Vol 14 no 2 december 2015 by ijlter.org

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p-ISSN: 1694-2493 e-ISSN: 1694-2116

International Journal of Learning, Teaching And Educational Research

Vol.14 No.2

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research

The International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research is an open-access journal which has been established for the disChief Editor Dr. Antonio Silva Sprock, Universidad Central de semination of state-of-the-art knowledge in the Venezuela, Venezuela, Bolivarian Republic of field of education, learning and teaching. IJLTER welcomes research articles from academics, edEditorial Board ucators, teachers, trainers and other practitionProf. Cecilia Junio Sabio ers on all aspects of education to publish high Prof. Judith Serah K. Achoka quality peer-reviewed papers. Papers for publiProf. Mojeed Kolawole Akinsola Dr Jonathan Glazzard cation in the International Journal of Learning, Dr Marius Costel Esi Teaching and Educational Research are selected Dr Katarzyna Peoples through precise peer-review to ensure quality, Dr Christopher David Thompson originality, appropriateness, significance and Dr Arif Sikander readability. Authors are solicited to contribute Dr Jelena Zascerinska to this journal by submitting articles that illusDr Gabor Kiss trate research results, projects, original surveys Dr Trish Julie Rooney Dr Esteban Vázquez-Cano and case studies that describe significant adDr Barry Chametzky vances in the fields of education, training, eDr Giorgio Poletti learning, etc. Authors are invited to submit paDr Chi Man Tsui pers to this journal through the ONLINE submisDr Alexander Franco sion system. Submissions must be original and Dr Habil Beata Stachowiak should not have been published previously or Dr Afsaneh Sharif be under consideration for publication while Dr Ronel Callaghan Dr Haim Shaked being evaluated by IJLTER. Dr Edith Uzoma Umeh Dr Amel Thafer Alshehry Dr Gail Dianna Caruth Dr Menelaos Emmanouel Sarris Dr Anabelie Villa Valdez Dr Özcan Özyurt Assistant Professor Dr Selma Kara Associate Professor Dr Habila Elisha Zuya

VOLUME 14

NUMBER 2

December 2015

Table of Contents PST Online: Meeting the Need for Teaching Innovation for Virtual Schools ................................................................ 1 Yvonne Masters, Ph.D., Sue Gregory, Ph.D. and Stephen Grono, B.A. Dip.Ed Ubiquitous Technology-Enhanced Learning of Complex Financial Concepts ............................................................ 17 Irena Vodenska Working Memory Training - A Cogmed Intervention ................................................................................................... 28 Linda FĂ¤lth, Linda Jaensson and Karin Johansson Exploring Career Management Skills in Higher Education: Perceived Self-efficacy in Career, Career Adaptability and Career Resilience in Greek University Students ....................................................................................................... 36 Despina Sidiropoulou-Dimakakou, Katerina Argyropoulou, Nikos Drosos, Andronikos Kaliris, and Katerina Mikedaki Forming Self-Study Skills for Students Bad at Math in High Schools in Vietnam ...................................................... 53 Tram Phuong Thuy Nguyen, Tuyen Thanh Thi Nguyen, Thong Duc Do, Giang Anh Pham and Son Hoang Nguyen Designing a Classification Toolkit for Mathematically-Deficient 4 th Grade Students: A Case Study in Vietnam 68 Tuyen Thanh Thi Nguyen, Tram Phuong Thuy Nguyen, Trung Tran and r Lai Thai Dao Continuous Collective Development as a Road to Success in Primary School ............................................................ 87 Heidi Holmen and Kitt Lyngsnes Explorations in Online Learning using Adobe Connect .................................................................................................. 99 Deirdre Englehart National Holidays in Greek Multicultural School: Vies of Pre- Service Teachers ..................................................... 111 Mirsini Michalelis, Kostis Tsioumis, Argyris Kyridis, Despina Papageridou and Elena Sotiropoulou

Exploring the Opportunities for Integrating New Digital Technologies in Tanzaniaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Higher Education Classrooms .......................................................................................................................................................................... 131 Filipo Lubua

When and Why EFL Teachers Use L1? .......................................................................................................................... 151 Yuhong Lu and Heather Fehring A Brief Review of Researches on the Use of Graphing Calculator in Mathematics Classrooms* ............................ 163 Jung-Chih Chen and Yung-Ling Lai What Do College Students Really Want When it Comes to Their Instructorsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Use of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) in Their Teaching? ............................................................................................ 173 Catherine S. Fichten, Laura King, Mary Jorgensen, Mai Nhu Nguyen, Jillian Budd, Alice Havel, Jennison Asuncion, Rhonda Amsel, Odette Raymond and Tiiu Poldma

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 14, No. 2, pp. 1-16, December 2015

PST Online: Meeting the Need for Teaching Innovation for Virtual Schools Yvonne Masters, Ph.D., Sue Gregory, Ph.D., Stephen Grono, B.A. Dip.Ed. University of New England Armidale, New South Wales, Australia

Abstract. Virtual schools are no longer a pipedream: they are already with us. Pre-service teachers need to be prepared for this alternate teaching medium. Unlike blended learning in the classroom, new virtual schools have no need for physical classrooms, and students can be geographically distant from both each other and the teacher. This change in education delivery in schools will necessitate a new approach to curriculum design accompanied by a reshaping of discipline-based courses in higher education institutions in regard to teacher education. Exclusively online teaching changes the teacher/student dynamics and new skills, techniques and strategies should be developed. While there has been some online teaching for many years, initial teacher education has not prepared students for this new way of teaching. In this article the authors present the conceptual underpinning of the need for changes in teacher education and the perceptions of pre-service teachers in terms of their preparedness for virtual teaching. The data from a survey conducted with these pre-service teachers will inform the development of online resources that are part of a funded, ongoing project. Keywords: virtual schools, online teaching, pre-service teacher education

1. Introduction The use of technology in education is widespread in today‟s world and its affordances particularly support the provision of online education. In higher education, wholly online learning is common with external study (distance, offcampus education) offered by many universities. In schools, blended learning (a combination of face-to-face education and online learning) is widespread and well-known, with the Connected Classroom initiative in New South Wales providing a specific example of this (New South Wales Department of Education and Training, 2010). However, the virtual school movement has grown such that wholly online K-12 education is now a reality. In the United States of America (U.S.A.), it has been reported that “virtual schooling is one of the fastest-growing areas in K-12 education” (Roblyer, 2006, p. 32) where enrolment “in fulltime online schools jumped from 200,000 in 2009– © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

2010, to 310,000 in 2012–2013. This represents a 64.5 % increase in only 3 years” (Toppin & Toppin, 2015, p. 4). Australia also has a growth pattern in virtual schools. In New South Wales, the first virtual high school was xsel and, although this selective school has now closed, it has been followed by the advent of Aurora College in 2015. There has also been a long history of distance education via School of the Air across Australia, but virtual schools take online education even further. There are references to other initiatives (see, for example, http://www.virtualschoolsandcolleges.eu/index.php/Category:Virtual_schools _in_Australia). The authors examine the literature about virtual schools and make a case for changes to teacher education programs to better develop pre-service teachers for new teaching and learning environments. As part of an ongoing Office for Learning and Teaching (OLT) funded research project, we explored pre-service teacher perceptions of their readiness for virtual school teaching via an online survey and report on that specific data here.

2. Background Virtual schools, defined as accredited schools which deliver education almost solely via the Internet (Barbour & Reeves, 2009), have emerged around the globe, but have had their strongest uptake in the U.S.A. where it is estimated that thirty states have virtual schools (Morgan, 2015). Australia also has virtual schools and the start of a new virtual school, Aurora College, in New South Wales in 2015 is indicative of that state‟s government commitment, made in 2013, to extend quality education to rural and regional areas (New South Wales Department of Education and Communities, 2013). While there have been some criticisms of the quality and/or integrity of virtual school education (Barbour, 2011; Barth, 2013; Natale & Cook, 2012), there is strong acknowledgement that virtual schools can deliver education opportunities to students who might otherwise be unable to pursue particular studies due to a range of factors such as isolation, mobility (such as with military families), health issues, disabilities, lack of qualified teachers in the area or emotional issues such as bullying (Roblyer, 2006; Toppin & Toppin, 2015; Vasquez & Straub, 2012). An important area of discussion for virtual school teaching is the capacity of the teachers to deliver in an online environment. Miller and Ribble (2010) argue that not all teachers “have the skills or temperament to be online instructors. Just as some people are not destined to be classroom teachers, there are some who should not be online teachers as well” (p. 5). One concern raised is that there is no systematic pre-service teacher education in terms of online teaching (DiPietro, Ferdig, Black, & Preston, 2010) and that “many teachers are transitioning from a traditional classroom to virtual teaching environments” (Richardson, LaFrance, & Beck, 2015, p. 19). DiPietro et al. (2010) argue that too little research has been done into what constitutes good online teaching in the K12 environment and that, while „best practice‟ documents have been written, these: often neglect the unique skills of virtual school teachers, indicating the need for research that focuses on the © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

instructional practices of K-12 teachers in virtual school settings. Lacking a body of research that focuses on the K-12 online arena, these documents also draw on research underpinning the instructional practices associated with postsecondary online settings (p. 11). Current teacher education programs “prepare individuals for traditional classrooms, and they do so in isolated silos of pedagogy, content, field experiences, and to a lesser extent, technology” (Archambault, 2011, p. 74). They are geared towards face-to-face teaching where technology may be used as a tool for learning, but is not the medium for teaching and learning. Effective online teaching “necessitates a shift from a practice of controlling to engaging students‟ attention” (Murphy & Manzanares, 2008, p. 1061) and, with online learning increasing in the K-12 sector, teacher education programs will need to adapt to prepare pre-service teachers for this new milieu (Archambault, 2011). The project reported here is a first step in this development.

3. The Project The growth of virtual teaching and learning in schools outlined in the last section and the lack of pre-service teacher preparation for these virtual environments in current teacher education programs led the authors to a successful Office for Learning and Teaching grant. Bull (2010) argues that “for the most part, teacher education programs are not yet preparing preservice teachers to teach in this [virtual] environment successfully” (p. 29) and this research project aims to begin to re-dress that gap. The project, Pre-service Teachers Online (PST Online), will provide pre-service teachers and higher education institutions with a range of resources that can be used to enhance the online teaching skills of these initial teacher education students. As virtual classrooms become more common, these skills, currently neglected, will be more important for teachers, particularly those in rural and regional areas. By developing a website repository of these resources (cf. pstonline.info, currently being developed) that is freely accessible to anyone, the project can also assist current teachers with development of these skills to meet their changing needs. A further output of the project will be workshop materials that will be trialled at the project team members‟ institution in preparation for their use in more diverse studies. This will occur nearer the end of the project which is due to be fully reported in May 2016. To assist in the development of the online resource packages, the authors conducted a survey of current pre-service teachers enrolled at their university. While experienced teacher educators, we were keen to link the online resources to the concerns or challenges identified by the pre-service teachers. Once these had been identified we began to build the website and we are organising short videos of experienced online academics discussing particular areas such as student engagement, resource selection, etc.

In the next section, the authors report on the perceptions of the pre-service teachers as developed through the analysis of survey responses. Other aspects of the project will be reported in further articles.

4. The Survey A survey was sent to all enrolled students in 12 initial teacher education programs at the University of New England (UNE). By including all enrolled students, we were able to gather rich data as the students ranged across all teaching sectors (early childhood, primary and secondary), encompassed both on- and off-campus students (which provided a wide range of ages) and included pre-service teachers at all stages of their program from first to final year. As a university where all students, regardless of study mode, are expected to engage with a learning management system (in this case Moodle), all participants have some familiarity with learning online. The survey was delivered online and had several components. The first section of questions were demographic and provided information on age, gender, location of residence, course being studied and current academic year. This information enables us to correlate particular comments with demographic information as necessary. The second section consisted of Likert scale questions seeking the participants‟ perceptions in regard to their confidence in using Information and Communication Technology (ICT) and also their knowledge and confidence with a range of teaching skills. The final section of the survey related directly to virtual schools and asked the participants the following questions:  What factors do you feel are important in developing a positive online learning experience?  What concerns would you have or challenges might you face if you were appointed to teach using online technology?  How might you resolve these concerns or challenges?  What resources do you feel you would need to help you in this area?  Who might you need to provide assistance? In terms of the findings, these questions became crucial as we moved into the resource development phase of our project. Two hundred and two (202) enrolled students completed the first section and 147 completed Sections 2 and 3 of the survey.

5. Findings While the demographic data collected was interesting, providing statistics about the age, gender and location of participants, they have been reported in a companion paper and will only be dealt with briefly in this article to demonstrate the extent of student diversity. As is the trend with enrolments in education courses at UNE, most of the participants in the survey were female, 167 (83%), with 35 males (17%). The majority of participants who completed the survey indicated that they lived in a capital city (69, 34%), with a regional city residence being the second largest of © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

respondents (35, 17%) and small regional town/city the third largest (26, 13%), with the least being located in a non-regional city (3, 1%). The responses demonstrate a correlation with UNE‟s “typical” student: an online enrolled female aged in their mid-thirties. The respondents in this survey clearly showed a skew in this direction, as indicated in Figure 1, towards 36 to 45 years of age, with the second largest group the 26 to 35 years of age. The results clearly show that the majority of respondents in this survey were studying online, aged between 26 and 45 years of age and female.

Figure 1. Age of participants who completed the survey

The demographic data also revealed that a large proportion of the respondents (39%) were in the first year of their initial teacher education course. This means that many of these respondents would not have yet completed a practicum and that they still had important aspects of their teacher education still to be completed. Whilst the age of the respondents demonstrates some life experience, the experience within teacher education was low. This is important when considering the responses reported in the next section regarding confidence for teaching in virtual schools.

5.1. Capacity to Teach in a Virtual Classroom Situation In Section 2 of the survey, participants were asked to rank their knowledge of, experience with, and confidence in a range of teaching skills. These skills incorporated the common teaching skills which were developed in the initial teacher education programs (for example lesson preparation and behaviour management skills), but also included the skill of using a virtual classroom. How the participants rated themselves with this particular skill is shown in Figure 2. © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

There is a perception among the participants that their knowledge about, and confidence for, the use of virtual classrooms is reasonable. It is interesting that the knowledge about the skills needed in virtual classrooms is rated at average or above by 53.4% of participants and their confidence to use such classrooms is 56.3%, within the same range. In comparison, the rating of experience in virtual classrooms for the same range drops to 40.2%. This is still a high percentage given none of these students have had any experience in virtual schools. These results were perplexing prior to analysis of the open-ended comments. However, once this was undertaken the results became more comprehensible.

Figure 2. Perceptions about skills in observing and engaging in a virtual classroom

Despite the survey focussing on virtual schools, many participants answered the various questions from the viewpoint of studying by online means at university. They responded about their experience of online learning, rather than concentrating their comments on online teaching, and/or they discussed how academics who have taught them conducted their online teaching. When participants responded to the question regarding the factors needed for teaching online, comments such as those below are indicative of this misunderstanding of the questions: Online learning requires effective time-management skills because you will be doing all other work: house chores, baby sitting, cooking, cleaning and you still need to be up-to-date with the lessons, lectures, forum activities and discussions. Therefore, managing time while studying off-campus is a challenging skill for online learning (Participant 17)1; The reported participant number is assigned by Qualtrics covering all participants who began the survey and can, therefore, be a higher number than those reported as completing any section. 1

An understanding towards mature age students with young children i.e. the whole "work/life" balance (Participant 195). One comment in particular demonstrated lack of understanding of completely virtual schools with the respondent commenting that if students in the classroom did not adhere to the rules there would be: Repercussions … eg: no ICT for a week! (Participant 108) However, there were respondents who were willing to embrace the challenges of online teaching with one stating that: This could only be resolved by further learning, which I‟d be very happy to engage in if a job opportunity arose in this area (Participant 202). Another participant acknowledged that some online skills are already known from completing online units at university and that teaching in a virtual school could be an extension of this providing that “I was given time to learn how to use the tools properly” (Participant 159). 5.2. Concerns and Challenges As reported previously, there is a need to develop pre-service teachers for effective online teaching. The authors contend that this will require changes to teacher education programs as the current programs do not consider this new approach to teaching. While pre-service teachers are taught how to use ICT in the physical classroom, this ICT education does not extend to wholly online teaching requirements. In response to the open-ended questions, it became clear not only that there was some misunderstanding of virtual teaching as reported in the last section, but also a lack of knowledge about the advent of virtual schools. Respondents stated that: This has not been covered in my course at all and I am about to complete my final unit of study (Participant 129); Until taking this survey, and apart from my own experiences in online learning for this degree, I have not considered online teaching, nor has it been mentioned in ANY of my units, even the ICT unit, so this all comes as quite a surprise. I would like to know a lot more about it - where is it based? … I would have looked to my learning institution (e.g. UNE) to prepare me fully for teaching. Until now I hadn‟t even thought about online education and the topic has not been raised. I wish it had been - then I might not be feeling so inept as I fill out this survey (Participant 202). Despite this gloomy outlook regarding preparation for online teaching in the current teacher education programs, the survey data also indicated a general © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

willingness among the participants to consider the issues that might face them in teaching in this form of learning environment and what might be required for success. Analysis of the open-ended data was undertaken using manual coding around common themes that emerged. The participant comments were grouped within the emergent themes of engagement, technology, development of community/relationship, and teaching skills. Several of the responses contained more than one of the identified themes. Initial exploration of these themes concentrated on the first two open-ended questions: the factors that participants felt were important for success in online teaching and the concerns or challenges they felt they could currently face. These questions were used to gauge the current understanding of the students about what might be necessary in online teaching and also what their primary concerns might be. This was deemed important in assisting us to develop a relevant and useful website. The breakdown of responses in these areas is shown in Table 1. Table 1: Percentage of themed responses

Engagement Technology Factors important for a positive online learning environment Concerns and challenges in teaching online

15%

48%

50%

Community/ Skills Relationship 20% 17% 25%

19%

A not unexpected result in this table is that technology was rated most highly as a theme in terms of both factors needed for developing a positive online learning environment and also in terms of participant concerns. 5.2.1. Technology When preparing the survey, we expected that technology and the issues surrounding this would be a key factor in the participantsâ&#x20AC;&#x; discussion regarding online teaching. Although the website that is currently being developed will have some suggestions about useful programs for online teaching, it cannot cover technical assistance as the platforms that pre-service teachers will encounter will vary depending on particular school systems. The participantsâ&#x20AC;&#x; comments indicated that they were aware of technical issues such as internet reliability, speed and intermittence or computer failure, but some were also unsure about where online teaching would be delivered from, demonstrating that their understanding of virtual schools is low. Indicative comments of this latter confusion included comments about their home connections and who would pay for these: Funding for equipment and the level of connectivity available (Participant 32); and ÂŠ 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

I don‟t have good quality internet, and would have limits to what I could afford to download and upload (Participant 84). The confusion was also evident in some of the comments regarding student accessibility to equipment, given that students are generally in a home school and are provided with relevant equipment by the education system. The majority of the concerns about technology centred on the participants‟ lack of experience with online teaching technologies and also the safety and security of using online platforms. However, there were also comments regarding the use of technology as a learning tool of itself. Table 2 provides examples of these responses. Table 2: Concerns about the Use of Technology

Lack of experience and concerns about online security and behaviour Concern for “mutual respect in online etiquette” (Participant 4)

Challenges of effective teaching with technology “Appropriate and effective tools” (Participant 83)

Concern about “having a good understanding of all available technology” (Participant 122) Lack of “experience with learning environment and technologies available” (Participant 129)

“Using different technologies that are interesting and exciting to the end user” (Participant 5) “Amenability of digital platforms to customisation for catering to the diverse abilities and interests of students” (Participant 163)

“The main concerns I would have in teaching this way is my lack of experience in using the programs and tools required to teach effectively” (Participant 3)

“The ability to find appropriate educational websites that help the student to learn but also allow them to ask questions (not just websites that give answers to everything)” (Participant 5)

“Technical knowledge - if something fails, I can‟t just revert to type and teach the lesson without technology” (Participant 37)

“Ensuring the lesson is not an excuse to use technology, rather technology enhances the learning of the students and the lesson” (Participant 109)

While participants were very concerned about their ability to use the technology, it is clear that they also thought about the best ways that technology might be used for effective learning to occur. This observation is borne out by the number of responses that were made referring to engaging students in their learning. 5.2.2. Student Engagement Student engagement has been linked to both academic success and personal well-being (Corso, Bundick, Quaglia, & Haywood, 2013; Schaufeli, Bakker, & Salanova, 2006). Corso et al. (2013) state that: The classroom factors that have the most bearing on a student‟s engagement fall into three categories: the student © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

within him or herself, the student‟s interactions with others (the teacher and other students), and the student‟s interaction with the academic content (p. 53). Many of the participants remarked on the need for engagement and showed that they felt that online learning environments might be challenging in terms of this crucial aspect of education, particularly in regard to the teacher-student interaction. There were also comments made about what might be needed to maintain student engagement in their lessons. Participants responded to the open-ended questions with comments such as: The biggest challenge would be keeping the attention of students. It would be hard to know where the students were up to, how to engage with them (Participant 1). One of the participants drew on personal experience of online learning to comment that: One of my concerns … would be trying to maintain engagement. Personally, when doing online tutorials, I sometimes zone out and not pay attention (horrible I know) but because I am not actually sitting in front of a teacher, and have other things around me to distract me, I lose focus (Participant 19). Some participants did make suggestions about how they might try to keep students engaged. One respondent felt there was a need to: Ensure that my online presence was engaging (Participant 81), while another participant stated that to gain engagement it would be necessary to: Get to know student and their likes/ dislikes; find out what motivates them (Participant 94). It is clear that the participants, while not always understanding the specific needs of virtual teaching, were able to draw on their knowledge of what is needed for effective learning and to extrapolate from that. This was very evident in their comments coded as a theme of creating a sense of community and relationship. 5.2.3. Sense of Community and Relationship As is the case with engagement, a sense of inclusion and community is also important for effective learning, particularly in online environments (Akyol & Garrison, 2008; Phillippo & Stone, 2013; Tu & McIsaac, 2002). Akyol and Garrison (2008) make reference to what has been termed as „social presence‟ and state that a sense of community “was particularly powerful for participation” (p. © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

15) in online communication, but they also mention that teacher (or instructor) presence is even more important for student satisfaction as this promotes social presence. Savvidou (2013) argues that „teacher presence‟, related to a sense of immediacy or distance, is very important in building online learning environments. The participants exhibited their understanding of the need for both social and teacher presence in their comments about what would be important in online teaching and how this could also be a challenge. A range of these comments are shown in Tables 3 and 4. Table 3: Comments on Factors for Successful Online Teaching

Successful online teaching I think students need to feel like they are part of a significant community, not on their own (Participant 5). Teachers being present and engaged with students as fellow humans (Participant 18). A teacher in an online environment still needs to fulfil the social, emotional and intellectual needs of all students as he/she would in an everyday classroom. Obviously by a different means the same outcome needs to be achieved (Participant 25). Developing a style so it doesn‟t seem that students are located elsewhere (Participant 33). Presence and positivity of teaching staff (Participant 36). Students feel they are as cared for as students in a “real” classroom (Participant 87). Where possible it is important to make the student feel like they are part of the group/class even when they are miles away (Participant 155). A feeling of inclusion and involvement and consistent teacher presence and involvement to show that there is learning support available (Participant 130). Table 4: Challenges in Online Teaching

Online teaching challenges The ability to ensure that students don‟t feel alone and isolated whilst using on-line technology to learn. As a student myself this can be a very hard hurdle to overcome (Participant 5). Developing some sort of relationship with students would be hard (Participant 6). One of my concerns is that it might be difficult to get to know the students compared to the chance you have in a real classroom (Participant 19). Ensuring that the course is not impersonal (Participant 30). Connection to students. “Losing” students online (Participant 36). Lack of face to face contact removing the personal element (Participant 37). Difficult to make students feel included in a community ((Participant 51). The environment can be quite lonely and bridging the gap would be challenging (Participant 84). © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

I‟d be concerned that being remote from the students makes it difficult to get to know them and their strengths and weaknesses (Participant 152). Bonding with students so they still see you as a teacher (Participant 169). As with the responses to making an online environment engaging for students, it is again clear that the participants drew on their understanding of the conditions for effective learning as they discussed what would be both important and a challenge. One respondent, who was not anti-online teaching per se, sums up the general feeling of many of the participants. This respondent said: That I do not have as much ability to understand the student as a “real” classroom teacher does. What does the student feel/think? How well is the student really performing? The student might feel an online-mode of teaching is not as serious as “real” classroom teaching (Participant 87). 5.2.4. Skills Teaching skills are an important aspect of teacher education and, quite clearly, the participants drew on their existing knowledge of these in responding to the various questions. The main skills that they brought to their responses were those of time management, communication, understanding of student needs and behavior management. 5.2.4.1. Understanding Student Needs Whilst there was an understanding of the need for similar skills regardless of the learning environment, there was again some confusion about what virtual schools are and the ways in which school students would be taught. One respondent, demonstrating awareness that the interpersonal skill for understanding student needs is a requirement for any teacher, then went on to wonder how this could happen in virtual schools: The main concern is to assess student‟s prior knowledge and how they are coping with the lessons. Since it is one-way, i.e. the teacher only delivers weekly resources; it is hard to assess those two factors (Participant 17). 5.2.4.2. Communication Communication was also seen as a necessary skill and the participants commented on concerns that they had about this. Some responses were: I would worry the students may not have understood the instructions and find it harder to communicate (Participant 162); I‟m quite a direct person and only using online resources, tact might get lost in translation ((Participant 57);

Communication can be challenging using online forums at the best of times, and often using these virtual classrooms requires a lot of patience and perseverance on part of teacher and student to allow it to be a mutually helpful space for learning (Participant 11). 5.2.4.3. Behavior Management Interestingly, behavior management was mentioned as a necessary skill and also a concern, but there seemed to be little understanding about what the difference might be between a face-to-face classroom and a virtual classroom. Participants commented on the need to be able to monitor what sites students were accessing and one respondent stated that behavior management “would be harder”, but gave no further detail. It is difficult to ascertain from the data whether participants are responding to the general concern of pre-service teachers with behavior management skills (O‟Neill & Stephenson, 2011; Peters, 2009) or are aware that there will need to be other skills developed in this area. Overall, participants had concerns about being virtual school teachers and could articulate these as demonstrated by the respondent who questioned: How do you get to know your students? How do you find out how they learn in order to differentiate your lessons? How do you differentiate your lessons? (Participant 45). However, it was also clear that they understood that, to teach in virtual schools, they “may benefit from opportunities to develop new skills, techniques and strategies” (Murphy & Manzanares, 2008, p. 1070). They were also able to articulate the resources they feel would be useful to them in developing the requisite skills. 5.3. Resources Needed A crucial question for the development of the PST Online website was centered on the resources that participants felt would most assist them in gaining the essential knowledge and skills to become effective virtual teachers. Given that virtual schools already exist, and are considered a vital means for improving access to education for disadvantaged students, such as those who are rural or remote (New South Wales Department of Education and Communities, 2013), it is important that current pre-service teachers are assisted to be „virtual classroom ready‟. The assistance that the participants targeted is diverse, but the PST Online website has the capacity to deliver much of this. An important area indicated by the participants was, not surprisingly, in the area of ICT training. One participant typified a number of similar responses, stating that: I‟d most likely need help in all technical areas. I am confident with my writing skills, lesson planning skills, communication skills, and other areas of teaching; it‟s the ICT specific skills that would let me down. So I would require specific and © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

explicit help to learn how to run the programmes used from a teacher‟s perspective (Participant 202). This comment exemplifies how many of the pre-service teachers felt comfortable with the general teaching skills, but sought development not only in technical skills themselves, but also how to use technology for effective teaching. It was heartening to see that some respondents knew some of the kinds of programs that would be helpful as a teacher such as Edmodo, wikis, YouTube, and iTunes. Many of the participants were keen on a resource that provided a supportive network for new ideas, preferably with access to more experienced practitioners in the field. They also hoped to have somewhere that could be a repository for shared resources. These are areas that this project is developing. Despite a dissonance between virtual school teaching skills and most participants‟ current understandings of what these may be, the wealth of feedback can be readily adapted to fit the needs of both virtual and face-to-face classroom teachers‟ use of technology.

6. Conclusion It is clear that knowledge about virtual schools is limited and also that students in initial teacher education courses do not feel equipped to cope with this aspect of teaching. However, the data from the survey suggest that current pre-service teachers are, in the main, prepared to consider the possibilities of online teaching. However, there were, as one might expect, a few respondents who could not countenance something quite as innovative as teaching without a physical classroom: I think I would refuse any position that required on-line technology as I personally feel it prevents the type of personal interaction that I need to complete tasks properly (Participant 48). Generally, participants showed that they had a solid grounding in what is required to be an effective teacher, but were unable to see how this understanding translated into a virtual teaching scenario. There was awareness of the need to incorporate technology into 21st century classrooms, evidenced by comments which referred to specific programs and also to the use of interactive whiteboards (IWBs) in classrooms, but low awareness that IWBs might not be a tool for a virtual classroom: they did not make the transition from what they knew of traditional face-to-face classrooms. This is to be expected when it is clear that current pre-service teachers have a very limited knowledge of school education outside a traditional school setting. The PST Online project, and the website that will be the main output, is poised to begin the „education‟ of pre-service teachers not only in an understanding of virtual teaching and its requirements, but also providing assistance for those using blended learning in traditional classrooms for, as one respondent stated in © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

regard to the use of technology for learning: I think this is such a fast growing area of teaching, and yet so many people still know very little about how to utilise it to their advantage (Participant 5). While the website is a first step, it is clear that the pre-service teachers who participated in the survey feel somewhat let down that they have not heard of virtual schools before this and that there is no inclusion, in an integrated fashion, to incorporate appropriate skills across all aspects of their teacher education. As one participant said, “it would be great if included in a university course”. The authors are planning for further research into what can be done to rectify this situation. Acknowledgements Support for this publication has been provided by the Australian Government Office for Learning and Teaching. The views in this publication do not necessarily reflect the views of the Australian Government Office for Learning and Teaching.

References Akyol, Z., & Garrison, D. R. (2008). The development of a community of inquiry over time in an online course: understanding the progression and integration of social, cognitive and teaching presence. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks, 12, 3–22. Archambault, L. (2011). The practitioner‟s perspective on teacher education: Preparing for the K-12 online classroom. Journal of Technology and Teacher Education, 19(1), 73–91. Barbour, M. K. (2011). The promise and the reality : exploring virtual schooling in rural jurisdictions. Education in Rural Australia, 21(1), 1–19. Barbour, M. K., & Reeves, T. C. (2009). The reality of virtual schools: A review of the literature. Computers & Education, 52(2), 402 - 416. Barth, P. (2013). Virtual schools: Where‟s the Evidence? Educational Leadership, 70(6), 32– 36. Bull, G. (2010). The always connected generation. Learning and Leading with Technology, 38(3), 28–29. Corso, M. J., Bundick, M. J., Quaglia, R. J., & Haywood, D. E. (2013). Where student, teacher, and content meet: Student engagement in the secondary school classroom. American Secondary Education, 41(3), 50–61. DiPietro, M., Ferdig, R. E., Black, E. W., & Preston, M. (2010). Best practices in teaching K-12 online: Lessons learned from Michigan Virtual School teachers. Journal of Interactive Online Learning, 9(3), 10–35. Miller, T., & Ribble, M. (2010). Moving beyond bricks and mortar: Changing the conversation on online education. Educational Considerations, 37(2), 3–6. Morgan, H. (2015). Online instruction and virtual schools for middle and high school students: Twenty-first-century fads or progressive teaching methods for today's pupils? The Clearing House: A Journal of Educational Strategies, Issues and Ideas, 88(2), 72–76. Murphy, E., & Manzanares, M. A. R. (2008). Contradictions between the virtual and physical high school classroom: A third-generation Activity Theory perspective. British Journal of Educational Technology, 39(6), 1061–1072. © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

Natale, C. F., & Cook, J. (2012). Virtual K–12 learning: New learning frontiers for State Education Agencies. Peabody Journal of Education, 87(5), 535–558. New South Wales Department of Education and Communities. (2013). Rural and remote education: A blueprint for action. Sydney, NSW: Department of Education and Communities Retrieved from https://www.det.nsw.edu.au/...us/.../rural...education/randr-blueprint.pdf. New South Wales Department of Education and Training. (2010). Connected Classrooms program in action. Sydney: New South Wales Department of Education and Training. O'Neill, S. C., & Stephenson, J. (2011). Classroom behaviour management preparation in undergraduate primary teacher education in Australia: A web-based investigation. Australasian Journal of Teacher Education, 36(10, Article 3), 35–52. Peters, J. (2009, 30th November-3rd December). First year pre-service teachers’ learning about behaviour management. Paper presented at the Australian Association for Research in Education (AARE) Annual Conference, Canberra. Phillippo, K. L., & Stone, S. (2013). Teacher role breadth and its relationship to studentreported teacher support. High School Journal, 96(4), 358–379. Richardson, J. W., LaFrance, J., & Beck, D. (2015). Challenges of virtual school leadership. American Journal of Distance Education, 29(1), 18–29. Roblyer, M. D. (2006). Virtually successful: Defeating the dropout problem through online school programs. The Phi Delta Kappan, 88(1), 31–36. Savvidou, C. (2013). „Thanks for sharing your story‟: the role of the teacher in facilitating social presence in online discussion. Technology, Pedagogy and Education, 22(2), 193-211. doi: 10.1080/1475939x.2013.787267 Schaufeli, W. B., Bakker, A. B., & Salanova, M. (2006). The measurement of work engagement with a short questionnaire: A cross-national study. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 66(4), 701–716. Toppin, I. N., & Toppin, S. M. (2015). Virtual schools: The changing landscape of K-12 education in the U.S. Education and Information Technologies, 1–11. Tu, C.-H., & McIsaac, M. (2002). The relationship of social presence and interaction in online classes. American Journal of Distance Education, 16(3), 131–150. Vasquez, E., & Straub, C. (2012). Online instruction for K-12 Special Education: A review of the empirical literature. [Article]. Journal of Special Education Technology, 27(3), 31–40.

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 14, No. 2, pp. 17-27, December 2015

Ubiquitous Technology-Enhanced Learning of Complex Financial Concepts Pedagogy Improvement in Face-to-Face and Online Teaching Environments Irena Vodenska Administrative Sciences Department, Metropolitan College, Boston University, 808 Commonwealth Avenue, Boston, MA United States Abstract. Technology-based finance education is designed to fully engage students during lectures and individual study times in order to increase their learning efficiency. Students are immersed in a new teaching environment where the emphasis is on achieving high knowledge retention rate by synchronously presenting the material through non-sequential links of learning objects such as graphics, multimedia files, and links to external documents. While studying, students have possibilities to refer to earlier material when learning more complex ideas in the later part of a lecture, as well as to relate to the material that may be following the topics being introduced. The integrative technology-enhanced approach to learning provides students with a possibility to maintain the overall view of the material, while absorbing detailed explanations of the individual study components. We have conducted a preliminary pilot program testing this approach, and we found, based on student feedback, that the integrative technology-enhanced approach to teaching improves student overall learning experience in face-to-face as well as in online courses. Moreover, course material organization and instructor presentation of the material contribute significantly to the overall student satisfaction while technology per se is not a statistically significant factor for overall course experience. Keywords: Face-to-face & online programs; Synchronous & asynchronous teaching; Technology enhanced learning; Distance education

1. Introduction A major challenge in teaching advanced finance courses today is to fully engage students and to increase the efficiency rate of learning important financial concepts and risk management tools. Just few years ago the world financial system was on the brink of collapse creating a fundamental need for finance graduates to thoroughly understand the intricacies of complex financial and risk management tools. At the time when we have seen some of the most ÂŠ 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

outrageous government rescue interventions in the corporate world (Fender and Gyntelberg, 2008), we strive to equip our students to approach financial risk management meticulously and methodically, in order to be prepared to face the challenges of todayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s financial industry. There is a need to constantly upgrade and update not only the course material to incorporate novel concepts and risk management techniques, but also to create a learning environment that introduces effective approaches and utilize technological advancements to facilitate meaningful teaching of complex financial models, decision-making tools, and structured financial products. One of the goals of advanced finance education is to teach students how to utilize existing financial concepts and tools and to prepare graduates to have analytical and flexible open minds to effectively grasp new, innovative financial products and utilize them appropriately in their workplace environments. Sequential educational style has historically been traditional and most common method of presenting lecture material (Saunders, 2001). It is based on presentation of different concepts to be learned in a serial mode, one following the other, without stressing the correlation and causality between various topics. This is similar to a short-term memory process, where relationship is established only between consecutive topics. Despite the benefits of this widely adopted teaching style, it also has number of drawbacks, especially for complex, highly correlated relational subject matters, such as finance. One of the most significant shortcomings of sequential teaching methods is a reduced knowledge retention rate of novel concepts acquired in a lecture format (Butler, 1992). Students have different learning styles and it is important to offer teaching approaches to accommodate different student types (intuitive, visual, active) to capture their attention for the duration of the class and prevent learning-teaching mismatch that could result in inattentiveness, boredom, and ultimately dropping from the class (Felder & Spurlin, 2005). Longer-term memory is essential when students are building knowledge based on material introduced in a finance lecture. Hence, it is important to refer to earlier material when learning more complex ideas in the later part of the lecture. Equally important is to be able to relate to the material that follows the topics being introduced. In the sequential teaching environment students often lose the thread of the presentation. That can reduce the benefits of the lecture to a point when students stop accepting and processing information. To address this limitation of sequential classroom teaching techniques, we introduce comprehensive computer-aided approach to teaching, where the complete lecture is presented interactively allowing students to learn the material through various components that are linked in a non-sequential way. This approach provides the students with a possibility to maintain the overall view of the material while the instructor explains the lecture material building blocks in detail.

2. Comprehensive technology-enhanced learning The integrative technology-enhanced approach matches well the teaching style of the instructor with different learning preferences of individual students. This methodology provides virtual step-by-step instruction for a subgroup of students who prefer learning the material by hearing and seeing the concepts in a sequence. At the same time it gives an opportunity to students who prefer the non-sequential learning style to connect differently the presented material objects. This approach allows instructors to reach out and successfully teach much broader population of students. Since some students are passive and some are active learners (Rodrigues, 2004), they can choose the type of computer-aided modules that correspond to their learning style. We believe that giving students an opportunity to non-sequentially navigate through the material will provide immediate benefit to their understanding of the presented concepts and may detect and correct promptly certain misconceptions with instructorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s assistance and feedback. Students will also be able to study the material outside the classroom, at their own pace, and to solidify their knowledge on their own after the lecture. This approach will present a possibility for students to benefit from both, immediate and delayed knowledge transfer to obtain solid conceptual understanding of the material by developing improved retention skills over time (Mathan and Koedinger, 2005). In finance courses it is extremely important to understand all the building blocks of risk management or the decision-making process. If students do not completely understand an important theory or if they learn a model incorrectly, this introduces confusion and potentially erroneous understanding of the overall material. Needless to say, this inaccurate understanding can trickle down to future, more complex concepts and can lead to incorrect solutions of multifaceted problems. We tested the integrated approach to learning within both, face-to-face and online formats, and demonstrated that this methodology can be modified to fit both of these different environments. For example, in online classes, we preserve the traditional component of teaching by using tablet computers in addition to already prepared integrative lecture material (Hoppe et al., 1999, Turban and Muhlhauser, 2007). In face-to-face classes, we utilize technology to bring the integrative approach to teaching in the classroom. In Figure 1 we illustrate how the integrative approach to teaching corresponds better to real world corporate and economic systems, by showing the difference between sequential and interconnected network-like flow of links among learning objects.

a) А

b) A

B C

c) A

Figure 1: a) shows a real world system where links exist among all the nodes in the graph; b) illustrates example of sequential instruction where certain links (A-C, A-D, and B-D) are missing; c) represents a comprehensive integrative approach to delivering complex financial concept teaching material.

Within the integrative technology-enhanced approach to teaching, students are given an opportunity to focus on individual teaching components while learning sophisticated financial models and obtaining a thorough understanding of multifaceted economics concepts. As illustrated in Figure 2, a complex concept of pricing a derivative instrument, such as “option”, involves integrative approach to carry on the option valuation process. In this example, we show the binomial tree option pricing approach and present the entire process integratively, giving students an overall big picture of the pricing steps, with a possibility to zoom into specific pricing segments, while keeping the overall evaluation procedure visible.

Figure 2: Example of multiple-screen lectrure delivery format which allows students to see the overall lecture material at all times with a possibility to zoom in and out of specific screens.

2.1. Teaching with Non-sequentially Linked Learning Modules Instructors use multiple screens and enhanced presentation tools to link the learning components delivered non-sequentially within a lecture. The objects are connected in a network where directional links exist to successfully navigate through the required material. This teaching approach keeps student attention to multiple lecture Although, the integrated technology-enhanced approach to teaching brings benefits to students, based on our experience, it also creates additional burden to instructors, who experience approximately 20-25% increase in their workload. This overload is a result of the need to create the video or audio objects, to link the lecture objects appropriately, and to learn how to utilize new technologies. Introducing cutting edge integrative technology-enhanced teaching approach keeps the students abreast with new developments in the financial industry, especially in the fast-paced advances in the area of financial risk management. The non-sequentially linked lecture components could represent 1) embedded lecture notes 2) hyperlinks to additional learning sources, 3) links to outside applications such as PowerPoint, Excel, or Access, or 4) pointers to prerecorded multimedia objects either developed by the instructor or accessed on the Web. ÂŠ 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

The integrative teaching model can work well in large or small groups or in laboratory or practical classes where students need to deliver computational results based on a set of learning objects by planning, developing, and managing their own learning (Bourner and Flowers, 1999). Concurrent to introducing the integrative approach to learning, it is important to determine proper use of technology to optimize customized course development and delivery and streamline technical support (Bates and Poole, 2003). The comprehensive computer-aided teaching approach is becoming more attractive to students because it relates better to the advanced multimedia technologies that they use in their daily lives and itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s more suitable for designing personalized learning environments (Franzoni et al., 2008). Students nowadays are accustomed to multitasking and rapid switching between various information-providing devices, such as smart phones and iPads. They are used to browsing between applications like email and Internet browsers, music and video downloads, various social media sites, or getting access to online shopping, travel booking, and making restaurant reservations. This trend is expected to continue, which could make the integrative approach to learning a preferred teaching model. In addition to focusing on creating appealing learning environment for students, professors also need to adapt successfully to technology-enhanced education and morph their instruction to be more compatible with distance learning and cyber teaching environments (Fuller et al., 2000). Additionally, research has shown that in general students are more engaged in achieving course learning outcomes when technology is used in teaching. Another interesting angle of assessing the importance of online, or computer-based, technology-enhanced courses is the minority student participation and performance as they are more likely to enrol in online courses, where the exposure to classmates is reduced (Chen et al., 2010). An important aspect of using technology in the classroom or online courses is understanding how pedagogies evolve to ensure effectiveness of teaching and learning materials. New technological breakthroughs, self-paced learning software design, or interactive learning tools have tremendous impact on the computerbased learning style and scope (Stephenson, 2001).

2.2

Data Analysis and Methodology

We tested the integrated technology-enhanced approach to teaching, by conducting a pilot study of overall student experience for three finance courses, delivered in online and face-to-face formats in 2011. We also performed a comparative analysis of the courses included in the pilot study and previously delivered courses from fall 2009 to fall 2011. During this period we studied student feedback for 15 graduate finance courses with total enrolment of 645 students. Out of the 15 courses, 9 were face-to-face and 6 were delivered in an online format. The online courses had 464 students enrolled, while the face-toface courses had 181 students. To evaluate student satisfaction rating, we surveyed students about their overall course experience. The survey questions were organized in 4 groups evaluating the course, the instructor, the technology, and teaching assistants if applicable. The questions were rated on a 5-level Likert scale from 1-negative/strongly disagree to 5-positive/strongly agree. We ÂŠ 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

selected 4 survey questions 1) course material organization; 2) instructor’s ability to present material; and 3) use of technology, and 4) overall course experience to conduct our analysis. We selected these questions because they most appropriately cover the aspects of the overall course evaluation. The survey response rate was 41% for online courses and 90% for face-to-face courses or total of 350 students. We performed regression analysis for 95% confidence level by designating the Overall course experience as a dependent variable, and Course material organization, Instructor’s ability to present course material, and Use of technology as dependent variables. Our hypotheses that we test in this paper are as follows: H1: Course material organization is significant determinant of Overall course experience We demonstrate in Figure 3 that Course material organization is statistically significant factor with a p-value of 0.00007 < 0.05 and it is an important determinant of overall course satisfaction with R-square of 0.7121. 5

y = 0.7636x + 0.879 R² = 0.7121 P-value=0.00007 < 0.05

4.5 4 3.5 3 3

3.5

4.5

Figure 3: Overall course experience vs. Course material organization for fall 2009 to fall 2011. (Statistically significant for p < 0.05 at 95% confidence level).

H2: Instructor’s ability to present course material is significant determinant of Overall course experience Figure 4 shows that Instructor’s ability to present course material also offers significant explanatory power to the Overall student course satisfaction with pvalue of 0.000006 and R-square of 0.8010. 5 4.5

y = 1.0329x - 0.1492 R² = 0.801 P-value=0.000006 < 0.05

4 3.5 3 3

3.5

4.5

Figure 4: Overall course experience vs. Instructor’s ability to present material for fall 2009 to fall 2011. (Statistically significant for p < 0.05 at 95% confidence level).

H3: Use of technology is significant determinant of Overall course experience

While the Course material organization and Instructor’s ability to present material are statistically important factors for Overall course experience, in Figure 5 we show that Use of technology is not statistically significant factor for Overall course satisfaction. The coefficient of determination R-square for this regression is 0.5042, while the p-value is 0.1138. 5

y = 0.8612x - 0.0649 R² = 0.5042 P-value=0.1138 > 0.05

4.5 4 3.5 3 3

Figure 5: Overall course experience vs. Use of technology for fall 2009 to fall 2011. (Not statistically significant for p > 0.05 at 95% confidence level).

Similar results were obtained by Zlateva et al., 2011 for the statistical analysis of computer information system courses, contrary to the findings by Volery and Lord 2000, Soong et al., 2001, and Sun et al., 2008, where technology was presented as one of the critical success factors in online education. We argue in this paper that the technology is an extremely important factor that facilitates creation of novel approaches to present course material and significantly enhances instructor effectiveness in presenting course material; however, if we only have great technology, and do not utilize it creatively, the technology per se will not be the determining factor for overall course satisfaction. Additional explanation to not finding the Use of technology statistically significant could be that the technology is underlying, necessary, and expected prerequisite in delivering today’s education, hence, it is not perceived as significant determinant of the Overall course experience. In other words, while Course material organization and Instructor’s ability to present material varies greatly from course to course, the Use of technology is more stable as measured by the standard deviation (s.d.) of these variables (i.e. 45% s.d. for Course material organization vs. 32% s.d. for Use of technology). In addition to the regression analysis of Likert scale rated questions, we also analysed the descriptive feedback from students. Table 1 shows samples of student written feedback from the pilot courses, pointing to the different teaching style, material organization, and course structure as positive course developments. Chitkushev et al., 2014 show that student course satisfaction is strongly related with students’ instructor satisfaction, and that there is a positive correlation between students’ final grade distribution and their overall satisfaction with the course. We argue that statements from students such as “very organized course”, “instructor teaching style is unique” or “the approach made it easy for us to learn the material” that appear in the pilot courses and are absent from other course feedback, testify that the new integrated technology-enhanced approach to teaching is effective and makes a difference in student learning. © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

Table 1: Student Feedback

Descriptive Student Feedback for pilot courses with integrated technologyenhanced approach to teaching a) “One of the strongest aspects of the course was the simplicity in the layout of each week. It was easy to follow the structure, the lecture notes were outlined and organized very clearly” b) “Very organized class and learned a lot of material” c) “This is the most organized class I have had in the program” d) “I thought it was an excellent course and I would not change anything about it” e) This has been an excellent course f) “I thought this was the best course so far. Professor did an outstanding job in teaching us the different aspects of finance. This course has helped me to get a good perspective on the markets, economic environment, systemic risk, and what the future may hold” g) “Thank you for all that you taught us. Your teaching style is unique along with your detailed explanation, which made it easy for us to learn the material” In addition, in Figure 6 we plot the ratings for Course material organization for different terms including pilot courses (circled), and found that the pilot courses feedback is persistently positive. 5 4.5 4 3.5

Jul-11

Sep-11

May-11

Jan-11

Mar-11

Nov-10

Jul-10

Sep-10

May-10

Jan-10

Mar-10

Sep-09

Nov-09

Figure 6: Course material organization ratings for fall 2009 to fall 2011 including the pilot courses (circled) where the integrative technology-enhanced approach to teaching was adopted.

3. Conclusion The integrative technology-enhanced education essentially increases the dimension of the space in which the lecture material is being presented, going from a flat sequential two-dimensional system to a three-dimensional space © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

where connections between spatially and temporally distant components is possible. This methodology is based on lecture delivery where the entire material is presented as a poster in the beginning of the lecture. There are various techniques that can be used to implement this approach such as multiple screens with links between the learning objects or hyperlinks to multimedia files or relevant documents. This teaching methodology enhances students’ educational experience. While actively participating in the lecture, students can point out objects in the overall material and ask for further explanations or clarifications of the lecture building blocks. We use interactive object focus tools to emphasize the relevant components that need further discussion without moving backward or forward through the material in order to search for a concept or a definition. Besides having many benefits, the comprehensive technology-enhanced education has shortfalls as well. One of the major drawbacks of computer-aided education is excessive reliance on technology. Any technical problem can contribute to major frustration and derailment in the class. To overcome this weakness, and improve the technology reliability, it is important to secure redundant resources that can be activated in case of technical difficulties to enable seamless continuation of the class. We performed a pilot study introducing the integrative technologyenhanced approach and found that Course material organization and Ability of the instructor to deliver the lecture effectively are statistically significant factors for overall course satisfaction, while interestingly enough Use of technology per se was not a statistically significant factor for overall course satisfaction. The initial feedback from students has been very positive in regards to the benefits that the integrative technology-enhanced approach to teaching brings into the online and face-to-face educational programs. Overall, the use of advanced technologies to create integrative big picture delivery of the course has helped students understand better the complex risk management and financial decision making for the global financial industry.

References Bates, A. W., & Poole, G. (2003). Effective Teaching with Technology in Higher Education: Foundations for Success. Jossey-Bass, An Imprint of Wiley. 10475 Crosspoint Blvd, Indianapolis, IN 46256. Bourner, T. and Flowers, S. (1999). A new improved web version of the paper “Teaching and Learning Methods in Higher Education: A glimpse of the Future” from Reflections on Higher Education (A Journal of the Higher Education Foundation) 9 (1997) pp. 77 Butler, J. A., (1992). Use of teaching methods within the lecture format, Medical Teacher Journal, 14(1) Chen, P. S. D., Lambert, A. D., & Guidry, K. R. (2010). Engaging online learners: The impact of Web-based learning technology on college student engagement. Computers & Education, 54(4), 1222-1232. Chitkushev, L., Vodenska, I., Zlateva, T. (2014). Digital Learning Impact Factors: Student Satisfaction and Performance in Online Courses, International Journal of Information & Education Technology, 4(4). Felder, R. M., & Spurlin, J. (2005). Applications, reliability and validity of the index of learning styles. International journal of engineering education, 21(1), 103-112. © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

Fender, I. and Gyntelberg, J. (December, 2008). Overview: Global Financial Crisis spurs unprecedented policy actions, BIS Quarterly Review Franzoni, A. L., Assar, S., Defude, B., & Rojas, J. (2008, July). Student learning styles adaptation method based on teaching strategies and electronic media. In Advanced Learning Technologies, 2008. ICALT'08. Eighth IEEE International Conference on (pp. 778-782). IEEE. Fuller, D., Norby, R. F., Pearce, K., & Strand, S. (2000). Internet teaching by style: Profiling the on-line professor. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 3(2), 71-85. Hoppe, H.U., Luther, W., Muhlenbrock, M., Otten, W., and Tewissen, F. (1999). Advanced Research in Computers and Communications in Education, G. Cumming et al. (Eds.). IOS Press 1999. pp. 923-930. Mathan, S. A., & Koedinger, K. R. (2005). Fostering the intelligent novice: Learning from errors with metacognitive tutoring. Educational Psychologist, 40(4), pp. 257-265. Rodrigues, C.A., (2004). The importance level of ten teaching/learning techniques as rated by university business students and instructors, Journal of Management Development, 23(2), pp. 169 Saunders, K.T. (2001). Teaching Methods and Assessment Techniques for the Undergraduate Introductory Finance Course: A National Survey, Journal of Applied Finance, 11 (1), pp. 110 Soong, M.H.B., Chan, H.C., Chua, B.C., Loh, K.F. (2001). Critical success factors for online course resources, Computers & Education, 36 (2), pp. 101-120 Stephenson, J. (2001). Teaching & Learning Online: Pedagogies for New Technologies. Stylus Publishing, Inc., 22883 Quicksilver Dr., Sterling, VA 20166-2012. Sun, P-C., Tsai, R.J., Finger, G., Chen, Y-Y., Yeh, D. (2008). What drives a successful eLearning? An empirical investigation of the critical factors influencing learner satisfaction, Computers & Education, 50, pp. 1183-1202 Turban, G. and Muhlhauser, M. (2007). A framework for the development of educational presentation systems and its application, Proceedings of the international workshop on Educational multimedia and multimedia education, New York, NY Volery, T., Lord, D., 2000, Critical success factors in online education, International Journal of Education Management, 14 (5), pp. 216-223 Zachman, J.A. (1987). A framework for Information Systems Architecture, IBM Systems Journal, 26 (3) Zlateva, T., Willett, S., Kalathur, S., Schudy, R., Burstein, L., Chitkushev, L., Saito, M., Haines, E.M. (2011). Dimensions of course design and delivery and their effect on student satisfaction/perception in online learning, The 7th Annual International Conference on Computer Science and Education, July 06-10, 2011, Sofia, Bulgaria ach, P. G., Reisberg, L., & Rumbley, L. E. (2009). Trends in global higher education: Tracking an academic revolution: Center for International Higher Education. Beckner, C., Blythe, R., Bybee, J., Christiansen, M. H., Croft, W., Ellis, N. C., . . . Schoenemann, T. (2009). Language Is a Complex Adaptive System: Position Paper. Language Learning, 59, 1-26. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9922.2009.00533.x Charness, N., & Boot, W. R. (2009). Aging and information technology use potential and barriers. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 18(5), 253-258. Coget, J.-F. (2011). Technophobe vs. Techno-enthusiast: Does the Internet Help or Hinder the Balance Between Work and Home Life? The Academy of Management Perspectives, 25(1), 95-96. Dorrian, J., & Wache, D. (2009). Introduction of an online approach to flexible learning for on-campus and distance education students: Lessons learned and ways forward. Nurse Education Today, 29(2), 157-167. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.nedt.2008.08.010

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 14, No. 2, pp. 28-35, December 2015

Working Memory Training - A Cogmed Intervention Linda Fälth Linnaeus University, Växjö, Sweden Linda Jaensson Mörbylånga Municipality, Mörbylånga, Sweden Karin Johansson Hultsfred Municipality, Hultsfred, Sweden

Abstract. This study of working memory training investigates the impact of intervention with memory training on students' school performance. The training consisted of 25 occasions spread over five weeks. A total of 32 students from the first grade of primary school participated in the study, with 16 students in the intervention and 16 in the control group. Before and after the intervention, all the participants were tested on word decoding skills, reading comprehension, and automated mental arithmetic. The results showed that both groups had improved on all tests after the intervention, but that the intervention group performed significantly better on the word decoding test than the control group. However, this study demonstrated no differences due to memory training with regard to mental arithmetic between the intervention group and the control group. A possible interpretation of the result is that structured memory training is beneficial for students’ reading development.

Keywords: working memory; intervention; inclusion; motivation; word

decoding

Introduction Working memory (WM), the ability to process and remember information, plays a crucial role in supporting learning, including reading. Working memory can also be described as the ability to keep information current for a short time, which is necessary for cognitive tasks such as reading comprehension and problem solving (Baddeley, 2000). WM is composed of four components whose © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

coordinated activity is responsible for the storage and manipulation of information (Alloway & Alloway, 2010). Three components were proposed by Baddeley and Hitch (1974) with a fourth component added later on by Baddeley (2000, 2003). The crucial role that WM is considered to play is related to scholastic achievement and to learning support (Alloway & Alloway, 2010; Alloway, Gathercole, Kirkwood, & Elliot, 2009; Swanson & Sachse-Lee, 2001). A great many students in today's schools have difficulties in reading and writing. Some students find it difficult to concentrate and focus on their work for long periods and are easily disturbed by external stimuli. This background can be a factor affecting the word decoding ability, which in turn affects comprehension and reading fluency. An example of our use of working memory in everyday life is mental arithmetic and problem solving. When students visualize the internal mental ruler to make an actual calculation, a connection to the working memory is necessary, according to Klingberg (2013). Working memory is required to remember the different stages in maths and problem solving and for keeping several operations in mind. Until recently it was believed that working memory could not be influenced by stimulation or training. However more recent research has shown that working memory capacity can be improved through cognitive training. (Lohaugen, et.al., 2011; Thorell, Lindqvist, Bergman Nutley, Bohlin & Klingberg, 2009). Another study by Gathercole shows that students with impaired working memory also had difficulties in mathematics. The difficulties excelled in both visuospatial and verbal working memory (Gathercole & Pickering, 2000; Gathercole 2013). Another study that used working memory tests with students diagnosed with dyscalculia showed that their difficulties primarily concerned visuospatial working memory (Landerl et al., 2009). These studies unanimously show that visuospatial working memory and mathematics are related. This applies especially to problem solving and long mental arithmetic operations. For the purposes of the current study, it is important to understand how deficits in WM impair reading skills. According to research, decoding requires a great deal of energy when not automatized and then also affects the working memory (Ehri, 2007). Given the importance of the WM system in reading acquisition and development (Gathercole et al., 2006; Nevo & Breznitz, 2013), it can be hypothesized that training WM abilities may affect the enhancement of reading skills. The aim of this study is to investigate the impact of structured memory training related to word decoding and reading comprehension among children in grade one. Dahlin (2013) shows the relationship between good reading acquisition and working memory in a study where students improved working memory capacity after a five-week intervention with Cogmed. The results of the study also showed significantly improved results in terms of reading comprehension. The chief gains, according to this study, occur in the visuo-spatial area. These ÂŠ 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

improvements remained three years later when compared with the control group. According to researchers, the visuospatial ability and literacy skills are related to each other (Smith, Spark & Fish, 2007). Among the consequences for students with low capacity in working memory may also be the difficulty of remembering instructions and planning one’s tasks (Dahlin, 2013; Gathercole & Alloway, 2008). In a study by Gathercole and Alloway (2008) it was found that students with low working memory had difficulties in both mathematics and reading comprehension. Difficulties with low working memory can be compensated for by shorter instructions to students, and supportive images can facilitate for students and to a lesser extent burden the working memory. Being able to read a text includes a variety of features that need to be mastered, for example, the reader has to be able to maintain concentration on the text, understand the words and content, remembering the beginning of the sentence and linking auditory representations (Klingberg, et al., 2005). Klingberg states that the same areas of the brain are activated during the reading and the working memory tasks. This area is activated by both verbal and visuospatial working memory. The area is important for focusing on attention, which is essential when reading. There is a correlation between concentration and reading skills, and concentration, in turn, depends on the working memory (Gathercole & Alloway, 2008; Klingberg, 2013). On the other hand, when it comes to reading acquisition, Melby-Lervåg (2012) reported in her study about the benefits of working memory training for providing power for tasks that are close to what has been trained but did not see any transfer effects to other capabilities, such as reading. For students with reading and writing difficulties she emphasizes the importance of training phonology to automate the decoding instead of spending time on working memory training. However, in this context working memory is important because it determines how many audio segments can be stored and processed during the synthesis process while reading (Lervåg, 2012).

Aim and Research question The aim of this study is to investigate the impact of structured memory training related to word decoding and reading comprehension. The research question is: What impact does structured memory training have on the word decoding ability and reading comprehension among students in grade one at primary school?

Method Participants A total of 32 students participated in the study, divided into two classes in grade one at primary school. The classes belonged to two different schools, comprising a total of 16 students in one of the classes, and a total of 21 students in the other. The two classes were randomly assigned into one experimental group and one comparison group with 16 students in each. In the class with 21 students, 16 were randomly selected by lottery to participate in the study. Both classes come © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

from areas with similar conditions in terms of socio-economics, study culture and school organization. Test procedure All tests were administered by one of the authors (L. J.). All participants were tested on three different occasions with the same test. The first test session (T1) took place immediately before the intervention started. Test session 2 (T2) took place right after the intervention was carried out, and was followed up (Test session 3, T3) 8 weeks after the intervention ended. Test Materials The tests used were chosen on the basis of the students' age. The number of decoding tests for seven-year-olds is limited. As tests take a short time only they require no further moment of concentration, which favours students who are easily disturbed by external stimuli and have difficulty with the executive system (Baddeley, 2000). When the same test is used several times, the possibility of a certain recognition factor must be taken into account. On the other hand, the ratio was equal for both groups. ‘Words and Image’ is a screening test for word decoding for grades 1 and 2 (Söderberg- Juhlander & Olofsson, 2013). The test takes 2 minutes to perform, and standardization results are available for grades 1 and 2. It consists of six pages with a total of 60 words, each word having four pictures attached, only one of which is correct. The pupil’s task is to choose the correct picture to the given word and mark it by drawing a cross. The maximum score is 60. ‘AG1’ is a test in basic arithmetic (Skolverket, 2009) consisting of additions and subtractions within the number range of 1-9. The diagnosis showing the students’ ability to handle basic mental arithmetic contains six different sections that represent different aspects of addition and subtraction. The test consists of 36 tasks. For students who have mastered these tasks, it takes about 2-3 minutes to complete. The test is recommended to be discontinued after 6 minutes. The maximum score is 36. The intervention program - Cogmed The intervention group used a computerized program for working memory training called Cogmed (Klingberg, 2007). The program, which was developed at Karolinska Institutet, is described as providing enhanced concentration, attention and impulse control, as well as contributing to improved results in students' reading comprehension and mathematical ability (Klingberg, 2013). The program is web-based and consists of a variety of game-format tasks that affect the auditory and visouspatial working memory and that are adaptive, which means that difficulty level is being adjusted automatically to match the WM span of the child on each task. The program includes 12 different visuospatial and/or verbal WM tasks, eight of these tasks (90 trials in total) are being completed every day (Klingberg et al., 2005). The students followed a standard protocol which means following the computer training program for 5 weeks, five times a week, ∼45 min a day. The program was provided via the © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

internet on a laptop in a separate room. The students were trained individually at school, guided by a coach trained in the method and who was supervised by a certified Cogmed Coach. Procedure The training took place on 25 occasions distributed over five weeks, with five days per week and was led by a trained coach (class teacher). The training, which is web-based, was done with iPad and headphones for each pupil. It was carried out in groups of 8 students per session with the teacher present all the time. The exercises were constructed to enable the students to conduct them on their own without any help from the teacher.

Result _________________________________________________________________ T1 Mean (SD) Intervention group Control group

24.3 (8.1)

23.4 (7.5)

T2 Mean (SD)

T3 Mean (SD)

37.7 (6.1)

42.1 (6.9)

28.3 (7.9)

31.5 (8.1)

Table 1. Means and SD for the intervention and control groups at test ‘Words and images’, on three test sessions

The results of ‘Word and images’ showed an increase of 17.8 points from the first to the last test session for the intervention group. The groups had similar means at the pretest. The control group increased by an average of 8.1 points on the test performed during the same time.

_________________________________________________________________ T1 Mean (SD)

T2 Mean (SD)

T3 Mean (SD)

Intervention group

29.3 (5.6)

34.2 (5.8)

33.2 (5.2)

Control group

20.6 (8.2)

25.6 (7.0)

30.5 (7.1)

Table 2. Means and SD for the intervention and control groups at the mathematic test ‘AG1’, on three test sessions

Test results for the ‘AG1’ mathematical test showed an increase of 3.9 correctly solved tasks for the intervention group. This may seem remarkable when compared to the comparison group, which increased by 9.9 points. On the other © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

hand, the average value of the intervention group performance on the pretest was high from the beginning and also produced a ceiling effect. The maximum results for the test are 36 correctly solved tasks, which some students in the intervention group achieved already at T2.

Discussion The memory training was conducted in groups of eight students in order to strengthen the motivation of an inclusive approach. Students who are easily disturbed by external and internal stimuli were supported in continuing to practise in the focused environment among comrades. It should be noted that, unlike the students in the comparison group, those in the experimental group did not receive any additional adaptations in the form of reading training along with special education teachers. The results for 'Word and Image' showed that at the end of the intervention almost all students in the intervention group had acquired a good decoding ability for their grade. The improvement was significantly greater than that of the control group. One pupil still had a low result on the decoding test, which may be due to a lack of vocabulary, as the test ‘Words and images’ is based on reading a word and emphasizing the right picture. To find out the pupil's decoding ability, another test that only measures decoding ability had to be used. For students with no difficulty in comprehending the meaning of words, memory training had a good influence on the decoding (Høien, & Lundberg, 2013). Automatized word decoding, which relieves poor working memory, is necessary to achieve fluency in reading (Høien & Lundberg, 2013). Our results indicate that the opposite view may also obtain. Training the working memory facilitated word decoding and can thus easily be automatized. A study by Dahlin (2013) also showed improved results in reading comprehension after Cogmed intervention. For the results to become permanent, time on task is required for continued reading training (Klingberg, 2013). There are now good opportunities for students with reading difficulties to continue training to offset the negative spiral of the Matthew effect (Stanovich, 2000). It would be preferable to implement working memory training early in the fall semester of the first grade of primary school in order to develop the increased literacy skills through conscious reading training for all students. To read a text requires different features such as being able to maintain concentration on it to understand the meaning of words, remembering the beginning of the sentence and linking auditory representations (Klingberg, 2011). Working memory tasks and reading activate the same area of the brain. As visuospatial ability is related to reading disabilities (Smith-Spark & Fish, 2007) training in the visuospatial area improves results in reading comprehension (Dahlin, 2013), as also emerges from our study. Contrary to this, Melby Lervåg (2012) remains critical of memory training. She argues that other parts of the brain are more crucial when it comes to reading skills. Of course, we must remain humble about the results obtained in this study, as the number of participants is small. Still, the results © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

show that memory training may also give a boost to literacy skills, which can then be developed by maintaining various forms of reading training. As even mathematical difficulties and the lack of working memory are interrelated (Gathercole & Pickerin, 2000), we had expected improved results even on the ‘AG 1 ' math test. This could, however, not be substantiated. The reason may nevertheless be that students in grade 1 are only seven years old and the tasks they received only showed their ability to handle the most basic arithmetic calculation operations (National Agency for Education, 2009). Visuospatial working memory is primarily related to the problem-solving ability (Klingberg, 2013), and this is not tested within AG1. Furthermore, the results were positive on this pre-test (Test Session 1). A limitation in this study is that since the intervention was only made in a group of 16 students, the substrate is too small for drawing any general conclusions. However, the results showed a significant difference in reading skills between the intervention and the control groups, which we cannot explain otherwise than that memory training has an impact on literacy skills, mainly with regard to word decoding, but also in reading comprehension.

References Alloway, T. P., & Alloway, R. G. (2010). Investigating the predictive roles of working memory and IQ in academic attainment. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 106, 20–29. Alloway, T.P., Gathercole, S. E., Kirkwood, H., & Elliot, J. (2009). The working memory rating scale: A classroom-based behavioral assessment of working memory. Learning and Individual Differences, 19, 242–245. Baddeley, A.D. (2000). The episodic buffer: a new component of working memory? Trends in Cognitive Sciences-vol. 4, no. 11, November 2000. Baddeley, A.D. (2003). Working memory and language: An overview. Journal of Communication Disorders, 36, 189–208. Baddeley, A.D., & Hitch, G. J. (1974). Working memory. In G. A. Bower (Ed.), Recent advances in learning and motivation (Vol. 8, pp. 47–89). New York, NY: Academic Press Dahlin, K. E. (2013). Does it pay to practice? : a quasi-experimental study on working memory training and its effects on reading and basic number skills. Stockholm : Department of Special Education, Stockholm University, 2013. Ehri, L. (2007). Development of sight word reading: Phases and findings. I Margaret J. Snowling & Charles Hulme (red.). The science of reading. A handbook. (s. 135-154). Oxford, UK: Blackwell publishing. Gathercole, S. E., & Pickering, S. J. (2000). Working memory deficits in children with low achievements in the national curriculum at 7 years of age. The British Journal Of Educational Psychology, 70 (Pt 2)177-194. Gathercole, S.E., & Alloway, T.P (2008). Working memory and learning: A practical guide for teachers. Sage Publications. Gathercole S.E., Alloway T.P., Willis C & Adams (2006). Working memory in children with reading disabilities. Journal of Experimental Child Psycology, 93 (3), pp. 265281.

Gathercole, S.E (2013). Taking working memory training from the laboratory into schools. Educational Psycology: An International Journal of Experimental Educational Psycology. Høien, T. & Lundberg, I. (2013). Dyslexi, från teori till praktik. Stockholm: Natur & kultur. Klingberg, T. A., Fernell, E. A., Olesen, P. A., Johnson, M. A., Gustafsson, P. A., Dahlström, K. A., & ... University of Gothenburg, S. P. (2005). Computerized training of working memory in children with ADHD--a randomized, controlled trial. Journal Of The American Academy Of Child And Adolescent Psychiatry, 177. Klingberg, T. (2013). The Learning Brain: Memory and Brain Development in Children. Library Journal, (4). 83. Landerl, K., Fussenegger, B., Moll, K., Willburger, E, et al.. (2009). Dyslexia and dyscalculia: two learning disorders with different cognitive profiles. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 103. Løhaugen, G. C., Antonsen, I., Håberg, A., Gramstad, A., Vik, T., Brubakk, A., & Skranes, J. (2011). Original Article: Computerized Working Memory Training Improves Function in Adolescents Born at Extremely Low Birth Weight. The Journal Of Pediatrics, 158555-561.e4. Melby Lervåg, M. (2012). Is Working Memory Training Effective? A Meta-Analytic Review Oslo Universitet. National Agency for Education (2009). Diamant: ett diagnosmaterial för grundskolan. ’Diamond: a diagnostic material for primary schools’. Stockholm: Skolverket. Nevo, E., & Breznitz, Z. (2013). The development of working memory from kindergarten to first grade in children with different decoding skills. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 114, 217–228. Olofsson, Å. & Söderberg, P. (2013). Ord och Bild, Bild och Ord. ‘Words and Image’ Stockholm: Natur och kultur. Smith-Spark, J. H., & Fisk, J. E. (2007). Working memory functioning in developmental dyslexia. Memory, 15(1), 34-56. Stanovich, K. E. (2000). Progress in understanding reading: scientific foundations and new frontiers. New York: Guilford. Swanson, H. L., & Sachse-Lee, C. (2001). Mathematical problem solving and working memory in children with learning disabilities: Both executive and phonological processes are important. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 79, 294–321. Thorell, L. A., Lindqvist, S. A., Bergman Nutley, S. A., Bohlin, G. A., Klingberg, T. A., & Uppsala universitet, H. O. (2009). Training and transfer effects of executive functions in preschool children. Developmental Science, 106.

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 14, No. 2, pp. 36-52, December 2015

Exploring Career Management Skills in Higher Education: Perceived Self-efficacy in Career, Career Adaptability and Career Resilience in Greek University Students Despina Sidiropoulou-Dimakakou, Katerina Argyropoulou, Nikos Drosos, Andronikos Kaliris, and Katerina Mikedaki Career Counseling Research and Assessment Centre Faculty of Philosophy, Pedagogy, and Psychology National and Kapodistrian University of Athens Athens, Greece Abstract. This paper aims at highlighting a grid of career management skills which can help university students respond effectively to the complexity of labor market and career development, namely, career adaptability, perceived career self-efficacy beliefs and career resilience. Given that little is known so far regarding the degree to which higher education students possess and develop such skills, a cross-sectional survey was conducted to investigate: (a) students‟ perceived level of the above mentioned skills, (b) the relationships that may exist among them, and (c) possible differences in skill levels between working and nonworking students. Results demonstrated relatively high scores in all skills, strong positive relationships among them as well as significant differences at scores as to students‟ work status. Implications for training, career counseling interventions and further research are provided. Keywords: Higher Education; career management skills; career adaptability; perceived career self-efficacy; career resilience

Introduction The contemporary world of work is characterized by complexity and constant change. Career is influenced by numerous contextual factors such as national culture, economy, the political environment, as well as by personal variables, such as relationships with others (Greenhaus, Callanan, & DiRenzo, 2008). Changing labor markets and shifts in job and life roles make career and work quite challenging tasks (Mylonas & Furnham, 2014) causing unpredictable effects on individual‟s life (Sidiropoulou-Dimakakou, Argyropoulou, & Drosos, 2013).

Societal changes along with rapid technological advancements, globalization and the contemporary global financial crisis, all have created changes as to how individuals pursue and manage their career. Career has largely lost traditional elements of linearity and predictability (Akkermans, Brenninkmeijer, Huibers, & Blonk, 2013) which has led to numerous challenges for citizens such as the increase of unemployment and underemployment rates, “flexible” job contracts and constant reformulations on vocational self-concepts (Kaliris & Kriwas, 2014). All aforementioned situations are forcing individuals to adapt to multiple roles and transitions, to direct their life toward the achievement of specific goals, to strengthen their personal and career self-efficacy beliefs (Savickas, 2013; Sidiropoulou-Dimakakou, Argyropoulou, Drosos, Kaliris, & Mikedaki, 2014). Past boundaries between career and personal counseling constructs and aims are rendered quite vague today. Rather, career counseling attempts to help the person deal effectively with life-design issues, with career being a critical one. Our views align with McIlveen‟s (2015) considerations, who claims that today, career counseling practice should place more emphasis on its preventive educational role with the aim of supporting clients to act proactively in order to confront increased career and labor market demands. We contend that this aim can be realized by helping clients acquire and develop a set of core lifelong career management skills. Lifelong Career Management Skills Lifelong career management skills refer to multifaceted skills and attitudes which encompass collection, analysis, composition and organization of information about self, education and professions (European Lifelong Guidance Policy Network, 2012). The prior term is intrinsic to career decision-making, problem solving and transition management (ELGPN, 2012; Sultana, 2012). The similar notion of meta-competences is associated with core skills considered to facilitate career management within the post-modern context, whereby notions of “protean”, “circular”, “transitional” and “boundaryless” career have come into prominence (Lo Presti, 2009). Career management skills (CMS) are considered highly significant as they may support individuals in taking full advantage of educational and career opportunities, in coping with difficulties in the workplace, and in maintaining balance among various roles at work, education and family, throughout the life span (ELGPN, 2012; Sidiropoulou-Dimakakou, Argyropoulou, & Drosos, 2010a). Career management skills in Higher Education College or university is a critical time in young people‟s career development. During this developmental period, students partially form career trajectories which are either supported or hindered by their abilities to set and address academic and career-related goals (Sung, Turner, & Kaewchinda, 2013). Considering the multiple career-related challenges which arise for higher education students, both during and after graduation, it is self-evident how important it is to help them develop certain types of CMS as a way for them to successfully deal with transitions, such as that from school to work, to reach specific academic and career goals (Sung et al., 2013), to enhance their employability rates (Mason, Williams, & Cranmer, 2009) and finally, to be successful both at work and in life (Tran, 2013).

Next, career adaptability, perceived career self-efficacy, and career resilience will be highlighted as they represent skills with great potential for the facilitation of higher education students‟ career development. Career adaptability Career adaptability describes an individual‟s readiness to respond to a conscious and continuous exploration of the self and the environment in order to cope with change of work roles and successfully handle unforeseen adaptations in career (Savickas, 2013). The construct consists of the following core adaptability resources (Savickas & Porfeli, 2012): Concern, control, curiosity, and confidence. Concern is related to future orientation issues encompassing a sense of optimism about the future. Control refers to one‟s need to exert influence on the vocational issues that concern them. Curiosity refers to the formulation of future career plans through exploration of self and the environment. Confidence is associated with person's belief in their abilities to accomplish necessary career actions. Those who possess high levels of adapt-abilities tend to exhibit behavioral patterns that enable them to design their careers by attributing optimistic meanings to various career roles (Argyropoulou, 2013), whereas they ensure harmony in their personal and professional lives (Savickas & Porfeli, 2012). Perceived self-efficacy in career People with high confidence in their abilities tend to face difficult situations as challenges to overcome rather than as threats to be avoided (Bandura, 1997). Therefore, they try to exercise control over various complicated and hard tasks or situations (Kaliris & Sidiropoulou-Dimakakou, 2012). Perceived self-efficacy in career refers to the beliefs people form in terms of their ability to implement the appropriate actions required to effectively manage various career issues (Sidiropoulou-Dimakakou, Mylonas, & Argyropoulou, 2012). A relatively high degree of self-efficacy in career may strengthen the ability through which cognitive, social and behavioral skills are organized into a single course of action for the achievement of career objectives. Moreover, employees equipped with high self-efficacy levels are more likely to perform occupational roles innovatively, whereas those with low self-efficacy levels are prone to processing occupational duties conventionally and with little personal embellishment (Sidiropoulou-Dimakakou, Mylonas, & Argyropoulou, 2015). Career resilience Resilience reflects the ability to adapt to change, even when circumstances are discouraging or disruptive (London, 1997). It is about “being able to tolerate uncertainty and ambiguity, whilst at the same time being flexible and autonomous” (Bimrose, Brown, Barnes, & Hughes, 2011, p. 17). Resilience also entails turning the effects of tension and painful events to one‟s benefit. Career resilience development is supported from factors such as positive self-image and self-confidence, problem-solving skills, a sense of control, and search for meaning in life despite difficulties or traumatic events. Career resilience is conceptually close to career adaptability as both concepts assist the person in the navigation of an uncertain labor market (Bimrose, Barnes, & Hughes, 2008). Nevertheless, career resilience focuses on individual‟s ability to manage and survive from change precisely when it happens

(Goodman, 1994; Kohn, O‟Brien, Wood, Pickering, & Decicco, 2003) while career adaptability is most determined by a person‟s competency to manage change over time. The grid of the career management skills described above could serve as a robust set of resources and strategies for young individuals to navigate the world of work and to self-negotiate life and career transitions (Bimrose & Hearne, 2012; Lo Presti, 2009). It was of great interest to us to investigate the extent to which a sample of University students possess such skills and the relationships that may have with each other. Our particular focus was on career adaptability and career resilience as they are conceptually similar constructs considered valuable in supporting adults manage positive or negative career transitions (i.e., the one from tertiary education to the labor market) in smoother ways (Bimrose & Hearne, 2012; Bridgstock, 2009). The relationship of perceived self-efficacy in career with the prior skills was also considered crucial as all being together may enhance students‟ efforts in organizing and performing career-related tasks despite adversities (Sidiropoulou-Dimakakou et al., 2014).

Aim of the study and research questions Our aim was to explore the degree to which university students think they possess career adaptability, perceived self-efficacy in career and career resilience. Another goal was to comprehend possible similarities or differences among these skills by investigating their interrelationships. The role of work was also examined as provision of work experiences to students (e.g. through practicum) may stand as a critical factor for CMS development. There have been a few studies focused on the impact of learning and training in the development of career adaptability (Brown, Bimrose, Barnes, & Hughes, 2012; Koen, Klehe, & Van Vianen, 2012) or on the relationships between career adaptability and factors such as work engagement or work conditions (Maggiori, Johnston, Krings, Massoudi, & Rossier, 2013; Rossier, Zecca, Stauffer, Maggiori, & Dauwalder, 2012). However, there is a lack of studies examining explicitly whether work experience differentiates students‟ level at a set of CMS. This is a gap in bibliography we intended to fill with this study. Finally, we were interested in receiving students‟ opinions about the skills they consider most important to succeed in any work environment. In particular, the following research questions were addressed: (1) Which is the perceived level of career adaptability, self-efficacy in career and career resilience in university students?, (2) What relationships occur among career adaptability, perceived self-efficacy in career and career resilience?, (3) Are there any differences regarding the level of skills between working and non-working students?, (4) Which three career management skills do students regard as most essential to succeed in any working environment?

Method Participants Two hundred thirty-six (236) undergraduate students of the Department of Philosophy, Pedagogy and Psychology of the University of Athens participated in this study. Graduates of the prior Department have a licensure of philologist. Common obligatory subjects for all students are Ancient Greek, Philosophy, Theory and Methodology of Teaching, Educational Assessment, Career Guidance, Educational Psychology etc. The curriculum gives students the opportunity after the second semester to select their major of study among the directions of Philosophy, Pedagogy or Psychology. Students carry out a short practicum in teaching, however, the practicum experience being offered is not targeted to developing specific career management skills to participants. Most students of the sample were up to 25 years old. Eight students who were over 25 were excluded from further analysis so as not to bias results, leading to a final sample of 228 participants. The majority of them were women (n = 209, 91.7%). Most participants were unemployed (n = 169, 74%) whereas 59 students (26%) held a job at the time of the survey. Measures Career adaptability. The adjusted Greek form (Mikedaki, 2015) of the Career Adapt-abilities Scale – International Form 2.0 (CA-AS; Savickas & Porfeli, 2012) was used to indicate the level of participants in career adaptability resources. The Greek scale consists of 24 items, the same as the original one. Participants responded to each item employing a 5-point Likert-type scale (1=not strong, 5=strongest). Below, examples of items are given for each subscale: Concern: “thinking about what my future will be like”, control: “taking responsibility for my actions”, curiosity: “Becoming curious about new opportunities”, confidence: “Performing tasks efficiently”. High reliability is reported as to the total scale (.92) and the sub-scale scores [concern (.83), control (.74), curiosity (.79) and confidence (.85)]. In the current study α estimates were also high (total scale: .94, concern: .87, control: .85, curiosity: .83, confidence: .86). Perceived self-efficacy in career. Perceived Self-efficacy in Career Scale (PSECS; Sidiropoulou-Dimakakou et al., 2012) was used to explore career selfefficacy beliefs. The 21-item scale has reached adequate psychometric properties in studies with adults (N = 126) and high school students (N = 276). Four dimensions were supported by exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses (Sidiropoulou-Dimakakou et al., 2015): Career management represents individual‟s ability to cope effectively with practical and emotional issues in career (e.g. “I believe I am able to achieve most of the career goals that I have set for myself despite the current social and economic difficulties”); Career skills relates to the utilization of organizational skills and performance when working under harsh conditions (e.g. “In general, I can think of alternative ways to better organize my work and become more efficient”); Flexibility at work refers to a person‟s ability to adapt to transitions and changes that may occur in the workplace (e.g. “Even when duties in my job change, I am able to perform efficiently”); Creativity at work represents active interest in career through creativity and ingenuity (e.g. “Thanks to my resourcefulness, I know how to

deal with unexpected situations in my work”). Items are scored on a 5-point Likert-type scale (1 = no confidence at all, 5 = complete confidence). Alpha estimates in this sample were high for the total scale (α = .91) as well as for the sub-scales (.80, .75, .75, .80). Career resilience. The Career Resilience Self-Assessment (Straby, 2010) was translated in Greek in order to measure students‟ career resilience level. This scale is unidimensional and comprises 14 statements scored at a 5-point Likert-type scale (1 = Do not agree at all, 5 = Strongly agree). Higher scores demonstrate that the individual is better prepared and willing to be in charge of their career development and more likely to be pursuing career-resilient activities as normal practice. Examples of items are as follows: “The skills and abilities that I need to be employable are clear to me”, “I can identify three important accomplishments from my current/last job”. In the present research Cronbach‟s α was high (α = .89). Question as to the most important career skills. An additional question was included in the survey with the aim of exploring three (3) skills students consider primary to succeed in any working environment. Demographics. A questionnaire was employed to gather data on students‟ gender, age, major of studies and status of employment (distinguishing between working and non-working students). Procedure A cross-sectional survey was carried out from April to June 2014 at the Department of Philosophy, Pedagogy, and Psychology of the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens. Cluster sampling was applied as participants represented entire classes. Questionnaires were completed during a regular class. No award was given for participation in the study. Confidentiality of the data was maintained throughout all research stages. Data analysis SPSS V.22 was used to analyze data. Normality of data distribution was confirmed as the quotients of kurtosis and skewness with their corresponding standard errors were less than the number 3.29 (Roussos & Efstathiou, 2008). Additionally, the Kolmogorov-Smirnoff test had a non-significant result (p = .20) demonstrating that it would be secure to execute parametric analyses. Descriptive statistics (means, standard deviations) were computed for all scales as well as MANOVA and t-test in order to examine differences in skill levels between working and non-working students. Product-moment correlation coefficient (Pearson‟s r) was also applied to investigate relationships among variables. Finally, critical z-scores were calculated to compare considerable differences in correlations between groups.

Results Perceived level of career management skills Table 1 shows that participants scored highest at career adaptability (M = 3.59, SD = .64). Concerning career adaptability resources levels, the highest score appeared at the dimension of control (M = 3.70, SD = .77). Relatively high scores were also found for perceived self-efficacy in career (M = 3.35, SD = .54). The PSECS

component of career skills (M = 3.49, SD = .58) scored higher than other selfefficacy components (Table 1). Finally, score on career resilience was the lowest of all skills (M = 3.12, SD = .73). Relationships among career management skills Moderate to high positive correlations occurred among most variables at the 0.01 level of significance. An overview of Table 2 shows that there is a high positive relationship between perceived self-efficacy in career and career adaptability (r = .70) and a moderate relationship between perceived selfefficacy in career and career resilience (r = .62). Career resilience and career adaptability were also moderately related to each other (r = .62). No significant relationships were found between skills and participants‟ age (see Table 2). Table 1. Means, standard deviations and Cronbach’s α reliability coefficients for the scales used in the study

Scales

Perceived Self-efficacy in career

3.35

.54

.91

SE 1: Career Management

3.35

.63

.80

SE 2: Career Skills

3.49

.58

.75

SE 3: Flexibility at work

3.31

.66

.75

SE 4: Creativity at work

3.18

.74

.80

Career Adaptability

3.59

.64

.94

CA 1: Concern

3.49

.79

.87

CA 2: Control

3.70

.77

.85

CA 3: Curiosity

3.50

.75

.83

CA 4 : Confidence

3.68

.72

.86

Career Resilience

3.12

.73

.89

Work status Working Nonworking Working Nonworking Working Nonworking Working Nonworking Working Nonworking Working Nonworking Working NonWorking Working Nonworking Working Nonworking Working Nonworking Working Nonworking

3.52

0.57

3.29

0.52

3.51

0.67

3.29

0.61

3.61

0.58

3.44

0.57

3.56

0.71

3.22

0.62

3.37

0.82

3.12

0.70

3.72

0.74

3.54

0.59

3.68

0.92

3.42

0.73

3.86

0.81

3.65

0.75

3.62

0.86

3.45

0.71

3.73

0.81

3.66

0.69

3.44

0.75

3.00

0.69

N = 228. SE 1, SE 2, SE 3, SE 4= components of PSECS. CA 1, CA 2, CA 3, CA 4 = components of the Career Adapt-abilities Scale

Differences in the level of perceived career management skills between working and non-working students Multivariate analysis of variance demonstrated statistically significant differences in the perceived level of self-efficacy in career and its dimensions, in favor of the students who held a job at the time of the survey. [Self-efficacy in career: F(1, 223) = 8.203, Wilks‟ Λ = 2.957, p = .005, η2 = .035; Career management: F(1, 223) = 4.997, p = .026, η2 = .022; Career skills: F(1, 223) = 3.835, p = .05, η2 = .017; Flexibility at work: F(1, 223) = 11.571, p = .001, η2 = .049; Creativity at work: F(1, 223) = 5.06, p = .025, η2 = .022]. A statistically significant difference was also found at career resilience, again with the highest score having been achieved by the working students, t(223) = 4.049, p < .001, 95% CI [.22, .64]. Neither at career adaptability as total scale nor at its components significant differences were found between the two student groups, except for the component of concern, F(1, 226) = 4.612, p = .033, η2 = .020. Differences in correlations among perceived career management skills between working and non-working students Several statistically significant differences in correlations among skills were detected, in favor of the group of working students (n = 58). These are, as follows: (a) career adaptability and career resilience, (r = .79, p < .01, r = .52, p < .01, z = 3.17, p = .0015), (b) career adaptability component of control and career resilience (r = .62, p < .01, r = .30, p < .01, z = 2.66, p = .008), (c) career adaptability component of curiosity and career resilience (r = .76, p < .01, r = .50, p < .01, z = 2.86, p = .004), as well as (d) career adaptability component of confidence and career resilience (r = .76, p < .01, r = .50, p < .01, z = 2.86, p = .004). Most important career management skills Students reported the following three skills as the most important in order to succeed in work: 1) communicative - transpersonal skills (25%), 2) team-working skills (20%), and 3) eagerness-diligence (18%). This set of skills was followed by a series of other significant skills mentioned by students in descending order (based on the amount of responses): creativity, responsibility, patience, knowledge of foreign languages, seminars, IT skills, persistence, coordination skills, adaptability, self-determination, self-efficacy, self-confidence, consistence, flexibility and willingness.

Table 2. Correlations among perceived self-efficacy in career, career adaptability and career resilience

1 1. Age 2. PSECS 3. CM 4. CS 5. FW 6. CW 7. CA 8. CON 9. CONT. 10. CUR 11. CONF. 12. CR

1 -.04 -.02 -.03 -.03 -.11* -.004 -.03 -.08 -.06 .01 -.02

1 .81** .88** .86** .83** .70** .49** .64** .63** .62** .62**

1 .62** .59** .50** .56** .40** .53** .49** .47** .45**

1 .67** .64** .63** .43** .59** .54** .56** .51**

1 .69** .59** .45** .48** .50** .54** .59**

1 .60** .39** .54** .58** .52** .57**

1 .83** .80** .86** .87** .61**

1 .50** .65** .64** .51**

1 .56** .62** .41**

1 .70** .58**

1 . 57** 1

Note. Î? = 222, PSECS = Perceived self-efficacy in career, CM = Career management skills, CS = Career skills, FW = Flexibility at work, CW = Creativity at work, CA = Career adaptability, CON = Concern, CONT = Control, CUR = Curiosity, CONF = Confidence, CR = Career resilience. **p < .01

Discussion An important justification for introducing or strengthening CMS is a greater awareness of the need for skills in managing one‟s non-linear career pathways in knowledge-based economies. However, there is evidence to suggest that the potential for student career management skill development remains mostly unrealized in universities (Bridgstock, 2009). Many of them concentrate mostly on instilling content and theory into students. Thus, there is a lack of alignment between the skills students have to gain, the skills they acquire from their degrees and the skills employers require (Dennis, Smith, & Wadsworth, 2012). Within this context “skills systems that equip people with a single set of skills or functional knowledge at the outset of their working life are inadequate” (Borbély-Pecze & Hutchinson, 2014, p. 10). Recent evidence reveals that developing CMS may help individuals achieve better career outcomes. For example, a study of 3,499 students and 166 teachers in vocational education (Meijers, Kuijpers, & Gundy, 2013) showed that several career competencies (e.g. career reflection, career-forming through pro-active behavior) were positively associated with learning motivation and experienced quality of study choice. Sung et al. (2013) also found that educational and career development skills (e.g. career exploration, social/ pro-social/ work readiness) predicted interrelated educational and career development outcomes (e.g. selfefficacy, magnitude of vocational interests and pro-activity) at university students (N = 132). Furthermore, Komarraju, Swanson, and Nadler‟s (2014) study demonstrated that career self-efficacy predicted academic motivation, course and major satisfaction (Study 2, N = 226). Despite the significance of aforementioned research, yet there is no emphasis given at (a) the degree that university students possess a nexus of critical CMS in the context of instability in career and at (b) the interrelationships among specific groups of CMS. The present research may provide underpinnings for further research on the role CMS have for students‟ career and life design. Specifically, our study revealed that students who are equipped with work experience tend to report higher levels of confidence in managing career-related issues. It is possible that workers tend to formulate more optimistic beliefs about their future career than their non-working peers due to the fact of holding a job despite social adversities, and financial or work difficulties. The largest effect size was demonstrated at flexibility at work (η2 = .049), a result which may show that university students participation in work tasks forces their implementation of career management skills in daily work. This consequently may support the development of abilities to adapt to unexpected work changes and transitions. Students reported high scores in total career adapt-abilities scale with the dimension of control being scored highest of other adaptability resources (M = 3.70, Table 1). This finding probably highlights students‟ confidence in their abilities to make reliable career decisions and take control of career issues that concern them. It was also interesting that participants‟ scores on the dimension of concern were differentiated as to their work status, with those working at the period the survey was carried out reporting higher scores than those reported by the sample of non-working ones. Probably more experienced students tend to be

highly interested in future career plans based on their current work influences. Furthermore, they probably realize the vital role of career exploration and preparedness for future success. The above results are complementary to those generated from Koen et al.â&#x20AC;&#x;s (2012) study which highlighted the role of training in the development of career adaptability resources. Specifically, their quasiexperimental study demonstrated that a group of employees trained in career adaptability resources reported higher control, curiosity and interest scores than the ones who did not participate in the training course. The comparison group also held higher quality work positions shortly after training (Koen et al., 2012). Another important finding of the research was that job holders as compared with their non-working counterparts tend to use career resilient activities as a normal practice (e.g. creating professional networks, exhibiting self-presentation skills, being involved in career-planning) to a higher degree, by exerting influence on career issues. Probably, work experience along with exhibition at work-related attitudes and behaviors fosters studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x; awareness of helpful career management strategies. An alternative explanation may be that people who have developed career resilient behaviors are more likely to hold a job, something that could be especially true within a context of high unemployment rates in Greece during the last period. Perceived self-efficacy in career, career adaptability and career resilience were interrelated from moderate to high degree. This could indicate that these skills share common constructs. Furthermore, it is likely that the strong relationships occurred between control, curiosity and confidence (career adapt-abilities) and career resilience for the sample of workers represent their tendency to activate a grid of CMS in order to perform effectively in the face of difficulties. On the other hand, they are indicative of the strong connections existing between oneâ&#x20AC;&#x;s sense of control and exploration of the environment with the exhibition of career resilient behaviors. In line with the above findings several recent studies have demonstrated positive associations of career adapt-abilities with numerous life and career factors, these are, career resilience (Bimrose & Hearne, 2012), vocational commitment (Rossier et al., 2012), orientation to happiness (Johnston, Luciano, Maggiori, Ruch, & Rossier, 2013), career optimism and orientation to learning goals (Tolentino et al., 2014), hope and satisfaction from life (Wilkins et al., 2014), subjective career success (Zacher, 2014a), life quality and breadth of interests (Soresi, Nota, Ferrari, 2012), emotional intelligence (Coetzee & Harry, 2014), personal control on life (Duffy, 2010) as well as career progression and cultivation of intellectual skills (Creed, Fallon, & Hood, 2009). Finally, students consider crucial to succeed at any work environment skills that refer to communication and management of relationships, operating in teams, common qualifications such as IT skills and skills in foreign languages as well as other competencies such as self-efficacy, leadership, creativity and flexibility. We anticipated these results due to the fact that all students were studying at the Department of Philosophy, Pedagogy, and Psychology. The graduates of this department mainly work as philologists and educators. Thus, it is very likely they prioritize skills related to use of language, communication, and working in teams.

Regarding the psychometric properties of the scales used in the survey, differentiations observed in scores between the groups of working and nonworking participants along with high reliability coefficients provide evidence of construct validity for CA-AS, PSECS and the Career Resilience Self-Assessment. Furthermore, the fact that all scales correlate with each other is indicative of convergent validity as these scales are assumed to reflect similar constructs (Sarafidou, 2011). In order to make the goal of teaching job-related skills more explicit, some universities (e.g. in England) introduce new “stand alone” courses to the existing curriculum and also expand the provision of opportunities for work experience. Other university departments use a mix of integrated and stand-alone teaching methods (Mason et al., 2009). Our research results reinforce these implications for Greek higher education and call for the integration of practicum or internship to the curricula, as work experience was found to differentiate acquisition of skills in students. CMS development interventions should acknowledge the richly textured lives of individuals, all of whom will have built up a range of CMS as part of their everyday experiences, e.g. part-time jobs, and summer job-experiences (Sultana, 2012). University students should be offered opportunities to gain and practice skills that are relevant both to all work fields (e.g. career self-efficacy, career adaptability, communication skills, problemsolving skills etc.) and to particular occupations (Borbély-Pecze & Hutchinson, 2014). Experiential activities (e.g. case studies, role playing) could stimulate students‟ active participation in the learning process and provide stimuli for free expression and development of social skills (Sidiropoulou-Dimakakou, Argyropoulou, & Drosos, 2010b). Additionally, seminar-type workshops would be ideal to facilitate learning of job search techniques, resume preparation, utilization of professional social media etc. Given the strong interrelationships found in our study among career adaptability, career resilience and career self-efficacy, it might be advisable to create programs that focus on the development of a sole skill, as this may foster many other relevant skills. Interventions building on the underlying resources of perceived self-efficacy beliefs in career and career adaptability could benefit university students. The Career Counseling Research and Assessment Center of the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens has developed a comprehensive program to enhance career adapt-abilities in university students (Argyropoulou, 2013; Sidiropoulou-Dimakakou, Argyropoulou, Mikedaki, & Tsakanika, 2013). Special emphasis is placed on how the individual can construct a future self-image by designing an action plan (Argyropoulou, 2013). The program consists of 7 one-hour sessions. In the first session a 15-minutevideo is displayed, usually an excerpt of a film with career adaptability as a central issue. In each following session, the counselor presents a career adaptability resource and, then, participants work in teams in order to develop the corresponding skill through experiential activities. Regarding future research, there is a need of conducting both concurrent and longitudinal studies to evaluate CMS impact on multiple career outcomes (e.g. work performance, balance between work and life roles, rates and quality of job placements). Relationships among career adaptability, perceived self-efficacy in career and career resilience should be further examined in order to comprehend

similarities or differences they have with each other. These 3 skills may reflect a meta-competence, which could serve as a powerful tool for designing future career interventions. A major limitation of the study is the use of a sample derived only from a single university department. Indeed, this reduces the generalizability of the findings to other populations. However, this is a limitation we aim to address in the future by expanding the present research into many other departments of various fields of study. Another similar limitation relates to the fact that women far outnumber men in the sample. This was expected due to the fact that the Department of Philosophy, Pedagogy and Psychology traditionally consists of a high percentage of women. Another drawback that should be addressed in future research refers to the use of self-report questionnaires, which constitutes a potential bias of results. In future studies, it would be recommended that a mixture of self-report scales, reports of professors and other qualitative methods such as interviews are used in order to reduce potential errors. All in all, the findings of this research contribute to: (a) pursuing active methods of working, (b) refining career counseling services and interventions in higher education by using them as a tool of empowerment, training and prevention, (c) supporting individuals to show a great deal of personal responsibility for managing career effectively.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 14, No. 2, pp. 53-67, December 2015

Forming Self-Study Skills for Students Bad at Math in High Schools in Vietnam Tram Phuong Thuy Nguyen Duc Trong High School, Duc Trong district, Lam Dong province, Vietnam Tuyen Thanh Thi Nguyen Hung Vuong University, Phu Tho province, Vietnam Thong Duc Do Trieu Son 5 high school, Trieu Son district, Thanh Hoa province, Vietnam Giang Anh Pham Hong Duc University, Thanh Hoa province, Vietnam Son Hoang Nguyen Technical and Economic college of Lam Dong Abstract. Self-study helps people study actively in their whole life. The process of self-study which helps students gradually acquire the general knowledge of humankind for themselves self-consciously, positively, and independently has become the key factor in education quality. If each bad student can form his self-study skills and use his own study time suitably, the result and quality of his study will improve, which helps to reduce the rate of bad students in schools. Keywords: Bad student at math, self-study, self-check.

1. Introduction Nowadays, teaching is not limited at the function of teaching knowledge, but it also improves students‟ learning methods. Besides, school time is limited, which requires students‟ necessary attitudes and abilities to self-orientate, self-update, and enrich their knowledge to meet the requirements of the society. Mentioning learning methods means mainly mentioning self-study kills which are a bridge connecting learning and scientific research. If learners are trained to have skills, methods, and self-study habits and know how to apply what they have learned to new situations, as well as find out and solve their problems, their love for learning will rise, which is the potential of each person. Studying math should follow this trend, especially when math has some advantages in meeting the above requirements compared with other subjects. © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

Self-study has been done since education was not real science. At that time, people were already interested in how to make learners study hard, positively remember teacher's teachings and practice what they had learned. In the middle of 1970s, there were books or writings about this matter, such as Freedom, Autonomy and the Concept of the Person” (Benn, S.-I (1976)), “Autonomy in Foreign Language Learning” (Holec, H. (1981)) . In Vietnam, self-study has been launched seriously and widely since the revolution education appeared in 1945, which President Ho Chi Minh was not only the promoter but also an example of teaching spirit and methods. In the 20th century, thoughts of selfstudy were presented directly and indirectly by many authors (Nguyen, C. T , Nguyen, B. K, etc.) in their research works, such as psychology, pedagogy, subject teaching method, etc. At the beginning of the current innovation, self-study in general and students' self-study in particular are more and more interested and researched because of the important role of self-study in teaching and learning processes towards learner-centered innovation. In theory as well as in practice, self-study is an activity having an important meaning in creating the quality and efficiency in teaching math. The current learning activity of high school students is happening in very new conditions. The formation of an information society in a knowledge economy is creating favourable conditions, but also putting pressures on students. It requires students to have big changes in orienting and choosing information, as well as in the way they gain, process, and store information. In that situation, the math knowledge that students have gained in class through teachers‟ lessons becomes little. They tend to get out of the lessons in class to find out, widen, and deepen knowledge from different sources of information. Therefore, self-study in high schools has turned popular and become a typical characteristic of teaching. Developing the ability of students to self-study is the key point to produce „internal force‟ and improve the quality and efficiency in teaching math. According to Nguyen, B.-K (2007), students bad at math are those who have frequent bad results. Acquiring knowledge and training necessary skills of these students require a lot of force and time, compared with other students. One of the visible expressions of bad students is that they have bad learning methods. Therefore, to surmount the situation of these students, teachers should have methods to help them study actively and teach them how to learn properly. In our country, this issue is considered and determined one of the orientations to innovate teaching methods in high schools at present. According to Nguyen. C. T., Nguyen, K. Le, K. B., & Vu, V. T. (2004), studying mainly means self-study, a process of inner development, in which one expresses and changes oneself as well as enriches one‟s values by receiving and processing information from the surroundings. Meanwhile, according to Pham, D.-K. (2005), the nature of self-study is the process in which a learner personalizes his study so as to meet learning needs and conducts learning activities by himself (through thought manipulation, practice, communications, self-check, self-assessment, etc.) to perform the learning goal and duty effectively. Thai, D.-T (2008, p.311) has pointed out that building learning motives for students is one of the most important things in improving students‟ self-study © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

because the self-study must start internally from the inner ability. Learning motives can be divided into two main groups: cognitive excitement motives and learning duty motives. Therefore, teachers should find ways to motivate, inspire, and help students form methods and self-study ability so that they can acquire knowledge by themselves and perfect themselves later. Bad students, especially, are not good at knowledge methods (skills in analysis, synthesis, analogy, logical inference, etc.). Therefore, teachers should pay attention to fostering students‟ knowledge methods by giving math problems with sample key showing the algorithm clearly. Based on this, students should pay more attention to practicing skills in analysis, synthesis, and logical inference. As a result, teachers can enhance identification activities and show them in students‟ learning process both at school and at home. This skill can be consolidated by classification exercises suitable for students‟ learning level.

2. The concepts of students’ self-study skills According to Vietnamese Dictionary, practice means practicing many times in reality to gain a stable quality or level. (Hoang, P, (1998)) According to Dang, T.-H (2012), a skill is a form of action performed voluntarily based on the knowledge about work, mobility, and other biologicalpsychological conditions of a person (who has the skill) such as needs, affection, wills, individual positive, etc. to gain results by purpose, defined criteria, or the level of success following a standard or regulation. Self-study skill is the ability to carry out a system of self-organized actions and self-control self-study activity based on applying the experience relevant to that activity. Self-study skills are a system including general skills for learning activities and specialized skills. The number of types of study is equal to the number of specialized skills. According to Vu, T.-R, self-study skills include four groups: cognitive skills, practical skills, organizational skills, and assessment skills. (1994) Thus, forming self-study skills for students is teachers‟ duty with measures combined reasonably, suitable for students‟ level and the school‟s teaching conditions. Students should be self-aware and enthusiastic about practicing to form the self-study skills for themselves. Therefore, while practicing, students need to be aware of the meaning and the role of self-study in their future careers. Students should have a proper practicing motive and turn practice into selfpractice. For those whose are bad at math, teachers should require students‟ self-study skills, especially cognitive skills and practical skills.

3. Factors that affect students’ self-study skills There are a lot of determinants that influence students‟ self-study. It is the role of teachers in determining students‟ learning motives, guiding the way of selfstudy and encouraging students. It is the role of the management in instructing the self-study mission. Or it is the investment of facilities in self-study activities. For students who are bad at math, self-study skills include corresponding skills such as skills in taking notes, reading references, analyzing and synthesizing © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

knowledge, working in groups, applying knowledge in solving math problems, using information technology, etc. During the past time, many senior high schools have been interested in training self-study skills for their students. According to our survey at six senior high schools in Lam Dong Province, there are many factors affecting students' selfstudy activities, as follows:

3.1. Learning motives Learning motives are what that stimulates and motivates students‟ learning positive to gain results of awareness and the formation and development of personality. This is a complex structure including many specific motives with differences in the content, quality as well as its position in the structure. The differences make the effect on the subject‟s activities different and this leads to the difference in the results of activities. Learning motives decide students‟ learning results. This requires students to build their needs and learning motives all the time in the process of study. In practice students‟ learning activities are driven by the motive from their need to learn. They study by themselves to gain knowledge. In fact, many students have not seen the applicability and beauty of math, so they lack their learning motives for this subject, Reducing students' self-study need (accounting for about 92 %)

3.2. Learning interest Learning interest is one of the important factors that affect the process of students‟ self-study (accounting for 86 %). When having the interest in the subject, students will feel passionate and want to learn and discover the knowledge relevant to this subject. The interest in math subject is expressed in the concentration and attention to self-study in which the learner see the significance of math in reality.

3.3. The facilities, infrastructure conditions, and time for self-study Besides the factors from learners such as motives and interest, external factors such as technical infrastructure, facilities and teaching equipment also significantly affect the process of students‟ self-study (accounting for 78 %). The time for self-study does too because high school students have many subjects. Each subject has a different position, feature, content, information volume and a mutual relationship. To self-study well, students must arrange and manage a reasonable time. At present, most bad students are not used to seeking materials to support self-study and planning a suitable timetable, so their self-study is still limited.

3.4. The role of teachers in orienting self-study activities According to the oriented education innovation, teachers have to change their form of teaching and teaching methods by improving students‟ self-study. Teachers have to teach students about the contents, methods, and forms of selfstudy. At present, the teaching methods and the perspective on assessing learning results of some teachers have not changed much. Teachers still keep © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

their old habit of lecturing and assessing learning results primarily by periodical written tests without following students‟ process of learning. Teaching and assessing in that way can have a big effect on the practice of self-study skill of students in most of the subjects, especially math (accounting for 69 %).

4. Self-study skills that need training for bad students at math Through researching materials and exchanging with colleagues, we have found that to form self-study skills for students bad at math, teachers need to train them in the following skills: 1. Identify learning goals clearly. It is because the learning goals will decide the learning methods and results of students. 2. Have a specific plan and arrange learning time specifically and scientifically to study and relax reasonably. 3. Train ability to read books perseveringly, rewrite important and essential content, and revise every day. 4. Use memory skills to acquire information: while studying in class, students pay attention to the lessons, and then write down the basic content. 5. To understand and be retentive, students should always give opinions to build lessons, give feedbacks, and minimize the passive in class. 6. Methods to learn theorems and formula by heart: skim the whole theorems or formula once, then read slowly and remember the main content. After reading and grasping the key information, take notes by diagrams or summarize the main content on paper. 7. When starting to sit at the desk, the first thing to do is to review the whole lesson of the day, what was taught by the teacher, and then look at the lesson of the next day. Make notes or asterisk what we do not understand or have not understood clearly so that we will pay more attention to these issues when being explained on the next day. 8. Never be complacent towards the results we have gained. Study at school, at home, from books, from friends, outside the textbooks by learning new knowledge in reference books. In order to train students‟ self-study effectively, teacher‟s lesson plan should ensure the following requirements: - Logical, systematic and linked to forms of classroom teaching. - Practical and applicable to solving math problems that are interdisciplinary. - Prepared seriously by teacher and be able to create excitement for students. - Especially for bad students, teachers can instruct them to write their work carefully in their notebooks. After each class, teachers should also save time to instruct students to read in advance the content of the lesson necessary for the next class: the focused content, the notes of the content, the requirements of the © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

knowledge, etc. And the most important thing is that teachers should make student feel self-confident and excited about learning math. Example 1 To improve self-study ability for bad students at math, teachers can conduct teaching this part of knowledge “The difference of two vectors” (Vietnamese Geometry Textbook 10), as follows: Activity 1: Creating learning motives for students Teacher raises an issue Two people act on one object in two opposite directions and with the same magnitude of force. In which direction will the object move?

- Predict the direction the object placed at O will move when there are three forces acting on the object at the same time as shown in the following figure:

D Activity 2: Assigning tasks to students (practice reading skill and group work skill for students) Teacher asks students to look at the presentation in the textbooks and group work to grasp the issues: - The concept of opposite vectors - The definition of the difference of two vectors - The three-point rule in the subtraction of vectors Activity 3: Have students present the knowledge by themselves (practice memory skill to gain knowledge, minimize the passive in class and practice review skill during class) - Teacher makes a request: + Given two vectors a and b (teacher draws on the board) Students identify and draw: - The opposite vector of a - The difference of a and b © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

+ Compare and recall the rule of three points for the sum and the subtraction of two vectors. Activity 4: Organize identification activities to inculcate the subtraction of two vectors (practice review skill and inculcate knowledge) Problem 1 Given a parallelogram ABCD with center O . Prove that: a) CO  OB  BA b) AB  BC  DB c) DA  DB  OD  OC d) DA  DB  DC  0 Problem 2 Given an equilateral ABC with its side a . Calculate the length of vector AB  BC

Problem 3 Return to the problem in the motive prompting activity, teacher asks students to explain using the knowledge of the difference of two vectors (the object will move from O to H )

D OA  OB  OD = OC  OD = OC  OH = HC = OH

Activity 5: Assigning homework (train skills in using reference books and exploiting learning time properly of students) Teacher asks students to: - Review knowledge learned about vectors: © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

+ The components of a vector + Determining the sum of two vectors + The three-point rule in the addition and subtraction of two vectors + Parallelogram rule + Vector relation to the midpoint of the segment and the focus of the triangle Solve the exercises in the Geometry workbook 10: 1.8, 1.9, 1.11, 1.12, page 21. (Nguyen, M.-H (2012)) - Identify and draw the following vectors ( a given before):

x aa y  a  a Make a comment on the direction and the length of x , y compared with a In order for students to have good self-study skills, teachers should have measures to help them get self-confidence in learning first. One of the measures is that teachers give suitable exercises and practice analytical and synthetic activities for students when teaching specific contents of math subject. Students will understand and remember what they have learned through their active learning and efforts. According to Polya, G, analysis and synthesis are two important actions of the mind. If one goes into detail, he can be submerged in it. Too much petty detail impedes thoughts and focus on the main point. It is the case of the person who only sees a tree, not a forest. First, one must understand the exercise as a whole. When the exercise is understood clearly, it is easier for one to consider which detail is fundamental. One has to study the exercise very closely, divides it into steps, and avoids going too far. (Polya, G, (1975)) One researcher has said that analysis is splitting information and concepts into small parts to understand it more fully. Synthesis is joining pieces of information to create a new content. Analysis can be understood as the manipulation of splitting information and concepts into small parts and pointing out their relationship with the whole. Synthesis is a process that discovers the relationships uniting the parts which seem to be separate as a whole to realize them. Therefore, analytical and synthetic activities have an important role in the intellectual development of students. Students bad at math can especially be limited in the ability to cover issues. Thus teachers should divide issues to be presented into detailed parts and find appropriate activities for each detail. For example, when having students prove a theorem or do an exercise (a complex activity) with difficulty, we have to divide it into smaller activities: - What can we infer from the assumption? - What conditions do we need to get to conclusion? - Consider a similar special case. These activities help students not only find out the way to solve a math problem (an activity of condition), but also understand more deeply (an activity of result) Studying effectively in a learning hour often requires certain prerequisites of the level of knowledge and available skills of students. Bad students, however, do © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

not sometimes have these prerequisites and teachers should help them make the starting premise in class. Teachers should use an explicit form of reproduction, which means stating the knowledge and skills needing to be revised in order to prepare for the learning content of the upcoming formal lesson. Doing so is to enhance the target oriented effectiveness, provide motives and improve students‟ responsibility for lessons. This helps students feel more confident in learning. Knowledge with many “gaps” is a common “disease” of students bad at math. The starting premise is also aimed at filling gaps in knowledge and skills of students. In the process of teaching, teachers should be interested in discovering and classifying knowledge gaps and skills of students. Typical gaps which have not been recovered in class because of the time should be continued to solve in groups of bad students. Through the process of learning theory and doing exercises of students, teachers also help students, including bad students selfconsciously discover their gaps and know how to fill them. In reality, training is done under general level and sometimes unsuitable for students bad at math. Therefore, teachers should pay attention to bad students and save time to train them to enhance practice moderately, divide the overall activity into many detailed ones with the following notes: - Make sure students understand the beginning of an exercise: bad students often stumble right from the first step. They do not understand what the problem is about, so they cannot continue the process. Therefore, teachers should help them overcome this first stumble. - Increase the number of assignments of the same kind and level: to understand and practice a certain skill, bad students need more exercises of the same kind and level than other average or good students. This increase is implemented in students‟ self-study time. - Divide and grade exercises in teaching math: especially for students bad at math, this grading needs to be more meticulous than the general level. That is, the gap between two consecutive grades should not be too far or too high. Many grades of bad students can be put together into one grade of average or good students. - Driven with the requirements to fit their best, bad students will be less deprived, and since then they will gradually gain the knowledge and skills that the syllabus requires. Although the initial requirements are low, they will create a very important psychological factor if students study successfully: they will believe in themselves, and then have enough courage and determination to overcome the weakness. Example 2 For good students, mastering the definition “The product of vectors with a number” is simple. They easily grasp the concept. For students bad at math, however, this is a difficult concept. Therefore, teachers should have many activities to help them understand. The definition in Geometry Textbook 10: “Given a number k ≠ 0 and vector a  0 . The product of vector a with a number k is a vector, symbolized ka in © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

the same direction with a if k > 0, in the opposite direction with a if k < 0, and its length equals k a ”. In order for students bad at math to grasp the problem, teachers can divide this activity into many smaller ones: 1) Based on the instructions of the previous lesson “The sum and difference of two vectors”

x  a  a  2a y  a  a  2a

Give comments on the direction and length of x , y , compared with a 2) Given a number k ≠ 0 and vector a  0 . Have students determine the relationship between ka and a . 3) Students look at the textbook and determine the direction and length of a in the following cases: k =0 a= 0 From this, teachers generalize the definition “The product of a vector and a number” 4) Determine and draw the following vectors: 1 a 2 2 v a 3

u

with a is given. The above example helps bad students grasp the definition “The product of a vector and a number”, and then students can solve relevant problems. Example 3 Solve the following exercise (the problem on page 16, Geometry Textbook 10 (Tran, V. H., & Nguyen, M. H (2006)) Given a triangle ABC with centroid G , let I be the midpoint of AG and K be a point 1 on the side AB so that: AK = AB . 5 a)

Find the vectors AI , AK , CI , CK by a  CA, b  CB

b) Prove that the three points C , I , K are collinear. Students with average learning capacity or higher can use extra points to solve the problem, but bad students may not realize. Therefore, teachers give some more extra questions in the problem (divide the problem into many detailed parts).

Given a triangle ABC with centroid G , let I be the midpoint of segment AG and K 1 be the midpoint on segment AB so that: AK = AB . 5 a) Find the vectors AI , AK , CI , CK by a , b . Let D be the midpoint of BC . Find the vector AD by CA, CB . b) Find the vectors a  CA, b  CB 6 c) Prove that: CK  CI . From that, the three points C , I , K are collinear. 5

A K I C D Solution

1 AD  CD  CA  CB  CA 2 1 1 1 1 b) AI  AG  AD  b  a 2 3 6 3 1 1 1 AK  AB  CB  CA  b  a 5 5 5









1 1 1 2 CI  CA  AI  a  b  a  b  a 6 3 6 3 1 1 1 4 CK  CA  AK  a  b  a  b  a 5 5 5 5 1 2 1 CI  b  a  b  4a 6 3 6 1 4 1 CK  b  a  b  4 a 5 5 5





6 It is inferred that: CK  CI 5

Therefore: C , I , K are collinear. Example 4

For students good at math, it is not difficult to solve this problem. They can easily find out the solution. Given a triangle ABC, M and N are movable points so that: 



MN  2. MA 3. MB MC 



(*)



a) Find point I so that: 2. 2 IA 3. IB IC  0 . b) Prove that line MN always passes through a fixed point. Solution a) 

According to the assumption and changing the relation, we have: 



0  2 IA 3 IB IC  2 IA 3( IA AB)  ( IA AC )  4. IA 3. AB AC   1  From this, we have IA  ( AC  3 AB). This equation completely determines 4 point I . b) Comment that the coefficients on the right of (*) are the same as in a). To use the results of a), we just put in point I . 



MN  2 MA 3 MB MC  2( MI  IA)  3( MI  IB)  ( MI  IC ) 



 4 MI  (2 IA 3 IB IC )  4 MI 



Therefore, MN  4 MI . This equation proves that M , N , I are collinear or MN passes through the fixed point I . However, for students bad at math, the possibility to solve this problem is not high. Teachers can divide the problem into several smaller question to help them find out the solution as well as feel more interested and confident in learning. And the problem can be modified to suit all students, as follows: Given a triangle ABC , M and N are points so that: 



MN  2. MA 3. MB MC 



(*)



Let I be a point so that: 2. IA 3. IB IC  0 .   1  a) Prove that: IA  ( AC  3 AB) 4 



b) Prove that: MN  4 MI and M , N , I are collinear or MN passes through a fixed point I. Solution a) When looking at the request of the problem, students bad at math will know how to analyze and find IA . © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.



0  2 IA 3 IB IC  2 IA 3( IA AB)  ( IA AC )  4. IA 3. AB AC

From that, we have   1  IA  ( AC  3 AB) 4

b) Comment that the coefficients on the right of (*) are the same as in a). To use the results of a), we just put in point I. 



MN  2 MA 3 MB MC  2( MI  IA)  3( MI  IB)  ( MI  IC ) 



 4 MI  (2 IA 3 IB IC )  4 MI 



Therefore, MN  4 MI . This equation proves that M , N , I are collinear or MN passes through the fixed point I . Arranging suitable learning time in the process of self-study will bring high effectiveness for learning. Although textbooks usually group exercises together according to topic, teachers can divide the kinds in their own way to match their students. For students bad at math, teachers should guide them to plan in advance and to overcome learners‟ common obstacles which is delaying revision. In an Internet-based research on learning grammar, rhetoric and logic, the highest result achieved when the session of revision is approximately 10 20% of the length of time students need to remember the knowledge. To remember something in a week, sessions of revision should be apart from each other from 12 to 24 hours. To remember something in five years, sessions of revision should be apart from each other from 6 to 12 months. Hence, arranging time suitably for revision will be effective for learners in learning in many different fields, especially for students bad at math.

5. Results and discussion We delivered survey forms to 237 students at high schools in Lam Dong province, Vietnam in order to check their ideas on teaching bad students at math of their teacher. The result is as follows:

Chart 1.1. The altitude of students toward teaching bad students at math of their teacher

16%

45%

very necessary Necessary Not necessary yet Not necessary

39%

The result shows that 107 students (45%) think that it is very necessary; 93 students (39%) think that it is necessary; 37 students (16%) think that it is not necessary yet; nobody thinks that it is not necessary. It shows that students are interested in teaching bad students at math of their teacher. We also delivered survey forms to 45 teachers of high schools of Lam Dong province, Vietnam in order to check teaching bad students at math. The result is as follows: Chart 1.2. The ideas of teachers on teaching bad students at math

50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0

Disagree Agree

Teaching bad students at math takes a lot of time

Teaching bad students at math takes a lot of effort

Teaching bad students at math helps teacher to improve his teaching skills

From the above chart, the number of teachers who agree that it spends a lot of their time and effort is high.

6. Conclusion Most students bad at math are students lacking a suitable learning method. If learners are trained to have self-study skills, make good use of their learning time, know how to apply what they have learned to practice, and know how to discover and solve the problems encountered, they will be motivated to learn, which arouse the inherent potential of each person. Thus to reduce the rate of students bad at math in high school, teachers should regularly train students in self-study skills.

References Benn, S.-I. (1976). Freedom, Autonomy and the Concept of the Person. In Aristotelian Society Proceedings Cleugh, M.-F. (1961). Teaching the slow learner in the Secondary school, Methuen & Co Ltd. Dang, T.-H. (2012). Theory on teaching and learning method, The Vietnam Institute of educational sciences Publishing. Dao, T. (2012). The method of teaching geometry at high school, University of Education Publishing House. Duncan, A. (1978). Teaching mathematics to slow learners, Ward Lock Educational Publishing. Hoang, P. (1998). Vietnamese dictionary, Social sciences Publishing House. Holec, H. (1981). Autonomy in Foreign Language Learning, NXB Oxford Lewallen, J. (1976). Individualized techniques and activities for teaching slow learners, Parker Publishing Company, Inc. Mark, K. (2008). A drive for Alternative Lessons, activities and Methods for teaching Algebra, karadimosmd@mathguide.com Mercer, C. (1996). Learning Disabilities Definitions and Criteria used by state Education Departments, Learning Disabilities Quarterly. Nguyen, B.-K. (2007). Mathematical teaching and learningl method, University of Education Publishing House. Nguyen. C. T., Nguyen, K., Le, K. B., & Vu, V. T (2004). Learning and teaching the way of learning, University of Education Publishing House. Nguyen, M.-H. (2012). Exercise in geometry grade 10, Vietnamese Education Publishing House. Nguyen, V.-T. (2015). Assessment on the reliability of messurement. doi: http://ykhoa.net/baigiang/lamsangthongke/lstk10_danhgiadotincay.pdf Pham, D.-K. (2005). Some methods on the development of mathematical self-study competency of high schools students, Doctoral Dissertation. Polya, G. (1975). How to solve it? (A new aspect of mathematical method), Second Edition. Thai, D.-T. (2008). The classical and innovative method, Vietnamese Education Publishing House Tran, V. H., & Nguyen, M. H. (2006). Geometry grade 10, Vietnamese Education Publishing House. Vu, T.-R. (1994). Some problems of theory on training the learning techinics for students, The Vietnam Institute of educational sciences Publishing.

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 14, No. 2, pp. 68-86, December 2015

Designing a Classification Toolkit for Mathematically-Deficient 4th Grade Students: A Case Study in Vietnam Doctor’s degree student Tuyen Thanh Thi Nguyen Hung Vuong University, Phu Tho, Vietnam Doctor’s degree student Tram Phuong Thuy Nguyen Duc Trong High School, Lam Dong, Vietnam Associate Professor, Dr Trung Tran Ethnic Cadre University, Ha Noi, Vietnam Associate Professor, Dr Lai Thai Dao The Vietnam Institute of Educational Sciences, Hanoi, Vietnam

Abstract: The theory of educating slow-learning students has pointed out that, the first and most important step in this study is to identify and categorize the slow learners. In order for this study to be carried out effectively, a feasible and scientific procedure which complies the teachers’ ability with educational environment in different schools is highly required (Brennan, W. Kyran (1974)), (Reddy and Ramar (2006)), (Vu, Q. Chung, Dao, T. Lai, Do, T. Dat, Tran, N. Lan, Nguyen, Q. Hung and Le, N. Son (2005)). The following study will examine some studies of categorizing slow-learning students, as well as suggesting a method of categorizing 4th-grade students who perform poorly in mathematics via the assessing mathematical ability toolkit. To develop the assessing mathematical ability toolkit to categorize slow-learning 4thgrade students, we have focused on some of the following tasks: (i) Determining the criteria for creating sets of exercises, (ii) Assessing the reliability and validity of the toolkit, and (iii) Choosing the conditions for categorizing slow-learning students. Keywords: categorizing, slow-learning students, mathematics, 4th grade.

1. Introduction There are various methods of categorizing slow-learning students: Budanui, A. A (1960) believes that low performance in students is conventional in specific circumstances so he divided slow-learning into two types: Absolute slow© 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

learning and relative slow-learning. Inkovlev, N. M (1962) and other Polish educationists share the same notion. They believe this phenomenon is demonstrated in two different ways: Evidently and potentially. In terms of internal and external factors that motivate the students, Kalnukova, Z (1962), I divided slow-learning students into two groups: those who are academically abandoned and those who are academically deficient. In terms of the duration, extent and level of low performance, Genmont, A. M (1959) suggested 3 groups of underachievers: (1) Completely and seriously deficient in every subject over a long period, (2) Relatively and stably deficient in parts of the curriculum of some complex subjects (Mathematics, Foreign Languages), (3) Temporarily deficient in a random subject, but can be easily resolved (MEHЧИHCKАЯ H. A. KАЛMЬLKOBАЗ. И. (1964)). In terms of personality structure, there is another categorization. Some scientists such as Babanskij, Iu. K (1964); Menchinskaja, N. A (1964), Kazanskij, N. G (1964) (MEHЧИHCKАЯ H. A. KАЛMЬLKOBАЗ. И. (1964)) divided slowlearners based on the premise of combining two basic personality complexes: the first complex is characterized by features of logical thinking (relating to academic levels), the second one is characterized by personal trends including learning attitude and internal point of view. Thus, there are 3 different 2combinations between the aforementioned complexes and 3 groups of slowlearning students: (1) Poor logical thinking coupled with positive learning attitude and strong point of view, (2) Good logical thinking coupled with negative learning attitude and partial or no point of view, (3) Poor logical thinking coupled with partial to or point of view. In terms of the students’ cognitive ability, World Health Organization (WHO) divides slow-learners into 3 groups based on their IQ scores: (1) The educable mentally retarded (EMR) who have IQ ranging from 50 – 80, (2) the trainable mentally retarded (TMR) who have IQ ranging from 20 – 50, (3) the severely and profoundly handicapped (SPH) who have IQ ranging from 8 – 20 (Brennan, W. K. (1974)), (Curtis, K., & Shaver, J.P. (1980)). In terms of the mechanism for slow development in functional areas of the brain, Tran, T. T, based on results from Luria 90 test, clinical evaluations, electroencephalogram (EEG) diagnoses, has suggested 3 groups: (1) Slow development in the Frontal, Parietal and Temporal lobes in both cerebral hemispheres, (2) slow development in the Occipital lobes in both cerebral hemispheres, (3) slow development in the left Temporal lobe (Tran, T. T. (1997)). Based on indications of cognitive limitations, psychologists have suggested the following categories: (1) Those who have poor memory, (2) those who have attention deficit disorder, (3) those who have intellectual disabilities, (4) those who have linguistic disabilities. For mathematically-deficient students in primary school, we can categorize them on the basis of the curriculum contents: slow learners in arithmetic, slow learners in geometry, slow learners in problemsolving, slow learners in statistics. In terms of levels of knowledge acquisition (Reddy and Ramar (2006)),there are: (1) slow learners who are lacking mathematical concepts or unable to memorize the principles, theorems or formulae, (2) slow learners who do not understand or remember the nature of the problems, (3) slow learners who are unable to apply mathematical knowledge to solving problems (Vu, Q. C., Dao, T. L., Do, T. D., Tran, N. L, © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

Nguyen, H. Q., & Le, N. S. (2005)). Therefore, categorizing slow-learners is crucial and has been an interesting subject of study for many authors. These studies, however, only approached this matter from diagnostic, neuropsychological and educational-psychological aspects. With these categorizations, teachers will come up against a great many difficulties in identifying slow learners via traditional methods. In reality, in order to effectively help low-performing students, teachers need a categorizing toolkit in the form of exercise sets so as to understand the students’ level of mathematical knowledge acquisition, they can pinpoint the students’ difficulties, mistakes and gaps in knowledge (Nguyen, V. C., Le, T. N., & Phan, T. Q., (2002)). Those are the points on which we have focused and aimed to resolve in our research. In order to develop such a toolkit, we have carried out the following tasks: (i) Determining the criteria for creating sets of exercises, (ii) Assessing the reliability and validity of the toolkit, and (iii) Choosing the conditions for categorizing slow-learning students. Here we have chosen 4thgrade students to be our research subjects and the aim of this toolkit is to categorize mathematically-deficient 4thgrade students. The statistics used in this research are from some primary schools in Thai Nguyen and Phu Tho provinces in Vietnam.

2. Content 2.1. The criteria for developing the toolkit Based on the mandatory standards of 4th grade mathematics and the minimum standards of elementary mathematics (Do, D. H., Do, T. D., Dao, T. L., & Do, T. H (2015)), we have built an assessing toolkit in the form of an exercise system aiming to test math proficiency of 4thgrade students, through which we can identify and categorize mathematically-deficient 4thgrade students. In order to meet the requirements for elementary mathematics in general, the students must fully understand the following areas and these can also be regarded as the criteria for evaluating math proficiency of 4thgrade students: 1- Recognizing and understanding the meaning of numbers: Capable of counting, analyzing the formation and comparing between different numbers 2- Arranging the arithmetic algorithm and calculating: Capable of computing four basic arithmetic operations 3- Geometry: Capable of identifying basic shapes, properties of shapes. Know the formulae for calculating the circumference, diameter and area of shapes 4- Units of measurement: Understand and memorize units of measurement table, capable of converting between metric units 5- Problem solving: Capable of solving practical mathematical problems Therefore, the exercise system must consist of all 5 above-mentioned areas. Meanwhile, in each area, the system must be able to assess which stage in the development process the contemporary knowledge of the student is at. In other words, which grade is the student’s understanding of each mathematical area equivalent to? The system should be also able to identify which problems and shortcomings the children are experiencing in each mathematical area.

2.2. Introduction of the toolkit From the listed criteria and skill requirements in each mathematical area from 1st grade to 4th grade, we have constructed a toolkit assessing math proficiency of 4thgrade students in which the 5 listed areas correspond to 5 domains. In each © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

domain, the exercises are designed in chronological order starting from the beginning of the knowledge acquisition process up to the contemporary period (4th grade). The level of the exercises the students manage to complete will reflect their level of knowledge acquisition in terms of scores. Content 1: Assessing the ability to recognize numbers and the meaning of numbers Type 1: Read and write numbers: two-digit numbers (1st grade); three-digit numbers (2nd grade); five-digit numbers (3rd grade); seven-digit numbers (4th grade). Type 2: Compare and arrange numbers: Find the largest number in a sequence of 3digit numbers (2nd grade); Continue a sequence of 5-digit numbers (3rd grade); Identify fractions which are larger than 1 (4th grade). The exercise system corresponding “Content 1” is called “Scale A”, which is suggested as below: A. UNDERSTANDING NUMBERS AND MEANING OF NUMERS A1. READ AND WRITE NUMBERS No. Numericals Written number Correct ( 10 356 217 1

……………

2 3 4 5

67 246 ……….. 222 ……………

5 7

Ten million three hundred and fifty-six thousand two hundred and seventeen Twenty million four hundred and sixty-three thousand two hundred and six ...……………………… ……………… One million two hundred and thirty-four .......…………… …………………… ……… Ninety nine ……………………………………………….

)

1pt 1pt 1pt 1pt 1pt 1pt 1pt

……………. Eighteen twenty-fifths Total A1: …../7 points A2. COMPARING AND ARRANGING NUMBERS No. Exercise

Correct ( ) 1pt

Find the largest number among 395; 695; 375

Fill in the blanks: 18 301;18 302; .................; .................; .................;18 306; 1pt .................;

1pt Circle the fractions which are larger than 1:

;

Content 2: Assessing the ability to arrange the arithmetic algorithm and calculate Type 1: Addition: No-carrying addition (1st grade); one-carrying addition (2nd grade); 2-carrying addition (3rd grade); more-than-2-carrying addition, adding fractions with the same and different denominator (4th grade) Type 2: Subtraction: No-carrying subtraction (1st grade); one-carrying subtraction (2nd grade); 2-carrying subtraction (3rd grade); more-than-2-carrying subtraction, subtracting fractions with the same and different denominator (4th grade) Type 3: Multiplication: Multiplication table (2nd grade); one-digit multiplication (2nd and 3rd grade); 2-digit and 3-digit multiplication, fraction multiplication (3rd and 4th grade) Type 4: Division: Division table (2nd grade); one-digit division (2nd and 3rd grade); 2-digit and 3-digit division, fraction division (3rd and 4th grade) The exercise system corresponding to “Content 2” is called “Scale B”, which is suggested as below: B. USING THE ARITHMETIC ALGORITHMS TO CALCULATE B1. ADDTION SKILL No. Exercises Correct Calculate Answer ( ) 11 23 + 14 1pt 12

239 + 517

1pt

356 + 276

1pt

47865 + 78537

2pts

3 2  5 5

1pt

5 2  4 3

1pt

Total B1: ……/ 7 points B2. SUBTRACTION SKILL No. Exercises Calculate 17

56 – 13

18 19 20 21

451 – 23 534 – 265 123456 – 10678

Correct Answer

( ) 1pt 1pt 1pt 2pts 1pt

5 2  7 7 5 2  3 4

1pt

Total B2: ……/ 7 points B3. MULTIPLICATION SKILL No. Exercises Calculate 23

Correct Answer

( ) 2pts

3x6= 4x8= 12 x 4 =

23 x 12 =

2pts

1456 x 123 =

2pts

5 2  3 7

2pts

Total B3: ……/ 10 points B4. DIVISION SKILL No. Calculate 28 29 30

Exercises

Correct Answer

6:2= 8:4= 84 : 4 =

( ) 2pts 2pts 2pts

276 : 12 = 31

2pts 4428 : 123

2 4 : 3 5

2pts

Total B4: ……/10 points Total Scale B = B1+B2+B3+B4=………../34 points Common mistakes: …………………………………………………………. Content 3: Assessing geometry skills Type 1: Match the shapes with the correct names and colors (1st grade) Type 2: Calculate the diameter of a triangle (2nd grade) Type 3: Calculate the area of a rectangle (3rd grade) Type 4: Draw parallel and perpendicular lines, identify different types of angles (4th grade) The exercise system corresponding to “Content 3” is called “Scale C”, which is suggested as below:

C. GEOMETRY No. 33

Exercises

Correc t( ) 2pts

Match the shapes with the correct labels: Red

Green

Purple

Yellow

Circle Triangle Rectangle Calculate the diameter of the triangle

Calculate the area of the rectangle

2pts

Draw a line through point C and parallel to AB

2pts

Draw a line through point C and perpendicular to AB

2pts

Match the angles with the correct names

2pts

Straight angle

Right angle

Total: ………./ 12 points

Obtuse angle

Square 2pts

Acute angle

Common mistakes: ………………………………………………………… Content 4: Assessing understanding of units of measurement Types of metric units: weight, time, length, area. In each type we will test understanding of the metric unit chart and unit conversion. The exercise system corresponding “Content 4” is called “Scale D”, which is suggested as below: D. UNITS OF MEASUREMENT D1. UNITS OF MASS No.

Exercises

Correct (

1 centitonne = ………….kg

1pt

1 quintal = ……………centitonne

1pt

1 quintal = …………….kg

1pt

1 tonne = ……………quintal

1pt

1 tonne = …………….kg

1pt

1 centitonne 7 kg = ……………kg

2pts

4 quintal 60 kg = …………….kg

2pts

)

Total D1: ………/9 points. D2. UNITS OF TIME No.

Exercises

Correct (

1 hour = ………………minutes

1pt

1 minute = ……………..seconds

1pt

1 century = …………….years

1pt

1 minute 8 seconds = …………….seconds

2pts

1 century = ………………….years 5

2pts

)

D3. UNITS OF LENGTH No.

Exercises

Correct (

1 km = …………..m

1pt

1 m = ……………dm

1pt

1 dm = …………….cm

1pt

1 cm = ……..mm

1pt

1 m = ……….cm

1pt

1 m = …………mm

1pt

2 km 35 m = ………m

2pts

3 m 2 cm = ………..cm

2pts

)

Total D3: ………/10 points. D4. UNITS OF AREA No.

Exercises

Correct (

1m2 = ……………..dm2

1pt

1 dm2 = …………….cm2

1pt

1 m2 = ………………cm2

2pts

1 km2 = ……………...m2

2pts

10 dm2 2 cm2 =………………cm2

2pts

9900 cm2 =……….. dm2

2pts

Total D4: ………/10 points. Total Scale D= D1+D2+D3+D4 = ………../36 points Common mistakes: …………………………………………………………. Content 5: Assessing the ability to solve practical problems Type 1: 1-operation problems about addition (1st grade) © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

)

Type 2: 1-operation problems about more than/less than (2nd grade) Type 3: 2-operation problems (3rd grade) Type 4: 2-to-3-operation problems (4th grade) The exercise system corresponding to “Content 5” is called “Scale E”, which is suggested as below: E. PROBLEM SOLVING No.

Exercises Problem

Correct Answer

Exercise 1: Minh has 12 pieces of candy; Mai has 23 pieces of candy. How many pieces of candy do Minh and Mai have?

………………………………………..

Exercise 2: The small jar holds 10 litters of fish sauce; the big jar holds 5 litters more than the small jar. How many litters of fish sauce does the big jar hold?

………………………………………..

(

)

2pts

………………………………………..

2pts

……………………………………….. ……………………………………….. ………………………………………..

Exercise 3: 42 identical cups are placed into 7 boxes. If there are 4572 cups, how many boxes are they placed into?

………………………………………..

Exercise 4: There are 45

………………………………………..

students in a class,

3 of whom 4

are girls. How many boys and girls are there in the class?

2pts

……………………………………….. ………………………………………..

……………………………………….. ……………………………………….. ………………………………………..

Total: ………../ 8 points Common mistakes: …………………………….…………………………

2.3. Evaluating the reliability and validity of the toolkit After being designed, constructed, and consulted by professionals, the toolkit has been completed, comprised of a system of 68 exercises with 5 domains. The points are given in accordance with the scale of each domain with the total sum of 100. We have conducted a small-scale test to determine the reliability and © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

2pts

validity of the scales before conducting a large-scale test. To test the reliability of the toolkit, we have applied the Test-Retest Method to twenty 4th grade students from Tu Xa 2 elementary school in late April, 2015. The studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; results from the two tests at a one-week interval have been summed up in the following table: Table 1: The results of 20 students in two tests

Student (i)

First Second test test score Deviation score

xi1

Mean

Variance

xi 2

-8

100

-6

-4

-6

100

-8

-2

100

-8

Mean

74.2

73.6

xi =0.6

x =73.9

The coefficient of reliability of the toolkit can be calculated using the following formula S2 R  2 T 2 in which: R is the coefficient of reliability ST  SE S12  S22  ...  SN2 , Si2 being the N variance of student i , N being the number of participants. BMS  WMS (with ST2 is the actual score reflecting the student’s ability. ST2  k 1 N 1 N BMS  2( xi  x )2 and WMS   Si2 , xi being the mean score of  N  1 i 1 N i 1

SE2

is the deviation in the test scores SE2 

student i in the two tests; x being the mean of the test scores; k being the number of tests conducted on one student, in this case k =2). The results are ST2  354.1 ; SE2  17 , and the coefficient of reliability of the toolkit is R = 0.95. These results show that the stability of the classification toolkit for mathematically-deficient 4th grade students is rather high. (Nguyen, V. T (2015)). The validity of the toolkit has been taken into account with two values: internal validity and external validity. The internal validity answers the question: Is the toolkit well-structured? Does it conform to the whole scale? This index is assessed using the coefficient of correlation between different domains, as well as between the domains and the whole scale. The toolkit will have a high internal validity (construct validity) if the smaller scales match up with one another and with the whole scale. The following table illustrates the correlation between the 5 domains, using figures from the test results of the abovementioned 20 students in the first test: Table 2: Coefficient of correlation between domains

Coefficient of correlation Domain A Domain B Domain C

Domain Domain Domain Domain Domain The whole A B C D E scale 0.933

0.788

0.814

0.780

0.912

0.886

0.887

0.854

0.982

0.791

0.762

0.905

0.814

0.948

0.882

The table shows that the coefficient of correlation between each domain and the coefficient of correlation between the domains and the whole scale both have positive value (from 0.762 to 0.982), which means that there is a direct correlation between them. On the other hand, these figures reflect the structural unity of elementary math in Vietnam.

3. Experimenting the classification toolkit for mathematically-deficient 4th grade students Having confirmed the reliability and validity of the toolkit, we conducted an experiment to identify and classify slow-learning students in 156 students from three schools: Tu Xa 2 Elementary school (65 students), Cao Mai Elementary school (56 students) and Linh Thong Elementary school (36 students). These schools are located in two provinces, Thai Nguyen and Phu Tho, Vietnam. The results are depicted in the following table, using SPSS program Table 3: Collected figures

Table 4: Frequency of test scores

Valid

Frequency Percent

Valid

Frequency Percent

28 29 30 31 32 46 57 58 60 61 62 63 64 72 74 75 76 77

1 1 1 1 2 1 1 2 2 2 1 2 3 1 1 1 7 2

81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98

1 7 5 10 10 6 10 12 7 6 3 7 4 9 4 3 2 2

0.6 % 0.6 % 0.6 % 0.6 % 1.3 % 0.6 % 0.6 % 1.3 % 1.3 % 1.3 % 0.6 % 1.3 % 1.9 % 0.6 % 0.6 % 0.6 % 4.5 % 1.3 %

0.6 % 4.5 % 3.2 % 6.4 % 6.4 % 3.8 % 6.4 % 7.7 % 4.5 % 3.8 % 1.9 % 4.5 % 2.6 % 5.8 % 2.6 % 1.9 % 1.3 % 1.3 %

Valid

Frequency Percent

Valid

Frequency Percent

78 79

8 4

99 100

2 2

5.1 % 2.6 %

1.3 % 1.3 %

Based on the above table, we have the following graph of distribution of the students’ scores: Graph 1: Distribution of 4th grade students’ test scores

The table has reflected the expected characteristics of the toolkit. The overall mean score of the students is over 82.29 out of a maximum of 100. This can be explained by the expectation that this toolkit is designed to identify students who perform poorly in 4th grade math, with the minimum requirements, so that at least 80% (the calculated figure is 81.8%) of the students can complete most of the exercises. Moreover, the arithmetic domain including: number formation and operation already accounts for 44/100 points of the scale; the remaining smaller scales have a certain minimum difficulty to ensure that it is possible for any regular 4th grade student in their second semester to solve them, and can only be a challenge for slow-learning students. The table of the score distribution of 4th grade students – Graph 1 has fundamentally conformed to the rules of normal distribution – this is an essential element in identifying slow-learning students in 4th grade. The results in Table 4 shows that the mean score of the students is M= 82.29 and the standard deviation is SD = 14.56. The specific results of the mean score and standard deviation of the domains are as follows:

Table 5: The mean score and standard deviation of each domain

Domains

Domain Total score Domain B Domain C Domain D Domain E A

Mean score (M)

MS= 82.29 MA = 9.69 MB= 29.29 MC = 10.14 MD = 26.47 ME= 6.69

Standard deviation (SD)

SDS =14.56 SDA =1.11 SDB =6.01 SDC =2.57 SDD =4.34 SDM=1.60

Therefore, if the total test score of a student is T, we can divide the level of mathematical ability of 4th grade students based on the distribution of the mean score MS and standard deviation SDS as follow: Table 6: Categorization of 4th grade students’ mathematical ability

Categories

Slow learners Type 1: Nondefinite knowledge in all areas

Non-slow learners

Type 2: Non-definite knowledge in some areas

Basic knowledge of mathematics, meeting requirements in the standard of 4th grade math

Firm basis in math

Boundary

T  M S  2SDS M S  2SDS  T  M S  SDS M s  SDs  T  M s  SDsT  M s  SDs

Corresponding score

T< 53,17

53,17  T  67,73

67,73  T  96,85

T  96,85

Based on the above categorization, Cao Mai elementary school does not have any type 1 slow-learning students. However, if we consider more criteria of domains A and B, and call TA, TB the total scores which students gained from domains A and B, with the same categorizing way as above, which means Table 7: Categorizing slow learners according to three criteria

Criteria

Slow learners Type 1

Slow learners Type 2

Total score of the Formula survey Correspondent score

T  M S  2SDS

M S  2SDS  T  M S  SDS

T < 53,17

53,17  T  67,73

Score of domain A

TA  M A  2SDA

M A  2SDA  TA  M A  SDA

TA < 7,47

7, 47  TA  8,58

Formula Correspondent

score Score of domain B

Formula Correspondent score

TB  M B  2SDB

M B  2SDB  TB  M B  SDB

TB < 17,27

17, 27  TB  23, 28

So the rate of slow learners between schools is distributed as follows:

Table 8: Proportion of different student groups in chosen schools

Cao Mai primary school Tu Xa 2 primary school Linh Thong primary school And the rate (Slow learners Type 1: Slow learners Type 2: Non-slow learners) in the whole is (4%:8%:88%). This result also corresponds to Newman’s error analysis (1977) (Newman, M. A, (1977). Therefore, use the above system of exercises and consider domains using the three criteria: 1. The total score of the survey, 2. Score of domain A, 3. Score of domain A with the determination according to the formula of Table 7, we can determine and categorize students bad at math in 4th grade Mathematics Subject in Vietnam more properly. Example: The following table is the test results of a student (Ngo, D. Bang) from Tu Xa 2 elementary school – Lam Thao district – Phu Tho province. This student has the total test score T= 28/100 points, Domain A = 4/10 points, Domain B = 8/34 points. According to the above criteria, this student is a Type 1 slow learner, whose common mistakes have been depicted as follow

Table 9: Analyzing the mistakes in a studentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s test

Item

A. Recognizing numbers and their meanings

B. Using arithmetic algorithms to calculate

Maxi mum score

Resu lt

Common mistakes

A1 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Reading and writing numbers

Mistakes due to lack of knowledge of the composition of numbers with more than 3 digits

A2- Comparing and arranging numbers

Mistakes due to inability to compare fractions as well as multi-digit numbers

B1-Addition skills

Mistakes when adding multi-digit numbers with multiple carryings; not remembering the rule of adding fractions with unlike denominators

B2- Subtraction skills

Mistakes when subtracting with carryings; not remembering the rule of subtracting fractions with unlike denominators

B3Multiplication skills

Mistakes due to not remembering the multiplication table, not having any multiplication skill

B4- Division skills

Mistakes due to not remembering the division table, not having any division skill

Mistakes due to not remembering the formula for area, the parallelism and perpendicularity of two straight lines, inability to differentiate basic types of angles.

D1- Mass

Mistakes due to unfamiliarity to conversion of units of mass

D2- Time

Mistakes due to unfamiliarity to conversion of units of time

D3- Length

Mistakes due to unfamiliarity to conversion of units of length

C. Geometry

D. Units of measurement

D4- Area

Problem solving

Total

Mistakes due to unfamiliarity to conversion of units of area

Mistakes right from the process of analyzing, summarizing and determining the problem lead to inability to use the correct algorithm and inability to give appropriate answers

100

Assessment of the student’s mathematical ability: Current mathematical ability is equal to that of a 1st grade student. This student lacks the knowledge right from the understanding of numbers and basic calculations, resulting in consecutive difficulties in acquiring mathematical knowledge. he solution to the case of student Ngo D. Bang: Math teacher had to tutor Ngo individually to fulfill the lacking knowledge in math for him, cut down general assignments in class, and give him individually suitable duties. Besides, the math teacher had more regular cooperation with the parents in instructing the students to review the lessons at home, as well as asked a group of better students to help him study math.

5. Conclusion As mentioned in the introduction, there are many methods of identifying slow learners. However, not only does this method of using an exercise system categorize slow learners in terms of their cognitive abilities, but it can also identify the difficulties, mistakes and gaps in the students’ knowledge. These are essential for a more effective orientation towards aiding slow learners.

References Brennan, W.-K. (1974). Shaping the education of slow learners. Routledge & Kegan Paul London and Boston. Curtis, K., & Shaver, J.P. (1980). Slow Learners and the Study of Contemporary Problems, Social Education, 44 (4), pp. 302-38. April. Do, D. H., Do, T. D., Dao, T. L., & Do, T. H (2015). Mathematics 1, Vietnam Education Publishing House, Hanoi. Do, D. H., Do, T. D., Dao, T. L., & Do, T. H (2015). Mathematics 2, Vietnam Education Publishing House, Hanoi. Do, D. H., Do, T. D., Dao, T. L., & Do, T. H (2015). Mathematics 3, Vietnam Education Publishing House, Hà Nội. Do, D. H., Do, T. D., Dao, T. L., & Do, T. H (2015). Mathematics 4, Vietnam Education Publishing House, Hanoi. Do, D. H., Do, T. D., Dao, T. L., & Do, T. H (2015). Mathematics 5, Vietnam Education Publishing House, Hà Nội. Don Eastmead, M. D., & Drew Eastmead (2004). What is a Slow Learner? Neurology 7645 Wolf River Circle Germantown, TN 38138 Holec, H. (1981), Autonomy in Foreign Language Learning, Oxford Publishing House. Newman, M.-A. (1977). An analysis of sixth-grade pupils’ errors on written mathematical tasks. Victorian Institute for Educational Research Bulletin, 39, 31-43.

Nguyen, V. C., Le, T. N., & Phan, T. Q. (2002). The popular mistakes of solving problems, Vietnam Education Publishing House, Hanoi. Nguyen, V.-T. (2015). Assessment on the reliability of messurement. doi: http://ykhoa.net/baigiang/lamsangthongke/lstk10_danhgiadotincay.pdf MEHЧИHCKАЯ H. A. KАЛMЬLKOBАЗ. И. (1964), ПPOБЛEMЬL ПPEOДOЛEHИЯ HEYCПEBАEMOCTИ, HАPOДHOE OБPАЗOBАHИE, NO.4. Surabhi, V. (2013). Are you dealing with a slow learner? doi: http://www.thehealthsite.com/diseases-conditions/are-you-dealing-with-aslow-learner/ Reddy and Ramar (2006). Slow Learners their Psychology and Instruction. Discovery Publishing House. New Delhi. pp. 1-114. Sangeeta, C. (2011). Slow learners: Their psychology and Educational programmes, Zenith- International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research. Shaw, S., Crimes, D. & Bulman, J. (2005). Educating Slow Learners: Are the last, Best Hope for their Educational success?, The Charter schools Resource Juornal Tansley, A. E., & Guilford, R. (1962). The Education of Slow Learning Children. Routledge and Kagan Paul Ltd. London. Pp. 45-190. Tran, T.-T. (1997). Intellectual Development of elementary students , Technological and scientific theme by Ministry of Education and Training, Vietnam Institute of Educational Sciences, Hanoi. Vu, Q. C., Dao, T. L., Do, T. D., Tran, N. L, Nguyen, H. Q., & Le, N. S. (2005). Syllabus of elementary mathematical teaching method, primary school education college traning textbook, Vietnam Education Publishing House, Hanoi. Yusha’U, M.-A. (2012). Teaching slow learners in Mathematics: Yugal Remediation Model as alternative method, Springer International Publishing Switzerland.

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 14, No. 2, pp. 87-98, December 2015

Continuous Collective Development as a Road to Success in Primary School Heidi Holmen and Kitt Lyngsnes Nord-Trøndelag University College Levanger, Norway

Abstract. In most countries today, schools are required to conduct comprehensive testing and assessment. In Norway, national tests in the fifth, eighth, and ninth grades evaluate basic skills in reading, numeracy, and English. This article presents a qualitative study of schools that have over time performed well on national tests and for whom results cannot be explained by the socio-economic profile in the school context. Interviews were conducted with teachers and administrators in four of these schools. The purpose of this study is to present these schools‟ own explanations and reflections about why they have performed well on these tests over time. The results show that the following issues emerged as central themes: collective understanding, the importance of school leadership, stability and long-term goals, and focus on reading. These are discussed from the point of view of theory of school development. Keywords: Teaching; school leadership; collective knowledge development

Introduction In today‟s school, there is a strong focus on quality and results. In Norway, both politicians and the media have focused on the basic skills that received a lot of attention after the ”PISA – shock” in 2001, which showed Norwegian 15 year-olds, expected to rank among the best, as only average in reading and science when compared to other countries in the OECD region (Haug, 2012). In order to improve the quality of Norwegian schools, a national quality assessment system was introduced in 2004 which included national testing in grade five, eight and nine of three basic skills areas; reading, numeracy, and English. Research connected to national testing has shown that test results, as well as marks in general, can be connected to a pupils‟ socio-economic © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

status (Grøgaard, Helland & Lauglo, 2011; Huang, 2009). However, pupils‟ learning and school performance are also connected to the teaching they receive and the learning situations they experience. In other words, it is the learning environment of each individual school that has the greatest impact (Day, Stobart, Sammons & Kington, 2006: Hattie, 2009). This is one factor explains why some schools can get good results on national tests despite the fact that parents‟ socio-economic status would suggest otherwise. When these schools continue over time to get high results on national tests, the explanation could be that they have created an environment that is conducive to good learning for a diverse pupil population, or that they are „teaching to the test‟. Since the goal of national testing is to improve the quality of schools, it is important to gain more insight into attitudes towards tests as well as the work that goes into preparing for them in the schools. It is particularly interesting to understand what characterizes particular practices in the schools that repeatedly get good results. The study referred to in this article is part of a larger study, funded by the Norwegian Research Council, of schools that have received good national test results (Langfeldt, 2015; Lyngsnes & Vestheim, 2015). This article addresses the question: „How do teachers and school leaders explain continuous high results on national tests at their school?‟ As the research question reflects, the purpose of the study was to shed light on the perspectives of teachers and school leaders as to why their schools continually achieve good results on national tests. The findings will have impact as a reflection tool (Gudmundsdottir, 1997, 2001) for those who are concerned with and involved in training and for others who wish to improve their own teaching practice and develop learning outcomes for their pupils.

Theoretical background Our objective in this article is to explore how teachers and school leaders explain their schools‟ good results, and their perspectives and reflections are therefore central. This study is located within a constructivist paradigm (Postholm, 2010) in which individuals are active and responsible participants, knowledge is in a constant state of improvement and change, and understanding and opinions are created through interactions with each other. Words and phrases are interpreted differently depending on the contexts people find themselves in and the environment in which they live also has an impact on perceptions and understandings. It can therefore be said that people living in similar environments and in the same context will more or less interpret things in a similar way (Postholm, 2010). Teaching traditionally has been seen as the responsibility of each individual teacher, and something he or she does alone. Today we have a widespread understanding that collaboration between teachers and teamwork leads toward development and change in a school. When © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

teachers work together, exchange experiences, for example about pupils‟ work plans or teaching materials, the knowledge and skills of the entire teaching team improves. These colleague-based interactions are part of professional development. When teachers work together to improve the daily learning environment, this collective learning process also stimulates further reflection and the development of skills, which in turn helps influence and improve teaching in the classroom (Jenssen & Roald, 2012). In accordance with this, Hargreaves and Fullan (2012) describe how high performing schools are those in which a professional group as a collective is growing. They claim that in school development the professional capital of the teachers needs to be developed. The essence of professional capital is, according to Hargreaves and Fullan (2012, p. 76): “[…] capability and commitment that are constantly developed, applied, and refined with colleagues within the school and beyond it”. Irgens (2010) also argues that quality in a school is not just a result of what each individual teacher does on their own, but also what teachers do as a group of teachers together. He says that this collective dimension is of great importance for a number of factors, including pupils‟ learning outcomes. A survey conducted by Dahl, Klewen, and Skov (2003, in Irgens 2010, p. 134) supports this argument, concluding that schools that work collectively support the individual in such a way that it has a positive impact on the pupils. According to Irgens (2010) a fundamental question is how schools can achieve a balance between individual and collective performance, daily operations in the school, and development. He has developed a model called „the Development Wheel‟ for a school in movement that can be used to facilitate an analytical and practical look at a school‟s challenges and position in areas of tension. Figure 1. Development Wheel (Irgens, 2010, p 136)

This model is based on the tension between operations and The Collective

Collective group assignments

(1) Information exchange Coordination meetings Information meetings

(2) Develop common goals Find solutions and routines together Group planning, evaluation, and development

Collective development

Development

Operations environment

(3) (4) Make own work Individual more effective teaching Personal Correcting/ Individual work pedagogic and evaluations © 2015 Theassignments authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. professional preparation development

The Individual

Individual development

development, that is, between the daily work that is carried out in a school and the more long-term growth and development of the school‟s organisation and practice. The other main dimension in the model is between individual and collective work. This type of model is, according to Irgens (2010, p. 136), a gross simplification. However, it illustrates that a school should be in all the sectors of the model, something that will challenge both the teacher‟s personal identity and the role of the school leaders. If the tasks in section one are prioritized, that will mean that the responsibility to create good teaching as well as a good teaching environment is in the hands of the individual. In section two teachers have the opportunity to work on their own development. However, as this is focused on the individual, it isn‟t conducive to creating a good learning environment that is focused on work as a team that establishes procedures and rules. Irgens (2010) argues that to create a good school, one needs good teachers who have competence in all four sections and school leaders who are able to facilitate and monitor teachers‟ work outside their individual classrooms. Robinson‟s work (2011) supports this concept. She writes that teachers in professional teaching partnerships not only feel commitment to and responsibility for their own teaching and pupils, but also for the training of all the pupils in the entire school. The leadership plays a key role in facilitating this process. Robinson points out that leadership has many dimensions that overlap each other, affecting pupils‟ learning. She concludes that the more leaders focus their work on developing teaching and learning, the greater impact they will have on pupils‟ learning outcomes. In summary, Robinson‟s research and Irgens‟ model show the importance of both school leaders who focus on teaching and learning, and a school that balances individual and collective development. Irgens' (2010) model captures these dimensions, and we will therefore use it to discuss our results.

Method Based on the research question, we made a strategic choice to focus on schools with a few special characteristics (Patton, 1990), namely those who had high scores on national tests but were not in areas with a high socio-economic profile. Four primary schools in three different provinces that fit the criteria were selected. Schools will be referred to here as school A, B, C, and D. All the schools were of medium size in a Norwegian context with 200-300 pupils. Data consists of group interviews with teacher teams in lower primary, upper primary, and lower secondary schools respectively, nineteen teachers altogether. Interviews were also conducted with the four headmasters. To capture their points of view and their reflections, we © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

chose to conduct qualitative semi-structured interviews (Kvale & Brinkmann, 2009). The interview guide was partially structured with most interview topics determined in advance, but room was allowed for changes and additions. The interview guide focused primarily on thoughts about teaching and learning, teamwork between teachers, school development, leadership, and adaptive teaching. School administrators and teachers were interviewed on the same themes. Data was transcribed and analysed with the use of the constant comparative analysis method (Corbin & Strauss, 2008). This involved first open coding, reviewing all the material from each school and extracting all statements that dealt with reflections on or reasons for the schoolsâ&#x20AC;&#x; good results; these were then sorted into teacher and leader statements. In the axial coding stage, these statements were processed and compared to each other, and a pattern emerged. This formed the basis for selective coding which identified the main themes in the data; collective understanding, the importance of school leadership, stability and long-term goals, and focus on reading. Qualitative studies are interpretative research that is unique and contextual (Bryman & Bell, 2011). Schoefield (2007) points out the significance of studying cases that are considered to be good or ideal, as in high achieving schools. Findings from such studies will have an impact well beyond their own context, as analysis and interpretation of these schools can have an impact on others who are concerned with and involved in training. The text represents, therefore, experiences that can be used as a reflection tool (Gudmundsdottir, 1997, 2001) for others who wish to contribute to and improve their own teaching practice. The trustworthiness of the study was ensured by triangulation in different forms (Silverman, 2000). All interviews were conducted by two researchers, and school administrators and teachers were interviewed on the same topic. Thus, the topics were illuminated from different perspectives. Furthermore, the data was analysed and categorised by each of the researchers individually, before being discussed and given its eventual name.

Results Collective understanding Analysis of the data concluded that cooperation and the sharing of experiences, as well as reflection in a professional community, were prominent explanations for good test results. The headmaster in school A commented that the teachers working closely together in teams was important. They also have dedicated time each week for development work, and often have this as part of their plenary at school. Reflections from teachers at this school say the same thing. One teacher reflecting on good results says: ÂŠ 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

It has something to do with working as a team. In one subject we have at least two-three people who are responsible for teaching reading and writing, and therefore the pupils are exposed to many different perspectives […] We are not alone, we are many, and so we have the opportunity to also observe each other. We divide responsibilities and discuss them. We don‟t keep what we think and do to ourselves; we share these things with each other. These teachers feel that talking about their subjects on a regular basis, discussing and dividing teaching assignments, as well as often observing each other‟s teaching, are significant, help them feel safer with each other, and develop a spirit of cooperation. One teacher comments: “It isn‟t looked down upon here to ask for advice. You share all the time. This is a „we-school‟. This is our school and these are our pupils.” This underlines the comments of another teacher, who also emphasised the importance of reflection: “It is about reflection all the way. This is a culture in which we ask each other, borrow from each other and share”. This collective way of thinking is also reflected in the comments from the headmaster of school B. He thinks it is important that they all work together towards a common understanding. In his opinion, the fact that they have been good at sharing experiences, expertise, and questioning why things are done a certain way is also significant. In reflecting on factors that could impair or hinder improvement in their school, both the headmaster and the teachers tell that the biggest limitation was not having enough group time for joint cooperation and collaboration. Because of this, they increased the number of hours allocated for meetings and teamwork each week. The headmaster emphasises that they want to be known as a good school, and so in his opinion it is important to focus on the school as a whole and not on each individual teacher, “because we can never all be good at the same things, but together we can be good at everything”. Teachers at this school also feel that teamwork and a good division of teaching responsibilities is the key, and that one reaps great benefits when colleagues have advanced to the point that they have a common perspective and similar approaches to teaching. “You don‟t have your private lesson plans, you don‟t work in a vacuum and I think that is good for our pupils,” one teacher remarks. “If we are going to be a dynamic and learning-rich organization we must constantly evaluate what we are doing”, says the headmaster from school C. As part of meeting this objective, this school has weekly reflection groups where dialogue between teachers is given priority. He feels listening to each other and reflecting together about classroom practice is central. The teachers talk about the importance of being challenged to analyse and reflect upon their own practice and set new goals. In addition, they feel that having two teachers connected to each class, and working as a team could be one of the reasons their school has had high national test scores for many years. Even though they

each have their own individual ways of working, these teachers acknowledge that their underlying foundation is the same. This same ideology is echoed in the reflections of the headmaster at school D. He says, “We work as a team, planning and reflecting together”. He believes that when you share experiences and reflect on the experiences together you gain new understandings and insights, and that is characteristic of his school as an organization. Teachers at this school also comment that the entire staff is trained and involved in the development process, and in that way form a common way of thinking for the future. In addition, they train each other, recognizing there is a great deal of experience to share within the staff itself. They do not always need to find it elsewhere, they say, because they can share their own competence and skills within their own work environment. They point out that they are also encouraged to reflect on things they have done, and they need to justify their own practices and decisions. ”It is always about reflection”, one teacher comments. The importance of school leadership The importance of school leadership in determining how a school functions is mentioned by teachers from each school. The headmaster from school A says that she prioritizes time for what she calls „pedagogical leadership‟. She believes that one of her primary responsibilities as the school leader is to build the culture, something confirmed by the teachers who say the headmaster is of great importance for getting good results. They emphasise that the headmaster both „nudges us towards the academic‟ and that she has been effective at building a high-quality working environment. Schools B and C also link good results to good leadership. Teachers at school B highlight that the connection between teachers and headmaster is important. They work together towards common goals that enrich and empower both parties. Teachers in school C also say that they have good and straight-forward leadership that has clear expectations and demands for them. The importance of school leadership as a builder of internal culture is supported in the following statement: “I have to brag about the leadership – there has been a focus that here we will have a common culture where we work together throughout the entire school and that has been incorporated for a long, long time.” In school D the teachers recognise the importance of school leadership and a long-range development plan. They point out that the headmaster has made it a priority that the entire school staff will have development opportunities, and that things must then be implemented. “If you will go in a forward direction, it is important that everyone knows what is happening and is a part of it.” Teachers at this school also say that it is important that they have a headmaster who follows up and asks questions. One teacher said: “It is she, our leader, who is

always insisting that when we have learned something new we need to use it in our teaching, and to share it, so the learning is not wasted. Then all can benefit.” Stability and long-term goals There is also a common thread among the responses from the schools that everything they do is for the long-term, and they are more concerned with creating a stable school environment than following the latest trends. “You just have to do some things because that is what you are required to do, but other things you can skip. We do things because we think they are important, because we have discussed them,” says the headmaster at school A. The headmaster at school B says much the same, emphasizing that teachers at his school are willing to try new things, even though they aren‟t always the first to jump on new ideas. He emphasises that they think through what they do, keeping what works and reflecting over what to take with them into the future and what they will set aside. This way of thinking is confirmed by the teachers: We don‟t hop on some of these trends before we are certain they will improve the system we already have. So we are not concerned with being the first ones out with something new, but we are not outdated because of that. We get good results because of the work we do and have done over many years. The significance of long-term work is emphasised again in an interview with the leadership at school C where they work towards long-term goals, thinking about the bigger picture and what brings the best learning outcomes. Teachers at this school also feel they are good at finding outside ideas without feeling like they have to try everything. Stability and having clear priorities are significant, but it is also essential to have a stable group of teachers. The headmaster at school D also emphasises that systematic work over time is essential to get good results and says: “I think stability and development over time are important.” Focus on reading The last common theme we have identified is that the school leaders and teachers in all the schools believe that focus on reading is an important reason for their good results. School A teachers report that they have worked hard with reading, and that they have a plan for teaching reading, but that they don‟t have a common method. The headmaster at school B reports that they have prioritized reading development as an area of focus for many years. They had previously had a narrow view on reading, focusing primarily on beginning readers. Now they have a plan for reading development for pupils in grades 1-10, believing that reading in all subjects is the responsibility of all the teachers. The headmaster comments, “One could say, therefore, that the national tests have given us a better focus on what the basic © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

skills are.” Teachers at school B also say that there has been a significant focus on reading, reading skills, and reading comprehension, and that everyone is required to be up-to-date on all the latest reading research. They involve parents and have a very systematic plan for following up on reading homework. They use time for reading in parent meetings, explaining to the parents why reading is important. School C has primarily focused on beginning readers, and has developed what they feel is a good reading concept for grades 1-4. The importance of reading skills is emphasised in school D, and all the teachers have had training in teaching reading. This school has also been involved in a national initiative for using the school library as a resource. The headmaster explains this great reading initiative was a response to previously not being good enough to read in all subjects and points out that as a result they have prioritized training and development for the entire teaching staff. However, he stresses that they are not guided by getting good results on national tests, but instead that pupils will learn.

Discussion The four schools presented here share common practices that might explain their good results on national tests. The first is about classroom teaching. A two-teacher system, observation, and the sharing of knowledge and experience is a natural part of daily approach to teaching. If we compare our results with Irgens' model, we see that the practice he has placed in sector one, individual work assignments, also has a collective dimension at these schools. No one mentioned that individual job performance or a competent “private practice” teacher was a reason for their good results. We also found the collective dimension along with the development dimension in sector two. Teachers at these schools were involved with both pedagogical and professional development through their teams and cooperative relationships. Teachers commented that they worked tightly together in teams, had group planning and evaluating sessions about their teaching, were present in each other‟s classrooms, and shared teaching responsibilities. This ongoing, daily sharing of ideas and knowledge, as well as transparency and open and honest discussions about each other‟s practice, were apparent in their comments. Additional training in the form of continuing education in many of the schools was prioritized for the entire teaching team and not just for individual teachers. A typical model for continuing education in the schools fits into sector 2 of Irgens‟ model. In the schools in this study, there is also room for individual development, but for the most part in a collective framework. Professional development in both subject matter and pedagogical approaches is primarily found in sector four, as in schools where all teachers receive continuing education in

reading. This then creates a group framework and way of thinking that creates a school focused on what is best for pupils‟ learning. Teachers and school leaders comment on the sharing of knowledge, reflection, and a joint long-term educational plan that can be placed in sector four of Irgens‟ model. Allowing room for collective development is important for these schools. They emphasised the growth opportunities within the school, feeling that they affected all aspects of their own teaching practice. These schools demonstrate many aspects of what Hargreaves and Fullan (2012) describe as professional capital in which the teachers‟ collective capacity and commitment are applied and refined, leading towards continual growth. It appears that these schools, in the way that they have presented themselves, have developed a “we-culture” in which they are participants in a professional learning community that considers not only their commitment to and responsibilities for their own classrooms, but for all the students in the school. It is apparent that these schools fulfil many of the requirements for a collective oriented school, characterized by extensive teacher cooperation, shared values and visions, collective responsibility for student learning, reflection, individual and group learning, and shared leadership (Robinson, 2011). School leaders at these schools are pedagogical leaders. According to Robinson (2011) pedagogical leaders, leaders who focus on teaching and learning will, in turn, have a direct impact on pupils‟ learning outcomes. This has also been emphasised by the teachers in this study that school leadership is important for the good results the pupils at their schools have. They stress that it is the leadership that creates a safe climate, where everyone feels that they are free to share experiences and reflections.

Conclusion Based on the perspectives and reflections from teachers and school leaders in this study, we can conclude that these schools achieve good results on national tests over time because they have developed a collective reflective practice that promotes pupils learning. They do not achieve these results because they „teach to the test‟. The findings from this study are based on results from interviews with four headmasters and nineteen teachers at four schools. The findings are thus related to a few people in a Norwegian school context. Our results can still have significance in that they can provide insight and provide a tool for reflection and development of one‟s own practice. The results of this study correlate well with other research in schools with good results. This includes the school administrator's importance for teachers 'professional development, and hence students' learning in

school (Hallinger, 2005, Hargreaves & Fullan, 2012, Irgens, 2010, Robinson, 2011). Our small-scale study raises new questions for further research. It would be interesting to do observational studies, where we could go into detail about how teachers work with pupils in in the classrooms, and how they reflect and share knowledge within the team.

References Bryman, A. & Bell, E. (2011). Business research methods. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Corbin, J. & Strauss, A. (2008). Basics of qualitative research: techniques and procedures for developing grounded theory. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Day, C., Stobart, G., Sammons, P. & Kington, A. (2006). Variations in the work and lives of teachers: relative and relational effectiveness. Teachers and Teaching 12(2), 169-192. Grøgaard, J., Helland, H., & Lauglo, J. (2008). Elevenes læringsutbytte: Hvor stor betydning har skolen? [Pupils’ learning outcomes: How significant is the school?] Oslo: NIFU. Gudmundsdottir, S. (1997). Introduction to the theme issue of narrative perspectives on research on teaching and teacher education. Teaching and Teacher Education, 13(1), 1-3. Gudmundsdottir, S. (2001). Narrative research in school practice. I V. Richardson (Ed.), Fourth Handbook for Research on Teaching, (pp. 226240). New York: Macmillan. Hallinger, P. (2005). Instructional leadership and the school principal: A Passing Fancy that Refuses to Fade Away. Leadership and Policy in Schools 4(3), 221 - 239 Hargreaves, A. & Fullan, M. (2012). Professional Capital. Transforming Teaching in Every School. New York: Teachers College Press. Hattie, J. (2009). Visible learning: synthesis of over 801 meta-analyses relating to achievement. London: Routledge. Haug, P. (2012). Elementer fra skolens historie [Elements from school history]. I M.B. Postholm, P. Haug, E. Munthe & R. Krumsvik (Eds.), Lærere I skolen som organisasjon [Teachers in the school as an organization] (pp. 2346). Kristiansand: Cappelen Damm Høyskoleforlaget. Huang, L. (2009). Social capital and student achievement in Norwegian secondary schools. Learning and Individual Differences 19(2), 320-325. Doi: dx.doi.org./10.1016/j.lindif.2008.11.004 Irgens, E.J. (2010). Rom for arbeid: lederen som konstruktør av den gode skole [Space to work: the administrator as a constructor of the good school]. I R.A. Andreassen, E.J. Irgens & E.M. Skaalvik (Eds), Kompetent skoleledelse [Competent School Management], (pp.125-145). Trondheim: Tapir Akademisk forlag. Jenssen, E.S & Roald, K. (2012). Skolen som organisasjon og arbeidsfellesskap [The school as an organization and work community]. In M.B. Postholm, P. Haug, E. Munthe & R. Krumsvik (Eds.), Lærere I skolen som organisasjon [Teachers in the school as an organization], (pp. 119-135). Kristiansand: Cappelen Damm Høyskoleforlaget. Kvale, S., & Brinkmann, S. (2009). Interviews. Learning the craft of qualitative research interviewing. Los Angeles: SAGE.

Langfeldt, G.(Ed.) (2015). Skolens kvalitet skapes lokalt. [The schools quality is created locally. Presentation of findings from the research project "Learning regions"]. Bergen: Fagbokforlaget. Lyngsnes, K. & Vestheim, O.P. (2015). «Derfor lykkes vi». En kvalitativ studie av skoler som over tid har hatt gode resultater på nasjonale prøver. ["Therefore we succeed". A qualitative study of school with good results over time in national tests]. I G. Langfeldt (Ed.), Skolens kvalitet skapes lokalt. [The school's quality is created locally. Presentation of findings from the research project "Learning regions"], (pp. 271-285). Bergen: Fagbokforlaget. Patton, M.Q. (1990). Qualitative evaluation and research methods. Newbury Park: Sage. Postholm, M.B. (2010). Kvalitativ metode. En innføring med focus på fenomenologi, etnografi og kasusstudier. [Qualitative Methods. An introduction focusing on phenomenology, ethnography and case studies]. Oslo: Universitetsforlaget. Robinson, V. (2011). Student-centered leadership. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Schoefield, J.W. (2007). Increasing the generalizability of qualitative research. I M. Hammersley (Ed.), Educational research and evidence-based practice (pp. 181-203). London: Sage Publications. Silverman, D. (2000). Doing qualitative research. London: SAGE.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 14, No. 2, pp. 111-130, December 2015

National Holidays in Greek Multicultural School: Vies of Pre- Service Teachers Mirsini Michalelis Kindergarten teacher, Postgraduate Student Kostis Tsioumis and Argyris Kyridis Professor, School of Early Childhood Education, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece Despina Papageridou Kindergarten teacher, M.Phil., School of Early Childhood Education, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece Elena Sotiropoulou Ph.D. student, School of Early Childhood Education, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece Abstract. In early childhood education pupils have the opportunity to come into first contact with the historical events and acquire the first historical knowledge. However, research has shown the existence of strong nationalist elements and the viewing of the nation as a homogeneous entity and an unchanged Hellenism. The Greek educational system does not take into account the cultural background of students coming from other countries. This issue is the reason for conducting this survey, which studied the views of prospective teachers on national celebrations, namely their role and content. Their views on speeches, on the reproduction of national identity, on national and political education and the institution of parades in the context of the multicultural school are also explored. The issue of research considers that prospective teachers agree with the conduct of national celebrations in multicultural schools, but in a way that should include other cultural groups as well. The survey was conducted in spring of 2014, using a questionnaire with sixty close questions. The sample of research consists of 120 students of the departments of primary and pre-school education in the Faculties of Education in Thessaloniki and Alexandroupoli and the department of Early Childhood education in Thessaloniki (A.T.E.I.). According to the research results, the celebration of national holidays in schools should not be abolished as national holidays contribute to pupils learning about the history of the country and maintain historical memory. What should be done, however, is to change the way national holidays are presented in schools and the specific values they promote to pupils. Key words: National Holidays, multiculturalism, teachers

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Introduction Celebrations are important events in the school life of the kindergarten, as there is a multitude of standard or non standard ones. At the same time, they can be of significant educational importance, since ÂŤthe value of celebration of important events and their dates is found both in the concepts, information and messages we can pass to children, and the benefits they derive from their participation in preparing and implementing themÂť as Birbili & Kamberi point out (2007:153). However, recordings from kindergartens reveal that, the way celebrations are mostly held make children anxious, because they upset their "routine", engage them in activities that are not consistent with their capabilities, oblige them to spend time in standardized, identical constructions, provide incorrect or inaccurate historical and cultural information and make it difficult for children and parents, who do not wish to participate for social or religious reasons. This situation raises questions about the views and attitudes of teachers on issues concerning the choice as well as the organization of celebrations realized in the modern, multicultural kindergarten. The teacher is the one who selects and determines not only which holidays will be celebrated in the classroom or in the kindergarten, but also their place in the daily schedule, the degree of participation and the role of children and parents to them and the knowledge and messages that will pass to children (Birbili, Kamberi, 2007). In Greece, the national holidays, which are considered the most important and are celebrated with solemnity in schools of all levels, are March 25, 1821 and October 28, 1940. The first one was established as a national holiday by the Royal Decree of 1838, which put forward two reasons, the "independence struggle of the Greek nation" and the "feast of the Annunciation", as highlighted by Koulouris (1995) and Asdrachas (1995). Their presence is therefore recorded in Greek education mainly in the early 20th century (Bonidis, 2004, 2008). The decorative material used on national holidays and the general style of national holidays, such as ritual and content of texts, have both been the subjects of research in Greek schools (Bonidis, 2004.2008, Halaris, 2005). Moreover Golia (2006) dealt with the national holidays at schools at doctoral level. Research results from these few studies on Greek national holidays, reveal the strong presence of nationalistic elements and references. Specifically, the spirit that pervades the whole ritual of national holidays are festive speeches, dramatizations, reciting poems of nationalistic and patriotic character, wreaths deposit, parade accompanied by patriotic marches and aims to the eternal and undisturbed bond of participants with their ancestors and their initiation in a timeless ethnic group (Bonidis, 2004). At the same time, it is revealed that national holidays in Greece present the nation as a homogeneous entity, united and uninterrupted through time (Avdela 1998), i.e. the image of a homogeneous and unchangeable Hellenism is shown and the Greek nation is "made" as a biological entity (Fragoudaki , Dragona, 1997 Bonidis, 2004, 2008). Moreover, the nation's bond with Orthodoxy is observed, with frequent references to the role played by the church through its representatives mainly in the 1821 period. The influence, therefore, of nationalist ideology is clear on the organization, the subjects, the messages and generally the entire philosophy behind national holidays.

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Moreover, under the influence of nationalism, national holidays in Greece aim, in an indirect way however, to the forging of national identity (Avdela, 2001 Bonidis 2004, Golia, 2006), or its perpetuation and strengthening. Nationalism contributed to the making of national identity forming the official national word, of which the educational system is a key vehicle. Via these celebrations, which take place in schools, the sense of ethnically superior and fearless Greek warrior (Halaris, 2005) is reinforced compared to the ethnically inferior "other", unrighteous and evil, always threatening and lurking. In addition, school national celebrations aim to national and political education of pupils (Fragoudaki, Dragona, 1997, Golia, 2006), mainly through their ritual, formal part (Koulouri, 1995), but also to the cultivation of national pride, cohesion and unity (Lentz, 2013), as they carry ideologically charged messages that are "submitted" by the dominant socio-political group and its ideology and project specific standards of political behavior that must be followed by pupils as future citizens. Also, the status of teachers in the educational process dictates to some extent the role of vehicle of national education within the school (Avdela, 1997a: 34). Little room is left to teachers to differentiate the conduct of national education of their pupils, especially if, as in Greece, the centralized nature of education systems is strong in terms of pedagogical methods, assessment and determination of teaching content. On the other hand we cannot nominate teachers as docile providers of national education (Safran 2008, Avdela, 1997b: 50). "Teachers are not just executive bodies" (Avdela, 1997 a: 34); they have an opinion on all matters of education policy such as the curriculum, the contents of school knowledge, evaluation of students, the citizen standard formed by the school. So the question remains unanswered: how and to what extent teachers exercise the role of provider of the national education in everyday practice at school. The use of national symbols and ceremonies mainly aims at mobilizing the emotional ties and the reinforcement of the national sentiment of "belongingÂť (Becker-Lentz, 2013). Concerning parades held during national holidays, they transmit core values and principles of the state, while overwhelmed by symbols (Bonidis, 2004, Unlu, 2007, Golia, 2007). So the main features of parades are the following: they take place in a neuralgic point, in terms of city planning, where the national flag usually dominates. Students are dressed in traditional or student uniforms, soldiers march with characteristic military gait, while marches are heard from bands or loudspeakers. Comments are also heard from the speakers, and even the course of the parade itself takes symbolic significance for the state. According to Firth (Firth, 1973:81) the identification and clarification of the symbolic value of a ritual is not always something achievable, because symbols by nature allow room for interpretative maneuvers by those who use them. There is a close relationship of national holidays with management of history, as Kremmydas (2004) characteristically states, the anniversary celebration is a history lesson. In particular, national holidays refer to important events of a nation-state's history and thus revive glorious historical moments of its course over time (Lomsky-Feder 2011). Therefore, as Golia (2006) states, the celebration of national holidays helps to enhance historical education of students in the Greek educational system, as they focus on timeless values and historical

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events presented in such a way as to highlight their catalytic role in society. In kindergarten, a first approach of pupils to historical concepts takes place through national holidays (Kokkinos, 2002). However, these celebrations, like any kind of celebration, constitute a form of education and cultivate attitudes and behaviors, since they primarily transform experiences and actions into knowledge, contribute significantly to the development of social sentiment and social adaptation of toddlers, while aim at the same time to the spiritual, artistic and moral development of young pupils (Golia, 2006). However, social reality at international level has changed radically. The profile of Greek society differentiated significantly during the 1980s, following the influx of economic migrants from other countries mainly of the Balkan Peninsula, and the return of expatriates from the countries of the former eastern bloc states. A variety of definitions were used for the characterization and the subsequent integration of these people into cultural categories, with different however semiology, such as foreigners, migrants, repatriates, returneeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s expatriates, which aimed primarily at overstressing their deviation from what is defined as "normal "and socially acceptable as pointed out by Paleologou (2004). Within the new social context of changes and increased demands, the role of the teacher becomes of increased importance, especially when dealing with pupils on the subject of the national holidays school celebrations. However, the teacher cannot be considered politically and socially neutral, as he operates within an educational system that clearly fulfills a political act (Freire, 1977). Therefore, consciously or not, he chooses a political stance and participates in a political process. This political stance, based on which he interprets and then presents the national holiday school celebration in class, is the result of his own personal theory, experiences, his personal history and course, beliefs and perceptions on national state and his attitude towards the "other". At the same time, other factors affect him, such as social and political demands of the specific time period in which he belongs and lives (Stigler, Hiebert, 1998, Dimitriadou, 2004), his cultural background (Pine, Hillard, 1990), his views on the learning needs of pupils and the general professional training (Day, 1999). These personal beliefs and perceptions of the teacher, although often covered, are nevertheless powerful, as they determine every behavior and action and his teaching approach applied in class (Cummins, 2001). Following the above, the way celebrations are arranged in modern kindergarten turns the focus of research and hence of training, on the views and attitudes of teachers, as they seem to be those who, for the most part, decide which celebrations will be celebrated in class, apart from the established ones, their place in the daily program, the degree of participation and the role of children and parents in them and, finally, the knowledge and messages to be passed to children. Effort is often made to express broader messages (Poimenidou-Kakkana, 2012). Nonetheless, national celebrations in Greek school cannot be regarded as less useful and effective, but as a supplement of historical knowledge of pupils, as they focus on timeless values and aim to focus the pupils' attention on a "symbol" or event so as to enhance the social value, the importance and their role (Golia, Vamvakidou, Anastasiadou, Kyridis, 2007).

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Methodology of research - Research objectives The purpose of conducting this research is to investigate the perceptions of future primary school teachers on the celebration of national holidays in the multicultural school. The problematic of this study examines the views of prospective teachers on issues related to the formation of a national identity in the context of the class as according to research carried out, such as by "K. Bonidis" (2004, 2008), issues related to the decorative material and general style that dominates national celebrations have been explored and through the doctoral thesis of "P. Golia" (2006) on the issue of national holidays, the result has turned out to be the existence of strong nationalist elements and the projection of the nation as a homogeneous entity and an unchanged Hellenism (Mousiadou, 2014). Therefore, the research aims to study the values expressed by prospective teachers in order to investigate the problematic of integrating children belonging to minority groups.

Research assumptions Data collection means A questionnaire was used as a research tool in order to record the attitudes of prospective teachers towards the celebration of national holidays in the multicultural school. The questionnaire contained 8 questions on demographic data and 60 closed type, tiered scale questions, in which students had to indicate the degree of agreement with each question. For the rating of questions a regular five-point (1-5), Likert (1: Strongly disagree 2: Disagree. 3: Neither agree nor disagree, 4: agree, 5: I completely agree) type scale was used for accurate and reliable results. The questions concerned five thematic sections: "The role and content of school celebrations", "The anniversary speeches", "The reproduction of national identity", "The national and political education" and "The institution of parades". The quantitative method for data analysis was followed and the processing of responses was done with descriptive statistical analysis, using the statistical package IBM SPSS Statistics 22, for the questionnaires for prospective teachers. The questionnaire was weighted by measuring the reliability of values and the internal validity index of the instrument showed that Cronbach's Alpha reliability value is 0.847, which proves that a reliable set of questions on the questionnaire was used for the research. The survey was conducted during the academic year 2013-2014.

Research sample The sample of the research consisted of the responses of 120 undergraduate students of the departments of primary and pre-school education in the Faculties of Education in Thessaloniki and Alexandroupoli and the department of Early Childhood education in Thessaloniki (A.T.E.I.). The sample was selected randomly without prior stratification of subjects. The demographic characteristics of the subjects requested are the following: gender, occupation and education of parents, educational institution, faculty, residence and ideology.

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Table 1. Distribution of reports by gender. GENDER Frequency

Percent age

20 100 120

16,7 83,3 100,0

Men Woman Total

Table 2. Distribution of reports by occupation of fathers and mothers FATHER’S OCCUPATION Frequency Percent age Freelance professional– Scientist Public Servant Private sector employee Freelance professional– Technician Merchant Worker Farmer Total

6,7

36 29

30,0 24,2

18,3

8 4 13 120

6,7 3,3 10,8 100,0

Table 3. Distribution of reports by occupation of mothers.

MOTHER’S OCCUPATION Frequency Freelance professional– Scientist Public Servant Private sector employee Freelance professional– Technician Merchant Worker Farmer Housekeeping Total

Percent age

3,3

40 19

33,3 15,8

3,3

4 6 11 32 120

3,3 5,0 9,2 26,7 100,0

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Table 4. Distribution of reports by education of fathers.

FATHER’S EDUCATION Frequency Primary school High School Higher Technical education University graduate Postgraduate Total

Percent age

16 47 32

13,3 39,2 26,7

16,7

5 120

4,2 100,0

Table 5. Distribution of reports by education of mothers.

MOTHER’S EDUCATION Frequency Primary school High School Higher Technical education University graduate Postgraduate Total

Percent age

8 62 18

6,7 51,7 15,0

30 2 120

25,0 1,7 100,0

Table 6. Distribution of reports by educational institution.

EDUCATIONAL ESTABLISHMENT Frequency Percent age UNIVERSI TY TECHNOL OGICAL INSTITUT E Total

115

95,8

4,2

120

100,0

Table 7. Distribution of reports by place of residence.

Place of residence Athens - Thessaloniki Urban center Small town Rural area Total

Frequency

Percentage

66 22 22 10 120

55,0 18,3 18,3 8,3 100,0

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Table 8. Distribution of reports by faculty.

Faculty Early childhood Primary Education Total

Frequency

Percentage

87 33

72,5 27,5

120

100,0

Table 9. Distribution of reports by years of study.

Years of Study 2 nd 3o rd 4o rd and senior Total

Frequency

Percentage

4 21 95 120

3,3 17,5 79,2 100,0

Table 10. Distribution of reports by political ideology.

Ideology Frequency Extreme right Conservative Centre Left Extreme Left No answer Total

2 14 36 18 8 42 120

Percentage 1,7 11,7 30,0 15,0 6,7 35,0 100,0

Research Results The analysis of the responses of future kindergarten teachers resulted to the following tables. Table 2. Presentation of research results by question

No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

QUESTION Our national holidays help us realize how important the struggles of our ancestors were. National holidays cultivate historical awareness. On national holidays we celebrate the end of wars. National holidays help pupils realize the debt to their homeland. National holidays highlight eternal values. National holidays teach us past achievements. National holidays promote cooperativeness of pupils. Only our ancestors made history.

Mean 3.8667

S.D. .78786

3.7333 2.7750

.95031 1.17725

3.2000

1.19944

3.6667 3.7167 3.4250 1.9250

1.18345 .91838 1.00136 1.39725

119

9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38

National holidays contribute to shaping the pupil's personality. Our national holidays remind us the course of our nation. National holidays contribute to the consistency of the Greek nation. National holidays help pupils learn about the history of their homeland. National holidays highlight Greek virtues. The participation of pupils in school celebrations is obligatory. National holidays emphasize the relationship of Greeks with Orthodoxy. National holidays preserve the cultural heritage of our race. National holidays help pupils become responsible citizens. The parade is the highlight of the national holiday. Heroes are models for imitation by children National holidays strengthen the national morale. We ought to teach history objectively. National holidays strengthen patriotism. Our national holidays remind us the glorious past. National holidays teach the important events of Greek history. National holidays promote certain values among pupils. National holidays "build" national identities. The national holidays are a tribute to their heroes. National holidays help us avoid the mistakes of the past. National holidays contribute to the socialization of pupils. Parades generate sentiments of patriotism. On national holidays the pupils learn to respect their heroes. Parades are outdated. The national holidays are a necessary evil. National holidays are an opportunity for vacation. The festive decoration of national celebrations is outdated. National celebrations are an integral part of school life. The parades are simple demonstrations of pupil skills. National holidays contribute to the preservation of historical memory.

2.8250

1.06639

3.8167

.82994

3.4333

.99354

3.9500

.88735

3.0667

1.04305

2.4917

1.20221

3.0667

1.03496

3.6667

.91057

2.3250

1.01387

2.9667 3.1500 3.6333 4.5583 3.6500 3.7000

1.14447 1.00962 1.00363 .64555 .93170 .95794

3.7500

.89113

3.4000

.82401

3.2500

.94602

4.0250

.79349

2.4000

1.01584

2.9250

.96286

3.6667

.89192

3.3167

.96130

2.7333 2.0000 2.4500

1.19335 1.08465 1.13648

2.9000

1.03225

3.5667

1.05904

2.2083

1.22231

3.8833

1.07049

120

39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60

National holidays contribute to identity formation. National holidays serve political expediencies. The parades are performed simply out of habit National holidays teach history. National holidays raise pupils' morale. The parades are performed so that parents take pride of their children. National holidays anniversary speeches are outdated. The participation of pupils in the parade is mandatory. National celebrations contribute to the political education of pupils. National celebrations are entertaining. National celebrations are an opportunity for social activities. The celebration of national holidays at school should be abolished. The festive atmosphere on national holidays is symbolic. Parades should be abolished. It is the teacher's duty to deliver the festive speech of the day. The Polytechnic anniversary is a national holiday. Anniversary speeches reproduce ideology. Nowadays teachers no longer write anniversary speeches. National celebrations are repeated every year without differentiation. National celebrations contribute to the national education of pupils. Anniversary speeches are based on stereotype national perceptions. Anniversary speeches should be abolished.

3.0833 2.6667 2.9083 3.5333 2.7333

1.02558 1.01529 1.08462 1.01197 .98504

3.0000

1.00419

3.1333

.95207

2.5250

1.30907

2.5917

.86477

2.6000

.99071

3.1500

.85651

1.9333

1.14300

3.6000

.86384

1.9917

1.21265

2.6500

.85651

3.4333 3.2833

.94142 .91838

3.3250

.90899

3.7667

.92340

3.4000

.91118

3.0333

.95207

2.6667

.89192

Table 3. Distribution of sample responses depending on the degree of agreement 1= Strongly disagree, 2=disagree, 3=neither agree nor disagree, 4=agree, 5= I agree completely

N 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

1 1.7

2 3.3

3 18.3

4 60.0

5 16.7

1.7 14.2 9.2

11.7 30.0 24.2

16.7 30.0 15.8

51.7 15.8 39.2

18.3 10.0 11.7

10.0 1.7 3.3

3.3 10.0 13.3

21.7 20.0 35.0

40.0 51.7 34.2

25.0 16.7 14.2

121

8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39

Only our ancestors made history. National holidays contribute to shaping the pupil's personality. Our national holidays remind us the course of our nation. National holidays contribute to the consistency of the Greek nation. National holidays help pupils learn about the history of their homeland. National holidays highlight Greek virtues. The participation of pupils in school celebrations is obligatory. National holidays emphasize the relationship of Greeks with Orthodoxy. National holidays preserve the cultural heritage of our race. National holidays help pupils become responsible citizens. The parade is the highlight of the national holiday. Heroes are models for imitation by children National holidays strengthen the national morale. We ought to teach history objectively. National holidays strengthen patriotism. Our national holidays remind us the glorious past. National holidays teach the important events of Greek history. National holidays promote certain values among pupils. National holidays "build" national identities. The national holidays are a tribute to their heroes.

60.8 12.5

15.8 24.2

3.3 36.7

10.0 21.7

10.0 5.0

9.2

17.5

55.8

17.5

3.3

15.0

28.3

41.7

11.7

1.7

6.7

11.7

55.0

25.0

5.0 23.3

25.8 33.3

36.7 20.8

22.5 15.8

10.0 6.7

6.7

23.3

33.3

30.0

6.7

1.7

8.3

28.3

45.0

16.7

15.8

55.8

12.5

11.7

4.2

8.3 8.3 3.3 .8 3.3 1.7 1.7

30.0 10.8 10.0 0 5.0 11.7 6.7

30.0 46.7 25.0 3.3 31.7 20.0 25.0

20.0 25.8 43.3 34.2 43.3 48.3 48.3

11.7 8.3 18.3 61.7 16.7 18.3 18.3

5.0

3.3

41.7

46.7

3.3

5.0 0

13.3 3.3

40.0 20.0

35.0 47.5

6.7 29.2

National holidays help us avoid the mistakes of the past. National holidays contribute to the socialization of pupils. Parades generate sentiments of patriotism. On national holidays the pupils learn to respect their heroes. Parades are outdated. The national holidays are a necessary evil. National holidays are an opportunity for vacation. The festive decoration of national celebrations is outdated. National celebrations are an integral part of school life. The parades are simple demonstrations of pupil skills. National holidays contribute to the preservation of historical memory. National holidays contribute to identity formation.

14.2

50.0

24.2

5.0

6.7

7.5

25.0

37.5

27.5

2.5

3.3 5.0

4.2 11.7

29.2 38.3

49.2 36.7

14.2 8.3

22.5 41.7 26.7 10.0

15.0 30.0 25.0 23.3

34.2 18.3 26.7 38.3

23.3 6.7 20.0 23.3

5.0 3.3 1.7 5.0

8.3 36.7 6.7

5.0 30.0 5.0

21.7 14.2 8.3

51.7 14.2 53.3

13.3 5.0 26.7

7.5

21.7

30.0

36.7

4.2

122

40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60

National holidays serve political expediencies. The parades are performed simply out of habit National holidays teach history. National holidays raise pupils' morale. The parades are performed so that parents take pride of their children. National holidays anniversary speeches are outdated. The participation of pupils in the parade is mandatory. National celebrations contribute to the political education of pupils. National celebrations are entertaining. National celebrations are an opportunity for social activities. The celebration of national holidays at school should be abolished. The festive atmosphere on national holidays is symbolic. Parades should be abolished. It is the teacher's duty to deliver the festive speech of the day. The Polytechnic anniversary is a national holiday. Anniversary speeches reproduce ideology. Nowadays teachers no longer write anniversary speeches. National celebrations are repeated every year without differentiation. National celebrations contribute to the national education of pupils. Anniversary speeches are based on stereotype national perceptions. Anniversary speeches should be abolished.

12.5 15.0 3.3 10.8 7.5

32.5 15.0 15.0 28.3 22.5

34.2 37.5 20.0 41.7 37.5

17.5 29.2 48.3 15.0 27.5

3.3 3.3 13.3 4.2 5.0

5.0 20.0 10.8

18.3 45.8 33.3

40.8 10.0 41.7

30.0 10.0 14.2

5.8 14.2 0

16.7 4.2

26.7 17.5

36.7 37.5

20.0 40.8

0 0

48.3

26.7

11.7

10.0

3.3

10.0

35.0

40.0

15.0

47.5 8. 3

25.8 33.3

12.5 45.0

8.3 11.7

5.8 1.7

1.7 5.0 1.7

18.3 13.3 15.0

23.3 33.3 42.5

48.3 45.0 30.8

8.3 3.3 10.0

3.3

6.7

16.7

56.7

16.7

3.3

12.5

31.7

45.8

6.7

18.3

45.0

25.0

5.0

10.0

28.3

50.0

8.3

3.3

A particularly high degree of agreement is noted in the average value (4.5583) of the statement "we should teach history objectively", which proves that the largest percentage of students who answered consider that it is essential to teach history objectively. A remarkable 95.9% agrees with the specific statement, while only a 0.8% disagrees. Also the average value (4.0250) of statement "National holidays are a tribute to heroes" is significant as it is found that the majority of surveyed students consider national holidays as a means of pay tribute to heroes. A significant 76.7% agree with this statement, while only 3.3% disagree. Also, the answers of students to statements 1,5,6,10,11,12,13,15,22,23,24,25,28,42 and 51 present the significant role of school celebrations and their contribution to the promotion of knowledge of local history and to the teaching of the significant events of Greek history and the achievements of the past. Through their answers in statements 3,14,33,34,35,36,48,50,54 and 57

123

the content of national holidays is shown and the view that they are an integral part of school life and that they themselves seem to wish the continuation of their celebration in schools is derived. In addition, the answers of students to statements 7,9,17,21,29,40,43,47,49 and 58 reveal that even if they do not appear entirely confident on the contribution of national celebrations to promote socialization, political education and the formation of pupils' personality, most of them seem to consider that national celebrations contribute to national education of pupils and constitute an opportunity for social. Via the answers to statements 45,53,55,56,59 and 60, students support the reproduction of ideology through anniversary speeches, while in statements 18,30,32,37,41,44,46 and 52 their answers show that anniversary speeches cause feelings of patriotism and that they should be continued. With statements 2,4,8,16,19,20,26,27,31,38 and 39 students argue through their answers that national holidays contribute to the preservation of historical memory and cultural heritage of our race and to the formation and reproduction of national identity cultivating historical awareness, boosting the national morale and helping pupils realize the debt to their homeland.

Correlations results In order to draw conclusions eight independent variables, which constitute a number of factors from demographic data, were used in this research. These variables are: "Gender", "Father's Occupation", "Mother's Occupation", "Father's education", "Mother's Education," "Faculty", "Place of residence", "Ideology". Regarding the independent variable of "Gender" significant correlations were observed, of which male undergraduate students appear to be more positive about the role of national celebrations, as 80% of them believe that national celebrations promote eternal values (F = 5.040, df = 1, P <0.05) and 50% believe that national celebrations bring out the virtues of Greek (F = 5.341, df = 1, P <0.05). The corresponding percentages for females were 62% and 29%. Also on the views that national celebrations remind us of the glorious past (F = 5.496, df = 1, P <0.05) and that they are an integral part of school life (F = 5.174, df = 1, P <0.05), 85% and 75% of male students respectively agree and 63% of female students agree with both. Furthermore, 75% of women surveyed oppose the view that national celebrations help pupils become responsible citizens (F = 8.185, df = 1, P <0.05), while only 55% of men disagree. Also 90% of men and 72% of women disagree that celebration of national holidays at school must be abolished (F=3.523, df=1, P<0.05). Undergraduate students, whose fathers' occupation is merchant (62.5%), free-lance professional/technician (40.9%), free-lance professional/scientist (40%) and private sector employee (51.7%), seem to oppose the view that national celebrations contribute to the socialization of pupils (F=3.201 , df=6 , P<0.05), while 50% of students, whose fathers' occupation is worker do not believe that national celebrations contribute to shaping the pupil's (F=2.932, df=6 , P<0.05) and 51.7% of students, whose fathers are private sector employees disagree with the statement that national celebrations "build" national identities (F=2.512, df=6 , P<0.05). It is remarkable that all undergraduate students (100%), whose fathers' occupation is free-lance professional/scientist oppose the view

124

that parades are simple demonstrations of pupil skills (F=3.957, df=6 , P<0.05) and all students (100%) whose fathers' occupation is free-lance professional/technician disagree with the view that parades should be abolished (F=2.469, df=6 , P<0.05). Moreover, 50% of students whose fathers' occupation is merchant and worker do not believe that anniversary speeches reproduce ideology (F=4.402, df=6 , P<0.05). Moreover, regarding the variable of mother’s occupation, it is indicative that 84.3% of undergraduate students whose mothers’ occupation is private sector employee and 81.3% of undergraduate students whose mothers’ occupation is housewife believe that national holidays cultivate historical awareness (F=2.240 , df=7 , P<0.05) and 85% of students whose mothers’ occupation is public servant have the view that national holidays help pupils learn the history of their homeland (F=2.251 , df=7 , P<0.05). It is remarkable that 81.8% of undergraduate students whose mothers’ occupation is worker and 75% of undergraduate students whose mothers’ occupation is freelance professional/scientist believe the parades are outdated (F=3.130 , df=7 , P<0.05), while 75% of undergraduate students whose mothers’ occupation is merchant disagree with the view that national holidays are an opportunity for vacation (F=2.177 , df=7 , P<0.05) and 100% of undergraduate students whose mothers’ occupation is freelance professional/technician disagree with the view the national holidays serve political expediencies (F=2.429, df=7 , P<0.05). Concerning the father’s education, it is observed that undergraduate students whose fathers graduated primary school and higher technical education are more receptive to the contribution of national holidays towards pupils. In particular, 62.6% and 65.7% respectively, believe that national celebrations promote cooperativeness of pupils (F=2.640, df=4, P<0.05) and 68.8% and 65.6% respectively accepts the statement that national celebrations contribute to the national education of pupils (F=4.396, df=4, P<0.05). Additionally, the supportive role of national celebrations on the acquaintance of pupils with the history of their homeland (F=5.425, df=4, P<0.05) is accepted by large percentages of students regardless of their fathers’ education, expect for those whose fathers are university graduates, of which only 50% agree. The same applies to the contribution of national celebrations to the political education of pupils (F=5.913, df=4, P<0.05), on which only 5% of them agree. It is also found that students whose fathers graduated from primary (75%), secondary (65.9%), higher technical (75.1%) and postgraduate (100%) education consider national celebrations an integral part of school life (F = 8.277, df = 4, P <0.05), as opposed to those whose fathers are university graduates where only 30% agreed and only 40% of them consider it necessary to repeal the celebration of national holidays at school (F = 6.378, df = 4, P <0.05). Undergraduate students whose mothers graduated from secondary education (75.8%), higher technical education (83.3%) and universities (56.7%) support the view that national celebrations teach the important events of Greek history (F = 5.769, df = 4, P <0.05), while those whose mothers graduated from primary education (62.5% ) express a neutral attitude, and those whose mothers have acquired postgraduate degree (100%) also show a neutral attitude to the

125

view that national celebrations teach history (F = 5.312, df = 4, P <0.05) and disagree on the role of national celebrations in the preservation of historical memory (F=8.456, df=4 , P<0.05). Moreover, it seems that students with mothers higher technical education graduates (67.8%) claim that national festivals promote certain values among pupils (F = 7.228, df = 4, P <0.05) in contrast to those whose mothers are postgraduate education graduates (100%) who disagree with this view. Regarding the independent variable of the educational institution, 75.7% of undergraduate university students and 100% of higher technical institutions consider that the national celebrations contribute to the awareness of the significance of the struggles of ancestors (F = 4.659, df =1, P <0.05) and 79.1% and 100% respectively, consider that national celebrations help students learn the history of their homeland (F=4.946, df=1, P<0.05). According to the place of residence of undergraduate students 77.3% of those who live in a small town believe that national celebrations teach past achievements (F = 3,087, df = 3, P <0.05) and 81% of undergraduate students residing in Athens-Thessaloniki believe that national celebrations remind of the nation's course (F = 3.250, df = 3, P <0,05). Also, 72.7% of students who live in an urban center does not consider national holidays as a vacation opportunity (F = 5.334, df = 3, P <0.05) while 45% of students who live in a small town have a neutral stance. Regarding the independent variable, the ideology, 100% of undergraduate students falling ideologically in the extreme right, and 78.6% of students who are placed ideologically in the right disagree with the view that the institution of parades is obsolete (F = 4.478, df = 5, P <0.05), while 62.5% of students who belong to the extreme left is neutral. Also, 92.9% of students who are placed ideologically in the right are of the view that national celebrations preserve the cultural heritage of our race (F = 4.657, df = 5, P <0.05) while the same view expresses only 25% of those who fall ideologically in the extreme left. Also, 100% of students falling in the extreme right believe that only the ancestors made history (F = 4.187, df = 5, P <0.05) as opposed to 100% of students belonging to the extreme left who disagrees with this view. Also, 85.8% of undergraduate students belonging ideologically in the right believes that national celebrations help pupils realize the debt to their homeland (F = 2.436, df = 5, P <0.05) and 66.7% that national celebrations remind of the nation's course (F = 4.320, df = 5, P <0.05)..

Discussion The purpose of this research is to investigate the perceptions of future primary school teachers on the celebration of national holidays in the multicultural school. More specifically, it examines the views of prospective teachers on issues related to the formation of a national identity in the context of the class. The research aims to study the values expressed by prospective teachers in order to investigate the problem of integrating children belonging to minority groups. In order to capture the attitudes of prospective teachers towards the celebration of national holidays in the multicultural school, a questionnaire was used as a research tool, which contained eight questions of demographic data and 60 closed type, tiered scale questions, in which students had to indicate the degree of agreement with each question. The questionnaire was divided into five

126

thematic groups: "The role and content of school celebrations", "The anniversary speeches", "The reproduction of national identity", "The national and political education" and "The institution of parades". According to the research results in the first thematic group, which referred to the role and content of school celebrations, it was revealed that the perceptions of students display a positive attitude towards the celebration of national holidays at school. From studying their answers on the role and content of school celebrations, it is found that national holidays should continue to be celebrated at school (48.3%), as they are of symbolic character (40%) and contribute to the awareness of the importance of ancestors' struggles (60%). According to the views of the students the didactic content of national celebrations is depicted, which teach pupils the achievements of the past (51.7%), reminding them of the glorious past (48.3%), while according to 46.7% student national celebrations also promote specific values. Also, they teach the important events of Greek history (48.3%), helping pupils learn about the history of their homeland (55%) and hence constitute an integral part of school life (51.7%). However, some changes could be made with regard to the festive atmosphere of national celebrations as they are repeated every year without changes (56.7%) and to pupils' participation in school celebrations, which should not be mandatory (33.3 %). The question of how the historical events worthy of a celebration on national holidays are selected and which historical knowledge they promote emerges strongly. Research revealed that in these anniversary events, the historical continuity and uninterrupted course of the nation from ancient to modern times is stressed emphatically, while pupils, through national celebrations, understand history as a sequence of past events leading to the present (Golia, 2006). At the same time, school national celebrations principally constitute an endless list of feats of heroes and great personalities (Mariolis, 2005). In the second thematic group of anniversary speeches, it turned out that a large percentage of students (50%) has a neutral view on whether anniversary speeches on national celebrations should be abolished. 40.8% does express any degree of agreement on whether anniversary speeches are outdated, 45% does not express any degree of agreement on whether it is the teacher's duty to deliver the festive speech of the day, and on whether anniversary speeches are based on stereotyped national perceptions, while according to the same percentage of students (45%), anniversary speeches reproduce ideology. Bonidis (2004) however, points out that anniversary speeches texts in national celebrations "naturalize" national ideology converting it to common sense. The third thematic group relates to the reproduction of national identity. According to the results obtained from the replies of future teachers, the contribution of national celebrations to the reproduction of national identity is noted. Some students express a neutral opinion on statements that national celebrations "build" national identities (40%), which shows that they do not have a clear understanding on this issue or that they do not believe they have such a decisive role in building national identity. A 46.7% agree with the statement that heroes honored on national celebrations are a model of imitation for children and a 38.3% agrees that on national celebrations pupils learn to respect heroes. In fact, it appears from the answers that national celebrations cultivate historical

127

awareness (51.7%), help pupils become aware of the debt to their homeland (39.2%), reinforce national morale (43.3%), contribute to the preservation of historical memory (53.3%) and in the shaping of identity (36.7%). Researchers who have dealt with the shaping the national identity of young pupils in preschool age, despite their minor disagreements, point out that racial and national identity begins to develop at preschool age (Katz, 1987, Ramsey, 1987) and stress that in this age there is no issue of national identity formation. They introduce and adopt the term "ethnic attitudes" and stress that young children follow a development course that leads to the formation of ethnic identity in an older age. Ethnic attitudes refer to the organized predisposition of children to develop a positive or negative attitude to people belonging to different ethnic groups (Aboud, 1988). Also with respect to the fourth thematic group, the national and political education of pupils through the national celebrations at school, the students seem to have a neutral and negative, to some degree, stance towards political education provided by the celebration of national holidays, while they appear more positive on national education. Students neither disagree nor agree with the views that national celebrations promote cooperativeness of pupils (35%) and that national celebrations raise pupils' morale (41.7%), contribute to their socialization (37.5%), contribute in personality formation (36.7%) and in their political education (41.7%). They, however, disagree with the view that national celebrations help students become responsible citizens (55.8%). Contrary to Fragoudaki & Dragona (1997) and Golia (2006), which claim that apart from the sense of unity, the participants are trained to become suitable citizens through the celebrations. After all, the ordinary citizens are considered by the state apparatus, as persons needing education, shaping and training. Hence, national celebrations are part of the civil training policy of a state and aim to the national and political education of citizens and pupils (45.8%) and are an opportunity for social activities (40.8%). Finally, regarding the results obtained from the last thematic group, which referred to the institution of parades, the students' stance towards the performance of parades seems to be quite positive and a significant percentage disagrees with the view that parades should be abolished (47.5%) and does not consider them as simple demonstrations of student skills (36.7%) and agrees that they cause sentiments of patriotism (49.2%). On the other hand however, a significant percentage of respondents agrees that parades could not be considered the culmination of national celebrations (30%) and believes that the participation of pupils the parade could be optional (45.8%). Therefore, it is clear, that through parades on national holidays, a reminder of historical facts is attempted and the main aim is to strengthen the national morale and national pride. This is reinforced via the use of symbols, which are carriers of values and ideas. On national celebrations, the effort for regeneration of the particular historical period combined with the use of national symbols such as the flag and other materials used during the celebration, attempts to strengthen the national identity and unity (Golia, 2006). The results of this research depict that students are influenced to a significant extent by the current management of national holidays and national ideology, with certain however, obvious deviation tendencies from this, an

128

element which is partly justified by the influence of their university studies, but also by their limited connection with the reality of the Greek school.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 14, No. 2, pp. 99-110, December 2015

Explorations in Online Learning using Adobe Connect Deirdre Englehart

University of Central Florida Orlando, FL Abstract. This preliminary research was focused on pre-service, early childhood educators that took part in online class meetings using the Adobe Connect video conferencing platform. Student feedback was collected related to synchronous class meetings. Adobe Connect was used in two different ways to connect students who attended two distant campus locations. One format included using Adobe Connect to join students in classrooms at two locations. The second format included using the same platform that allowed students to log in to an online class meeting from any location. The initial feedback indicates that many students had positive responses to the online class meetings especially related to convenience, but some students did not feel the interactions during the classroom to classroom meetings supported strong connections with each other and the instructor. Keywords: pre-service teachers; video conferencing; online class meetings; early childhood education; Adobe Connect

Introduction As a faculty member of the Early Childhood Education program at a regional campus for a large state university, there are numerous challenges to consider related to the successful implementation and continuation of the degree. The expectation for all programs is to maintain and expand degree offerings through increased enrollment. The Early Childhood program was not encouraged to offer totally online course offerings due to the conflict with pedagogy and best practices for teaching undergraduate students in this field. With little ability to increase enrollment or offer totally online programs, the focus became how to use technology to connect two small regional programs. The technology available allowed researchers the ability to test the potential of innovative and distinctive learning formats. Research from the New Media Consortium (2009) emphasizes that technological advances has increased our ability to provide unique learning formats and has allowed new learning opportunities. Web-

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based learning which included the delivery of some content online through Webcourses has been an integral part of our program offerings, but class meetings were still considered an essential aspect of the learning in the program. This initial research is an evaluation of using Adobe Connect to join two separate campuses for class meetings as well as to provide online class meetings where students could attend online from anywhere.

Literature Review Online Learning Challenges for education institutions outlined by the New Media Consortium (2009) include the fact that students are different from 20 or 30 years ago and that educators need to support different and unique ways of teaching and learning. "Institutions need to adapt to current student needs and identify new learning models that are engaging to younger generations" (New Media Consortium, p. 6). Educational institutions are currently involved in many avenues of course delivery. Motamedi (2001) describes distance education as the delivery of course instruction in formats where teachers and learners are in different places and potentially complete work at different times. One of the first forms of distance learning took place via correspondence courses. Online learning is now broadly described as using various electronic methods of teaching, providing professional development or other educational program. The popularity of online learning is apparent and one that has become more visible in higher education. Fletcher, Tobias and Wisher (2007) use the term Advanced Distributed Learning which objectives include making learning available anytime, anywhere. Zhen, Garthwait and Pratt (2008) speak of online course management applications which relate to teaching and learning in the online environment. It "includes the use of formal and informal course management systems to organize and support student learning online with dynamic and flexible communication and interactions" (p. 2). From previous research, Motamedi (2001) cited one of the most explains that the most common delivery method in distance education are print based delivery which is supplemented with video or audiotape. Using online learning formats is an avenue of helping students learn content. This is one reason why Web conferencing software is growing in popularity in the field of higher education (Reushle & Loch, 2008). One of the features of web-based conferencing is the asynchronous or time delayed interactions. Research has shown that instruction through 'distance education' can be effective but the "methodologies and technologies must be appropriate to the instructional tasks" (Motamedi, 2001, p. 386). Advances in technology have created the ability to connect in various ways with students in the online format. Gedera (2014) found that "students experiences of learning with the virtual classroom were associated with the affordances and limitations of this technology" (p. 97). Although technology has made great advances, classrooms and teachers need to have access to a high level of

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technology in order to meet the needs of students and to connect. The level of the technology can be a factor in student learning and preference. An additional consideration is relationship building and students connections that typically occur in face to face classroom settings. In a review of research, Falloon (2011) indicates that learners who are involved in online and distance learning can feel isolated and disconnected. This can further lead to lower performance levels. Kaufmann and Frisby (2013) expresses concern about the lack of interpersonal contact in online classes. Finding ways to help students to build relationships and connect with others is vital. Including community building components should be considered in online formats. Along the same lines as relationships is the issue of interactions. The overall research is not clear on the most effective methods to support interactions in the online format. Falloon (2011) indicated that students view the online classroom as a totally new environment. This includes new ways to interact as well as new rules and procedures to learn. Time and experience in the new format was suggested to help learners.

The Use of Video Conferencing Motamedi (2001) describes the ability to connect anywhere in the world through technology for people at work and in school settings. Web conferencing and video conferencing are becoming increasingly popular to support teaching and learning at higher education institutions (Reushle & Loch, 2008, Motamedi, 2001). Video conferencing is described as back and forth communication across distances that can include video, audio and possible data transmission. Video conferencing can be delivered to various locations including homes, office and schools. Park and Bonk (2007) indicate that advances in technology have impacted using video conferencing more feasible in synchronous learning formats. Motamedi (2001) further explains that methodologies used in video conferencing should be appropriate to the instructional goals outlined and that learners should be at the center of the process. He outlines some factors for "successful use of videoconferencing including the number of students at each site, instructor's teaching style, degree of interactivity used, motivation of students, and positive attitude of participants and preparation of the instructor"(p. 390).

Methodology The purpose of this study was to evaluate the use of Adobe Connect as a class meeting platform. Specifically, ď&#x201A;ˇ ď&#x201A;ˇ

What are studentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s perceptions of instruction in the Classroom to Classroom format for class meetings? What are student perceptions of instruction in the online class meetings?

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Survey methodology was used to assess important considerations for using video conferencing as a course delivery format for class meetings. The participants in this research were Early Childhood Education undergraduate students taking courses in the ECE program in a large university in the southeast. Students were enrolled in courses at two regional campus locations for the university. Approximately 40 students were invited to participate in this research by completing an anonymous survey linked in two early childhood courses over two different semesters (Fall, Spring). The questionnaire was linked to an email sent to all students in the participating courses. Students would follow a link provided to a secure website where they took the survey. In the Fall term, 16 students took courses that integrated the use of online class meetings. Nine students completed the survey (n=9), all student participants were female with an age range of 22-46 years old. Two students work full time and 7 students work part time while attending classes in the Early Childhood program. This group of students drove from 25-60 miles to attend classes at the regional campus during the semester. In the Spring term, 27 students took courses that integrated the use of Adobe Connect in two different formats. Adobe Connect was used to facilitate classroom to classroom meetings across two campuses and Adobe Connect was used to conduct online class meetings where students could attend from home. Seven students completed the survey (n=7). All participants were female with an age range of 21-28 years old. Three students worked full time, three students worked part time and one student did not answer. This group of students drove 5-90 miles to attend classes at the regional campus during the semester.

Adobe Connect Platform During this initial research, early childhood education students attended classes with the use of Adobe Connect. This system was not specifically designed for classroom use, but included video, audio, chat, and survey tools. Powerpoint presentations could be uploaded prior to the class meetings and the instructor had the ability to bring up documents on the local computer. Also, videos could be linked or downloaded into the system. Each student was given the web address to log in when class meetings were held. Also, once inside the Adobe Connect system, students could be divided into smaller groups and enter a breakout room for collaborative activities. The project included the use of Adobe Connect to facilitate online class meetings. The class meetings took two separate formats: classroom to classroom and online class meetings from home. The classroom to classroom meetings used Adobe Connect to facilitate the connection between two separate campus locations and classrooms for class meetings (see Picture 1 & 2). The online class meetings from home allowed students to interact and construct their understandings together in their own home (see Picture 3). The use of video and audio were prominent between the classroom to classroom meetings. For the online class meetings, students could see the instructor, but students did not use the video features so they could see each other. These unique formats allowed

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students to connect on a new level of learning and supports an engaging platform for a new generation of learners. The New Media consortium (2009) emphasized the need for universities to consider how technology can be used to connect and collaborate with learners of the future.

Picture 1: Classroom to Classroom meeting using Adobe Connect

Picture 2: Classroom to Classroom Adobe Connect meeting

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Picture 3: Online Class

Results The survey asked various questions about the format of class meetings and how the meetings helped to facilitate their learning in order to answer the two questions guiding this research.  

What are student’s perceptions of instruction in the Classroom to Classroom format for class meetings? What are student perceptions of instruction in the online class meetings?

Overall Course Preferences Students from both groups were asked for their preference in how courses were offered. Choices were fully online, partially online with 3 or 4 face to face meetings, partially online with online meetings and face to face. The majority of students preferred online meetings. See Figure 1.

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preference

Frequency

0 fully online

partially online 3 meetings

partially online - online meetings

preference

Figure 1: Overall Course Preferences

Interactions in the Course

Students in group 1 (Fall) only participated in online class meetings from home. They were asked to determine if the interactions with the teacher were better, worse or similar to face to face interactions in the classroom. The results showed that most students had neutral feelings about the interactions with the teacher indicating they were similar to face to face interactions. Related to interactions with other students, 62.5% indicted the interactions were similar with 25% of students saying they were better and 12.5% of students indicating interactions were worse than in a regular classroom. The last area that was related to overall ability to conduct the class meeting online are 75% of students felt the meeting was similar with 12.5% indicating it was better online and 12.5% indicating it was much worse. See Figure 2.

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overall

Frequency

0 better

neutral

much worse

overall

Figure 2: Interactions in the Course

Students in group 2 (Spring) did not distinguish the classroom to classroom interactions using Adobe Connect with the Online class meetings using the Adobe Connect in the survey. The results from them indicate overall negative feelings related to the use of the Adobe system. For interactions with the teacher only 16.7% of students indicated the interactions were similar, 33.3% indicated the interactions were worse and 50% indicate they were much worse. The next area addressed the interactions with other students; 14.3% found the interactions similar, 42.9% found the interactions worse and 42.9% found them to be much worse. The last area was the overall ability to conduct the class meetings online with 16.7% feelings the meetings were worse and 83.3% indicating they were much worse. See Figure 3.

overall2

Frequency

0 worse

much worse

overall2

Figure 3: Online Meetings

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Students in group 2 (Spring) were also invited to provide comments along with their ratings. One questions they addressed was, "How did the online meeting compare to the face to face (between campus meetings)? Did you feel more connected in one format over the other? (Short Answer)" The following comments help to clarify the feelings related to the use of Adobe Connect during class to class meetings and online meetings from home.

I think on-line was just as good as sitting in the class.

I prefer the online meetings.

It is more convenient with a

working schedule and I felt just as connected. o

I think I felt more connected in the online class as we could write to you if we had questions. I did not feel connected in the face to face classes as we were in two different places.

I liked the face to face meetings better. Only because I am not very good with technology and had home distractions as well.

The comments from students indicated that 65% of them preferred the online meetings from home, 26% preferred the face to face meetings while 9% were still undecided.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Adobe Connect Further analysis of student comment indicated the following advantages and disadvantages for the Classroom to Classroom meetings using Adobe Connect. (See Table 1) and the advantages and disadvantages for the Online class meetings from home using Adobe Connect. (See Table 2).

Table 1 - Perceived Advantages and Disadvantages for Class to Class Meetings

Advantages  

saves time and money connect with students from other campuses

Disadvantages  



technical problems less connected to instructor if you are on the opposite classroom downtime during activities

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Table 2 - Perceived Advantages and Disadvantages for ONLINE Meetings

Advantages    

work from home/easier to attend group work more efficient saves time and money connect with students from other campuses

Disadvantages    

technical problems less hands-on no time for note-taking difficult typing to share ideas

Discussion "Teacher educators continually strive for college classroom teaching techniques that are effective and dynamic" (Wursta, Brown-DuPaul and Segatti, 2004). The use of Adobe Connect for conducting online class meetings is one technique that provides a unique format for course delivery. Although there are some obstacles to overcome related to Adobe Connect from this initial research, the online class meeting format seemed to be the most popular for students. The students felt that they did learn in this format and it was comparable to face to face class meetings. "A successful online learning environment will not just happen. It needs to be built, managed, and nurtured." (Reushle, 2006, p. 5). This statement emphasizes the need to examine how the online learning environment can support students in their learning and in this instance, how obstacles suggested by students can be overcome to move forward with this technology. The techniques that can make online learning feasible for students should be examined. Gedera (2014) used technology that allowed students to easily communicate through audio and video and found that these features were supportive in the virtual classroom. One interesting finding from the survey and added comments was that students generally felt more connected in the online meetings than in the classroom to classroom meetings. Reushle (2006) emphasized the learning community in her research stating, "The online environment supports learning as a community activity. Dialogue or discourse (learners to learners; learners to facilitators) is vital to sustaining the learning community and maintaining a sense of connected, human presence" (p. 3). Falloon (2011) emphasized that students may have difficulties transitioning to an virtual learning environment in relation to interactions and communication. The physical, visual presence of the instructor was also noted by Motamedi (2001) as a benefit in online video conferencing. In the classroom to classroom interactions, when students were not in the host classroom, they indicated they did not feel as connected and able to interact with the instructor. When students attended the class meetings online, they had a

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closer view of the instructor and seemed to feel more connected that way. Further explorations related to this topic will be considered in future classroom to classroom interactions using Adobe Connect to find out how to bridge the gap that students felt in order to connect more readily with the instructor. Other benefits or advantages named by Motamedi (2001) that were emphasized by students in this research were that the online meetings provided access to students who were farther away from campus locations. This helped to reduce their travel time and money for gas and still allowed for an interactive learning experience. Technology was named a disadvantage of using Adobe Connect in both formats: classroom to classroom and during online class meetings from home. Gedera (2014) indicated that although students found the virtual classroom a positive experience, there was concern from students about unexpected technical difficulties. In this research the classroom-to-classroom meetings had technology problems because of the lack of experience in the IT staff with the new technology, lack of funding for needed equipment, identified and corrected network problems, and problems with existing equipment. Also, that classroom-to-classroom meetings may not be the preferred mode of delivery with the Adobe Connect platform. Motamedi (2001) described technology as an issue for video conferencing and included the following areas of concern: network breakdowns, inferior audio/video signals and complicated audio/video equipment which can cause delays. Further investigations into why students at home had technological difficulty should also investigated. It may be worthwhile to ascertain the minimum computer/hardware requirements that support the use of Adobe Connect.

Study Limitations and Conclusion This study is limited by the number of students who participated and responded to the surveys. It is also limited in the amount of actual class meetings that were held in the classroom to classroom format and the online format. Further limitations would include the instructor's learning curve related to the use of the Adobe Connect system and her ability to implement instructional practices aligned with typical classroom practices. Falloon (2011) emphasized the need for more research to identify best practices for online and virtual classrooms. Although there are some positive indications about this format, more research should be conducted.

These unique teaching formats supported by the use of Adobe Connect have the potential to allow students to connect on a new level of learning. They support an engaging platform for a new generation of learners. The New Media consortium (2009) emphasized the need for universities to consider how technology can be used to connect and collaborate with learners of the future. Park and Bonk (2007) conclude that "Instructors need to provide students with effective learning approaches for time-pressed live learning and encourage

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students to share, experiment and reflect on new strategies" (p. 260). Falloon (2011) also emphasizes the need for instructors to embed learning structures for students to help them transition to this type of learning. Further research on the use of Adobe Connect and other video conferencing technologies would be appropriate to continue to learn about its effectiveness as a tool for education students and to allow students to share their experiences of learning in this synchronous environment. Additionally, it is recommended that the instructors continue to learn about Adobe Connect and its ability to facilitate online class meetings including how to address concerns voiced by students related to the classroom to classroom meetings.

References Falloon, G. (2011). Exploring the virtual classroom: What students need to know (and teachers should consider), MERLOT Journal of Online Learning and Teaching, 7(4), 439-451. Fletcher, J.D., Tobias, S., & Wisher, R. A. (2007). Learning anytime, anywhere: Advanced distributed learning and the changing face of education, Educational Researcher, 36(2), 96-102. Gedera, D. S. P. (2014). Students' experiences of learning in a virtual classroom. International Journal of Education and Development using Information and Communication Technology. 10(4), 93-101. Kaufmann, R. & Frisby, B. N. (2013). Let's connect: Using adobe connect to foster group collaboratin in the online classroom, Communication Teacher. 27(4), 230-234. Motamedi, V. (2001). A critical look at the use of videoconferencing in United States distance education, Education, 122(2) 386-394. Park, Y. J. & Bonk, C. J. (2007). Synchronous learning experiences: Distance and residential learnersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; perspectives in a blended graduate course. Journal of Interactive Online Learning. 6(3), 245-264. Reushle, S. E. (2006). A framework for designing higher education e-learning environments. E-Learn 2006 World Conference on E-Learning in Corporate, Government, Healthcare, & Higher Education, 13-17 Oct., Hawaii: Honolulu. Retrieved March 14, 2008, from http://eprints.usq.edu.au/1226 Reushle, S. & Loch, B. (2008). Conducting a trial of web conferencing software: Why, how, and perceptions from the coalface, Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education, 9(3), 19-28. The New Media Consortium & EDUCAUSE Learning Initiative. (2009). The Horizon Report, 2009 edition. Retrieved May 12, 2009 from http://www.nmc.org/pdf/2009-Horizon-Report.pdf Wursta, M. Brown-DuPaul, J. & Segatti, L. (2004). Teacher education: Linking theory to practice through digital technology, Community College Journal of Research and Practice, 28, 787-794. Zhen, Y., Garthwait, A. & Pratt, P. (2008). Factors affecting faculty membersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; decision to teach or not to teach online in higher education, Online of Distance Learning Administration (XI) III, 1-21.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 14, No. 2, pp. 151-162, December 2015

When and Why EFL Teachers Use L1? Yuhong Lu and Heather Fehring RMIT University Melbourne, Australia

Abstract. The study examined how, in what situations and why teachers used students’ L1 in EFL classes. EFL students and teachers from two universities in Mainland China were involved in this study as the participants. The study employed a mixed methods research design, both qualitative and quantitative data were collected. The data provide evidence that EFL teachers believed in the importance of incorporating L1 in EFL teaching because of the insufficient class time for EFL teaching and learning in university classes. The EFL teachers believed that their low competence in mastering the English language hindered their EFL teaching abilities, and the university students had limited English language experiences because of the textbook-driven teaching content of EFL classes. The data provide important results related to the implementation of change practices for the teaching of EFL.

Keywords: L1 use, University and EFL, attitudes towards L1 use, Chinese EFL learners

Introduction The demand for the teaching and learning of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) or English as a Second Language (ESL) has risen dramatically in the Asian regions of the world in the last 50 years. The EFL and ESL goal has become to increase communication capabilities involving both oral fluency and grammatical competence. The development of communicative competence in English has become the overall aim (Strobelberger, 2012) and the advancement of communicative proficiency in English has been encouraged in the Asian regions (Damnet & Borland, 2007; Lawn & Lawn, 2015). Knowledge related to the pedagogy of how, when and to whom to teach English has become a new driver in education. EFL is defined as English that is taught in a country where English is not the first language (L1), whereas English as a Second Language (ESL) encompasses English that is taught in countries where English is L1 of the culture but not L1 of the students. The teaching objective of EFL courses in the context of this study was: “to develop students’ ability to use English in a well-rounded way, especially in listening and speaking, so that in their future studies and careers as well as social interactions they will be able to communicate effectively” @2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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(Department of Higher Education of Ministry of Education of P.R.China, 2007, p. 1). In this study, theories about EFL and English as a Second Language teaching, were examined to explore how, when and why EFL teachers resort to using students’ L1. The importance of understanding L1 usage in EFL teaching leads to important curriculum innovations.

Background literature Exclusive use of the target language, i.e. a language being learned as second or foreign language (Cohen, 1998), as a pedagogic principle dominated foreign language or second language classrooms for about a century. More recently, whether or not teachers should use the students’ L1 in foreign language classrooms has become a controversial issue. Turnbull (2000) advocates the total elimination of students’ L1 in the foreign language teaching processes. However, total exclusion of L1 is rarely achieved in daily classroom teaching practices. Code-switching refers to the act of alternating between two languages in either spoken or written expressions (Auer, 1999). Macaro (2001) suggested some reasons why the first language was used by teachers in foreign or second language classrooms. These reasons are listed as follows:  The L1 was used mostly for procedural instructions for complex activities, relationship building, control and management, teaching grammar explicitly, and providing brief L1 equivalents or vice versa;  Learner ability (or level of competence) was a major factor in how much L1 was used;  Time pressures (e.g., exams) were a major factor in how much L1 was used. (p. 535). Some researchers believe that EFL students’ English proficiency levels are related to the amount of L1 used by teachers in classrooms (Cheng, 2013; Liu, 2010; Tang, 2002): students’ low English proficiency levels were given as one major reason why teachers used L1 in EFL classrooms (Cheng, 2013; Liu, 2010; Song, 2009). Polio and Duff (1994) suggest that teachers should minimize L1 usage and use the target language as much as possible. Other researchers (Cook, 2001; Macaro, 2001) believe that using the students’ L1 has some positive values in foreign language classrooms. L1 usage was found to be positive for EFL teaching and learning when teachers were explaining grammar, translating new vocabulary, teaching abstruse concepts and building rapport with students (Cheng, 2013; Liu, 2010; Tang, 2002). However, knowledge about the amount of L1 usage by teachers has varied greatly between studies. Duff and Polio (1990) found that the amount of L1 usage was high and they suggested that teachers should try to maximize the target language input. In contrast, De La Campa and Nassaji (2009), Macaro (2001), and Rolin-Ianziti and Brownlie (2002) all found that only a small amount

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of L1 usage occurred in classrooms, and they believed that a limited amount of L1 input would not impede target language learning. Polio and Duff (1994) identified eight contexts in which teachers switched to L1. Rolin-Ianziti and Brownlie (2002) later modified Polio and Duff’s (1994) classification and produced three categories of L1 use: translation, metalinguistic and communicative. De La Campa and Nassaji (2009) developed a 14-category classification of L1 usage that was based upon a modified version of RolinIanziti and Brownlie’s (2002) categories.

The study The data presented in this paper were a part of a larger study of EFL teachers’ code-switching from English to students’ L1. The study was conducted in two universities in Mainland China with the participation of 22 EFL teachers (10 from University A and 12 from University B) and 417 students (184 from University A and 233 from University B). Both quantitative and qualitative data were obtained through the following data collection techniques: non-participant observations, questionnaires, and semi-structured interviews. This paper focuses on the data collected from eight class audio-recording sessions and four teachers’ interviews to address the following research questions: 1. What is the L1 amount used by EFL teachers? 2. When do teachers use L1 in EFL classrooms? 3. Why do teachers resort to using L1 in EFL classes?

Participants The study was conducted at two multi-disciplinary universities in Mainland China (called University A and University B in this study). Mandarin, the official language in Mainland China, was L1; and English was the foreign language for all of the student and teacher participants. Non-English major EFL courses are designed for Year One and Year Two non-English major students. These courses are intended to develop students’ English skills in reading, writing, speaking, listening and translating. There were 147 EFL teachers at University A and 50 EFL teachers at University B at the time of this study. 22 teachers involved in this study and four of them were prepared to be observed and audio-recorded teaching their EFL classes. The intensive nature of audio-recording and transcribing EFL classes limited the amount of data that could be collected in a short time

Data collection of Class audio-recording sessions and teacher interviews The four teachers participated in class audio-recording sessions. The class sizes ranged from 18 to 42 students. Eight classes of about 40 minutes each, delivered by these four teachers, were audio-recorded using a high quality digital recorder. The principal researcher was a non-participant observer in these sessions and therefore was not involved in any teaching activities so as not to interfere with any class interactions, or put any undue pressure on the teachers or students. Before each audio-recording the teachers and students were informed about the purpose of the class audio-recording sessions.

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The four teachers also agreed to be interviewed. A qualitative case study approach (Stake, 1995; Yin, 2003) was used to collect text data through individual semi-structured interviews (Galletta, 2013; Minichiello, Aroni, Timewell, & Alexander, 1995) with the four EFL teachers. All interviews were recorded using the same high digital recorder that had been used for the class audio-recording sessions. All four of the interviews were transcribed verbatim, transforming teacher participants’ words into a written text for referral throughout the study (Seidman, 1991).

Data analysis Class audio-recording sessions for quantitative analysis Class audio-recording sessions were first transcribed and analysed quantitatively to calculate the actual amount of EFL teachers’ L1 usage by applying the 15-second sampling technique from Duff and Polio’s (1990) study. Based upon the previous research (Duff & Polio, 1990), five categories of teachers’ utterances were created and are shown in Table 1. Table 1 Teachers’ utterance categories Utterance category E Em

E-M

Explanation

Example

Completely in the target language (English). In the target language (English) with one word or a phrase in L1 (Mandarin). Approximately, an equal mixture of the target language (English) and L1 (Mandarin).

I think it’s time for us to begin our class We can also use an infinitive structure after “enough”, <bu ding shi>. <ta wen zhe ge> Edward <yao bang zhu de shi shen me>？Ask for a job. <yin wei zhe ge> Edward <ta shi yi ge> business man，<suo yi> Lenny asks for a job. What is Edward’s reaction? <ni jiu shuo, dui wo lai shuo, wo xi huan zhu zai xiang xia>. <shi qian mian di er ce, shin a ge> Book Two <li mian de, bus hi wo men zhe yi ce de>.

Completely in L1 (Mandarin).

In L1 (Mandarin) with one word or phrase in the target language (English).

Class audio-recording sessions for qualitative analysis In the second phase of the study, the eight audio-recordings of classes were analysed qualitatively to investigate when the EFL teachers used L1. Based on the coding schemes of Rolin-Ianziti and Brownlie (2002) and De La Campa and Nassaji (2009), a coding scheme was created for this study with 12 contexts in which EFL teachers used L1. These contexts were coded as:  Translation – EFL teachers switched from English to L1 to give the translated version of their English articulation  Grammar – EFL teachers used L1 to explain English grammar to students  Culture – EFL teachers used L1 to introduce the culture of English-speaking countries  Objective – EFL teachers provided students with objectives of teaching activities

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       

Instruction – EFL teachers used L1 to give instructions Encouragement – EFL teachers used L1 to encourage students to respond in English Evaluation – EFL teachers used L1 to evaluate students’ answers or practice in English Responses to students’ questions – EFL teachers used L1 to respond to students’ questions raised in L1 Comprehension checks – EFL teachers used L1 to check if students understood the teaching content Good rapport – EFL teachers used L1 to build up a good rapport with students Administration – EFL teachers announced administrative items in L1, such as exam plans Other – Other usage contexts

Teachers’ interviews for qualitative analysis Data from the four teachers’ semi-structured interviews were analysed to identify why EFL teachers resorted to using L1 in non-English major EFL classes. The “Data Analysis in Qualitative Research procedure” (Creswell, 2009, p. 185) was applied. Data gathered from the four teachers’ interviews were first organised for qualitative analysis. After gaining a general sense of the information, the coding process was applied to create categories or themes for analysis. By using “the most popular approach”, “a narrative passage, to convey the findings of the analysis” (Creswell, 2009, p. 189), the researchers found the connections between categories or themes which were the main result of this study. Finally the researchers interpreted the data and compared the findings in this study with the findings from previous studies.

Results What is L1 amount used by EFL teachers? The data obtained from the eight class audio-recordings demonstrated that the four EFL teachers’ L1 usage varied widely from 0.8 per cent to 74.8 per cent of utterances. The mean amount of L1 usage by the four EFL teachers was 40.7 per cent. In four of the eight class audio-recordings, the EFL teacher used L1 for more than 50 per cent of utterances. Only one teacher (Teacher D) used a small amount of L1 in her teaching: 11 per cent and 0.8 per cent for the two class audio-recording sessions. A higher amount of students’ L1 usage by EFL teachers was found in this study compared to some previous studies (De La Campa & Nassaji, 2009; Macaro, 2001; Rolin-Ianziti & Brownlie, 2002; Song, 2009). Table 2 shows the results of the percent of English and L1 utterances by the four EFL teachers by class. Teacher

Table 2 Percent of utterance categories of the four EFL teachers by class E Em E-M M Me L1 English Class % % % % % % %

Teacher A

13.6

18.8

20.5

44.9

2.3

57.4

42.6

Teacher A

2.8

11.7

21.4

8.3

55.9

74.8

25.2

156

Teacher B

6.0

13.5

22.6

2.3

55.6

69.2

30.8

Teacher B

24.3

14.0

21.3

3.7

36.8

51.1

48.9

Teacher C

50.3

17.5

14.1

0.7

17.5

25.2

74.8

Teacher C

34.3

22.1

14.3

5.7

23.6

36.4

63.6

Teacher D

79.1

6.7

1.9

5.7

11.0

89.0

Teacher D

96.9

2.3

0.0

0.8

99.2

40.7

59.3

Mean

Categories E and Em were both considered as English utterances; Categories M and Me were both considered as L1 utterances; Category E-M was considered half English and half L1. For example, L1 amount of Teacher A in Class A1 is: M(44.9%)+Me(2.3%)+1/2E-M(1/2*20.5%)=57.4%. The great divergence in L1 usage in non-English major EFL classes is consistent with some previous studies. Kim and Elder’s (2005) research showed five out seven teachers used L1 more than 30% of the time and two of them used L1 more than 60% of the time. Duff and Polio (1990) also reported a wide difference of teachers’ L1 usage amount ranging from 0% to 90%. However, this wide range of L1 usage amount in foreign language classes was not found in other studies. In Macaro’s (2001) study, an average of 4.8% of L1 usage amount was found; and the range was from 0 to 15.2%. Rolin-Ianziti and Brownlie (2002) reported that teachers’ L1 usage amount were 0%, 4.32%, 12.75% and 18.15%. De La Campa and Nassaji (2009) found the overall usage of L1 (English) by the two German teachers was 11.3% (9.3% for the experienced teacher and 13.2% for the novice teacher). In Song’s (2009) study conducted in the context of tertiary education in Mainland China, four EFL teachers’ L1 usage amount were 10.5%, 20.3%, 21.5% and 32.2%. The significance of all these results is that EFL teachers use L1 more frequently with non-English major students, indicating that there is a perceived need for this supportive teaching practice. When do teachers use L1 in EFL classrooms? From the qualitative analysis of the audio-recordings, the four EFL teachers used L1 most frequently in the context of translation, which represented 53.6 per cent of all usage. Instruction was the second most common L1 usage context (20.5 per cent) followed by other L1 usage contexts (11.6 per cent) and encouraging students (6.1 per cent). The four EFL teachers did not use L1 in some identified usage contexts. Table 3 shows the details of frequencies of all L1 usage contexts.

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Table 3 Raw data of frequencies of all L1 usage contexts Percentage (%) L1 usage Contexts All Teacher Teacher Teacher A B C Translation 53.6 30.9 69.8 64.2 Grammar 0.1 0.0 0.0 1.5 Culture 0.5 1.3 0.0 0.5 Objective 1.9 1.7 3.9 0.0 Instruction 20.5 41.6 19.4 3.0 Encouragement 6.1 7.7 6.2 4.5 Comprehension checks 2.9 7.3 0.4 1.5 Good Rapport 0.7 1.3 0.0 1.0 Administration 1.2 0.0 0.0 4.5 Other 11.6 8.2 0.4 15.9

Teacher D 37.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 4.7 1.6 0.0 0.0 56.3

Total

100

Similar to the findings from the studies of Rolin-Ianziti and Brownlie (2002) and De La Campa and Nassaji (2009), translation was found to be the most frequent L1 usage context in this study. Among the sub-categories of translation, the four EFL teachers translated different content (words, phrases and sentences). The instruction usage context was divided into five sub-categories: procedural instruction, word instruction, phrase instruction, sentence instruction and text instruction. Procedural instruction means that the EFL teachers used L1 to give instructions, and is similar to L1 usage context of explaining tasks and activities to students in Cook’s (2001) study. Word instruction, phrase instruction and sentence instruction are the usage contexts in which EFL teachers used L1 to provide extended or related information to facilitate students’ understanding. These three L1 usage contexts are similar to L1usage context of facilitating students’ understanding by quoting others’ words found in the study of Liu (2010). Other L1 usage contexts included using L1 to call students’ names, to ask for help from students, to tell some conjunctive words and to give personal comment about the teaching contents. Metalinguistic uses were the second most frequent L1 usage context in RolinIanziti and Brownlie’s (2002) study. De La Campa and Nassaji (2009) suggested a similar L1 usage context in which L1 utterances are used to contrast second language forms or cultural concepts with L1 forms or cultural concepts. In this study, L1is Mandarin, which belongs to the Sino-Tibetan language family, while the target language is English, which is a Germanic language. Due to the linguistic distance between L1 and English, the metalinguistic uses of L1usage context did not occur. In this study, encouraging students to speak English was a very common L1 usage context. However, this context has not been reported in previous studies (De La Campa & Nassaji, 2009; Liu, 2010; Polio & Duff, 1994; Rolin-Ianziti & Brownlie, 2002; Tang, 2002). EFL teachers’ frequent L1 usage for encouraging students to speak English can be explained by the learning and studying style in

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East Asian countries: students are used to more listening and less speaking in classrooms (Liu & Littlewood, 1997). Chen and Goh (2011) suggested that students’ lack of participation in classrooms is one of the main reasons for the difficulties that EFL teachers encounter in teaching oral English in the context of higher education. The results indicate that there is a need to make a cultural shift in the teaching and learning practices in EFL classes. Increasing the use of engaging participation strategies will help facilitate a decrease in the need for L1 usage. Why do teachers resort to using L1 in EFL classes? From the teachers’ interviews, it was found that limited EFL classroom time, students’ English proficiency levels, EFL teachers’ own English competence and non-engaging content contributed to EFL teachers’ L1 usage in classrooms. EFL teachers were faced with a dilemma: they had a strong belief that they should use as much English as possible to ensure sufficient English input to their students, but in reality, they felt that they had no choice but to resort to using L1 in their teaching to maximize their effective use of the limited EFL classroom time. Macaro (2001) has suggested that time pressure is one of the major determinants of how much teachers use L1 in classrooms. Tang (2002) has also suggested that using L1 is less time-consuming than using English exclusively in EFL classrooms. In this study, the four EFL teachers who were interviewed repeatedly mentioned the very limited EFL classroom time they had which thus affected the practice time available. They thought that incorporating L1 in EFL classrooms was essential because it was more efficient and time saving. For example, three of the four EFL teachers interviewed agreed that using L1 to announce administrative items could save valuable class time. However, what is required is a more effective process of dealing with administrative matters rather than using EFL class time. Students’ English proficiency levels were an important influence on EFL teachers resorting to using L1 in their classrooms. Teacher D stated that the ratio of English and L1 use could be changed because students’ English proficiency levels determined the amount of L1 used by EFL teachers. EFL teachers used different proportions of L1 in different proficiency level in EFL classrooms. This accounts for the wide range in the proportion of EFL teachers’ L1 usage in the EFL class audio-recordings. This finding is consistent with results of previous studies in which student’ language proficiency levels have been shown to be a major factor in teachers’ language choices (Cheng, 2013; De La Campa & Nassaji, 2009; Liu, 2010; Macaro, 2001; Song, 2009; Tang, 2002). The EFL teachers’ English proficiency was related to EFL teachers’ language choice in university classrooms. This result is consistent with findings in previous studies: Cheng (2013) and Liu (2010) both found teachers’ English proficiency to be the second most important determinant of EFL teachers’ language choice. In addition, as Chen and Goh (2011) have argued, many EFL teachers are not confident because they are not native English speakers. All the

159

EFL teachers interviewed in this study were not confident enough to accomplish all of their teaching tasks exclusively in English. When these teachers were not familiar with some of the content, they could not find the exact words or expressions in English and they often resorted to using L1. The data indicates that EFL teachers’ proficiency in English needs to be made a priority by the teaching institutions in order to increase the students’ levels of EFL proficiency. In this study, the teaching content was also related to EFL teachers’ L1 usage in classrooms. The teaching content in non-English major EFL classes in this study includes explaining the text and completing exercises in the textbook. As Pan and Block (2011) have pointed out, the current EFL teaching and learning in tertiary education in Mainland China is exam-centred. The accumulation of English knowledge, especially the command of English grammar, is still the focus of the exams, while authentic English language practice is not given due attention. It appeared that the EFL teachers were not satisfied with the current EFL course design, which is still exam-centred and teacher-centred. In addition, the limited EFL classroom time for EFL does not allow students to have much oral practice in classrooms. Developing English fluency is one of the key objectives in 21st century EFL and ESL classes. This requires constant oral interaction and engagement. The results of this study highlight the need for the exploration of multimodal teaching content especially in non-English major EFL classes.

Conclusion Analysis of the class audio-recordings data showed a great divergence of EFL teachers’ L1 usage amount. In comparison with previous studies, a higher amount of students’ L1 usage by EFL teachers was found in this study. The EFL teachers used L1 most frequently for translation and instruction. The four EFL teachers agreed that EFL teachers’ usage of L1 in classrooms was helpful for teaching and learning processes. EFL teachers held the pedagogical belief that they should limit their L1 usage to ensure sufficient English input, but they resorted to using L1 in their EFL teaching to cover the curriculum content efficiently within the university time constraints. The situation was further complicated by the students’ English proficiency levels. These were important in determining the amount of L1 used in EFL classrooms. The less competent the students were in English, the more L1 the EFL teachers used. The teachers’ own English competence was another important determinant of EFL teachers’ L1 usage amount in non-English major EFL classes. Some teachers were not confident with their own English capabilities and resorted to using L1 to make sure that the students understood the tasks. There are a number of recommendations that can be drawn from this study related to improving EFL teaching and learning practices. 1. Using L1 in EFL classrooms in a university context involving adult

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learners is necessary and beneficial in some circumstances. However, finding the most effective balance of teaching strategies involves not only commitment by EFL teachers, but also, by university administrators to provide institute infrastructure and resources to enhance new EFL teaching practices. 2. Over-use of L1 in EFL classroom teaching is not beneficial for long-term improvement of university students’ EFL speaking, listening, reading, writing, knowledge and usage. Exploring a range of alternate teaching and learning strategies that maximize efficient multimodal delivery strategies still needs further research. 3. The balance required between the use of L1 that facilitates EFL university students’ acquisition of EFL skills and the overuse of L1 that inhibits learning needs to be recognized. Factors that contribute to university students’ EFL success are shown to be the initial English proficiency levels of both students and teachers. Therefore, university teaching staff need to maximize opportunities to increase the students’ access to additional high quality English programmes. In addition, university staff also need access to high quality professional development programmes that will increase their own English language proficiency levels. 4. Universities can make innovative attempts to switch EFL classes from teacher-centred learning to student-centred learning by providing EFL students with more interactive conversational time in the classroom. Such innovations can be accomplished by providing high tech facilities within teaching classroom that maximize student participation and minimize instruction involving teachers’ mono-dialogues. 5. Universities can create more opportunities for EFL students to practice English outside class, especially learning and practising English in authentic language environments. Providing access to English social clubs and overseas English short courses through internet participation are invaluable experiences for students. 6. The data from this and other studies clearly points to the need for universities to develop internal EFL professional development courses as part of the work requirement of EFL teachers. Increasing the English proficiency of EFL teachers is imperative to improving the quality of EFL courses delivered. Increasing staff English proficiency will have multiple benefits. It will increase staff confidence which will in turn increase the quality of the courses delivered which will in turn facilitate the reduction of L1 usage in EFL classes.

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Strobelberger, K. (2012). Classroom discourse in EFL teaching: A cross-cultural perspective. Hamburg: Diplomica Verlag. Tang, J. (2002). Using L1 in the English classroom. English Teaching Forum, 40(1), 36-43. Turnbull, M. (2000). Analyses of core French teachers' language use: A summary. Paper presented at the Proceedings of Bilingual Child, Global Citizen Colloquium, New Brunswick. Yin, R. K. (2003). Case study research: Design and methods (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 14, No. 2, pp. 131-150, December 2015

Exploring the Opportunities for Integrating New Digital Technologies in Tanzaniaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Higher Education Classrooms Filipo Lubua Ohio University fl554711@ohio.edu Athens, OH, USA

Abstract. The growth of information and communication technology (ICT) have influenced the method of delivering content in higher learning institutions world wide. As many Sub-Sahara African countries, however, Tanzania still struggles with the use of ICT in teaching and learning due to the technological challenges, such as the lack of power/energy (Bitew, 2008; Masters, 2004). To better understand the utilization of ICT in Tanzania, this study applies qualitative techniques to explore the opportunities of integrating new digital technologies by teachers and students. Both students and instructors in Tanzanian higher learning institutions were interviewed, and the data were analyzed using open coding techniques in MAXQDA 11. Four themes were generated: (1) Common and utilized digital tools, (2) technologies integrated in learning and teaching, (3) reasons learners/instructors use some digital tools in learning, and (4) recommended digital tools for learning and teaching. In all, the present study provides useful suggestions for ICT integration in Tanzanian classrooms and Africa at large. Keywords: Digital technologies; Emerging technologies; Teaching and Learning; Tanzania; Higher learning.

Introduction Studies have indicated that a paradigm shift has been experienced in the academic practices in the past few years, particularly within the last decade (Siemens & Titternberger, 2009). This paradigm shift has been caused by the growth of information and communication technology (ICT), especially the use of Internet. In this paradigm shift, technology has changed the traditional teaching and learning in higher education, including the methods of course delivering, assessment, and other classroom activities. Due to rapid technological innovations, learners are digitally connected, and have become hyperkinetic, adventurous, impatient, and highly collaborative (Oblinger, 2004). These learners prefer learning and teaching to be funny, enjoyable, self-guided, and motivating, as well as the learning resources to be

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easily accessible and less expensive (Siemens & Titternberger, 2009). To adapt with the situation, instructors in the higher learning institutions have been left with no option but to embrace blossoming new technologies, and they have used these technologies for content creation, delivery, assessment, and other pedagogical activities. Whether such tech-academic change has been adequately experienced in the third world countries or not is still a matter that calls for detailed research (Donner, 2008; Thakrar, Zinn & Wolfenden, 2009). The limited existing literature has indicated that most third-world countries, such as most parts of Sub-Saharan Africa, have limited access to computers and related technologies due to poverty, lack of good communication networks, lack of power, language barriers, technical illiteracy, prejudices, and lack of government support (Bitew, 2008; Masters, 2005; Thakrar et al, 2009; Tedre, Ngumbuke & Kemppainen, 2010). Little has been done to investigate technology integration in Tanzania higher learning institutions, and most educationists, technology experts and other stakeholders are arguably appearing not to focus their attention on this issue (Hennessy et al, 2010). Therefore, the purpose of this qualitative study is to explore opportunities of integrating new digital technologies by teachers and students in Tanzania’s higher learning institutions. In this study, new digital technologies mean all the current digital innovations, software and open source, web 2.0 tools, social networks and media, computers, and all mobile devices that people use for information sharing and communication (see Mugane, 1997; Agbatogun, 2013; Siemens & Tittenberger, 2009). Three research questions will be answered in the study: 1. What are the new digital technologies that have been integrated in Tanzanian higher institutions’ teaching and learning? 2. Why do learners and instructors use the digital technologies they use? 3. What are the new digital technologies that learners recommend to be integrated in day-to-day pedagogical activities by their instructors? The present study seeks to contribute to the body of knowledge by exploring the un-grabbed opportunity in using technology in higher learning classrooms’ content delivery and sharing. This study is critical to Tanzania’s higher learning instructions and pedagogical practices. It shows the kind of new technologies that have been integrated in Tanzania’s higher education by learners and instructors, and it suggests other digital tools that could effectively be integrated, considering the existing technological advancement in the country.

Literature Review Technology and Learning Collins & Halverson (2009) described that learning how to learn and learning how to obtain useful academic resources are the most important goals of education in the current education paradigm. This describes the existing

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learning environment in which learning has to be self managed and self directed (Trilling & Fadel, 2009). As Trilling and Fadel (2009) claimed, learning in the 21st does not end in getting what textbooks write, but it goes further to learning how to easily learn the content, while also mastering a broad collection of essential learning skills, innovation skills, technology skills, career skills, and other skills that one needs for work and life (see also Jukes, McCain & Crockett, 2010). Explaining the new learning environment, Siemens and Titternberger (2009) asserted that since learners can easily afford the internet and connectivity, the information cycle in higher education has changed from creation to validation. Siemens and Titternberger (2009) added that the organization, sequencing, and structuring of information is no longer under control of institutions, organizations, instructors or experts, but has largely fallen under the control of individual learners. As a result, learning has been “like opening a door, not filling a container” (p.3). They further described the internet has increased a number of online participants, who have expertise in co-creation and re-creation of new learning content by utilizing the content formerly created by others. In support of Siemens and Titternberger’s (2009) idea above, Johnson et al., (2013) stressed on the fact many people use mobile learning (i.e. learning that takes place via wireless devices like mobile phones, personal digital assistants (PDA’s), and/or laptop computers) for acquiring information and understanding. According to the Horizon Report of 2013, most people own and carry around a variety of mobile devices (Johnson et al., 2013), and they use these devices to access information and learning materials from any location convenient to them. Mobile learning, which is mentioned as the latest method of content delivery (see Peters, 2009), is characterized by the adequacy, timely, and learners’ directedness, and this meets the demands of the 21st Century learner (Berking, Haag, Archibald & Birtwhistle, 2012).

General ICT Status in Tanzania The development in information and communication technology (ICT) in Tanzania has a long history. Although, as in most Sub-Sahara African countries, Tanzania faces such challenges as lack of good communication networks, higher illiteracy level, extreme poverty, lack of viable government support, and probably the worst one, lack of power/energy (Thakrar et al., 2009; Tedre et al., 2010), in the past two decades Tanzania has experienced a noticeable advancement in the use of ICT in different spheres (Kafyulilo, 2011). New technological advancements have helped millions of Tanzanians to overcome the some of technological challenges which were identified by Thakrar et al. (2009) and Tedre et al. (2010), including lack of communication networks, poverty and language barriers. China’s technology industry, for instance, has made smartphones, tablets and other forms of little-energy mobile devices available, at prices affordable to all the people, and to the young generation in particular (Custer, 2012). Most youths, who form the highest age group among tech consumers, use and own some form of computer and/or mobile device. To make things even better,

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telephone service providers have made the GSM Internet available on the hands of these millions mobile device users (Hesselmark & Engvall, (2005). Because of the considerable mobile device accessibility, most youths, to date, spend a considerable amount of their daily time switching from one device to another, performing multi-tasks ranging from playing music, watching YouTube videos, playing games, web browsing, instant messaging (IM), and social networking (Sambira, 2013). The Use of Technology in Tanzania’s Education The use of technology in Tanzania’s education system may be looked at from two different, yet related, angles. The first angle focuses on integration of technology as a subject in the curriculum of different educational levels in the country. To keep up with the changing world, as far as globalization is concerned, the country had no choice but to find a way in which it would produce school graduates with the ability to use technology in different domains, in order to be able to meet the expanding world’s employment needs and competition (Hare, 2007; Hennessy et al., 2010; Kajuna, 2009). Officially, the process to introduce technology (ICT) as a subject in Tanzania’s curriculum started in 1997, when the first official syllabus for school computer studies was introduced in Tanzania’s secondary education (MoEVT, 2007; Hennessy et al., 2010). To date, computer studies as a subject in secondary education faces a lot of challenges, and it is not taught in most secondary schools due to diverse reasons (MoCT, 2003; Ottevanger, Van den Akker & de Feiter, 2007; Hare, 2007). Most schools in rural areas have no electricity, and most schools in general have no equipment such as computers, which are necessary equipment required for this subject (MoEVT, 2007). Due to these factors, computer studies have continued to be a day-dream to many secondary school students and stakeholders. The second angle in which one can examine the use of technology in Tanzania’s education system is based on the integration of digital technology in day-to-day pedagogical activities like classroom instructions, evaluation and feedback, in teaching other subjects, and searching for online resources. After 1997’s introduction of computer syllabus in secondary education, several other technological based programs were developed to enhance the use of digital technology in Tanzania’s education, but studies have shown that majority of schools are not integrating digital technology. Hare (2007) and Vesisenaho (2007) asserted that the use of digital technology has only been observed in a few urban private secondary schools. Similarly, Ottevanger et al (2007) explained that even in those few private schools, digital technologies are mostly used for administration purposes only and students do not have access to them. Generally, in most of the schools and education programs, teachers and students are not yet officially using technology as a tool for enhancing teaching and learning in their subjects (Hare, 2007). In recent years, there has been several privately sponsored projects which finance and advocate the use of digital technologies in Tanzania. BridgeIt

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initiatives, for instance, is a project which is financed by the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) to facilitate e-learning in the country (Kasumuni, 2011). In this project, which is locally known as Elimu kwa Teknolojia (Education through Technology) teachers in about 17 regions and about 150 schools used Nokia N95 mobile phone to download short videos (up to 7 minutes), which eventually are shared with students by using TV screens mounted in students’ classrooms (Ali, 2011).

Digital Technologies in Tanzania’s Higher Learning Institutions There is no enough evidence that higher learning institutions in Tanzania are adequately committed to the development in the use of technology (Kafyulilo, 2011). Even among the largest universities in the country, technology integration is still zero or inadequate. Kajuna (2009) found that technology integration at the University of Dar es Salaam, the country’s oldest and one of the Africa’s prominent universities, was at the lowest level. He suggested that, for a successful integration of technology at the University of Dar es Salaam, there was a need to prioritize and emphasize on periodic basic technology trainings for faculty, creation and implementation of technology plans that will involve the teaching staff, creation of the technology committee whose main responsibility will be overseeing technology use on campus, and fostering partnership with the community, NGO’s and different technology stakeholders to maximize funds for obtaining technological services and equipment. Another case study done at Iringa University College of Tumaini University, provided a number of anecdotes regarding the use of technology in higher learning institutions in Tanzania (see Tedre et al., 2010). In their report, Tedre et al. (2010) described that, although there are lot of project accomplishments which are reported in academic conferences, to funding agencies, and in journals, it seems that some of the stories are overtly exaggerated. They explain that lack of enough equipment for students and staff, network problems, lack of knowledgeable system administrators, and lack of staff training still pose challenges and threat to the integration of technology in Tanzania’s higher learning institutions. Kafyulilo (2011) also asserted that, although shortage of technological tools, lack of tech-know-how among teachers and students, and lack of power contribute to the inadequate use of technology in Tanzania, the main challenge for technology integration in Tanzania is an apparent lack of commitment by the government, schools and teachers. Although the government has been preaching its commitment to the use of technology as a means of achieving the Vision 2025 (Kajuna, 2009), corruption and lack of sufficient monetary support to execute different technological plans and projects have contributed to an indisputable failure.

Method This study employs qualitative research techniques which rely solely on the collection of non-numerical data such as words and pictures (Cresswell, 2013; Johnson & Christensen, 2012). Generally, this study is explorative in nature, as it

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studies the phenomenon in a natural setting, by investigating perspectives and views of a group of people on the integration of technology in Tanzaniaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s higher learning institutions.

Research Site, Population, and Participants The research site for this study was Tanzania, a country located in East Africa. The population involved in this study included higher learning institution professors/lecturers, students and other educational stakeholders. Due to time limit, this study managed to recruit six participants, who are three students (two females and one male) and three teachers (two male and one female) from three public higher learning institutions in Tanzania. These participants have ranging knowledge and experience in the use of digital technology for different purposes like in learning and teaching, accessing and sharing information (communication), socialization and entertainment.

Sampling Strategies After the approval from the universityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Institutional Review Board (IRB) was obtained, multiple sampling strategies were employed to recruit a suitable sample for this study. The first sampling strategy employed was the criterion (purposive) sampling strategy in which the researcher specified the target population and then identified a few individuals who were suitable to the study (Johnson & Christensen, 2012). The characteristics that were considered in this research were being a higher learning instructor, and being at least a sophomore (second year undergraduate student). Freshmen were not considered for this study because their short duration at the university could have not given them a full understanding of higher education teaching and learning, based on just a few classes they have taken since they were admitted. The second sampling strategy employed in this study was convenience sampling, in which the researcher included the people who were available and willing to participate in the study (Johnson & Christensen, 2012). The researcher used his three acquaintances, who are lecturers at the University of Dar es Salaam, Mzumbe University, and Sokoine University of Agriculture (SUA). The third sampling strategy used in this study was the snowball sampling, in which the researcher used formerly recruited participants to identify one or more additional people, who meet the stated characteristics and may be available to participate in the study (Johnson & Christensen, 2012). The researcher used the three lecturers he recruited to recruit the three students who participated in this study.

Data Collection Because the main goal for this study is to come up with detailed data, the researcher planned to use different data collection techniques, in order to accommodate/access diverse participants. Telephone and online (both synchronous and asynchronous) interviews, were conducted between the researcher and participants. After the recruitment process, participants were

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given two options – telephone interviews and online interviews – and each one of them chose the best option that worked for them. Face to face interviews were not included in the options because of the distance that existed between the researcher’s location (USA) and participants’ location (Tanzania). Asynchronous online interviews were only used for follow-up questions that emerged after telephone and synchronous interviews. The researcher wanted to take advantage of the emerging design in order to capture some new ideas as they emerged during the interview (Creswell, 2013). Basically, interview questions were drafted in both English and Kiswahili, the Tanzania’s national language. The researcher believed that even though participants could speak English, they could not have the vocabulary capacity or the same knowledge of nuance compared to a person who speaks English as their first language. Participants could communicate their ideas in details when they used the language that was native to them. The researcher, however, left this on participants’ own decision, and some preferred the use of Kiswahili while others opted for both English and Kiswahili. Interview questions were constructed to collect the information from participants on their experience with the use of (new) digital technology in their daily life and in the academic settings. Telephone interviews lasted between 30 and 45 minutes, depending on probes that emerged based on individual participant’s responses. Online interviews used between 2 and 4 hours, depending on the probes and participants typing speed. The following are some of the interview questions that were used for both students and lecturers:    

What devices (such as desktop, laptop, tablets, smartphone, etc.) that you use for information, communication and entertainment? What do you use those devices for? What are the social medias that you have accounts with, and what do you use them for? How do you think the use of computers, mobile devices, and social networks for educational/learning purposes have helped or can facilitate your learning/teaching?

Participants were also asked category-specific questions. Students were asked about the technological devices and social networks that their lecturers/professors have used or are using for teaching and instructions. They were also solicited which technological devices and online tools/social media that they would use in their instructions for classroom and out-of-classroom activities, if they were lecturers (See Appendix A for the students’ Interview Protocol). Lecturers, on the other hand, were also asked about the social medias that they are familiar with and how they think they could be used for instructions. They were also asked to give their perspective on how they think the use of computers, mobile devices, and social networks for educational/learning purposes have helped or can facilitate their teaching (See Appendix A for the teachers’ Interview Protocol). All telephone Interviews were audio-recorded for easy transcription and coding process.

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Data Analysis Data analysis in this study employed the open coding, by using MAXQDA software, in which all transcripts were read several times to identify and understand ideas and concepts which emerged during the interview. The identified codes and themes in all transcripts were marked and tabulated in similar categories, to identify common themes across participants. At this stage, some participants were re-contacted to provide more information on things that seemed to be more interesting to the researcher, in order to make use of the emerging design.

Validation Strategies For data validation and verification, this study employed member checking and reflexivity strategies. For member checking, the researcherâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s interpretation of the data was shared with the participants to see their agreement or disagreement (see Cresswell, 2013). For reflexivity, the researcher utilized his knowledge of the study area. He was born, raised and educated in the research site, and this gave him sufficient ability to reflect on some of the emerged themes. The researcher also has a certificate in Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL), and he is currently pursuing a PhD in instructional technology. All these guided him to put his analysis and interpretation of the data in a professional and acceptable ways in this field of study.

Results After careful examination and analysis of the data, different themes, subthemes and codes were developed to answer the research questions. The following are the themes and subthemes that were obtained from the data collected from the six participants:

Common and Utilized Digital Tools Results showed that not only the participants were familiar with a number of digital tools useful for instructions, but also they owned one or more devices and used them for different purposes. Familiarity. The data shows that participants had similar familiarity with the new digital technologies, but they had diverse experience in the technologies that they use and own. All participants know some common digital devices like desktop computers, laptops, tablets (ipads), and smartphones. When I asked them about the social network they know, Facebook was instantly mentioned, and followed by WhatsApp, Viber and twitter. They were also familiar with Skype, Instagram, Tango, blogs and Google+, although some of those social networks came up when participants were responding to my follow up questions. Ownership. All the participants owned laptops, and all the instructors and two of the students had smartphones. None of them (both instructors and students) possessed a tablet, or any other form of personal digital assistance (PDA) apart from laptops and smartphones. I was so interested in knowing why they did not

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own devices that are seemingly common among technology users in today’s Tanzania. Based on the information they provided, some students and faculty still cannot afford smartphones and tablets. One instructor says “…just a few students do possess smartphones... Smartphones are too expensive to be bought by our students. If even some of instructors have not managed to buy one, what about students?” Contrarily, the other two instructors say that most students in their classes have smartphones. One of them says “majority, may be 90 to 95 percent of students, have smartphones.” Supporting these two instructors, all student participants agreed that most of students have devices such as laptops and smartphones, while just a few have tablets. Social networks. All participants in this study have accounts with varied number of social networks, and they spend different amount of time on these social networks depending on the number and kind of people with whom they are connected. One student, apparently the one who did not own a smartphone, says “yes, I have an account with Facebook, but I rarely use it.” The other two students said that they use Facebook, Skype and WhatsApp to make connections with friends, and they spend quite a considerable amount of time on WhatsApp and Facebook, since they are connected to GSM networks for most of the time. All the teachers have have accounts with several social networks including Facebook, WhatsApp, Instagram and Skype. One of the instructor says, “I do not use Skype frequently. I just log in when I want to talk with a friend. But I use Facebook and WhatsApp everyday because I am always logged in, and every time a friend sends a message or a comment, I get a notification”.

Technologies Integrated in Learning and Instructions. Answering the question about the kind of technologies they used frequently, participants mentioned that, it might be hard to tell which devices they preferred because it depended on the tasks they wanted to perform with those devices. The following were the major tasks that they performed using different kinds of devices/technologies. Laptops and mobile devices. Student participants mentioned they frequently used laptops for typing their assignments and searching for online resources, while they use smartphones mainly for socialization and rarely for academic purposes (e.g. collaboration). One of the students says that “I use my laptop when I type my assignments because I do not want to take my assignments to stationaries (places where they can pay for their assignments to be typed and printed). It is hard to type my assignments using the mobile phone I have since it does not have Microsoft Word and a big keyboard, so I use my laptop”. Another student participant rarely used her laptop for socializing or for things other than academic. She says “I have a smartphone that I can carry around and connect with people any time, anywhere, and I think that is why I don’t need to use my laptop for that”. When I asked her if any of the socializations she did with her smartphone was academic, she says “well, I am not sure. Yeah, I just use Facebook and WhatsApp to ask my classmates about some assignments that I did not understand well”.

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Teachers, on the other hand, use their laptops to prepare their lesson notes and PowerPoint presentations. One of the teachers says, “that is the best way I can use my laptop. This task cannot be done by other devices like smartphones or iPads.” Online learning. Results showed that there are some initiatives to establish online learning (eLearning) support in higher learning campuses. There are eLearning units/centers whose responsibility is to provide technological assistance to teachers and students in order to facilitate learning and instruction. These eLearning centers, however, have not been fully established, and their work still remain to fixing projector and microphone problems in lecture theaters. One of the instructors says, “although our university has eLearning program, it has not yet been strong to be used effectively. This is due to the lack of facilities like computer labs, slow internet at the college, and ineffectiveness of the system (eLearning) itself.” Computer Labs. Both universities represented in this study have computer labs. These labs, however, are very small and are not relatively enough for all the students. Due to that, these labs are privileged to and are made available for teachers only, and teachers/students who are teaching/taking courses related to IT or computer science. One of the instructor says, “We have a computer lab with about 100 computers, but only teachers who are teaching ICT courses have access to them”. TVs and Video/Audio Recorders. One of the instructors mentions that, although there are lots of challenges, they sometimes use other open-source software and equipment. He mentions that they sometimes use the TV, audio recorders, and video streaming equipment. He says, “We use TVs, and sometimes when we teach communication skills with the component of listening and speaking. We ask them (students) to record, and identify differences in speech. Sometimes we use videos in which students watch and try to understand what is said in videos, for practicing listening”. Social networks. Although results showed most students have smartphones and accounts with several social networks, teachers did not make adequate use of social media and networks in learning and instructions. Instructors frequently used social networks like Facebook, WhatsApp, Twitter, Viber and Blogs in different capacities for different purposes, but none of these social networks was used as a primary tool for learning and teaching. Instructors showed their skepticism in using social networks for learning. Their main concern was the usability of these tools and other concerns such as network privacy and security. One of the instructor says “these social networks contribute into the failure of many students in their academic studies because they spend all the time charting, downloading music, etc. Even the way these social networks have been designed, it like basically for social interaction, and not for learning?” Another instructor says “I don’t even want my students to know that I am on Facebook. You have no idea; these students can put you in trouble if you connect with them on Facebook.”

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Students, on the other hand, used some of these social networks for academicrelated communications. One of the students says, “my teachers have never used any of those (social networks) for teaching. But I use them to communicate with my fellow students if I miss a class.” Another students says “I just use Facebook and WhatsApp to ask my classmates about some assignments that I did not understand well”. One of the instructors believed that students do not use social media for educational purposes. According to her, they use the social media for just communicating with friends and relatives, but not for studies. She says, “one time I was listening to BBC Swahili in which three students were asked for what purpose do they use social networks. None of them responded to use for studies”. Video conferencing. Results also showed instructors do not use video conferencing tools like Skype, Google Hangouts and Adobe Connect for teaching. One of the instructors says “I could probably use them, but I think the Internet would not allow.” Another instructor says, “you want me to use Skype for teaching, how many students would have equipment with cameras?” One of the instructor, however, mentions that he uses Skype for video conferencing with other faculty, and for providing individualized assistance and feedback to students, when they have questions and other concerns, and only when they show that they can have access to that. He did not, however, mention to use it in classroom setting.

Reasons for Using Digital Technologies for Learning/Teaching Participants had varied responses on why learners and instructors use digital technologies for learning/teaching. The following were the reasons emerged. Searching for resources. Participants believe that students and instructors use laptops only, and not other devices, for searching online resources. He says that although some students do not possess laptops, they use cyber cafes, or they borrow laptops from their friends, when they want to search for online materials. He says “what I know is that when a student wants to search for materials from internet, he/she uses computer from internet cafes or computer labs, and sometimes sharing their colleagues' laptops.” Students agreed that they use laptops and desktop computers for online resources. They say that they can easily get what they want to study, and they can get materials which go beyond what teachers present in classrooms. One of the students says, “I like searching for materials online. It is very easy to get books and articles online, and that helps me to understand better what my teacher taught me”. Another students says, “libraries do not have the assigned books. I do not know how it would be if we did not have the Internet.” Connection and collaboration. Although social networks for connection and socialization may be considered a non-academic, results show that some students used them for communicating for academic matters. However, it seems that students preferred the traditional face-to-face as their collaborative method. They did not use any video conferencing tools for discussion because they use

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Vimbweta (stabs used by students to hang out with friends and for group discussion). He says “most of the times we have group discussions on Vimbweta.” Creation and presentation. Instructors used laptops and desktop computers for creating and presenting the materials in classrooms. While they also used the internet for searching for resources that they share with their students, they also used the same for creating slides and lecture notes that they use in classroom presentations and handouts.

Recommended digital technologies Students and instructors did not have a lot of tools to recommend. This could be due to the fact that they were not well-informed of the fact that technology can work so powerfully in teaching and learning. They did not have a background in curriculum design or educational technology and that may have hindered them from seeing potentialities of technology in instruction. The following are their recommendations: Web 2.0. Participants advocated for more use of web tools for searching online resources. They showed that search engines such as Google can be well utilized, and students could be showed how to use them effectively to get the most of it. One of the teachers suggests that this is important because most of the “academic materials are found from strong internet engines like Google where someone can download a book/article etc.”. Projectors and PowerPoints. Participants suggested that instructors need to make use of the available projectors for PowerPoint presentations. Students, in particular, indicated that, although projectors are easily available in lecture theaters, just a few instructors use them. He says “I think our instructors should make use of the available projectors. It seems that some of them do not even know how to prepare a PowerPoint presentation for their lessons”. YouTube. Results show that students suggest the use of online videos. One of the students mentions that YouTube videos, if integrated, would be useful in learning. She says “I think YouTube videos could help us understand a lot of things. There are good instructional videos that can be used in classroom.” Commenting about this, one of the teachers agreed with that suggestion, but his concern is the internet that will be sufficient to stream those videos: “Yes, I agree. But as a teacher, where would I get the internet to download those videos?” Social Networks. One of the students advocated for integration of social networks in instructions. This student recommended integration of as much social networks as available. He mentions in particular Facebook, WhatsApp, Skype, and bolgs (web 2). The student says, “I think I spend a lot of time on Facebook and WhatsApp; if our teachers would find a way to give us assignments to do in these social networks, I would use them for that purpose”. One of the teachers complied with the student’s idea. The teacher thought that

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he could even make some devices and social media a requirement for his class, but he is scared about some of students from poor families, and who cannot afford the devices. He thought that the best he can do is just trying to encourage them to buy the devices and use them for their own leaning purposes.

Discussion Although the use of digital technologies is evident among instructors and students, results show that their integration in learning and instructions is still minimal. Instructor participants did not provide information that shows adequate use of the available technologies. The only technologies that both instructors and students make use of are laptops, the internet, and projectors. They use their laptops to search for online resources, and preparing their PowerPoint slides, ready for presentation by using projectors. Participants in this study have unknowingly already integrated these digital technologies in their studies/teachings, and that they have seen how technological integration facilitates learning. The fact that teachers have used Skype for giving feedback to students, still explains how they utilize the idea described in Siemens & Titternberger, (2009) that emphasizes on giving learners immediate and timely feedback. Another important thing is that, the fact that most students use laptops (and smartphones) for downloading online resources provides an opportunity for instructors to assign them with online activities, games and other pedagogical activities that would help them to understand the content even better. As one of the students suggested, he would like to see his instructors assigning him some instructional activities that could be accomplished by using the tools he already has. Another open opportunity would be utilizing free online sharing tools such as Google Drive, Box, Dropbox, Sky Drive, OneDrive etc. and share them with other students. The abundance of self-directed search for online resources could be utilized by asking students to upload the materials in shared online folders or resource wikis. This would make students to become co-creator/co-author of the learning materials. Instructors could also assign their learners to create online portfolios of resources they get online and share them with the whole class in order to facilitate collaboration among students. Social network groups, like WhatsApp and Facebook groups can be created for particular classes and encourage all students to join and share different resources. These social medias make a nice tool for sharing information, exchanging ideas, debating issues and sharing videos, pictures and other mediated resources for each students to utilize. A lot of free YouTube videos, which would be useful in different learning contexts, can be shared on these social networks, and that would help students to come to class well prepared and aware of the previous lessons. Teachers could also use these tools to disseminate information and announcements related to their courses and programs.

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As indicated in Hare, 2007 and Kafyulilo, 2007, participants in this study also complained their learning institutions lacked enough technological equipment for all the faculty and students. As participants said, there are no enough computers in computer labs, and because of that the priority is given to students who are studying ICT-related subjects. It is high time that the Tanzanian government saw the importance of investing in the future of its people. Vision 2025 will not be realized, if the government will not be willing to practically fund the learning environment of its higher learning institutions. The data also showed that, lack of tech-know-how among teachers and students, and lack of power are still the main challenges that hinder technology integration in Tanzaniaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s higher learning classrooms. It seems that instructors still have a limited understanding of the kinds and ways of using different digital technologies for teaching and learning. Participants, for instance, are well aware of the digital devices and social networks which are used for other purposes like sharing information, entertainment, and socialization, but they have a limited knowledge of how these tools could be used for instructional purposes. It seems there are few, if not none, technological trainings, workshops and seminars for instructors. As Kajuna (2009) Teacher training and workshops may well help to remedy the situation, and teachers may learn how to provide their students with technology-based instructions, which would help them to enjoy learning.

Conclusion Although a lot of challenges still persist in Tanzaniaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s use of technology due to factors like lack of power and lack of adequate equipment, opportunities for integrating new digital technologies in higher learning institutions still exist. The existing opportunities for integrating new digital technologies such as mobile devices and social networks are not adequately utilized. If properly utilized, digital technologies could make the Tanzanian higher learning enjoyable and highly fruitful. Although the government has not invested enough in educational technology by financing purchase of sufficient technological equipment, teachers and students could still utilize the existing technological setting to a better level. There are many students with smartphones, laptops and other devices, and it will be a waste of naturally occurring opportunities if rigorous actions will not be taken to harness them. This study, however, faces a number of limitations, the main one being the number of participants recruited and interviewed. This study interviewed six participants, from three universities only. Also the study uses convenience sampling, which may not be a good sampling strategy, for validation reasons. The researcher recommends a detailed study that will incorporate a larger sample size, and probably utilize descriptive data to show the extent to which technology has been integrated. Nevertheless, the information obtained from this study provides a worthy sharing information which can help higher education educators and students to rethink their pedagogical craftiness.

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Appendix A Interview Protocol for Students Use of Technology in Learning/Instructions Name of Interviewee: …...……………………………………………. Place/Platform of the Interview: ……………………………. Time: ………………… Introductory Protocol Thank you for your agreeing to participate in this research. Just for your information, I would like to audio record our conversations today, in order to facilitate note-taking and clear usage of your opinions, and only myself will have access to the audio recordings, which will be destroyed immediately after transcription. For the information that you will share with me via emails and chats, I will be the only one with access to them. This interview is absolutely voluntary, and before we start our interview, you will be asked to make sure that you signed the consent form I sent you and emailed them to me, to give your consent to the interview. I have planned this interview to last no longer than 45 minutes. During this time, I have several questions that I would like to ask, and in case time runs short, it may be necessary to interrupt you in order to push ahead and complete this in time. Do I have your permission to proceed? Introduction of the Research Purpose You have been selected to speak with me today because you have been identified as someone who has a great deal to share about teaching, learning, and the use of technology in our country. My research project as a whole focuses on the improvement of teaching and learning activity, with particular interest in understanding the importance of new technologies and how they could be integrated in our day-to-day instructions to facilitate learning. My study does not aim to evaluate your knowledge in using technology in instructions, but rather what would be your opinions on the use of new technologies. Interviewee Background To start our interview, let’s know each other a little better. What is your current field of study, and how long have you been in that field? 1. Now, lets talk about technological devices that you use. What devices (such as desktop, laptop, tablets, smartphone, etc.) that you use for information, communication and entertainment? (5 minutes) Probes:

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What devices do you personally have (desktop computer, laptop, smartphone, tablet/iPad etc.)?  What are your favorite ones? Thanks for that information. So what do you use those devices for? (6 Minutes) Probes:  Do you use any of them for educational/learning purposes?  Why do you like using them for learning purposes? A lot of people have accounts with different social media such as Facebook, Twitter, Skype, WhatsApp, Viber, Tango etc. for different purposes. What are the social medias that you have accounts with, and what do you use them for? (7 Minutes) Probes:  Which one do you use more frequently and why?  How do you use them for educational/learning purposes? Thank you so much! Now, how do you think the use of computers, mobile devices, and social networks for educational/learning purposes have helped or can facilitate your learning? (7 minutes) A lot of professors/lecturers use technological devices and social networks to facilitate their instructions, and to help students to understand the contents well. What are the technological devices and social networks that your lecturers/professors have used or use for teaching and instructions? Would you give one or two examples of how they use the technology and how the use of technology helped with your learning? (10 Minutes) Probes:  Did you understand better when they used technology than when they did not use? Why?  What kind of technology use in teaching was effective to your learning?  What devices/technologies do you think have not been used considerably? Were you a teacher/professor, what technological devices and online tools/social media that you would use in your instructions for classroom and out-of-classroom activities? (5 Minutes)

Thank you for your participation!

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Appendix B Interview Protocol for Instructors Use of Technology in Learning/Instructions Name of Interviewee: …...……………………………………………. Place/Platform of the Interview: …………………………………. Time: ………………… Introductory Protocol Thank you for your agreeing to participate in this research. Just for your information, I would like to audio record our conversations today, in order to facilitate note-taking and clear usage of your opinions, and only myself will have access to the audio recordings, which will be destroyed immediately after transcription. For the information that you will share with me via emails and chats, I will be the only one with access to them. This interview is absolutely voluntary, and before we start our interview, you will be asked to make sure that you signed the consent form I sent you and emailed them to me, to give your consent to the interview. I have planned this interview to last no longer than 45 minutes. During this time, I have several questions that I would like to ask, and in case time runs short, it may be necessary to interrupt you in order to push ahead and complete this in time. Do I have your permission to proceed? Introduction of the Research Purpose You have been selected to speak with me today because you have been identified as someone who has a great deal to share about teaching, learning, and the use of technology in our country. My research project as a whole focuses on the improvement of teaching and learning activity, with particular interest in understanding the importance of new technologies and how they could be integrated in our day-to-day instructions to facilitate learning/teaching. My study does not aim to evaluate your knowledge in using technology in instructions, but rather what would be your opinions on the use of new technologies. Interviewee Background To start our interview, let’s know each other a little better. What is your current department, and how long have you been in that department? 7. Now, lets talk about technological devices that you use. What devices (such as desktop, laptop, tablets, smartphone, etc.) that you use for information, communication and entertainment? (7 minutes) Probes:

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What devices do you personally have (desktop computer, laptop, smartphone, tablet/iPad etc.)?  What are your favorite ones? 8. Thanks for that information. So what technological devices that your department/college has, which teachers can use for teaching and instructions? (10 Minutes) Probes:  Is there any computer labs that you and your students can use for instructional purposes?  Do you use them in your instructions? 9. A lot of people have accounts with different social media such as Facebook, Twitter, Skype, WhatsApp, Viber, Tango etc. for different purposes. What are the social medias that you are familiar with? Do you think they could be used for instructions? (7 Minutes) Probes:  How could they be used?  Have you ever used any of them, and how have you used them? 10. Thank you so much! Now, how do you think the use of computers, mobile devices, and social networks for educational/learning purposes have helped or can facilitate your teaching? (7 minutes) 11. A lot of students use technological devices and social networks to facilitate their learning, and to search for more information about the contents that professors teach them. What are the technological devices and social networks that your think your students use?(10 Minutes) Probes:  Do you encourage them to use those technological resources?  What technologies do you think they have not used considerately? Thank you for your participation!

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 14, No. 2, pp. 163-172, December 2015

A Brief Review of Researches on the Use of Graphing Calculator in Mathematics Classrooms* Jung-Chih Chen and Yung-Ling Lai National Chiayi University Chiayi, Taiwan

Abstract The main purpose of this study is to know about the graphing calculator used for learning mathematics. Many studies have attempted to find the effect of graphing calculator availability in mathematics classroom. Also, many educators have explored the role of graphing calculators. Based on reviews, most researches about the use of graphing calculators in the mathematics classrooms indicate that graphing calculators have had positive effect on the learning of mathematics at any grade levels. However, several reports still revealed that using graphing calculators had no significant or negative effects on learning of mathematics (Averbeck, 2001; Fox, 1998; Norris, 1995; Upshaw, 1994). This paper may provide many readers a snapshot to capture the use of graphing calculators based on research studies. Keywords: Graphing Calculator, NCTM, CAS, Mathematics Classroom, Mathematics Learning.

Introduction In 2000, the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) published the Principles and Standards for School Mathematics, a set of recommendations for mathematics curricula for Grade K-12. This book states: “Technology is essential in teaching and learning mathematics, it influences the mathematics that is taught and enhances students’ learning” (p. 24). Also, the Curriculum and Evaluation Standards for School Mathematics document (NCTM, 1989) states that “The K-4 curriculum should make appropriate and ongoing use of calculators and computers” (p. 19). Thus, technology use in the classroom should be

____________________________________________________________ *This study was partly supported by the Ministry of Science and Technology (MOST) in Taiwan. (Grant number: MOST 103-2511-S-415-003). Yet the opinions expressed here are only those of the authors. **We are grateful for the helpful comments provided by several anonymous reviewers on earlier drafts of this article.

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emphasized. Meanwhile, all levels of mathematics teachers should think about its impact and advantages to students’ learning in the classroom. In the spring of 2015, the researcher conducted a project to explore the implementation of mathematics content standards in high school in Taiwan, surveys were mailed to mathematics teachers. Of the 480 surveys, about 171 were returned. One item teachers were asked about software they used in Mathematics class. From the analyses in Figure 1 below, we found that most teachers only used MS Excel, clearly technology use was limited.

90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 Figure 1: Responses to “What kind of software did you use in mathematics class?”

In the past, students usually only use paper and pencil in the mathematics classroom. But today most people agree that technology can engage students’ interest in the learning process of mathematics. For instance, the reality is that calculator is able to perform operations and execute algebraic symbolic manipulations quickly and accurately; calculator use allows students and teachers more time to develop mathematical understanding, reasoning and other high level of applications. The fact is that appropriate use of technology associated with appropriate pedagogy will lead students to think and reason more mathematically. This review focuses on the use of graphing calculators. As you may know, since the mid-1980s, there has been growing interest and attention in graphing calculators’ potential to facilitate and enhance the teaching and learning of mathematics in school. From algebra I to pre-calculus, most studies designed have compared test scores between two groups; one called experiment group in which students received instruction with graphing calculators , and the other called control group received instruction without a graphing calculator. The final results of studies mostly suggest that the use of graphing calculators in teaching and learning is quite helpful to students’ cognitive understanding, visualization, and achievement in mathematics classrooms. (Graham & Thomas, 2000; Johnson, 1997; Karadeniz, 2015; Kastberg &Leatham, 2005; Paschal, 1995 ; Wareham, 2016).

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Academic Research In this section, I have reviewed many researches related to the use of graphing calculators, especially focusing on some academic dissertations. Although about fifty dissertations have been carefully reviewed, because of the limitation of space, here I briefly discuss some significant exemplars as follows: 1. Blozy (2002) conducted his study to analyze performance on calculus questions by students using computer algebra system (CAS) and non-CAS groups respectively. In addition, students were given two calculus tests, but students were only allowed to use graphing calculator on the first test. Further, Blozy used both quantitative and qualitative methods to analyze the collected data. Fifty-six advanced Placement high school calculus students participated in the study. CAS group included thirty students and non-CAS group included twenty-six students. All students were given two calculus tests, but students were only allowed to use graphing calculator on the first test. Indeed, Blozy found that the CAS students performed better on some individual questions while non-CAS students performed better on the other individual questions. Overall, the results did show that CAS students and nonCAS students approach and answer questions differently. Specifically, the CAS students consistently used graphical and numerical representations to solve problems and seemed to perform better on questions requiring this type of representation. Likewise, non-CAS students consistently used algebraic approaches to solve problems and seemed to perform better on questions requiring these types of representations. This study concluded that it was not the type of question that was significant to performance, but the type of representation (That is; depending on its graphical, numerical, or algebraic type) that students used to solve the question that was significant to performance. 2. Averbeck (2001) investigated college students’ learning of the function concept and the role of the graphing calculator in a college algebra course. He also examined the difference between students with high symbolic manipulation skills and students’ algebraic skills and academic majors (math & science, business, and liberal arts), twenty five students were involved in this study, and they were divided into six categories. To collect data on students’ understanding of functions, students are given a pretest and posttest. Some test questions consist of three problem situations given in the numerical, graphical, and symbolic representations. To collect data about the role of the graphing calculator, Averbeck (2001) conducted daily classroom observations. Further, formal and informal interviews with students and instructor were conducted to verify students’ responses and classroom observations. The results indicate that students had difficulties with univalent requirement in three areas: (a) order of domain and range, (b) preference for simple algorithms, and (c) the restriction that functions were one-to-one. Students with high symbolic manipulation skills were more flexible working between representations of functions. Also, half of the students with low symbolic manipulation skills perceived a single function given in different representations as separate entities. Again, students might interpret that exponential functions possessed a bounded domain because they did not © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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explore the behavior of graph. Averbeck also mentioned that the graphing calculator played a role in all phases of the solution process as follows: (1) The initial phase: Students used graphing calculators to develop a symbolic approach. (2) The solution-execution phase: Students used graphing calculators to avoid careless errors. (3) The solution-monitoring phase: Students used graphing calculators to check answers. 3. Allison(2000) investigated the challenge of the graphing calculator used in high school students’ thinking while solving problems. The students were presented with many different tasks to solve including both contextual, nonroutine problems and non-contextual, exploratory problems. With pertinent data presented in symbolic, tabular, and textual representations. Students interviews reflected their perspective on the importance of the use of the graphing calculators when problem solving. The results reveal that the graphing calculator gives an impetus to a students’ mathematical problem solving. All of the students agreed that the graphing calculator promoted speed and accuracy to their problem solving process. Frequently, students attempt to use graphical approaches to solve problems, and their thinking ways about tasks are also influenced. Quite often, students might use the graphing calculator functions that had been demonstrated in their mathematics classroom. For instance; they used the “regression functions” to find symbolic models in problems with tabular data and in explorations with graphical data. Also they might use trial-and-error methods to explore the possible relationships between functions and their corresponding graphs. 4. Milou (1999) designed a survey of classroom usage involving the graphing calculator. In this study, he focused on 146 secondary mathematics teachers who used the graphing calculator in their teaching. In particular, main attention is to examine algebra teachers’ teaching; their understanding about the graphing calculators, and to see any changes about their instructional practices. Most teachers agreed or strongly agreed that “Graphing calculators allow for algebra classes to cover additional material.” In addition, all teachers were asked to tell in which potential topics were appropriately explored. The following three topics were written by a lot of teachers: (1) Statistics associated with data analysis, curve or best fit, quartiles, and so on. (2) Some problems using complex applications involving in everyday life or business, something like that. (3) Mathematical problem solving. Likewise, teachers were asked about what topics should be ignored or should be weakened; their answers mostly include (1) Factoring (2) Student produced graphing (3) Rational expressions In addition, about 72% of the teachers answered “agree” or “strongly” to the

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question: “Students should first solve algebraically and support graphically.” But, when they were asked if students should solve graphically only when algebraic methods are unworkable, 59% answered “disagree” or “strongly disagree.” Other important results include (i) Most algebra teachers thought that the graphing calculator played a motivational tool, (ii) Teachers of algebra II used the graphing calculators more often than teachers of algebra I, (iii) Algebra teachers are not confident of how to use the graphing calculators in their teaching. Milou also concludes that at present the use of the graphing calculator is not coincident to many algebra teachers. He points out the fact, although many high school teachers and algebra II teachers widely accepted the graphing calculator, yet there is still much controversy by middle school teachers and algebra I teachers, they express concerns about whether this technology is really appropriate in their mathematics classrooms. Interestingly enough, two questions shown in this study are listed as follows: (Milou, 1999) Q1: “Do you Use Graphing Calculators in Your Classroom?” Current Teaching Assignment Algebra Ⅰ Algebra Ⅱ Both Algebra I & Algebra II Neither Algebra I nor Algebra II

Response(Yes) 37 21 19 11

Response(No) 45(teachers) 2(teachers) 3(teachers) 8(teachers)

Q2: “Should Graphing Calculators Be Permitted to Be Used on All Tests?” Response Strongly agree Agree Neither agree nor disagree Disagree Strongly disagree

Frequency 21 31 20 52 20

Percent 14.6 21.5 13.9 36.1 13.9

5. Fox (1998) studied the relations of a graphing calculator used in an active learning environment on intermediate algebra students’ achievement and attitude. This quasi-experimental study involved six classes of community college intermediate algebra students (totally 166 persons) during six weeks. Students in the experimental group used TI-82 in class and on tests. While students in the control group still used their scientific calculators. Both groups were taught in active learning environments. Students were given pretest, three achievement tests and a post-attitude survey. The results indicated that no significant differences due to treatment were found between the groups on achievements or attitude toward mathematics. However, when compared to intermediate algebra classes not involved in this study, 15% more students in the study’s active learning classes completed the course successfully. © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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Fox also drew the following important conclusions in his studies: (1) Active learning could positively impact learning. (2) The use of graphing calculators encouraged active learning and could help students make connections between different representations. (3) Remedial students might not be accustomed to using calculators for studying mathematics and should be tested on the basic use of the graphing calculator before being tested for achievement. (4) Teachers might struggle to incorporate the use of graphing calculators. (5) The determination of technology’s appropriate use should allow for the diversity of remedial students’ needs and past experiences.

Highlights From Various Research According to the research articles, some important findings about the use of graphing calculators could be succinctly summarized as follows: (1) The most critical personal factors affecting teachers’ decisions were professional development, beliefs, mathematical and pedagogical knowledge, and familiarity with graphing calculators. Note that teaching experience, education background, and personal use of the calculator did not play an important role in teachers’ decision-making process (Szombathelyi, 2001) (2) The graphing calculator was usually used as an exploring tool to solve problems related to limit and derivative. When a multiple representational approach was used, it was very likely to involve of algebraic and graphical representations (Girard, 2002). (3) Technology integration with the graphing calculator requires changes in teacher attitudes, course content, instructional methodology, and teacher preparation. Teachers with limited knowledge and preparation using graphing calculator usually exhibited a lack of confidence that affected their attitude and their effectiveness in using the graphing calculator in their classrooms (Bynum, 2002). (4) CAS students and non-CAS students approach and answer questions differently. The CAS students consistently used graphic and numerical representations to solve problems (Blozy, 2002). (5) Students used graphing calculators to develop a symbolic approach, to avoid careless errors, and to check answers (Averbeck, 20001). (6) The graphing calculators often can help students visualize the derivative and hence make connections with the other kind of representations (Serhan, 2000). (7) The results revealed that the graphing calculator served as impetus for students’ mathematical problem solving. Graphing calculator could promote speed and accuracy to their problem solving process. (Allison, 2000). (8) The graphing calculators could enhance students’ graph interpretation abilities. Students’ abilities to interpret contextual graphs of functions both locally and globally improved. Students exhibited very well developed understanding of the relationship between slope and the rate of change of one variable (Pullano, 2000). (9) The graphing calculator proved to be useful tool for achieving an improvement in student understanding of variable. Some concerns include the lack of confidence and the lack of resources (Graham & Thomas, 2000). © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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(10) Some algebra teachers are not confident of how to use the graphing calculator in their instruction. For example: Do concepts and procedures still need to be mastered first? Also, teachers agreed that the graphing calculator should be used to support analytical algebra findings, but they disagreed that the graphing calculator should only be used when algebraic methods were difficult. Teachers in the study believed that algebra I students were too dependent on the graphing calculator and were thus unable to handle basic algebraic manipulations (Milou, 1999). (11) The graphing calculator could make the work easier and sooner, it did enhance a student’s visualization about Algebra II concepts. But, some students with low performance did have more difficulty in operating the graphing calculators (Drottar, 1998). (12) The cognitive benefits about graphing calculator use were still controversial by some algebra teachers. Most algebra teachers thought that graphing calculator was useful tool for promoting motivation in mathematics classrooms (Milou, 1998). (13) Some results suggested that the graphing calculator (i) could facilitate the learning of functions and the spatial visualization skills; (ii) could promote mathematical investigation and exploration; and (iii) could reform in emphasis of teaching and learning from algebraic skill to graphical investigation, and exploring the relationship between graphical, algebraic and geometric representations ( Penglase & Arnold, 1996). (14) Teachers in high school used graphing calculators to provide graphs and make generalizations about transformations of the quadratic function in mathematics classroom. (Simmt, 1997). (15) Currence (1993) found that some teachers have changed the ways they taught mathematics because of the use of the graphing calculator in their classrooms.

Concluding Remarks In summary, most studies conclude that using graphing calculator has its value in the mathematics classroom. At least, available research indicates that some benefits are obvious and straightforward, such as (1) It will provide students visualization (Karadeniz, 2015) through graphical and numerical approaches to solve problems, (2) It will reduce the time spent on calculations and manipulations as well, (3) It will illustrate some mathematical concepts which lead to a higher level of thinking and understanding, and (4) Results of an indepth study reveal the positive relationships between calculator use and mathematics achievement (Kastberg &Leatham, 2005 ; Wareham, 2016). However, here we emphasize the importance of teacher’s “appropriate use” in teaching. Teachers should look through the textbooks in advance to find topics where a graphing calculator could be used. Basically those topics should meet content goals and learning objectives of the students. Further, some people may wonder if the graphing calculators have the possibility to reform mathematics education, such as the ways in teaching or the content focuses. In order for more significant changes to come through, here we provide some suggestions as follows: © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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(1) Students , especially in high schools, should have access to graphing calculators to perform calculations and to support problem solving activities in mathematics classroom. (2) The school and district should support and guide teachers in the appropriate use of the graphing calculators. Professional development can provide in service workshops, peer tutoring, and new faculty expertise. (3) Since the graphing calculator becomes more popular by classroom teachers, so the curriculum needs to be reviewed and aligned, especially for some areas that can be de-emphasized because of the inclusion of the graphing calculators. On the other hand, in some topics, teachers can better have the opportunity to learn “when” and “how” to use the graphing calculator appropriately in their mathematics classrooms. (4) All publishers of textbooks, including all authors of assessments, evaluation, and mathematics instruments, should realize that the graphing calculator applications certainly affect the mathematics curriculum. (5) Those people who are responsible for the selection of curriculum materials should remain cognizant of how the technology eventually affects the curriculum. (6) Whether or not students are allowed to use the graphing calculators in their tests, we believe, is also an incentive factor to determine its prevalence in the mathematics classroom. Finally, the researchers expect that mathematics teachers in high school can understand the benefits to integrate graphing calculators in their classrooms. Indeed, teachers can determine “when” and “how” to use it in class (Karadeniz, 2015). More than all, technology use should be considered in new curriculum documents such as mathematics content standards or guidelines.

References Alexander, M. P. (1993). The effective use of computers and graphing calculators in college algebra. Dissertation Abstracts international, 54(6A), 2080. Allison, J. A. (2000). High school students’ problem solving with a graphing calculator. (University of Georgia, 2000). Dissertation Abstracts international, 61(11A), 4314. Arnold, S. M. (2003). Integrating Technology in the Senior School: Non-Calculus Mathematics. Texas Instruments Australia. Melbourne. Arnold, S. M. (2003). Integrating Technology in General Mathematics: NSW Stage 6. Texas Instruments Australia. Melbourne. Averbeck, P. J. (2001). Student understanding of functions and the use of the graphing calculator in a college algebra course. (Oregon State University, 2001). Dissertation Abstracts international, 61(11A), 4315. Blozy, T. A. (2002). An analysis of performance on calculus questions by students using CAS and non-CAS graphing calculators. (Columbia University Teachers College, 2002). Dissertation Abstracts international, 61(5A), 1754. Bynum, H. L. (2002). Graphing calculator use in college algebra and implications for teaching and course development. (North Carolina State University, 2002). Dissertation Abstracts international, 61(4A), 1281. Chandler, P. A. (1993). The effect of the graphing calculator on high school students mathematical achievement. Dissertation Abstracts international, 51(10), 3823A. Currence, A. J. (1993). A descriptive study of instructional delivery systems for

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mathematics teachers related to the graphing calculator. Dissertation Abstracts international , 53(11A), 3832. Devantier, A. T. (1993). The impact of graphing calculators on the understanding of functions and their graphs. Master Abstracts International, 31, 535. Drottar, J. F. (1998). An analysis of the effect of the graphing calculator on student performance in algebra Ⅱ (High school students). Boston College, 1998. Dissertation Abstracts international, 61(1A), 56. Fox, L. F. (1998). The effect of a graphing calculator used in an active learning environment on intermediate algebra students’ achievement and attitude. Ph.D. thesis, University of South Florida. Girard, N. R. (2002). Students’ representational approaches to solving calculus problems: Examining the role of graphing calculators. (University of Pittsburgh, 2002). Dissertation Abstracts international, 61(10A), 3502. Graham, A. T. &Thomas, M. O. J. (2003). Building a versatile understanding of algebraic variables with a graphic calculator. Educational Studies n Mathematics 41: 265-282. Kluwer Academic Publishers. Printed in the Netherlands. Johnson, L. H. (1997). A look at parabolas with a graphing calculator. The Mathematics Teacher , 90(4), 278-282. Karadeniz, I. (2015). UCSMP Teachers’ Perspectives when Using Graphing Calculators in Advanced Mathematics . Graduate Theses and Dissertations.

http://scholarcommons.usf.edu/etd/5712 Kastberg, S., & Leatham, K. (2005). Research on graphing calculators at the secondary level: Implications for mathematics teacher education. Contemporary Issues in Technology and Teacher Education [Online serial], 5(1). Available: http://www.citejournal.org/vol5/iss1/mathematics/article1.cfm Milou, E. (1998). Attitudes toward and use of the graphing calculator in the teaching of algebra (high school teachers). (Temple University, 1998). Dissertation Abstracts international, 59(6A), 1956. Milou, E. (1999). The Graphing Calculator: A Survey of Classroom Usage. School Science and Mathematics, 99(3), 133-139. National Council of Teacher of Mathematics. (2000). Principles and Standards for School Mathematics. Reston, VA: Author. National Council of Teacher of Mathematics. (1989). Curriculum and Evaluation Standards for School Mathematics. Reston, VA: Author. Norris, C.W. (1995). The impact of using graphic calculators as an aid for the teaching and learning of precalculus in a university setting. Dissertation Abstracts international, 55(7A), 1862. Ottinger, T.P. (1994). Conceptual and procedural learning in the first year algebra using graphing calculators and computers. Dissertation Abstracts international. 54(8A), 2934. Paschal, S.G. (1995). Effects of a visualization-enhanced course in college algebra using graphing calculators and video tapes. Dissertation Abstracts international, 55(9A), 2754. Penglase, M. and Arnold, S. (1996). The graphics calculators in mathematics education: A critical review of recent research. Mathematics Education Research Journal, 8(1), 5890. Penkow, C. K. (1995). The effect of college student use of graphics calculators on the learning of algebraic concepts. Dissertation Abstracts international. 55(12A), 3774. Pullano, F. B. (2000). Enhancing students’ graph interpretation abilities through the use of graphing calculators. (University of Virginia, 2000). Dissertation Abstracts international, 61(6A), 2227. Serhan, D. (2000). The effect of using graphing calculations on students’ concepts images of the derivative at a point. (Arizona State University, 2000). Dissertation © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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Abstracts international, 61(10A), 3932. Simmt, E. (1997). Graphing Calculators in High School Mathematics. Journal of Computers in Mathematics and Science Teaching, 16(2), 269-289. Charlottesville, VA: Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education (AACE). Retrieved January 17, 2016 from http://www.editlib.org/p/8897. Szombathelyi, A. (2001). Personal factors that influence teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; decisions about graphing calculator in mathematics instruction. (University of South Carolina., 2001). Dissertation Abstracts international, 62(7A), 2368. Upshaw, J.T. (1994). The effect of the calculator-based graph-exploration method of instruction on advanced placement calculus achievement. Dissertation Abstracts international. 54(11A), 4023. Wareham, K. (2016). Calculators and Mathematics Achievement: What the NAEP Mathematics Results Tell Us. Paper presented on Jan. 3 at the (14th) 2016 Hawaii International Conference On Education. Honolulu, Hawaii, USA.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 14, No. 2, pp. 173-191, December 2015

What Do College Students Really Want When it Comes to Their Instructors’ Use of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) in Their Teaching? Catherine S. Fichten,1,2,3,4 Laura King,2,5 Mary Jorgensen,2,6 Mai Nhu Nguyen,2 Jillian Budd,2,3 Alice Havel,1,2 Jennison Asuncion,1 Rhonda Amsel,3 Odette Raymond,2 Tiiu Poldma7 1Dawson College, 2Adaptech Research Network, 3McGill University, 4Jewish General Hospital, 5Cégep André-Laurendeau, 6CRISPESH, 7Université de Montréal Montreal, Canada Abstract. In fall 2014 we surveyed 311 students who had been enrolled at least one semester in two Canadian junior/community colleges. We inquired about their views, experiences, and recommendations about ICTs used in their college by their instructors in face-to-face classes in various programs of study. Results show that students consistently preferred that their instructors use ICTs in their teaching, including lectures as well as individual and group work in class. Students in all programs liked most forms of commonly used ICTs used by faculty in their teaching (e.g., PowerPoint, videos, CMS features). However, they disliked digital textbooks, online courses, collaborative work online, discussion forums, blogs, chat rooms, instant messaging, and all forms of communication using social networking when used by faculty (e.g., Facebook). Students’ views about what ICT-related experiences worked especially well and poorly for them are presented, along with their recommendations about what colleges and instructors need to change.

Keywords: information and communication technology; ICT; college; students; professors

Introduction. Use of information and communication technologies (ICTs) in postsecondary education has become ubiquitous, and college students and instructors have jumped enthusiastically into the fray (e.g., Cassidy & Scapin, 2013). ICTs used by faculty in their teaching embrace a very large variety of tools including course/learning management systems (CMS/LMS – e.g., Moodle), social media (e.g., Facebook, Twitter), email, presentation software (e.g., PowerPoint, Prezi), cloud and web based applications (e.g., Google Drive), as well as tablet and SmartPhone apps. Technology champions have encouraged their colleges to invest in interactive whiteboards (e.g., SmartBoard), social experiments such as the “flipped” or “active learning” classrooms (Galway, et al., 2015; Lasry, Dugdale, & Charles, 2014; Rockich-Winston, et al., 2015), as well as

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in seminars on the use of ICTs by instructors (e.g., APOP, undated; ProfWeb, undated). Global questions such as, “Does more extensive use of ICTs by instructors ensure better learning?” and “Is teaching using ICTs seen as more or less effective by students and instructors?” have been shown to be overly simplistic (Abrami et al., 2006; Bell & Federman, 2013; NMC Horizon Report, 2013). Furthermore, results of investigations using more sophisticated questions regarding specific forms of ICTs used by faculty and students are inconsistent (Charles, Lasry, & Whittaker, 2013; Raby, Karsenti, Meunier, & Villeneuve, 2011; Venkatesh, et al., in press; Roy & Poellhuber, 2012). Such inconsistency is to be expected given that technology-centric approaches do not meaningfully incorporate the critical determinants of ICT effectiveness: teaching context (cf. Barrette (2009). Thus, it is an urgent priority to evaluate which types of ICTs work well to support student achievement and engagement, for which students, under what circumstances. For research to translate into high quality instruction, it is vital that faculty have good guidance on how and when to use various types of ICTs to maximize effectiveness and encourage student motivation and engagement. Yet, randomized controlled trials of teaching using ICTs have serious methodological limitations (Bowen, Chingos, Lack, & Nygren, 2012) and existing studies provide conflicting results. Our investigation takes a different approach as our goal was not merely to explore the opinions of students about what they like. Instead, we examined the perceived effective use of ICTs in diverse teaching contexts by taking full advantage of the abundance of technologically supported instructional activities that take place in the colleges. The goal of this descriptive and comparative study was to advance the current state of knowledge by integrating teaching context. To do so, we sought to: 1. Identify which ICT-related practices of college instructors in traditional face-to-face teaching are seen as effective  by male and female college students  who are enrolled in three types of programs: the arts, the social sciences, and the sciences  when these are used in lecture and group work in face-to-face classes. 2. Understand which ICT-related teaching practices of instructors are seen by students as exceptionally good and exceptionally poor practices, and 3. Note students’ suggestions about what can be improved.

Method. The research protocol was approved by Dawson College’s Research Ethics Board (REB). First, we administered a brief demographic questionnaire to 1384 students enrolled in 56 compulsory courses in two large Montreal area public junior/community colleges. These colleges award a diploma/associate’s degree either in two-year pre-university streams of study (this is required before students can enroll in three-year university bachelor’s programs) or 3-year career/technical programs which qualify graduates for employment (e.g., nursing, chemical technology). This questionnaire was administered to obtain

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contact information of students over 18 who had completed at least one semester of college studies and who indicated a willingness to participate in future studies. Of the 437 students whom we contacted by email, 311 (71%) completed a 20 minute online questionnaire, in English or French, about their college ICTrelated experiences. Participants. Three-hundred and eleven students (126 male, 183 female, 2 did not indicate) participated. They attended an English (n=150) or a French language (n=161) large public college in Montreal. Students were enrolled in pre-university or career/technical programs in (a) creative and applied arts (n=55; includes disciplines such as literature, fine arts), (b) social science and business (n=157; includes psychology, business administration), and (c) science, engineering, medical technologies (n=96; includes nursing, chemistry). Three did not indicate their program. Mean age was 20.50 (range = 18-44). There were no significant differences between students from English and French language colleges on age or field of study. Therefore, data from these students are combined in subsequent analyses. Although there were no significant differences gender differences either, we analyzed data separately for males and females because of the preconceived notions about gender differences. Procedure. Between October and December of 2014 students who indicated that we may contact them were directed to a web page which included a description of the study and a consent form which mentioned the $20 honorarium offered. The “continue” button brought students to the online survey. To allow for testretest reliability calculations, 138 participants completed the questionnaire twice, a mean of 3.38 weeks apart. Measures. We primarily used measures already validated in English and French. Measures not already validated in both languages were translated in accordance with established practice (i.e., translation and back-translation - cf. Vallerand, 1989) and validated (i.e., test-retest reliability, validation through comparison of English and French versions) (cf. Nguyen, Fichten, & Budd, 2011). Test-retest reliabilities show significant Pearson correlations with coefficients hovering around .500. Demographic questions. These included gender, age, field of studies, and number of semesters of college education completed. We used these questions in both English and French in several of our previous investigations. ICT-related questions (these are available in Adaptech Research Network, 2015). This online questionnaire had 10 sections. 

Overall assessment of instructors’ use of ICTs based on students’ experiences with all of their college instructors. This question used a 6 point scale with 1=terrible and 6=excellent.

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Four sets of questions used 6-point Likert scaling (1=strongly disagree, 6 = strongly agree); these were modified from several sources (d’Apollonia, 2013; Fichten, et al., 2013, Raby, Karsenti, Meunier, & Villeneuve, 2011; Roy & Poellhuber, 2012; Venkatesh, et al., in press):   



Students’ expertise using ICTs (1 item) How well students liked courses and course components with and without ICTs (with ICTs = 4 items and without ICTs = 4 items) overall, in lectures, in individual work in class, and in group work in class How well students liked a variety of ICT tools used by instructors (4 items: digital textbooks, online resources, online courses, and online group work). How instructors used ICTs in their courses (2 items)

Two sections dealt with an extensive listing (37 items) of ICT tools which college instructors may have used in their courses. These were developed in a series of meetings with team members and partner representatives:  

What forms of ICTs were used by the student’s instructor(s) (checklist) (e.g., Moodle, PowerPoint, Facebook) Whether or not different forms of ICTs worked well for students (Yes/No); this involved determination of whether items checked by the student worked well for them.

To obtain students’ preferences and suggestions, we asked three open-ended questions. These were evaluated in accordance with a coding manual (King, et al., 2015) by a team of trained coders. Students were asked to list up to three examples of instances where ICTs used by their instructors provided:  

Especially pleasing ICT-related experiences (i.e., ICT used in a way that worked well for them) Especially annoying ICT-related experiences (i.e., ICT used in a way that did not work well for them)

We also asked students to provide up to three 

Suggestions for improvement in the use of ICTs by their instructors (coding manual available in King, Jorgensen, Havel, Vitouchanskaia, and Lussier, 2015).

Results Gender and field of study. First we examined the numbers of male and female students in the three fields of study: arts, social sciences, and physical sciences. The results indicate a significant difference, X2(2,306)= 8.91, p = .012: close to 50% of both males and females were enrolled in the social sciences. However, females were more likely than males to be enrolled in the arts (21%), and males in the physical sciences (40%).

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To ascertain the role of the language, field of study, and gender we carried out a 3-way multivariate analysis of variance (2 gender x 2 language, x 3 field of study) on all sixteen ICT-related 6-point rating scale items. Results indicate only a significant main effect of gender, F(16,157)=2.03, p=.015, and no significant interactions. Therefore, in subsequent analyses only gender was examined. ICTs and Gender Overall assessment of instructors’ use of ICTs. There was no significant gender difference on this item. The mean score was 4.13 out of 6 (SD =. 75), with 62% of students indicating that their instructors were “good,” and 26% indicating that their instructors were very good or excellent users of ICTs. Students’ own expertise. An independent t-test shows that males felt significantly more knowledgeable in the use of ICTs than did females, t(307)=2.48, p = .014. However, the effect size was small, with d = .28. How well students liked courses and course components with and without ICTs used by their instructors. A series of 2 x 2 analysis of variance (ANOVA) comparisons were made (2 gender x 2 with/without ICT). Means and test results in Table 1 show that, in all cases (i.e., using ICTs in general, in lectures, in individual, and in group work in class), students significantly preferred the use of technology. For example, 93% of students indicated they liked courses which used ICTs. No significant gender main effects were found. Only one interaction was significant, suggesting that males were relatively more likely to prefer individual work with technology in class than females, and relatively less disposed to liking individual work in class without technology; however, this had a very low effect size. How well students liked a variety of ICT tools used by faculty. Figure 1 shows that, with the exception of liking courses with online resources, means on these items (i.e., online group work, digital textbooks, and online courses) were generally low, with two items (digital textbooks and online courses) having ratings around 3 on 6-point scales. Test results show that males compared to females are more disposed to like courses that are entirely online (even though the two colleges sampled offer very few such courses), t(241) = 2.96, p = .003, as well as courses which use only digital textbooks, t(241) = 2.95, p = .003, d = .39. How instructors used ICTs in their courses. Thirty-two percent of students disagreed with the statement that instructors showed them how to use ICTs needed in their courses and over 49% of students disagreed with the statement that instructors allowed them to use their personal technologies in class. The means show that males were more likely than females to indicate that their instructors allowed them to use their own ICTs in class, t(299)=2.54, p=.012, d=.30. ICTs used and perceived effectiveness. Table 2 shows that most forms of ICTs used by instructors work well for students. Notable exceptions (i.e., 1/3 or more of students indicated that this did not work well for them) include: digital

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textbooks; online tools (e.g., blogs); collaborative work online; online communication tools, including discussion forums, chat rooms, and instant messaging; and all forms of social networking when used by faculty to communicate (i.e., Twitter, Facebook, and LinkedIn).

Table 1. Liking courses with and without ICT use by intructors

Use of ICT Instructor does not use Female Male Instructor does use Female Male Lecture format No ICT Female Male With ICT Female Male Individual work in class No ICT Female Male With ICT Female Male Group work in class No ICT Female Male With ICT Female Male

Partial Eta Squared

Mean

SD F test

2.93 2.88 5.07 4.98

1.61 ICT F(1,294)=287.15, p <.001 1.55 Gender F(1,294)=.56, p = .456 0.87 Interaction F(1,294)=.04, p = .840 1.04

.494 .002 .000

2.84 2.95 5.41 5.02

1.61 ICT F(1,300)=332.67, p <.001 1.63 Gender F(1,300)=2.10, p = .148 0.89 Interaction F(1,300)=3.68, p = .056 1.19

.526 .007 .012

3.64 3.13 4.71 5.02

1.73 ICT F(1,295)=110.85, p <.001 1.77 Gender F(1,295)=.75, p = .387 1.38 Interaction F(1,295)=8.47, p =.004 1.04

.273 .003 .028

3.60 3.52 4.47 4.62

1.70 ICT F(1,280)=55.88, p <.001 1.63 Gender F(1,280)=.064, p =.801 1.47 Interaction F(1,280)=.76, p = .384 1.26

.166 .000 .000

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On the other hand, several forms of infrequently used ICTs (i.e., if fewer than 2/3 of students indicated their instructor used this) were identified by students as working well (i.e., by over 2/3 of students). As Table 2 shows, these include online materials such as attendance records and tests/quizzes; a variety of different ICT tools used in class (i.e., grammar tools and checkers, language learning software, simulations / virtual experiments, mind mapping, and web conferencing); hardware such as interactive whiteboards and clickers; several online tools (wikis, portfolios and podcasts), as well as virtual office hours. Table 2 shows that the top forms of ICTs that over 90% of students indicated were being used by their instructors and that worked well for them include: online grades, course outlines, assignments and course notes; presentation software used in class; and hardware such as multimedia projectors, computers used for teaching, and computer labs. In addition, 95% of students indicated that online submission of assignment worked well for them, and 89% of instructors used this.

6 5

4 3

2 1 0 Courses which use Courses which use Courses which use Courses which are online resources group work online only digital entirely online textbooks

Figure 1. How well students liked ICTs used by faculty in different contexts: mean scores, higher scores indicate greater liking.

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Table 2. Rank order for ICT frequency and ICTs that worked well for students Rank order Technology ICT used *** Worked well** Online materials 1 Grades available online 298 (98%) 294 (99%) 2 Course outline availabe online 296 (98%) 277 (96%) 3 Assignments available online 297 (96%) 286 (97%) 4 Course notes available online 271 (90%) 262 (97%) 5 Weblinks available online 251 (81%) 216 (87%) 6 Calendar available online 217 (70%) 188 (87%) 7 Tutorials / practice exercises available online 212 (69%) 176 (84%) 8 Attendance record available online 191 (62%) 169 (90%) 9 Tests / quizzes available online 181 (59%) 156 (89%) E-learning used in class 1 Presentation software 298 (96%) 293 (98%) 2 Grammar tools and checkers 167 (54%) 148 (90%) 3 Language learning software 106 (35%) 90 (87%) 4 Simulations / virtual experiments 94 (31%) 83 (89%) 5 Mind mapping 52 (17%) 37 (73%) 6 Web conferencing 26 (8%) 18 (69%) Hardware used 1 Multimedia projector 293 (95%) 280 (96%) 2 Computer to teach 284 (92%) 255 (91%) 3 Computer lab 279 (91%) 251 (90%) 4 Smart Board* 95 (63%) 73 (78%) 5 Digital textbooks available online 82 (27%) 52 (64%) 6 Clickers 78 (25%) 57 (73%) Online tools 1 Online submission of assignments 273 (89%) 255 (95%) 2 Videos 208 (68%) 174 (84%) 3 Style guides 200 (64%) 35 (18%) 4 Blogs 94 (30%) 57 (61%) 5 Collaborative work online 79 (25%) 49 (62%) 6 Wiki sites 73 (24%) 54 (76%) 7 Portfolios 56 (18%) 48 (86%) 8 Podcasts 28 (9%) 20 (71%) Communication tools 1 E-mail 261 (85%) 225 (87%) 2 Discussion forum 111 (36%) 58 (53%) 3 Virtual office hours 93 (30%) 79 (86%) 4 Chat room 66 (21%) 39 (59%) 5 Instant messaging 28 (9%) 5 (46%) Social networking 1 Facebook 45 (15%) 25 (56%) 2 Twitter 17 (6%) 9 (56%) 3 LinkedIn 11 (4%) 7 (64%) Note. Ranking is done by percentage of students who said that the ICT was used. *Smart Board percentages are based only on the English language college **Bolded and italicized items: working well endorsed by fewer than 2/3 of students ***Bolded and italicized items: e-learning reportedly working well but used relatively infrequently

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Table 3. Top 5 especially pleasing and annoying open-ended responses in rank order Especially pleasing

Especially annoying

1. Presentation software: PowerPoint (e.g., to guide the class; during lectures helps keep track of what is being said; helps with note taking; helps understand the material ‐ 2. Videos (e.g., helps understanding; audio visual media helps to explain the subject of their class

1. Presentation software: PowerPoint (e.g., moving quickly through slides without adequate time spent on each topic; notes on the PowerPoint vague; too cluttered)

3. CMS course notes posted online (e.g., PowerPoint presentations posted online can be viewed later; this eliminating the need to take notes; these be used to study for exams; helps when students miss a class

3. Online communication (e.g., not responding to emails; office hours via Skype are useless - I prefer seeing my instructor in person; online chat rooms are a hassle; too many different means of communication (Facebook; email; twitter) – takers lots of time to figure out where to find messages; doing group work in an online discussion forum is difficult as no real time response from peers

2. Instructors' knowledge and use of technology (e.g., instructors spend more time trying to operate the technologies than teaching; posting links that do not work; uploading files that won’t open

4. CMS: Features (due dates; calendar; on-line practice/exercises) 4. CMS: Features (due dates; calendar; on-line practice/exercises) (e.g., practice questions and quizzes available online; (e.g., materials uploaded late; having to look at multiple calendaring feature allows keeping track of assignment due CMS (including instructors’ own web sites) causes dates; instructors’ office hours; course changes and confusion; documents not posted online; wrong date of announcements are available; convenience of having all exam or quiz listed on the calendar documents posted online 5. CMS grades posted online (e.g., seeing my grades lets me know how much more I should be focusing on specific classes; gives students a better idea of their current standing in the course; instant feedback

5. Performance of technology at school (e.g., when technologies don't work this interferes with the class: there are no sounds from the video; the video won't load; some are running very slowly; portions of the CMS don't work

Students’ Experiences with ICTs Used by Faculty Positive and negative experiences with ICTs. Table 3 presents the top 5 open-ended favorable and unfavorable responses. These show that two common uses of ICTs, presentation software such as PowerPoint, and CMS/LMS features such as due dates, calendaring, and on-line practice/exercises, were used in ways that could work either well or poorly for students. Other favorable topics include videos, and posting course notes and grades online on the CMS/LMS. On the negative side, students did not appreciate their instructors’ knowledge and use of ICTs or the performance of technologies at their college. In addition, they had a variety of complaints related to online communication with faculty and peers. These include: not responding to students’ emails in a timely manner, not responding in a beneficial way / posting on discussion forums when the student prefers that something remain personal, hard to send large assignments on the CMS/LMS email tool, too many different means for communication (e.g., Facebook, CMS/LMS, Twitter, e-mail) resulting in students not knowing where to find responses from their instructor, too many e-mails from instructors (e.g., four per day), having to use Skype on weekends, virtual office hours with no face-to-face office hours.

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Suggestions for improvement. Table 4 shows the top 10 ICT-related suggestions, along with examples, in rank order of frequency. These are detailed in a subsequent section. Table 4. Top 10 suggestions 1. Use and availability of technology at school (e.g., more power outlets in class / in the library; more printers around school; better access to computer labs to work on assignments; more accessible areas for Wi-Fi for phones and tablets) 2. Instructors' knowledge and use of technology (e.g., make sure that all instructors have a basic understanding of how a projector works; classes should not revolve around technologies; a small 101 course for teachers who are not used to using a computer given by the college's tech support; technology should be an aid to teaching rather than replacing my instructor) 3. Presentation software: PowerPoint (e.g., More in class PowerPoint lectures; PowerPoint presentations that highlight key terms; interesting visual components like photos rather than just text; clearer PowerPoints; less busy; no need to use PowerPoint if slides are useless; avoid presentations were the instructor simply reads the PowerPoint) ‐ 4. Performance of technology at school (e.g., Better quality projectors; often problems with Wi Fi; computers in computer labs require improvement; problems with the "online classroom"; Adobe Connect did not work well; speakers did not work; the webcam was frozen; computers are very slow in labs and classrooms; better software leases; replace computers with faster ones) 5. CMS: Features (due dates; calendar; on-line practice/exercises) (e.g., put up online course announcements (for example notification of a project submission date approaching or exam dates); upload practice exams/questions/quizzes; upload practice quizzes that provide full explanation; practice quizzes/exercises that will tell us right away that we have a mistake and what that mistake was; use a single CMS platform by all instructors; create a calendar online; put a digital version of all documents online; post everything done in class online) 6. Allowing use of personal technology in class (e.g., allow students the option of using their personal technologies for note taking; smartphones can permit students to look up definitions or verify information to better contribute to the class and to improve their comprehension; allow phones to record lectures to look back on; allow personal devices to take 7. Online communication ‐ (e.g., use group chats where classmates can talk to each other/instructors at specific times; online office hours; online chats in real time with other students at specific times; do not use social media- not all students use this; allow emails with small questions rather than going to office hours) 8. CMS course notes posted online (e.g., Post PowerPoint class notes on the CMS; post notes in advance of the class) 9. Videos (e.g., use short videos; use videos like YouTube that are easy to access; provide more videos as illustrations; show portions of videos not the entire long thing) 10. Interactive white board: SmartBoard (e.g., provide more substantial course notes in SmartBoard rooms rather than just exercises and examples; more SmartBoards installed in classrooms; use SmartBoards for group exercises)

Discussion. At the outset, we must note that our data are based on students’ reported experiences and perceptions, and not on grades or other objective measures of academic outcome. It is for future research to explore the impact of these on learning and performance. Of course, students may not know what is best for them in supporting their learning. That being said, while our findings cannot show that use of suggestions made by students will increase learning outcomes, these can provide an indication about what ICT-related practices

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college instructors use and which of these students like and dislike in various teaching contexts. Students’ views do provide an indication of what they find engaging and motivating, and what ICT-related teaching practices they feel need improvement. Gender, field of study and evaluations of own, instructors’ and the school’s technology Gender and field of study. There were no significant differences among students enrolled in English and French language colleges or among those enrolled in arts, sciences, and the social sciences. There were few significant differences on gender although all of these suggested that males liked technology more than females. For example, males rated themselves as more knowledgeable about ICTs and were more likely to prefer individual work in class with technology than females. They were also more tolerant of online courses and of digital textbooks. Thus, in attempts to engage male students, we recommend the use of ICTs in both course work and by instructors in their teaching. Others have shown that field of study is related to preference for technology, with students in the arts preferring more limited technology than those in the physical sciences, and students in social sciences being in the middle (Kvavik, 2015). In our investigation the absence of differences among students in different fields may have been due to the fact that while almost half of both male and female students were enrolled in the social sciences, females were more likely to be enrolled in art and males in physical science related programs. The finding that instructors of male students were more likely to allow students to use their own ICTs in class than instructors of females may have been related to the larger proportion of males in science and engineering related programs. It is possible that these disciplines require students to work on their personal devices, given the shortage of computer labs in the colleges. How well students liked courses and course components with and without ICTs. In a series of analyses on how well students liked courses and course components such as lectures, individual and group work in class, consistent with Kvavik’s (2015) findings, our results clearly show that both males and females strongly and consistently preferred the use of ICTs in all contexts. That students like teaching with technologies has been shown in several recent industry sponsored studies as well (e.g., Belardi, 2015; Schaffhauser, 2015b). These results suggest that the use of ICTs by faculty is desirable. How well students liked a variety of ICT tools used by faculty. While students liked courses with online resources, they were ambivalent toward online group work, and disliked the use of digital textbooks. They also disliked online courses, even though few of them experienced this. Digital textbooks can serve as the main text for a class, be it traditional or online. There are many advantages of digital over paper textbooks, including cost and convenience, since many are searchable, accessible to students with certain disabilities, and functional on multiple portable devices. However, there are important problems related to usability, including eye strain, multiple platforms, navigation tools, the need for

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an online connection, and programmed expiration (many digital books expire and become unavailable after a pre-defined period of time) (Mann, 2013). Once students have experience with digital textbooks, however, they are more likely to use them in the future (Dennis, 2011; Weisberg, 2011). Thus, for now, we suggest that faculty offer students the option to use digital or print texts. How instructors use ICTs in their courses. Overall, half of the respondents indicated that their instructors did not allow them to use their personal ICTs in class. Perhaps more important, 1/3 of students indicated that their instructors did not show them how to use ICTs needed in their courses. This is an important finding and suggests that instructors should not assume that all their students are techsavvy and know how to use needed technologies. As several scholars and investigators have noted, it is important not to make assumptions about the level of ICT literacy of â&#x20AC;&#x153;digital nativeâ&#x20AC;? college students (Burton, et al., 2015; Kvavik, 2015; Schaffhauser, 2015). ICTs used and perceived effectiveness Forms of ICTs used and how well these work for students. Table 3 presents an extensive listing of the frequency of different forms of ICTs used by college instructors along with the percentage of students who indicated that this form of ICT worked well for them. Overall, the results show that the most popular forms of ICTs worked well for students. The top technologies (i.e., used frequently by faculty that students indicated worked well for them) are: online grades, course outlines, assignments and course notes; online submission of assignments; presentation software used in class; hardware such as multimedia projectors; computers used for teaching; and the availability of computer labs. These are frequently used by faculty and are seen as effective by students. On the other hand, there are several forms of ICTs that many students indicated work well, but which were relatively infrequently used by instructors: online attendance records, online tests and quizzes, and a variety of different forms of ICTs used in class, including grammar tools and checkers, language learning software, simulations and virtual experiments, mind mapping software, and web conferencing. Among online tools, wikis, portfolios and podcasts were relatively infrequently used along with virtual office hours for communication. The same was true of SmartBoards and clickers. These are ICTs that could be used more frequently by instructors. It was encouraging to find that forms of ICTs which did not work well for students were used relatively infrequently. These include: digital textbooks, online style guides, blogs, collaborative work online, as well as a variety of online communication tools (i.e., discussion forums, chat rooms, and instant messaging), and all forms of social networking used by instructors to communicate with students (i.e., Twitter, Facebook, and LinkedIn). A propos of this latter finding, it appears that students do not wish instructors to use their social spaces.

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Positive and negative experiences with ICTs. Table 4 presents students’ top five open-ended positive and negative responses. These show that two common uses of ICTs, presentation software such as PowerPoint, and CMS/LMS features such as due dates, the calendar, and on-line practice, were used in ways that could work either well or poorly for students, depending on the circumstances. For example, while students found that PowerPoint presentations guided the class, provided help with note taking and freed students from continually having to write, it was problematic when instructors moved thought slides too quickly and when slides were too cluttered and difficult to see. Data in Table 4 can be used to see students’ examples of effective and ineffective uses of these technologies. Students generally found that short videos helped them understand course content. They also liked having grades posted online, as this gave them an idea about their standing in the course and provided information about which courses needed extra attention. Students also liked having course notes and PowerPoints posted online because these helped them recall lecture content, facilitated studying as well as dealing with missed classes. Students were especially displeased when their instructor tried to use ICTs but did not know how or were careless in its use. For example, students’ were unhappy when their instructors wasted class time trying to figure out how to make the technology work. Additionally, students were frustrated when their instructors posted links that did not work and files that would not open. We suggest that colleges provide instruction on the use of ICTs for their faculty.

Suggestions for improvement Instructors’ use of ICTs. Overall, college instructors received the equivalent of a C+ on their use of technology. Therefore it was not surprising that many of the students’ suggestions for improvement relate to what changes instructors can make. We recommend that colleges offer courses and workshop for instructors – and provide both time and incentives for attendance. For example, students wanted some of their instructors to be more tech-savvy, while others wanted instructors to use ICTs as a teaching tool rather than have technology be the focus. They also wanted their instructors to use videos to illustrate concepts, but they wanted only short videos or selected portions of longer ones. Students liked their instructors to use interactive whiteboards, such as SmartBoards, but they also wanted course notes in addition to SmartBoard exercises and examples. Moreover, students wanted their instructors to show them how to use technologies needed for the course. CMS/LMS. Students complained about having to use to use multiple CMS/LMS; this caused confusion and difficulties about needing to learn various from of CMS/LMS, about the lack of integration of course calendars and various forms of online communication.

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When it comes to instructors’ use of CMS/LMS we suggest that each instructor use the various features of their CMS/LMS and that colleges centralize around a single powerful, customizable CMS/LMS which is supported by a high level education technology professional. Students wanted all instructors at their school to use the same platform because they found the use of individual web pages and different CMS/LMS confusing and burdensome. They asked that class materials, including handouts, assignments, course outlines, etc. be posted online, for instructors to use the online calendar highlighting exam and assignment due dates, as well as to post practice tests/quizzes which provide feedback. Online communication. We suggest that instructors specify their availability and their response time for email or other forms of online communication and that they stay away from the use of social media to communicate with their students. For example, students did not like not like communicating with their instructors through social media such as Facebook and Twitter. They did want to be able to email their instructors with short questions – and they expected their instructors to respond to such emails promptly. Students also wanted synchronous chats and virtual office hours to be able to communicate with classmates and instructors at specific times in addition to – not instead of - regular office hours. Use of personal technologies in class. Students called for their instructors to allow them to use personal technologies such as laptops, tablets and smartphones in class. Such technologies can, of course, be used for non-academic activities such as browsing Facebook, web surfing, etc. Whether to allow students to use their own technologies or not is contentious (Fischma, 2009), and studies have shown that multitasking in class results in poorer learning (Dietz & Henrich, 2014) both for the multitasker as well as for those who can see the multitasker’s screen (Sana, et al., 2013). Yet students, in general, embrace the practice (Kay & Lauricella, 2014) and, in our sample only one of the 311 students indicated that allowing personal technology in class worked poorly for them. On the academic side, students needed these devices to take lecture notes, look up definitions, and verify information before raising their hand in class. They also wanted to be allowed to record lectures. We suggest that instructors allow the use of personal technologies in class with a few caveats. Specifically, we would like to see instructors inform their students about poorer learning – and grades – of those multitasking. We also suggest that instructors designate specific areas of the classroom for those using their own technologies – this will prevent others from being distracted by what is going on students’ screens. PowerPoint. The use of PowerPoint was virtually ubiquitous and students had a variety of things to say about what they wanted. We suggest that faculty use PowerPoint in their courses and that they post these before the class. We also suggest that colleges provide instruction on the effective use of PowerPoint (e.g.,

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no more than seven words per line and seven lines per slide, avoid flashy elements that do not add information, insert alternative text on images and graphs, discuss the points rather than merely reading these). Students wanted PowerPoint and other course notes to be available online, preferably before the class. In regard to in-class presentations, they asked for presentations with interesting visual components - not merely text. They also wanted presentations that were not busy and which highlighted key terms. Students also expected instructors to not merely read the points on a presentation, but to discuss these. School equipment. Colleges need to pay more attention to the digital equipment available to their students. This means up-to-date equipment in labs, more work stations in labs, better Wi-Fi connectivity and more AC power outlets. Students wanted ICTs to work better in their colleges. For example, they requested higher quality projectors, faster computers in computer labs, and generally better tech functionality (e.g., speakers that work, webcams that do not freeze, more site licenses). Students also wanted greater access to computer labs to work on assignments, more AC power outlets so they could charge their personal devices, and better Wi-Fi functionality.

Limitations and future research. Our findings are based on volunteer students’ views and perceptions from only two colleges. In future, the views of larger samples of students enrolled in different disciplines should be studied. In addition, the effects of different uses of technology in diverse contexts on learning and performance should be evaluated.

Students’ recommendations and “take-homes” for colleges and instructors. Many of the recommendations that follow are a direct response to the students’ suggestions for improvement discussed earlier. Therefore, these suggestions are not merely what we feel instructors should do. These reflect what students say they really want. Advice for instructors. Do use technology in your teaching. However, if you are not sure about how to do something, ask a colleague or sign up for a workshop or webinar. Make sure that equipment and software works before each class. If the equipment does not work, don’t spend time trying to fix it –instead continue with the class. Make certain that PowerPoint presentations are clear and uncluttered. A good guideline to apply is seven words across and seven lines for each slide. Do use videos but keep these short. If you use an interactive whiteboard, such as a SmartBoard, do not forget to incorporate conventional techniques, such as PowerPoints of course notes. Don’t assume that all your students know how to use course related ICTs such as Excel, online portfolios, and Google Drive. Show them how to do this.

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As many students do not appreciate these, reassess your use of online style guides, blogs, online collaborative work, as well as a variety of online communication tools (i.e., discussion forums, chat rooms, and instant messaging). Students indicate that they are not yet comfortable with these forms of communication. If you prefer to use a digital textbook, make sure there are adequate paper versions available as well. Post all material online and use the various features of you CMS/LMS such as online calendaring, gradebooks, and attendance records as well as online practice tests and quizzes (which provide the correct answers). Check to make sure that posted hyperlinks work and that files open. Post your course notes/PowerPoints online. If you are concerned about intellectual property, you can address this by using the free, easy-to-use Creative Commons license to copyright your materials <https://creativecommons.org/about>.

Avoid using social media such as Facebook and Twitter for communication with your students. Instead, respond to emails and set up virtual office hours/synchronized group chats (in addition to regular face-to-face office hours). Students want to use their own ICTs in class, even though the literature clearly shows that doing so interferes with learning. You may want to inform students about the negative impact of multitasking on learning and designate a specific area of the classroom for students who want to use their own technology so that its use does not interfere with othersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; learning. We agree that Wi-Fi dead zones and power outlets are the responsibility of the college. But to speed things up and improve education for your students you may want to work in collaboration with the IT department and query your students about the college Wi-Fi dead spots. You can then report a collection of these to your IT department. As for addressing the issue of inadequate power outlets, we suggest that a low cost alternative is installing a power bar in classrooms. If the college is unable to provide these, consider that maybe you, as the instructor, can! Advice for colleges. Address ways by which you can more readily find and fix Wi-Fi dead zones. Maybe you can enlist the help of faculty with this, since they have ongoing contact with students. Think about using power bars (obviously in a manner that takes safety into account) to deal with the problem of inadequate power outlets in classrooms and the library. Take leadership to have the college centralize around a single CMS/LMS and provide webinars and workshops to help faculty with its use. Whenever budgets allow, upgrade equipment that is obsolete, develop a system that makes it easy for students and faculty to report problem with hardware and software, and provide the best possible access to computer labs so students can work on assignments.

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Acknowledgements. We are grateful to the funder, the Fonds de recherche du Québec – Société et culture (FRQSC), to our research assistants Alexandre Chauvin, Gabrielle Lesage, Alex Lussier, Evelyne Marcil, and Cristina Vitouchanskaia, and to our stakeholder and partner representatives: Marie Jean Carrière, Tali Heiman, Thomas Henderson, Isabelle Laplante, Catherine Loiselle, Courtney MacDonald, Ryan Moon, Séverine Parent, Nicole Perreault, Hélène Prat, Rafael Scapin, Laura Schaffer, and James Sparks.