Vol 13 no 1 august 2015 by ijlter.org

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching And Educational Research

Vol.13 No.1

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research

The International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research is an open-access journal which has been established for the disChief Editor Dr. Antonio Silva Sprock, Universidad Central de semination of state-of-the-art knowledge in the Venezuela, Venezuela, Bolivarian Republic of field of education, learning and teaching. IJLTER welcomes research articles from academics, edEditorial Board ucators, teachers, trainers and other practitionProf. Cecilia Junio Sabio ers on all aspects of education to publish high Prof. Judith Serah K. Achoka quality peer-reviewed papers. Papers for publiProf. Mojeed Kolawole Akinsola Dr Jonathan Glazzard cation in the International Journal of Learning, Dr Marius Costel Esi Teaching and Educational Research are selected Dr Katarzyna Peoples through precise peer-review to ensure quality, Dr Christopher David Thompson originality, appropriateness, significance and Dr Arif Sikander readability. Authors are solicited to contribute Dr Jelena Zascerinska to this journal by submitting articles that illusDr Gabor Kiss trate research results, projects, original surveys Dr Trish Julie Rooney Dr Esteban Vázquez-Cano and case studies that describe significant adDr Barry Chametzky vances in the fields of education, training, eDr Giorgio Poletti learning, etc. Authors are invited to submit paDr Chi Man Tsui pers to this journal through the ONLINE submisDr Alexander Franco sion system. Submissions must be original and Dr Habil Beata Stachowiak should not have been published previously or Dr Afsaneh Sharif be under consideration for publication while Dr Ronel Callaghan Dr Haim Shaked being evaluated by IJLTER. Dr Edith Uzoma Umeh Dr Amel Thafer Alshehry Dr Gail Dianna Caruth Dr Menelaos Emmanouel Sarris Dr Anabelie Villa Valdez Dr Özcan Özyurt Assistant Professor Dr Selma Kara Associate Professor Dr Habila Elisha Zuya

VOLUME 13

NUMBER 1

August 2015

Table of Contents Influence of Mathematical Representation and Mathematics Self-Efficacy on the Learning Effectiveness of Fifth Graders in Pattern Reasoning ............................................................................................................................................... 1 Ming-Jang Chen, Chun-Yi Lee and Wei-Chih Hsu Mentors in an Undergraduate Psychology Course: A Comparison of Student Experience and Engagement ......... 17 Jill A. Singleton-Jackson, Marc Frey, Martene Clayton Sementilli and Tyler Pickel On the Nature of Experience in the Education of Prospective Teachers: A Philosophical Problem .......................... 29 Christi Edge, Ph.D Learning as you Teach ......................................................................................................................................................... 42 Dr Abha Singh and Dr Megan Lyons Analysis of Fragmented Learning Features under the New Media Environment ...................................................... 55 Peng Wenxiu Skill Education in Pre-service Teacher Education for Elementary School Teacher ..................................................... 64 Ikuko Ogawa Plagiarism Education: Strategies for Instructors .............................................................................................................. 76 Julia Colella-Sandercock and Hanin Alahmadi Introducing Pre-Service Teachers to Programming Concepts with Game Creation Approach ................................. 85 Chiung-Fang Chiu Validity of Post-Unified Tertiary Matriculation Examination (POST-UTME) as Screening Instrument for Selecting Candidates into Degree Programmes in Nigerian Universities .................................................................................... 94 James Ayodele OLUWATAYO Ph.D. and Olufunke Olutoyin FAJOBI (M.Ed.)

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 13, No. 1, pp. 1-16, August 2015

Influence of Mathematical Representation and Mathematics Self-Efficacy on the Learning Effectiveness of Fifth Graders in Pattern Reasoning Ming-Jang Chen National Chiao Tung University No. 1001, University Rd. Hsinchu 30010, Taiwan (R.O.C) Chun-Yi Lee National Taipei University No.151, University Rd., San-Shia Dist., New Taipei City 23741, Taiwan (R.O.C.) Wei-Chih Hsu Mai-Liao Elementary School No. 260, Zhongshan Road, Mailiao, Yunlin County, Taiwan (R. O. C.)

Abstract. The aim of this study was to examine the influence of mathematics self-efficacy and diverse mathematical representations in learning materials on the performance and learning attitude of elementary school learners with regard to pattern reasoning. The research samples comprised one hundred and fifty fifth-grade students from an elementary school in Central Taiwan. We adopted a two-factor quasi-experimental design with mathematical representation and mathematics self-efficacy as the independent variables. Digital learning materials were graphical or numerical and the learners designated as having high or low mathematics self-efficacy. The dependent variables included performance of pattern reasoning and attitudes towards learning mathematics. The former was divided into number sequence reasoning and graphic sequence reasoning, whereas the latter included learning enjoyment, motivation, and anxiety. The research findings indicate that (1) using graphical learning materials enhances performance in pattern reasoning; (2) using digital learning materials in teaching can improve attitudes towards learning mathematics; (3) learners with high mathematics self-efficacy display more positive views towards learning mathematics. Keywords: pattern reasoning; representation; mathematics teaching; digital learning materials; mathematics self-efficacy

1. Introduction In mathematics, pattern reasoning is generally a difficult topic for elementary school learners. Learners often fail to perceive pattern relationships and internalize them into personal knowledge and understanding, which then leads ÂŠ 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

to inflexibility in their approach to mathematical problems (Lee, Chen & Chang, 2014). As the thinking patterns of elementary school learners are still in the concrete operational stage, they require manipulable objects, the enactive and iconic representation of which helps learners make connections with previouslyacquired knowledge. Providing learners with concrete representations on interactive digital platforms can thus assist them in translating concrete into abstract thinking. The learning of pattern reasoning generally begins with inductive reasoning related to quantitative relationships before progressing on to deductive reasoning. These higher levels of logical thinking often involve abstract concepts, which learners must represent with concrete objects or appropriate symbols. Lewis and Mayer (1987) indicated that most difficulties in problemsolving occur in the representation stage. As a result, the process of translating problems into internal representations is the key to whether learners can successfully solve a problem. If learners can understand different forms of conversion processes for mathematical representation, they will be able to grasp the mathematical concepts involved. The self-efficacy of learners is also a factor of learning effectiveness, and mathematics is no exception. Learners with greater mathematics self-efficacy have more confidence and better learning effectiveness in mathematics as well as less mathematics anxiety (Lee & Chen, 2015; Hackett & Betz, 1989; Schunk, 2007). The means of enhancing the mathematics self-efficacy of learners is thus an issue worth investigating. We used digital learning materials designed for diverse mathematical representation with the objectives of improving the performance of fifth graders in pattern reasoning and their attitudes toward learning mathematics. During this process, we examined the influence of various mathematical representations and degrees of mathematics self-efficacy on the performance of learners in pattern reasoning and their attitude towards learning mathematics and determined whether interaction effects exist between mathematics self-efficacy and mathematical representations.

2. Literature Review We investigated the influence of different mathematical representations and degrees of mathematics self-efficacy on the performance of learners in pattern reasoning and their attitude towards learning mathematics from the perspective of mathematics teaching and the incorporation of information technology into teaching. We thus collated relevant literature associated with pattern reasoning, mathematical representations, and mathematics self-efficacy. 2.1 Pattern reasoning The essence of mathematics is seeking patterns and relationships among them (Lee & Chen, 2009). With the experience accumulated from pattern reasoning, one can learn the means of perceiving and generalizing quantitative patterns in objects and matters to set up and solve mathematical problems. Blanton and Kaput (2002) stated that behind any special phenomenon lies the basis and pattern of its occurrence. ÂŠ 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

Pattern reasoning activities not only emphasize inductive reasoning beginning from quantitative patterns but also extend to deductive reasoning activities (Fernandez & Anhalt, 2001). This means that learners identify and confirm patterns before further generalizing the patterns for problem solving. Owen (1995) divided mathematics patterns into three types: repeating patterns, structural patterns, and growing patterns, all of which are present in the elementary school mathematics curriculum in Taiwan. 2.1.1 Repeating patterns As the name suggests, repeating patterns evidence cycles or repetition (Owen, 1995) of specific characteristics such as colors, shapes, directions, sizes, sounds, or numbers, for example, “yellow, green, red, yellow, green, red,” and “□, ○, △, □, ○, △”. 2.1.2 Structural patterns Structural patterns imply the presence of certain characteristics within a group, for example, compositions of 5 (4 + 1, 3 +2, 2 +3, and 1 + 4). In elementary school mathematics, the commutative laws, the associative laws and the distributive laws of multiplication and addition are all topics involving structural patterns. For example, 3×5=15 and 5×3=15, or 8×4=(5+3)×4=(5×4)+(3×4). 2.1.3 Growing patterns Growing patterns involve changing the form of a number through predictive methods. Owen (1995) categorized the contents of growing patterns as sequences, which are lists of non-repetitive numbers that expand according to a single rule. In formal curriculum activities, number sequences are the most typical type of sequences, encompassing arithmetic sequences, geometric sequences, and Pascal’s triangle. For instance, the sequence 5, 10, 15, 20… increases by 5 with every term. 2.2 Mathematical representation Mathematical representations are defined as the different forms of representations that learners use to interpret a problem (Ainworth, 2006). The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) (2000) identified mathematical representations as depictions of mathematical concepts formed by learners, indicating their understanding and application of said concepts. Mathematical representations therefore play an important role in the formation of mathematical concepts. Through different representations, learners learn mathematics and gain knowledge. Bruner (1966) claimed that the process of conceptual development is the formation of a system of representations; he divided learning into three development processes involving enactive, iconic, and symbolic representations. Heddens (1984) divided learning stages into concrete, semi-concrete, semi-abstract, and abstract representations and stated that learners must first be able to internalize new knowledge in the concrete stage before systematically assigning abstract representations to the new knowledge. By creating sound connections between the real world and the abstract world, they build solid foundations for mathematical thinking. Kaput (1987) sought to explain the link between mathematical representation and mathematics learning, proposing four categories of the former: cognitive and perceptual representation, explanatory representation, representation © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

within mathematics, and external symbolic representation. Janvier (1987) showed that external symbolic representations influence as well as reflect the internal representations of the mathematical knowledge possessed by learners. Based on the perspective of communication, Lesh, Post, and Behr (1987) classified five different types of representations: real script, manipulative models, static pictures, spoken language, and written symbols. They stressed the importance of conversions between representations, which means that learners of mathematics must be able to understand diverse forms of representation, move easily between forms of representations, and select the most appropriate and convenient method of representation to explain and solve problems. Willis and Fuson (1988) found the use of pictorial representations in teaching second graders to solve word problems in addition and subtraction to be effective. Tchoshanov (1997) carried out a pilot experiment on trigonometric problem solving and proof for high school students in Russia. The analytic group was taught by a traditional algebraic approach. The visual group was taught by a visual approach using enactive (i.e., geoboard as manipulative aid) and iconic (pictorial) representations. The representational group was taught by a combination of analytic and visual means. The results showed that the representational group had a better learning performance than the visual and analytic groups. Therefore, we understood that any intensive use of only one specfic mode of representation does not enhance students' conceptual understanding and representational thinking. 2.3 Mathematics self-efficacy Self-efficacy is a determinant influencing the learningeffects in mathematics and can be used to accurately predict learning achievements in mathematics. Hackett and Betz (1989) established significant and positive correlations among learning effectiveness, self-efficacy, and learning attitudes in mathematics. Anjum (2006) further indicated a positive correlation between self-efficacy and mathematics achievements on every grade level of elementary school, the degree of which increased with the grade. Skaalvik and Skaalvikâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s (2006) found that middle school and high school mathematics students showed self-efficacy predicted subsequent learning performance more accurately than prior achievement. They found that self-efficacy mediated academic achievement. Mathematics achievement is influenced significantly by studentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s attitudes and self-efficacy. Lee and Cheng (2012) also found that students with high mathematics selfefficacy have better learning outcomes and attitudes toward mathematics than those with low mathematics self-efficacy when learning equivalent fractions. Therefore, enhancing the mathematics self-efficacy of learners can benefit their effectiveness in learning mathematics.

3. Methodology 3.1 Research Participants In this study, we targeted fifth-grade elementary learners. The research samples comprised four fifth-grade classes from an elementary school in Central Taiwan. Before conducting the experiment, the participants were randomly assigned to ÂŠ 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

two groups: one using graphical learning materials and the other using numerical learning materials. A mathematics self-efficacy scale was used to assign the top 45 % and the bottom 45 % of the learners as those with high and low mathematics self-efficacy, respectively. We derived a total of 121 valid samples. 3.2 Research Instruments 3.2.1 Mathematics self-efficacy scale The purpose of applying a mathematics self-efficacy scale was to assess whether the learners had the confidence to effectively execute mathematical learning activities. We adopted the mathematics self-efficacy scale revised by Lee and Cheng (2012) from the General Self-efficacy subscale developed by Sherer and Maddux (1982). The scale comprises three constructs: initiation, persistence, and self-confidence. Initiation involves the degree of confidence that a learner has to initiate learning when encountering a new mathematical learning activity or a more difficult mathematical task; persistence indicates the degree of confidence that a learner has to persist in learning when experiencing setbacks; and selfconfidence refers to the degree of confidence that a learner has in completing tasks. Each construct contained 6 question items, accounting for a total of 18 question items in the scale. We adopted a five-point Likert scale, ranging from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (5). Higher scores represented greater mathematics self-efficacy, meaning that learners had greater confidence in their ability to effectively execute mathematical learning activities. An internal consistency test on the reliability of the scale presented an overall Cronbach’ s α of 0. 95 – an ideal internal consistency coefficient. 3.2.2 Pattern reasoning materials AMA (Activate Mind Attention) is a widely known software program in Taiwan that utilizes PowerPoint as a platform for the design and presentation of media for mathematical instruction (Lee &Chen, in press). It is available free of charge from http://ama.nctu.edu.tw/index.php, and its core functions include the structural cloning method (SCM) and trigger-based animation (TA). SCM uses the concepts of structure and cloning to interpret shapes. Its original purpose was to resolve positioning issues in the design of teaching materials, but its ability to imitate paintings of natural landscapes, and create complex symmetrical compositions and spot series ensure a wide range of potential applications. In TA, certain objects serve as buttons that control series of animations. TA can assist users in displaying digital content to attract the attention of the audience, guide cognition, and reduce cognitive load. For the contents of the learning materials used in this study, we referred to the curriculum regarding number sequences and graphic sequences in mathematics textbooks published by Kang Hsuan Educational Publishing Group. We used AMA to design the digital materials, which were then reviewed and revised by elementary school teachers and experts who are professional at this topic. The primary learning objective in this topic is to perceive simple quantity patterns and solve problems through concrete observation and exploration, and make connections with three other learning areas in mathematics: numbers and quantities, elementary algebra, and connection. The materials presented four teaching foci in a progressive manner: sequences of odd numbers and even © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

numbers, triangular numbers, square numbers, and Fibonacci numbers. We created materials and worksheets to act as step-by-step guides to exploration of pattern reasoning. Learning objectives were set for each focus based on the curriculum, and the learning achievements based on these objectives were explained in detail. The designs of the digital materials in the numerical learning materials group and the graphical learning materials group were different only in the manner of mathematical representation; the remainder of the contents was the same. Numerical learning materials These materials used numerical representations. Aided by worksheets, the teacher presented the foci of the learning materials one by one. Figure 1 shows an example with the square number sequence 1, 4, 9, 16, …. The learners are asked to identify the seventh item and find the pattern. With the interactive buttons in the digital materials, the teacher guided the learners’ exploration of the relationship among the numbers, identifying the next item first before finding the seventh with the perceived pattern and recording the ideas on the worksheet.

Figure 1: Interactive materials showing the pattern of a square number sequence

Graphical learning materials These materials used graphical representations. Aided by worksheets, the teacher presented the foci of the learning materials one by one. Figure 2 displays the graphical example of square numbers, also asking the learners to identify the seventh item and find the pattern. With the interactive buttons in the digital materials, the teacher presented the graphical changes and guided the learners’ exploration of the relationship among the graphs, identifying the graph of the next item first before finding the seventh with the perceived pattern and recording the ideas on the worksheet.

Figure 2: Solving the square number pattern with graphics

3.2.3 Pattern reasoning achievement test The aim of the pattern reasoning achievement test was to assess the performance of the learners in pattern reasoning after the teaching experiment using digital materials with different mathematical representations. Based on the teaching contents and the studies conducted by Rivera and Becker (2008), the test was divided into two portions: number sequences and graphic sequences. Each portion contained five problems with 1 point for each problem, resulting in a total score of 10 points. Number sequence reasoning was assessed by evaluating the learners’ ability to seek patterns among numbers and solve number sequence problems. The problems involved (1) arithmetic sequences and (2) second-order arithmetic sequences, both of which were presented with number sequences. Graphic sequence reasoning was assessed by evaluating learners’ ability to seek patterns among graphs and solve graphic sequence problems. The problems involved (1) arithmetic sequences and (2) second-order arithmetic sequences, both of which were presented with graphic sequences. An internal consistency test on the reliability of the pattern reasoning achievement test yielded a Cronbach’s α of 0.71 in the number sequence reasoning portion, a Cronbach’s α of 0.73 in the graphic sequence reasoning portion, and a Cronbach’s α of 0.83 for the entire test, indicating acceptable internal consistency. The difficulty indexes of the problems ranged between 0.30 and 0.86, whereas the discrimination indexes of the problems ranged between 0.35 and 0.95. On the whole, the difficulty index and discrimination index in the pattern reasoning achievement test were appropriate. 3.2.4 Attitudes towards learning mathematics questionnaire A questionnaire was used to understand the feelings of the learners as they learned the concepts of number and graphic sequences using different mathematical representations. We adopted the questionnaire created by Lee and Cheng (2012), which is divided into three aspects: enjoyment of and motivation and anxiety toward learning. Each aspect contains 5 question items, accounting for a total of 15 question items. We utilized a five-point Likert scale, ranging from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (5). Questions related to enjoyment and motivation were positive, whereas those regarding learning anxiety were negative. In the positive items, the subjects choosing 1 were given 1 point, those © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

choosing 2 were given 2 points, and so on. In the negative items, the scores were the opposite. Higher total scores indicated more positive attitudes towards learning mathematics. The Cronbach’s α of the entire questionnaire was 0. 74, representing acceptable internal consistency.

4. Results and Discussion 4.1 Analysis of learning performance in pattern reasoning We analyzed the performances of learners in both number sequence reasoning and graphic sequence reasoning. The means and standard deviations of the two sets of scores are showed in Table 1. The performance of the students in the graphical learning materials group was better than that of the students in the numerical learning materials group. Also, students with high mathematics selfefficacy displayed better performance in pattern reasoning than those with low mathematics self-efficacy. Table 1: Summary of learning performance results Pattern construct

Number reasoning

Graphic reasoning

reasoning

sequence

Group Numerical learning materials Graphical learning materials High mathematics selfefficacy Low mathematics selfefficacy Numerical learning materials Graphical learning materials High mathematics selfefficacy Low mathematics selfefficacy

Mean

Standard deviation

Number of subjects

2.86

1.212

3.29

1.027

3.12

1.195

3.07

1.078

2.48

1.375

3.02

1.192

2.93

1.313

2.61

1.282

4.1.1 Analysis of performance in reasoning with number sequences Table 2 displays a summary of the ANOVA regarding number sequence reasoning. The interaction effect between mathematical representation and mathematics self-efficacy did not reach the significance (F(1, 117)= 0.159, p= 0.908). The main effect of mathematical representation was significant (F(1, 117) = 4. 439, p = 0.037), whereas the main effect of mathematics self-efficacy was not (F(1,117) = 0.018, p = 0.894). The mean score in number sequence reasoning shows that the students were more receptive to the graphical learning materials (mean= 3.29) than they were to the numerical learning materials (mean= 2.86). In addition, the students with high mathematics self-efficacy exhibited no differences in number sequence reasoning from those with low mathematics self-efficacy. Table 2 Summary of ANOVA for number sequence reasoning Source of variance

SS (Type-III sum of squares)

Df (Degree of freedom)

MS (Sum of squares)

F (F test)

Sig. (Significance)

Mathematical representation Mathematics self-efficacy Mathematical representationď&#x201A;´Mathematics self-efficacy Error

5.626

4.439*

.037

.023

.018

.894

.017

.013

.908

148.266

117

1.267

4.1.2 Analysis of performance in reasoning with graphic sequences Table 3 displays a summary of the ANOVA for graphic sequence reasoning. The interaction effect between mathematical representation and mathematics selfefficacy did not reach the significance (F(1, 117)= 0.226, p= 0.635). The main effect of mathematical representation was significant (F(1, 117) = 4. 896, p = 0.029), whereas the main effect of mathematics self-efficacy was not (F(1,117) = 1.517, p = 0.221). These results reveal that the students that had used graphical learning materials (mean= 3.02) performed better in graphic sequence reasoning than those that had used numerical learning materials (mean= 2.48). Furthermore, subjects with high and low mathematics self-efficacy delivered the same level of performance. The analysis results regarding pattern reasoning performance show that the mathematical representation used in the learning materials had significant influence on the learning performances in number sequence reasoning and graphic sequence reasoning, whereas mathematics self-efficacy did not have significant influence. The research results demonstrate that the performance displayed by learners learning with graphical materials in pattern reasoning was superior to that displayed by learners learning with numerical materials. One possible explanation was that the graphical materials provided the environment so that the students had more opportunities to have a connection between numerical and graphic representations. This ability to adapt multiple representations to the problem at hand reflects oneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s grasp of mathematical concepts (Brenner, et al., 1999; Cai, 2001). Therefore, making conversions between different representation systems can assist learners in interpreting problems, enhance their understanding of mathematical concepts, and enable them to make connections with related concepts, all of which make learning mathematics more meaningful. With regard to mathematics self-efficacy, we discovered no significant differences between learners with high and low mathematics self-efficacy in pattern reasoning. One possible reason was that both groups used dynamic interactive digital learning materials, and both groups were able to observe patterns in numerical and graphic representations to the same extent. Therefore, the digital materials were helpful to learners with either high or low mathematics self-efficacy. Table 3 Summary of ANOVA for graphic sequence reasoning Source of variance

SS (Type-III sum of

Df (Degree of

MS (Sum of squares)

F (F test)

Sig. (Significance)

Mathematical representation Mathematics self-efficacy Mathematical representationď&#x201A;´Mathematics self-efficacy Error

squares) 8.033

freedom) 1

8.033

4.896*

.029

2.489

1.517

.221

.371

.266

.635

117

1.641

191.944

4.2 Analysis of attitudes towards learning mathematics The means and standard deviations of the scores resulting from the mathematics self-efficacy questionnaire are presented in Table 4. A score of 3 indicates a neutral position, and higher scores mean more positive attitudes, which implicate greater enjoyment in and motivation toward learning mathematics as well as less anxiety. The mean scores show that the students displayed positive learning attitudes towards the integration of different mathematical representations in the materials. The graphical learning materials group displayed attitudes that were slightly more positive than the numerical learning materials group. The students also displayed positive learning attitudes regardless of their degree of mathematics self-efficacy, but students possessing high mathematics self-efficacy presented with higher scores than those possessing low mathematics self-efficacy in all three aspects. Table 4 Summary of results with regard to attitudes towards learning mathematics Aspect of attitudes towards learning mathematics

Enjoyment in learning

Motivation learning

Anxiety learning

toward

Group

Mean

Standard deviation

Numerical learning materials Graphical learning materials High mathematics selfefficacy Low mathematics selfefficacy Numerical learning materials Graphical learning materials High mathematics selfefficacy Low mathematics selfefficacy Numerical learning materials Graphical learning materials High mathematics selfefficacy Low mathematics selfefficacy

3.400 3.516

1.086 0.985

Number of subjects 56 65

3.806

1.001

3.124

0.905

3.450 3.600

1.204 0.987

56 65

3.966

0.958

3.102

0.980

3.524 3.364

0.787 1.064

56 65

3.714

0.929

3.168

0.946

Table 5 summarizes the ANOVA for attitudes towards learning mathematics. In the enjoyment of and motivation toward learning, the two-dimensional interaction effects between mathematical representation and mathematics selfefficacy reached the level of significance (F(1,117) = 6.831, p= 0.010; F(1,117) = 5.400, p= 0.022). This shows that mathematical representation and mathematics self-efficacy exert varying degrees of influence on the enjoyment and motivation

of learners in different groups. We then analyzed the simple main effects of mathematical representation and mathematics self-efficacy on the two variables. Table 5 Summary of ANOVA for attitudes towards learning mathematics Source of variance

Mathematical representation

Mathematics self-efficacy

Mathematical representationď&#x201A;´Mathematics self-efficacy

Error

Dependent variable Learning enjoyment Learning motivation Learning anxiety Learning enjoyment Learning motivation Learning anxiety Learning enjoyment Learning motivation Learning anxiety Learning enjoyment Learning motivation Learning anxiety

SS (TypeIII sum of squares) 5.399

Df (Degree of freedom)

MS (Sum of squares)

F (F test)

Sig.

8.033

.236

.628

8.484

.373

.543

27.670

1.342

.249

309.737

13.564*

.000

514.294

22.610*

.000

223.604

10.845*

.001

155.995

6.831*

.010

122.839

5.400*

.022

16.374

.794

.375

2671.813

117

22.836

2661.322

117

22.746

2412.309

117

20.618

(Significance)

Figure 3 displays the interaction effects between mathematical representation and mathematics self-efficacy with regard to learning enjoyment. Different mathematical representations caused learners with high mathematics selfefficacy to display significant differences in this variable (F(1,59) = 4.567, p= 0.037); that is, they had significantly more fun learning with graphical learning materials than with numerical learning materials. In contrast, learners with low mathematics self-efficacy did not display differences in learning enjoyment with regard to mathematical representation (F(1,60) = 2.383, p= 0.128). Furthermore, in the numerical learning materials group, learners with high mathematics selfefficacy showed no differences from those with low mathematics self-efficacy in this variable (F(1,54) = 0.407, p= 0.526); however, in the graphical learning materials group, learners with high mathematics self-efficacy had significantly more fun than those with low mathematics self-efficacy (F(1,63) =29.060, p< 0.05). The simple main effects analysis of learning enjoyment thus demonstrates that learners with high mathematics self-efficacy have significantly more fun learning mathematics with graphical learning materials than learners using numerical learning materials and learners with low mathematics self-efficacy.

5 4.042

Average score

4 3

3.500 3.314

2.942

Learners with high mathematics self-efficacy Learners with low mathematics self-efficacy

2 1 0 Numerical learning

Graphical learning

materials

Fig. 3 Interaction effects between mathematical representation and mathematics selfefficacy in learning enjoyment

Figure 4 exhibits the interaction effects between mathematical representation and mathematics self-efficacy with regard to learning motivation. Learners with high mathematics self-efficacy presented significant differences in learning motivation with regard to mathematical representation (F(1,59) = 4.447, p= 0.039); those learning with graphical learning materials were more motivated than those learning with numerical learning materials. In contrast, learners with low mathematics self-efficacy showed no differences in learning motivation with regard to mathematical representation (F(1,60) = 1.426; p= 0.237). The degree of mathematics self-efficacy did not have significant influence on studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; motivation in the numerical learning materials group (F(1,54) =1.962, p= 0.167); however, it did have significant influence on learning motivation in the graphical learning materials group (F(1,63) = 41.275, p< 0.05): learners with high mathematics self-efficacy were significantly more motivated than those with low mathematics self-efficacy. The simple main effects analysis of learning motivation thus reveals that learners with high mathematics self-efficacy are significantly more motivated when learning mathematics with graphical learning materials than learners using numerical learning materials and learners with low mathematics self-efficacy.

5 4.188 4

Average score

3.676 3.254

2.954

Learners with high mathematics self-efficacy Learners with low mathematics self-efficacy

1 0 Numerical learning

Graphical learning

materials

Fig. 4 Interaction effects between mathematical representation and mathematics selfefficacy in learning motivation

In learning anxiety, the main effect of mathematics self-efficacy reached the level of significance (F(1,117) = 10.845, p= 0.001). The main effect of mathematics selfefficacy and the mean scores of learning anxiety indicate that learners with high mathematics self-efficacy experience less anxiety in learning mathematics than learners with low mathematics self-efficacy. In other words, learners with low mathematics self-efficacy feel more anxious about the learning activities in pattern reasoning. The analysis results concerning the attitudes towards learning mathematics indicate that when learning with graphical learning materials, learners with high mathematics self-efficacy experience a greater degree of enjoyment and motivation than learners with low mathematics self-efficacy. However, when learning with numerical learning materials, the learners displayed no significant differences in learning enjoyment and motivation related to the degree of mathematics self-efficacy. We speculate that this is because the wealth of information that graphical learning materials provide give learners with high mathematics self-efficacy the confidence to solve the problems without assistance, and they will therefore set more challenging objectives for themselves and work harder in the face of setbacks. As a result, they will have more fun and be more motivated to learn than learners with low mathematics self-efficacy. Numerical representations in learning materials are monotonous and lack the excitement of graphics. For this reason, the students with high mathematics selfefficacy learning with these materials presented no significant differences from those with low mathematics self-efficacy in learning enjoyment or motivation. Learners with high mathematics self-efficacy feel relatively less anxiety with regard to mathematics than do learners with low mathematics self-efficacy. The students in the numerical and graphical learning groups showed no significant differences in learning anxiety. We conjecture that learners with low ÂŠ 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

mathematics self-efficacy generally believe that their tasks are harder than they really are, that any amount of effort cannot change an established fact, and that their ability to solve problems is insufficient. Such beliefs weaken self-confidence and evoke negative emotional reactions such as anxiety, tension, stress, and depression (Bandura, 1986), all of which cause learners with low mathematics self-efficacy to have greater anxiety in learning mathematics. The variability and interactivity of the digital learning materials provided in this study make manifest abstract concepts. In addition, as this was the first time the students had used such materials in math class, they were a novelty. As a result, the learners expressed positive feelings regardless of the type of learning material and presented no significant differences in learning anxiety.

5. Conclusions and Suggestions 5.1 Using graphical learning materials can improve the performance of learners in pattern reasoning In the analysis of performance in number sequence reasoning, the results indicate that learners that had used graphical learning materials obtained better scores than those that had used numerical learning materials. Similar results occurred for graphic sequence reasoning, and both presented significant differences. Therefore, integrating graphical learning materials into teaching can improve the performance of learners in pattern reasoning. The dynamic and static pictures presented in the graphical learning materials enabled the learners to make connections with previously-acquired knowledge and practice converting from one mathematical representation to another. This kind of flexible use of representation systems is an essential feature of mathematical ability (Dreyfus & Eisinberg, 1996). The answers to the pattern reasoning achievement test also revealed that learners in the graphical learning materials group were more able to describe the patterns that they perceived. In other words, diverse representation during the learning process enhances the understanding of concepts and induces better learning effectiveness in pattern reasoning. When learners encounter difficulties in mathematics, it is often due to the inability make flexible use of mathematical representations to solve problems. Therefore, teachers should make use of diverse mathematical representations, such as manipulative models, graphs, and abstract symbols, in order to promote independent thinking and holistic understanding rather than the mere use of formulas and algorithms for by-rote problem solving. 5.2 Providing appropriate strategies to enhance mathematics self-efficacy can improve attitudes towards learning mathematics When learning with graphical learning materials, learners with high mathematics self-efficacy had more fun and were more motivated than those learning with numerical learning materials. Moreover, learners with high mathematics self-efficacy experienced less anxiety with regard to mathematics. Therefore, the provision of appropriate strategies to enhance mathematics selfefficacy will help learners improve their attitudes towards learning mathematics. ÂŠ 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

We suggest that teachers use strategies such as teacher feedback, goal setting, and make use of interactive models to help learners increase their mathematics self-efficacy (Siegle & McCoach, 2007).

References Ainsworth, S. (2006). DeFT: a conceptual framework for considering learning with multiple representations. Learning and Instruction 16, 183–198. Anjum, R. (2006). The impact of self-efficacy on mathematics achievement of primary school children. Pakistan Journal of Psychological Research, 21(3), 61-78. Blanton, M., & Kaput, J. (2002). Developing elementary teachers’ algebra eyes and ears: Understanding characteristics of professional development that promote generative and self-understanding change in teacher practice. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New Orleans, LA. Bruner, J. S. (1966). Toward a theory of instruction. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University. Dreyfus, T. & Eisenberg, T. (1996). On different facets of mathematical thinking. In R. J. Sternberg & T. Ben-Zeev (Eds.), The nature of mathematical thinking (pp.253284). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Fernandez, M. & Anhalt, C. (2001). Transition toward algebra. Mathematics Teaching in the Middle School, 7(4), 237-241. Hackett, G. & Betz, N. E. (1989). An exploration of the mathematics self-efficacy mathematics performance correspondence. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 20(3), 261-273. Heddens, J. W. (1984). Today,s Mathematics. (5th ed.). Chicago: Science Research Associates. Janvier, C. (1987). Problems of Representation in the Teaching and Learning of Mathematical Problem Solving. Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ. Kaput, J. J. (1987). Representation systems and mathematics. In Janvier, C. (Ed.), Problems of representation in teaching and learning of mathematics (pp. 159195) . Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Lee, C. Y. & Chen, M. P. (2009). A computer game as a context for non-routine mathematical problem solving: The effects of type of question prompt and level of prior knowledge. Computers & Education , 52 (3), 530-542. Lee, C. Y. & Cheng, C. Y. (2012). The effects of worked examples on fifth graders' flexible thinking and mathematics attitudes. Proceedings of the 2012 International Conference of Mathematics and Information Education (ICMIE2012), pp. 61-72. Taipei, Taiwan. July 16-17, 2012. Lee, C. Y., & Chen, M. J. (2015). Effects of worked examples using manipulatives on fifth graders’ learning performance and attitude toward mathematics. Educational Technology and Society, 18(1), 264-275. Lee, C. Y., Chen, M. J., & Chang, W. L. (2014). The effects of multiple solution and question prompt on generalization and justification for non-routine mathematical problem solving in a computer game context. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science & Technology Education, 10(2), 89-99. Lee, C. Y.,& Chen, M. J. (in press). Developing a questionnaire on technology-integrated mathematics instruction - A case study of the AMA training course in Xinjiang and Taiwan. British Journal of Educational Technology, accepted. Lesh, R., Post, T., & Behr, M. (1987). Representations and translations among representations in mathematics learning and problem solving. In C. Janvier, (Ed.), Problems of representations in the teaching and learning of mathematics (pp. 33-40). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Lewis, A. B. & Mayer, R. E. (1987). Students’ miscomprehension of relational statements in arithmetic word problems. Journal of Educational Psychology, 79(4), 363-371. © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (2000). The principles and standards for school mathematics. Reston, VA:NCTM. Owen, A. (1995). In search of the unknown: A review of primary algebra. In J. Anghileri (Ed. ), Children´s mathematical thinking in the primary years: Perspectives on children´s learning. London: Cassell. Rivera, F. & Becker, J. R. (2008). Middle school children’s cognitive perceptions of constructive and deconstructive generalizations involving linear figural patterns. ZDM: International Journal in Mathematics Education, 40, 65-82. Schunk, D. H. (2007). Learning theories: An educational perceptive (5th ed.). NJ: Prentice-Hall. Sherer, M. & Maddux J. (1982). The self-efficacy scale: Construction and validation. Psychological Reports, 51(2), 663-671. Siegle, D., & McCoach, D. B. (2007). Increasing student mathematics self-efficacy through teacher training. Journal of Advanced Academics, 18, 278–312. Skaalvik, E. M. & Skaalvik, S. (2006). Self-concept and self-efficacy in mathematics: Relation with mathematics motivation and achievement. Proceedings from ICLS ’06 International Conference on Learning Sciences. Tchoshanov, M. (1997). Visual mathematics. Kazan, Russia: ABAK. Wills, G. B. & Fuson, K. C. (1988). Teaching children to use schematic drawings to solve addition and subtraction word problems. Journal of Educational Psychology, 80, 192-201.

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research

Vol. 13, No. 1, pp. 17-28, August 2015

Mentors in an Undergraduate Psychology Course: A Comparison of Student Experience and Engagement Jill A. Singleton-Jackson, Marc Frey, Martene Clayton Sementilli & Tyler Pickel University of Windsor Windsor, Ontario, Canada Abstract. Curricular peer mentoring is a specific course-based form of peer mentoring that is intended as academic support for students (Smith, 2013, Chapter 1). This study focussed on a curricular peer mentoring program being used specifically in an undergraduate child psychology course. This study aimed to discover differences in student experience, engagement, and achievement in three courses as impacted by having mentors or not having mentors. Students from all three sections of the course participated in the study. It was found that those in the mentored group (M = 7.73 ±2.45) reported significantly higher levels of Group Engagement as compared to those in the non-mentored groups (M = 5.83 ±1.93), yielding t(120) = 3.88, p < 0.001, Cohen’s d = 0.71. Similarly, those in the mentored group (M = 9.02 ±2.20) reported significantly higher levels of Social Engagement as compared to those in the non-mentored groups (M = 7.55 ±2.56), yielding t(120) = 3.31, p < 0.001, Cohen’s d= 0.60. Further, with regard to achievement There were significant main effects found for evaluation type and group membership; however, these differences were qualified by an interaction between evaluation type (midterm, final) and mentorship group (non-mentored-2011, non-mentored-2013, mentored-2012), yielding F2, 500 = 52.85, p < 0.001, η 2 = 0.18. Further investigation of the interaction using contrasts demonstrated that there were no differences between the mentorship groups on average midterm grades (F1, 500 = 6.64, ns) but that the grades on the cumulative final exam were significantly better in the mentored group when compared to the non-mentored groups (F1, 500=42.33, p<.001, η 2=.08). Keywords: education; higher education; mentoring; curricular peer mentoring

Introduction Mentors lead us along the journey of our lives. We trust them because they have been there before. They embody our hopes, cast light on the way ahead, interpret arcane signs, warn of us lurking dangers and point out unexpected delights along the way. (Daloz, 1986, p.17) While mentors and mentoring have gained momentum in many arenas since its emergence into the vernacular of business and education in the 1970s, it is not a new concept – it predates the 70s by several 1000 years (Lahman, 1999). While mentoring now is associated with broad personal and social development, the original “mentor” is referred to in Homer’s Odyssey. Mentor was the trusted advisor of Odysseus. When Odysseus leaves to fight in the Trojan War, he entrusts his household and his son, Telemachus, to Mentor (Campbell,Smith, Dugan, & Kornives, 2012; Gannon and Maher, 2011; Lahman, 1999). While based in this historical atmosphere of guidance, mentoring today is a very relevant and multi-faceted “modern” concept, especially in the context of higher education. As institutions of higher education face ever-growing challenges ranging from economic to enrollment, the role of mentoring has gained increasing significance. Mentoring at all levels frequently comes into play as colleges and universities strive to make progress toward institutional goals of increasing both the quality of education and the undergraduate experience (Murray and Summerlee, 2007).

Mentoring Various researchers have, over the years, posited many descriptions and definitions of mentoring. The key elements that appear in these definitions include opportunities for growth and individual development; a relationship between more experienced (mentor) and less experienced individuals (mentee); positive outcomes for the mentor and the mentee; and focused goal attainment (Fleck and Mullins, 2012; Kram & Bragar, 1992; Kram and Ragins, 2007; Tremblay & Rodger, 2014). While mentors have typically been thought of as senior professionals who are in the role of “”elder” professional overseeing the development of a protégé or junior member of an institution, this definition can be expanded. “…a mentor can also be a peer who is close to the protégé in age and position” (Holland, Major, & Orvis, 2001, p. 343). One advantage to having mentor and mentee be closer in age comes from the mentor being able to draw on more recent experiences when aiding in the mentee’s transition and adoption of a new role (e.g., university student). The smaller age gap between a mentee and mentor who is more peer-like also results in mentees sometimes being more comfortable approaching the mentor for guidance (Parker, Hall, & Kram, 2008). The key to the mentor/mentee relationship is that the mentor provides guidance, encouragement, and support. The overarching conclusion drawn by researchers and practitioners is that mentoring is a powerful tool for

influencing the personal development, empowerment, success, and goal attainment of those who are mentored. According to Kram (1985), these changes are brought about as a result of the relationship between mentor and mentee as the more experienced mentor guides the mentee by providing

“guidance, role modeling, and acceptance for the mentee (as cited in Campbell et al., 2012).

Mentoring Theory The emergence of mentoring in the 1970s was supported theoretically by the examination of young men’s lives as detailed by Levinson, Darrow, Levinson, and McKee’s (1978) study in which they “found mentorship to be the single more important relationship in they psychosocial development process, influencing both commitment and self concept” (Campbell, et. al p. 4). Further current explorations of the theoretical underpinnings of mentoring include Tremblay and Rodger’s (2014) summation of the potential for positive outcomes as a result of mentoring. They have concluded, based on the findings of a number of studies, that this positive outcome is based in social, cognitive, and motivation theory (Allen, McManus, & Russell, 1999; Bank, Slavings, & Biddle, 1990; Fantuzzo, Riggion, Connelly, & Dimeff, 1989; Hayes, 1999; Karabenick & Knapp, 1999; Selbert, 1999). More specific to educational mentoring, Tremblay and Rodger (2014) have discussed the impact of these three factors. The social perspective revolves around the idea of persistence, or not dropping out, as a result of peer influence; this persistence being the result of a feeling of belongingness resulting from the mentee having positive relationships with the members of the “organization,” in this context the university or the course. The cognitive theoretical component of successful mentoring deals with cognitive skill development that results from the interaction of mentor and mentee. For example, this might include tutoring or study skill development. If approaching the mentor impact with a view toward the motivational component, the qualities of self-efficacy and help-seeking come into play. It is suggested that students who are involved in a mentor-mentee relationship will be more motivated to seek-help as well as feel more capable, thus increasing their chances of success and satisfaction with the educational experience. The mentoring program discussed in the current study has used this theoretical explanation as a basis for the program. More specifically, the current study explores the impact of a curricular peer mentoring program in an undergraduate psychology course. While peer mentoring is a widely used term that can refer to a variety of learning activities and programs, curricular peer mentoring is more specific as it is a course-based form of peer mentoring that is intended as academic support for students (Smith, 2013, Chapter 1). Curricular peer mentoring has become more widely used in higher education in the last decade.

Other Studies A number of researchers have explored peer mentoring in the educational setting from a variety of perspectives and with varying approaches and emphases. The studies cited here have in common the recognition that mentoring programs are used to overcome numerous challenges in the classroom, the university, and the larger social environment. Universities face challenges both economic and societal. As budgets shrink and the value of education comes into question, institutions of higher education find the need to be creative as they attempt to overcome many of these challenges. The state of

the economy affects enrollments which affect operating budgets and opportunity for growth. Student success, reputation, retention, graduation rates, and the provision of undergraduate experiences beyond just coursework are some of the things that can be enhanced by implementing mentoring programs and providing students with the opportunity to engage in developmental relationships (Gannon & Maher, 2012; Larose, Cyrenne, Garceau, Brodeur, Tarabulsy, 2010; Lahman, 1999; Noonan, Ballinger, & Black, 2007; Shojai, Davis, & Root, 2014). These studies, while taking different approaches and with different specific goals ranging from retention to academic success to human progress all have in common the acknowledgment of the changing face of education and how mentoring programs can address many of the challenges faced on the personal, pedagogical, societal, economic, and macro levels. Along with these factors, one that might be considered the core issue in many mentoring programs is the idea of growth for the mentee, and, though sometimes overlooked, also growth in leadership skills for the mentors. As a result of growth and the resulting academic personal success experienced by mentees, retention rates are positively affected. Fleck and Mullins (2014) report that “California University of Pennsylvania found that 10% more undergraduate students were likely to stay the following school years when participating in the university’s peer mentoring program” (p.272). This increase in retention as a result of a mentoring program follows from the support mentored students receive with regard to planning their future, studying, psychosocial development, and identification with the community of scholars (Fleck & Mullins, 2012). Gannon and Maher (2012) have likewise explored the components most critical for mentoring programs to be successful in socializing mentees into new environments and roles. This identification and socialization results in growth, satisfaction, and persistence in the goal of the mentee. In short, retention. The university where this study was conducted has been implementing mentoring programs in the faculty of arts and social sciences since 2004. These programs have taken various forms and there have been multiple iterations. In a current study evaluating the effects of mentoring programs for arts and social sciences students, Pugliese et. al (2015) found positive effects for both the students and the mentors in these programs. Namely, the students experienced increased retention between first and second year as well as academic and social benefits. For the mentors, Pugliese et. al (2015) noted increased personal growth for the mentors in a number of areas including leadership, presentation, and organizational skills. Also noted were increases in self-esteem and self-confidence for the mentors. An additional example of the use of mentoring undergraduate education comes from Holland et al.’s investigation of the “role of peer mentoring and voluntary self-development activities (i.e., capitalization) in anchoring science, technology, engineering, and mathematics students to their college majors” (2012, p.343). In this study, the investigators found a positive relationship between mentoring and capitalization as well as discovering that capitalization and mentoring both positively impacted students’ “satisfaction with one’s major, involvement in one’s major, and willingness to be a mentor (Holland et al., p. 343).

Further, mentoring programs can be used in any discipline or major and at any level of education to increase retention, achievement, degree completion and to enhance student experience. A high quality program, undergraduate or graduate, includes a variety of educational experiences that reach past the coursework. While the content of coursework at all levels is critical for mastery of the field of study, there is more to be gained in the educational setting with regard to socialization and leadership (Noonan et al., 2007). With this in mind, mentoring has been used to enhance the curricular and extracurricular content of students in graduate programs as well as undergraduate programs. For example, while widely established as a means of enhancing undergraduate education, mentoring has also been used in graduate level programs to “motivate and retain doctoral students, provide them with necessary experiences associated with future job responsibilities, or socialize them into their new leadership positions” (Noonan et al., 2007, pg. 251). Other findings with regard to graduate student specific mentoring programs indicate that participant reported outcomes include “psychosocial assistance, networking help, and relational outcomes….” (Fleck & Mullins, 2012, p.271).

The Current Study This study was conducted as a formative and exploratory investigation of a mentoring program that was used in a 200 level (second year) undergraduate child psychology course. This study was an attempt to take the things known historically and through current research regarding mentoring and investigate a current application of the established theories and principles. The purpose of the study was to gain information from mentored students about the nature of their experiences of being mentored and how this impacted engagement, experience, and achievement in the course for them. The mentors in this program took a prescriptive approach to mentoring in of that they engaged in their relationship with the mentees with the goal of helping the mentees increase academic performance, engage with their classmates, and have an enhanced experience both in the class, the department, and in the university environment as a whole. One of the driving forces behind the prescriptive nature of the mentoring program described in this study is the phenomenon wherein large courses in which the main teaching method is lecture can lead to student passivity with students being oriented toward marks as opposed to learning. Canaleta, Vernet, Vicent, and Montero (2014) have discussed the use of active learning strategies to combat this passivity that leads to a performance orientation as opposed to a learning orientation. The mentors in this study approached their goals of increasing achievement, experience, and engagement by taking an active learning approach with their mentees. Specifically, for the mentored section of the course, mentors were assigned small groups (10-12) students at the onset of the course. The groups and mentors stayed the same for the duration of the course. For the majority of the course meetings, mentors were given 20-30 minutes in each 80 minute lecture block to work with their mentees in small breakout groups. The breakout sessions were designed by the mentors and coordinated, for the most part, with the lecture

topic(s) for that day’s class meeting. The goal was to increase engagement with fellow students and with the material. Breakout sessions did, on other occasions, cover more general “survival” skills (e.g, time management, study skills, exam taking techniques). For the non-mentored courses, the students did a comparable amount of small group covering the same material, but they worked independently and did not have facilitation by a mentor. For this study, we specifically set out to discover if there existed differences in student experience, engagement, and achievement in a course with mentors as compared to alternative sections of the same course that did not have mentors.

Method Participants and Procedure Students who had completed an undergraduate child psychology course at the University of Windsor in the fall semester of 2011, fall semester of 2012, or winter semester of 2013 were invited to participate in an online survey about their experience in the course. Students in these three semesters took the same course taught by the same professor, with the exception being the inclusion of a peer mentorship program in the fall 2012 semester. All students were invited to participate after their grades were finalized, and participants were reminded that their involvement had no repercussions for their grade in the course. Of these students, 123 opted to complete the survey. Of the 123 participants (92%) were female, and nine were male (0.08%). One student identified as transgender. A total of 97 of the students surveyed identified as Caucasian/White, accounting for 79% of participants. Of the 123 participants, 72 were students from either the fall 2011 or winter 2013 semesters, which featured no peer mentorship component. The remaining 51 participants had been enrolled in the fall 2012 version of the course featuring peer mentorship.

Measures All the participants were given a link to access an online survey comprised of a number of measures. The measures included the following: general demographics; Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (MSLQ); Student Attitudes toward Group Environments (SAGE); and a modified version of the National Survey of Student Engagement (NSSE). The NSSE was abbreviated in order to reduce the length of the survey and to narrow the items down to those most relevant to the goals of this study. This was done with the permission of the NSSE office at Indiana University Center for Postsecondary Research. Additionally, participants from fall 2012 were given survey questions relating specifically to their experience with being in a course with mentors in their course.

Results Data Analysis This study relied on both qualitative and quantitative data analysis approaches. First, participants provided open-ended information about their class experience. A content analysis was conducted, which resulted in the more specific quantitative items mentioned above that were given to the mentored students. These data were analyzed at the item level using descriptive statistics.

Group comparisons were made using t-tests for follow-up questionnaires specific to student engagement. The corresponding assumptions were assessed and found to be tenable prior to analyzing these data. In addition, midterm and final examination grades were analyzed across the 3 mentorship comparison groups (non-mentored-2011, non-mentored-2013, mentored-2012). This resulted in a 3 (non-mentored-2011, non-mentored-2013, mentored-2012) by 2 (midterm, final) mixed by repeated measures ANOVA design. These data were assessed for the assumptions of ANOVA; 4 outliers (SD > 3.0; 0.79%) were removed from the analysis resulting in a final sample size of 503. With these outliers removed the assumptions were found to be tenable. All analyses were conducted using an alpha of 0.05.

Exploratory Findings Participants from the mentorship group (2012) were provided an opportunity to voice their opinions of the class and the following themes came to the forefront: breakout sessions benefited students’ peer integrations, the classroom community, and the work environment. Table 1 includes items that were asked about breakout session efficacy as part of the quantitative follow-up regarding these themes. In general, the students from the mentorship group agreed that breakout sessions assisted in peer learning, perspective taking, and fostering a positive work environment.

Student Engagement Those in the mentored group (M = 7.73 ±2.45) reported significantly higher levels of Group Engagement as compared to those in the non-mentored groups (M = 5.83 ±1.93), yielding t(120) = 3.88, p < 0.001, Cohen’s d = 0.71. Similarly, those in the mentored group (M = 9.02 ±2.20) reported significantly higher levels of Social Engagement as compared to those in the non-mentored groups (M = 7.55 ±2.56), yielding t(120) = 3.31, p < 0.001, Cohen’s d= 0.60. It it important to note here that as described above, all students, mentored and non-mentored did engage in group work.

Student Achievement There were significant main effects found for evaluation type and group membership; however, these differences were qualified by an interaction between evaluation type (midterm, final) and mentorship group (non-mentored2011, non-menotred-2013, mentored-2012), yielding F2, 500 = 52.85, p < 0.001, η 2 = 0.18. All means and standard deviations for the interaction can be found in Table 2 and a visual representation of the interaction can be found in Figure 1. Further investigation of the interaction using contrasts demonstrated that there were no differences between the mentorship groups on average midterm grades (F1, 500 = 6.64, ns) but that the grades on the cumulative final exam were significantly better in the mentored group when compared to the non-mentored groups (F1, 500=42.33, p<.001, η 2=.08). These findings suggest that the mentorship program resulted in greater academic performance on the final cumulative evaluation, while at the first evaluation (midterm) the groups were statistically equivalent in terms of academic performance.

Table 1. Follow-up Breakout Sessions Responses Based on Qualitative Themes.

Items Agree Disagree Undecided Breakout sessions allowed me to learn from 76% 18% 6% my peers. Breakout sessions helped me better consider 82% 14% 4% the views of others. Breakout sessions allowed me to share ideas. 74% 12% 14% Breakout sessions created a positive work 74% 8% 18% environment. Note: Questions were provided to those from the mentorship group, those who responded completed all of the questions, N = 51.

Table 2. Grade Means and Standard Deviations for Mentorship Groups by Evaluation Type

Mentorship Group Mean SD N Non-mentored 68.28 13.99 183 2011 Non-mentored 68.94 12.88 135 2013 Mentored 2012 68.37 14.25 185 Midterm Total 68.49 13.77 503 Final Non-mentored 64.38 13.17 183 2011 Non-mentored 61.80 13.42 135 2013 Mentored 2012 70.66 11.05 185 Final Total 65.99 13.02 503 Note: Mean represents average scores as a percentage on midterm and final evaluations. Midterm

Accademic Performance 72

Axis Title

68 66 2011

2013

2012 (Mentor)

60 58 56 Midterm

Final

Figure 1. Mentorship Group by Evaluation Type on Academic Performance Note: Mean represents average scores as a percentage on midterm and final evaluations.

Discussion Based on our qualitative investigation, the students who were in the mentored classroom experience expressed that the class format allowed them opportunities to learn from their peers, consider the views of others, and share their own ideas, culminating in a positive classroom work environment and achieve a higher final exam and final course grade. The mentorship model appears to provide an opportunity for students to connect with their peers by offering them an outlet through which they can share ideas and raise questions about course content and general academic concerns. Further, mentored students report that their interactions within their groups offered them opportunities to learn from the perspectives of a diverse peer group. Such perspective taking is a valuable skill in the classroom, workplace, and interpersonal relations, however it is typically absent in the traditional lecture style learning environment. As similarly found by Smith and Cardaciotta (2011) in their study of the effects of active learning approaches, in terms of student engagement, we found that students in the mentored class environment reported that they had higher levels of Group Engagement and Social Engagement, suggesting that students in the mentored environment were more engaged in the social components of the learning experience. Students in the mentored class expressed that being a part of a small group gave them a sense of accountability which motivated them to complete readings and assignments in order to contribute to the group activities and discussions. This aligns with the findings of Teng (2006) who reported that students in her study experienced several positive academic and interpersonal effects as a result of collaborative work. This format of using mentors allowed for more active and collaborative learning, which can help overcome some of the downfalls of large lecture-based classes. Moreover, this sense of accountability serves to challenge the anonymity that is often associated with the lecture format. The intimate group

structure may provide students with a peer-support network and keep them engaged in their studies and academic community. By bringing students together, this model seems to offer students support and recognition amongst their peers, and may keep them socially and academically engaged, both factors that have been established as important in retention (Pugliese et al., 2015). Regarding academic performance, we found that at the initial evaluation (midterm) mentored and non-mentored students performed at the same level; however, in the cumulative final assessment students in the mentored classroom experience outperformed those in the non-mentored classes. Given that the students had approximately equivalent performance early in the class (midterm), this would provide additional evidence that the process of the mentored class experience contributed to the success of the students over the course of the semester. Because academic improvement was not realized until the final cumulative exam, it is possible that students required some time to acclimate to the new model of learning; however, the significant improvement in exam performance suggests that a mentorship model leads to substantial benefits when sustained over time. The current study was exploratory in nature and had its limitations. Most significantly, all responses required students to reflect on past experiences, thus leaving the data vulnerable to inaccurate recall. Further, without longitudinal data, it is impossible to determine if the benefits reported were sustained over time. Future research should explore the long term effects of participating in a mentorship program and to determine if the benefits outlast the novelty of the new experience. It is also suggested that the efficacy of such programs be explored when provided by different instructors across multiple subject areas. Finally, all data were collected from students who attended the University of Windsor and were enrolled in Developmental Psychology: The Child. As all respondents shared multiple experiences (city, university, and course selection, and instructor), we cannot rule out the influence of common factors. This model should be explored across numerous disciplines and schools to explore the generalizability of our findings. Based on the results of our investigation, it is reasonable to conclude that participation in the mentorship experience contributed to an enhanced learning experience and increased engagement. Our data indicates that those who participated in the mentored class experienced greater social and academic engagement resulting in overall higher satisfaction with the course and higher grades upon conclusion of the program. The mentorship model is a diverse pedagogical method with potential for adaptability to other programs and classroom environments and is deserving of continued study in higher education.

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Pugliese, T., Bolton, T., Jones, G., Roma, G., Cipkar, S., Rabie, R. (2015). Evaluating the Effects of the Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences Mentor Program. Toronto: Higher Education Quality Council of Ontario. Seibert, S. (1999). The effectiveness of facilitated mentoring. A longitudinal quasiexperiment. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 54, 483-502. Shojai, S., Davis, W.J., & Root, P.S. (2014). Developmental relationship programs: An empirical study of the impact of peer-mentoring programs. Contemporary Issues in Education Research, 7(1), 31-38. Smith, C.V., & Cardaciotta, L. (2011). Is active learning like broccoli? Student perceptions of active learning in large lecture classes. Journal of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, 11(1), 53-61. Smith, T. (Ed.). (2013). Undergraduate curricular peer mentoring programs: Perspectives on innovation by faculty, staff, and students. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books. Teng, L.Y. (2006). Infusing a collaborative learning curriculum to enhance active college learning. College Quarterly, 9(3), 1-18. Tremblay, P.F., & Rodger, S. (2003). The effects of peer mentoring on academic success among first year university students. The Canadian Journal of Higher Education, 33(3), 1-17.

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 13, No. 1, pp. 29-41, August 2015

On the Nature of Experience in the Education of Prospective Teachers: A Philosophical Problem Christi Edge, Ph.D. Northern Michigan University Marquette, Michigan, United States of America

Abstract. In this exploratory paper, the author argues that a core, ontological assumption—the nature of experiece—could be a part of the enduring problem in preparing prospective teachers. The paper begins by identifying contrasting perspectives of teaching as simple versus teaching as complex in order to illuminate how perspectives relate to a construction of reality. Positioning this literature review as creative inquiry, the author first identifies seventeen assumptions related to the preparation of teachers in the United States and analyzes the constructs of place, purposes, practice, and the nature of field experiences. Finally, the author asserts that the foundation for the purposes and practices of experience in preparing teachers resides on a problematic assumption about the nature of reality as “out there” in the field or in the future. An examination of this problem in light of extant literature calls attention to the need for teacher educators to attend to ontological assumptions rooted in experience. Keywords: Field Experiences; Teacher Education; Prospective Teachers; Experience

Introduction Public mythos that “anyone can teach” (National Commission of Teaching and America‟s Future, 1996, p. 51) impugns the pedagogical perspective of teaching—however easy it might appear (Labaree, 2000)—as a complex (Hammerness, Darling-Hammond, Bransford, Berliner, Cochran-Smith, Macdonald, and Zeichner, 2005; Jackson, 1974) and difficult (Labaree, 2000) enactment (Kennedy, 1999; Simon, 1980) of pedagogical content knowledge (Shulman, 1987) and “pedagogical reasoning” (Wilson, Shulman, & Richert, 1987, p. 118) that requires “adaptive expertise” (Hammerness et al., 2005). These contending views of teaching as simple or easy and teaching as complex and challenging represent different ways of knowing and different constructions of reality for different educational constituents. After all, the United States public comprises, for the most part, people who have been students, and from the

vantage point of the student desk, the commonplace task of teaching may indeed seem easy (Hammerness et al., 2005; Labaree 2000; Lortie, 1975). Even to prospective teachers in a college of education, it is possible that the act of teaching appears easier than it is (Edge, 2009; Edge, 2011). Bransford, DarlingHammond, and LePage (2005) liken classroom teaching to a concert performance. In this scenario, the public perspective is likened to that of audience member‟s and the prospective student‟s view is likened to that of a musician‟s. From these vantage points, the conductor‟s role could appear easy. However, the concert-goer‟s as well as the musician‟s perspective of the conductor‟s reality is limited: Hidden from the audience—especially from the musical novice—are the conductor‟s abilities to read and interpret all of the parts at once, to play several instruments and understand the capacities of many more, to organize and coordinate the disparate parts, to motivate and communicate with all of the orchestra members. In the same way that conducting looks like hand-waving to the uninitiated, teaching looks simple from the perspective of students who see a person talking and listening, handing out papers, and giving assignments. Unseen in both of these performances are the many kinds of knowledge, unseen plans, and backstage moves…that allow a teacher to purposefully move a group of students from one set of understandings and skills to quite another over the space of many months. (p. 1) Like the music lover enjoying a concert or the musician concentrating on playing her instrument well, the general public and the student both view the experience of education from a different perspective, from a different reality than the teacher. This perspective is a physical/temporal reality, and it is “an enacted or constructed reality, composed of the interpretive, meaning-making, senseascribing, holism-producing, role-assuming activities which produce meaningfulness and order in human life. These two worlds—or realities—exist in parallel and alongside one another, interacting and influencing each other” (Lincoln, 2005, p. 61). Like the musical novice who cannot understand all that a conductor knows and does from her or his limited physical and enacted reality, the student of education constructs a different sense-making reality from a physical and temporal, often biographical (Britzman, 2003; Kelchtermans, 1993; Lortie, 1975), reality. Paul (2005) has demonstrated how perspectivism, “the idea that truth is embedded within a particular perspective” (Paul, 2005, p. 43), is useful for broadly thinking about and interpreting scholarship. He offers the philosophical topics of ontology, epistemology, methodology, and values (or axiology) for considering how perspectives are framed. It will be argued here, that a core, ontological assumption—the assumption of reality—could be a part of the enduring problem in preparing prospective teachers to be, first “students of teaching” (Dewey; Cruickshank, 1996 ), and ultimately, to be “adaptive experts” (Hammerness et al., 2005) of teaching and learning (Westheimer, 2008). Like all scholarship, this review of the literature and its analysis is framed by ontological, epistemological, methodological, and axiological ©2015 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

assumptions. Although a systematic description of these is beyond the immediate scope of this paper, I make conscious attempts to use language that alludes to the philosophical paradigms in which this review is couched (Creswell, 2013). By no means “exhaustive,” I would characterize my attempt to problematize philosophical assumptions of experience in teacher education as exploratory: a first step toward a new notion of knowing in a quest for meaningful understanding in light of extant literature. In his article “Literature Review as Creative Inquiry: Reframing Scholarship as a Creative Process” (2005), Montuori argues that a literature review need not be merely the mealy regurgitation of who said what and when; it is also an opportunity for the kind of critical and creative thinking that delves “deeply into the relationship between knowledge, self, and world” (Montuori, 2005, p. 375). A literature review is a survey of the field, and is the reviewer‟s interpretation of that field (p. 376). Accordingly, [a] literature review can be framed as a creative process, one in which the knower is an active participant constructing an interpretation of the community and its discourse, rather than a mere bystander who attempts to reproduce, as best she or he can, the relevant authors and works. Creative inquiry also challenges the (largely implicit) epistemological assumption that it is actually possible to present a list of relevant authors and ideas without in some way leaving the reviewer‟s imprint on that project. It views the literature review as a construction and a creation that emerges out of the dialogue between the reviewer and the field. (Montuori, 2005, p. 375) It is with this intention—to discover, to think about, to critically examine, and to ultimately share my interpretation of the problems in preparing teachers in general, and the problems, assumptions, and peculiarities of the place of experience within that preparation, specifically—that I reviewed the literature on field experiences. Initially, my review led me to generate a list of seventeen assumptions related to the education of prospective teachers—those who are enrolled in a university program or alternative certification program as a pathway to initial teacher certification in the United States. Assumption #1: Experience is necessary and vital. Assumption #2: Prospective teachers know how to learn from field experiences. Assumption #3: Because practicing teachers have classroom experience, they can teach prospective teachers who do not. Assumption #4: Teacher educators, prospective teachers, and mentor/cooperating teachers share a common language for talking about education. Assumption #5 (an offshoot of #4): When we do use the same language to communicate “teaching,” we mean the same things.

Assumption #5: Field experiences help prospective teachers to develop into professional educators. Assumption #6: Prospective teachers know how to learn from “less than ideal” or non-examples in the field. Assumption #7: Prospective Teachers know how to use/apply what they have learned during their education coursework to teaching situations in classroom environments. Assumption #8: Prospective teachers have constructed a cognitive map for teaching and know how to navigate that map in various contexts. Assumption #9: Enactment—prospective Teachers can do what they know they should. (That they know what and why but also when and how to do.) Assumption #10: Prospective teachers know how to learn from their successes and their struggles during field experiences. Assumption #11: Prospective teachers (a) evoke their prior knowledge during practice teaching scenarios; (b) they know how to use that knowledge when they do; and that (c) the prior knowledge they recall is in fact, from their study of education and not solely from their personal experience as a student. Assumption #12: Reflections help prospective teachers to think through their experiences in practicum field experiences. (The assigned task of “reflection” does not necessarily mean that there is much more than recall or hypothetical thinking going on.) Assumption #13: Prospective teachers know how to think through their experiences in ways that help them to analyze, deconstruct, reconstruct, make connections, and grow. (It is possible that Prospective Teachers go through these motions discretely, never linking the pieces together.) Assumption #14: Prospective teachers know when they are learning, how they learned, and why they learned, and are able to think about learning beyond their own experiences for purposes of helping individual students. Assumption #15: Prospective teachers either already know how to or will come to see students as individuals rather than a group or class. Assumption #16: Prospective teachers will develop the ability to consider learning beyond self (student)-centered experiences. Assumption #17: That the perceived and documented problems in field experiences are “experience” problems.

Further consideration of these assumptions led me to consider the philosophical assumptions of the place, purposes, practice, and nature of experience in teacher preparation.

The Place of Experience in the Education of Prospective Teachers Experience in education is a topic of perennial interest. Students of education often view field experiences as the most valuable, critical, and personal component of their education (Cherian, 2003; Cruickshank & Armaline, 1986; Cruickshank, Bainer, Cruz, Giebelhaus, McCullough, Metcalf, & Reynolds 1996; Lortie, 1975). Teacher educators, the general public, even critics of teacher education also “agree that whatever else might be dispensable, practice teaching is not” (Silberman, 1971 as cited in Cruickshank & Armaline, 1986; p. 35). Field experience emerges from the literature as a critical component in the education of teachers (Conant, 1963; Cruickshank & Armaline, 1986; Cruickshank et al., 1996; Zeichner, 1980). The notion or place of experience in education is not, then, a point of disagreement; discrepancy, rather, hinges on what is meant by “experience.”

The Purposes and Practice of Experience in the Education of Prospective Teachers Nolan‟s (1982) historical inquiry into the purpose and nature of field experience in teacher education begins with Dewey‟s (1904) “The Relation of Theory to Practice in Education” as an inaugural treatise to address the purpose of field experiences. In it, Dewey delineates between apprenticeship and laboratory models of learning to teach. He advocates for reflective criticism through laboratory experiences as a way to bridge the historical, psychological, and sociological theories of education with the practice of teaching. Since 1904, the purposes of experience in education seem to swing along a pendulum, arching from the Deweyian notion of intellectual inquiry, experimentation, and critical reflection to the more technical teaching skills designed to induct novices into the profession (Nolan, 1982). Current research indicates that the pendulum of purpose is returning to a point which values the kind of educative experiences John Dewey introduced in 1904 and advocated for in Experience and Education(1938). In the first edition of the Handbook of Research on Teacher Education (1990), Guyton and McIntyre‟s review of the literature on field experiences noted the missing theoretical basis for the purpose and design of filed experiences in education. In a second edition to the handbook, McIntyre, Byrd, and Foxx (1996) review an emerging constructivist theoretical framework for teacher education and the constructivist framework‟s emphasis on “the growth of the prospective teacher through experiences, reflection, and self-examination” (p. 172). McIntyre and associates (1996) refer to Bullough (1989) who “asserts that the first priority in developing a reflective teacher education program is to restructure all field

experiences so students can engage in reflective decision making and can act on their decisions in the spirit of praxis” (p. 172). A critical and reflective field experience program which guides prospective teachers in becoming active decision-makers is the beginning of students‟ being able to see from the teacher‟s perspective. In light of a constructivist theoretical framework for teacher education, field experiences have the potential to bridge theory and practice; however, too frequently, field experiences “widen the gap between the two” (McIntyre et al., 1996, p. 172). To modify the conditions of student teaching to meet constructivist methods and values, McIntyre et al. cite McCaleb, Borko, and Arends (1992) who suggest that "student teaching placements must no longer be viewed as the „real world‟ and instead should be viewed as learning laboratories or studios where student teachers experience both the university and the school as „the real world‟ (McIntyre et al., 1996, p. 172). Such a program would be characterized by the continuing inquiry of the student teacher, the cooperating classroom teacher, and their students. McCaleb, Borko, and Arends‟ (1992) ontological assertion—that “the real world” for students of teaching consists of the physical/temporal place of both the university and the community—was timely. Literature from the 1980‟s and early 1990‟s was saturated by language which designated “the real world” to be the schools which students of teaching would eventually teach (e.g. Cruickshank & Armaline, 1986; Cruickshank et al., 1996; Nolan, 1982). For example, Cruickshank and Armaline‟s (1986) frequently cited article on field experiences in teacher education, situates practice teaching as an “unabated” commitment to “learning by doing” since the “dawn of formal teacher training in America” (p. 34). They offer a detailed, five-point taxonomy of teaching experiences. This taxonomy addresses the following characteristics: settings; degree of directness and concreteness; purposes; duration; and placement or sequence in the education program. The nature of field experiences is discussed in terms of whether the experience is direct or indirect, concrete or abstract. This portion of Cruickshank and Armeline‟s taxonomy reads as follows: Directness and Concreteness a. Direct experiences with reality. You are the teacher teaching real learners in a real classroom. b. Direct experiences using a model of reality. You are the teacher teaching in a contrived setting. c. Indirect experiences with reality. You are “observing” real teaching. d. Indirect experiences using a model of reality. You are “observing” simulated teaching. (p. 35) Subtle in the language is the ontological declaration that the real world is “out there” apart from the daily life of the student of teaching in the teacher preparation program. Are the experiences in a university classroom where students teach their peers not reality? Is this not a real classroom with real learners?

Literature since the 2000‟s (e.g. Bransford et al., 2005; Bransford, Derry, Berliner, Hammerness, & Beckett, 2005; Darling-Hammond, 2006; Edge, 2011; Hammerness et al., 2005; Roasaen & Florio-Ruane, 2008; Rodgers & Scott, 2008; Strom, 2015; Westheimer, 2008; Zeichner, 2012) indicates that education has moved and continues to move toward constructivist theories of teaching and learning. Bransford, Derry, Berliner, Hammerness, and Beckett (2005) state that a constructivist theory of teaching and learning is a theory of knowing not teaching. Lincoln (2005) operationalizes the definition of constructivism to mean “an interpretive stance which attends to the meaning-making activities of active agents and cognizing human beings” (p. 60). She outlines constructivism as a theoretical and interpretive perspective that comprises ontology, epistemology, a methodology or methodologies, and axiology. Ontology asks, “What is reality?”; epistemology asks, “What and when is knowledge?”; methodology asks, “How do we know or acquire knowledge?”; and axiology asks, “What contributions do our values and beliefs make toward our judgments of what is true?” (Lincoln, 2005; Paul, 2005). In a constructivist paradigm, researchers think about how learners construct knowledge in relationship to their contexts (Westheimer, 2008). Students of teaching are considered active problem solvers who make sense of their experiential worlds and who influence and are influenced by their contexts.

The Nature of Experience in the Education of Prospective Teachers The foundation of the purposes and practices of experience in preparing teachers is predicated upon an assumption or presumption of the nature of reality. It will be argued here that this presumption is problematic. It will be hypothesized that this problem is a foundational problem which could potentially create a fissure in the whole “house” of teacher preparation. First, a reality which bifurcates teaching from learning is a flawed and potentially fatal assumption. As Westheimer (2008) notes, “[i]n both Norwegian and Hebrew, the verbs „to teach‟ and „to learn‟ are etymologically inseparable. Teaching and learning…are two sides of the same pedagogical coin” (p. 756). When teacher education programs implicitly separate learning—as something you do here (e.g., in a college of education; in a university classroom; as a “student”)—from teaching--something you do there (in P-12 schools as a professional)—then the concept of practice teaching removes the act of constructing reality from the context in which it occurs, causing fragmented ways of knowing and being for students of teaching. Conversely, in constructivist ontology, the reality of teaching and learning are continuous; they happen both here and there, both as a teacher and as a student, for they are transactionally connected by an individual learner‟s experiences in her or his environment (Dewey, 1938). When teaching and learning are separated, teacher educators should not be surprised to discover beginning teachers “reverting” to teach in the manner that they learned—and consequently perpetuating the separation of teaching and learning for their own students (Lortie, 1975). What they‟ve come to know ©2015 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

through their apprenticeship of observation (Lortie, 1975) is an accumulation of at least 13,000 hours of learning in the only reality they‟ve enacted—their own student reality. To not prepare preservice teachers to examine the philosophical foundations of knowing self and other is to firmly position them further into their apprenticeship of observation. A perspective, if unexamined, could be “mis-educative” (Dewey, 1938, p. 25) and costly to the many students such teachers go on to prepare. To not offer students of teaching a systematic way to examine the ontological, epistemological, methodological, and axiological in learning to teach is to potentially perpetuate rather than repair students‟ suspected fissure between theory and practice (Dewey, 1938; Lortie, 1975). Dan Lortie‟s (1975) seminal sociological study revealed teachers‟ complaints that their education courses were “too theoretical” and therefore not useful does “not mean that the content is too abstract or general. They are not saying that methods course contain too many concepts or too complex an ordering of ideas...” (p. 69). Rather, teachers felt the courses and the instructors to be too removed from “classroom exigencies” (p. 69). Stated another way, there seemed to be no continuity in the situation (Dewey, 1938) between the experiences in the university classroom, the supposed “real-world” P-12 classroom, and the learner‟s process of learning. Such a separation, according to Dewey (1938), creates a separation between a person and her or his environment, and it creates a schism within the individual preparing to be a teacher. In Experience and Education(1938) Dewey explains: The conceptions of situation and interaction are inseparable from each other. An experience is always what it is because of a transaction taking place between an individual and what, at the time, constitutes his environment, whether the latter consists of persons with whom he is talking about some topic or event, the subject talked about being also a part of the situation….The environment, in other words, is whatever conditions interact with personal needs, desires, purposes, and capacities to create the experience which is had…Different situations succeed one another. But because of the principle of continuity something is carried over from the earlier to the later ones. As an individual passes from one situation to another, his world, his environment, expands or contracts. He does not find himself living in another world but in a different part or aspect of one and the same world. What he has learned in the way of knowledge and skill in one situation becomes an instrument of understanding and dealing effectively with the situations which follow. The process goes on as long as life and learning continue. Otherwise the course of experience is disorderly, since the individual factor that enters into making an experience is split. A divided world, a world whose parts and aspects do not hang together, is at once a sign and a cause of a divided personality. When the splitting-up reaches a certain point, we call that person insane. A fully integrated personality, on the other hand, exists only when successive experiences are integrated with one another. It can be built up only as a world of related objects is constructed. (Dewey, 1938, pp. 43-44)

Dewey‟s notion of continuity and interaction in an individual‟s experience shed light on the way that teachers‟ roles and identities are constructed through experience. Both in-service teachers‟ and prospective teachers‟ identities and roles have been explored in the literature. The concept of identity is an important component in thinking about the nature and roles of experience in learning to teach. Questions of “Who am I?” (an ontological question) and “What is my purpose here?” (an epistemological question) are not only fundamental to humankind‟s basic search for meaningful understanding, but within the context of the classroom, the responses to these questions also shape subsequent questions of “How do I go about my work?”(a methodological question) and “To what end do I aspire?” (an axiological question). Dewey (1902), for instance, argued that the teacher is the mediator between the needs of the child and the demands of curricula. In light of his later work with Arthur Bently in The Knower and the Known (1949), the concept of mediator is an active and engaged participant within the environment of teaching and learning rather than a static channel through which information is funneled or transmitted from the curriculum to the teacher and from the teacher to the student. McDonald (1992) has said that “Real teaching happens within a wild triangle of relations—among teacher, students, subject—and the points of this triangle shift continuously” (p. 1). In a transactional or ecological framework the knower, knowing, and the known are all aspects of one process. (Dewey and Bently, 1949) Meaning is made—it is an event that happens in the dynamic coming together of a particular person, the text or object to be made sense of, and the context (Rosenblatt, 1978/1994; Rosenblatt, 2005) The three components of this triangle—individual, text/object to be understood, and context- continually condition each other. However, this shaping does not only begin once a teacher is in the so-called “real world” of teaching—inside the physical/temporal reality (Lincoln, 2005) of a K-12 building filled with children or adolescents. This metaphysical space is one that prospective teachers have been a part of as student learners, and as students of education preparing to be teachers. Prospective teachers need guidance in how to learn from their present situations rather than “bank” knowledge for future use and consideration. The term “field experience” is considered to be an ontological metaphor so deeply entrenched in the culture of teacher education, that teacher educators do not consider its laden assumptions (Rosaen & Florio-Ruane, 2008). This “root metaphor” (p. 707) of preparing prospective teacher preparing to “one day” teach in the “real world” upsets the balance of the transactional triangle by removing the ontological arm of the angle referring to the context in which the learner is to experience learning. Without all three, the triangle collapse upon itself. Furthermore, by positioning learners as “future teachers,” “student teachers,” “prospective teachers,” or “interns” rather than learners or students of teaching, teacher educators and the research and literature they inspire and proliferate imply a false temporal ontology and deny the very real and rich opportunity to exist in a state of inquiry and reflection that weaves past and

present learning together through activation of schema, interpretation, reinterpretation of present experiences in light of past or even anticipated future experiences.

Conclusion In the United States, the field of teacher education turns increasing attention and energy to clinical experiences for teacher preparation and practicecentered teacher education (Ball & Cohen, 1999; Zeichner, 2012; Zeichner & Bier, 2012), It is time to once again consider the crux of what it is to experience what Dewey (1938) describes as educative experience: We always live at the time we live and not some other time, and only by extracting at each present time the full meaning of each present experience are we prepared for doing the same thing in the future. This is the only preparation which in the long run amounts to anything. (p. 49) Teacher educators and educational researchers must thoughtfully consider the ontological problem of reality in their work to prepare teachers and to study prospective and beginning teachers‟ lived experiences. When teaching and learning is viewed as an ecological, transactional, meaning-making process co-constructed by the teacher-learner and the studentlearners, then students of education can always be (now and in their anticipated professional occupations) in a community of learners who critically examine what “is” (the ontological), what they know (the epistemological), how they know (the methodological) and how their values contribute to knowing (the axiological) in a “shared enterprise of education” (Westheimer, 2008, p. 756).

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 13, No. 1, pp. 42-54, August 2015

Learning as you Teach Dr Abha Singh and Dr Megan Lyons Western Illinois University Illinois, USA

Abstract. Researchers and practitioners have become interested in strategies teacher preparation programs implement to assist novice teachers with analysing their teaching. While many new educators have not been afforded ample opportunities to analyse student work, they acquire expertise in this area. However, new teachers often lack the knowledge to incorporate the constructivist model of teaching. The constructivist model benefits the teacher and the student; the teacher is better able to analyse their practice and the student is afforded deeper learning opportunities. A case study was conducted with science teachers using the ESTEEM instrument for observing constructivist pedagogy. The results revealed that in-service teachers inclusive of new teachers need to reflect on their teaching intentionally, and observe the connections between lesson objectives and student outcome. If this is emphasized much more in teacher preparation programs, it would be of benefit to new teachers as they gain more experience in engaging learners. Keywords: Teacher preparation programs; constructivist; analysis of teaching; deeper learning opportunities

Introduction For the new teacher who is embarking on a career in science education there is great anticipation and desire to be an effective teacher. With a lot of science background and a few teaching methods courses under the belt, the fresh idealist sets out to make positive impacts on young minds. The teacher wants to be effective, and instil in the students the same excitement and wonder about science that the teacher has had ever since the teacher was their age. The teacher has visions of wide-eyed, eager-to-learn students anxious to engage in any of a host of science activities that the teacher has prepared. The teacher wants students to learn. Proficient teaching, and progression of science content in science education is described in the Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS, 2013). What those standards say to the teacher is well supported in education research and many teachers have become successful at adopting and incorporating the standards into their daily routines in the classroom. These are the teachers who do have students who are wide-eyed with wonder and inquiry, who form questions ÂŠ 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

which guide the direction of their own learning, and who come to an accurate understanding of the science concepts they uncover. But who are these teachers and how did they become good teachers? To the new teacher, the seasoned, effective classroom teacher makes teaching and learning, appear easy, fluid, and natural. In their classes, there is little evidence of discipline problems and there is obvious respect for the teacher by the students and for the students by the teacher. The new teacher tries to incorporate what he has observed into his own classroom, but the lesson does not flow smoothly and challenging discipline problems crop up at prime learning moments, diverting his attention and disrupting the environment he had worked so hard to achieve. The very things he saw the effective teacher do in his class do not seem to work in his own, at least not yet. But he knows what good teaching looks like and he knows that he hasnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t been able to achieve that calibre of teaching for his own students. The research done to identify good teaching and successful learning continues. Already, much is known about knowing and how it is acquired. The Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS, 2013) describe what is needed from science teachers, what they should know and practice, with the focus on developing science content progression for K to 12 grade. The new emphasis steers the teacher away from using textbooks to guide lessons and toward the use of inquiry. An emphasis on inquiry involves students in an environment of active learning, using higher order thinking similar to scientists. Inquiry is a powerful way of learning. We as humans are naturally curious about what we observe around us. We learn about the world surrounding us through science practices that use basic and integrated process skills. We then use tools that we have made to measure and observe the world, analyse the information, and then create models and explanations. We continue in this manner, applying the explanations and models to other observable phenomena or situations to confirm that the explanations are accurate. According to NRC (2000), we modify our ideas based on the differences discovered from prior knowledge and current information. Science teachers mostly currently consider constructivism to be the most effective way to teach for meaningful understanding (Burry-Stock & Oxford, 1994). Teaching practices that demonstrate constructivist instruction and learning were highlighted by Yager (1991): Seeking out and using student questions and ideas to guide lessons and whole instructional units; accepting and encouraging student initiation of ideas; promoting student leadership, collaboration, location of information, and taking actions as a result of the learning practice; using student thinking, experiences, and interests to drive lessons; encouraging the use of alternative sources for information both from written materials and experts; using open-ended questions and encouraging students to elaborate on their questions and their responses; encouraging students to suggest causes for events and situations, and encouraging them to predict consequences; encouraging ÂŠ 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

students to test their own ideas; seeking out student ideas before presenting teacher ideas or before studying ideas from textbooks or other sources; encouraging students to challenge each other’s conceptualizations and ideas; using cooperative learning strategies that emphasize collaboration, respect individuality, and use division of labour tactics; encouraging adequate time for reflection and analysis; respecting and using all ideas that students generate; and encouraging self-analysis, collection of real evidence to support ideas, and reformulation of ideas in light of new experiences and evidence. (P.5556)

One of the most challenging aspects of this approach to teaching is assisting the students in developing questions that are real, significant, and suited for investigation and that the investigation is worthwhile and possible given the resources available. Once the question is posed and is amenable to addressing within the classroom, student learning can be driven by the question and students can be empowered as they use higher order thinking, problem-solving skills, and their own experiences. Another challenge to this approach lies within the teacher’s own belief system. Beliefs are changeable over time, but it is a tall order to bring about such a change without a very supportive environment. Whether a new teacher is seeking to teach through inquiry or a veteran teacher desires to change his methods based on reform and the standards, a process over time will be required. For the new teacher, many beliefs are likely present, which may resist the teacher’s efforts to use methods involving inquiry. After all, the new teacher, as a student, has been largely educated in more teachercantered situations. The veteran teacher who has developed his/her methods according to traditional behaviourist principles will be required to think and act in new ways. He/she will have to adopt new skills, behaviours, instructional activities and methods of assessment. For either teacher a change in attitudes and beliefs will be required. Convention has it that the change in teachers’ thinking or beliefs will create new behaviours. However, research suggests that the opposite is true. Instead, changes in attitudes and beliefs usually come about when the teacher steps out in faith to use a new practice and discovers that his/her students are benefiting from the new practice (Antonetti & Garver, 2015; Guskey, 1986). It is this awareness of the benefits of change that produces the actual commitment to the new way of doing things. When the teacher finds that his/her students are learning from this new approach, he/she will likely expand the use of these new methods. It follows then that teachers need to undergo a sort of construction of concepts of their own. The new belief becomes the more accurate understanding, similar to the process of conceptual change that occurs when students learn. Teachers need to pay close attention to their own conceptual change as they grow in their teaching abilities just as much as they do to the conceptual change of their students (Prawat, 1992). The objective and goal of this research was to discover by observing science teachers, inclusive of new teachers, whether they engage in some kind of informal and intuitive reflection, and pay systematic attention to the cause and effect relationship while teaching. © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

Literature Review Recent research has shed light on whether the behavior of expert teachers has positive effects on student achievement (Harris & Garvin, 2013). The National Board of Professional Teacher Standards (NBPTS) assesses and certifies teachers who are considered to be very able, advanced, or teacher leaders in one of thirty different areas of teaching. A study was conducted by the NBTS. The study compared a group of teachers who were certified as compared to those teachers who were not certified. The certified teachers in this study possessed certain attributes of expert and advanced teaching to a greater extent than the noncertified teachers. They possess pedagogical content knowledge that is more flexibly and innovatively employed in instruction; they are more able to improvise and to alter instruction in response to contextual features of the classroom situation; they understand at a deeper level the reasons for individual student success and failure on any given academic task; their understanding of students is such that they are more able to provide developmentally appropriate learning tasks that engage, challenge, and even intrigue students, but neither bore nor overwhelm them; they are more able to anticipate and plan for difficulties students are likely to encounter with new concepts; they can more easily improvise when things do not run smoothly; they are more able to generate accurate hypotheses about the causes of student success and failure; and they bring a more distinct passion to their work (Bond, Smith, Baker, Hattie, 2000).

Student achievement from classrooms of the two groups of teachers was evaluated through written assignments. Bond et al. (2000) collected data from these writing assignments on the depth of student understanding of objectives included in some of the instructed units. It was determined that 74% of the student work samples obtained from the board-certified teachers demonstrated understanding that was more relational and more abstract. Only 29% of the student work obtained from the non-board-certified teachers had these characteristics. They concluded that the expert teachers who became certified by the NBPTS were better able to foster student development in the area of understanding that was richer, more elaborated, and more meaningfully interconnected with related concepts. Expertise in the teaching field has been described in terms of a continuum with five separate stages of development (Dreyfus, 2004). In the first stage, a novice will determine his/her actions from the rules that he/she has been given. However, the rules that he/she follows to guide his/her behavior are not strongly associated with the environmental context presented in the classroom. Some examples of rules learned and applied without the specificity of context include “give praise for right answers,” “wait several seconds after asking an open-ended question,” and “never personally criticize a student.” The novice recognizes isolated features of the environment and applies that specific, learned rule to respond to or guide the students.

The advanced beginner has gained some experience in coping with real classroom situations and pays closer attention to the context in which isolated classroom features present themselves. He/she recognizes other meaningful aspects of the situation that accompany the main feature. Just as a driver has learned to look at the speedometer as the main feature to determine when to shift gears and with experience, learns to recognize the engine sound change that accompanies the speed change, the teacher learns to recognize additional clues to help him make decisions. Instead of black and white rules, contexts understood through experience begin to drive teacher behaviors. This type of knowledge has been termed practical knowledge or â&#x20AC;&#x153;the wisdom of practice.â&#x20AC;? Whether positive or negative, experiences that involve cases, incidents, successes, or failures are useful for guiding the teacher in future decisions. Practical knowledge helps the teacher know when rules should be followed or ignored, as the context serves to guide and determine teacher behavior. In other words, some rules become conditional. For example, a student with a low ability may interpret praise in some circumstances as communicating low expectations (Berliner, 2004). Even with improving practical knowledge, there is a lack of personal responsibility assumed for his/her actions that the teacher will gain later with improved proficiency. Personal responsibility begins to take shape for the competent teacher. Prior to this stage, if the rules did not work, the teacher could have placed the blame of the outcome on being given inadequate rules. However, as the teacher gains experience and learns to recognize more and more situations that differ from one another only subtly, the teacher begins to adopt more complex plans or perspectives that have a more direct effect on the results. This teacher tends to be able to make a more conscious choice and to set priorities for what is important to attend to. Confusion and failure are prevalent as the result of some choices, but there is an increasing number of occasions when the outcomes are positive, sometimes surprisingly so. The teacher begins to experience more elation from these positive outcomes of student learning. Whether the teacher experiences a good or bad outcome, he/she accepts more of an emotional involvement in choosing the right perspective or action and taking responsibility, the teacher replays his performance in his/her mind, thinking of ways he/she would have done things differently or similarly. In addition, the teacher has goals that are more rational and has better tools with which to attain them. However, at this stage the competent teacher is not yet fluid, nor flexible in his/her behaviors. Assimilation of experience, brought about by the strengthening of successful perspectives and actions and inhibiting unsuccessful perspectives, will aid the teacher in becoming proficient. Discriminating between situations becomes more important than assigning rules and principles. There is less need to make the determination of the appropriateness of an action because the goals become more obvious and the decision process going into a situation is more streamlined. The proficient teacher predicts classroom events more precisely and is more intuitive in recognizing patterns, but still needs to calculate and decide the best way to achieve that goal. ÂŠ 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

As the proficient teacher grows in expertise, the teacher is able to finely categorize a class of situations into subclasses, each of which require a separate decision and action. In this way, the expert teacher is able to distinguish situations that require specific subsequent actions from other situations that require a different action. This allows for more immediacy and intuition in responding to the situation. At this stage, the teacher’s behaviors become more timely and fluid. What must be done given a specific situation simply is done. A chess player who has acquired the expertise to be considered a grandmaster can distinguish approximately 100,000 types of board positions and yet, can play at a rate of 5 to 10 seconds per move without hurting his/her performance. To be considered an expert, a teacher will discriminate between a similarly large numbers of situations and will respond fluidly without need for analysis or comparison of alternatives (Dreyfus, 2004). Varrella (1997) studied the relationships between individual teachers’ beliefs and their teaching practices. He based his research on the premise that expertise in constructivist teaching practices is directly related to the completeness and complexity of the individual’s belief structure about constructivist and science technology and society (STS) method of teaching. Thirty-one middle school and high school teachers were involved in the study and represented a stratified sample of the 175 teachers who had participated in the Iowa Scope, Sequence & Coordination program. The sample was selected to provide the broadest range of abilities, perspectives and beliefs available from among the Iowa SS&C teachers. The Iowa SS&C Project which was conducted from 1990 to 1997 was funded by the National Science Foundation to enhance science teachers’ abilities to teach effectively and along the lines of the National Science Education Standards. Some of the teachers involved were identified as experts. They were considered to be experts because they had shown a proficient ability to teach with a high level of expertise in using constructivist methods. This project sought to involve teachers in designing and planning learning experiences for their students consistent with a constructivist framework and a ScienceTechnology-Society context and the project set out to develop a group of leaders who would assist in designing such learning experiences for their colleagues. The expert teachers that were identified through the Iowa SS&C Project had several common characteristics. They all had at least ten years of experience (except one teacher), were highly reflective, were active in reform efforts at the local, state, and national levels, were committed to life-long learning, exemplified by acquiring additional degrees and continuing education credits, and demonstrated consistency between observed classroom practices and selfdescribed philosophy and strategies for teaching. These teachers demonstrated high levels of constructivist teaching, but also demonstrated the practice of a variety of strategies and approaches that, as a group, could not be categorized purely by a theoretical convention such as social constructivism or radical constructivism (Varrella, 1997, 2000).

Specifically, expert teachers involved in the Iowa SS&C Project demonstrated efficient use of higher-order questioning strategies and use of wait time to encourage more student responses and more thoughtful responses. They also emphasized learning that was hands-on and activity-based. They created an environment that allowed students to feel comfortable and safe to share ideas, challenges, and offer solutions to problems that they experienced in the class. They used textbooks for reference instead of the direction for lessons. They incorporated raw data in the activities rather than data that was formulated to work for cookbook validation experiments. They engaged students effectively both mentally and physically and they expected the students to pose questions, work individually as well as cooperatively, and allowed the students to modify and build on their ideas. They also showed commitment to being partners with the students as they valued students’ opinions. They used a variety of assessments and did so frequently, including contextually consistent assessments of student learning and pre-assessments as planning and learning tools. They also showed an obvious commitment to their own continued learning of domain concepts. They were well-versed in content specific pedagogical practices, allowing for remarkable teacher flexibility and fluidity when adjustments in the curriculum or plans were needed. Impetus for these adjustments includes emerging student needs, appropriate tangents, and new student ideas stemming from their learning experiences. They designed their lessons and activities from a personal perspective and with relevance to their students. They taught science from an integrated perspective, incorporating concepts from physical, life, earth and space science. These teachers were very articulate when describing their values and beliefs about teaching and they were able to assist their colleagues in developing learner-centered teaching. Through the project, teachers benefited from working together in “learning communities”. The teachers assisted one another to develop a deeper conceptual understanding of constructivist teaching methods and develop a more keen awareness of their students’ cognitive development and abilities to apply knowledge to novel and unique problem-solving situations (Varrella, 1997, 2000). The teaching performances of the teachers in the Varrella (1997) study were quantitatively scored using the Science Classroom Observation Rubric (SCOR) from the Expert Science Teacher Educational Evaluation Model (ESTEEM). Another ESTEEM rubric called the Teaching Practices Assessment Inventory (TPI) and a rubric developed by Varrella to assess teachers’ beliefs (BALE) were also used. The SCOR is designed to evaluate expert science teaching from a constructivist perspective using Berliner’s stage theory as described above as a continuum from novice to expert-like abilities. The rubric is used to score a teacher’s performance during a single class period. The rating system used in the SCOR is based on a 1-5 point scale with a maximum total score of 90 for 18 items. The descriptions of five abilities along the continuum termed novice, advanced beginner, competent, proficient, and expert constructivist correspond to the points of the scale.

Methodology of Research A case study was conducted with the use of the ESTEEM instrument for observation. There were 31 teachers in this study. The ESTEEM written comments were collected from the seven teachers. Written comments from the seven teachers collected through the BALE instrument were analyzed and four themes were revealed. Observations of two teachers were conducted as they could be observed. One teacher was teaching a sixth grade class at middle school in the Midwest, and one who taught 10th grade environmental/earth science at a high school in the Midwest region. I observed the high school teacher, Susan (pseudonym), after speaking to one of the lead teachers in that school the day before. Susan was not notified that I would be observing until that day. The middle school teacher, Mary (pseudonym), was asked permission for my observing her class by the physical education teacher, whom I knew. But a date for observing her class was not communicated. Therefore, in both cases, the classes observed were mere snapshots of reality for the two teachers. The classrooms described below were not prepared in any special way for observation by a guest and there was no mention of my subsequent analysis of their teaching practice. The ESTEEM rubrics were written to describe the ideal practices of science teachers from a perspective of teaching expertise as well as a constructivist perspective. The model is theoretically and empirically based and it is not likely that a teacher would exhibit expert-level scores on all of the rubrics. For example, in the study by Burry-Stock and Oxford (1994) the majority of the nominated expert science teachers were not strongly constructivist educators. The mean score of the SCOR of 46 nominated expert science teachers was 57.30 out of the maximum possible score of 90. Even though the teachers were nominated by college and university faculty and personnel from the state and regional departments of education, it was evident that either the people nominating or the nominees did not have a constructivist approach to teaching. It is interesting to note also that there was only a 50% agreement in the top quartile of the teachers that were sorted by the SCOR and sorted by the Student Outcome Assessment Rubric. Therefore, one should be cautious about what is considered expert (Burry-Stock & Oxford, 1994).

Result There were 31 teachers in this case study. Seven of the 31 teachers in the study had an average score of 3.9 or higher taking all three instruments into account. This score placed these seven teachers into the proficient to expert categories. Comments related to each theme highlight the teachers’ constructivist focus. The theme of partnerships in the learning experience is highlighted by comments such as, “I try to create an atmosphere where we discover and learn together” and “The one dimensional aspect of the typical teacher-centered classroom disappears and barriers between teachers and students can be torn down and © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

replaced with working relationships that more closely reflect real world scenarios.” Teachers noted the importance of relevancy in instruction through comments like, “…this science should be relevant and exciting to students, not because of the subject matter, but because the students initiate and take ownership in their science learning. The students can see the reasons to learn science and how it relates to our ever-changing world.” The students are stakeholders in their learning experience. One teacher pointed this out by saying that her “classroom is conducive to an atmosphere that enables students to question and express opinions. The student is responsible to respect the opinions of others, contribute to discussions and activities, work in cooperative groups, gather information for research and inquiry, and be active in learning.” Assessment and performance as an aspect of teaching was also commonly stated from a constructivist view; one teacher “believe[d] that assessment is a form of communication where student and teacher work to find realistic products demonstrating student understanding” (Varrella, 1997). Susan was not informed about my visit, but I had prior permission before I observed Mary. In the case of Susan, I would have liked to return the next day and observe more interaction with her students. The activity which was done the day I observed was the beginning of a week-long lesson plan. I anticipate that the score of the classroom observation rubric would be higher on subsequent days of the activity as the students would likely have more questions other than where to find materials and there would likely be more opportunity for her to gain information on their understanding of the concepts. However, I do believe that the whole activity (even though it was likely an activity performed by all classes) could have been introduced in a way that brought about greater inquiry. As it was presented, the activity seemed very cookbooklike and one could easily foresee the end-product just by reading through the “worksheet”. There were analysis questions included on the worksheet but they had nothing to do with directly analyzing the data or results of the rocket project. It is also very possible that Susan would have strayed from the worksheet in subsequent class periods in order to address a student’s question or misconception. Susan did appear very comfortable during the entire class period and she showed great interpersonal relations with the students. It was evident that the students respected her. There was only one minor behavioral incident which was handled quickly and her handling of the situation was barely noticeable as she told the student without hesitation to go into the hallway. She handled the class with methods demonstrating experience but with little evidence of constructivist practice. Mary’s class was observed during her first hour and a HVAC contractor was in the middle of the room for the first ten minutes working on a ceiling mounted air conditioning unit. My audio recording of the class, as a result, did not pick © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

up many of the student responses during that time. Mary took the opportunity to ask not only myself but the contractor as well to tell the class about our educational backgrounds and what we do in our jobs. Since the class was learning about electricity, Mary specifically asked the contractor about his experience with electrical work. The students seemed to enjoy the elicited information and took interest. Before Mary’s class started, the principle was holding an impromptu meeting for all of the teachers and staff. This suggested to me that there was a real sense of community in that school. However, as she started the class, it became evident by her style of teaching and apparent detachment from student understanding that she would not display constructivist practices. This was quite surprising to me at first. By the appearance of her classroom, one would think the opposite. In retrospect, it would have been better to seek out a known expert teacher to observe. These two teachers, who graciously welcomed me into their classrooms, were examples of teachers who are clearly not teaching at a competent level. Fortunately, I have had the opportunity to student teach at both the schools and have witnessed some of the most effective teachers who very well may be expert-like or at least proficient in their fields. I will continue to search for teachers who demonstrate these characteristics that I have researched. I seek to continue this endeavor, for I desire to be a good teacher.

Conclusion Researchers assert that while many teachers, including new teachers engage in some kind of informal and intuitive reflection, intentional and systematic attention to the cause and effect relationship should be taught and emphasized in teacher preparation programs. The implication of this study reiterates the significance of including intentional reflective practices with intentional focus on cause and effect relationship in teacher preparation institutions to engage students for further learning. Most new teachers will struggle with the shift to focus on student achievement rather than on themselves as teachers (Wohlstetter, Datnow, & Park, 2008). According to Hiebert et al. (2007), there are two types of knowledge, skills, dispositions, and competencies that may improve and are essential to examine teaching over time. The first is pedagogical science content. It enables teachers to “analyze” the standards and determine specific goals for mastery. Additionally, teachers use this information to better understand how students will comprehend the subject, to refine specific concepts and to deepen students’ knowledge of abstract concepts. Specific subject matter competencies afford teachers more opportunities for analysis of practice, thereby yielding improved teaching (Flooden & Meniketti, 2005). The second competence is reasoning which enables teachers to develop and test hypotheses regarding the cause-effect relationships between teaching and learning. Hiebert et al. (2007) grouped these competencies into the following categories: (a) student outcomes (b) measurable assessment to see if the student outcomes have been achieved, and (c) stating

hypothesis for the lesson outcomes, and (d) using the hypotheses to modify the lesson. The more specifically learning goals are described, the more useful teaching and analysis. Skillful specification of learning goals assists new teachers in determining which subject matter needs to be acquired and it will also improve competency in unpacking learning goals. When learning goals are specified, evidence can be collected to determine to what extent students achieve mastery. Furthermore, the appropriate empirical observations can ensure that teachers are measuring mastery in the most authentic manner. Conducting appropriate empirical observations requires that the teacher distinguishes students’ responses that are relevant from those that are irrelevant and identifies moments in the lesson where evidence of students’ learning is apparent. McCutheoen (1980) emphasizes that new teachers often analyze their practice in terms of smooth implementation of activities rather than an anticipated change in students’ thinking. Wheatly (2002) states that teachers’ self-efficacy doubts might inadvertently support an understanding of their knowledge of student learning; questioning their effectiveness might cause a shift in their perspective. As a teacher begins to develop a hypotheses that link teaching and learning, the tasks must provide enough detail for the teacher to determine where learning gaps may occur. Additionally, if the learning goals do not incorporate conceptual learning, the teacher might implement quick instruction, immediate feedback, and effective and clear transitions from teacher modeling to student practice as a means of facilitating effective measurement on standards based testing (Hiebert & Grouws, 2007). The new teachers use the student outcome, or cause-effect hypotheses as a rationale for carefully developed revision. Veteran teachers are able to better gauge how students will perform and on which tasks or point(s) within a lesson students will experience the greatest difficulty. They are also able to better identify strategies to address remediation when compared to novice teachers. Veteran teachers have been afforded several opportunities to hone researchoriented teaching skills; consequently they participate in gathering knowledge to accurately analyze their practice to improve their professional learning and student achievement (Antonetti & Garver, 2015; Marlara & San, 2002). One of the more important aspects of this model is the need for reflection and purposeful change on the part of the teacher. The accomplished teacher does not stop learning or reflecting, becoming more conscious of their beliefs, understandings, and performance. It has been suggested that teachers develop teaching portfolios, write case reports, and involve themselves in regular discussions of their own practice with others. Finally, the accomplished teacher is a member of a professional community. Within this community, the teacher both influences and is influenced by others with similar or dissimilar beliefs. In the case of pre-service teachers, the initial community in which he/she is trained is eventually replaced by a new © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

community of learners (teachers) upon entering his/her first role as a classroom teacher. How much of that initial learning is transferred to the new context? There is an individual contribution by that teacher to the community and the community influences the new individual. In teacher communities, there are shared visions, commitments, a shared base of knowledge, adopted practices, and specific methods of teacher assessment which all come together to either enhance or inhibit the development of certain components of accomplishment derived from another context of learning (Harris & Garvin, 2013).

References

Antonetti, J. V. & Garver, J. R. (2015). 17,000 classroom visits can’t be wrong. Alexandria, VA: ASCD. Berliner, D.C. (2004). Describing the behavior and documenting the accomplishments of expert teachers. Bulletin of Science, Technology & Society, 24(3), 200-212. Bond, L., Smith, T., Baker, W.K., Hattie, J.A. (2000). The certification system of the National Board for Professional Teaching Standards: A construct and consequential validity study. Greensboro: Center for Educational Research and Evaluation, University of North Carolina at Greensboro. Burry-Stock, J.A. & Oxford, R.L. (1994). Expert science teaching educational evaluation model (ESTEEM) for measuring excellence in science teaching for professional development. Journal of Personnel Evaluation in Education, 8, 267-297. Dreyfus, S.E. (2004). The five-stage model of adult skill acquisition. Bulletin of Science, Technology & Society, 24(3), 177-181. Flooden, R., & Menketti, M. (2005). Research on the effects of coursework in the arts and sciences in the foundations of education. In M. Cochran-Smith & K. M. Zeichner (Eds.), Studying teacher education: The report of the AREA Panel on Research and Teacher Education (pp. 261-308). Manwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Guskey, T.R. (1986). Staff development and the process of teacher change. Educational Researcher, 15(5), 5-12. Harris, R., & Gavin, T. (2013). Opportunities and obstacles to consider when using peer- and self-assessment to improve student learning: Case studies into teachers’ implementation. Teaching and Teacher Education 36,101-111. Hieber, J., & Grouws, D. A. (2007). The effects of classroom mathematics teaching on students’ learning. In F. K. Lester (Ed). Second handbook of research on mathematics teaching and learning (pp. 371-404). Greenwich, CT: Information Age. Hiebert, J., Morris, A, Berk, D., & Jensen, A. (2007). Preparing teachers to learn from teaching. Journal of Teacher Education, 58, 47-61. Malara, N.A., & Zan, R. (2002) The problematic relationship between theory and practice. In L. English (Ed.). Handbook of international research mathematics education (pp. 553-580). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. McCutcheon, G. (1980). How do elementary school teachers plan? The nature of planning and influences on it. Elementary School Journal, 81, 4-23. Meyer, H. (2004). Novice and expert teachers’ conceptions of learners’ prior knowledge. Science Education, 88, 970-983. NGSS Lead States. (2013). Next Generation Science Standards: For states, by states. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. National Research Council (NRC). (2000). Inquiry and the national science education standards: a guide for teaching and learning. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

Pajares, M.F. (1992). Teachers’ beliefs and educational research: Cleaning up a messy construct. Review of Educational Research, 62, 307-332. Prawat, R. (1992). Teachers’ beliefs about teaching and learning: A constructivist’s perspective. American Journal of Education, 100(3), 354-395. Varrella, G.F. (1997). The relationships of science teachers’ beliefs and practices. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Iowa, Iowa City. Varrella, G.F. (2000). Science teachers at the top of their game: What is teacher expertise? The Clearing House, 74(1), 43-45. Wheatley, K. F. (2002). The potential benefits of teacher efficacy doubts for educational reform. Teaching and Teacher Education, 18, 5-22. Wohlstetter, P., Datnow, A., & Park, V. (2008). Creating a system for data-driven decision-making: Applying the principal-agent framework. School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 19(3), 239–259. Yager, R.E. (1991). The constructivist learning model. The Science Teacher, 51, 52-57.

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 13, No. 1, pp. 55-63, August 2015

Analysis of Fragmented Learning Features under the New Media Environment Peng Wenxiu College of computer science, Yangtze University Jingzhou, China

Abstract. With the rapid development of the new media technology throughout the world, smart phones, tablets, laptops and other kinds of media constantly appear in peopleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s learning activities. Depending on the internal intervention and external support of new media technology, a new learning style called fragmented learning emerges. Beginning with the definition of new media and fragmented learning, this article points out that with the fragmentation of time and space, media and information produce distributed learning behavior, which is apt to form thought fragments. Meanwhile, scattered thinking model is easy to produce distributed learning behavior. One is mutually affected and promoted by the other one. New media meets the general condition of fragmented learning for learners. From what ever perspective including time and space, media and information, thinking and behavior, fragmented learning shows different features from traditional collective learning. As a new learning style, fragmented learning under the new media environment has brought opportunities and challenges for learners. We need more research on how to maximize the value of fragmented learning, so as to improve the quality and efficiency of learning. Keywords: Fragmented Learning; Fragmentation; New Media; Feature; Mobile Learning

1. Introduction According to ITU (2015), there are about seven billion mobile users in the world. In the year 2000, there were only 738 million users. Today, 3.2 billion users are

using the Internet. From 2000 to 2015, the popularizing rate of the Internet users increased almost 7 times, it increased to 43% of the world's population from 6.5%. (e.g. Figure 1) The number of mobile-cellular telephone subscriptions and mobile broadband subscription are increasing at an alarming rate.

Figure 1: The ICT Development Situation from 2000 to 2015 (CNBeta.com, 2015)

With the popularity of network terminals and mobile terminals, the new media provide effective technical support for people. With the new media, people can learn anytime and anywhere. Depending on the internal intervention and external support of the new media technology, a new learning style called fragmented learning emerges. In dormitory, classroom, playground or dining-room, we can see students learning and communicating anywhere. The new media technology provides opportunities for ubiquitous learning. As a result of the new media like smart phones, tablets, laptops, peopleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s learning styles have changed a lot, which are becoming much easier and more efficient. Based on the above there is need to introduce the new media and the fragmented learning. Besides that, we must fully grasp the features of new media and fragmented learning, in order to improve the quality and efficiency of learning.

2. New Media 2.1 What Is New Media The new media is always closely linked to the Internet and digital devices. Common examples of new media include websites such as online newspapers, blogs, wikis, video games, and social media. A defining characteristic of new media is dialogue. Unlike any of past technologies, new media is grounded on an interactive community (Brandon, 2011).

Besides this, most technologies described as new media are digital. New media does not include analog television programs, feature films, magazines, books, or paper-based publications, unless they contain technologies that enable digital interactivity (Lev, 2003). For example, the Wikipedia is combining Internet accessible digital text, images and video with web-links. Those who can access the site can edit most of its articles (Alec, 2011).

2.2 Features of New Media Features of the new media can be summarized in the following aspects: (1) Digital As mentioned above, most technologies described as new media are digital. Through a full range of digital process, all of the information is converted into the binary encoding, and then we can use digital process technologies for production, storage and transmission of information. (2) Interactive What is “interactive”? Judging from the literal meaning, it refers to some kind of direct action to bring immediate consequences, namely it is with instant feedback. Also there is a transfer under the relationship, if this relationship is bidirectional, you can call it the "interactive". In learning activities under new media environment, learners can interact with the media and information, they are no longer just the receivers of information, but also the disseminator of information. (3) Personalized Based on the learners’ habits, new media can provide learners with a variety of personalize information service. For example, the learners can use new media to search information, process information and deliver information, so this is a two-way communication system based on personalized learners. (4) Integrated The Internet breaks through the oneness of traditional media, and it realizes the integration of text, image, sound, video, audio, etc. Compared with traditional media such as printed newspapers and analog broadcast, the forms of new media are many and varied. They integrate all sorts of receiving terminals, transmission channels and information form together, so that learners can learn with any new media terminals anywhere. (5) Popular Referring to the new media, we have to talk about the mobile phone. As mentioned above, in the worldwide today, more and more people are using mobile phones. Initially, people use phones just for calling, but now, with the development of mobile technology, function of mobile phones is more diversified, we use mobile phones surfing the Internet, learning, communicating and so on. In spite of this, the price of mobile phones is not high, so it is acceptable for mass consumption capacity.

On the other hand, by using the new media, people can access to learning resources at a low cost, maybe they don't have to pay high tuition fees as in the traditional learning mode. At the same time, all kinds of new media terminals are much smaller and easy to carry, which can provide essential support for fragmented learning under new media environment.

3. Fragmented Learning How to implement fragmented learning effectively, network education and mobile learning break through the limitation of time and place, so it is necessary to talk about the mobile learning. UNESCO (2011) reported pilot projects conducted in Pakistan, Mongolia, Mozambique, Kenya and other countries. The reports showed that mobile phones can play a positive role in providing distance education service, improving literacy rate of women and girls, arousing enthusiasm of students’ learning, improving communication between school management and teachers and so on. Mohamad (2012), Echeverria (2011) and other scholars agree that, mobile learning can create situational learning experience, timely feed back learning content, stimulate learning motivation, reduce students' cognitive load, enhance interaction between teachers and students, extend students' communication range and greatly support collaborative learning. Referring to the fragmented learning, people pay more attention to the fragmentation of knowledge, and they mainly emphasize using fragmented knowledge for individual learning and organizational learning. (Daniel, 1993; Jane & Jaideep, 2001) However, we can understand this concept from a broader perspective. Professor Zhu Zhiting (2010) points out that learning fragmentation begins from information fragmentation in greater degree, and then leads to fragmentation of knowledge, time, space, media, relation, thinking, experience, etc. Based on the research mentioned above, the fragmented learning can be defined as below. Learners in social life can learn knowledge in a fragmented way with various media anytime and anywhere, so as to enhance knowledge and improve skills, we can call this learning style “fragmented learning”. This definition can be further explained from the figure below. (e.g. Figure 2) With fragmentation of time and space, media and information produce distributed learning behavior, which is apt to form thought fragments. Meanwhile, scattered thinking model is easy to produce distributed learning behavior. One is mutually affected and promoted by the other one.

Thought

Time

Space

Fragmented Learning

Media Information

Behavior Figure 2: Fragmented Learning

4. Influence of New Media on Fragmented Learning 4.1. Internal Intervention Under the technical intervention of new media, fragmented knowledge affects the learners’ cognitive structure. Whether “learning from technology” or “learning with technology”, technology brings both active intervention and passive intervention to learning process (Wang Mi, 2013). “The Shallows” (2010) shows how newly introduced technologies change the way people think, act and live. The book focuses on the detrimental influence of the Internet by investigating how hypertext has contributed to the fragmentation of knowledge. When we search the Web, for instance, the context of information can be easily ignored. "We don't see the trees," Carr writes. "We see twigs and leaves." (Lehrer, & Jonah, 2010) “Hyperlinks” can make people get more information. However, many people find they forget the initial searching aim when they are clicking form one link to another link. After frequently clicks, attention will overload and become fragmented. So, hyperlinks do bring a fragmented way of browsing and reading. It is easy to “mutilate” people’s attention to fragmentation and disrupt its order and purpose.

4.2. External support In the era of fragmentation, constant emergences of new media technologies and tools promote the fragmentation of learning environment, and provide abundant and various learning environment for people in a fast-paced living mode. New media eliminate the restrictions of time and space, and provide digital resources environment and broad learning space through integration.

Development of network technology, mobile technology and communication technology greatly shorten the distance between people and information, people and people, information and information. Especially with the promotion of pervasive computing and ubiquitous network, all the information resources are in the cloud, which make information resources present fragmentation. Through diversified media terminals, people can learn anytime and anywhere. For example, people can participate in the network learning community to realize diversified learning whenever they need. In short, new media technologies promote fragmented learning environment, in which people can realize the fragmented learning anytime and anywhere using fragmentation learning resources.

5. Analysis of Fragmented Learning Features 5.1. Time and Space With the progress of society and development of technology, the social competition is becoming much more intense, people have to constantly transform among learning, working and living environment almost every day, in this way, the time is broken into pieces of fragments, and we call it fragments of time. As an individual unit, such short time can not support people accomplish a systematic learning activity, but as a whole, if all the fragments of time accumulate, the amount would be enormous. Therefore, college students and city workers can use smart phones or tablets to acquire information with fragments of time, in order to achieve the growth of knowledge and improvement of skills. We can learn not only at any time, but at any space, as on the bus to work, or in bed 20 minutes before sleep, we can learn at will, so as to improve the flexibility of learning. In fragmented learning mode, we are no longer subjected to time and space limit.

5.2. Media and Information With the rapid development of media technology, media are becoming diverse and mini, so learners can choose and use media with more freedom and personalization. In addition, because of the learnersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; shorter attention span, the selection and usage of new media will be much wider. Quantity of media and information are increasing a lot. In fragmented learning, information is no longer complete, systematic and fixed. As the fragmentation of time and space, and the widespread application of intelligent learning terminal, learning information is becoming piecemeal, nonlinear, and flexible. In this way, using various new media, learners can independently obtain information which is mainly provided by teachers as in the traditional collective learning activities.

5.3. Thought and Behavior

Due to the information explosion and wide application of the new media, the interaction between learners and information increases a lot. As a result, the learner's thinking becomes jumpy and transitory, and their attention is easy to transfer. At the same time, the learners’ behavior is becoming more diverse, optional. There is no doubt that learners’ learning initiative is stronger, they use media and resources for learning and communicating as flexible as possible. Based on the above analysis, these six features can be presented in the form of table more clearly. Meanwhile, we can compare the fragmented learning to collective learning from such six aspects, in order to understand it better. (e.g. Table 1) Table 1: Comparison of Features of Fragmented Learning and Collective Learning

Features Time Space

Fragmented Learning

Collective Learning

Fragmented, shorter, any time

Integrated, longer, usually prescribed by the school Usually in designated space such as classroom, reading room, laboratory, etc. Combination of traditional media and modern media. Blackboard, chalk, textbook, multimedia computer, projection, electronic whiteboard, network, etc.

Any space such as classroom, dormitory, playground, dining-room, etc. Diverse, miniature, digital, networked.

Media

New media including laptops, tablets, smart phones and other digital media, network media, mobile media, etc. Piecemeal, nonlinear, flexible. Information Independently obtained by learners. Thought is jumpy and transitory. Thought Attention is easy to transfer. Diverse, optional, easy to transfer, with more initiative Learners use media and resources for learning and Behavior communicating as flexible as possible.

Complete, systematic, fixed. Mainly provided by teachers. Thought is coherent and lasting. Attention is easy to maintain. Single, organizational, continuous, with poor initiative. Collective Learning, also including cooperative learning, inquiry learning and other learning activities.

From what ever perspective including time and space, media and information, thinking and behavior, fragmented learning shows different features from traditional collective learning. However the fragmented learning and its features are inseparable from the influence of the new media environment.

6. Conclusion With the rapid development of modern science and technology, new media is infiltrating into all social fields with unexpected speed. Whether in social education or school education, every media transformation provides a driving force for the development of education. TV media, computer media and network media have brought infinite opportunities and challenges to humans’ learning activities. And now, under the new media environment, fragmented learning is becoming an important learning style for learners. New media meets the general condition of fragmented learning for learners, and it provides an indispensable internal intervention and external support for fragmented learning. The fragmented learning happens anytime and anywhere, and influent people’s learning and living. On the one hand, the fragmented learning is based on the learners’ independent consciousness. According to the different learning needs and learning situation, learners can achieve autonomous learning in a real sense. The fragmented learning can expand original fixed learning time and space, and increase learning opportunities for learners. On the other hand, however, fragmented learning is not conducive to the logic and integrity of individual knowledge system, and it is not suitable for learners to complete complex learning task. In addition, fragmented learning can easily lead to learners’ thinking cognitive structure fragmented and decentralized. Considering the problems exist in fragmented learning and its influence to learners, researchers have to study how to maximize the value of fragmented learning. (1) Design fragmented learning resources effectively The effectiveness of learning content directly affects the effect and practical value of fragmented learning. Therefore, we need to provide effective learning resources to meet the needs of fragmented learning and enhance its value. (2) Research the aggregation and orderliness of fragmented knowledge To improve the value of resources utilization and effect of fragmented learning, there is need to implement aggregation and orderliness of resources. By providing orderly and logical resources, we can avoid the disadvantages brought by the fragmented learning and promote knowledge structure integrity for learners. (3) Improve skills of individual learning management and knowledge management.

The value of isolated knowledge fragments is limited. We need to use effective learning tools to provide management method for fragmented learning, in order to promote individual knowledge management. Fragmented learning under the new media environment has brought opportunities and challenges for learners. We need further research on how to develop its greater value. Fragmented learning is only one kind of learning style, it can serve as a supplement for other learning activities, all kinds of learning activities can complement each other, and service for learners together.

References Alec Fisher. (2011). Critical Thinking: An Introduction. Cambridge University Press, 199-200. Brandon Vogt. (2011). The Church and New Media. Our Sunday Visitor Inc, 17. CNBeta.com. (2015). Internet Users Will Reach 3.2 Billion at the End of This Year. http://www.cnbeta.com/articles/397055.htm Daniel H. Kim. (1993). The Link between Individual and Organizational Learning. Sloan Management Review, 37-50. Jane Zhou., & Jaideep Anand. (2001) Will Mitchell .Transferring Collective Knowledge: Collective and Fragmented Teaching and Learning in the Chinese Auto Industry, William Davidson Working Paper Number 420, University of Michigan Business School, (12). Lehrer, & Jonah. (2010). Our Cluttered Minds. New York Times. Lev Manovich. (2003). Introduction to The New Media Reader, The MIT Press, 13-25. Mohamad, M., & Woollard, J. (2012). Issues and Challenges in Implementing Mobile Learning in Malaysian Schools. 6th International Technology. Education and Development Conference, 5051-5059. Nicholas Carr. (2010). The Shallows, W. W. Norton & Company. Roberts,N., & Vanska,R. (2011). Challenging Assumptions: Mobile Learning for Mathematics Project in South Africa. Distance Education, 243-259. UNESCO. (2011). UNESCO "Mobile Learning Week" Activity Focuses on Function of Mobile

Phones

Universal

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http://www.un.org/chinese/News/story.asp?NewsID=16820 Wang Mi. (2013). On Designing the Content of Micro-Video Courses in a Fragmented Learning Age. East China Normal University, 13-14. Zhu Zhiting. (2012). New Development of Educational Informationization: International Observation and Domestic Dynamic, Modern Distance Education Research, 3-13.

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 13, No. 1, pp. 64-75, August 2015

Skill Education in Pre-service Teacher Education for Elementary School Teacher Ikuko Ogawa Kagawa University Takamatsu, Kagawa, Japan

Abstract. In elementary school teacher education in Japan, pre-service students are expected to gain an understanding of sewing, basic practical sewing skills, and the ability to explain, for teaching, these skills. In this study, the perceptions of the students of their abilities in these skills were surveyed and compared to the actual evaluations of their results by instructors in the subject contents classes for pre-service teacher education course for elementary school teachers. The practicum helped to raise some of the skills to a sufficient level, although not all skills were sufficient, in spite of the students' beliefs. The students had lower perceptions of their ability for "explanation" of the skills than "understanding" and "practice" of the skills. Keywords: sewing skill education; pre-service teacher education; students' perception; skill evaluation

Introduction Basic sewing skills in home economics education are mandated by the Ministry of Education, Culture, Science, Sports and Technology (Abb. MEXT) for all fifth and sixth grade elementary school students in Japan (MEXT, 2008). Since home economics is usually taught by the regular classroom teachers, rather than teachers specializing in home economics (MEXT, 2014), all pre-service elementary school teacher education students (hereafter pre-service students) are expected to develop basic sewing skills. The National Standard for Teacher Education and Licensing Law has determined that in elementary school teacher education for home economics, the subject pedagogy unit is required unit, while the subject content unit is elective unit (MEXT, 1998). Pre-service students are expected to master the broad and diverse content of home economics in only one pedagogy unit and one subject content unit. A unit is comprised of 15 classes (90 min). For sewing skill education, the pre-service students are expected to have i) an understanding of sewing technique, ii) practical skill in sewing, and iii) ability to explain sewing skills to elementary school students. In this study, the perceptions of pre-service studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; mastery of these 3 key aspects of sewing were surveyed before taking the elective subject content unit (pre-test), and resurveyed after completion (post-test). Their perceptions (pre ÂŠ 2015 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

and post tests) were and compared to evaluations of their practical skill by university instructors in pre-service subject content unit. According to the results, the issues for the implication for skill education for pre-service students were discussed.

Literature Review The content of school subjects for elementary school students are determined by the MEXT Curriculum Standard (The Course of Study) and are revised every ten years. For home economics education, revisions are made in accordance with the perceived utility of the home economic skills, and as such the sewing skill education for elementary school students has become easier (Yoshino et al., 2007). The importance of sewing skill education for home economics education has been widely discussed and there are basically two opposing positions. Montgomery (2006) stated that learning sewing skills are not as relevant today as they were in the past and proposed that a critical science approach is more relevant for today's individuals and families. Whereas, Norm (2013) suggested the skills had an important influence on changes in behavior toward more sustainable clothing practices, and one way to achieve greater sustainability in clothing consumption was through clothing repair. Pendergast et al. (2013) claimed that skill education, such as teaching sewing skills, was one role that could be and should be fulfilled by schools based upon text analysis of 130 public comments to a website forum in response to the published article, “Bring back home ec! Parents don’t have time to teach kids basic cooking and housekeeping, so schools must do it instead”. In Japan, many researchers have identified sewing skill as one of life skills that attracts children's attention and interest while also serving to foster originality and ingenuity in their daily lives (Fuseya et al., 2003). Classroom research in Japan supports this contention (Okawa et al, 1976, Nishimura et al, 1978, Muto et al, 1986a, b, 1987a, b, Fujiwara et al, 1987a, b). Japanese elementary students have demonstrated a positive awareness about sewing skill education (Nakama et al. 1981, Fuseya et al., 2003), and participated actively in sewing activities (Tatano & Takeyoshi, 2006, Takeyoshi & Tatano, 2005). In a survey of new junior high school students, home economics was chosen as the second most liked subject and students wanted to study through practice and experience (Abe et al., 2006). In addition to being enjoyable for the students, home economics education also has practical benefits, as students may use these skills through their lives. Interestingly, Kashiwazaki et al. (2009) in a survey of students from 5th grade of elementary school to university students, found that knowledge and skill for sewing skills were higher among elementary school students than among high school and university students. Furthermore, in a survey of college students, Fuseya and Takabu (2001) found that the number of sewing projects that the students had done in schools directly affected their knowledge and sewing skills, which supports the effect of practice based learning in home economics. While it is clear that home economics education for sewing skill has had a positive impact, there have also been problems and challenges. The relationship between study materials and the students' practical needs has been one area of © 2015 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

concern. Takamori (1992) and Nakama et al (1981) found that the pre-service students did not use the items that they made in sewing skill study courses. A survey of 6th grade students found that students wanted to study sewing skills by making things that they chose themselves and wanted to make them for their own purposes (Takeyoshi and Tatano, 2005). Nakama et al. (1981) found that the satisfaction and willingness to actively participate in sewing skill education was directly related to the materials used and what was made. Therefore, one major challenge faced by home economics teachers is how to make the materials relevant to the students by allowing the students the freedom to choose their own projects when the teachers themselves may not have the practical skills to support these students. Independent projects would require more sewing skill and knowledge, than one predetermined project for the entire class. Sewing skill level of teachers seems to have a strong effect on the relevancy of the class to the learners. Similarly, the impact of the skill level of the home economics teachers a continuing area of concern because as the basic skill level of home economic teachers has decreased, the problem of a teaching ability has been repeatedly raised by home economics researchers and educators (Watanabe & Nishimura, 1978a, 1978b, Tokida & Komatsu, 1984a, 1984b, Takamori, 1986, Hamashima & Makuta, 1994). The lack of teachers with high practical skills in elementary school may be a reflection of the low number of elementary school teachers teaching home economics that were home economics majors in university. In 2013, only 27.8% of 5th grade elementary school home economics classes, and 29.6% of 6th grade classes were taught by teachers that had majored in home economics (MEXT, 2014). In the other approximately 70% of elementary school classes, the regular classroom teachers teach home economics. Since most teachers majored in other subjects in university, it is not surprizing that a survey of elementary school teachers found that teachers felt that teaching sewing skill was difficult (Tatano, 1994, Takamori, 1985). However, since the students' interests and motivation for sewing skill education were directly dependent on the home economics teacher's skill (Hamashima & Makuta, 1994), the impact on the elementary school experience is profound. Takamori (1985) found that the attitude of their elementary school teachers continued to influence the opinions of university students in pre-service education of home economics education. Furthermore, Kimura (2014) reported that the pre-service students had more skill learning experience in elementary school than in junior high school and high school. These findings spotlight the importance of a positive learning experience in elementary school. In a survey of pre-service students for elementary school, Kobayashi & Yanagi (2007) found that pre-service students lacked basic knowledge and skills for skill teaching in elementary school. Kobayashi & Yanagi (2008) also reported that there was a gap between the students' self-evaluation of their skills and their actual skills; pre-service students believe that they had good skills when in fact they did not. Fujii et al. (2014) pointed out that the pre-service students could not design an appropriate curriculum for elementary school class when they did not have sufficient skills. This means that these teachers would not be able to design, nor teach lessons that would give the students the freedom to choose their own projects. Nagayama (2011) found that the pre-service studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; ÂŠ 2015 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

motivation for learning and self-evaluation of their skills in machine sewing class could be improved by having pre-service students consider and understand their future teaching responsibilities at elementary school.

Objectives Many studies have pointed out the importance of and identified difficulties of skill education for pre-service students. There are several underlying areas of concern that are addressed in this paper. While it is commonly thought that preservice teacher overestimate their abilities, there has been no research to date. So, firstly, the belief of pre-service teachers that they have sufficient practical skill to teach sewing was examined. Then, their actual skill level was evaluated by their university instructors. Secondly, implications on home economics education given the difference in perceptions of skill level and actual skill level are discussed.

Results and Discussion The students' perceptions in pre-test and in post-test are listed in Table 1. In pretest, the students' perceptions for "understanding" and "practice" of "starting knot", "finishing knot", and "running stitch" were high, although for "back stitch", "half back stitch", "over casting", and "name embroidery" were low. In post-test, their perception for all skills increased from those in the pre-test. For all skills in pre- and post-test, the perceptions of "understanding" were highest, and followed by "practice" and "explanation". In post-test, the perceptions became greater than 2; namely they have some confidence for the ability of the every skills. Table 2 shows the T test results for the students' perception of their skills between in pre-test and in post-test in Table 1. The students' perceptions had significant increase in post-test from those in pre-test for all skills. These results suggest that this skill education course made the students to have their better perceptions for all skills. Table 3 shows the T test results for the students' perception of their skills among for "understanding", for "practice", and for "explanation". The significant differences between "understanding" and "practice" were not observed for all skills in pre-test and post-test, although some differences between "understanding" and "explanation", and between "practice" and "explanation" were evident in pre-test and post-test. This means the students’ perceptions for "explanation" were significantly lower than for "understanding" and "practice". Even for the skills that the students had high perceptions in pre-test, such as "starting knot" (2.47 for "understanding" and 2.35 for "practice"), finishing knot (2.47 for "understanding" and 2.29 for "practice"), and "running stitch” (2.53 for "understanding" and 2.38 for "practice"), the difference were observed in posttest according to the lower perceptions for "explanation". In this research, the students couldn’t get sufficient "explanation" ability for the skill. Table 4 shows the correlation coefficients among "understanding", "practice", and "explanation" in pre-test and post-test. For every pairs, significant correlation was observed. The values between "undrestanding" and "practice" © 2015 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

were higher than the coefficients between "understanding" and "explanation" and between "practice" and "explanation". The coefficients in post-test decreased from those in pre-test.

Table 1: Students’ perception of their skills in pre-test and post-test. pre-test post-test average a SD average a SD starting knot understanding 2.47 ± 0.79 2.88 ± 0.33 practice 2.35 ± 0.81 2.85 ± 0.44 explanation 1.76 ± 0.82 2.59 ± 0.66 finishing knot understanding 2.47 ± 0.79 2.88 ± 0.33 practice 2.29 ± 0.87 2.76 ± 0.65 explanation 1.74 ± 0.83 2.47 ± 0.75 running stitch understanding 2.53 ± 0.75 2.88 ± 0.33 practice 2.38 ± 0.82 2.85 ± 0.36 explanation 2.00 ± 0.89 2.59 ± 0.74 back stitch understanding 1.29 ± 1.03 2.82 ± 0.46 practice 1.18 ± 1.06 2.79 ± 0.48 explanation 1.03 ± 1.00 2.56 ± 0.70 half back stitch understanding 1.41 ± 0.99 2.85 ± 0.36 practice 1.32 ± 1.07 2.82 ± 0.39 explanation 1.15 ± 1.02 2.56 ± 0.70 over casting understanding 0.91 ± 0.97 2.36 ± 0.82 practice 0.71 ± 0.91 2.30 ± 0.85 explanation 0.56 ± 0.86 2.15 ± 0.80 name embroidery understanding 0.91 ± 0.71 2.65 ± 0.49 practice 0.82 ± 0.72 2.59 ± 0.56 explanation 0.65 ± 0.81 2.35 ± 0.77 button understanding 1.94 ± 0.81 2.82 ± 0.46 practice 1.76 ± 0.89 2.68 ± 0.64 explanation 1.35 ± 0.92 2.47 ± 0.71 a 0:disagree 1:slightly disagree, 2:slightly agree, 3: agree to understanding: I can understand how to do it, practice: I can do it, and explanation: I can explain how to do it. b T test between pre-and post-test * p<0.05, ** p<0.01, *** p<0.001

Table 2: T-test of students' perception of their skills between in pretest and in post-test. understanding Practice explanation starting knot *** *** *** finishing knot ** *** *** running stitch * ** *** back stitch *** *** *** half back stitch *** *** *** over casting *** *** *** name embroidery *** *** *** button *** *** *** * p<0.05, ** p<0.01, *** p<0.001

Table 3: T-test of students' perception of their skills among "understanding", "practice", and "explanation". pre-test post-test understanding /practice

understanding /explanation

practice/ explanation

*** *** **

*** ** *

starting knot finishing knot running stitch back stitch half back stitch over casting name embroidery button

understanding /practice

understanding /explanation

practice/ explanation

** *** * * **

* * * * *

* **

* p<0.05, ** p<0.01, *** p<0.001

Table 4: Correlation coefficients of students' perceptions among "understanding", "practice", and "explanation". pre-test understanding understanding / practice / explanation

starting knot finishing knot running stitch back stitch half back stitch over casting name embroidery button

0.917 0.896 0.849 0.951 0.906 0.906 0.859 0.859 * p<0.05, ** p<0.01, *** p<0.001

*** *** *** *** *** *** *** ***

0.647 0.662 0.730 0.844 0.811 0.828 0.626 0.759

*** *** *** *** *** *** *** ***

post-test practice / explanation

0.676 0.699 0.794 0.912 0.876 0.918 0.723 0.810

understanding / practice

*** *** *** *** *** *** *** ***

0.726 0.858 0.879 0.934 0.897 0.779 0.904 0.731

*** *** *** *** *** *** *** ***

understanding / explanation

0.614 0.481 0.667 0.690 0.693 0.534 0.745 0.732

*** ** *** *** *** ** *** ***

practice / explanation

0.523 0.357 0.674 0.621 0.595 0.625 0.769 0.751

** * *** *** *** *** *** ***

The results of testers’ evaluation for each skill are listed in Table 5. The results of "starting knot" and "finishing not" were low, even though these were the most basic skills and the students had high perceptions for their skills. On the contrary, the results of "back stitch" and "half back stitch" were high, although the students had had low perceptions in pre-test. Provably the students didn’t have correct perceptions for their actual skills. Table 5. Testers evaluation for the students’ skills. average ± SD a starting knot 2.24 ± 0.61 finishing knot 2.68 ± 0.53 running stitch 2.59 ± 0.56 back stitch 2.71 ± 0.52 half back stitch 2.71 ± 0.52 over casting 2.30 ± 0.70 name embroidery 2.71 ± 0.46 button 2.32 ± 0.73 a

0: bad 1:poor, 2:acceptable, 3: good.

In Table 6, the correlation coefficient values between the students' perception in post-test and testers' evaluation of the students' skills were listed. For "starting knot", "finishing knot", "running stitch", the correlation coefficients were low: 0.209 to 0.296. For these three skills, the students had high perceptions for "understanding", "practice", and "explanation". For "back stitch", "half back © 2015 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

stitch", and "button sewing", the co-efficient values were high. These skills were the skills that the students had low perception in pre-test; namely these skills were the new skills for the students. Table 6. Correlation coefficients between students' perceptions in post-test and tester's evaluation of the students' skills. understanding practice explanation starting knot -0.162 -0.209 -0.054 finishing knot 0.122 0.296 0.013 running stitch 0.225 0.294 0.164 back stitch 0.534 *** 0.476 *** 0.541 *** half back stitch 0.568 *** 0.484 *** 0.541 *** over casting 0.241 0.581 *** 0.302 name embroidery 0.334 0.339 0.383 * Button 0.449 ** 0.690 *** 0.580 *** * p<0.05, ** p<0.01, *** p<0.001

From these results, two issues for skill training in the pre-service teacher education were pointed out. One is the students' mistaken perception for their abilities of the skills. The students' perceptions were different from their actual ability. Although the students had high perception for the abilities of "understanding", "practice", and "explanation" for "starting knot", "finishing knot", "running stitch", the most basic skills for sewing. They believed that they already had a thorough understanding and practical skills. But the testers' evaluation did not agree with them. The testers' evaluation had significant correlations for "back stitch", "half back stitch", and "button sewing" and somehow for "over casting", "name embroidery". These skills were the skills of the students' perceptions were low in pre-test. The students had known that their lack of knowledge and skills for "back stitch", "half back stitch", "over casting", "name embroidery", and "button sewing", therefore they studied the skills substantially in the course. These results suggest that the students' perceptions affected directly on their skill learning. The students should have the real perception for their skills at first. The second issue is the low perception values for "explanation" of all skills. Even in post-test, their perceptions of "explanation" were significantly lower than of "understanding" and "practice" for almost of all skills. In teacher education, the "explanation" ability is the most essential ability for skill education. To improve this, the future

Conclusion In pre-service elementary school teacher education, the students are expected to have an understanding of sewing, basic practical sewing skills, and the ability to explain for teaching these skills for home economics education. In this study, the perceptions of the students of their abilities in sewing skills were surveyed and compared to the evaluations of their results by testers in the subject contents classes for pre-service teacher education course for elementary school teacher. The sewing skills surveyed were "starting knot", "finishing knot", "running stitch", "back stitch", "half back stitch", "over casting", "name embroidery", and ÂŠ 2015 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

"button sewing" that covered in home economics education for elementary school students. The perceptions of the students surveyed were of their abilities for "understanding", "practice", and "explanation" of sewing skills, and they were compared to the testers' evaluations of their results in a practical sewing class. Students' perceptions of all skills increased in the post-test. Students indicated that they had less ability to explain. The testers evaluation did not correspond with the students' perceptions for the basic skills, such as "starting knot", "finishing knot", "running stitch", and "name embroidery", because the students over estimated their abilities. The evaluation of the testers corresponded with the students' perceptions for "back stitch", "half back stitch", "over casting", and "button sewing". These are new skills for them. Therefore, while it is clear that the practicum helped raised some of the skills to a sufficient level, but not of all skills in spite of the students' beliefs. Only for the skills that the students recognized their insufficiency of their ability, they wore the skills. It is suggested that the skill education would be effective when the students recognized the level of their skills definitely in pre-service teacher education.

Limitations The size of the sample in this study was small and the participants belonged to one university education department. Because of the size of the sample, the findings cannot be generalized to all skill education. However the authors thought that the results of this study could make some suggestions for the improvement of skill education for arts and craft or music as well as home economics in pre-service education. For example, the students should reexamine their easy and basic skills, and they should have explanation ability as well as knowledge and practice for skills.

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Fuseya, S., & Takabu, H. (2001). Actual Conditions on the Hand-sewing Skill of Female Junior College Students: Relationship between the Grades of Hand-sewing Skill and Knowledge or Experiences on Clothing Construction. Journal of the Japan Association of Home Economics Education, 43, 273-278. Fuseya, S., & Takabu, H. (2003). Consciousness and Actual Condition on the necessity and the ability of Junior College Students and Their Mothers about Their Clothing Construction. Journal of the Japan Association of Home Economics Education, 46, 255-264. Hamashima, K., & Makuta, K. (1994). Conditions on the Learning of Homemaking in Small Elementary Schools in Fukushima Prefecture (1). Journal of the Japan Association of Home Economics Education, 37(1), 17-24. Kashiwazaki, M., Maeda, Y., & Hikage, Y. (2009). Survey of Knowledge on Words about Dressmaking for Elementary School Children, Junior High School Students, and College Students. Bulletin of the Faculty of Education, Hirosaki University, 101, 109114. [http://hdl.handle.net/10129/1820] Kimura, M. (2014). A Study on the Clothing Production Experience in Home Economics Education Curriculum. Bulletin of the Faculty of Education, Ibaraki University, Supplement, 219-227. Kobayashi, K., & Yanagi, M. (2007). What should be taught in Home Economics at elementary-school teacher education course (1): Implications from a questionnaire survey and quizzes conducted among university/junior college students. Bulletin of Kyushu Women's University. Humanities and social science, 44(1), 29-45. Kobayashi, K., & Yanagi, M. (2008). What should be taught in Home Economics at elementary-school teacher education course (2): Implications from the skill test of needlework survey conducted among university/junior college students. Bulletin of Kyushu Women's University, Humanities and social science, 44(3), 17-29. Ministry of Education, Sports, Science, Technology and Culture (MEXT), (1998). The Teachers License Act and enforcement regulations. Retrieved from [http://www.mext.go.jp/a_menu/koutou/ kyoin/1268593.htm]. Ministry of Education, Sports, Science, Technology and Culture, (2008). The course of Study for Elementary school students. Retrieved from [http://www.mext.go.jp/a_menu/shotou/new-cs/youryou/ index.htm]. Ministry of Education, Sports, Science, Technology and Culture, (2014). The survey on curriculum of public elementary schools and lower secondary schools in 2013. Retrieved from [http://www. mext.go.jp/a_menu/shotou/newcs/_icsFiles /afieldfile/2014/03/26/1342497_02_1.pdf]. Montgomery, B. (2006). Redefining Sewing as an Educational Experience in Middle and High Schools. Journal of Family and Consumer Sciences, 98, 47-53. Muto, Y., Nishimura, A., Okura, Y., & Ishihara, K. (1986a). Present Conditions of Homemaking Education in Elementary Schools in Okayama Prefecture (1). Journal of the Japan Association of Home Economics Education, 29(3), 1-7. Muto, Y., Nishimura A., Okura, Y., & Ishihara, K. (1986b). Present Conditions of Homemaking Education in Elementary Schools in Okayama Prefecture (2). Journal of the Japan Association of Home Economics Education, 29(3), 8-14. Muto, Y., & Nishimura, A., (1987a). Realities of Homemaking Education in Elementary Schools in Okayama Prefecture (3). Journal of the Japan Association of Home Economics Education, 30(2), 13-19. Muto, Y., & Nishimura, A. (1987b). Realities of Homemaking Education in Elementary Schools in Okayama Prefecture (4). Journal of the Japan Association of Home Economics Education, 30(2), 20-26. Nagayama, Y. (2011). The clothing production experience and the transfiguration after production practice with sewing machine for university students: learning effect ÂŠ 2015 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 13, No. 1, pp. 76-84, August 2015

Plagiarism Education: Strategies for Instructors Julia Colella-Sandercock and Hanin Alahmadi University of Windsor Windsor, Ontario, Canada

Abstract. Plagiarism among college and university students is a growing concern. Some researchers feel that plagiarism is an issue that is here to stay. Several research studies focus on self-reported plagiarism rates. In these studies, students report on the frequencies of their engagement in plagiarism behaviours. Although these studies are helpful in determining plagiarism rates, they are only an initial step. Other research on plagiarism examines reasons why students plagiarize, and one of the recurring reasons is that students are unclear regarding what plagiarism entails and how to avoid it. Research on plagiarism needs to examine plagiarism education strategies for instructors and their effectiveness. Students who are educated on plagiarism may plagiarize less. This paper will share a number of strategies centering on plagiarism education that educators can use in their classrooms with their students. The activities suggested can be modified by instructors to fit the needs of their classes. Keywords: higher education; online learning; plagiarism education

Introduction Plagiarism is a topic of growing concern in higher education institutions, and “. . . is a considerable challenge for universities” (Elander, Pittman, Lusher, Fox, & Payne, 2010, p. 157). According to Chapman and Lupton (2004), “academic dishonesty in post-secondary education . . . is a global problem” (p. 425). Despite the abundance of research that is being done on plagiarism, Marcus and Beck (2011) report that “plagiarism is a persistent problem” (p. 6 3). This is a bit ironic. Researchers are investigating plagiarism in their studies, and although they are studying this topic, it seems to be an issue that is here to stay. The global interpretation of what is considered plagiarism differs. The differences in the concept of plagiarism lend to confusion on plagiarism behaviours among students (Bamford & Sergiou, 2005). For example, international students studying in North America may plagiarize more often than domestic students for a number of reasons, including learning the new language (Chen & Van Ullen, 2011). Instructors should be encouraged to educate students on plagiarism, which will provide clarity regarding what is and what is not acceptable.

Literature Review Although there are different types of studies conducted on plagiarism, a large number focus on plagiarism rates. For instance, several researchers ask students to read a list of items that consist of plagiarism behaviours and then report how often they have engaged in that type of behaviour. This section will outline engagement in plagiarism rates, and all of the participants are post-secondary education students. Risquez, O‟Dwyer, and Ledwith (2013) found that 84% of first and second year business, engineering, education, and health service students reported “low levels of engagement in plagiarism” (p. 38). Trushell, Byrne, and Simpson‟s (2012) participants were enrolled in an education-related program (Early Childhood Education, Education Studies, and Youth and Community Work). The results demonstrate that “17% [of participants] invented a study/research paper to include in the essay, 13% presented a false bibliography, and 11% changed dates of old research to make it appear to be upto-date research” (p. 139). Christensen Hughes and McCabe‟s (2006) participants were from eleven Canadian post-secondary institutions. The results from this study revealed that “37% of participants copied a few sentences of material from a written source without footnoting, and 35% copied a few sentences from an Internet source without footnoting” (p. 10). Dawkins (2004) found that 19% of participants self-reported to copying from another source and submitting it as their own within the previous year. Selwyn (2008) compared online and offline plagiarism. Overall, 61.9% of participants engaged in online plagiarism within the previous year, and 61.9% engaged in offline plagiarism within the previous year. Walker (2010) found that 31.4% of students submitted an assignment that contained plagiarism. As demonstrated above, the self-engagement rate of plagiarism varies in the literature, with the highest rate found being 84%. Although plagiarism engagement rates have been studied, these numbers might be lower than the true plagiarism engagement rate, since “determining the true prevalence of deviant behaviours is a challenge” (Youmans, 2011, p. 749). One reason for this is because students may under-report this behaviour, despite it being an anonymous study. Students might be fearful that their responses may be tied back to them, so out of caution, they under-report these types of behaviours (Colella, 2012). According to the literature, the incident rate of plagiarism is increasing among post-secondary students, with plagiarism becoming a serious issue in universities. The massive amount of information available on the Internet benefits students by giving them access to information that significantly increases their bodies of knowledge; however, this easy access to information may make students more prone to committing plagiarism (Evering & Moormen, 2012). The Internet makes it easy to copy text from sources directly into a paper. The amount of information available also makes it easy to be excessive when it comes to including citations. Due to technology‟s reinforcement of plagiarism, the “[t]raditional definitions of plagiarism are further challenged by the digital revolution” (Evering & Moormen, 2012, p. 36). In colleges and universities, reputations are based on creating new knowledge, discovering new facts, and thinking critically from different perspectives. Lupton and Chapman (2002) argued that plagiarism can impact a university‟s reputation, especially at the graduate level (as cited in Flint, Clegg, and @2015 Colella-Sandercock, Alahmadi,, IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

Macdonald, 2006). Moreover, universities compete with each other for enrollment; therefore, they may be hesitant to advertise that their school has a high level of plagiarism (Devlin, 2006; East, 2010). Indeed, some universities are very circumspect when it comes to announcing the existence of academic integrity on their campus (Devlin, 2006). It is difficult, however, to expect to resolve a problem if its existence is not acknowledged. Although higher education institutions may have plagiarism policies and regulations, many students continue to submit papers that contain plagiarism or improper citations. In fact, plagiarism among university students has proven to be a full-blown epidemic (Devlin, 2006). Many studies indicate that misunderstandings of plagiarism, which often has serious consequences, is a common excuse offered by students who are accused of it (Devlin & Gray, 2007; East, 2010; Flint et al., 2006; Power, 2009). If students are not properly educated on the correct documentation styles, it becomes questionable as to whether or not they should be held accountable if they have errors of this type in their submitted work. At the graduate level, it is expected that students understand what plagiarism is and how to avoid it (Colella, 2012). Educating students about plagiarism is likely the most effective way to reduce it (Evering & Moormen, 2012). Born (2003) emphasizes that educators should concentrate more on reducing plagiarism rather than on how or why students commit it. Educators should intervene by teaching students how to avoid plagiarism. This is supported by Born (2003) through the following suggestion: “a proactive approach needs to be used more than a reactive approach” (p. 223). Flint et al. (2006) cited two research studies (Ashworth et al., 1997; Macdonald & Freewood, 2002) “on students‟ understanding of plagiarism” p. (153). Flint et al. (2006) emphasized the different perspectives of students and professors due to a lack of knowledge among students regarding plagiarism. Most of the students in these studies blamed instructors for not explaining specifically what constitutes plagiarism in class (Flint et al., 2006). This result depicts the importance of providing plagiarism education for students.

Strategies for Instructors to Educate Students on Plagiarism Many studies have successfully highlighted the need for plagiarism education (Aasheim, Rutner, & Williams, 2012; Born, 2003; Evering & Moormen, 2012; Power, 2009). This paper‟s main focus is on educating students about plagiarism and what educators can do to prevent or reduce plagiarism among postsecondary students. Therefore, the authors of this paper offer the following strategies to help instructors reduce plagiarism: Provide In-Class Activities: Educators can start their courses with some activities relating to plagiarism. Class activities can be a fun way to introduce plagiarism to students. Educators can arrange questions to ask students using games and presentations. Students can then answer the questions individually or in groups. For example, true/false games could be very useful for demonstrating some scenarios involving plagiarism (see Appendix A). In this game, the educators provide students with a true/false card shaped like a hand. After a scenario is introduced, the students decide whether or not plagiarism was present in the scenario through the use of their true/false hand. A class discussion can follow each scenario. @2015 Colella-Sandercock, Alahmadi,, IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

Provide Online Activities: Online activities can be very helpful in demonstrating students‟ knowledge of plagiarism. Prior to the writing assignment due date, instructors can assign online activities that focus on the proper citation (e.g., APA or MLA format). Throughout the activity, students are required to avoid common citation mistakes by using, for instance, Student Initiated Editing, in which students write two short essays, one which is in correct APA or MLA format and the other which contains errors. Instructors then can upload the essays on the class Web site or distribute them via e-mail for students to review and find mistakes. Instructors should keep the names anonymous and request the essay‟s author to check his/her classmates‟ work. Provide Drafts/Provide Feedback: Throughout the semester, educators should keep track of their students‟ work progress (Born, 2003). This will help them to detect any plagiarism in earlier phases and to reduce the possibilities of receiving plagiarized papers (Evering & Moormen, 2012). Educators can have checkpoints throughout the semester in which they can monitor their students‟ papers gradually, in different phases. In the first phase, for example, they could check students‟ outlines, which include their original ideas. In the second phase, students should submit a first draft, and educators could give them feedback. In the meantime, throughout these meetings, students can ask questions and find out if they have inadvertently committed plagiarism. Use Clear Instruction to Explain Expectations: Educators should provide clear and reasonable expectations for the course (Evering & Moormen, 2012). At the beginning of the semester, educators should clearly explain the assignment requirements. It may also be beneficial for educators to show examples of satisfactory assignments to students, so they will not have any difficulties in meeting assignment expectations. Include Plagiarism Information on the Course Outline: Educators should include a section about plagiarism and its consequences in the course outline. It is not enough to simply mention that students must not plagiarize and then refer them to the university academic integrity Web site for further information. The course outline should define the concepts of plagiarism and explain in what ways plagiarism is illegal. Assign a Plagiarism Assignment: A useful strategy for educators might be to require students to complete a plagiarism assignment at the beginning of the semester. By doing this assignment, the students will have to research in-depth about plagiarism. In addition, during the writing process for the assignment, they will acquire rich knowledge about plagiarism. As a result, this will help them to understand plagiarism and how to avoid it. An example of this type of assignment could be to have the students write a brief paragraph on what plagiarism is and what steps students can take to ensure they do not plagiarize in any of their assignments. Provide Self-Reflections: Having students complete self-reflections, whether they are asked to complete them before an assignment, as they work on an assignment, or after they have submitted an assignment can encourage them to think about the assignment, particularly about academic integrity if these questions are incorporated in the @2015 Colella-Sandercock, Alahmadi,, IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

self-reflection. For example, priming students to consider plagiarism and its possible consequences prior to submitting an assignment may defer students from plagiarizing. When completing an assignment, asking students to selfreflect on what they have done so far and what they need to do may make them more conscious of plagiarism and less likely to plagiarize. Think of a student who is in the editing stage of an essay. If the student is asked to reflect on the sources used in the essay, the student may be more inclined to fix any plagiarized sources compared to a student who is not asked to reflect on their sources. A sample of a self-reflection can be found in Appendix B. Provide Students with Resources Regarding Plagiarism: Explaining to students what plagiarism is and completing activities or assignments on this issue may not be enough. Providing students with a list of additional resources at the start of the semester will send the message that support is available. Since plagiarism is a sensitive topic, the student might be more comfortable discussing it with someone outside of the classroom. Here is a list of possible resources on campus that provide students support on plagiarism: a) The Library b) The Academic Integrity Centre c) Peer Writers d) Student Development Centers e) Teaching Assistants (TA) or Graduate Assistants (GA) Openly Discuss Plagiarism: If plagiarism is openly discussed, students will feel more comfortable with the topic. If students feel they cannot openly discuss plagiarism with their instructors and that they cannot ask their instructors questions about plagiarism, they might develop a sense of uneasiness with the topic; as a result, they may plagiarize even though they are aware that it is wrong. When a written assignment is due, instructors might want to dedicate five to ten minutes each week up until the assignment due date to discuss plagiarism and address anyoneâ&#x20AC;&#x;s concerns. Although time may be sensitive for classes, putting aside this small amount demonstrates that the instructor cares about this issue and takes it seriously. A way to do this might be to have an open email policy, where students can send in any plagiarism questions, and the instructor discusses the questions the following week without revealing which student sent it in. Oftentimes, students have similar questions. Change Assignment Topics Regularly: Taking some time to change assignments or assignment topics before the class starts can cut down on plagiarism, especially the recycling of assignments. For instance, if students are required to submit a research essay on globalization each semester, students from previous semesters can share their essays with others who take that class after they do. A simple way to help avoid sharing of assignments is to create new ones. In some cases, simply changing the assignment topic can help reduce plagiarism. For example, if students are asked to create a business proposal, give them a few choices for the topic of the proposal. The following semester, provide different choices.

Conclusion Overall, plagiarism is a consistent issue in higher education institutions. Through education, students can develop their referencing skills, which may help to reduce the number of plagiarism cases reported in universities and colleges. Further, educating students on plagiarism may save instructors hours, since “plagiarism can take hours of work to locate the original sources and crossreference with the student assignment” (Gullifer & Tyson, 2010, p. 446) This paper provided several strategies that instructors can use with students. The several strategies shared may provide a more holistic approach to combating the plagiarism engagement rate. Similarly, Owens and White (2013) shared that plagiarism is complex, and providing a single strategy to help students understand plagiarism is not likely to be successful. As stated above, plagiarism is an issue on campuses, and from an instructor‟s perspective, “Of all of the negative student behaviours that instructors in higher education find challenging to manage, student plagiarism ranks highly” (Youmans, 2011, p. 749).

References Aasheim, C. L., Rutner, P. S., Li, L., & Williams, S. R. (2012). Plagiarism and programming: A survey of student attitudes. Journal of Information Systems Education, 23(3), 297–313. Ashworth, P., Bannister, P., & Thorne, P. (1997). Guilty in whose eyes? University students‟ perception of cheating and plagiarism in academic work and assessment, Studies in Higher Education, 22(2), 187-203. Bamford, J. & and Sergiou, K. (2005). International students and plagiarism: An analysis of the reasons for plagiarism among international foundation students. Investigations in University Teaching and Learning, 2(2), 17- 22. Born, A. D. (2003). How to reduce plagiarism. Journal of Information Systems Education, 14(3), 223–224. Chapman, K., & Lupton, R. (2004). Academic dishonesty in a global educational market: A comparison of Hong Kong and American university business students. The International Journal of Educational Management, 18(7), 425-435. Chen, Y. H., & Van Ullen, M. K. (2011). Helping international students succeed academically through research process and plagiarism workshops. College & Research Libraries, 72(3), 209-235. Christensen Hughes, J., & McCabe, D. (2006). Academic misconduct within higher education in Canada. The Canadian Journal of Higher Education, 36(2), 1-21. Colella, J. (2012). Plagiarism self-reported rates, understandings, and education among teacher candidates in a faculty of education. (Master‟s thesis). University of Windsor, Windsor, CA. Dawkins, R. (2004). Attributes and statuses of college students associated with classroom cheating on a small-sized campus. College Student Journal, 38(1), 116-129. Devlin, M. (2006). Policy, preparation, and prevention: Proactive minimization of @2015 Colella-Sandercock, Alahmadi,, IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

student plagiarism. Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management, 28(1), 45– 58. Devlin, M., & Gray, K. (2007). In their own words: A qualitative study of the reasons Australian university students plagiarize. Higher Education Research & Development, 26(2), 181- 198. East, J. (2010). Judging plagiarism: A problem of morality and convention. Higher Education, 59(1), 69–83. Elander, J., Pittman, G., Lusher, J., Fox, P., & Payne, N. (2010). Evaluation of an intervention to help students avoid unintentional plagiarism by improving their authorial identity. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 35(2), 157-171. Evering, L. C., & Moorman, G. (2012). Rethinking plagiarism in the digital age. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 56(1), 35–44. Flint, A., Clegg, S., & Macdonald, R. (2006). Exploring staff perceptions of student plagiarism. Journal of Further and Higher Education, 30(2), 145–156. Gullifer, J., & Tyson, G. (2010). Exploring university students‟ perceptions of plagiarism: A focus group study. Studies in Higher Education, 35(4), 463-481. Lupton, R. A., & Chapman, K. J. (2002). Russian and American college students‟ attitudes, perceptions, and tendencies towards cheating. Educational Research, 44(1), 17-27. Macdonald, R., & Freewood, M. (2002). Dealing with plagiarism: Using research to develop a holistic approach. In A. Goody, J. Herrrington & M. Northcote (Eds) Proceedings of the 2002 Annual International Conference of the Higher Education Research and Development Society of Australasia (HERDSA). Marcus, S., & Beck, S. (2011). Faculty perceptions of plagiarism at Queensborough Community College, Community & Junior College Libraries, 17, 63-73. Owens, C., & White, F. (2013). A 5-year systematic strategy to reduce plagiarism among first-year psychology university students. Australian Journal of Psychology, 65, 14-21. Power, L. G. (2009). University students‟ perceptions of plagiarism. The Journal of Higher Education, 80(6), 643-662. Risquez, A., O‟Dwyer, M., & Ledwith, A. (2013). „Thou shalt not plagiarise‟: From selfreported views to recognition and avoidance of plagiarism. Assessment and Evaluation in Higher Education, 38(1), 34-43. Selwyn, N. (2008). „Not necessarily a bad thing....‟: A study of online plagiarism amongst undergraduate students. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 33(5), 465-479. Trushell, J., Byrne, K., & Simpson, R. (2012). Cheating behaviours, the Internet, and education undergraduate students. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 28(2), 136-145. Walker, J. (2010). Measuring plagiarism: Researching what students do, not what they say they do. Studies in Higher Education, 35(1), 41-59. Youmans, R. (2011). Does the adaption of plagiarism-detection software in higher education reduce plagiarism? Studies in Higher Education, 36(7), 749-761.

Appendix A True/False Sample Questions Situation: Mila has an argument essay due next week. In addition to her essay, she has two assignments due in Biology. Frustrated, Mila takes a paragraph of an essay she found online and used that as a part of her own essay. She does not cite the paragraph of the essay she took online. Question: Is Mila plagiarizing? Situation: Dr. Zhang asked his class to submit a final tech project. One group submits a PowerPoint on how to use computer games in the classroom. One of the games they used in their final tech project asks students geography questions. The group takes these questions word-for-word, and they do not state where these questions were taken from. Question: Did this group plagiarize? If so, who should be held responsible for this plagiarism? Situation: Last semester, Richard took an economics course. Samantha, his sister, is taking the same economics course this semester. Richard gave one of his economic labs to his sister. She submitted it as her own. Question: Is Samantha plagiarizing? If so, who should be held responsible for this plagiarism? Situation: In her qualitative research course, Leslie presented a seminar on focus groups. In her research methodology course, she took parts of her previous focus group presentation and used it in her research methodology course presentation. The work belongs to Leslie, and she does not state in her second presentation that the material was previously used as part of a different class project. Question: Is Leslie plagiarizing? Situation: Carla is taking an online course this semester. A component of the course has students participate in online discussions. Carla is the last to host an online discussion, and her friend, Amy, was the first to do so. Carla takes a few sentences from Amyâ&#x20AC;&#x;s discussion because she really likes how Amy worded it. Amy gave her permission to do so, and Amy suggests she does not want to be cited as the original source. The instructor notices the similarity between the two discussions, and when he types these sentences in Google, it is evident that Amy took her work from an online source and did not cite it. Question: Who should be blamed for plagiarism? Amy? Carla? Neither?

Appendix B Sample Self-Reflection Questions What do you know about plagiarism? What would you like to know in order to avoid plagiarism in your assignments? How confident are you that your assignments will not contain plagiarism? If you were the instructor, what would you do to ensure the class avoids plagiarism in their assignment? Why do you think plagiarizing has penalties? List as many resources as you can think of that students can use if they need help with plagiarism. If you are unsure if you are correctly citing/referencing something in your paper, what will you do? Since time management is one reason why students plagiarize, what can you do to avoid waiting until the last minute to complete your work?

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 13, No. 1, pp. 85-93, August 2015

Introducing Pre-Service Teachers to Programming Concepts with Game Creation Approach Chiung-Fang Chiu National Chi Nan University Puli, Nantao, Taiwan Abstract. This study aimed to explore whether game creation approach is a feasible strategy for teaching programming concepts to pre-service teachers with no prior programming experiences. Twenty-two preservice teachers who came from different majors and enrolled in one teacher education course participated in this study. Pre-service teachers were introduced to basic programming concepts and knowledge through instructor’s lectures. They exercised and took practices of Scratch game programming. The findings suggest that game creation approach is practical to motivate and engage pre-service teachers in learning programming concepts. Analysis of participants’ project code implementation shows that many different fundamental programming concepts have been applied in game project design. Positive attitudes toward game creation approach and programming learning were also revealed in the questionnaire survey results. Keywords: teacher education; game programming; computer science education.

Introduction With the rapid development in technology, teaching is no longer just lecturing students. Learning activities incorporating technology might greatly capture students’ attention and improve their engagement. Though it is convenient for teachers to draw on commercial educational software, it may not meet their need in classroom. Integrating computing into disciplines via programming provides teachers a better and flexible solution for instructional use. However, there is a general agreement in literature that learning programming is a difficult task for novice programmers (Jenkins, 2002). Moreover, teachers who are usually nonmajor in computer science have little prior programming background. On the same level, it is also difficult for pre-service teachers to be equipped with standard programming background. One example in the survey of 189 prospective teachers’ self-efficacy perceptions on programming (Korkmaz, 2013) revealed that their perceptions on programming are at medium level. Thus, more training and support to improve related programming competence should © 2015 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

be given to teachers. Although the difficulties experienced by novice programmers in learning programming stem from many different reasons, proper programming language and teaching approach might lower their barriers. Teaching novice programmers to learn visual programming with game creation approach may be a practical choice.

Related Work Visual programming Visual programming has graphic user interface that enables users to create programs by manipulating program elements such as drag-and-drop. Unlike conventional textual languages that users write programs by typing, visual programming provides an easy and interesting program development environment (Kölling, 2010). Users can effectively create programs in visual interface and inspect their implementation results. It not only can eliminate syntax errors to reduce learners’ frustration, but also can facilitate visual instruction understandable to learners thus enhancing their learning outcome. Being user-friendly, characteristic in visual programming such as Scratch, Alice and StarLogo are suitable to be utilized by K-12 teachers as teaching tools. Conducting visual programming camps or workshops for K-12 teachers to increase programming competence were often reported in research. Scratch having media-rich programming environment is suitable to create games, interactive stories, animations, art as well as music applications (Scratch website, 2015). Bell, Frey and Vasserman (2014) directed a 4 week programming camp for K-12 teachers to explore ways they might incorporate Scratch into their curriculum. The results reveal that teachers have the ability to incorporate their subject matter into Scratch-based classroom activities. Alice, a 3D virtual worlds programming environment, also can be used to create interactive animated games and stories (Alice website, 2015). For instance in research (Rodger, Dalis, Gadwal, Hayes, Li, & Liang, 2012; Rodger et al., 2009), Alice programming was taught in K-12 teachers’ workshop. Programming tutorial, template worlds and objects were provided to help teachers develop lesson plans. Many science teachers and language art teachers applied Alice programming features to teach different science concepts in class interactively, or used Alice as a supplementary tool to facilitate teaching. The research result shows that many teachers expressed positive feedback on continuing using Alice in the future. Another study also described successful experiences when Alice programming were introduced to high schools teachers to improve their teaching (Cordova, Eaton, & Taylor, 2011). Additionally, StarLogo providing 3D graphics, sound and blocks-based interface is a great tool to easily create 3D games and simulations for understanding complex systems (StarLogo website, 2015). Ahern’s study reported that three middle school teachers with no computer background were introduced to StarLogo (Ahern, 2009). They developed and integrated models into their core discipline and stimulated general discourse in classrooms. The results indicated that students were curious and highly-engaged in learning. As regards pre-service teachers’ training, Fesakis and Serafeim mentioned the positive effects of Scratch programming on pre-service teachers’ opinions and attitudes toward computer programming and information and communications © 2015 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

technology (ICT) educational value (Fesakis & Serafeim, 2009). Pre-service teachers’ interest to use ICT as educational tools was increased; meanwhile, their stress and anxiety implementing ICT in educational practice was also decreased by familiarization with Scratch. This study proposed a better future using Scratch in the course of computer programming for teachers. Game creation approach In consideration of pre-service teachers’ learning motivation, game creation approach may be a possible teaching method. Previous research has shown that computer game creation increases learners’ skills, confidence, and motivation with programming (Rajaravivarma, 2005; Salen, 2007; Al-Bow et al., 2009; Eow, Ali, Mahmud, & Baki, 2010; Basawapatna, Koh, & Repenning, 2010). A programming game is usually composed of different functionalities including graphics, sound, animation, inputs, output and interesting challenge mechanism. Creating a game requires the understanding of all aspects of programming process. In addition to basic programming concepts and program structures application, it also includes algorithm design and complex problemsolving process which are useful for the development of advanced independent thinking. Thus, it is believed that encouraging game development is an effective way to inspire programming learning motivation. It enables learners to participate in the output of knowledge actively rather than receiving it passively. It is a new trend for teachers nowadays to apply programming as a teaching tool to design learning activities into their discipline. Including the research mentioned above (Bell, Frey, & Vasserman, 2014; Cordova, Eaton, & Taylor, 2011; Rodger et al., 2012), the training of teacher-related programming competence mainly focuses on in-service teachers. Pre-service teachers are usually equipped with little programming background knowledge because they do not specialize in computer science. To especially improve pre-service teachers’ programming ability before they enroll in K-12 teacher profession, improvements in the cultivation of programming skills need to be considered more seriously. Therefore, this study aims to investigate programming concept teaching for preservice teachers with game creation approach. Scratch, having interactive visual interface and media-rich programming environment that is suitable for novice programmers, was chosen as the programming language for pre-service teachers.

Research Method Participants The study was conducted in the teacher education course of “Computers and Instruction,” in the Spring 2014 aiming to improve students’ ability to integrate technology for teaching. This course took two hours per week. Students enrolled in this course were pre-service teachers. Twenty-two pre-service teachers comprising 10 males and 12 females were involved in this study. They came from different majors including Chinese, English, History, Chemistry, Business, and Counselling. They almost had no prior experience in computer programming.

The aim of this study was to explore the effect of game creation approach on pre-service teachers’ programming learning. For this purpose, questions presented below were answered: 1. Is game creation approach a feasible strategy for teaching programming concepts to pre-service teachers? 2. What are pre-service teachers’ attitudes and experiences of programming learned in this study?

Procedures Pre-service teachers were introduced to basic programming concepts and knowledge through instructor’s lectures. They exercised and took practices of Scratch game programming. Scratch 1.4 was used in this study. Take the following game program example used in the class. When bananas randomly falls down from above, one monkey will move horizontally to catch the bananas and score. The introduction of Scratch programming lasted for 6 weeks. In the first week, pre-service teachers were informed that they had to design a game project for the use of teaching related to their future teaching discipline after learning fundamental programming concepts. The pre-service teachers chose their own groupings for designing their project. They can choose to finish the project alone or cooperatively with another partner. Finally, pre-service teachers were required to finish the project and share it with peers in class in the tenth week. One questionnaire designed by the author was used to collect information on pre-service teachers’ attitudes and experiences of programming learned in this study.

Data analysis of participants’ projects The content of pre-service teachers’ projects was further analyzed to examine whether programming concepts were applied in project implementation. According to the characteristic of programming concepts, the program codes of each project were examined to count the frequency of the 6 categories applied in the project: variables assignments, logic and arithmetical operators, if statements, loop statements, subprogram definitions (when I receive <message> in Scratch) and thread (parallel execution).

Results and Discussion Participants’ response to the Questionnaire Pre-service teachers’ response to the questionnaire was summarized from the following perspectives: attitudes toward learning programming, responses of programming improvement and attitudes toward game project implementation. The results are discussed as below.

Attitudes toward learning programming Table 1 shows pre-service teachers’ attitudes toward programming learning. The result reveals that most pre-service teachers had positive experiences while © 2015 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

learning programming. Nearly all pre-service teachers thought learning programming is important (Question 1) and it can enhance their capacity of logical thinking (Question 2). Eighty-five percent of pre-service teachers also agreed that non-majors like them can learn programming well (Question 3). Meanwhile, they also thought that it is not difficult to facilitate teaching by programming (Question 4). This questionnaire also gives participants chances to express their thoughts and feelings about Scratch programming. It is found that most participants favored learning programming with Scratch. They all agreed that Scratch is a proper language for novice programming learners (Question 5). As to the teaching method, 95% of pre-service teachers agreed that learning programming by game creation approach is feasible (Question 6). Preservice teachers have high intention to create learning content by Scratch in the future (In Question 7, strongly agree and agree: 95%). Table 1: Pre-service teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; attitudes toward programming learning (N=22). Questions

Learning programming is important.

Learning programming can enhance the capability of logical thinking. Non-majors like me can learn programming well. It is not difficult to facilitate teaching by programming. Overall, Scratch is a proper language for novice programming learners. Learning programming by game creation approach is feasible. I would like to create learning content in future by Scratch.

3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Strongly Strongly Agree Neutral Disagree Mean agree disagree 32%

64%

4.27

45%

50%

4.41

36%

59%

4.32

27%

59%

14%

4.14

23%

77%

4.23

45%

50%

4.41

27%

68%

4.23

Responses to programming improvement With respect to pre-service teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; responses to programming improvement, the results are summarized in Table 2. A majority of pre-service teachers felt that they have learned many fundamental program concepts (Question 1). All pre-service teachers agreed that they can better understand the complete concept of program development process and steps (Question 2), and their programming development ability has been enhanced (Question 3). Eighty-seven percent of pre-service teachers also indicated that they were more familiar with program debugging methods and strategies (Question 4). Being asked about their programming learning intention, most of them would like to receive programming challenges (Question 5). After learning Scratch, their programming confidence had been promoted (Question 6). Overall, 82% of preservice teachers were satisfied with their programming skill after learning Scratch (Question 7).

Table 2: Pre-service teachers’ responses to programming improvement (N=22). Questions 1. 2.

3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

I have learned many fundamental program concepts. I can better understand the complete concept of program development process and steps. My programming development ability has been improved. I am more familiar with program debugging method and strategies. I would like to receive programming challenges. My programming confidence has been improved. I am satisfied with my programming skill at present.

Strongly agree

Agree

Neutral

Disagree

Strongly disagree

Mean

36%

55%

4.27

32%

68%

4.32

36%

64%

4.36

32%

55%

13%

4.18

27%

68%

4.23

32%

59%

4.23

32%

50%

18%

4.14

Attitudes toward game project implementation Questions in Table 3 gathered pre-service teachers’ impressions on game project implementation. All pre-service teachers agreed that using game programs to assist teaching can promote students’ learning motivation (Question 1). Game project implementation provides opportunities to combine theory with practical application. Eight-six percent of pre-service teachers felt that they can apply related education theory when designing and implementing game project (Question 2). It is also found that 86% of pre-service teachers have intentions to design programming game projects to assist teaching (Question 3). Finally, question 4 examined pre-service teachers’ intention to apply programming as a teaching tool. Positive feedback has been received, indicating that 86% of preservice teachers strongly agreed or agreed on this investigation. From these positive responses, it can be concluded that game project design encouraged preservice teachers to practice on what they have learned before. Not only programming skill but also education theory can be practically applied in this learning by practicing programming skills. These positive experiences increase pre-service teachers’ intention to use programming to assist teaching activities in future. Table 3: Pre-service teachers’ attitudes toward game project implementation (N=22). Questions 1.

Using game programs to assist teaching can promote students’ learning motivation. I can apply related education theory to game project design and implementation.

Strongly agree

Agree

Neutral

Disagree

Strongly disagree

Mean

50%

4.50

41%

45%

14%

4.27

3. 4.

I would like to design programming game project to assist teaching. In future, it is possible for me to apply programming as a teaching tool.

23%

63%

14%

4.09

23%

63%

14%

4.09

Analysis of projects code implementation Pre-service teachers proceeded with their game design by choosing to work in partners or alone and by choosing the content of their project. Ten pre-service teachers designed their projects alone, while other 12 pre-service teachers liked to do projects cooperatively with another partner. Thus, a total of 16 projects was finished after the study. The subjects of these projects include Chinese learning, English learning, History, Chemistry, Business and Counselling. The analysis results of the programming concepts contained in project code implementation are showed in Table 4. As indicated in Table 4, each category of programming concepts was found in the projects code implementation. It reveals that pre-service teachers applied many different important programming concepts to their project design. The category of “subprogram definitions” was applied most often (34%), whereas the second most frequent category was “thread” (22%). The other programming concepts which are related to program flow control, such as “if statements” and “loop statements”, were also used often in projects. Moreover, “loop statements” were further examined to see whether different loop concepts were utilized in the projects. The results depicted in Table 5 provide evidence that pre-service teachers can execute different loop codes to have nonlinear narrative structures. Table 4. Categorical accounts of the programming concepts in participants’ projects. Variables assignments

Count Percentage

Logic and arithmetical operators

If statements

Loop statements

Subprogram Thread definitions

Total

391

360

256

284

1033

657

2981

13%

12%

10%

34%

22%

100%

Table 5. Categorical accounts of different loop statements in participants’ projects. For loop Count Percentage

While loop Repeat until loop

Total

196

284

69%

24%

100%

Conclusion Although prior research on using game creation approaches to engage students on programming learning has been conducted, little has been done to apply this strategy to the learning of pre-service teachers’. This study aimed to explore whether game creation approach is a feasible strategy for teaching programming concepts to pre-service teachers with no prior programming experiences. Twenty-two pre-service teachers enrolled in teacher education course of © 2015 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

“Computer and Instruction” were involved in this study. The findings indicated that pre-service teachers’ programming concepts and design skills have been improved after this study. Furthermore, most pre-service teachers had positive attitudes toward learning programming with game creation approaches. They were satisfied with their programming achievement. Game project design encouraged them to practice on what they have learned before. In terms of qualitative analysis of participants’ project code implementation, it suggests that most project codes included many different fundamental programming concepts. In summary, this study demonstrated a feasible approach for the effective instruction of programming concepts to pre-service teachers with no prior programming experiences. Research results shows that pre-service teachers can learn programming concepts and apply them in their project code implementation. Their programming confidence had been promoted. They also had high intention to apply programming to assist their teaching in future.

References Ahern, T. C. (2009). Briding the Gap: cognitive scaffolding to improve computer programming for middle school teachers. Proceedings of the 39th IEEE Frontiers in Education Conference (pp. M1H-1-M1H-5). IEEE Press, Piscataway, NJ, USA. doi: 10.1109/FIE.2009.5350561 Al-Bow, M., Austin, D., Edgington, J., Fajardo, R., Fishburn, J., Lara, C., Leutenegger, S., & Meyer, S. (2009). Using game creation for teaching computer programming to high school students and teachers. ACM SIGCSE Bulletin, 41(3), 104-108. doi: 10.1145/1562877.1562913 Alice website. (2015). Retrieved July 10, 2015, from http://www.alice.org/index.php Basawapatna, A., Koh, K. H., & Repenning, A. (2010). Using scalable game design to teach computer science from middle school to graduate school. Proceedings of the 15th annual conference on Innovation and technology in computer science education (pp. 224–228). ACM New York, NY, USA. doi: 10.1145/1822090.1822154 Bell, S., Frey, T., & Vasserman, E. (2014). Spreading the word: Introducing pre-service teachers to programming in the K-12 classroom. Proceedings of the 45th ACM technical symposium on Computer science education (pp. 187-192). ACM New York, NY, USA. doi: 10.1145/2538862.2538963 Cordova, J., Eaton, V., & Taylor, K. (2011). Experiences in Computer Science Wonderland: a success story with Alice. Journal of Computing Sciences in Colleges, 26(5), 16-22. Eow, Y. L., Ali, W. Z. W., Mahmud, R., & Baki, R. (2010). Computer games development and appreciative learning approach in enhancing students’ creative perception. Computers & Education, 54(1), 146–161. Fesakis, G., & Serafeim, K. (2009). Influence of the familiarization with "scratch" on future teachers' opinions and attitudes about programming and ICT in education. ACM SIGCSE Bulletin, 41(3), 258-262. doi: 10.1145/1562877.1562957 Jenkins, T. (2002). On the difficulty of learning to program. Retrieved Jane 21, 2015, from http://www.ics.ltsn.ac.uk//pub/conf2002/jenkins.html Korkmaz, O. (2013). Prospective CITE teachers' self-efficacy perceptions on programming. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 83, 639–643. doi: 10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.06.121 Kölling, M. (2010). The Greenfoot Programming Environment. ACM Transactions on Computing Education, 10(4), Article 14, 1-21. doi: 10.1145/1868358.1868361 © 2015 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

Rajaravivarma, R. (2005). A games-based approach for teaching the introductory programming course. ACM SIGCSE Bulletin, 37(4), 98-102. doi: 10.1145/1113847.1113886 Rodger, S., Dalis, M., Gadwal, C., Hayes, J., Li, P., & Liang L. (2012). Integrating Computing into Middle School Disciplines Through Projects. Proceedings of the 43rd ACM Technical Symposium on Computer Science Education (pp. 421-426). ACM New York, NY, USA. doi: 10.1145/2157136.2157262 Rodger,S. H., Hayes, J., Lezin, G., H. Qin, H., Nelson, D., Tucker, R., â&#x20AC;Ś& Slater, D. (2009). Engaging middle school teachers and students with Alice in a diverse set of subjects. ACM SIGCSE Bulletin, 41(1), 271-275. doi: 10.1145/1508865.1508967 Salen, K. (2007). Gaming literacies: a game design study in action. Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, 16(3), 301-322. Scratch website. (2015). Retrieved June 18, 2015, from https://scratch.mit.edu/ StarLogo website. (2015). Retrieved July 6, 2015, from http://education.mit.edu/portfolio_page/starlogo-tng/

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 13, No. 1, pp. 94-101, August 2015

Validity of Post-Unified Tertiary Matriculation Examination (POST-UTME) as Screening Instrument for Selecting Candidates into Degree Programmes in Nigerian Universities James Ayodele OLUWATAYO Ph.D. Faculty of Education, Ekiti State University, Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria Olufunke Olutoyin FAJOBI (M.Ed.) Faculty of Education, Ekiti State University, Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria Abstract. The study investigated the validity of Post-UTME as screening instrument for selecting candidates into degree programmes in Nigerian universities. Participants were 400 final-year undergraduates majoring in Mathematics or Computer Science selected from four public universities (Federal=2, State=2) in southwest Nigeria using stratified and purposive random sampling techniques. Data were collected directly from the respondents during second semester, 2013/2014 academic session using a proforma which sought information on the type of university (Federal/State), course of study (Mathematics/Computer Science), class level (400 level only), PostUTME composite score and Cumulative Grade Point Average (CGPA) at 100Level, 200Level, 300Level and 400Level (first semester only). Data were analysed using correlation (r) and regression statistics, tested at 0.05 level of significance. Results showed that correlation between PostUTME scores and CGPA in Mathematics/Computer Science at 100L, 200L, 300L and 400L were 0.67, 0.38, 0.31 and 0.22 respectively, while the coefficient of determination (r2) were 0.4489 (44.9%), 0.1444 (14.4%), 0.0961 (9.61%) and 0.0484 (4.84%) respectively. Deductively, Post-UTME had evidence of predictive validity at 100Level as about 44.9% of the undergraduatesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; performance in Mathematics/Computer Science could be attributed to performance in Post-UTME while the remaining 55.1% of the variability could be attributed to other factors. It was concluded that Post-UTME was valid for admission into 100Level Mathematics/Computer Science and hence recommended that Post-

UTME be sustained, while concerted efforts be made to monitor undergraduatesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; performance from 200Level to 400Level for quality degree programme in Nigerian universities. Keywords: Validity; Post-UTME; Screening; Degree programme.

Introduction The quality of examinations used in any academic programme is very important. The import is that the conclusions drawn from the use of such examinations are based on the results obtained. A well constructed examination questions (items) with the appropriate psychometric properties (validity, reliability, objectivity, usability, difficulty and discriminating indices) and flawless administration and scoring, has the potential of generating defensible data that can be used for decision making (Stiggins, 2006; Cohen, Swerdlik & Sturman, 2013). Indeed, valid and reliable examination results have practical utility in education such as certification after completing a prescribed course of study (Owolabi, 2004), job selection and guidance and counselling (Alonge, 2015), diagnosing learning difficulties in the classroom (Black & William, 1998), selection of candidates for higher educational programmes (Kolawole, 2014; Bandele, 2015). Conversely, invalid and unreliable examination results have the tendency of misleading decision making and destroying the purpose of the examination. In recent years, validity is viewed in terms of the appropriateness, correctness, meaningfulness and usefulness of the specific inferences that researchers make based on the data collected or the degree to which evidence supports any inferences that a researcher makes based on the data collected using a particular instrument (Fraenkel, Wallen & Hyun, 2015). In other words, validity is not based entirely on the instrument itself but largely on the appropriateness, correctness, meaningfulness and usefulness of the data collected. Inferentially, the purpose of any examination is not merely to collect results but to use the results so collected to draw warranted conclusions about the examinees as to whether their performances justify the decision making such as selection of candidates into degree programmes. For about three decades, specifically, from 1978 to 2005, the Joint Admissions and Matriculation Board (JAMB) had the sole responsibility of conducting the Universities Matriculation Examination (UME) and later, the Unified Tertiary Matriculation Examination (UTME) and placing the candidates that met the cut-off marks into various academic programmes in Nigerian tertiary institutions. Sadly, the JAMB-conducted examinations were found to be characterised by examination malpractices (Ijaiya, 2004; Obasa, 2004; Sonnie, 2004) which made the results of some candidates doubtful. For example, Obasa (2004) reported a study involving 30 undergraduates whose personal record cards showed that they all satisfied the UME requirement of at least 200 marks to be admitted into the University of Ilorin as their scores ranged from 210 to 273. Intriguingly, at the end of second semester, 100 Level, none of the 30 students had good standing of Cumulative Grade Point Average (CGPA) of 1.00. This is a clear evidence that scoring high marks in UME might not necessarily

provide the correct and useful information about the examinees, a distortion of decision making. However, in 2005, the Committee of Vice-Chancellor of Nigerian Universities met at the University of Uyo, Akwa-Ibom State and resolved to introduce the Post-UTME to screen candidates who scored the minimum cut-off marks in the UTME to ascertain their eligibility for admission into degree programmes (Obaji, 2005). The justification for the Post-UTME has documentation in literature. For example, Afemikhe (2005) noted that since the inception of Post-UTME screening examination, many university administrators see it as a panacea to most problems associated with students such as cultism, radicalism, dropouts, change of courses, spending of extra years before graduation, poor grade or class of degree and poor attitude towards academic work. Also, Bamiro (2008) gave a graphic illustration of the embarrassing experience at the University of Ibadan before the introduction of Post-UTME where 23 out of 30 students admitted into the Faculty of Technology were asked to withdraw at the end of their first-year for poor performance. These were students who scored well above 250 in the JAMB examination, noting that the use of UTME scores as basis for admission had done more damages than good to the education sector in Nigeria. Further, Ifedili and Ifedili (2010) made an illusion to the results of 2005/2006 Post-UTME at the University of Benin in which only 11.7% of those who passed UTME at the acceptable points were able to pass the Post-UTME screening test at 50% and above while the remaining 88.3% failed the PostUTME. Consequently, the authors compared the academic performance of firstyear students of 2004/2005 who were admitted by the last JAMB exercise with the performance of 2005/2006 students who were admitted by the first PostUTME. The results showed that 14.23% of those students that were admitted with UTME in 2004/2005 were successful in their first-year degree examination, 66.94% had carryover and 18.80% were on probation whereas 39.65% of those students admitted through Post-UTME in 2005/2006 were successful in their first-year degree examination, 53.80% had carryover and 6.55% were on probation. Ifedili and Ifedili (2010) concluded that both the lecturers and administrators of the University of Benin agreed that Post-UTME had brought a high positive change to students’ academic performance and discipline in the university because focused and disciplined students were admitted. Incidentally, the operation of Post-UTME as screening instrument for selecting candidates into degree programmes in Nigerian universities clocks a decade (10 years), in 2015. The crucial question then is, ‘how well do the scores obtained from the Post-UTME predict performance in degree examinations?’ Meanwhile, studies by Kolawole (2014) and Bandele (2015) indicated that most lecturers in Nigerian universities set questions without regard to standard procedures for setting questions and that questions given to students lack psychometric properties of validity, reliability and usability as test construction principles are not known, talkless of employing them to set questions. This is a serious issue, a real threat to qualify degree examination questions and

examination results. It is not an overstatement that the results obtained from haphazardly prepared examination questions would lead to wrong inferences made and consequently misguide the decision making on the students’ performance. Nevertheless, the focus in the present study is to ascertain how well the undergraduates’ scores in Post-UTME predict their performance in degree examination.

Purpose of the Study The purpose of the study was to ascertain evidence of predictive validity of Post-UTME as screening instrument for selecting candidates into degree programmes with particular reference to degree in Mathematics or Computer Science because they are related.

Research Questions 1. 2.

The following questions were answered in this study: Do the Post-UTME scores of undergraduates relate to their CGPA in Mathematics/Computer Science at 100, 200, 300 and 400 Levels? How well do the Post-UTME scores predict performance of undergraduates in Mathematics/Computer Science at 100, 200, 300 and 400 Levels?

Research Design The study used correlational design in order to describe how scores in Post-UTME are related to undergraduates’ performance in Mathematics/Computer Science at 100, 200, 300 and 400 Levels?

Sample and Sampling Techniques Participants for the study were 400 final-year undergraduates majoring in Mathematics or Computer Science during 2013/2014 academic session selected from four public universities (Federal=2, State=2) in southwest Nigeria using stratified and purposive random sampling techniques. The selection of universities involved stratified random sampling technique while the selection of the respondents involved purposive sampling technique because only finalyear students majoring in either Mathematics or Computer Science and who successfully completed the proforma presented were considered.

Data Collection Data were collected directly from the respondents during second semester of 2013/2014 academic session with the permission and assistance of Head of Department of Mathematics in each of the universities sampled. Copies of the proforma designed for the study were distributed to the respondents and asked to fill and return to the office of the Head of Department. The proforma sought information on the type of university (Federal/State), course of study (Mathematics/Computer Science), class level (400 level only), Post-UTME composite score and Cumulative Grade Point Average (CGPA) at 100Level, 200Level, 300Level and 400Level (First semester only). Duly completed copies of the proforma were used for data analysis.

Data Analysis Data were analysed using correlation (r) and simple regression/ coefficient of determination (r2) statistics, tested at 0.05 level of significance.

Results Question 1: Do the undergraduates’ Post-UTME scores relate to their degree CGPA in Mathematics/Computer Science at 100Level, 200Level, 300Level and 400Level? Data were analysed using Pearson Product Moment Correlation (r) as presented in table 1. Table 1: Correlation between Post-UTME scores and CGPA in Mathematics/Computer Science (100L—400L)

Variables

r100L

Post-UTME scores

400

CGPA

400

0.67*

r200L 0.38*

r300L

r400L

0.31*

0.22*

  0.05 (significant result) Table 1 shows that the correlation coefficient (r) between Post-UTME scores and CGPA Mathematics/Computer Science at 100Level, 200Level, 300Level and 400Level were 0.67, 0.38, 0.31 and 0.22 respectively, while the corresponding table value was 0.196 at 0.05 level of significance. Since rcalculated>rtable, it implies that all the correlation coefficients from 100Level to 400Level were significant. Hence, there existed significant relationship between undergraduates’ Post-UTME scores and their degree CGPA in Mathematics/Computer Science from 100Level to 400Level. Question 2: How well do the undergraduates’ Post-UTME scores predict their performance in Mathematics/Computer Science from 100Level to 400Level? Data were analysed using simple regression determination, r2) as presented in table 2.

statistics

(coefficient of

Table 2: Regression analysis between Post-UTME scores and CGPA in Mathematics/Computer Science (100L—400L)

Variables

Post-UTME scores

400

CGPA Maths/Comp. Sc.

400

r2100L

r2200L

0.4489

0.1494

r2300L 0.0961

r2400L 0.0484

rtable 0.196

Table 2 shows that the coefficient of determination (r2) between PostUTME scores (predictor variable) and CGPA Mathematics/Computer Science (criterion variable) at 100Level, 200Level, 300Level and 400Level were 0.4489, 0.1494, 0.0961 and 0.0484 respectively. These results showed that at 100Level, 200Level, 300Level and 400Level, Post-UTME contributed about 44.9%, 14.9%, 9.61% and 4.84% respectively to the overall performance of undergraduates Mathematics/Computer Science.

Discussion The focus in this study was to establish the evidence of predictive validity of Post-UTME as screening instrument for selecting candidates for degree programmes in Nigerian universities with particular reference to degree Mathematics/Computer Science. The results in table 1 showed that the correlation coefficients between Post-UTME scores (predictor variable) and CGPA Mathematics/Computer Science (criterion variable) at 100Level, 200Level, 300Level and 400Level were positive. Tested at 0.05 level of significance, all the correlation coefficients were significant, though the r-values obtained at 200Level, 300Level and 400Level were low. However, Bandele (1985) and Howell (2002) agreed that the size of correlation coefficient is not a major criterion in deciding the reliability of relationships as spurious and extreme scores can lead to high correlation. Moreover, a large sample size may lead to low correlation coefficient but with significant relationship. In the present study, the sample size was 400 which seemed to be large enough. Interestingly, the correlation coefficient obtained at 100Level was +0.67 which provided information on the magnitude and direction of relationship. By rule of thumb, the higher the Post-UTME score, the likelihood of obtaining higher grade in degree examination in Mathematics/Computer Science. The results in table 2 showed the coefficient of determination (r2 ) between the predictor and criterion variables. Judd and McClelland (1989), Howell (2002) and Kolawole (2002) strongly endorse r2 as a measure of contribution of one variable to the prediction of another. In this case, Post-UTME contributed about 44.9% to the overall performance of undergraduates in Mathematics/Computer Science at 100Level while the remaining 55.1% could not be accounted for. Further, at 200Level, Post-UTME contributed about 14.9% to the overall performance in Mathematics/Computer Science while the remaining 85.1% could not be accounted for. Also, at 300Level, Post-UTME contributed 9.61% to the overall performance of undergraduates in Mathematics/Computer Science, while the remaining 90.39% could not be accounted for. Lastly at 400Level, Post-UTME contributed 4.84% to the overall performance of undergraduate in Mathematics/Computer Science, while the remaining 95.16% could not be accounted for. Really, the variabilities that could not be accounted for could be attributed to other factors such as lack of study habit and motivation on the part of the undergraduates (Gbore, 2006), increasing difficulty level of examination questions and variation in examination questions across the universities (Kolawole, 2014), invalid and unreliable examination questions leading to invalid and unreliable examination results (Bandele, 2015). Perhaps it may be added that the improper monitoring of undergraduatesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;

100

academic activities at each level of degree programme by the Course Advisers might lead to frustrations and academic failure. Notwithstanding, the results provided evidence of predictive validity of Post-UTME on undergraduates’ performance in Mathematics/ Computer Science at 100Level as 44.9% could be accounted for.

Conclusion It was concluded in this study that Post-UTME scores predicted undergraduates’ performance in Mathematics/Computer Science at 100Level and thus valid as screening instrument for selecting candidates into degree Mathematics/Computer Science in Nigerian universities.

Recommendations 1.

Based on the findings, the following recommendations were made: Post-UTME should be sustained as screening instrument for selecting candidates into 100Level of degree programmes in Nigerian universities as it contributed significantly to the overall performance of undergraduates in Mathematics/Computer Science. The academic activities of undergraduates should be monitored at every level of the degree programme to ensure high correlation between PostUTME scores and degree examination results especially in Mathematics/Computer Science. Lecturers in Nigerian universities should be acquainted with the principles underlying the construction and administration of valid and reliable examination questions for quality examination results and degree in Nigerian universities.

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Cohen, R. J.; Swerdlik, M. E. & Sturman, E. D. (2013). Psychological testing and assessment; An introduction to Tests and Measurement (8th edition). New York: McGraw-Hill. 240—284. Fraenkel, J. R.; Wallen, N. E. & Hyun, H. H. (2015). How to design and evaluate research in education (9th edition). New York: McGraw-Hill. 146—165. Gbore, L. O. (2006). Cognitive entry characteristics, study habit and self-concept as predictors of academic performance of university undergraduates in southwest Nigeria. An unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, University of Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria. Howell, D. C. (2002). Statistical methods for psychology (5th edition). Thomson Wasdsworth: Thomson Higher Education. Ifedile, A C. J. & Ifedile, C. J. (2010). An assessment of Post-UTME: A case study of University of Benin. Journal of Social Science. 20: 101—106. Ijaiya, N. Y. S. (2004). Agents of malpractice in Nigerian public examinations: The strongest links. Nigerian Journal of Educational Research and Evaluation. 5(1): 55— 62. Judd, C. M. & McClelland, G. H. (1989). Data analysis: A model comparison approach. San Diego, CA: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. Kolawole, E. B. (2002). Statistical methods (revised Edition). Lagos: Bolabay Publications Academic Publishing Consultants. 17—29. Kolawole, E. B. (2014). Tests and Measurement: The panacea to educational research development in Nigeria. 47th Inaugural Lecture. Ekiti State University, Ado-Ekiti. Tuesday 26th August. Obaji, L. (2005). ‘Post-UTME tests, Federal Government __ Minister.’ The Punch newspaper; 17th November. Obasa, E. Y. (2004). Malpractice in university matriculation: The way out. Nigerian Journal of Educational Research and Evaluation. 5(1): 63—69. Owolabi, H. O. (2004). Public examining in Nigeria: Let the stakes extend. Nigerian Journal of Educational Research and Evaluation. 5(1): 97—101. Sonnie, E. (2004). JAMB and examination malpractices. Comet newspaper: Editorial. Wednesday, May 5. Stiggin, R. (2006). Assessment for learning: A key to motivation and achievement. Phi Delta: Kappa Edge. 2(2): 1—19.