (2008) “this coalescing of disciplinary knowledge is essential because the phenomena and challenges of everyday life are not typically onedimensional.” Owing to the endorsement of this complex ecological model, the Home Economics field of study has been able to evolve, prioritising and meeting the economic and socio-cultural needs of the time and the contexts it is taught in.

In fact, as Smith and de Zwart (2010, p. 21) outline, the subject: helps young people to optimize living in their current familial and personal relationships and to plan well for their future relationships and families. It aspires to increase the resourcefulness of people and help them to live satisfying, sustainable and quality lives caring for themselves and others. Home economics provides young people with the opportunity to consider problems beforehand, contributing to development of self-reliant attitudes and abilities and a sense of social responsibility. The Home Economics mission, pedagogy and curriculum content provide the ideal setting to reflect on how complex adaptive systems, whether a single cell, the human brain or society, make use of simplex properties and principles “to process complex situations very rapidly, elegantly, and efficiently, taking past experience into account and anticipating the future” (Berthoz, 2012, p. 3). Indeed, as acknowledged in recent literature on responsible living (Thoresen, Didham, Klein & Doyle, 2015), Home Economics education needs to embrace systems thinking as a key approach with the aim of developing “an ethics of the whole and modes of being in the world based on interdependence, relatedness and connectivity” (Turkki, 2015, p. 152). Gaining awareness of and acquiring the meta-cognitive abilities to apply these simplifying solutions can offer teachers and students an alternative way to face the multi-dimensional scenarios in their work, studies and daily lives with a new mindset (Aiello, 2012). Before delving further into the argument, a clarification on the definition of competency needs to be made. It is widely acknowledged that terms such as competencies, know-how, skills, abilities, capacities, capabilities and aptitudes are often associated with different meanings depending on the context (Gordon et al., 2009). After a non-exhaustive review of the literature, the one which was deemed to be most comprehensive and which embraces all aspects of the term, especially when looking into transversal competencies, is Pellerey‟s definition of a competency as the capacity to handle a task or a group of tasks, by setting in motion and orchestrating one‟s own internal, cognitive, affective and motivational resources and utilizes the external resources available in a coherent and profitable manner (Pellerey, 2004; my translation). Therefore, the interpretation underpinning the arguments to be made is that competencies are a systematic combination of knowledge, skills, attitudes and memory of past experiences that, depending on the needs arising from the different contexts and the objectives one intends to reach, are elegantly interwoven to produce efficient and effective behaviours. More specifically, this article focuses on the acquisition of transversal competencies, also referred to in literature as key or core competencies, which rather than being subject specific, represent the cross-curricular goals. They constitute a set of mutuallycomplementary tools which individuals “need to adapt to a variety of

[unpredictable] situations and to continue learning throughout life” (Gordon et al., 2009, p. 41). Scope of the Research This research aims at providing an interdisciplinary overview of the transversal competencies identified over time to face the current era of complexity. A thorough literature review was conducted to identify the transversal competencies delineated over the years in economic, philosophical, psychological, sociological, health and educational fields. It then attempts to demonstrate the link between these competencies with the principles and properties proposed in the theory of simplexity by the professor of physiology of perception and action, Alain Berthoz (2012), and to illustrate how these competencies can be considered simplex tools indispensable for a successful life and wellbeing of individuals within a sustainable environment. In the final part, Home Economics education is presented as the ideal setting for the promotion of the said competencies, thanks to its interdisciplinary nature and its longstanding mission of achieving optimal and sustainable living.

The search for transversal competencies in an era of complexity A clear indication of the paradigm shift from knowledge-based curricula to competency-based learning and assessment can be traced back to the early 90s with the identification of key competencies and the focus on the promotion of lifelong learning on an economic, political and social level worldwide. Following the OECD report (1994), which advocated curriculum reform to face the challenges characterising the twenty-first century, successive key initiatives have been taken on both European and international levels. The OECD itself elaborated the Definition and Selection of Competencies (DeSeCo) Programme, which formed the theoretical underpinnings for the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) (Ananiadou & Claro, 2009). The aim of the DeSeCo project was to provide “a framework that could guide the longer-term extension of assessments into new competency domains ... [while PISA aimed at] ... monitoring the extent to which students near the end of compulsory schooling, at age 15, have acquired the knowledge and skills necessary” (Ananiadou & Claro, 2009, p. 7). As Rychen and Salganik (2003) outlined, among the notions which were emphasised throughout the programme, was that it approached “the question of competencies via the perspective of a successful life and a well-functioning society, conceiving the potential societal benefits of a well-educated citizenry as including a productive economy, democratic processes, social cohesion and peace” (Rychen & Salganik, 2003, p. 5). Secondly, importance was given to attitudes, motivation and values; non-cognitive factors that are not always attributable to formal education and which go beyond the assessment of knowledge and skills. The DeSeCo Programme identified three clusters of key competencies summarised below (OECD, 2005): (1) using tools interactively to keep up to date with technologies, to adapt tools to own purposes and to conduct active dialogue with the world;

(2) interacting in heterogeneous groups to deal with pluralistic societies, to instil the importance of empathy and social capital; (3) acting autonomously to realise one‟s identity and set goals in a complex world, to exercise rights and take responsibility and to understand one‟s environment and its functioning. At the heart of this framework lies the ability of reflective thought and action which “demands relatively complex mental processes and requires the subject of a thought process to become the object” (OECD, 2005, p. 8). In the same period, the report „Learning: the treasure within‟ (Delors et al., 1996), was published by the International Commission on Education for the twentyfirst century set up by UNESCO. In this document four pillars of education were proposed and are hereby briefly reported: (1) learning to live together: which focuses on the importance of understanding and appreciating diversity among cultures, religions and traditions and of recognising the growing interdependence to implement common projects and manage conflict; (2) learning to know: where the emphasis has to be on giving people a taste of knowledge, laying the basis for lifelong learning; (3) learning to do: which involves acquiring the necessary competencies to deal with a variety of situations, often unpredictable, and to engage in teamwork; (4) learning to be: which entails exercising good judgement combined with independence and a stronger sense of personal responsibility for the attainment of common goals (Delors et al., 1996, p. 22-24). Meanwhile, the World Health Organisation (1994) provided the „Guidelines to Facilitate the Development and Implementation of Life Skills Programmes‟ for children and adolescents in schools. The complementary life skills identified were paired to reveal 5 main life skills areas, which are the foundation for psychosocial competency. The core skills identified were: i) “decision making and problem solving”, ii) “creative thinking and critical thinking”, iii) “effective communication and interpersonal relationship skills”, iv) “self-awareness and empathy”, and v) “coping with emotions & coping with stress” (WHO, 1994, p. 14). On coping skills, Aaron Antonovsky (1979) postulated that individuals who have sufficient and adequate General Resistance Resources (GRRs) readily available can progressively develop a strong Sense of Coherence (SOC) (Suominen & Lindström, 2008). In synthesis, according to Antonovsky, SOC expresses the extent to which one has a pervasive, enduring, though dynamic, feeling of confidence that (1) the stimuli deriving from one‟s internal and external environments in the course of living are structured, predictable and explicable; (2) the resources are available to one to meet the demands posed by the stimuli; and (3) these demands are challenges, worthy of investment and engagement (1987, p.19).

In order to face unpredictable situations, what is important is not the resources themselves, but the ability to make use of them whenever the need arises. People who perceive life in a comprehensive, manageable and meaningful manner, which respectively represent the cognitive, the instrumental and the motivational components, can be considered to have a strong SOC. Following the ratification of the Lisbon Agenda, the wellbeing of citizens, social cohesion, economic development and competitiveness in the process of globalization became the focus of competency acquisition (Halász & Michel, 2011). Among these initiatives is the European Reference Framework on Key Competencies for Lifelong Learning (OJEU, 2006), listed below and of which five (italicised) are identified as transversal competencies: (1) communication in the mother tongue; (2) communication in the foreign languages; (3) mathematical competency and basic competencies in science and technology; (4) digital competency; (5) learning to learn; (6) interpersonal, intercultural and social competencies and civic competencies; (7) entrepreneurship; and (8) cultural expression (OJEU, 2006, Annex). Three significant elements highlighted in the framework (OJEU, 2006, Annex) need to be summarised at this point. Firstly, it is pointed out that these “key competencies are those which all individuals need for personal fulfilment and development, active citizenship, social inclusion and employment” and all should be regarded as equally important. Secondly, the competencies “overlap and interlock, [hence] aspects essential to one domain will support competence in another”. Thirdly, the themes that apply throughout this framework are: “critical thinking, creativity, initiative, problem solving, risk assessment, decision taking and constructive management of emotions”. On a national level, reports from the OECD (2009) and European Commission [EC] (2012), show that much has been done in various countries for the promotion of key competencies through formal, non formal and informal education. Moreover, as outlined by Ananiadou and Claro (2009), initiatives from the private sector provide further evidence of the relevance of defining competence. In addition, core competency frameworks required to ensure better workforce capacity have been developed in various professional fields and higher education and training institutions on both regional and national levels, ranging from competencies for teaching in inclusive settings (EADSNE, 2012) to health promotion practice (Dempsey, Barry, Battle Kirk & the CompHP Project partners, 2011) to pharmacy (The Pharmaceutical Society of Ireland, 2013), and Higher Technical Instruction and Training (Frasson, 2011), to name a few. Taking a closer look into the field of education one can find that the notion of competencies is not as innovative as the most recent prominent literature from the economic, political and private sectors may lead one to think. Great philosophers of all time, from Plato in The Republic (about 380BC) to Aristotle,

and more recently Rousseau in his book Emile (1762) and Dewey in his literary works How We Think (1910) and Democracy and Education (1916) have widely spoken on the need for mastery of different kinds of knowledge, which ranges from facts to complex analysis, civic and citizen competencies, and the centrality of critical thinking and reflection. Leading pedagogists had also pinpointed essential core competencies. Among other prominent figures, Freire in the Pedagogy of the Oppressed (1970; 1993), as outlined by Shaull (1993), was convinced “that every human being, no matter how „ignorant‟ or submerged in the „culture of silence‟ he or she may be, is capable of looking critically at the world in a dialogical encounter with others” (p. 14). The French sociologist and philosopher Edgar Morin dedicated a book to The „Seven Complex Lessons in Education for the Future’ (Morin, 2001). Acknowledging complexity as a theoretical framework, Morin identified “seven facets of essential knowledge [that] should be covered, without exclusivity or exclusion, in education for the future in all societies in every culture, according to the means and rules appropriate to those societies and cultures” (p. 11). For the purpose of this article they are hereafter merely presented, taking into account the risk of offering a very reductive delineation of Morin‟s thought should one try to explain them briefly: (1) Detecting error and illusion (2) Principles of pertinent knowledge (3) Teaching the human condition (4) Earth identity (5) Confronting uncertainties (6) Understanding each other (7) Ethics for the human genre (Morin, 2001) In summary, complex modern society has raised the bar for the attainment of a „successful‟ life and well-functioning sustainable society. As social scientists, it is not enough to accept that “complexity is out there, people are using it and the reason they are using it is because it makes sense of the real social systems being examined” (Byrne & Callaghan, 2014, p. 233). The competencies individuals need to be able to deal with the unpredictability and instability that characterizes today‟s world have been identified and endorsed by leading world organisations. Researchers and policymakers, working collaboratively with schools and higher education institutions, are now urged to find strategies and tools that would make these competencies teachable. The aim of proposing the theory of simplexity as a possible solution is twofold: First, simplexity may provide an alternative framework to decipher the complexity that arises in the attempt of finding strategies to deliver and promote the acquisition of competencies in school contexts. Secondly, simplex properties and principles can be considered as the necessary competencies and skills individuals need in their twenty-first century survival kit, independent of the social construct in which they live, learn, work and recreate themselves.

The theory of simplexity as an underpinning theory for transversal competencies Although the neologism may sound as if it proposes an antonym of complexity, simplexity theory complements it and in no way denies the fundamental values of complexity. Simplexity shouldn‟t be considered a synonym of simplicity either, since the former includes tension whereas the latter “refers to the absence (or near absence) of complexity” (Gell-Mann, 1994 as cited in Berthoz, 2012, p. x). Proposed by the physiologist and neuroscientist Alain Berthoz, the concept of simplexity is an ensemble of solutions that appeared in the course of evolution to allow living organisms to survive despite the complexity of natural processes. These biological devices or processes allow a complex adaptive system, as is the human being, to “process complex situations very rapidly, elegantly and efficiently, taking past experience into account and anticipating the future” (Berthoz, 2012, p. 3). Furthermore, by means of a fundamental principle of intersubjectivity, individuals are able to understand the intentions of others. From a competency-based perspective, these solutions can be defined as a set of skills living organisms use to prepare actions and foresee their consequences. Berthoz outlines that these same simplifying principles and properties may not only be observed in physiological processes, but may be applicable to all levels of human activity. As a matter of fact, although still relatively novel, simplexity theory has already been applied to various disciplines, such as education, to offer possible solutions to the complex and adaptive educational system. (Siblio, 2014). In his book „Simplexity: Simplifying Principles for a Complex World‟ (2012), Berthoz suggests a preliminary list of basic characteristics of life that constitute the tools for life for the creation of different patterns of interaction among the constitutive parts of a system. In other words, these provide the theoretical underpinnings for the interpretation of the behaviour of complex adaptive systems. According to the author, these characteristics are:  Specialisation and modularity, which is the breakdown of a complex task into various functions. This coexistence of diverse functions guarantees a simultaneous utilization of diverse adaptive schemes to facilitate better control of action (Sibilio, 2014). For example, in the human brain, different areas process specific aspects of perception, action, memory, and emotion, while in society, this modularity can be observed in the division of work.  Speed, referring to the ability of decision making by anticipating and predicting consequences of actions, through the capitalization of the results of past experiences and guessing and betting on the behaviour of others. These are not necessarily simple solutions, but need to be rapid, elegant and effective. They are very often taken in milliseconds as the reaction of a living organism when faced with danger, or during a negotiation meeting where anticipating the possible reactions to an offer becomes crucial.  Reliability which is needed to reduce the margin of error to a minimum. Within a complex world characterised by unpredictability, this



characteristic becomes indispensable for any adaptive system, especially in multilevel systems, to augment the possibility of success. Flexibility, vicariance and adaptation to change, which are essential to be able to select the right strategy from a repertoire of choices to resolve a problem, and perceive, capture, decide, or act depending on the context the system finds itself in. Hence all these are fundamental in decision making, problem solving, creative thinking, coping with stress and emotions, initiative taking and the spirit of entrepreneurship. Memory, as the characteristic on which present action relies to predict the future consequences of an action. There are multiple mechanisms of memory (explicit, implicit, episodic, verbal, iconic and effective). Generalization, the final property of complex adaptive systems, which refers to the competency of capitalizing patterns of interactions, and transferring these from one context to another, even if they are not two completely analogous situations.

As a guiding framework to delimit the concept of simplexity, Berthoz (2012) enlists six simplifying laws and principles, implemented successively or in parallel, to govern a simplex process. The author points out that the terms „laws and principles‟ are used in the absence of anything better to describe simplex solutions, processes, architectures and even mechanical agents. The six principles are:  Inhibition and the principle of refusal: In any thought process, whether it is a moment of reflection or when one is faced with an urgent decision to be made, selecting one action over another requires inhibiting all the actions one does not choose and disinhibiting the one acted. In creative thought, for example, one inhibits the automatic or learned solutions to make way for innovative ones.  The principle of specialisation and selection (Umwelt): Every species scans the world only from cues important to its survival, creating one‟s own umwelt; a subjective universe. This principle is parsimonious in that it involves the selection of pertinent information needed to reach the goal of action. “This selection is not only induced during a stimulus-response process. It is intrinsic to adopting a perspective, whereby a living, selforganising, autonomous organism projects its intentions and hypotheses onto the world” (Berthoz, 2012, p. 14). The ability to filter information and select what is essential is paramount to deal with complexity.  The principle of probabilistic anticipation: Prediction is always probabilistic and hence, to take action, the brain has to make some hypotheses deciding on what probability that hypothesis has of being correct on the basis of the information available in the present, as well as taking the memory of past experiences into account. This prospective and retrospective exercise, coupled with comparison of sensory data is key to innovation.  The detour principle: Living organisms possess numerous mechanisms that, by means of detours, facilitate the solution of nonlinear problems. This nonlinearity is what makes this principle key for survival. Shortcuts do exist, but as modern GPSs help us understand, sometimes taking the



longer way is more efficient in terms of time and fuel consumption to reach one‟s destination. Human beings often tend to think that the shorter way is the better solution. This may often mean resisting to change, or not considering alternative solutions which may well be more effective. Detouring, therefore, involves replacing a simple variable with a more complex mix of variables to simplify it. The principle of cooperation and redundancy: Cooperation refers to the process of combining the information available to ensure that the information is coherent and therefore reliable. The context, rules, points of view and previous decisions serve as frames of reference. Redundancy, on the other hand, refers to the duplication of components or functions of a system with the intention to increase reliability of the system to make it fail-safe. While selection (the second principle) reduces the number of available solutions, complex adaptive systems ensure they have several values for the same variable to mitigate the risk of error. Another example of cooperation and redundancy is looking at things from different perspectives when making decisions, egocentrically and allocentrically. The principle of meaning - This principle corresponds to the law that establishes the link and the functionality between meaning and the act itself (Sibilio, 2014). Focusing the attention on the act implies affirming the principle of meaning whose foundations are in the act itself, since “simplex solutions are motivated by intentions, goals, or functions” (Berthoz, 2012, p. 21).

Considering these principles and properties, one can sustain the proposal that the theory of simplexity offers a theoretical and organisational framework for transversal competencies of interest. This is because, as Berthoz postulates, the same organisational matrix can be observed in all complex adaptive systems from “a hive, an ant colony, a termite mound [to] an army, factory or society itself” (Berthoz, 2012, p. 76). The following table provides a synthesis of the transversal competencies and the respective skills, attributes, attitudes and behaviours identified in the various frameworks proposed over the years. These are grouped under two general competency domains: interactive use of tools and resources including digital competency and psychosocial competency, with the latter divided further into three sub-domains – i) Interpersonal, Intercultural, Social and Civic Competencies, ii) Intrapersonal Competencies and iii) Metacognitive Competencies. The skills, attributes, attitudes and behaviours for each of the four competency domains are then outlined and the overarching lessons proposed by Morin (2001) are grouped accordingly. The various principles inherent to each of the competency domain are suggested, whereas the properties provide the underpinning theoretical framework.

Table 1. Synthesis of the transversal competencies identified and the theoretical underpinnings of simplexity

Transversal Competencies

Interactive Use of Tools and Resources including Digital Competency

Psychosocial Competencies Interpersonal, Intercultural, Social and Civic Competencies

Intrapersonal Competencies

Learning to do and learning to be; acting autonomously to face situations; self awareness and empathy; constructive management of emotions and stress; initiative and entrepreneurship

Skills, Attributes, Attitudes & Behaviours

Learning to know; diagnosis and risk assessment

Learning to live together; maintaining relationships; cultural appreciation and expression; effective communication and interpersonal skills

Overarching Lessons Proposed by Morin (2001)

 Detecting error and illusion  Principles of pertinent knowledge

 Understanding each other  Earth identity  Ethics for the human genre

Simplex principles individuals need to be aware of and apply conscientiously for the acquisition of the different competencies (Berthoz, 2012)

 Inhibition and the principle of refusal  Principle of specialisatio n and selection  Principle of probabilistic anticipation  The detour principle  Principle of cooperation and redundancy  Principle of meaning

 Inhibition and the principle of refusal  Principle of specialisation and selection  Principle of probabilistic anticipation  The detour principle  Principle of cooperation and redundancy  Principle of meaning

 Teaching the human condition

 Inhibition and the principle of refusal  Principle of specialisation and selection  Principle of probabilistic anticipation  The detour principle  Principle of cooperation and redundancy  Principle of meaning

Metacognitive Competencies

Learning to learn; critical, constructive and creative thought and action upon reflection; decision making and problem solving

 Confronting uncertainties

 Inhibition and the principle of refusal  Principle of specialisation and selection  Principle of probabilistic anticipation  The detour principle  Principle of cooperation and redundancy  Principle of meaning

Simplex Characteristics Underpinning all Competencies (Berthoz, 2012) Specialisation and Modularity; Speed; Reliability; Flexibility, Vicariance and Adaptation to Change; Memory and Generalisation

As can be observed from the table, all the simplex principles can be found at the basis of each single competency domain and thus can be considered as transversal tools or skills needed for competency acquisition. The key is to encourage individuals to gain consciousness of the interplay of the various

simplex principles in order to make sense of action and finally attribute a meaning to it.

Simplex principles as tools for life in Home Economics education Since its inception in the late 1800s Home Economics education has effectively kept up with the pace of time, prioritising the knowledge, skills and attitudes necessary to respond to world-wide change and development. Among the first issues dealt with were general health and hygiene, increasing womenâ&#x20AC;&#x;s rights and participation and promoting worthy home membership (Smith & de Zwart, 2010). Today it concerns food and nutrition education, financial literacy, parenting skills, the increasing complexity of family life, global citizenship and environmental health. As stated in the IFHE mission statement (2008): this disciplinary diversity coupled with the aim of achieving optimal and sustainable living means that home economics has the potential to be influential in all sectors of society by intervening and transforming political, social, cultural, ecological, economic and technological systems, at glocal levels. This is driven by the ethics of the profession, based on the values of caring, sharing, justice, responsibility, communicating, reflection and visionary foresight. Practically all the skills, attitudes, attributes and behaviours summarised in Table 1 can be traced in Home Economics curricula taught at different stages of schooling or in the community. Simultaneously, the overarching lessons proposed by Morin (2011) are also addressed. For example, the US National Standards for Family & Consumer Sciences is based on a practical problems approach, encouraging high quality reasoning (NASAFACS, 2008). Family & Consumer Sciences (as Home Economics is known in the US) is seen as providing a vehicle for students to take greater initiative and responsibility for their learning and to develop values-based knowledge and skills for the rapidly changing environments they will experience across their life span. A practical reasoning process is emphasised where learners examine and consciously develop goals or valued ends, interpret contextual information, obtain and use technical information and skills, consider the available or possible alternative actions and consequences and decide what action to pursue (Brown & Paulucci, 1979). Home Economics education serves to guide learners to engage in thinking, reasoning, and reflecting on content as structured around contextual problems to be solved. The focus is on "what should we do?" questions sensitive to the fact that circumstances are often uncertain and changing. This approach can be seen more concretely if one considers as an example the Maltese Home Economics Senior Secondary school syllabus. The aims envisaged for this three-year course are listed below:

 to increase the candidates‟ knowledge and understanding of the changing physical, social, emotional, intellectual and aesthetic needs of people throughout their life cycle.  to develop the ability to communicate, share, make informed decisions to enhance positive family values.  to develop the knowledge, understanding, skills and attitudes necessary to meet nutritional recommendations and healthy lifestyles.  to develop the knowledge and competencies required for the effective and safe organisation and management of relevant resources.  to enable candidates to develop the necessary skills to respond effectively to rapid technological changes and to scientific development.  to develop the qualities of sensitivity and aesthetic appreciation needed to create and maintain a healthy and pleasing environment.  to create a sensitive caring attitude and to foster a concern for the general environment so as to enable candidates to choose and use consumer goods carefully, thus contributing towards the conservation of the environment.  to instil the need for a critical assessment of consumer goods, an awareness of advertising pressures and a knowledge of consumer rights and responsibilities.  to foster a critical and analytical approach to decision making and problem solving.  to encourage creativity, originality and academic rigour (University of Malta, 2012, p. 2). The above aims clearly reflect how Home Economics education strives to develop responsible citizens who can call upon scientific knowledge and apply it in a reasoned, efficient and fair manner to tackle current and future life problems. It does this through adopting an active learning, emancipatory, socioconstructivist approach to teaching where everyday situations are addressed through exposing, demonstrating and practising the tools for successful solution of problems in tried-and-tested but also creative and innovative ways (Piscopo & Mugliett, 2012). The theoretical, practical and investigative components of the discipline offer a myriad of opportunities for students, whatever their age, to reflect upon and reassess values and to acquire these skills, attributes and attitudes that encourage behaviours with human wellbeing and betterment as the goal. For example, Piscopo (2015) has argued how Home Economics literacy could help to resolve the dilemma of resorting to usage of convenience foods in the present day fast-paced life, whilst still embracing principles of sustainable consumption. She showed how Home Economics could be used to discuss this common problem, find the best available solution in each individual‟s or family‟s circumstances and take the necessary action. This would be done through utilising available knowledge and skills, sourcing new knowledge, becoming familiar with and practising new skills, and critically evaluating the various processes and outcomes. Adding the simplex principles as a framework to explore and resolve dilemmas such as this, but also many of the choices and behaviours typically addressed via Home Economics curricula worldwide

would add breadth to the options considered and layers of depth to the thinking behind decisions made. Home Economics education has indeed been shown to be effective as a tool for preparing for future societal needs and for lifelong learning (Pendergast, McGregor & Turkki, 2012; Piscopo, 2014). Simplex principles can make such learning experiences more meaningful, broadly applicable and lasting.

Conclusions The current era presents students and teachers alike with plenty of challenges in their day to day lives. As evidenced in this article, it has now been widely acknowledged that gaining control of oneâ&#x20AC;&#x;s own life course requires a high degree of awareness of the underpinning characteristics of interaction, intricately interwoven on micro, meso and macro levels, of complex adaptive systems to be able to comprehend and give meaning to everyday situations. The theory of simplexity, although not necessarily exhaustive (Berthoz, 2012), identifies these characteristics and provides the tools necessary to decipher these interactions. Equipping students and teachers with these tools may help them to face the complexity in their work, studies and daily lives with a new mindset. Deliberately including activities to promote reflection on these properties and principles in Home Economics education has been suggested because of the subjectâ&#x20AC;&#x;s interdisciplinary and practical nature. Yet, these can be equally effectively applied cross-curricularly, thus ensuring that all students will have been given the opportunity to gain awareness of and be able to apply them to face the complexity emerging throughout their school life as well as in their everyday lives. An overarching challenge remains that of creating effective systems which guarantee that such strategies are actually applied and that evidence of their effectiveness can be adequately measured. School curricula need to be oriented towards competency acquisition, encourage interdisciplinary approaches to reduce overlap among subjects taught and capitalise formative and performance-based assessment to promote more hands-on collaborative experiences in classrooms. This, in turn, involves reformulating initial and inservice teacher education to ensure that teachers are equipped with the necessary competencies and also have the knowledge, skills and attitudes necessary to put such competencies into practice in their day-to-day teaching. Finally, students need to be enticed to reconsider their role in the teachinglearning process from mere passive recipients to active constructors of their own knowledge and skills through reflective practice in action and on action for the acquisition of the transversal competencies outlined.

References Aiello, P. (2012). Appunti per una fondazione epistemologica semplessa dellâ&#x20AC;&#x;agire didattico [Notes for a simplex epistomological foundation in teaching] In M. Siblio (Ed.), Traiettorie non lineari nella ricerca: nuovi scenari interdisciplinari [Non linear trajectories in research: new interdisciplinary scenarios] (pp. 27 -30). Lecce: Pensa Editore. Ananiadou, K. & Claro, M. (2009). 21st Century Skills and Competences for New Millenium Learners in OECD Countries. EDU Working Paper n.41. Retrieved from:

http://www.oecd.org/officialdocuments/publicdisplaydocumentpdf/?cote=EDU/ WKP(2009)20&doclanguage=en. Antonovsky, A. (1979). Health, Stress and Coping. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Antonovsky, A. (1987). Unraveling the Mystery of Health. How People Manage Stress and Stay Well. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Berthoz, A. (2012). Simplexity: Simplifying Principles for a Complex World. USA: Yale University Press. Brown, M. M. & Paolucci, B. (1979). Home Economics: A definition. Washington, DC: American Home Economics Association. Byrne, D. & Callaghan, G. (2014). Complexity Theory and the Social Sciences – the State of the Art. New York: Routledge. Delors, J., Al Mufti, I., Amagi, I., Carneiro, R., Chung, F., Geremek, B., … Nanzhao, Z. (1996). Learning: The Treasure Within – A Report to UNESCO of the International Commission on Education for the 21st Century. Paris: UNESCO Publishing. Retrieved from: http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0010/001095/109590eo.pdf. Dempsey, C., Battel-Kirk B., Barry M. M. & the CompHP Project Partners. (2011). The CompHP Core Competencies Framework for Health Promotion. IUHPE, Paris. Dewey, J. (1910, 1933). How we think. Lexington: D C Heath. Dewey, J. (1916). Democracy and Education: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Education. New York, NY: Macmillan. EADSNE. (2012). Profile of Inclusive Teachers, Denmark: Author. Retrieved from: http://www.european-agency.org/sites/default/files/Profile-of-InclusiveTeachers.pdf. European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice (2012). Developing Key Competences at School in Europe: Challenges and Opportunities for Policy. Eurydice Report. Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union. Retrieved from: http://eacea.ec.europa.eu/Education/eurydice/documents/thematic_reports/145E N.pdf. Fowler, S. & Van der Walt, J. L. (2004). Chaos and order in education. South African journal of education, 24(1), 64-69. Retreived from: http://www.ajol.info/index.php/saje/article/viewFile/24968/20652. Frasson, D. (2011). Allenare le competenze trasversali. Apprendimenti e risultati di un percorso formativo [Training transversal competencies. Lessons learnt and results from a training course.] Milano: FrancoAngeli. Freire, P. (1970, 1993). Pedagogy of the Oppressed. New York: The Continuum Publishing Company. Gordon, J., Halasz, G., Krawczyk, M., Leney, T., Michel, A., Pepper, D., … Wiśniewky, J. (2009). Key Competences in Europe: Opening Doors for Lifelong Learners Across the School Curriculum and Teacher Education. Warsaw, PL: CASE-Center for Social and Economic Research. Retrieved from: www.ginconet.eu/sites/default/files/SSRN-id1517804.pdf. Halasz, G. & Michel, A. (2011). Key competences in Europe: interpretation, policy formulation and implementation. European Journal of Education, 46(3), 289-306. Doi:10.1111/j.1465-3435.2011.01491.x. International Federation of Home Economics (IFHE) (2008). Home Economics in the 21st Century Position Statement. Retrieved from: the IFHE website: http://www.ifhe.org/. Michel, A. (2001). Schools for an emerging world. In OECD, What Schools for the Future? (pp. 217–229). Paris: OECD. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264195004-en. Morin, E. (1999). Seven Complex Lessons in Education for the Future. Paris: UNESCO Publishing. National Association of State Administrators of Family and Consumer Sciences. (2008). National Standards for Family and Consumer Sciences Education. Virginia, USA:

NASAFACS. Available at: http://www.nasafacs.org/national-standards-andcompetencies.html. OECD. (1994). Redéﬁnir le Curriculum: Un Enseignement pour le XXIème Siècle [Redefining the Curriculum : Education for the Twenty-first Century]. Paris: Author. OECD. (1996). The Knowledge-based Economy. Paris: Author. Retrieved from: http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/51/8/1913021.pdf. OECD. (2005). The Definition and Selection of Key Competencies: Executive Summary. Retrieved from: http://www.oecd.org/pisa/35070367.pdf. OECD. (2009). Creating Effective Teaching and Learning Environments: First Results from TALIS. Paris: Author. Retrieved from: www.oecd.org/dataoecd/17/51/43023606.pdf. Pellerey, M. (2004). L’Agire Educativo [Action in Education]. Rome, Italy: LAS. Pendergast, D., McGregor, S. L. T., Turkki, K. (Eds.). (2012). Creating Home Economics Futures: The Next 100 years. Queensland, Australia: Australian Academic Press. Piscopo, S. (2015). Are food convenience and sustainable consumption mutually exclusive? Home Economics literacy to the rescue. In V. W. Thoresen, R. J. Didham, J. Klein & D. Doyle (Eds.), Responsible Living: Concepts, Education and Future Perspectives (pp. 197-216). Switzerland: Springer. Piscopo, S. (2014). Home Economists in Action: implementing a community course on sustainable living. In G. Hodelin (Ed.), Family Socioeconomic and Cultural Issues: A Continuing Home Economics Concern. (pp. 111-121). Bonn, Germany: IFHE. Retrieved from: http://ifhe.org/epaper-family-2014/. Piscopo, S. & Mugliett, K. (2012). Redefining and repackaging Home Economics: case of a Mediterranean island. International Journal of Home Economics, 5(2), 264-278. Rychen, S. D. & Salganik, L. H. (Eds.). (2003). Key Competencies for a Successful Life and Well-Functioning Society. Germany: Hogrete and Huber. Salganik, L.H, Rychen, D.S., Moser, U., & Konstant, J. (1999). Projects on Competencies in the OECD Context: Analysis of Theoretical and Conceptual Foundations. Neuchâtel: Swiss Federal Statistical Office. Retrieved from: http://www.deseco.admin.ch/bfs/deseco/en/index/02.parsys.53466.downloadList. 62701.DownloadFile.tmp/1999.projectsoncompetenciesanalysis.pdf. Shaull, R. (1993). Foreward. In P. Freire (1970, 1993), Pedagogy of the Oppressed (pp. 11-16). New York: The Continuum Publishing Company. Sibilio, M. (2014). La Didattica Semplessa [Simplex Didactics]. Napoli: Liguori Editore. Smith, G. & de Zwart, M. L. (2010). Home Economics: A contextual Study of the Subject and Home Economics Teacher Education. In Teacher Inquirer, May 2010. Retrieved from: https://bctf.ca/thesa/pdf/inquiry_contextual.pdf. Suominen, S. & Lindström, B. (2008). Salutogenesis. Scandinavian Journal of Public Health, June; 36(4), 337-9. Doi: 10.1177/1403494808093268. The European Parliament and the Council of the European Union (2006). Recommendations of the European Parliament and of the Council of 18 December 2006 on Key Competencies for Lifelong Learning (2006/962/EC) (Official Journal of the European Union. 30.12.2006). Retrieved from: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legalcontent/EN/ALL/?uri=CELEX:32006H0962. The Pharmaceutical Society of Ireland. (2013). Core Competency Framework for Pharmacists. Ireland: Author. Retrieved from: http://www.thepsi.ie/Libraries/Publications/PSI_Core_Competency_Framework_f or_Pharmacists.sflb.ashx. Thoresen, V. W., Didham, R. J., Klein, J. & Doyle, D. (Eds.). (2015). Responsible Living: Concepts, Education and Future Perspectives. Switzerland: Springer. Turkki, K. (2015). Envisioning literacy to promote sustainable wellbeing. In V. W. Thoresen, R. J. Didham, J. Klein & D. Doyle (Eds.), Responsible Living: Concepts, Education and Future Perspectives (pp. 151-178). Switzerland: Springer.

University of Malta. (2012). Home Economics SEC Syllabus. Retrieved from: https://www.um.edu.mt/__data/assets/pdf_file/0003/85278/SEC19.pdf. World Health Organisation (1994). Lifeskills Education for Children and Adolescents in Schools. Geneva: Author. Retrieved from: http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/1994/who_mnh_psf_93.7a_rev.2.pdf.

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 11, No. 2, pp. 88-95, May 2015

Student-Centered Learning in a First Year Undergraduate Course Saras Krishnan INTI International University Malaysia

Abstract. Student-centered learning (SCL) may or may not be the ideal choice of learning method in certain parts of the world depending on many factors including the different learning cultures. This study discusses some of the factors that could have influenced students’ responses towards SCL in an undergraduate mathematics course in Malaysia. The student factor discussed in this study is learning habits and preferences whereas the contextual factors are mathematics content or topic, time of intervention and the teacher. The study found that students generally responded positively towards SCL because it is more fun and provides opportunities for sharing of ideas, among other factors. However, when it came to assessment the students preferred the traditional form of assessment instead of being assessed in a SCL environment. This is primarily because they feel it is easier to score in the former but in the latter other group members contribute towards a student’s score as well. Keywords: contextual factors; assessment; student factor

group

work;

student-centered

Introduction Student-centered learning (SCL) has also been known as learner-centered education (e.g., Schweisfurth, 2011), independent learning (e.g., Vale, Davies, Weaven & Hooley, 2010) and student-centered team-based learning (e.g., Zain, Rasidi & Abidin, 2012). Dating back to as early as 1905, some of the proponents of SCL are Hayward, Dewey, Froebel, Piaget and Knowles (Yusoff, Karim, Othman, Mohin & Rahman, 2013). Among others, SCL involves students collaborating in groups, making connections between ideas and use of scaffolding activities for mathematical learning (Vale et al., 2010). SCL subscribes to the constructivist pedagogy where the teacher does not transmit knowledge to the students but the students construct the knowledge themselves (Baeten, Kyndt, Struyven & Dochy, 2010; Zain et al., 2012). The teacher’s role in a SCL environment is as a facilitator and a resource person (McLean & Gibbs, 2010; Yusoff et al., 2013). As such, the responsibility and © 2015 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

power shifts from the teacher, in the traditional teaching environment, to the student, in the student-centered learning environment (McLean & Gibbs, 2010; Wright, 2011). In a SCL environment, learning is an active process that induces deep learning and understanding through increased responsibility, accountability and autonomy on the students’ part (Baeten et al., 2010; Farrell & McAvinia, 2012). Instead of being passive listeners and submissive recipients of knowledge, students acquire knowledge by actively participating and getting involved in the learning process. Given that the students have a bigger role to play in a SCL environment compared to the traditional environment, better interaction and interdependence between the teacher and the students need to be fostered. However, the teacher’s role is not to be undermined. On the contrary, the teacher has a more important role to play than before in view of the interconnectedness of SCL and good teaching (Farrell & McAvinia, 2012). The motive of assessing students in a SCL environment is to identify their learning gaps and potential areas of development in order to enhance their learning particularly through feedback approaches (Noonan & O’Neill, 2012). Written assignments, portfolios and reflective journals provide better insights into the students’ actual learning instead of scores on tests and multiple choice instruments that perhaps only superficially reflect a student’s depth of knowledge and understanding. Logs, projects and group work are other tools that can be used to assess SCL. An important element in a SCL environment is learning through doing and actively participating in the learning activities as opposed to learning by being passive recipients of knowledge. Working collaboratively with peers is another important element because it creates an atmosphere for participation and involvement in the lessons, and provides opportunities for sharing ideas and opinions. Learning through doing and collaborating has been found to increase students’ motivation and confidence in learning mathematics besides making the mathematics learned meaningful to them (Yusoff et al., 2013; Zain et al., 2012). Conversely, lack of engagement and involvement from the students will result in an unsuccessful SCL as well as lack of guidance and motivation from the teacher as the facilitator in a SCL environment. Baeten et al. (2010) categorized factors that influence the success of a SCL into contextual factors (e.g., assessment and institutional characteristics), perceived contextual factors (e.g., clarity of goals and relevance to professional practice) and student factors (e.g., educational experiences and preferences for teaching methods). Implementation Of SCL In An Undergraduate Course SCL has not escaped educationalists’ criticism as well as its implementation is not without challenges. This study attempts to identify some of the challenges and questions to be considered when implementing SCL in an undergraduate course. The study involves thirteen undergraduate students in a Calculus © 2015 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

course. The mode of SCL chosen is group work and this was implemented two times in the semester. The first group work involved the topic Functional Models and was conducted in the third week of fourteen weeks of lessons. Meanwhile, the second group work involved the topic Integration and was conducted in week twelve. The study gathers some baseline data from students’ feedback after the two SCL sessions. In particular, students’ feedback on both sets of group work was obtained by asking them to fill up a simple questionnaire with a Yes/No answer. The questions on the questionnaire attempted to find out: (1) if the students enjoyed the SCL session. (2) if group work helped the students to understand the topic. (3) if group work had motivated the students to learn mathematics. (4) if by working in groups, students are able to remember important mathematical concepts. (5) if the students are able to provide input and share ideas in their groups. (6) if working in groups had built the students’ confidence in doing mathematics. (7) if the students preferred the student-centered assessment to traditional quizzes/tests. Table 1: Percentages of responses

Enjoy Understand Motivation Remember Ideas Confidence Assessment

Group Work 1 (%) 84.6 76.9 69.2 61.5 92.3 38.5 23.1

Group Work 2 (%) 53.8 69.2 46.2 53.8 92.3 61.5 30.8

Table 1 displays the descriptive analysis of the results of the feedback using SPSS. Although the analysis is relatively simple, the results shed light on the dynamics of the undergraduate students in this course that influenced the implementation of SCL. Overall, the table shows that with the exception of motivation element in the second group work and the confidence element in the first group work, more than 50% of the students displayed positive feelings with regards to the group work. However, in general there is a decline in the percentages from the first group work to the second group work. Moreover, despite the students’ positive feedback on the SCL, they preferred being assessed in the traditional form of assessment compared to the SCL assessment. In detail, the table shows that: (1) more than half of the class enjoyed the session whereby the percentage is higher for the first group work.

(2) more than half of the class feel that the group work helped them understand the topic whereby the percentage is higher for the first group work. (3) more than half of the class feel that the first group work motivated their learning but less than 50% feel that the second group work motivated their learning. (4) more than half of the class agree that they are able to remember important concepts by working in groups whereby the percentage is higher for the first group work. (5) more than 90% agree that they are able to provide input and share ideas in their groups both for the first and second group work. (6) less than 50% feel that the first group work built their confidence in doing mathematics but more than 50% feel that the second group work built their confidence in doing mathematics. (7) both times, less than half the class preferred the student-centered assessment to quizzes/tests. Discussion Of Results SCL has been found to be an effective learning approach that develops better study skills among the students such as the higher order thinking skills and the creative thinking skills (Zain et al., 2012). In addition, there is increased motivation and confidence among the students as they find SCL to be a more interesting and exciting learning approach. Similarly, students in this study agreed that the group work motivated them to learn mathematics and built their confidence in doing mathematics but the percentages differed for the first group work and the second group work. Although the students seem to be less motivated in the second group work, their confidence level was higher than the first time they worked in groups. Furthermore, students in this undergraduate course still preferred the traditional form of assessment compared to the student-centered assessment despite the positive feedback given on the SCL. In the following paragraphs, the paper discusses some student and contextual factors as described by Baeten et al. (2010) that are believed to have contributed towards students’ responses to the questionnaire. Learning habits and preferences Habit is a strong factor in influencing one’s action and the way one reacts towards a new circumstance. Students who have been successful in a traditional teacher-empowered classroom environment may exhibit initial resistance to SCL as suggested by some researchers (e.g., Wright, 2011). Their past experience is probably telling them that they will only do well in the former type of teaching approach. In fact, being so comfortable and accustomed to the ‘old way of learning’, these students’ initial reaction to SCL is a sense of loss because now they are expected to learn on their own without someone telling them the facts, and the correct methods and techniques.

The students in this course need to obtain certain grades that will allow them to continue their degree abroad. In addition, five of the thirteen students in this study i.e. 38.46% are government sponsored students that is they have obtained exceptionally good results in their year eleven public examination in Malaysia. As these students have been subjected to eleven years of teacher-centered teaching and have found it to be highly successful, they would automatically exhibit initial rejection towards SCL for fear of not doing well in their assessment as suggested by the percentages of responses in Table 1. As one student commented, I enjoyed the sessions but the fact that it carries marks and that it will not work if everyone doesn’t cooperate, I don’t know… Content Baeten et al. (2010) believed that content of the course or the discipline of study has an influence on students’ approach to SCL. In particular, they found that past studies generally argue that students are able to exhibit deep approaches to learning in the arts and social sciences related subjects compared to the science and engineering subjects although studies contradicting this fact exist. Functions is a relatively easier topic as perceived by students compared to Integration and this may have contributed towards the lower percentages of responses for the second group work. Time Of Intervention Students in this study responded more positively to SCL at the beginning of the semester and less favorably towards the end of the semester despite having more time to interact with each other and to get familiarized with the course. Two factors could have contributed to this. One is the content of the group work as mentioned above. Second factor is the apprehension of not doing well in the assessment as the final examination approaches and each student are aware of how well or how badly they have done in other assessments. In fact, a student who preferred the traditional form of assessment wrote that, …it would be easier to score marks. Teacher The success of SCL relies heavily on the students’ ability to work in groups which in turn is dependent on the individual student’s personality and social skills. Froyd and Simpson (2010) argue that students often lack the skills to work in groups and thus asking them to do so will trigger initial resistance. It is important then that the teacher creates meaningful activities at appropriate level of difficulty and strives to create a supportive learning environment for the students. During both group works in this study, there was minimal involvement from the teacher. As the practice of SCL is relatively new to the teacher and the learning institution in concern, the teacher may not have the necessary skills to facilitate such group works. It is imperative that the teacher is equipped with the skills and the expertise that is needed in a SCL environment prior to its © 2015 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

implementation because although, the students have greater autonomy in a SCL environment, the role of the teacher as the mediator is crucial. Conclusion Wright (2011) lists some of the benefits of SCL in the higher education to be helping students to become empowered, confident and self-motivated. SCL also helps students to develop study skills such as time management, communication, critical thinking and problem solving skills. Likewise, this study shows that students in the undergraduate Calculus course responded positively towards SCL. One of the students mentioned, …it is less stressful, quite fun. Since SCL allows active interaction and sharing of ideas (Zain et al., 2012), the students are more involved and engaged in their learning. It was also observed that besides working with their own group members, the students conferred with members from other groups. In other words, there were also inter-group discussions, similar to the the observation made in the study by Zain et al. (2012). The student factor discussed in this paper is learning habits and preferences. However, it is important to point out that this factor is most likely to be intertwined with other student factors mentioned by Baeten et al. (2010) such as individual student’s personality, social style and coping strategies that would have contributed to the overall group dynamics. The importance of these factors is reflected in this student’s statement, Whether or not one enjoys/benefits from this kind of session, really depends on the group that he/she is in. Initially I thought it doesn’t matter but a lot of things are at stake. Apart from the student factors listed by Baeten et al. (2010), another factor that is crucial in the learning process is the students’ belief system and perhaps future studies can look into how to change the students’ belief system to embrace SCL more optimistically especially in the developing countries. Further, one the contextual factors mentioned by Baeten et al. (2010) is the duration of intervention. In addition, this study looks at the time of intervention which is equally important because it makes a difference whether the SCL is conducted in the beginning or the end of the semester and in which semester of a student’s undergraduate program. The other two contextual factors discussed in this paper are content and teacher. Although, the secondary school mathematics curriculum in Malaysia is designed to develop problem solving and mathematical thinking skills in the students, among others, the teachers’ practices are still largely teacher-centered as suggested by Zakaria, Chin and Daud (2010). As such, the teachers’ mind set and belief system need to be changed as well to ensure SCL can be implemented successfully at the higher levels of education. The teacher should be able to become a participant and co-

learner in the SCL and have the expertise to create more meaningful assessments that are able to assess students’ higher order thinking skills (Powell, 2013). The results of this study is in agreement to the argument made by Schweisfurth (2011) that the implementation of SCL may not be as successful in the developing countries due to the different learning cultures. The study included all the developing countries and some impoverished areas in the more developed countries. Among others, the study quotes Altinyelken (2010) who found that Ugandan English teachers prefer the teacher-centered teaching due to lack of skills in the English language. More importantly, Schweisfurth (2011) points out about the ‘culturally appropriate distance’ between the teacher and the students in some of these countries that serve as a barrier to SCL. In Malaysia, teachers are seen as authoritative figures as with the parents, religious leaders and the rulers. Although in general the present day students are more vocal and the teachers too are more aware to the morphing culture and influences of the outside world, the need to score good grades to be able to further their study abroad is a stronger determinant in their choice of learning for this particular group of students. Then questionnaire used in this study has a Cronbach alpha value of 0.731 and 0.590 for the first and second data sets respectively. The low Cronbach alpha value that is lower than 0.70 could be due to low number of items in the questionnaire (Tavakol & Dennick, 2011) or the small sample size (Yurgudúl, 2008). Future work with respect to this study will be to develop a more detailed questionnaire with Likert-type responses and to have structured interviews with selected students to gain a better insight to students’ feedback on the SCL approaches. The developed questionnaire will be tested for validity and reliability. In addition, a larger sample size will be taken for the quantitative analysis.

References Altinyelken, H. (2010). Curriculum change in Uganda: teacher perspectives on the new thematic curriculum. International Journal of Educational Development, 30, 151–161. Baeten, M., Kyndt, E., Struyven, K., & Dochy, F. (2010). Using student-centred learning environments to stimulate deep approaches to learning: Factors encouraging or discouraging their effectiveness. Educational Research Review, 5(3), 243-260. Retrieved from https://lirias.kuleuven.be/bitstream/123456789/270559/2/Review.pdf Farrell, A., & McAvinia, C. (2012). The Place of the University Teacher in a Dynamic Student-Centred Curriculum: A Snapshot of Practice at NUI Maynooth. In J. Hughes, & E. Tan (Eds.), The Dynamic Curriculum: Shared Experiences of On-going Curricular Change in Higher Education (pp. 92-105). Dublin: Dublin City University. Froyd, J. & Simpson, N. (2010). Student-Centered Learning Addressing Faculty Questions about Student-centered Learning. Retrieved from http://ccliconference.org/files/2010/03/Froyd_Stu-CentredLearning.pdf McLean, M., & Gibbs, T. (2010). Twelve tips to designing and implementing a learnercentred curriculum: Prevention is better than cure. Medical teacher, 32(3), 225. © 2015 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

Noonan, E., & O’Neill, G. (2012). Student Engagement and Assessment. In J. Hughes, & E. Tan (Eds.), The Dynamic Curriculum: Shared Experiences of On-going Curricular Change in Higher Education (pp. 72-91). Dublin: Dublin City University. Powell, M. (2013). 5 Ways to Make Your Classroom Student-Centered. Education Week. Retrieved from http://www.edweek.org/tm/articles/2013/12/24/ctq_powell_strengths.html Schweisfurth, M. (2011). Learner-centred education in developing country contexts: From solution to problem? International Journal of Educational Development, 31, 425-432. Tavakol M., & Dennick R. (2011). Making sense of Cronbach’s alpha. International Journal of Medical Education, 2, 53–55. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4205511/ Vale, C., Davies, A., Weaven, M., & Hooley, N. (2010). Student Centred Approaches: Teachers' Learning and Practice. In L. Sparrow, B. Kissane, & C. Hurst (Eds.), Shaping the future of mathematics education: Proceedings of the 33 rd annual conference of the Mathematics Education Research Group of Australasia. Freemantle: MERGA. Retrieved from http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED520974.pdf Wright, G.B. (2011). Student-Centered Learning in Higher Education. International Journal of Teraching and Learning in Higher Education, 23(3), 92-97. Retrieved from http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ938583.pdf Yurgudúl, H. (2008). Minimum sample size for Cronbach’s coefficient alpha: A Monte Carlo study. Hacettepe Üniversitesi Journal of Education, 35, 397-405. Retrieved from http://www.efdergi.hacettepe.edu.tr/200835HAL%C4%B0L%20YURDUG%C3 %9CL.pdf Yusoff, N.M., Karim, A.M.A., Othman, R., Mohin, M., & Rahman, S.A.A. (2013). Studentcentred learning (SCL) in the Malaysian Higher Education Institutions. AJTLHE: ASEAN Journal of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education, 5(2), 14-33. Retrieved from http://journalarticle.ukm.my/6493/1/2_AJTLHE_101nurahimah.pdf Zain, S.F.H.S., Rasidi, F.E.M., & Abidin, I.I.Z. (2012). Student-Centred Learning In Mathematics–Constructivism In The Classroom. Journal of International Education Research (JIER), 8(4), 319-328. Zakaria, E., Chin, L.C., & Daud, M.Y. (2010). The Effects of Cooperative Learning on Students' Mathematics Achievement and Attitude towards Mathematics. Journal of Social Science, 6, 272-275. Retrieved from http://thescipub.com/PDF/jssp.2010.272.275.pdf

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 11, No. 2, pp. 96-104, May 2015

Hispanic Doctoral Students Challenges: Qualitative Results Bobbette M. Morgan, Ed. D. and Luis F. Alcocer, M.A.M.

The University of Texas at Brownsville, College of Education Brownsville, Texas Abstract: Fifty doctoral students and graduates of a doctoral program in education on the Mexico border responded to five open ended questions which are part of the Carnegie Initiative on the Doctorate (CID). According to the CID developers, Walker, Golde, Jones, Bueschel and Hutchings, ―the purpose… is to examine the relationship between student experiences in a doctoral program and the outcomes of doctoral education. The responses address the full range of responsibilities which may be expected of a holder of the doctorate, including research, teaching, and the application of knowledge and skills in the discipline to practical problems in the world outside the university.‖ Preliminary analysis of findings indicate that Hispanic doctoral students feel more supported with a structured format to assist them in the development of their proposals, social events to promote bonding of members, and structuring classes to keep cohorts moving forward together through core courses and specialization clusters. Keywords: Hispanics; doctoral education; graduate studies

Introduction Major changes to the institution will occur in the fall of 2015. In order to capture a clearly defined picture of the Doctor of Education in Curriculum and Instruction program status, the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching survey was distributed to all doctoral students from the beginning of the program in August 2007 through August 2014.

Purpose The purpose of the study is to analyze our doctoral student responses based on the Carnegie Initiative on the Doctorate (CID) open ended questions from each of five sections. The sections of the survey used focused on the following: I. II. III. IV. V.

Your Experiences as a Doctoral Student Your Experiences with Advising and Mentoring Your Understanding of Your Doctoral Program Your Sense of Community Outcomes of Your Doctoral Program

A focus group of recent graduates (December 2014) was organized to further reflect on the topics covered in the survey’s open ended questions. Qualitative summaries of written feedback and oral reflections from the focus group are shared. Quantitative results are forthcoming.

Participants The convenient sample consisted of all students who had been accepted into the Doctor of Education in Curriculum and Instruction program since its approval by the Texas Higher Education Coordinating Board in July of 2007 through August 2014. Participation by students and graduates of the program was voluntary. Participants were primarily first and second-generation immigrants from Mexico, South America, and Cuba and often the first in their family to attend an institution of higher learning. A 47% response rate is represented by 50 respondents from across the entire sample of 116 surveyed.

Literature Review The percentage of Hispanics receiving doctorates rose only slightly from 1991 to 2001. Hispanics receiving doctorates in the United States have increased from two to three percent nationally and in Texas from three to five percent. In the U.S. and Texas, Hispanics are proportionally underrepresented in doctoral education in relationship to their numbers in the population. Currently, according to the U.S. Census 2013, 38.4% of Texans are of Hispanic heritage, yet only 3-5 % earned doctorates compared to whites at 80.3% of the state’s population having 80% of the completed doctorates (Castellanos & Gloria, 2007). Not unlike doctoral students in every program in the country, Mexican American doctoral students generally enter their programs with differing interests, strengths, and personal responsibilities that eventually affect their success (Valverde & Rodriguez, 2002). According to Easley, Bianco, and Leech (2012), the strongest motivation (ganas: Spanish term for expressing "want to do" or "desire to do" willingly or enthusiastically and also related to attitudes for changes or improvement) issues center on acknowledgment of parental struggle and sacrifice, strong value of family and family history, parental admiration and respect, a desire to repay and pay forward as well as resilience and willingness to persevere. Nettles and Millet (2006), and Barker (2011) found that Blacks and Latinas/Latinos have higher attrition rates compared to Asian American, international, and White doctoral students. The number of doctorates granted across Texas is disproportionate. According to the document ―Doctoral Education in Texas, Part I: Past Trends and Critical Issues,‖ doctoral degrees awarded in 2003, per 100,000 population were the lowest in South Texas (Texas Higher Education Coordinating Board, July 2004). Because of the underrepresentation of this group in doctoral education, they are also underrepresented in fields that require doctoral degrees, such as in academia, medicine, engineering, and scientific research.

Methodology and Results: Van Manen’s (1990) ―hermeneutic phenomenological‖ approach to sociology provides a basis for assessing students’ reflections about the experiences of doctoral students. Van Manen suggests that …when we raise questions, gather data, describe a phenomenon, and construct textual interpretations, we do so as researchers who stand in the world in a pedagogic way. Pedagogy requires a phenomenological sensitivity to the lived experience…a hermeneutic ability to make interpretive sense of the phenomena of the lifeworld…[and]…play with language in order to allow the research process of textual reflection to contribute to one’s pedagogical thoughtfulness and tact. (1990, pp. 1-2) The specific language of the doctoral students and graduates in this study discussing their experiences provides richness and insight that is valuable to gain a true understanding of the shared experience. The open ended responses collected for this study occurred from May 2014 through August 2014 with students and graduates of the Doctor of Education in Curriculum and Instruction Program at an Hispanic Serving Institution (HSI) located on the Mexican/American border in the south most tip of the State of Texas. The instrument used, was developed by the Carnegie Initiative on the Doctorate (CID). The consistency of open ended questions allowed the researchers a starting point to analyze what respondents reflected on about their experiences and responded using narrative to expand their ideas in each of Sections I, II, III, IV and V of the Carnegie Initiative on the Doctorate (CID)survey. The survey was manually entered into the SurveyMonkey website and sent to the potential participants via email. Response information was retrieved from the SurveyMonkey website. Section by section was exported to a Microsoft Excel document. One data analysis sheet was created for each Section of the survey. With the collaboration of two independent reviewers all answers were first classified as ―Mostly Positive‖, ― Neutral ― and ―Mostly Negative‖. Responses were also color coded. Green was used for positive, red for negative, and magenta for neutral. Through a second reading, main ideas for every response in every section were identified and highlighted, in order to create an analytic categorization. Words featured in students’ responses and questions were identified as keywords. A third reading was completed to verify classifications made by the independent reviewers. In Section I, Your Experiences as a Doctoral Student, participants responded about their experiences doing activities that might be required during regular courses or optional parts of their program. Comments were mostly positive and are demonstrated best by the students own words:

―I began my doctoral studies a year ago and I feel that the introductory courses and orientation/guidance provided by our professors and their insightful instruction is very beneficial and of a preparatory nature in Cohort 7….‖ ―The doctoral program not only gave me the tools to improve as an educator, but also opened the doors to amazing opportunities in the field.‖ Negative concerns were also expressed. Examples follow: ―There needs to be more independent work. There needs to be more on-line courses offered. Changes to Programs of Study should be discussed with students.‖ From the focus group we gained this insight: ―I can tell you that there were [many] instances where I was learning and…going through the program, participating, and completing assignments. I would take what I was learning and incorporate it into my job. I applied what I was learning. For me, that was a great experience.‖ Comments regarding students’ active participation in fulfilling course requirements, as part of the doctoral classes, demonstrate construction of practical visualization of the curriculum. They remark about the realistic application of the learned instructional and research techniques through classes and assignments, as well as the newly developed skills which added to their performance at work. The new information learned and skills applied led to new career opportunities. Areas to be addressed in the doctoral program are institutional communication and reviewing the number of online classes. These two issues were consistently brought up in survey results and in the focus group. Section II, Your Experiences with Advising and Mentoring, inquires about student experiences specifically with faculty. This section asks questions of doctoral students about the faculty members who are responsible for guiding them through the program. Again, positive and negative responses were received. Samples follow: ―Overall, my professors… encourage me and are ready to help and offer advice. I am very happy with them, and feel that I can count on them for anything.‖ ―Faculty members were always available and prompt.‖ ―I have an advisor, but have not yet met to discuss anything.‖ From the focus group we learned: ―It was difficult to find a Chair for our dissertations. We had one that agreed to work with us, but then she retired and we were in limbo for a while.‖ Doctor of education students in this program perceive faculty support as a very essential factor for a successful path towards degree completion. Comments centered on professors being readily available. Students noted that they could © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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easily ask questions and faculty provided timely responses via email. The high level of academic information provided and accurate advising are two additional aspects widely commented on as positive support. An issue to attend to in this section on mentoring and advising is the identification of the dissertation committee. The selection of the dissertation members is perceived as easier said than done. Section III, Your Understanding of Your Doctoral Program, explores the students’ understandings by determining the degree of clarity of the requirements and expectations to earn the Ed. D. ―I think that our… faculty have done their best to prepare us for the doctoral program. Thank you!‖ ―It was always clear.‖ ―Sometimes we need a little explanation or elaboration of the overall program components and expectations that are realistic and not overwhelming.‖ Members of the focus group shared: ―…for me some of the classes were an eye-opener. I was able to implement content across the curriculum, use it in my work with teachers. It made a difference. I tried out a lot of strategies with my teachers. ―In Advanced Models of Teaching we had to go back into classes and actually teach lessons. As an administrator sometimes you lose touch. I’ve been an administrator for ten years already, I’ve been out of the classroom for that long, so it was good to go back and actually work with the kids using specific teaching strategies. The teachers learned to use the strategies, too.‖ Students' input indicates that the program is generally well understood. Comments about expectations on students' academic performance, and to fulfill requirements in order to complete the doctoral degree reflect that expectations are clear. This is attributable to faculty, advisors and the program director's efforts to generate and distribute information with the aim of maintaining constant communication. Respondents also expressed clarification of specific requirements were sometimes needed, but overall, the information shared was clear, understandable, the knowledge gained can be immediately replicated and disseminated, and used to increase social interaction among colleagues. Section IV, Your Sense of Community inquires about Doctoral students' formal and informal participation in communities of scholars. ―I took additional course work beyond the requirements of the program in educational research. I also worked as a doctoral teaching assistant during my last three years in the program. This gave me a lot of opportunities to interact with faculty and staff throughout the department.‖ ―We have a great sense of community in the Rio Grande Valley and the cohorts.‖

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―This knowledge in this area of the doctoral program is limited for me at this time but the connections are slowly developing.‖ A focus group member shared an activity that she used with staff to enrich her own school community: ―Actually there is one activity that we did in the Adult Learning Strategies course that I used at the beginning of the year. It was the timeline, using a long strip of calculator paper for each person. They tell their life story on it and share. I did that with the staff at the beginning of the year. They loved it! They were sharing with each other their experiences. We have people that worked there 30 years or more. It is an older campus, so we have people that have worked together for years. With day to day activities they get so caught up in whatever is happening in the classroom that they really don’t get to know each other, and so that was one activity I used this year. Everybody was presenting to each other. It was a good way to start—to build on community.‖ As expressed in multiple ways by respondents, the Rio Grande Valley is built on a strong sense of community. The cohort model supports the belonging sensation as it creates a system of inclusion that is needed to succeed. The cohort model is purposefully designed and incorporated into the doctoral program. Graduates often discuss and share the importance of cohort membership. Their cooperative experiences provide a way to increase the quality and effectiveness in delivery of a variety of strategies in their workplaces while completing their doctoral program assignments. Doctoral students and graduates interact with scholars and colleagues at the same time while covering assignments. This shows that they are supporting the creation of a learning community that can enhance integration of research based instructional strategies into their teachers and colleagues daily lessons and activities. In Section V, Outcomes of Your Doctoral Program are addressed. Questions explored students and graduates overall assessment regarding the knowledge of norms and standards, skills, and habits that students have internalized through the doctoral program. ―I am extremely happy with the skills, research, management, and teaching that I obtained throughout my doctoral experience. I have been and will continue to use the skills in future endeavors.‖ ―No program is perfect, but this program has met my needs and given me the confidence to feel and act as a leader in my field. I believe that I have learned more than I realize and that sentiment is affirmed when I find myself engaged in conversations with others in the field.‖ ―When you have ultimate faculty support, you are very successful.‖ The Doctoral experience is viewed as positive by graduates and current doctoral students. The doctoral program creates opportunities for professional growth, development, and provides deep understanding of skills and strategies that can improve their hiring potential. The program promotes professional relationships with peers, professors and other national and international scholars. Connecting © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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with peers supports the generation of research projects that can contribute to the discipline. Developing strong leadership and presentation skills is an expectation of the program. Professional experiences provided in the doctoral program are essential for graduates advancing into higher positions. Additional comments by graduates in the focus group provided ―rich points‖ that included the following insights: The focus group was asked ―How does the doctoral program influence your role in the community? What's your role in the community? What do think or how do you define your role in the community and how does the doctoral program influence it to make your life better of worst?‖ One student replied, ―Let me tell you, it's huge, and I think we found that out when we graduated, you know, how huge it was... I didn't expect for it to be… to have the entire spotlight on us. We were interviewed for the newspaper. A couple of times I was quoted. We were getting emails to fill out a survey, you do it online, and I filled it out. The next thing I know, I was reading the newspaper about graduation and commencement, and my parents happened to be in my house that day, and I sound like, ―Oh my God, Mother! The paper quoted me!‖ I didn't expect that, and then our graduation, one morning I'm getting dressed for work and another [doctoral] student sends me an email picture, and I am like ―Holy smokes!‖ There we are pictured in the newspaper again, in the Education section! A whole article! A whole article about us! And then of course, the school district---they put us on the District’s website! I drove to work the Monday, after I graduated, and did my usual walk into the building and I look at the marquee as I’m coming in, and it says, ―Congratulations Dr. Lopez‖, and I was like: Wow! I didn't know my principal was going do that, so, Oh my God! just things like that. The students too, because I work with elementary kids and the younger kids told me, ―Ma'am, I can't call you Miss Lopez anymore, because now you are Doctor Lopez, right? Miss Dr. Lopez?‖ Another recent graduate in the focus group shared about the impact of earning a doctorate: ―Yes, same thing with me, I finished in the summer, so I got to experience all of the celebration first, but it is very humbling. I know that, at least for myself, I come from a very humble home, you know, where my mom went to school to 6th grade, my dad up to 10th grade, so, I think I am a role model for students in our school now. I think that students see us as, ―It's possible…I know that is what happened to me when I was in school, I had a principal that was ―Dr. Rodriguez‖, so I always heard ―Dr. Rodriguez‖, and I’m ―Hey! It´s got a ring to it!‖ But I never thought I could do it, I never thought that was possible, and I think that we are very lucky that we decided to continue our journey, and that it is possible. I tell the students now, and when I have meetings with parents, I express that their students can do it, too. I grew up, maybe, ten streets down from where the school is at today. I am from the neighborhood, you know, and I want to see that their kids are successful as well.‖ © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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Findings Student support of faculty is consistent across the cohorts and across all sections of the survey. The experiences are described as opening doors to opportunity, moving students to the next level, being provided with tools to improve, and describing the benefits of the cohort model. The faculty are defined as available, supportive, and committed to helping students succeed. Suggestions for improvement center on faculty being more encouraging, openminded, understanding of commitments, provide for more student independence, more online courses and improving communication overall. Financial assistance is an issue in the forefront of student concerns. 



Students’ active participation in fulfilling course requirements, as part of the doctoral classes, demonstrates their understanding of the curriculum. They share the application of what they have learned in terms of instructional and research techniques. Students in the program perceive faculty support as an essential factor for successful degree completion. Comments centered on professors being readily available. Students' input indicates that the program is well understood. Comments about expectations on students' academic performance, and to fulfill requirements in order to complete the doctoral degree reflect that expectations are clear. As expressed in multiple ways by respondents, the Rio Grande Valley is built on a strong sense of community. The cohort model supports belonging as it creates a system of inclusion that is needed to succeed. The cohort model is purposefully designed and incorporated into the doctoral program. The Doctoral experience is viewed as positive by graduates and current doctoral students. The doctoral program creates opportunities for professional growth, development, and provides deep understanding of skills and strategies that can improve their hiring potential. Our findings agree with Easley, Bianco, and Leech (2012), the strongest motivation (ganas: Spanish term for expressing "want to do" or "desire to do" willingly or enthusiastically and also related to attitudes for changes or improvement) issues center on acknowledgment of parental struggle and sacrifice, strong value of family and family history, parental admiration and respect, a desire to repay and pay forward as well as resilience and willingness to persevere.

Recommendations for Future Study As an outcome of our study we found that the following topics would benefit from further exploration:  The formation of dissertation committees, timelines, and clear definition of the process  Review of online course effectiveness in doctoral level programs  Motivation of Hispanic doctoral students

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References: Barker, M. J. (2011). Racial context, currency and connections: Black doctoral student and white advisor perspectives on cross-race advising. Innovations in Education and Teaching International, 48(4), 387-400. http://doi.org/10.1080/14703297.2011.617092 Castellanos, J., & Gloria, A. M. (2007). Research considerations and theoretical application for best practices in higher education Latina/os achieving success. Journal of Hispanic Higher Education, 6(4), 378–396 Carnegie Foundation (2008). Carnegie foundation survey of doctoral students (pdf file: survey). Retrieved from: http://archive.carnegiefoundation.org/pdfs/toolssharing/doctorate_survey_instrument.pdf Easley, N., Bianco, M., & Leech, N. (2012). Ganas A Qualitative Study Examining Mexican Heritage Students’ Motivation to Succeed in Higher Education. Journal of Hispanic Higher Education, 11(2), 164–178 Nettles, M. T. and Millett, C. M.: (2006). Expanding and Cultivating the Hispanic STEM Doctoral Workforce: Research on Doctoral Student Experiences. Journal of Hispanic Higher Education, 5(3), 258-287. http://doi.org/10.1177/1538192706287916 Texas Higher Education Coordinating Board (2004). Doctoral Education in Texas, Part I: Past Trends and Critical Issues (pdf file). Retrieved from http://www.thecb.state.tx.us/UHR Valverde, M. R., & Rodriguez, R. C. (2002). Increasing Mexican American Doctoral Degrees: The Role of Institutions of Higher Education. Journal of Hispanic Higher Education, 1(1), 51-58. http://doi.org/10.1177/1538192702001001005 Van Manen, M. (1990). Researching lived experience: Human science for an action sensitive pedagogy. London, Ontario, Canada: State University of New York. Walker, G. E.; Golde, C. M.; Jones, L.; Bueschel, A. C. and Hutchings, P. (2008). The formation of scholars: Rethinking doctoral education for the twenty-first centuary. San Francisco, CA.: Jossey-Bass.