Vol 15 no 12 november 2016 by ijlter.org

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching And Educational Research

Vol.15 No.12

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research

The International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research is an open-access journal which has been established for the disChief Editor Dr. Antonio Silva Sprock, Universidad Central de semination of state-of-the-art knowledge in the Venezuela, Venezuela, Bolivarian Republic of field of education, learning and teaching. IJLTER welcomes research articles from academics, edEditorial Board ucators, teachers, trainers and other practitionProf. Cecilia Junio Sabio ers on all aspects of education to publish high Prof. Judith Serah K. Achoka quality peer-reviewed papers. Papers for publiProf. Mojeed Kolawole Akinsola Dr Jonathan Glazzard cation in the International Journal of Learning, Dr Marius Costel Esi Teaching and Educational Research are selected Dr Katarzyna Peoples through precise peer-review to ensure quality, Dr Christopher David Thompson originality, appropriateness, significance and Dr Arif Sikander readability. Authors are solicited to contribute Dr Jelena Zascerinska to this journal by submitting articles that illusDr Gabor Kiss trate research results, projects, original surveys Dr Trish Julie Rooney Dr Esteban Vázquez-Cano and case studies that describe significant adDr Barry Chametzky vances in the fields of education, training, eDr Giorgio Poletti learning, etc. Authors are invited to submit paDr Chi Man Tsui pers to this journal through the ONLINE submisDr Alexander Franco sion system. Submissions must be original and Dr Habil Beata Stachowiak should not have been published previously or Dr Afsaneh Sharif be under consideration for publication while Dr Ronel Callaghan Dr Haim Shaked being evaluated by IJLTER. Dr Edith Uzoma Umeh Dr Amel Thafer Alshehry Dr Gail Dianna Caruth Dr Menelaos Emmanouel Sarris Dr Anabelie Villa Valdez Dr Özcan Özyurt Assistant Professor Dr Selma Kara Associate Professor Dr Habila Elisha Zuya

VOLUME 15

NUMBER 12

November 2016

Table of Contents Mathematics vis-à-vis Arithmetics ....................................................................................................................................... 1 Hanna Savion and Michal Seri The Goldilocks Dilemma: A Case Study toward a “Just Right” Model of Service-Learning ..................................... 19 Ms. Shelley Brown and Dr. Lori Maxwell A Critical Interrogation of Integration, Special Educational Needs and Inclusion ...................................................... 31 Glazzard Jonathan Psychometric Properties of a Screening Tool for Elementary School Student’s Math Learning Disorder Risk ....... 48 Sinan OLKUN, Arif Altun, Sakine Göçer Şahin and Galip Kaya Students‟ Academic Performance in Religious Education: A Case of Selected Schools in Botswana ...................... 67 Baamphatlha Dinama , Koketso Jeremiah, Boitumelo Sihlupheki-Jorowe, Masego Keakantse, Rebonyetsala Kemoabe, Bafedile Kgaswe, Mpolokang Motshosi and Oshi Sebina Research-Based Practices for Teaching Reading in Elementary Classrooms: An Exploration of the Instructional Practices of Former Elementary Education Students ...................................................................................................... 84 Jacquelyn Covault Community College Faculty and Conceptualizations of Disciplinary Writing .......................................................... 112 Jodi P. Lampi and Eric J. Paulson Teaching Probability – Statistics towards Training Occupational Skills for Economic Majored Students – Case Study at Lac Hong University Viet Nam ......................................................................................................................... 130 Hoan Van Tran and Hang Thuy Nguyen An Investigation of Discrepancies between Qualitative and Quantitative Findings in Survey Research .............. 145 Melanie DiLoreto and Trudi Gaines Teaching the Novel in a University English as a Foreign Language (EFL) Context: An Exploratory Study in Lebanon ................................................................................................................................................................................ 155 Nahla Nola Bacha

The Academic Outcomes of Boys An Argument for a Pluralist Approach ................................................................. 174 Gregory IB Woodrow

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 15, No. 12, pp. 1-18, November 2016

Mathematics vis-à-vis Arithmetics Hanna Savion and Michal Seri Gordon Academic College of Education Haifa, Israel Abstract. This study engages in the two terms arithmetics and mathematics which are frequently interpreted as having an identical meaning. Pupils and elementary school mathematics pre-service teachers use those terms as if they were the same. This study clarifies these terms and explores their definition among pre-service teachers as well as 6th and 7th grade pupils. Presentation of a historical sequence focuses on the development of and relation between arithmetics and the various areas of mathematics. Later on, we elaborate the terms arithmetics and mathematics as they are meant to be understood by and explained to the learners and present the way they are perceived by pupils and pre-service teachers. The research findings illustrate the confusion these terms create.

Keywords: arithmetics; mathematics; pre-service teachers.

Introduction The relation between arithmetics and mathematics is described by the analogy to a language, namely the relation between spelling and writing (Peterson, 2001). Arithmetics is the foundation stone of mathematics as letters are the foundation stone of writing. Moreover, mathematics is presented as the queen of sciences and as such, when the fundamental laws of arithmetics are insufficient, learners can solve more complex questions by means of the other areas of mathematics (Stevens, 2011; Turgeman, 2006; Weintraub, 2004). One of the frequent questions of learners, whether at elementary school or junior high school, is: "Teacher, which books should I bring tomorrow? Arithmetics or mathematics?” Elementary school pupils or their teachers say that they are studying arithmetics and sometimes they say they are learning mathematics. Moreover, the class board in elementary school displays the captions 'mathematics' and 'geometry' as two different subjects, geometry being one of the areas of mathematics. The study examines those two terms and how it perceived by pupils from the 6th and 7th grade and by students of elementary school mathematics teaching.

Theoretical Background The Israeli Managing Director Circular (Ministry of Education, Culture and Sport, 2006) which specifies the mathematics curriculum for elementary schools, is grounded in the perception that pupils should acquire and develop a numerical and geometric insight. This insight is based on the acquisition of terms and structures in arithmetics and geometry as a continuing process. The arithmetic insight can be achieved by mastering mathematical competences and by being familiar with fundamental facts while emphasising oral computations. The same applies to the relations between different arithmetic terms and relying on them when choosing strategies for solving questions and checking the answers. All this is done by using the mathematical language correctly. In junior high school, the academic year in the 7th grade starts with revision of the laws of arithmetics familiar to the pupils from elementary school. Later on, the pupils learn algebraic expressions which comprise letters and numbers, emphasising the performance of arithmetic operations, acquaintance of mathematical terms and mathematical procedures. The concepts arithmetics and mathematics are described in literature as follows: Mathematics: a language dealing with numbers and shapes, their properties and the investigation of their interrelations, while using signs and symbols. Mathematics consists of arithmetics, algebra, differential and integral arithmetics, geometry, trigonometry and more (Hebrew Encyclopaedia, 1972; Peterson, 2001; Stevens, 2011; Weintraub, 2004). Arithmetics: an area of mathematics based on the four basic mathematical operations: addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, root extraction as well as on the order of operations between them. This area constitutes a fundamental part of mathematics studies and is essential for the understanding thereof (Avnion, 1997; Hebrew Encyclopaedia, 1953; Stevens, 2011; Wikipedia, 2014). In the introduction to his book, Gazit (2004, p. 5) wrote: … true, many people use the principles of arithmetics – the first and basic mathematical area… However, mathematics has additional areas, the most familiar among them are: algebra, plane geometry and solid geometry, analytical geometry, trigonometry, differential and integral arithmetics, statistics and probability. To emphasize the relations of arithmetics and all the other areas of mathematics, a Graphic Mathematics Model is drawn (Figure 1 - below). The Model illustrates some of the areas of mathematics. The relations between arithmetics and the other branches - areas of mathematics are exemplified by bi-directional arrows. Those arrows show the reciprocal connections of arithmetics and all the other areas of mathematics.

Figure 1: Graphic Mathematics Model Mathematics and the various areas-branches included in it (the

representing the other areas)

The graphic Mathematics Model (Fig. 1) and the following chronological review indicate the development of the areas of mathematics, in general, and of arithmetics, in particular, and how they are intertwined.

Historical-Chronological Review Researchers concur to some extent that mathematics (counting methods, four basic mathematical operations and geometric computations: arithmetics and geometry) was developed in Egypt at about 4000 B.C. (Gazit, 2004). Nevertheless, there are evidences related to the need for counting which dates back to 25,000 B.C. (Arbel, 2005). The Greek mathematicians distinguished between the science of numbers (arithmetics – number in Greek arithmos and in Latin arithmetica) and the wisdom of computation (logistics) (Dagon, 1955; Smith, 1958). Pythagoras (6th century B.C.) and his disciples worshiped whole numbers (Arbel, 2005), arguing that everything is a number, everything is arithmos. This view was proven as incorrect when they calculated the length of a diagonal of a square whose side was 1 length unit. As a result the Pythagorean sect disbanded. Later, the mathematicians embraced the geometric approach which facilitated proofs without reference to numbers (Unguru, 1989a). Archytas (5th-6th centuries B.C.), one of Pythagoras disciples, divided the engagement in mathematics into four areas (a division maintained for about 2000 years). Absolute numbers – arithmetics, useful numbers – music, sizes in position – geometry, sizes in motion – astronomy. The Pythagoreans raised the number to a level of religion, a religion of numbers (Arbel, 2005; Dagon, 1995; Gazit, 2004). Euclid (3rd century B.C.) collected, edited and enhanced the geometric material written by his predecessors. Until our present days, the Euclidean geometry is named after him. Archimedes (3rd century B.C.) conceived the fundamentals of integral arithmetics (Arbel, 2005). Claudius Ptolemy (2nd century A.C.) made a great contribution to trigonometry and Abu al-Wafa' (10th century A.C.) continued to develop it. In the year 90 A.C., Nicomachus of Gerasa wrote "Introduction to Arithmetics" – the first work separating arithmetics from geometry. During the Middle Ages, the term arithmetics was not common, perhaps because it did not have a Latin origin. People were accustomed to call it 'Greek arithmetics' (or in Latin 'numerorum scientica'). In 1116 A.C., arithmetics was referred to as 'arismetricis', in 1140 A.C. it was called 'arismetrica' and 50 years later Fibonacci used the word 'rismetrica' (Smith, 1958). Viete (1591) sets clear boundaries between the logistica numerosa – arithmetics – and logistica speciose – algebra. According to him, arithmetics deals with specific numbers and the regular arithmetic operations with them whereas algebra constitutes a method of acting with the numerical structures connecting between occurrences (Unguru, 1989b). The two numerical areas of study continued to be studied separately until the invention of the printing press. Then, the more aristocratic name 'arithmetics' combined the two disciplines. This term is not universal. Until today, the Germans refer to arithmetics as to the theoretical part and use the word Rechnen [calculate] for the ancient logistics and the French call is calcul [calculation] (Smith, 1958). Pierre de Fermat (17th century) developed a theory which comprised much of what is called at present analytical geometry and at the same period Rene Descartes actualised and in fact invents the concept of the analytical geometry (Arbel, 2005). Moreover, Descartes was the first to present the infinitesimal

computation which constituted the basis of differential and integral arithmetics developed by Leibnitz and Newton after Descartes' death. In 1664, Isaac Barrow presented in his lectures materials which were the origins of differential arithmetics. In 1675, Isaac Newton and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz developed the differential and integral arithmetics. In 1690, Jacques Bernoulli used for the first time the term integral. In 1920, Hardy Godfrey Harold solved the Waring problem by a method which integrated analysis with arithmetics. Its importance resides in the fact that it is also applicable in the case of very difficult arithmetic problems. The historical review above reinforces the fact that arithmetics is an initial basis and inseparable part of all areas - branches of mathematics. Research Statement Hashiv (anon) and Peterson (2001) argue that most pupils do not know to define mathematics or what is the difference between mathematics and arithmetics. Kyriakides, Meletiou-Mavrotheris and Prodromou (2016) state that pupils have fundamentally narrow viewpoint of mathematics as being primarily computation and arithmetics. Latterell and Wilson (2016) state that elementary teachers and elementary students tend to describe mathematics as arithmetics operations and computations. Aharoni (2011) indicates that at elementary school arithmetics teaching is actually elementary mathematics in which basic topics are studied. For example: essence of the number as well as meaning of the basic mathematical operations, derived from the rules and order of the mathematical operations. Mathematics is unique in that it simplifies the most basic thinking processes. What distinguishes the math is that it abstracts the basic thinking processes. We have examined the above with pre-service teachers and pupils. Research aim: explore how the terms mathematics and arithmetic are perceived by 6th graders, 7th graders and pre-service teachers.

Materials and Methods Research Population 76 pupils from the 6th grade. 65 pupils from the 7th grade. 56 pre-service teachers [hereafter â&#x20AC;&#x201C; "students"] in their 4th year of studies, learning to become elementary school mathematics teachers. Research Instrument An open-ended questionnaire (see Appendix A) comprising three items. These items aimed to check the meaning attributed by the participants (a subjective interpretation) to the terms arithmetics and mathematics.

Results The table in Appendix A presents the questionnaires results. The participants' answers were divided into categories. The name of which was determined according to the answers. The data were quantitatively analyzed while finding relations between the results. Item No. 1: What is Arithmetics? Most of the students (89%) knew to explain what is arithmetics. Conversely, only about half of the 6th and 7th graders â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 47% of the 6th graders and 62% of the 7th graders - could explain the essence of this term.

Table 1: Results (%) for the term arithmetics

Examples of answers to the item 'what is arithmetics': "a learning subject at school, which helps us to advance in life", "arithmetics is mathematics for elementary school", "a simple computation of numbers, i.e. plus, minus, division, multiplication". Item No. 2: What is Mathematics? 79% of the students knew to explain this term. 31% of the 7th graders (less than half the percentage of the students) and 18% of the 6th graders (about one quarter of the percentage of the students) could explain the essence of mathematics.

Table 2: Results (%) for the term mathematics

Examples of answers to the item 'what is mathematics': "an alternative and more difficult word for arithmetics", "mathematics is advanced arithmetics", "mathematics is the generalization. It is arithmetics, geometry, gematria1" Item No. 3: In Your Opinion, What is the Relation between Arithmetics and Mathematics? Three answers were obtained for this item. 79% of the students responded there was a relation and specified what was its essence. So did 35% of the 7th graders (about half of the percentage of the students). On the other hand, only 5% of the 6th graders explained this relation. 92% of the 6th graders believed that there was no difference between arithmetics and mathematics. 62% of the 7th graders and 14% of the students thought so too. 3% of the 6th and 7th graders as well as 7% of the students gave no answer to this item.

Gematria originated as an Assyro-Babylonian-Greek system of alphanumeric code/cipher later adopted into Jewish culture that assigns numerical value to a word/name/phrase. It is also used in Greek and Arabic.

Table 3: Results (%) for the relation between arithmetics and mathematics

Examples of answers to the item 'what is the relation between arithmetics and mathematics': "There is no relation", "a similar subject but mathematics is more difficult. Arithmetics is for elementary school and mathematics is for post-elementary school", "in my opinion arithmetics is for children and mathematics for adolescents", "arithmetics is the basis of mathematics, we learn first the basic material and from there we shift to mathematics". Although they had not been asked, the participants related in their answers to the degree of difficulties they encountered in arithmetics and mathematics. Below are their answers and the analysis thereof: 39% of the 6th graders maintained that arithmetics was an easy subject whereas mathematics was a difficult one. Compared to them, 5% of the 7th graders and 4% of the students thought like them and chose to indicate it in their answers.

Table 4: Results (%) for the degree of difficulties encountered in arithmetics

Examples of answers to the item 'degree of difficulties encountered in arithmetics': "Arithmetics is the easier level for beginning children (addition and subtraction, comparison between integers)" Table 5: Results (%) for the degree of difficulties encountered in mathematics

Examples of answers to the item 'degree of difficulties encountered in mathematics': "â&#x20AC;Ś much more difficult than arithmetics".

Summary and Conclusions This study aimed to explore how the terms mathematics and arithmetics and the relation between them are perceived by pupils in the 6th and 7th grade and by students of elementary school mathematics teaching. The results illustrated that less than half the 6th graders could explain what is arithmetics and less than one-fifth were able to explain what is mathematics. This accounted for the finding that pupils of the 6th grade (92%) responded there was no relation between arithmetics and mathematics. It is noteworthy that the pupils have been learning arithmetics for six years and still found it difficult to clarify this term. About 40% of the 6th graders related to the degree of difficulties they had in arithmetics and/or mathematics. Underscoring the 'easy' arithmetics versus the 'difficult' mathematics was in line with the other results discussed above. About 60% of the 7th graders could define arithmetics and some 30% knew to define mathematics. Two-thirds of the 7th grade pupils thought there was no relation between mathematics and arithmetics and one-third believed there was a relation between them. We realized that there was a change in the reference to and understanding of the relation between mathematics and arithmetics among pupils moving from the 6th to the 7th grade. 92% of the 6th graders claimed there was no relation between mathematics and arithmetics as compared to 62% of the 7th graders. It was obvious that in spite of the gap of one year, the transition to junior high school affected the differentiation in the answers. Nevertheless, most of the 7th graders, whose learning subject was already called mathematics, did not know to explained what was the essence of mathematics and did not think there was a relation between mathematics and arithmetics. The students showed no meaningful difference between the percentage of answers to each of the questions. The results indicated that the students had a more consolidated opinion about the essence of arithmetics, the essence of mathematics and the relation between them. About 10% of the students failed to explain the essence of arithmetics and approximately 20% did not know to explain the essence of mathematics and the relation between the two. The pupils' answers indicated that there was no distinction between arithmetics and mathematics. One learns arithmetics from the 1st until the 6th grade and mathematics from the 7th grade and above. Some think that arithmetics is the order of operations in exercises, such as: multiplication, division, addition and subtraction while in mathematics pupils learn equations, algebra and so on. For certain learners of mathematics implies exercises with fractions ('complicated exercises') (see Appendix C, tables 1-5). The historical review described above and the research results emphasise that arithmetics is the theory of numbers or to be more precise the theory of operations with numbers. In order to increase pupils and their teachers' awareness of an appropriate and accurate use of these terms, we described the relation between arithmetics and mathematics by means of the Mathematics Model. The Model shows arithmetics at the vertex of a pyramid which feeds

(mutual feedback) all the other divisions/areas of mathematics located at the base of the pyramid. Learners use these terms currently but with no accuracy and conceptualisation. The daily use of the terms mathematics and arithmetics, as if they were one term, while not paying attention to the relation and/or the difference between them, is one of the factors affecting the lack of clarity and distinction between these two terms. We should relate to the fact that the subject of arithmetics learnt in elementary school is an incomparably crucial and essential milestone. Arithmetics forms an important and inseparable part of mathematics studies in elementary school, junior high school and above. Although the arithmetic operations are apparently a simple procedure, elementary school pupils should understand and correctly use the order of the basic mathematical operations and the process of computation. This helps for example to prevent difficulties in understanding the mathematical operations and connections in algebraic expressions which is the first topic the 7th graders encounter when starting the junior high school. Mathematics studies in the wider sense and not necessarily only arithmetics studies constitute the basis for teaching organized rational thinking. Arithmetics studied at elementary school is an important and inseparable part of mathematics studied in elementary school and later on. Arithmetics, as the basis of mathematics, is an extensive area with quite a few nuances. Mathematics teachers in general and students in particular who understand this, are endowed with the orientation for proper teaching. From the very start, when pupils comprehend the difference between the terms 'arithmetics' and 'mathematics' and express themselves correctly, it implies that they understand the meaning of each word. This is the opening to the continued appropriate mathematical conduct, grounded in the knowledge of definitions and understanding of processes. We want to end with a short story taken from the field: During one of the mathematics lessons in the 7th grade where we are teaching, a teacher (from a difference discipline) came into the classroom to make an announcement. He saw exercises written on the class board, turned to the pupils and asked: "When do we move from arithmetics to mathematics?" When asked: "Why did you ask this question?" he replied: "Because arithmetics is for beginners and mathematics for higher grades. It is all the same thing".

References Aharoni, R. (2011). Arithmetics for parents: A book for adults about mathematics of children. Tel Aviv: Shocken Publishing House. [Hebrew] Arbel, B. (2005). A brief history of mathematics. Tel Aviv: MOFET Institute. [Hebrew] Avnion, A. (Eds.) (1997). Sapir Dictionary. Tel Aviv: Hed Artzi/Itav. [Hebrew] Dagon, S. (1955). History of ancient mathematics. Tel Aviv: Dvir Publishing. [Hebrew] Gazit, A. (2004). Eurekaâ&#x20AC;Ś! About people who loved to think and compute. Herzelia: Geist. [Hebrew] Hashiv (unknown). Who doesn't understand mathematics. http://www.hashiv.co.il/28156/math-article1. Accessed 16.12.2014. [Hebrew] Hebrew Encyclopaedia (1953). Arithmetics (vol. 5, p. 877). Tel-Aviv: Society for the Publication of Encyclopaedias Ltd. [Hebrew] Hebrew Encyclopaedia (1972). Mathematics (vol. 24, p. 750). Tel-Aviv: Society for the Publication of Encyclopaedias Ltd. [Hebrew] Kyriakides, A. O., Meletiou-Mavrotheris, M. and Prodromou, T. (2016). Mobile Technologies in the Service of Students' Learning of Mathematics: The Example of Game Application A.L.E.X. in the Context of a Primary School in Cyprus. Mathematics Education Research Journal, 28(1), 53-78. Latterell, C. M. and Wilson, J. L. (2016). Math is like lion hunting a sleeping gazelle: preservice elementary teachers' metaphors of mathematics. European Journal of Science and Mathematics Education. 4(3), 283-292. Ministry of Education, Culture and Sport (2006). Curriculum of mathematics for elementary schools. Jerusalem: Pedagogical Secretariat, Department of Curricula Planning and Development. http://meyda.education.gov.il/files/Tochniyot_Limudim/Math/Yesodi/mavo1.p df Accessed 16.12.2014. [Hebrew] Peterson (Doctor Peterson) (2001). The Math Forum. Difference Between Math and Arithmetic. http://mathforum.org/library/drmath/view/52282.html. Accessed 22.12.2014. Smith, D.E. (1958). History of Mathematics. Vol. II. New York: Dover Publications, Inc. Stevens, H. (2011). Math vs. arithmetics. Tribune Newspapers. http://articles.chicagotribune.com/2011-01-26/features/ct-tribu-words-workmath-20110126_1_arithmetic-math-class-answer-math-questions. Accessed 22.12.2014. STIPS site (2011). What is the difference between mathematics and arithmetics?. http://www.stips.co.il/ask/224764/%D7%9E%D7%94%D7%94%D7%94%D7%91%D7%93%D7%9C-%D7%91%D7%99%D7%9F%D7%9E%D7%AA%D7%9E%D7%98%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%94%D7%9C%D7%97%D7%A9%D7%91% . Accessed 10.1.2015. [Hebrew] Turgeman, A. (2006). Hebrew mathematics in Hebrew. Mispar Hazak 2000, 12, 55-62. Unguru, S. (1989a). Introduction to the history of mathematics. Part I: Ancient times and the Middle Ages. Tel Aviv: Ministry of Defence Publications. [Hebrew] Unguru, S. (1989b). Introduction to the history of mathematics. Part II: The Renaissance and the New Age. Aviv: Ministry of Defence Publications. [Hebrew] Weintraub, I. (2004). What is the difference between Arithmetic and Mathematics? http://www.mathmedia.com/whatisdifbet.html. Accessed 9.1.2015 Wikipedia the Free Encyclopedia. Definitions of Arithmetics and Mathematics. https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%AA%D7%9E%D 7%98%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%94. Accessed 18.11.2014. [Hebrew].

Appendix A The questionnaire form Name: _____________________

Age: __________

What is arithmetics? ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________

What is mathematics? ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________

In your opinion, what is the relation between arithmetics and mathematics? ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________

Appendix B Results of the questionnaire % of students 89

% of 7th graders 62

% of 6th graders 47

Category

Irrelevant/incorrect explanation

Comprehensive explanation

Irrelevant/incorrect explanation

There is a relation

There is no difference between them

Did not respond

Believe that arithmetics is an easy subject Did not refer to the level of difficulty Believe that mathematics is a difficult subject Did not refer to the level of difficulty

Comprehensive explanation

What is arithmetics?

What is mathematics?

The relation between arithmetics and mathematics

Level of difficulty in arithmetics

Level of difficulty in mathematics

Appendix C Examples of additional answers to the questionnaire Item No. 3: What in your opinion is the relation between arithmetics and mathematics? The relation is that both values have the same meaning

The relation is that in both we use numbers and mathematical operations The relation between arithmetics and mathematics is the fact that they "are connected" to exercises and comparisons between all the areas The relation is that both are subjects which deal with numbers The relation between them is in fact a relation of similarity, they are very similar. The basis of both is the basis of almost

Item 2: What is mathematics?

Item 1: What is arithmetics?

Pupils of the 6th grade Mathematics = a Arithmetics = a synonym of subject studied in arithmetics. The elementary, junior basic terms of high and high arithmetics are school and we called engage in it daymathematics by-day (at school, restaurant, homeâ&#x20AC;Ś) Mathematic is Arithmetics is multiplying or adding integers dividing big and easy numbers numbers

Age

Name

11+

Shir

Hila

Mathematics is exercises on a high level with fractions, decimal numbers and comparison on a high level

Arithmetics implies exercises and comparisons of small numbers: division, multiplication, addition and subtraction

Idan

Mathematics is for learners in higher grades, from the 5th grade and above Mathematics is a general term which is divided into two parts: arithmetics and geometry

Arithmetics is for younger children in the 1st, 2nd and 3rd grades

Itay

Arithmetics is a kind of mathematics which constitutes half of the wide term called mathematics

Niv

everything The relation between arithmetics and mathematics is that arithmetics is a topic which is part of mathematics and this is the topic which is the most studied from among the areas of mathematics The relation is that in arithmetics we learn a material which is somewhat easier and in mathematics we learn a material which is a bit more difficult than arithmetics. The relation is that mathematics is based on arithmetics and continues with mathematics The relation is that both are similar subjects with calculations and exercises

The relation is that mathematics is arithmetics but arithmetics is not mathematics

Mathematics is a word, an area which embodies arithmetics, geometry and more

Mathematics is a subject on a high level because in the 4th-6th grades we say mathematics

Arithmetics is a 12 subject learnt at elementary, junior high and high school and most of it consists of the four basic mathematical operations (multiplication, division, addition and subtraction) Arithmetics is a 12 subject on a low level because in the 1st-3rd grade we say arithmetics

Pupils of the 7th grade Mathematics is a Arithmetics is the small part of basis of algebra which is mathematics and studied in junior we start learning it high school in elementary school Exercises of Exercises of addition, addition, subtraction, subtraction, multiplication and multiplication and division for the division for the 1stth higher grades, 4 - 3rd grades 12th grades Mathematics in Arithmetics is a the generalisation. body within It is arithmetics, mathematics. It is geometry a sub-subject within the wider subject (mathematics)

Yuval

Kirill

12.5

Omri

Uri

Lior

The relation between arithmetics and mathematics is that arithmetics is included within the subject of mathematics The relation between the two is that arithmetics is included in the term mathematics and both are in fact a kind of calculations The relation is that both are a similar subject but mathematics is more difficult. Arithmetics is for elementary school and mathematics is for postelementary school The relation is that we need arithmetics in order to reach mathematics The relation is that arithmetics is part of mathematics

The relation between them is that mathematics consists of arithmetics. Without arithmetics we cannot develop in mathematics

Mathematics is a subject which encompasses all the types of arithmetics, computations with equations and so on Mathematics is a term which comprises algebra, geometry, gematria, etc.

Arithmetics is thinking about calculation of numbers, their totals, quotient, product, etc.

Gal

Arithmetics is in fact computation â&#x20AC;&#x201C; exercises and so on

12.5

Michelle

A subject studied at school which is necessary for the future

A subject at school facilitating our progress in life

12.8

Almog

Dotan

Students Mathematics is a Arithmetics is proof of computation I arithmetics think

A very wide area dealing with numbers, algebra, geometry and others Mathematics focuses on quantities, spaces, structures and changes. Its development took hundreds of years and it continues to do so. It is learnt at postelementary

A subject/area 24 which is derived from mathematics and constitutes its basis Arithmetics is the 44 four basic mathematical operations studied at elementary school â&#x20AC;&#x201C; addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. Each operation is calculation of at

Gal

Noa

The relation is that mathematics is based on the foundations of arithmetics

schools and higher education institutions Proofs, theorems which connect the numbers and are connected by them

least two numbers

The basic operations on which mathematics is based: addition, subtraction, multiplication, division

Nofar

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 15, No. 12, pp. 19-30, November 2016

The Goldilocks Dilemma: A Case Study toward a “Just Right” Model of Service-Learning Ms. Shelley Brown and Dr. Lori Maxwell Tennessee Tech University Cookeville, Tennessee

Abstract: Scholars have long lamented the lack of conceptual clarity in the area of SERVICE-LEARNING. The pedagogical approaches of Sigmon (1994), Haynes (2016) and Eyler and Giles (1999) have been applied to create a balanced or “Goldilocks” model of SERVICELEARNING to courses in both Sociology and Political Science. Moreover, preliminary quantitative assessments have been integrated into the curriculum along with a component of a University wide accreditation plan now for the second five-year QEP (Quality Enhancement Plan). Presented are preliminary assessment results of a case study demonstrating positive relationships between SERVICELEARNING and skills identified as essential to critical thinking and real world problem solving. The cross-disciplinary application of community-based SERVICE-LEARNING projects in increasing critical thinking skills demonstrates a positive direction for future research. Keywords: SERVICE-LEARNING; Quality Enhancement Plan; Critical Thinking Assessment

Introduction Over twenty years ago, Sigmon (1994) famously lamented what is herein relabeled, after the famous fairy tale, the “Goldilocks Dilemma.” (Cauley, 1981). In true Goldilocks fashion, according to Sigmon, academicians were practicing an unbalanced approach to SERVICE-LEARNING with either an inappropriate SERVICE-learning or service-LEARNING pedagogy (1994). Under a SERVICElearning model, Sigmon suggested too much emphasis was placed in service to the detriment of learning, or in our Goldilocks analogy, the SERVICE focus was “too hard” and the classroom link “too soft” (Cauley 1981). In the serviceLEARNING imbalance, clearly, the situation was reversed, whereby scholars were “too cool” in their service emphasis and “too hot” on the educational focus (Sigmon 1994). To rectify this problem, Sigmon proposed SERVICE–LEARNING

(the capitalization is the authors’ own emphasis) programs in which both the service and learning “would be of equal weight and would enhance the other for all participants” (Sigmon, 1994). In this study, Sigmon’s balanced approach, or “Goldilocks Model” has been incorporated into two groups of courses yielding positive results. Preliminary analysis was conducted utilizing both pre-test /post-test assessment of SERVICE-LEARNING pedagogical applications. The results indicate that a SERVICE-LEARNING based pedagogy in which both service and learning are given equal priority is “just right” for application in higher education.

Review of Related Literature The last forty years have seen a wholesale revitalization of SERVICELEARNING in the college classroom. Service learning is a diverse, experiencebased approach to education and learning that has a breadth of potential learning outcomes (Yorio and Ye, 2012). For the purposes of this case study, two areas of relevant literature have been examined. First, there are those that have emphasized the need for SERVICE-learning in which the primary focus is on service. Secondly, there are those which emphasize the learning component of service-LEARNING, seeking to answer the critical question asked by Eyler and Giles in their seminal text: Where’s the Learning in Service Learning (1999)?

SERVICE-Learning Imbued both with John F. Kennedy’s Inaugural admonition to “Ask…what you can do for your country” and Reagan’s reminiscence of Winthrop’s “City on a Hill,” colleges and universities in the 1970’s and 1980’s began a focus on what Campus Compact purposed, the education of “students for civil and social responsibility” (Campus Compact Vision and History, n.d.). Campus Compact is a coalition of over 1000 colleges and Universities throughout the United States with a focus on college-based civic engagement (Campus Compact Overview, n.d.). Most Americans now agree that “schools have a clear responsibility to link what children study in school to the skills they will need at work and in their communities” (National Service-learning Partnerships, 2002). SERVICE-learning projects provide this link between study and real-world application. One of the main reasons educators require SERVICE-learning projects is because it has become a social norm. “An individual’s inclination to give is reinforced by social norms in their community” (Piliavin & Libby 1985). Participation in SERVICE-learning projects allows students to contribute in a meaningful way to society (Jovanovic, DeGooyer & Reno, 2002, p 11). When students work together for a common good, they build a strong understanding of community and generate ideas for social change while also developing social bonds with one another (Jovanovic, DeGooyer & Reno, 2002). Accordingly, SERVICE-learning has become a widely utilized pedagogical tool on college campuses across the United States. Furco (2002) defined service learning as “an integration of community service and academic

study; connecting classroom instruction with real life situations” (Furco, 2002, p.25). Service learning seeks to engage individuals in activities that combine both community service and academic learning. Because service-learning Programs are typically rooted in formal courses (core academic, elective, or vocational), the service activities are usually based on particular curricular concepts that are being taught (Furco, 2002, p.25). SERVICE-learning not only involves a reflection component but also a triangular relationship between students, the institution and the community, in which all parties are benefited and address unmet community needs (Furco, 2002). The goal of Service-learning is for students to make contributions to the community while using the community site as an opportunity for learning. Consistently, the emphasis remains on linking the students’ projects, instruction and/or community service with a broader awareness of citizenship and civic engagement (Furco, 2002). In addition, SERVICE-learning is a “method under which students learn and develop through thoughtfully organized service that is conducted in and meets the needs of a community and is coordinated with an institution of higher education, and with the community; helps foster civic responsibility; is integrated into and enhances the academic curriculum of the students enrolled; and includes structured time for students to reflect on the service experience.” (Campus Compact National Center for Community Colleges, 2002). Importantly, Eyler and Giles (1999) found that the benefits of SERVICE-learning were not limited just to the college classroom and community. Their research demonstrated that those who contribute to society as college students would build social capital. They become more informed voters, better parents, and are more likely to volunteer as adults. Returning to the introduction, Sigmon (1979) defined service learning as "reciprocal learning" and he later (1994) developed four typologies. The primary focus of much of the research in this area is on SERVICE-learning. This, according to Sigmon, is out of balance with a focus on the service but less emphasis on how it will be applied in the classroom. SERVICE-LEARNING, which we have repurposed our Goldilocks Model and in which both the service and learning goals are of equal value is what Sigmon advocates. In essence, equal value would be represented in courses where both service and learning are both emphasized through assignments, grades, student learning objectives and/or instructional time. However, Sigmon additionally urged caution regarding his first model of service-LEARNING as it emphasized learning to the detriment of service. Accordingly, a renewed methodological emphasis is on this first Sigmon model, as scholars have struggled with how to quantitatively assess service-LEARNING.

Service-LEARNING The Campus Compact National Center for Community Colleges suggests a definition of service-LEARNING in which service itself should enhance the academic curriculum (Campus Compact National Center for Community Colleges, 2002). More significantly, this definition points to "thoughtfullyorganized service" measured with quantitative data with the potential for an exciting increase in "critical thinking/ real world problem solving" skills (Campus Compact National Center for Community Colleges, 2002). Service-LEARNING assessment measures are difficult to obtain. The use of this pedagogical approach is constantly evolving. In its nascent stages, institutions would “quantify” service-LEARNING projects by stating numbers of faculty members and total students engaged in any activities such as internships and mission trips as well as courses that would more fully embody Sigmon’s vision. As a more coherent strategy for incorporating serviceLEARNING in which a focus was on learning and academic content came to the forefront, assessment remained problematic. Assessment measures shifted to indirect student self-perception rather than direct measures of learning outcome goals such as critical or creative thinking or real-world problem solving. Although self-perception tests are not inherently flawed, they do not measure outcomes directly. Rather, they measure students’ perceived gains of outcomes. An important work in this area is by Eyler and Giles (1999) who distinguish the contributions of self-perception measures and also contribute significantly to the scholarship on assessing service-LEARNING. Not just focusing on the how, but also the why. Pascarella and Terezini (1991) conclude that Eyler and Giles’ process illustrates the potential gains faculty members are able to quantitatively measure in service-LEARNING outcomes; “[b]ecause students engaged in social problem solving are encouraged to come to closure, to create solutions, they have to reconcile conflicting points of view and sources of information. For some, this process will help them apply their most advanced abilities; for others it will be the factor that helps them move to the next stage in their ability to evaluate and use complex information” (p.119). Again, Sigmon (1979) defined service learning as "reciprocal learning" and he later (1994) developed four typologies. The primary focus of much of the research in this area is on SERVICE-learning. This, according to Sigmon, is out of balance with a focus on the service but less emphasis on how it will be applied in the classroom. SERVICE-LEARNING, or our Goldilocks model, in which both the service and learning goals are of equal value is what Sigmon advocates. In essence, equal value would be represented in courses where both service and learning are both emphasized through assignments, grades, student learning objectives and/or instructional time. However, Sigmon additionally urged caution regarding the application of SERVICE-LEARNING as scholars have struggled to locate the approach within their disciplines and

quantitatively assess SERVICE-LEARING in a way that is “just right” (Cauley 1981). It is to these issues that we now turn.

Cross-Disciplinary Application Service-learning projects allow students to think outside of the box. These projects provide real-life knowledge that they might not have acquired otherwise. “Students may feel empowered by their experiences to assist others in need. They may also recognize their own biases and discomfort in such situations” (Jovanovic, DeGooyer & Reno, 2002, p. 7). It is not one particular type of person that participates in a project. College classrooms consist of people from every walk of life. This forces the students to communicate with one another, use real world problem solving skills as well as critical thinking skills in a group setting and also facilitate activities to enhance the project. This will help students in the future as they apply for jobs or work through real life problems with their families. Everyone experiences obstacles, and a group project in school can better prepare these students for future challenges. These types of projects can benefit the student and bridge the gap between these generations. Better understanding of one another can only help society function smoothly. “To establish commonality with the other is to recognize kinship, and therefore obligation” (Jovanovic, DeGooyer & Reno 2002, p.12).

Methods This project consisted of case studies of six classes in Sociology and Political Science at Tennessee Technological University. All of these case studies involved extensive service learning projects. Four of the classes were Aging in American Society courses. In these courses students were given an opportunity to submit a grant proposal that described a project that could be funded by the university to meet the needs of seniors in the community. Each semester, a panel of community providers selected two projects, and the students who proposed those specific projects became the team leaders for the execution of that project. Two of the classes were Political Science classes. One was survey-level American Government course and the second one was an upper division political science course where students submitted grant proposals. In the survey class, students went into local middle schools and taught the students debate skills culminating in a “Great Debate” among local middle school-aged children for prizes. This debate was held at our university. The upper division students sponsored and brought in speakers for the annual Take Back the Night event to raise awareness regarding violence against women, children, and men.

Assessment Tools Both direct and indirect assessment tools were utilized to measure the effect of service learning in the classroom projects for this study. As an indirect measure of critical thinking, students completed QEP pre and post surveys where students’ self-reported gains on critical thinking in these classes compared to typical classes. For the direct measure of critical thinking, students were given pre and post CAT (Critical thinking Assessment Test) assessments. As part of the official Quality Enhancement Plan for accreditation at Tennessee Tech University, specific skills are targeted and assessed. The Quality Enhancement Plan is a five-year university initiative as a part of University Southern Association of Colleges and Schools accreditation and is an integral part of the University Strategic Plan to improve the quality of student learning. This plan is designed to improve students’ critical thinking/real world problem solving skills using active learning strategies. Some of the skills targeted include evaluating and interpreting information, lifelong learning skills, effective communication, thinking creatively and teamwork. (Tennessee Tech QEP Background 2010-2015, n.d.) The progress that students demonstrate on course objectives, as well as some of the objectives of the Quality Enhancement Plan were evaluated using two separate measures, the QEP pre and post assessment survey and the CAT Instrument. “The Critical-thinking Assessment Test (CAT) was developed with input from faculty across a wide range of institutions and disciplines, with guidance from colleagues in the cognitive/learning sciences and assessment and with support from the National Science Foundation (NSF). This NSF funded assessment has been used at approximately 250 institutions and over 30 NSF projects to measure critical thinking skills. The CAT Instrument is designed to directly assess a broad range of skills that faculty across the country feel are important components of critical thinking and real world problem solving. All of the questions are derived from real world situations, most requiring short answer essay responses. The CAT instrument is designed to engage faculty in the assessment and improvement of students' critical thinking.” (Critical-thinking Assessment Test Overview, n.d.) The CAT assesses several skills that are outlined in Table 1 (Criticalthinking Assessment Test Overview, n.d).

Table 1. Skills Assessed by the CAT Instrument

Evaluating Information 

Separate factual information from inferences.



Interpret numerical relationships in graphs.



Understand the limitations of correlational data.



Evaluate evidence and identify inappropriate conclusions.

Creative Thinking 

Identify alternative interpretations for data or observations.



Identify new information that might support or contradict a hypothesis.



Explain how new information can change a problem.

Learning and Problem Solving 

Separate relevant from irrelevant information.



Integrate information to solve problems.



Learn and apply new information.



Use mathematical skills to solve real-world problems.

Communication 

Communicate ideas effectively.

Analysis Using preliminary bivariate analysis results from the QEP pre and post assessment survey (two-tailed t-test), students in both courses showed significant improvement on multiple skills: (p<.05) (Tables 2 & 3) Table 2: Paired two-tailed t-test of QEP Pre-/Post-Assessment (Sociology Course)

20091 Means (Mdiff.) 2.73/3.44* (.71)

20102 Means (Mdiff.) 3.06/3.88* (.82)

20113 Means (Mdiff.) 3.06/3.94* (.88)

20134 Means (Mdiff.) 3.06/3.94* (.88)

2.54/3.25** (.71)

2.88/3.65* (.59)

3.13/3.56 (.44)

2.81/3.56* (.75) 2.92/3.88* (.95) 2.50/3.63*** (1.13) 2.77/3.69*** (.92)

3.47/4.06 (.59) 3.41/3.88 (.47) 3.41/3.93 (.53) 3.35/4.00 (.65)

2.69/3.56*** (.87) 2.96/3.50* (.54) 2.38/2.75 (.37)

3.41/4.06 (.65) 3.41/3.88 (.47) 3.00/3.71 (.71)

3.56/4.00 (.44) 2.75/3.56* (.81) 3.07/3.53 (.47)

2.77/3.56** (.79)

3.41/4.00* (.59)

3.63/4.00 (.38)

2.81/3.75*** (.94)

3.59/4.24 (.65)

3.31/4.19** (.88)

3.24/3.75 3.65/4.24 (.51) (.59) 3.23/3.69 3.53/4.24* (.46) (.71) Work with Others as 3.04/4.31*** 3.53/4.35* Team Members (1.27) (.82) Note: * >.05; ** >.01; *** >.001 1 Pre-Test N= 16/ Post-Text N= 23 2 Pre-Test N= 16/ Post-Text N= 23 3 Pre-Test N= 16/ Post-Text N= 23 4 Pre-Test N= 16/ Post-Text N= 23

3.63/4.13 (.50) 3.13/4.63** (1.50) 3.25/4.31** (1.06)

Separate Factual Knowledge from Inference Analyze & Integrate Information, Complex Problem Solving Critical Thinking Creative Thinking Solve Real World Problems Analyze & Critically Evaluate Other Perspectives Make Effective Decisions Identifying Inappropriate Conclusions Understanding the Limitations of Correlations Identifying New Information Needed to Draw Conclusions Recognizing How New Information, Change Solution to Problem Learn & Apply New Information Communicate Effectively

3.56/4.38* 3.56/4.38* (.81) (.81) 3.19/4.44*** 3.19/4.44*** (.82) (.82) 3.31/4.19** 3.31/4.19** (.88) (.88) 3.44/4.25* 3.44/4.25* (.82) (.82)

Table 3: Paired two-tailed t-test of QEP Pre-/Post-Assessment (Political Science Course)

20071 Means (Mdiff.) 3.00/3.91* (.24) 2.91/3.64 (.73)

20093 Means (Mdiff.) 3.13/3.74*** (.61) 3.13/3.18* (.05)

20104 Means (Mdiff.) 3.27/3.47 (.20) 3.47/3.07 (-.40)

3.36/4.55** 3.22/3.72 (1.18) (.50) 2.82/4.18*** 2.72/3.33 (1.36) (.61) 2.82/4.00* 2.72/3.00 (1.18) (.28) 2.91/4.55*** 2.83/3.72** (1.64) (.89)

3.43/3.88* (.46) 3.23/3.74* (.51) 3.23/3.62 (.39) 3.03/3.76* (.74)

3.80/3.67 (-.13) 3.53/3.20 (-.33) 4.00/3.33 (-.67) 3.87/3.40 (-.47)

2.82/4.09*** (1.27) 3.55/4.18** (.64) 2.45/3.73** (1.27)

3.22/3.39 (.17) 3.06/3.50 (.44) 2.78/3.33 (.56)

3.38/3.65** (.27) 3.08/3.71 (.63) 2.73/3.50* (.78)

4.27/3.33* (-.93) 3.20/3.67 (.47) 2.87/3.33 (.47)

3.00/4.09** (1.09)

3.17/3.61 (.44)

3.25/3.85*** (.60)

3.40/3.13 (-.27)

2.91/4.27*** (1.36)

2.89/2.39 (.50)

3.20/3.50 (.30)

3.73/3.47 (-.27)

3.36/4.27* (.91) 3.64/4.36 (.73) 3.64/3.82 (.18)

3.67/3.94 (.28) 3.29/3.61 (.32) 3.06/2.89 (-.17)

3.43/3.94* (.52) 3.41/3.79 (.38) 3.33/2.82** (-.50)

4.20/3.53* (-.67) 4.13/3.40* (-.73) 3.04/3.07* (-.93)

Work With Others As Team Members Note: * >.05; ** >.01; *** >.001 1 Pre-Test N= 16/ Post-Text N= 23 2 Pre-Test N= 16/ Post-Text N= 23 3 Pre-Test N= 16/ Post-Text N= 23 4 Pre-Test N= 16/ Post-Text N= 23

20082 Means (Mdiff.) 2.78/3.39* (.61) 2.78/3.00 (.22)

Unlike the QEP pre and post assessment, which measures how students feel they have progressed on certain objectives, The CAT measures a student’s ability to transfer critical thinking skills to non-specific disciplines. “A series of increasingly deeper and more explicit question prompts are used to engage students’ critical thinking skills to measure the extent to which people can understand and evaluate new information and apply that information to a novel situation.” (Haynes et al, 2016 p.49) Using the CAT (Critical Thinking assessment Test) preliminary analysis, students were evaluated on their progress on a number of skills. Students showed significant improvement on the following skills: (paired one tailed ttest)(p <.05)   

Summarizing the pattern of results in a graph without making inappropriate references Identifying additional information needed to evaluate a hypothesis Total CAT score (overall measure of critical thinking skills)

Finally, the IDEA Evaluation tool utilized a likert scale survey to assess progress on relative objectives in the course that are selected by the instructor. The emphasis of the IDEA evaluation is on improving teaching, learning and the higher education process. For this evaluation, students in the course are asked to evaluate their perceptions of progress on relevant objectives to the course, identified by the professor prior to the evaluation. As demonstrated in Table 4, a majority of students in the courses utilized for this study reported “Substantial” or “Exceptional” progress on relevant objectives. Table 4: IDEA evaluation results demonstrating students’ perceptions of progress on relevant objectives

Targeted Skill (Relevant Objective)

2007

2009

2010

2011

2013

Learning to Apply Course Material to Improve Thinking, Problem Solving and Decision Making Learning to analyze and critically evaluate ideas, arguments and points of view

88%/84%

67%

82%

95%

88%/92%

67%

89%

90%

86%

Conclusion In conclusion, we encourage further scholarship vis-à-vis critical thinking and SERVICE-LEARNING in cross-disciplinary applications. SERVICELEARNING can have a positive, significant effect on many of the skills identified as crucial to the critical thinking skills of college students.

Demonstrable gains were indicated both across disciplines and over time in QEP pre and post measures, IDEA student evaluations and the CAT instrument. Students learn by doing and therefore, active learning strategies such as SERVICE-LEARNING projects/opportunities are effective tools for developing these real world skills and improving critical thinking. SERVICE-LEARNING projects provide this “link” between study and real-world application. Although we have found a promising positive relationship between SERVICE-LEARNING and critical thinking, more research using direct measures is needed. Thus, we proffer that universities continue, as suggested by Sigmon, to move away from the “too soft” neglect of the classroom inherent in SERVICE-learning and, likewise eschew the “too hard” approach of service-LEARNING that overworks the student in the classroom with no time left for civic education; obviously, neither option provides a balanced model of SERVICE-LEARNING. Clearly the balanced and interdisciplinary application of a “Goldilocks model of SERVICELEARNING” is invaluable in higher education. Therefore, we would suggest, based on our assessment, that when SERVICE and LEARNING are used as pedagogical tools in balance with each other, a maximum benefit for the students can take place. In other words, if SERVICE and LEARNING are given equal emphasis in the classroom, the learning that takes place is “just right.”

References About the CAT.(n.d.). Retrieved November 23, 2016, from https://www.tntech.edu/cat/about/ Campus Compact National Center for Community Colleges. (2002). Essential Service – Learning Resource Guide [Brochure]. Retrieved from http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ED479524.pdf Campus Compact National Center for Colleges. Mission and Vision. Retrieved from http://compact.org/who-we-are/mission-and-vision/#history Campus Compact. “Who We Are”(n.d.)Retrieved November 23, 2016, from http://compact.org/who-we-are/ Cauley, Lorinda Bryan. (1981). Goldilocks and The Three Bears. New York: Putnam Eyler, J., & Giles Jr, D. E. (1999). Where's the Learning in Service-Learning? Jossey-Bass Higher and Adult Education Series. Jossey-Bass, Inc., 350 Sansome St., San Francisco, CA 94104. Furco, A. (2002). Is Service-Learning Really Better Than Community Service? In A. Furco & S. H. Billig (Eds.) Service-learning: The Essence of Pedagogy (p. 25). Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishing Haynes, Ada, et. al. 2016. Journal of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning. Volume 16, No. 4. August 2016, pp.44-61. “Moving Beyond Assessment to Improving Students’ Critical Thinking Skills” A Model for Implementing Change” Jovanovic, Spoma, DeGooyer, Dan Jr, and Reno, David. 2002. “News Talks: Critical Service-Learning for Social Change.” Proteus: A Journal of Ideas. 27(1), pp.7-14. Pascarella, E.T., and Terenzini, P.T How College Affects Students: Findings and Insights from Twenty Years of Research. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1991. Piliavin, J. A., & Libby, D. (1985/86). Personal norms, perceived social norms, and blood donation. Humboldt Journal of Social Relations, 13, 159-94. QEP Background. (n.d.). Retrieved November 23, 2016, from https://www.tntech.edu/images/stories/QEP/qep_background/

Sigmon, Robert L. Spring 1979. Service-learning: Three Principals. Synergist. National Center for Service-Learning, ACTION,8 (1):9-11 Sigmon, Robert L. 1994. Serving to Learn, Learning to Serve. Linking Service with Learning. Council for Independent Colleges Report. Yorio, P. L., & Ye, F. (2012). A meta-analysis on the effects of service-learning on the social, personal, and cognitive outcomes of learning. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 11(1), 9-27.

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 15, No. 12, pp. 31-47, November 2016

A Critical Interrogation of Integration, Special Educational Needs and Inclusion Glazzard Jonathan Leeds Trinity University Leeds, England

Abstract. In this article, I have focused on presenting the key literature which has shaped my personal thinking and values around inclusion. Throughout the article, I draw on the perspectives of a Special Educational Needs Coordinator (SENCO) who I have referred to as Jane. The perspectives are taken from a complete life history account which formed the basis of my doctoral research. To produce the narrative Jane documented her personal reflections over a period. Jane‟s account illustrates the extent to which inclusion can present a risk for schools and in this case the powerful othering effect that it can have on the reputation of a school. Keywords: Inclusion; special educational needs; disability; integration

Jane: Throughout my teaching career I have always been acutely aware of an overwhelming desire to accept and support the very individual and diverse personalities I have had the pleasure of meeting and educating over many years. In the early years of my career I was aware of many teachers who labelled children who were unable to follow the rule book. The term ‘naughty’ seemed to be splattered around like paint. ‘Naughty’ was applied to children, as one would perhaps understand, who disrupted classes with their challenging behaviour. It was however also applied to children who were shy and did not respond to questions, or those who struggled to complete tasks. It was the labelling of the latter group which disturbed me the most. I would find myself trying to relate to these children, knowing how they were feeling, knowing that the more they felt pressurised and undermined the more their self confidence and self-esteem would be damaged. My views have not changed and my empathy for such children is as strong today as it was then. Deep in my memory I have always realised that I was more able and ready to relate to these children. Many of them were a mirror image of me. I have, until now, acknowledged, to myself and a few close friends, that certain aspects of my life have influenced both my views and practices. I have recalled isolated incidents, but in a very dismissive manner. In my own thoughts, I have often revisited them. I have never wanted to publicly dwell on my past. The past was gone, the present and the future were my focus. In reality I was afraid of revisiting it, unsure of the feelings I would experience by doing so. Agreeing to share and discuss my life experiences has enabled me to more fully understand and deconstruct my own meanings of inclusion. I have lived and

worked through the transition from integration to inclusion. The impact of current political agendas is not totally at odds with my practices and beliefs. I do believe that we should do the very best we possibly can for all children and enjoy supporting children to move forward in their learning although I find the current performance culture frustrating. I continue to strive to support the whole child. Until recent years I was able to openly celebrate each and every development and I do so to this day. In the current wilderness of the standards agenda the children and I frequently celebrate alone. (Jane)

Introduction In this article, I have focused on presenting the key literature which has shaped my personal thinking and values around inclusion. Throughout the article, I draw on the perspectives of a Special Educational Needs Coordinator (SENCO) who I have referred to as Jane. The perspectives are taken from a complete life history account which formed the basis of my doctoral research. To produce the narrative Jane documented her personal reflections over a period. I have interwoven specific extracts from the narrative throughout this article to illustrate the points raised in the literature. I start the article by exploring the discourses of integration and inclusion. I then draw upon Foucault‟s „box of tools‟ (Foucault, 1977a) to deconstruct the discourses associated with special educational needs and inclusion. Following this, I offer a critical analysis of the current discourses of inclusion by examining the relationship between inclusion and the marketisation of education.

Integration Jane: As a classroom teacher for the last 35 years I have enjoyed the rewards and challenges of working with all children. Without doubt, some have been more challenging than others. In the early years of my career I taught several children who had been educated in special schools. My role was to integrate them into a mainstream setting. At this time, it was the child who was expected, with support, to adapt to the policies and systems of the school. I was fortunate that I was working in a school where the Head Teacher realised that we would need to make adaptations to our practices to meet children’s diverse needs. There were, as there are today, also children who struggled to access some aspects of their education. There were no individual education plans and teaching assistants and consequently children with special needs may not have been as effectively supported as they are today. However, it was viewed as essential to support the whole child. Differentiation was in evidence although I do not recall using ability grouping. I frequently taught classes larger than 35 children and recall several classes which had more than40 children. I was charged with teaching these classes with no additional support. (Jane) Jane‟s account makes it possible to view integration as a process of assimilation which placed an onus on the child with special educational needs and/ or disabilities to adapt to the policies, routines and curricula of mainstream schools. The child was largely expected to „fit in‟ (Frederickson & Cline, 2009: 71) to a system of education which had not been adapted to meet the needs of the

individual pupil. As policy discourse integration emerged following the recommendations of the Warnock Report (DES, 1978) which removed medical categorisations of deficit, instead replacing them with the softer language of learning difficulties and special educational needs (Norwich, 2008). The recommendations of the Warnock Report were addressed in the 1981 Education Act and this legislation was the basis of the current system of special educational needs which exists in England. The trend towards the integration of pupils with special educational needs and/or disabilities into mainstream schools arose out of increasing dissatisfaction with segregated provision (Black-Hawkins, Florian & Rouse, 2007). However, Tomlinson (1982) has demonstrated how special educational needs are a product of education system which fails to respond to diversity. Thus, “needs” are problematic because they are socially constructed (Thomas & Loxley, 2007). They are also interpreted in various ways by different people in different contexts. Despite the removal of medical labels, it could be argued that the special educational needs system which developed following the 1981 education Act was largely based on a medical model of disability in the way that it failed to consider the ways in which education can erect barriers to participation and achievement. By retaining a focus on the individual rather than the environmental, social or pedagogical factors that contribute to the identification of needs, the discourse of integration located the problem within the child rather than examining the contribution of schooling to disablement.

Interpretations of inclusion Jane: „Inclusion’…….one short word. It is a word, however, that I struggle to define despite its prominence in my current professional role. Should I be asked to substitute this with an alternative my response would be ‘belonging.’ Immediately other words spring to mind, including ‘acceptance.’ It is profoundly evident that I have no clear understanding of the word’ inclusion’ and that despite my strong beliefs that I wish to ‘include’ all children in my teaching I am unable to offer an explanation as to the meanings of my practices. I offer no apologies for my poor understanding of this educational term. Through copious discussions with friends and colleagues, as well as my own readings, it has become evident that this one word, in reality, has several meanings. It is a word with several meanings to different individuals who may at the same time be working to enable and support its principles. There is little wonder that, despite working in an ‘inclusive’ environment, I continue to find it a frustrating and challenging experience. There are aspects of some interpretations of ‘inclusion’ that I embrace wholeheartedly. To include children is to ensure that they are not simply a physical presence. I strive to make adaptations to my practices to ensure that all children can access all aspects of their education. I view the classroom as ‘ours’. It is a space which belongs to all of us, a space in which we can all grow and develop, and a space where we can all enjoy a strong sense of belonging. To simply belong, however, is inadequate. Throughout my own story, it is clear that I ‘belonged’ to a family who in many respects had my best interests at heart. I am, to this day, at odds with many of the methods my parents used, but cannot deny

their ambition for me. This leads me to return to the word ‘acceptance.’ Revisiting the events of my life was not an easy journey. It was, however, fruitful. I am more able to identify a genuine desire, on the part of my mother, to ensure that I was offered every chance to enjoy success. In doing so, however, she left me longing for acceptance. Acceptance is of course another term which will have different meanings for different people. It is, I now acknowledge, acceptance that is central to my own interpretation of ‘inclusion.’ I believe that we are all capable of great things and that equally we all find some aspects of life and learning more challenging. The current agenda relating to inclusion does not, in my opinion, support acceptance. There is a strong emphasis on academic attainment and success is measured against narrow performance indicators. I truly strive to accept the differences between children. (Jane) In this section I have not attempted to define inclusion because it is a word which means different things to different people (Clough, 2000) with different vested interests. This is complicated further by the fact that social, political and cultural contexts shape interpretations of inclusion. Inclusion has a multiplicity of meanings (Graham & Slee, 2008) and thus, to pin inclusion down to a single entity would fail to do it justice (Nind, Sheehy & Simmons, 2003). I share Lindsay‟s perspective that inclusion „is not a simple, unambiguous concept‟ (Lindsay, 2003: 6), not least because it cannot be disassociated from values, which are neither shared nor stable. Avramidis, Bayliss & Burden (2002) stated that inclusion „is a bewildering concept which can have a variety of interpretations and applications‟ (p.158). As such it has become an empty and elusive term (Gabel, 2010) and consequently Cole makes a useful point in arguing that it is better to explore meanings rather than the meaning of inclusion (Cole, 2005). The vested interests of politicians, teachers, parents and people with disabilities will invariably shape their personal perspectives of inclusion. However, the development of socially just pedagogies continually evolve through being grounded in personal experience (Sikes et al. 2007: 358) and thus, Jane‟s story provides an opportunity to explore the ways in which personal and professional experiences shape inclusive practice. Inclusion has been reflected metaphorically in the literature as a journey (Ainscow, 2000; Allan, 2000; Nind, 2005; Azzopardi, 2010). Julie Allan‟s humorous reference to the term „inconclusive education‟ (Allan, 2000: 43) serves as a reminder that inclusion is always in process and never complete. In this respect inclusion challenges schools to continually develop their capacities to reach out to all learners (Ainscow, 2000) by developing socially just pedagogies which connect individual learners with their own ways of learning (Corbett, 2001). Inclusion necessitates a deep cultural change within schools (Corbett, 1999; Graham & Harwood, 2011) to make schools more able to respond to difference. It places an onus upon schools to examine the environmental, curricular and pedagogical factors which limit achievement (Erten & Savage, 2012), resulting in radical reform of pedagogy and value systems (Mittler, 2000).

Such an approach represents an ecological perspective (Dyson, Farrell, Polat, Hutcheson & Gallanaugh, 2004) which challenges educators to examine factors in the school environment which limit achievement rather than focusing on deficits within individual learners. Azzopardi (2009, 2010) has argued that the term „inclusive education‟ is little more than a cliché: „a politically correct term that is used for speeches and policy-makers to silence all woes‟ (2009: 21). It is defined in various ways by different groups with different interests, leading to its exploitation (Sikes et al. 2007). For example, Hodkinson & Vickerman (2009) have argued that government definitions of inclusion have continued to emphasise the traditional discourses of special educational needs. In addition, inclusion is interpreted differently within groups (Glazzard, 2011). Jane‟s sense of frustration is evident above when she refers to the lack of a shared understanding of inclusion within her own school, resulting in various practices. Consequently, there is an increasing interest in the use of people‟s own narratives in the academic literature to illuminate what inclusion means to those who have a vested interest in it (Goodley et al. 2004; Cole, 2005; Sikes et al. 2007; Azzopardi, 2009) and my own study is also located within this arena. During the past two decades inclusion has become a politically correct term (Azzopardi, 2010) for politicians, theorists and activists and this has diverted attention away from its realisation in practice. Pather (2007) argues that there is a need to de-sloganise inclusion by focusing on providing quality experiences for all learners and there is some logic in this argument; research which explores tangible aspects of inclusive practice will help to advance inclusion in schools. However, inclusion is political because it demands and continues to require a structural transformation of education to make it more equitable and more responsive to diversity. Until inclusion is disentangled from neoliberal values of governance (Slee 2011) practitioners will be restricted in the extent to which they can develop socially just pedagogies. This restricts inclusion to a process of assimilation, thus resembling the previous discourses of integration in which schools accommodated learners with special educational needs but their systems were largely unchanged. Like others before me (Slee, 2001a; Slee, 2001b; Slee & Allan, 2001; Thomas & Loxley, 2007; Slee, 2011) I share the view that the special educational needs paradigm that has dominated education for the last three decades is exclusionary and serves the function of maintaining existing inequalities. Questions of inclusion concern questions of rights rather than needs (Roaf, 1988). The latter are problematic because the notion of „need‟ implies a deficit in relation to a socially constructed norm. My critique of the special educational needs paradigm does not relate to the suitability of mainstream or segregated educational environments for children. Thomas & Vaughan (2004) provide a very comprehensive overview of this debate. In addition, current policy frameworks in England (DFE, 2011) and literature (Baker, 2007) recognise the central role of both mainstream and special educational provision within the inclusion debate and this is a policy development which I support. My critique

is primarily concerned with the way in which policies by previous and current governments (DFES, 2001; DFES, 2004; DFE, 2011) in England have allowed inclusive education to be used as a replacement for special needs education (Black-Hawkins, Florian & Rouse, 2007; Slee, 2011). Consequently, rather than inclusion interrogating and reconstructing the existing structures, policies and practices of schooling and challenging deeply engrained injustices, it has sustained inequalities by creating subtle forms of segregation (Slee, 2011). Through its connection with special needs inclusion has served to protect the status quo in schools (Graham & Slee, 2008; Slee, 2011). As a concept it has continued to focus on notions of assimilation and presence rather than representing a struggle for equality and social justice (Hodkinson, 2012). The continued dominance of the use of traditional psychological approaches for responding to diversity has resulted in categorisation, stigmatisation and deficit views of difference which have not helped the inclusion agenda (Florian, 2009). Inclusive education must be disassociated from special educational needs so that it is able, as a policy discourse, to articulate its distinct values (Slee, 2011) based on social justice, democracy and equity. It necessitates a departure from processes which label, segregate and stigmatise to enable schools to embrace diversity (Graham & Harwood, 2011). Cole‟s narratives (Cole, 2005) are helpful in exploring interpretations of inclusion. They explore the collective voices of six women who were both mothers and teachers of children with special educational needs and disabilities. Within the narratives, the mother-teachers emphasised the need for educators to embrace humanitarian values (Armstrong, 2005) by developing a pedagogy which emphasises care, dignity and respect. The emphasis on „careful teaching‟ is also prominent in early writing of Jenny Corbett (Corbett, 1992). The experience of becoming parents had a substantially positive impact on the professional identities of these teachers (Cole, 2005) and this theme has been identified in previous research (Sikes, 1997). The mother-teachers embraced the language of „normality‟ by viewing difference as normal rather than special. In doing so they rejected the deficit, pathologising language of special educational needs. These insights, based on the personal experiences of the informants, have been useful in shaping my own understandings of inclusion. Thus, inclusion necessitates a humanitarian approach to teaching which emphasises care, respect and dignity. I view inclusion as a process which engenders a sense of acceptance. Jane‟s reflection illustrates that a sense of belonging does not do justice to inclusion. Inclusion, in my view, refutes pathologising labels which emphasise perceived deficits and demands creative and reflective educators who are willing to experiment with pedagogy (Allan, 2006) and who view diversity as an „enriching opportunity for learning‟ (Pizzuto, 2010: 88). Lloyd‟s call for a reconceptualisation of achievement and the „denormalisation of institutions, systems and rules which comprise education and schooling (Lloyd, 2008; 228) has substantially contributed to my understanding of inclusion as a radical transformation of both policy and practice. Such a transformation demands major changes to the education system (Nilholm, 2006) through disrupting the current structures of schooling which result in segregation and

systemic failure. Inclusion raises critical questions about the purposes of education and challenges politicians to reconceptualise current limited notions of achievement. Transformation at a pedagogic level alone is insufficient to facilitate social justice. To develop inclusive schools, the curriculum and assessment processes need to be radically overhauled to enable education to respond to diversity. However, changing schools and school systems is problematic because „there is not a perfect system awaiting us on the shelf‟ (Nind, Rix, Sheehy & Simmons, 2003) and various models rather than one model will be required. The notion of inclusion as a radical transformation is a wellestablished theme within the literature (Mittler, 2000; Farrell, 2001; Nind, 2005), with some scholars emphasising the role of teachers as change agents (O‟Hanlon, 2003; Skidmore, 2004; Nind, 2005). Additionally, the emphasis on ensuring maximal participation of all learners (Nutbrown & Clough, 2006) has also been emphasised. Philosophical debates have emphasised that hopes for full inclusion are fundamentally naive because schools and communities will always need to employ exclusionary strategies to secure their own existence (Wilson, 1999; 2000; Hansen, 2012). The thrust of such critiques is that in practice inclusion always has limits. Hegarty (2001) warned that inclusion would have a case to answer if it diverted attention away from a school‟s core function of promoting learning towards a focus of promoting values of equity and social justice. Whilst these critiques are conceptually sound they do not sufficiently articulate how the current structures of schooling (curricula, assessment processes, limited notions of achievement) create barriers to participation and achievement which subsequently results in exclusion. Inclusion is crucially about the politics of difference and identity (Slee, 2001b) which interrogates the structures, policies and practices of schooling (Slee, 2011). It demands a process of educational reconstruction and revisioning (Slee, 2001a) rather than a process of assimilation into an unchanged system. Such limited notions of inclusion, which have been uncritically accepted in the philosophical debates, will inevitably result in exclusion and consequently inclusion will always fail as a policy imperative (Slee, 2011). It could be argued that educators should not dismiss inclusion because it takes time to get it right or because they make inevitable mistakes along the way (Cole, 2005). Instead, they might consider using inclusion as a vehicle for experimenting with creative, innovative approaches in a bid to reach out to all learners (Allan, 2006; Goodley & Runswick-Cole, 2010).

Critiques of special educational needs In this section I draw on Foucault‟s conceptual tools (Foucault, 1977a) to develop a critique of the special educational needs empire. I argue that the discourses of special educational needs have hijacked inclusion and this has restricted the development of more socially just pedagogies. I begin my critique by arguing that the discourses of special educational needs in England are anti-inclusive. The techniques of diagnosis, intervention and surveillance categorise children by their differences and are rooted in a psycho-

medical paradigm which „conceptualizes difficulties in learning as arising from deficits in the neurological or psychological make-up of the child‟ (Skidmore, 2004: 2). In adopting the language of special needs by identifying distinct categories of „need‟, the Code of Practice for Special Educational Needs in England (DfE, 2015) emphasises homogeneity rather than heterogeneity by increasing the focus on outcomes for learners with special needs. Additionally, the Code emphasises early identification of need which results in labelling through the use of categories of need. These categories ascribe to individuals a minority status which presumes a weakness and vulnerability in comparison with the majority of learners who fall outside the imposed categories (Thomas & Loxley, 2007). The concept of „need‟ is highly problematic in that it reinforces notions of deficit and disadvantage (Thomas & Loxley, 2007). Additionally, within the discourses of special education, „need‟ and notions of „normality‟ are determined through distances from artificially constructed norms (Graham, 2006). Failure to achieve such norms results in the creation of an othered group made up of learners who do not fit the required subject construction; an able, productive, skilled learner who understands their responsibilities to a neoliberal marketised society (Goodley, 2007). These learners are reconceptualised as the needs of the school (to compete, to maintain standards and order) are transferred to the learner (Thomas & Loxley, 2007), thus inscribing a stigmatised identity. They are by-products of a traditional curriculum (Skrtic, 1991) in which they are viewed as eternally lacking (Goodley, 2007) and with support they are expected to transform themselves to meet the required subject construction. The diagnosis, intervention and remediation processes result in „the entrapment of the child in a cocoon of professional help‟ (Thomas & Loxley, ibid. 55) which conceals the vested professional interests of „expert‟ professionals under the rhetoric of humanitarianism (Tomlinson, 1985). These learners are then singled out for specialist attention and placed under increased surveillance (Allan, 1996), resulting in them becoming disempowered. The vocabulary of individual intervention, targets and individual education plans advocated in the Code of Practice results in a „highly individualised approach‟ (Skidmore, 2004: 15) which locates the deficiencies within the child rather than the deficiencies within the school (Dyson, 2001). Such approaches restrict creative pedagogy (Skidmore, 2004) and, according to Lloyd, are „all concerned with normalization and ... standardization, of groups and individuals rather than contributing to the denormalization of the institutions ...‟ (Lloyd, 2008: 228) which is so central to the development of inclusion. Inclusion is a transformative process which refutes „normative practices‟ (Graham, 2006: 7) such as diagnoses and the use of „correct training‟ (Foucault, 1975a; 1975b 1977a; 1984a). These serve as disciplinary forces which regulate the lives of individuals (Armstrong, 2005). Normative practices are deeply embedded in the discourses of special educational needs and, whilst failing to promote equity, serve to legitimise failure by emphasising „individual responsibility for individual achievement‟ (Armstrong, 2005: 147). Such practices, which serve to negate diversity, are justified because they are viewed as benevolent responses to need (Graham, 2006).

It has been argued that special needs educators have relocated their knowledge and experiences within the discourses of inclusion (Slee, 2001b). Consequently, according to Slee this has restricted inclusion and enabled the medical model of disability to triumph (Slee, 2001b). Varying „disorders‟ have been introduced into the lexicon of special needs, each with its own symptoms and disease like characteristics, creating spectacle, fear and revulsion (Dunne, 2009). Intervention and remediation serves to negate diversity by creating normative subjects and educators have been positioned as „police‟ (Dunne, 2009), charged with hunting down abnormalities and correcting them through early identification processes. In contrast, an inclusive pedagogy rejects both deficit views of difference and fixed notions of intelligence (Florian, 2009) which are heavily embedded within the discourses of special educational needs.

Foucault’s conceptual framework I now turn to Foucault‟s conceptual tools (Foucault, 1977a; 1991a) to illustrate how these can be applied to interrogate the discourses of special educational needs. I use Foucault‟s work to argue that the inclusion agenda is currently situated within a powerful othering discourse (Dunne, 2009) of special educational needs. For Foucault discourses relate to „practices that systematically form the objects of which they speak‟ (Foucault, 1972: 49). Discourses are pervading in that they result in particular truths being accepted (Foucault, 1980) and sustained through circulatory power rather than sovereign power (Foucault, 1978a; 1978b). Neoliberal forms of governance are an example of a discourse which places responsibility on the individual to become entrepreneurial (Masschelien, 2006), self-reliant and able to compete in a global economy. This is achieved through a focus on functional skills which derive from a traditional curriculum. Discourses of special educational needs sit within and feed into this master narrative which serves the purpose of creating a flexible, qualified and enterprising workforce. This narrative is immensely problematic for those learners who are not able to, or choose not to, fit the required subject construction (Goodley, 2007). Foucault‟s „box of tools‟ (Foucault, 1977a) makes it possible to understand the ways in which power is used as a regulatory force to control the lives of individuals. The tool of surveillance is perhaps the most important conceptual tool that Foucault uses in helping us to understand ways in which individuals are regulated, sorted and normalised (Allan, 2008). In The Birth of the Clinic (Foucault, 1973) Foucault illustrates the effects of surveillance on the lives of sick people through the medical gaze which constructs „individuals as both subjects and objects of knowledge and power „(Allan, 1996: 221). In his analysis of madness (Foucault, 1967) Foucault illustrates how the medical gaze focused on the regulation and purification of the body, which gave it a normalising function. In Discipline and Punish (Foucault, 1977a) Foucault draws on Jeremy Bentham‟s technique of panopticism which made it possible „for a single gaze to see everything perfectly‟ (Foucault, 1977a: 173). This method of hierarchical surveillance was „absolutely discreet, for it functions permanently and largely in silence‟ (Foucault, 1977a: 177). Foucault‟s second conceptual tool of surveillance

was the use of normalising judgements which are used in a range of professions to „promote standardization and homogeneity‟ (Allan, 2008: 87). The notion of a norm enables individuals to be categorised in deficient ways and distances from the norm are used to determine the extent of abnormality and extent of need. Foucault‟s third conceptual tool of surveillance is the examination which effectively enables individuals to be „described, judged, measured, compared with others, in his very individuality‟ (Foucault, 1977a: 191). Foucault‟s techniques of surveillance provide a powerful theoretical lens through which the discourses of special educational needs can be critically interrogated. It makes it possible, for example, to recognise how the Special Educational Needs Code of Practice (DfE, 2015), with its increased focus on outcomes for learners with special educational needs, subjects „vulnerable‟ children to increased measures of surveillance compared with other learners. The mechanisms of the individual education plan, individual progress reviews, additional assessments, remediation and „specialist‟ support both subject those learners identified as having special educational needs to greater amounts of surveillance than their peers and serve a normalising function. The technique of the formal assessment process, which diagnoses specific conditions, validates the presence of an abnormality in relation to socially constructed norms. The use of terms such as intervention, remediation and support all serve a normalising function which aim to purify and correct. The disciplinary apparatus of special educational needs has an individualising effect which views difference in negative and stigmatising ways rather than as a positive feature of an individual‟s identity. The focus on correction and minimising „abnormality‟ gaps has a pathologising effect which places responsibility on the child to „correct‟ their deficits. Such deeply engrained processes reflect a medical model of disability which views impairment as a tragic deficit which needs to be corrected. According to Allan (2008) „These mechanisms of surveillance create subjects who are known and marked in particular kinds of ways and who are constrained to carry the knowledge and marks‟ (p.87). The discourses of special educational needs fail to address critical questions about the purposes of schooling, education policy, the nature of the curriculum and the assessment systems which create social injustices. Rather than embracing a social model of disability, the discourses of special educational needs are positioned squarely within a powerful othering framework which is detrimental to inclusion (Slee, 2001b; Thomas & Loxley, 2007; Dunne, 2009).

Critiquing inclusion This application of Foucault‟s theoretical framework is well documented in the academic literature in relation to learners with special educational needs. However, applying this framework to teachers who work in inclusive schools, rather than to pupils with special needs, makes it possible to analyse the disciplinary effects of inclusion differently. The following account from Jane illustrates the disciplinary effects of „inclusion‟ on teachers who work in inclusive schools:

Jane: The room is empty but full of people. Silence surrounds me yet people speak. Friends are near but seem so far away. Aware of every single heart beat thumping in my chest, my breathing is becoming ever shallower, my head thumps and my palms are clammy. I feel distant from the frightened faces around me. There is so much to say and yet I do not have the strength to verbalise my thoughts. I clearly recognise the physical symptoms of fear and my mind and body swiftly respond to them in preparation for fight or flight. The next hour will be life changing. It will confirm my greatest fears. The events of the last forty-eight hours play repeatedly and vividly through my mind. I relive every word I have spoken, every decision I have made and every explanation I have offered. I am briefly distracted by a high-pitched ringing in my ears and a deep sigh from a distant corner of the room. I swiftly return to my thoughts. How could we have averted this devastating outcome? How could we have changed the course of events which had unfolded and would now impact on the lives of so many for many months to come? I search deep inside my mind but no answers are forthcoming. Forty-eight hours earlier life had been full of optimism which was now crushed and broken like fragments of shattered glass. The buzz of excitement and energy was silenced. Smiles and laughter had quickly turned to pain and confusion etched on the faces of those around me. We sought comfort by staying in close proximity to one another as the predator advanced towards its prey. I had been lost in my thoughts and the realities of life had dawned on me as I looked up to view the unfolding reactions of my companions. Each reacted in their own unique way and I carefully studied each and every response as I sat quietly on the edge of this picture of undeniable disbelief. Young and old we were together, each feeling the other’s pain. Some sat deep in thought, others chatted and there were those who calmly offered words of comfort and advice. Every response was intended to offer us hope but we all knew that both hope and time had run out. The door opened and I knew the time had come to face reality. I made eye contact with no one and left the room with my head held high. I was now devoid of any emotions as I walked resolutely towards our destiny ready to absorb the injustice of the predicament with which we were now confronted. The strength to face the next few minutes of my life came from within as I resolved to deny myself any opportunity to demonstrate regret or denial of my long-held views and deep rooted beliefs. Another school year has come to a close. A year filled with challenges which we have continued to face with determination. More children, and their accompanying needs, have joined the school including two pupils demonstrating the behaviours of attachment disorder, one young child with epilepsy and considerable developmental delay and a statement of special educational needs. There is a child with Turner’s syndrome who also has a statement of special educational needs and an eight-year-old with significant speech difficulties. This is not an exhaustive list but merely gives an indication of some of the significant needs we support in our day to day work. Each of them is fully and successfully included in a mainstream classroom. We have also continued to enjoy the rewards of working with a wonderful mix of children. So why am I so disillusioned, why am I so frustrated, why am I so angry and why am I questioning my strong desire to work with the day to day challenges that I have thrived on for the entirety of my teaching career? The reality is that my greatest fears have become a reality. OFSTED recently visited prompted by one complaint from a parent. And so the inspector came to call and almost two weeks later I am of the opinion that she ripped the heart out of the school. As a

teacher with much experience of school inspections I have never encountered an inspector who had seemingly made her decision before she had even set foot in the school. Our fate, it seems, was sealed. All cohorts but one had made at least good progress whilst one cohort had made above expected progress. Good progress was entirely disregarded. All attempts to demonstrate the good progress the school has made, in so many respects, were ignored. The focus of this inspection became the shortcomings of the school. We felt that there was so much to celebrate and know that much work still needs to be done. As a school we are not in denial and we are fortunate in having a staff that is totally committed to school improvement. Each and every one of them has worked tirelessly to bring about that change. They have worked with determination to enhance their practices and the improvement has been visible and has had clear and positive impact. This impact has been confirmed by those who have worked with us and have shared and worked alongside us to overcome the challenges. They too were celebrating with us. It seemed that the tide was turning and that the data confirmed this upward trend. Based on the one complaint the inspectors had received the focus of the inspection was the behaviour in school. In all previous inspections this had been identified as good. Because of the needs of some of our children we would not deny that the behaviour of some children can be very challenging from time to time. It is for this reason that systems are frequently evaluated and the need for staff training is identified. Systems are well considered to ensure that the education of our children is not disrupted by the occasional responses of some troubled individuals. De-escalation strategies are effectively used by all staff. Triggers for individuals have been identified. Individuals are able to take â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;quiet timeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; when they recognise that they are becoming distressed and many now independently and appropriately access this opportunity, recognising their own needs. The leadership team always carry walkie-talkies and can immediately respond to calls for additional support to remove particularly distressed individuals from classrooms. This is usually achieved without disruption when the identified child is invited to leave the classroom to have quiet time and then discuss the reasons behind their distress. This strategy has proved to be very effective and they are usually able to return to their class in a calm manner, ready to continue with their learning. All such incidents are of course recorded and parents are invited to meet with senior managers to discuss these events. The school log shows that nineteen such events have taken place in the last school year. The log clearly identifies four children. These children have very specific needs. Two are displaying behaviours clearly linked to attachment disorder, one has a statement of special educational needs for behaviour, emotional and social development and one is receiving support, with his family, from the school for behaviour, social and emotional needs. Systems ensure that their behaviours are dealt with swiftly. In the two days that the school was inspected there was no evidence of poor behaviours. The behaviour log was however the evidence used against us. Nineteen incidents were deemed a concern. There was no opportunity to discuss the needs of the children involved or the ways in which we had supported them to successfully access their education with their peers for the most part of each school week. The children have been placed in our school because the local authority special school is full. The inspector ignored our responses as we fought in vain to explain how we had developed systems to ensure that the learning needs of ALL children had been met. All attempts to show the improvements and successes of the school were completely disregarded. She had the bit between her teeth and she relentlessly focused on her perceived weaknesses of the school resulting in small holes quickly becoming craters. To her there was a simple solution. The four children in

the behaviour log should have been excluded. Three of the children have previously been excluded from other schools. Their parents have frequently expressed their gratitude for the work we do. Unfortunately, they never took the time to convey their views to the inspector. The school is situated in an area of social deprivation. The culture of many of the families it serves can be a challenge. Teachers are perceived, by many, to be figures of authority and authority has to be challenged. There are, however, many families who acknowledge and value the work we do. These are the families who never considered that their voices should be heard by the inspector. They are the families who remained silent. The voices heard were those who have relentlessly challenged our systems. Those who refuse to work with us to support their children but have always been quick to condemn us and seemingly challenge every initiative we introduce from healthy eating to the completion of homework. They are undeniably a very small minority of the families we serve but they were the voices that the inspector heard as these same parents circled like vultures on their prey. The school was swiftly deemed as inadequate. The entire staff, the governing body and the local authority have been left in a state of disbelief. Only one person who has worked closely with the school has expressed a degree of understanding of the judgement made. There is no time to be lost and the work to quickly move forward has already begun. There is no opportunity to contest the decision that the inspector made and as a school we must now pool all our energies into moving the school out of special measures. The next twelve months, at least, will be filled with challenge and the staff will face it with dedication and resilience. I have spent my entire career truly believing in and developing inclusive practices. My views and practices are deep rooted and on a very personal level I must now question them. Do I respond by going against my strong beliefs which will result in ticking boxes to alleviate the current pressure or do I accept that I am simply out of step with current measures of success in education? That is the dilemma I must now resolve. Fighting the system is futile whilst believing in it is impossible. (Jane)

Reflection The account demonstrates that for Janeâ&#x20AC;&#x;s school, the costs of supporting an agenda for inclusion were significant and devastating for Jane and her colleagues. It illustrates the extent to which inclusion can present a risk for schools and in this case the powerful othering effect that it can have on the reputation of a school. The account provides insight into the way that teachers working in schools which demonstrate a similar commitment to inclusion can become objects of hierarchical surveillance when norms are applied to evaluate school effectiveness. In relation to social justice the school arguably fulfilled its role in supporting learners with diverse needs but undeniably it paid the ultimate price for doing so. In the absence of a radical transformation of the current education system, which rewards schools which demonstrate high academic attainment, schools which continue to support learners with diverse needs will continue to be marginalised and disempowered through various forms of surveillance. Additionally, teachers working in these schools will continue to become objects of intense scrutiny unless broader notions of school effectiveness can be applied when evaluating schools. Sakellariadis (2016) argues that children who attend separate special schools end up living their

adult lives on the margins of society. However, mainstream schools will continue to be reluctant to admit learners with special educational needs and/ or disabilities if they ultimately have to pay a price for doing so.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 15, No. 12, pp. 48-66, November 2016

Psychometric Properties of a Screening Tool for Elementary School Student’s Math Learning Disorder Risk Sinan OLKUN TED University, Ziya Gokalp Cad. No: 48 Kolej 06420 Ankara, TURKEY Arif Altun and Sakine Göçer Şahin Hacettepe University, Beytepe, Ankara, TURKEY Galip Kaya Havelsan, Mustafa Kemal Mh. 2120 Cad. No: 39 ÇankayaAnkara, TURKEY

This study has been supported by a grant from the Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey (TUBİTAK) under the grant number 111K545. Abstract. This study reports the psychometric properties of a Basic Number Processing Test (BNPT), which was developed in order to determine elementary school students at risk for Mathematical learning disorder. A total of 478 primary school students were selected from 12 different public schools with an attempt to get a representative sample. The reliability and validity of the Dyscalculia Screening Tool were assessed with approximately 120 students from each of the First to Fourth grade. Results showed that, except for the First grade, the test scores predict the significant portion of the student’s curriculum based Math achievement scores for Second, Third and Fourth graders with having the highest variance in the Second grade. These findings indicate that BNPT could be used as a screening tool in order to determine the students at risk for Mathematics learning disorders in those grades. It could also be deduced that at least very important portions of the causes of low achievement in Mathematics might originate from either the core systems of number or the system for accessing numbers from symbols. It is also suggested that symbolic or non-reading measurement paradigms would be more appropriate for screening First graders. Keywords: Basic number processing skills, Math learning disorder, low Math achievement, reliability, validity

1. Introduction The prevalence rates for Math learning disorder reported in existing research range from 3-6% (Shalev, Auerbach, Manor, & Gross-Tsur, 2000) to 5-14% (Barbaresi, Katusic, Colligan, Weaver, & Jacobsen, 2005) for children at the ages between 6-11. The structure of Mathematics is highly hierarchical. Therefore, if no adjustments or intervention programs are offered for those who experience Math learning difficulties at early grades, it would be difficult for them to attend and benefit from regular classes with their peers. Middle school or high school levels would be too late for interventions. However, if diagnosed at an earlier age, these students would benefit from guidance or somewhat individualized education depending on their cognitive characteristics. In other words, this would let the development of suitable and supportive learning environments if those students, who are slow in learning Math or find learning Math difficult, were screened at earlier ages. It is possible that the majority of those students who experience low achievement in Mathematics might have reasons different from their own cognitive characteristics. While a partial of those reasons in the low achieved group could be attributed to neuropsychological sources in nature, the other part could be a result of mere poor instruction (Butterworth, 2010) and poor emotional involvement (Auerbach, Gross-Tsur, Manor, & Shalev, 2008). Therefore, it is both an important and difficult task for educators to pinpoint the exact reasons underlying the low achievement in Mathematics. Recent research indicates that Math learning difficulties carry some neuropsychological reasons (Rosenberg-Lee et al., 2015). The findings point out that both in humans and animals there is a number module (NM) which carries out number processing (Butterworth, 2009). Different from animals, humans have a capacity for abstraction and transformation to symbols or to use symbolic representations for numbers and operations. The differences in capacity within this module, which had three subsystems (approximate number system, exact number system, and access to symbols), are thought to be the sources of individual differences in numerical cognition. Research also shows that oneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s success at those tasks designed according to the principles of these subsystems is strong predictors of Math achievement (Geary, Bailey, & Hoard, 2009). This system with its subsystems as a conceptual framework for this study will be described briefly below.

1.1 Conceptual Framework It is argued that there is a system, onset at birth, responsible for numerical processes, (Feigenson, Dehaene, & Spelke, 2004), and is comprised mostly of three subsystems. One of them is responsible for approximate quantities (Approximate Number System (ANS)); the other deals with exact quantities (Exact Number System (ENS)). The Third subsystem, on the other hand, is known to be the system which enables an access to matching the symbols to the quantity or vice versa. Literature includes some evidences that these subsystems function independently from each other (Iuculano, Tang, Hall, & Butterworth,

2008). There is a possibility that any deficit or malfunction in either one or more of these subsystems leads to Math learning disorders.

ANS

ENS NM ATS

Figure 1: Components of Number Module (NM, Number module; ANS, Approximate Number System; ENS, Exact Number System; ATS, Access to Symbols)

Generally, number line (Dehaene, Izard, Spelke, & Pica, 2008; Van't Noordende, van Hoogmoed, Schot, & Kroesbergen, 2015) or analog quantity comparison tasks (Gimbert, Gentaz, Camos, & Mazens, 2016; Mussolin, Mejias, & NoĂŤl, 2010; Park & Starns, 2015) are administered in order to measure about the ANS. Subitizing, dot counting, and symbolic arithmetic calculations (Iuculano vd., 2008) are used for the measurement of the ENS. For accessing the symbols, on the other hand, either Stroop or an equiavilant number-symbol comparison tasks are used (Heine et al., 2010). Students with Math learning disorder (MLD) have difficulties in subitizing, approximate numbers and estimation, comparing symbolically represented numbers, especially the numbers with close proximities (distance effect), and they use more primitive strategies and spend longer times in calculation than do their classmates. These students also make little transfers among number facts or rarely use derived number facts. If these students are identified earlier in their education, it could be possible to improve their number sense so that they might catch up with their peers. It would also be possible to make some adjustments during their assessment of Mathematical learning. The available screening tools are not comprehensive enough to assess the studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; approximate number system, exact number system and access to symbols within a single tool that can be administered in relatively shorter period of time in computer environment. For these types of tasks, latency is more important than accuracy. In this respect, computer based tools are more reliable in collecting accurate item level latencies than paper and pencil based tools. The main purpose of this study was to develop a tablet PC based screening tool for determining Math learning disorder tendencies in children between the ages of 6 to 11.

2. Method 2.1 Participants Participants were 478 primary school students gathered from 12 different public schools with an attempt to get a representative sample. Table 1 represents demographic characteristics of the sample.

Table 1. Participants’ demographic characteristics Grade Gender SES of School Boys Girls 1st Low 30 29 Middle low 15 15 Middle 15 15 Total 60 59 nd 2 Low 30 30 Middle low 15 15 Middle 15 15 Total 60 60 3rd Low 29 31 Middle low 15 15 Middle 14 16 Total 59 61 4th Low 30 29 Middle low 15 15 Middle 15 15 Total 60 59 Grand Total 239 239

Total 59 30 30 119 60 30 30 120 60 30 30 120 59 30 30 119 478

As seen from Table 1, there were approximately 120 students in each grade level from First to Fourth grade. There were nearly equal number of boys and girls in each grade level and in total. The number of students from each socio economic strata was also proportional to population. The information for the socio economic status of the schools was provided by the municipal body of the Ministry of Education. The selection procedure of the sample and the number of students from each grade both contributes to the generality of the results. The legal permission for data collection was also taken from the same authority. The ethical permission was taken from the ethical committee of Ankara University. The teachers in schools were very helpful in providing necessary information for the students.

2.2 Data Collection Tools The Mathematics Achievement Test (MAT): The test has been developed by Fidan (2013) based on the current Turkish State Curriculum (MEB, 2004). Each grade level has different achievement tests. The tests contained 13 items for the First, 15 items for Second, 16 items for Third, and 24 items for the Fourth grades. Open-ended, short answer form was used for all the questions. The MAT is an untimed test. The administration took one class hour (approximately 40 minutes) for the sample. Various methods were used to examine the content, construct and criterion referenced validity of the tests. Since all items were not equal in difficulty the reliability of the tests was estimated by KR-20 method for each grade level (Crocker & Algina, 1986). The reliability coefficients were 0.80, 0.92, 0.93, and 0.96 for the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th grade respectively. The Calculation Performance Test (CPT): It was another test used for concurrent validity in this study. It is developed by De Vos (1992) and adapted by Olkun, Can, and Yeşilpınar (2013) into Turkish. It has five columns of basic arithmetic operations written in Arabic numerals and arithmetic operation symbols. Each

column has 40 operations. Olkun et al. (2013) found the KR-20 coefficients as .95 and .98 for the timed and untimed administrations of CPT. Similar to the original application; the students were given one minute for each column. The main difference between MAT and CPT is that MAT has open-ended word problems while CPT has only arithmetic operations with Arabic numerals. The Screening Test: It has three subtests; canonic dot counting (CDC), symbolic number comparison (SNC), and mental number line (MNL) test. It was individually administered and both students’ reaction times and correct responses were recorded as data points while administering with tablet PCs. The data were collected by trained research assistants being unaware of the study aims. Since the data were collected directly in the tablet PCs as the students individually answered questions immersed in custom software there was no need for manual coding or data entry. Therefore, there was no bias in data collection.

a) CDC Task

b) SNC Task

c) MNL task

Figure 2. Three sample tasks from the three sections in the screening tool

Raven Standard Progressive Matrices (SPM) Test: It was used to measure students’ general reasoning abilities. There are 5 sets of a total of 60 diagrammatic puzzles with increasing difficulty in the test. Raven (Raven, 2000) reported that the test has good reliability and validity measures.

2.3 Procedures Item Analysis: During the piloting phase, first the items, which did not function well, were determined by using ITEMAN software at the grade level. Item discriminations were calculated by bi-serial correlation. The results indicated that the lowest discrimination value for CDC for the First grade was .67, for Second grade it was .50; for Third graders only two items were .09, but the others were higher than .62; for the Fourth graders the lowest discrimination value was .25 and the rest were higher than .46. The lowest discriminant value for SNC for the First grade was .20, whereas the other values were above .54; for Second grade, only two items (item 14 and 24) yielded negative values (-0.07 and -0.15 respectively), but the others were above .50; for the Third graders, the item 14 had a discriminatory value of -0.07, but the others were higher than .50; for the Fourth graders, the lowest discrimination value was .09 and the rest was higher than .50.

The lowest discrimination value for MNL1 for the First grade was .025, whereas the other values were above .35; for Second grade, only two items (item 1 and 8) yielded negative values (-0.04 and -0.024 respectively), but the others were above .50; for the Third graders, the item 9 had a discrimination value of 0.108, but the others were higher than .30; for the Fourth graders, the discrimination values fall between .36 and .684. The discrimination values for MNL3 for the First grade was between .078 and 0.653; for Second grade, only one item (item 1) yielded a negative value (-0.187), but the others were above .30; for the Third graders, the values ranged between 0.233 and .646; for the Fourth graders, the discrimination values fall between 0.190 and .655. MNL4 has been administered only to Third and Fourth graders. For the Third grade, only one item (item 9) yielded a negative value (-0.114), but the others were above 0.37; for the Fourth grade, again, only one item yielded a negative value (-0.117), but the others were above 0.30. The highest discrimination value for this grade was found to be 0.686. Taking the item statistics and expert views into consideration, necessary changes have been made and the tests were made ready to be administered. Reliability Results: Table 2 presents the reliability coefficients for the tests. For MNL1-3 and 4 are multi-graded tests Cronbach alpha coefficient was calculated; the other tests were binary, therefore, KR-20 reliability coefficient was calculated. The results obtained through item-responses, CDC test, which had lower than .70, could be considered medium level reliability. MNL1, MNL3, and SNC had good reliability scores; MNL4, on the other hand, was a highly reliable test. When the time spent on tasks is taken into account, the reliability scores for MNL1 and MNL3 were good; CDC, SNC, and MNL4 had high reliability scores. Reliability for tests in which scores are used to make serious decisions is expected to be between 0.85 and 0.95; however, values equal to or higher than 0.50 for tests prepared by instructors may be deemed as reliable. From this perspective, it can be said that the tests developed for this research has adequate reliability (Frisbie, 1988). Content Validity: In order to investigate the content validity, an expert panel was formed and item analyses had been performed. In this study, content validity was assessed through expert opinions and item analysis as mentioned above. Expert Panel: Once the item development process had been completed and the test had been developed to be run on a tablet PC, an expert panel was formed to solicit their evaluations based on a predefined criterion. The panel consisted of an expert from psychology, special education, educational psychology, Math teachers, and a measurement and evaluation expert. The criteria included items

related to chosen colors, questions, buttons, and instructions. The feedback had been reviewed and the necessary changes had been applied by the Project team. Table 2. Reliability results of the tests

CDC SNC MNL1 MNL3 MNL4

# of items 14 24 11 11 11

Internal Consistency Coefficients 0.69 0.79 0.75 0.72 0.96

Reliability with timed tests 0.92 0.93 0.75 0.72 0.96

Criterion-Based Validity: In addition to the content validity of the tests, criterion-based validity has also been investigated. Correlations between curriculum-based Math achievement test (MAT), (Fidan, 2013) and calculation performance test (CPT) (Olkun et al., 2013) as an evidence to ensure its concurrent validity were performed. Furthermore, the predictive validity of the test has also been investigated by analyzing how the tests are predictive on students’ Math achievement scores. For this purpose, the battery has been given to 478 elementary school students, its Math achievement predictive coefficients were calculated, and its mean and standard deviations were calculated for the selected sample. Once the data were gathered, students’ inverse efficiency scores (IES) related to CDC and SNC tests and absolute error scores (AES) of MNL tests had been calculated. Townsend and Ashby (1978) proposed the “inverse efficiency score” [IES; see also (Townsend & Ashby, 1983)] as an observable measure that measures the average energy used by the system over time. IE scores were calculated based on students’ responses and times elapsed answering each question. It is calculated separately for each test and each subject by dividing the total time for answering the test items by the percentages of correct responses (Bruyer & Brysbaert, 2011). Lower values on this measure indicate a better performance. This measure is used to markdown possible criterion shifts or speed vs. accuracy balances in performance. IE Scores were then converted into z scores. Outliers were omitted based on each individual’s z-score range. The upper and lower range values were determined as ±5. In other words, standard scores beyond ± 5 were considered as outliers. If there were only one or two values over the cut-off point these values were removed from the data. A total of 11 data points from CDC and 21 data points from SNC tests were deleted. In addition to outlier analysis, normality assumptions were investigated. The newly developed screening tool is different from the one already in the literature (Butterworth, 2003) in two respects. First, this one has a subtest for ANS while the other does not. Second, the dot counting subtest used in this screening tool utilizes subitizing ability more than the other tool. As discussed earlier in this paper both ANS and subitizing are found to be related to

Mathematics learning disorders. The results of the correlation and regression analysis were given in findings section for validity.

3. Findings Descriptive statistics for each grade level were analyzed in order to explore the psychometric characteristics of the test. The findings are presented in Table 3. Table 3. Students’ performances in each subtest: mean scores and standard deviations Grade 1 Grade 2 Grade 3 Grade 4 N M SD N M SD N M SD N M SD 26 120 73.50 20.2 120 59.4 13.4 119 52.4 14 CDCies 119 90.50 120 83 17.4 119 74.7 15 SNCies 119 112.40 29.70 120 91.80 24 119 18.62 9.52 120 11.86 7.06 120 8.8 6.89 119 6.57 5.27 MNL1 119 457 209 120 318 170 120 235 138 119 191 103 MNL3 120 3041 1970 119 2315 1480 MNL4

Both Table 3 and Figure 3 indicate that students’ scores have a steady developmental trajectory starting from Grade 1 to Grade 4. These findings provide evidence that the test measures the developmental changes in those skills in students. Table 4. Multiple regression results for predicting First graders’ Math achievement (MAT) Unstandardized Standardized Coefficients Coefficients Variable Standard t p Partial r B Beta error Constant 10.522 .884 11.908 .000 CDCies -1.71E-005 .000 -.183 -1.708 .090 -.276 SNCies 5.79E-006 .000 .046 .428 .670 -.160 MNL1 -.033 .027 -.129 -1.204 .231 -.288 MNL3 -.002 .001 -.202 -1.742 .084 -.334 R=0.384 R2=0.148 F(4,118)=4.937 p=0.001

The predictive validity results from regression and correlation analyses are presented in Table 4 through 11. In regression analyses, students’ curriculumbased Math achievement scores were taken as dependent (criterion/predicted), and the subtest sores were taken as predictor variables. In the First grade, only 15% of the variability in Math achievement as measured by the curriculum-based MAT was explained by the subtests (see Table 4). The order of importance according to the standardized regression coefficients (Beta) are as follows: MNL3, CDC, MNL1 and SNC. T-test results as well as the significance test results indicate that those tests were not among the important variables to predict and explain curriculum-based Mathematical achievement in the First grade.

CDC

SNC

100,000

150000 100000

50,000

50000

0 1

MNL3

MNL1 20

400

200

0 1

MNL4 4000 3000 2000 1000 0

e) Figure 3. Score changes across grades in subtests [a). Canonic dot counting, CDC, b). Symbolic number comparison, SNC, c) Estimation between 0-10 on number line, MNL1, d). Estimation between 0-100 on number line, MNL3, e). Estimation between 01000 on number line, MNL4] Table 5. Multiple regression results for predicting First gradersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; calculation performance (TTR) Unstandardized Standardized Coefficients Coefficients Variable Standard t p Partial r B Beta error Constant 18.667 1.972 9.467 .000 CDCies -3.69E-005 .000 -.174 -1.649 .102 -.319 SNCies -1.50E-005 .000 -.052 -.496 .621 -.259 MNL1 -.028 .061 -.048 -.455 .650 -.253 MNL3 -.007 .003 -.254 -2.227 .028 -.374 R=0.420 R2=0.176 F(4,118)=6.092 p=0.000

As seen in Table 5, the CDC, SNC, and MNL test scores explain 18% of the variance in the CPT test, which does not require any reading-writing but

includes only symbolic arithmetic calculations (R=0.420, R2=0.176). Only the MNL3 is significant, and CDC is approaching to significance in explaining the test performance. Table 6. Multiple regression results for predicting Second grader’s Math achievement Unstandardized Standardized Coefficients Coefficients Variable Standard t p Partial r B Beta Error Constant 19.063 .917 20.777 .000 CDCies -6.27E-005 .000 -.331 -4.224 .000 -.634 SNCies -5.29E-005 .000 -.225 -3.000 .003 -.565 MNL1 -.051 .036 -.095 -1.434 .154 -.399 MNL3 -.008 .001 -.366 -5.499 .000 -.594 R=0.770 R2=0.593 F(4,119)=41.805 p=0.000

In the Second grade, the tests altogether explained 60% of the Math achievement (see Table 6) measured by MAT. The order of importance according to the standardized regression coefficients (Beta) are as follows: MNL3, CDC, SNC, and MNL1. When the significance levels in t-test results were considered, it is only the MNL1 test which did not contribute to the prediction; whereas the others were of importance in explaining the variance in Math achievement. In the Third grade, the tests altogether explained 45% of the Math achievement (see Table 7) measured by MAT. The order of importance according to the standardized regression coefficients (Beta) are as follows: CDC, MNL1, MNL4, SNC and MNL3. When the significance levels in t-test results were considered, it is only the CDC and MNL1 tests that were found to have contributions to the predictive model. Table 7. Multiple regression results for predicting Third graders’ Math achievement Unstandardized Standardized Coefficients Coefficients Variable Standard t p Partial r B Beta Error Constant 18.676 1.625 11.493 .000 CDCies -8.94E-005 .000 -.289 -3.189 .002 -.564 SNCies -3.10E-005 .000 -.076 -.953 .343 -.362 MNL1 -.156 .053 -.260 -2.963 .004 -.544 MNL3 -.002 .004 -.059 -.453 .651 -.441 MNL4 .000 .000 -.168 -1.161 .248 -.529 R=0.669 R2=0.447 F(5,119)= 18.436 p=0.000

In the Fourth grade, the tests altogether explained 39% of the Math achievement (see Table 8) measured by MAT. The order of importance according to the standardized regression coefficients (Beta) are as follows: CDC, MNL4, SNC, MNL3, and MNL1. When the significance levels in t-test results were considered, it is only the CDC test that was found to have a significant

contribution to the predictive model while MNL4 is approaching the significance. Table 8. Multiple regression results for predicting Fourth graderâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Math achievement Unstandardized Standardized Coefficients Coefficients Variable Standard t p Partial r B Beta Error Constant 28.352 2.121 13.366 .000 CDCies .000 .000 -.341 -3.228 .002 -.560 SNCies -5.16E-005 .000 -.080 -.856 .394 -.375 MNL1 -.052 .095 -.048 -.551 .582 -.320 MNL3 -.004 .007 -.079 -.621 .536 -.469 MNL4 -.001 .000 -.226 -1.764 .080 -.511 R=0. 624 R2=0.389 F(5,118)= 14.386 p=0.000

The correlations between calculation performances (CPT) and Math achievement scores with the subtests in the battery are presented in Table 8. First of all, the correlations are all negative as expected. There is a significant correlation between CDC and Math achievement scores in First grade (r=-0.276, p<0.01). The correlation between Math achievement and SNC is not significant (r=-0.160, p>0.05). The correlation between MAT and MNL1 is significant (r=-0,288, p<0.01); with MNL3, the correlation is again statistically significant (r=-0.334, p<0.05). As presented in Table 9, there is a negative and significant correlation found between CPT and CDC scores (r=-0.319, p<0.01). The correlation between CPT and SNC is in the negative direction, weak but significant (r=-0.259, p<0.05). Likewise, there is a negative, weak and significant correlation between CPT and MNL1 (r=-0.253, p<0.01). The correlation between CPT and MNL3 scores are also negative, moderate and significant (r=-0.374, p<0.01). BNP Tests CDCies (p) SNCies (p) MNL1 (p) MNL3 (p)

Table 9. Correlations among scores for the First graders MAT TTR -.276 -.319 .002 .000 -.160 -.259 .119 .004 -.288 -.253 .001 .006 -.334 -.374 .000 .000

Table 10 shows the correlations between MAT and CPT scores, and BNP Tests for Second graders. There is a negative, moderate and significant correlation between MAT and CDC IES scores (r=-0.634, p<0.01), between MAT and SNC IES (r=-0.565, p<0.01), MAT and MNL1 scores (r=-0.399, p<0.01), and between MAT and MNL3 scores (r=-0.594, p<0.01).

BNP Tests CDCies (p) SNCies (p) MNL1 (p) MNL3 (p)

Table 10. Correlation among scores for the Second graders MAT TTR -.634 -.536 .000 .000 -.565 -.495 .000 .000 -.399 -.111 .000 .227 -.594 -.346 .000 .000

As depicted in Table 10, there is also negative, moderate and significant correlation between CPT and CDC IES scores (r=-0.536, p<0.01), between CPT and SNC IES (r=-0.495, p<0.01), and between CPT and MNL3 scores (r=-0.346, p<0.01). The correlation between CPT and MNL1 scores is negative, weak and significant (r=-0.111, p>0.05). BNP Tests CDCies (p) SNCies (p) MNL1 (p) MNL3 (p) MNL4 (p)

Table 11. Correlation among scores for the Third graders MAT TTR -.564 -.495 .000 .000 -.362 -.313 .000 .000 -.544 -.476 .000 .000 -.441 -.342 .000 .000 -.529 -.418 .000 .000

Table 11 shows the correlations between BNP Tests and, MAT and CPT scores for Third graders. There is a negative, moderate and significant correlation between MAT and CDC IES scores (r=-0.564, p<0.05), between MAT and SNC IES (r=-0.362, p<0.05), MAT and MNL1 scores (r=-0.544, p<0.01), MAT and MNL3 scores (r=-0.441, p<0.05), and between MAT and MNL4 (r=-0.529, p<0.05). As shown in Table 11, there is also negative, moderate and significant correlation between CPT and CDC IES scores (r=-0,495, p<0,01), between CPT and SNC IES (r=-0.313, p<0.01), between CPT and MNL3 scores (r=-0,342, p<0,01), between CPT and MNL1 (r=-0,476, p<0,01), and between CPT and MNL4 (r=-0,418, p<0,01). As seen in Table 12, there is a negative, moderate and significant correlation between Fourth graders’ MAT and CDC IES scores (r=-0.560, p<0.01), between MAT and SNC IES (r=-0.375, p<0.01), MAT and MNL1 scores (r=-0.320, p<0.01), MAT and MNL3 scores (r=-0.469, p<0.01), and between MAT and MNL4 (r=0.511, p<0.01). Overall, there is a negative and significant relation between MAT

scores and CDC, SNC and MNL tests, which are based on either IES or absolute error scores. BNP Tests CDCies (p) SNCies (p) MNL1 (p) MNL3 (p) MNL4 (p)

Table 12. Correlation among scores for the Fourth graders MAT TTR -.560 -.567 .000 .000 -.375 -.377 .000 .000 -.320 -.196 .000 .033 -.469 -.268 .000 .003 -.511 -.338 .000 .000

Similarly, as depicted in Table 12, there is negative, moderate and significant correlation between CPT and CDC IES scores (r=-0.567, p<0.01) and between CPT and SNC IES (r=-0.377, p<0.01). The relation between CPT and MNL3 scores (r=-0.268, p<0.01), between CPT and MNL1 (r=-0.196, p<0.05), and between CPT and MNL4 (r=-0.338, p<0.01) is negative, weak and significant. Considering these results altogether, as expected, CDC, SNC and MNL test scores, which had either IES or absolute error scores, have negative correlations with both curriculum based Mathematics achievement as measured by MAT and calculation performance, as measured with CPT. Table 13. ANCOVA results for CDC test scores adjusted according to Raven scores Partial Type III Sum of Eta Grade Source Squares df Mean Square F Sig. Squared raven 1772249843.66 1 1772249843.658 2.870 .093 .027 Group 7072363604.97 2 3536181802.484 5.727 .004 .098 1 Error 64830143430.32 105 617429937.432 Total 978029827305.20 109 raven 912190137.94 1 912190137.944 4.624 .034 .046 Group 5353808450.39 2 2676904225.193 13.571 .000 .222 2 Error 18739525260.78 95 197258160.640 Total 535539634729.70 99 raven 78008294.40 1 78008294.398 .620 .433 .006 Group 3366715933.13 2 1683357966.564 13.371 .000 .203 3 Error 13219402083.21 105 125899067.459 Total 402000955484.06 109

In order to test whether the source of the variance is coming from the tests themselves or participantsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; general abilities, and whether the BNP tests would yield similar results when the general ability as measured by Raven SPM test were controlled, an ANCOVA test was executed. In the analyses, it was assumed that MAT and CPT tests were standardized, since their validity and reliability

had been tested earlier. Mean scores were computed from First and Second applications for each grade level. Depending on the MAT scores, lower 27% is considered low achievers whereas upper 27% is considered as normal achievers. Researchers usually use the upper 27% and the lower 27% in order to separate the tail from the mean of the normally distributed data (Cureton, 1957). If the CDC, SNC and MNL tests are measuring the same construct then the group differences would be the same among tests. This would be considered as an evidence of validity. After controlling for student’s general abilities with Raven SPM (see Table 13), there was still significant differences among the groups based on CDC test in the First grade [F(2,105)=5.727, p<.05, η2=0.098], Second grade [F(2,95)=13.571, p<.05, η2=0.222], and Third grade [F(2,105)=13.371, p<.05, η2=0.203]. That means, in all the grades tested, lower groups showed less efficiency in CDC test. Table 14. ANCOVA results for SNC test scores adjusted according to Raven test scores Type III Sum of Partial Grade Source Squares df Mean Square F Sig. Eta Sq. raven 229882783.962 1 229882783.962 .617 .434 .006 Group 2942071757.621 2 1471035878.810 3.950 .022 .070 1st Error 39102371517.164 105 372403538.259 Total 640519571159.637 109 raven 103724769.429 1 103724769.429 .454 .502 .005 Group 2145180219.755 2 1072590109.877 4.697 .011 .090 2nd Error 21691655781.145 95 228333218.749 Total 351457658059.796 99 raven 146015262.380 1 146015262.380 1.218 .272 .011 Group 710430961.322 2 355215480.661 2.964 .056 .053 3rd Error 12585666394.209 105 119863489.469 Total 315144743780.813 109

Table 14 shows the ANCOVA results for lower and upper 27% groups for First and Second graders when their Raven SPM test scores were controlled. There is a significant difference between the upper and lower groups in First graders [F(2,105)=3.950, p<.05, η2=0.070] and Second graders [F(2,95)=4.697, p<.05, η2=0.090] in their SNC scores. In both grades, the SNC score averages are higher in lower group than the upper one. When the Raven SPM test scores were controlled, a marginally significant difference between lower and upper groups was observed for the Third graders in their SNC scores [F(2,105)=2.964, p<.05, η2=0.053]. After controlling for student’s general abilities (see. Table 15) with Raven SPM, there was still a significant difference among the lower and upper achieving groups based on MNL-3 test in the First [F(2,105)=3.349, p<.05, η2=0.060], Second [F(2,93)=11.752, p<.05, η2=0.202], and Third grade [F(2,105)=5.670, p<.05, η2=0.097]. In all the grades tested, lower groups got higher TAE scores, in other words, they made less accurate estimations on MNL-3 (0-100 number line) test.

Table 15. ANCOVA results for MNL-3 test scores adjusted according to Raven scores Partial Type III Sum of Mean Eta Grade Source Squares df Square F Sig. Squared raven 236467.827 1 236467.827 6.449 .013 .058 Group 245576.951 2 122788.475 3.349 .039 .060 1 Error 3850175.029 105 36668.334 Total 27133300.210 109 raven 124227.377 1 124227.377 6.640 .012 .067 Group 439728.032 2 219864.016 11.752 .000 .202 2 Error 1739951.487 93 18709.156 Total 11634213.560 97 raven 74405.394 1 74405.394 4.696 .032 .043 Group 179682.037 2 89841.018 5.670 .005 .097 3 Error 1663577.571 105 15843.596 Total 8393318.150 109 Table 16. Third Graders’ ANCOVA results for MNL-4 test scores adjusted according to Raven scores Type III Sum of Partial Eta Source Squares df Mean Square F Sig. Squared raven 8189246.549 1 8189246.549 2.759 .100 .026 Group 52890994.510 2 26445497.255 8.908 .000 .145 Error 311700713.973 105 2968578.228 Total 1465329741.490 109

Again there was still significant difference (see. Table 16) between the lower and upper achievement groups based on MNL-4 test in the Third grade [F(2,105)=8.908, p<.05, η2=0.145] after controlling for the students’ general abilities as measured by Raven SPM. Students in the lower group got higher TAE scores, in other words, they made less accurate estimations on MNL-4 (0-1000 number line) test. Since we did not administer Raven SPM to Fourth graders we ran t-tests to analyze the differences between the lower and upper 27 percentiles. Table 17. Fourth graders’ t-test results based on MAT scores between upper and lower groups for CDC, SNC and MNL 1-3-4 tests Subtests Group N Mean SD DF t p CDC SNC MNL1 MNL3 MNL4

Lower Group Upper Group Lower Group Upper Group Lower Group Upper Group Lower Group Upper Group Lower Group Upper Group

31 42 31 42 31 42 31 42 31 42

62139.3540 45579.1818 82336.1797 69876.8086 8.1774 4.6405 259.7968 153.7214 3420.7935 1584.0643

17163.67989 11880.65529 20651.97347 11578.18597 6.85642 2.80636 123.29097 83.45923 1933.20610 726.95047

71 71 71 71 71

4.617

0,00

3.026

0,00

2.710

0,00

4.141

0,00

5.034

0,00

Fourth graders were grouped according to their MAT scores (see Table 17), and a t-test was run to see whether their CDC, SNC, MNL1, MNL3, and MNL4 test scores would differ accordingly. The results indicated that there is a significant difference in CDC IES test scores between groups (t=4.617, p<0.05). When their mean scores were examined, the difference is observed in favor of the lower group. Also, the lower group completed the test in a longer period of time. Similarly, there is a significant difference between the groups in terms of SNC IES scores (t=3.026, p<0.05), MNL1 test scores (t=2.710, p<0.05), MNL3 test scores (t=4.141, p<0.05), and MNL4 test scores (t=5.034, p<0.05) in favor of the lower group. In other words, these findings indicate that students in lower groups scored higher in these tests meaning that they had more estimation errors compared to the upper achievement group. Table 18. Fourth graders t-test results for CDC, SNC and MNL1-3 tests between upper and lower groups based on TTR tests Subtests Group N Mean SD DF t p CDC Lower Group 32 62186.3715 16212.00981 63 6.133 0,00 Upper Group 33 42822.5899 7607.24493 SNC Lower Group 32 81339.2179 18370.05264 63 4.054 0,00 Upper Group 33 66645.6972 9242.30986 MNL1 Lower Group 32 8.3000 7.09861 63 2.218 0,032 Upper Group 33 5.2273 3.36835 MNL3 Lower Group 32 229.6813 123.35055 63 2.310 0,024 Upper Group 33 166.2636 95.78197 MNL4 Lower Group 32 3005.4000 1824.52973 63 2.833 0,006 Upper Group 33 1894.8000 1280.55589

When the Fourth graders were grouped based on CPT test scores (see Table 18), we found a significant difference in CDC IES test scores between groups in favor of the lower group (t=6,133, p<0.05). Similarly, there is a significant difference in SNC IES test scores between lower and upper groups (t=4,054, p<0.05). These findings indicate that lower group students completed the test in a longer period of time. When the MNL test scores are considered, there is a significant difference between groups in MNL 1, (t=2,218, p<0.05), in MNL3 (t=2,310, p<0.05), and in MNL4 (t=2,833, p<0.05) in favor of the lower group. All these findings show that students in the lower group made more erroneous estimations in all MNL tests. When MAT and CPT tests are considered as standard tests, the results indicate a validity evidence for CDC, SNC, and all MNL tests. Although there was no significant difference in MNL1 for Second graders, there is a significant difference between lower and upper groups when grouped according to CPT test. However, when the grade level increased, the number line with a wider range was more discriminative.

4. Discussion In this study, a screening tool was developed for determining the tendency of Math learning disorder in children from the age of 6 to 11. We evaluated the reliability and validity of the battery consisted of three subtests as CDC, SNC and MNL1-2-3. The KR-20 method was used for dichotomous data and the Cronbach Alpha for polytomous data. Regression analysis was run for predictive validity measures. Correlations and mean differences were calculated for additional validity. Expert opinions were obtained for content validity. The results of this study showed that Basic Number Processing Test (BNPT) yielded a high prediction rate especially in the Second grade. Similarly, an important portion of the variance in Math achievement could be explained by the administered tests in Third and Fourth grades. The differences among the groups were still significant even after controlling for the studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; general abilities as measured by the Raven SPM test. These findings indicate that problems resulting from the poor processing of number could yield to lower Math achievement especially in Second, Third, and Fourth grades. When the correlations are examined, despite their significance, the correlations are weak at the First grade but moderate and strong at the upper grades. When considering the regression and correlation scores together, it can be said that the findings provide evidence for the validity of the measurement tool, especially for the Second grade and up. This trend may also show that deficits in basic number processing abilities cause students to lag further behind their peers making it impossible to catch up in regular classes if untreated. The tests, CDC, SNC, and MNL have all strong contributions to the Math achievement at the primary grades. Therefore, it could be concluded that at least very important portions of the causes of low achievement in Mathematics might originate from the deficits in the core systems of number (Feigenson et al., 2004). In other words, it could result from any one of the exact number system (ENS), the approximate number system (ANS), and the access to symbol system (ATS), or any combinations of these three systems. Relatively lower relationships among the tests were obtained with the First graders. It should be noted that there are various barriers especially in the First semester of the First year in school. Since children already started to read and write, they often find it challenging to solve verbally instructed Math questions. In addition, they start learning numbers and representing them with symbols (numerals) at their First year. This makes it difficult to predict their real Math achievement by using tasks including verbal and/or symbol-based instructions and questions. For example, we found a higher correlation between Math achievements based on CPT and BNP tests, which required only numbers and other symbols for arithmetic operations, but no word reading-writing. In comparison, the MAT test requires reading-writing skills to solve verbal problems. Therefore, it would be necessary to develop new paradigms and/or longitudinal research with First graders, among which could be using interview method or tasks which do not require any reading-writing tasks. Additionally, it

would also be a part of research to observe students who experience difficulty in learning and their performances in basic number processing tests.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 15, No. 12, pp. 67-83, November 2016

Students‟ Academic Performance in Religious Education: A Case of Selected Schools in Botswana Baamphatlha Dinama and Koketso Jeremiah University of Botswana, Gaborone, Botswana Boitumelo Sihlupheki-Jorowe Sedibelo Junior Secondary School, Mochudi, Botswana Masego Keakantse Bonnington Junior Secondary School, Gaborone, Botswana Rebonyetsala Kemoabe Moselewapula Junior Secondary School, Gaborone, Botswana Bafedile Kgaswe Ithuteng Junior Secondary School, Mochudi, Botswana Mpolokang Motshosi Gabane Junior Secondary School, Gabane, Botswana Oshi Sebina Kgamanyane Junior Secondary School, Mochudi, Botswana Abstract. This research investigated students‟ academic performance in Religious Education (RE) in three junior secondary schools in Gaborone in Botswana. The sample comprised seven (7) Religious Education teachers, two (2) deputy school heads, three (3) focus groups of students and two (2) parent representatives. The study used a qualitative research methodology and a case study design that entailed interviews, lesson observations and document analysis. The findings reveal that teachers as the pillars of an effective instructional delivery process need to have a deep content and pedagogical knowledge as well as possess adequate assessment skills. In addition, students‟ positive academic performance requires a warm and welcoming classroom climate. This study also identified various factors that may contribute to an improvement in students‟ academic performance such as parent and teacher cooperation, as well as the availability of teaching and learning resources. Keywords: academic performance; Religious Education; junior secondary schools; assessment skills; Botswana.

Background Religious Education (RE) as a subject within the Botswana curriculum has been undergoing a shift since its inception, which can be traced from the arrival of the missionaries. The first RE curriculum was Christian based and was phased out when the multi-faith one was introduced in 1996 (Dinama, 2013). Over the years, the learners‟ performance has been good with the Christian based curriculum as compared to the multi-faith one where at national examinations level the performance declined drastically due mainly to teachers‟ lack of assessment skills in RE. However, teachers attribute students‟ poor performance to the „over-loaded‟ curriculum which in their view contains too much content to be adequately covered during the three years period in which students will be doing their junior secondary schooling (Dinama, 2010). Furthermore, it has to be noted that in 2008 the multi- faith curriculum that used the phenomenological approach in teaching and learning was reviewed, and both its content and approach were changed. Dinama (2010) notes that the 2008 revised multi-faith RE curriculum adopted the interpretive approach while the content stressed Christianity and this was done in order to make assessment easier. Despite all these changes, it is notable that students‟ academic performance in RE still remains unsatisfactory.

Statement of the problem Students‟ academic performance in RE has been declining over the years since the introduction of the multi-faith based RE syllabus in 2008 that uses the interpretive approach. Speculations have been made for the low performance and they include; teachers‟ lack of content and pedagogical knowledge and inadequate assessment skills. Furthermore, the studies show that students do not perform well due to problems associated with their family background and general school environment (Egalite, 2016; Foley, 2008; Schaps, 2005). This study therefore explored causes of the decline in the performance of the RE at junior certificate level in selected schools in Gaborone, in Botswana. The study was guided by two key research questions.

Key research questions 1. What factors cause a decline in academic performance with respect to the multi-faith Religious Education (RE) curriculum? 2. What are the possible solutions to factors that cause a decline in students‟ academic performance?

Significance of the study This study will benefit or assist the department of Religious Education both at school and ministerial levels and specifically in teacher training and development by identifying issues of concern and problems faced by teachers in the teaching and learning of Religious Education. It will provide relevant information to the Department of Teacher Training and Development on how to develop relevant and efficient in-service training programs for RE teachers especially in relation to assessment. Similarly, it will provide information to RE

teachers at school level and help them to make an introspection of how they have been conducting their teaching and assessment of with respect to RE. It is hoped that this will enhance instructional techniques and assessment skills that will improve students‟ academic performance in RE.

Literature Review Introduction Academic performance is mainly related to assessment and it is about a student's success or lack of it in meeting short- or long-term goals in education. How students perform reflect how well they have mastered the content taught (Ballard & Bates, 2008). However, there are various factors that ensure and are considered to be hindering good performance in educational settings. Some of these factors are; language as a medium of instruction, teaching and learning resources, parental involvement, study habits, class size, teachers‟ pedagogical and assessment skills (Farooq, Chaudry, Shafiq & Berhan, 2011). It has been observed that since the introduction of the multi-faith curriculum in 1996 in Botswana, RE students have been performing poorly (Dinama, 2010). Student academic performance is of paramount importance in every academic institution (Regier, 2011) and that is why the students‟ academic performance in RE remains a top priority for educators in religion. This is because when students achieve good grades, they become competitive in the world of work and may have better employment opportunities.

Factors affecting students’ academic performance There are various factors that contribute to good student academic performance and these may include: teacher beliefs in relation to their profession, content and pedagogical knowledge, and assessment skills. On the part of students; peer influence, attitudes towards learning and family background can have a bearing on students‟ performance (Farooq, 2011; Hijazi & Naqvi, 2006; Jeynes, 2007). In addition, cooperation and collaboration amongst teachers, student-teacher ratio, and unavailability of learning resources can also have an impact on students‟ performance (Aturupane, Glewwe & Wisniewski, 2010; Farooq et al. 2011). The manner in which the teacher plans and organizes instruction, to a large extent determines the outcome of students‟ academic performance. Therefore, pedagogy and assessment skills are important aspects that contribute to students‟ academic performance. It is thus, the teachers‟ responsibility to employ diverse teaching styles to enhance students‟ academic performance since current instruction assessment techniques seem to favour certain learning styles (Damavandi, Mahyuddin, Elias, & Daud, 2011). Besides, there has to be a good match between students‟ learning preferences and instructor‟s teaching styles which have been demonstrated to have a positive effect on students‟ performance (Harb & El-Shaarawi, 2006). A study by Dinama (2010) on RE teaching in Botswana public schools reveals that teachers‟ inadequate

pedagogical skills result in students‟ poor academic performance. For example, as they taught teachers chose to focus on religions that they favoured even though that was not the expectation of the core curriculum. Furthermore, teachers struggled to draw on student knowledge as a resource (Dinama, 2010). In the same study, Dinama (2010) observed that Religious Education teachers possessed poor assessment skills in terms of poorly written test items. For example, he cited incidents where internal monthly, termly tests and external examinations did not correlate. The cause and source of this could be that teachers do not possess adequate assessment skills and this is reflected in the poor final national RE examinations results. For example, at school level, students would get very high marks in school-based tests and examinations while obtaining low grades in the final national examinations (Dinama, 2010). In addition, inadequate pedagogical knowledge and assessment skills, teachers‟ lack of collaboration with one another are amongst some of the causes of students‟ poor academic performance. In addition, a study carried out by BurryStock (2003) revealed that teachers‟ assessment practices were inadequate to meet the demands of classroom assessment due to insufficient or lack of training in assessment. The language of instruction is another factor that has an impact on students‟ academic performance (Nyathi- Saleshando, 2011) because if the students‟ possess adequate communication skills and a strong command of English which is a medium of instruction, it will thus increase their performance. In multicultural settings, students bring along with them different languages that if not acknowledged by the educational system may impede academic learning resulting in poor performance (Harb and El Shaarawi, 2006; Jotia & Pansiri, 2013; Nyathi- Saleshando, 2011; Pansiri, 2011). All these various learners speak different indigenous languages and bring with them a wide range of cultural traditions that can be of value to their learning if they were incorporated in the education system. However, their mother tongue is not used as a medium of instruction in both public and private schools in Botswana. As Khan (2014) notes, “language has a central position in all situations involving human beings” (p. 1) and consequently, student performance is negatively influenced by students‟ weak communication skills in the language of instruction (Benson, 2004; Mulkey, 2012; Pflepsen 2013). Thus language can be an impediment to student academic performance because it can silently exclude some from the education system. In the same vein, in RE students learn abstract concepts which need mastery of the English language which is a medium of instruction as well as an official language in Botswana therefore. Therefore, if students have difficulties in understanding the language of instruction, that may negatively impact their academic performance.

Parental Involvement Ballard and Bates, (2008) point out that for assessment to be effective, students, parents, teachers, administrators, policy makers and researchers need to share responsibility in educational matters. Thus, parental involvement is core to students‟ academic success (Pansiri, 2008; William & Jeynes, 2007). Parents‟ attitudes towards education can influence the students‟ performance. Pansiri

(2008) further posits that parental participation in school curriculum matters permits them to learn strategies of helping their children hence an enhanced students‟ performance. Actually, there is a connection between parental association and the children‟s accomplishment in the classroom. Pansiri (2008) further explains that the Botswana‟s Revised National Policy on Education of 1994 has a section which encouraged the community in general to actively play a part in the development and running of education. It also emphasized the significance of involving the community and parents in certain decision making matters that could influence the education of their children through Parents Teachers Association (PTA) and other committees or associations.

Resources and academic performance Learning resources are identified as yet another factor determining students‟ academic performance. Karemera, Reuben and Sillah (2003) found that students' academic performance is significantly connected to the availability of educational resources like library, computer laboratory and textbooks in an institution. Godfrey (2012) notes that resources are vital since they do inform and guide teachers in their teaching. This is true in the context of Botswana because resources like textbooks are limited leading to students writing their final examinations without having accessed them thus affecting their academic performance. Poor results in RE in Botswana is also attributed to the absence of core text books which cover the content of the curriculum fully (Dinama, 2010). Even in instances where textbooks are available, teachers rarely explore other readily available resources, such as the library and the internet, to increase their own and their students‟ knowledge about religions. Inadequate learning infrastructure lead learners having their lessons carried out in places such as laboratories, libraries, out-door spaces and school dining-hall that are not designed to be classrooms (Archibald, 2006). Inadequate resources impinge on classroom activities and instructional techniques since a large number of students will be squeezed in the few available classrooms. In their study, Bandiera, Larcinese, and Rasul (2010) noted that class size is a factor that impacts students‟ academic performance. In addition, the teacher-student ratio has a bearing on how teachers attend to individual students because if an average student is moved to a large class his or her performance will necessarily drop (Bandiera, Larcinese & Rasul, 2010) due to inadequate attention by the teacher (Monks & Schmidt, 2010). Teacher-student ratio therefore negatively affects students‟ academic performance (Yelkpieri, Namale, Esia-Donkoh & Ofosu-Dwamena, 2012). If the class is too large the teacher will naturally fail to adequately interact with all learners and would not be able to fully engage them into the various classroom activities. Moreover, students‟ academic performance can be affected by entry points of the previous performance at a lower level (Geiser & Santelices, 2007) since ideally a selection rank based on a student‟s overall academic achievement is the best single predictor of future success. Sentamu (2003) adds that, measures of prior educational performance are the most important determinants of student performance. This implies that the higher the previous performance, the likelihood that the students will perform better academically in future. This is

true in respect of the Botswana education system because students are automatically promoted after completion of their Standard Seven regardless of the grades they would have achieved and this in turn is reflected in their poor junior secondary school results (Dinama, 2010). In addition, Reyann, (2011) argues that a grade is a primary indicator in learning and if a learner earns high grades it is concluded that he or she has learnt a lot while low grades indicate learning to a lesser extent. Dinama, (2010) further observes that, throughout his fieldwork in research about implementation of the multi-faith RE curriculum, the poor results in RE at national level were a common concern among teachers. This is worrisome because students come with poor results from primary schools due to automatic progression and after final examinations teachers are expected to account for the results, as well as the value they would have added to the results of these students upon entering secondary school classrooms.

Methodology Introduction This study adopted a qualitative methodology which expects the researcher to explore in depth explanations of issues to comprehend a phenomenon in its natural locale as well as to learn from the experiences of the participants (Chilisa & Preece, 2005). In doing so, it attempts to make sense of or to interpret phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to it (Denzin, 1994). In this way, the methodology centres on the meanings, behaviours of people, their settings, and experiences (Hancock, 2002, Tewksbury, 2009). In this study, it was the experiences, perspectives and intuitions of teachers that were explored. Research design, population and sampling procedures The study employed a case study research design since it assisted the researchers in exploring the students‟ performance and the use of numerous sources of evidence (Yin, 1984). In this way, the design allowed the researchers to examine a rather sensitive and complex issue of students‟ academic performance. The case study was conducted in three schools that are in an urban setting in Gaborone and were given pseudonyms namely Boasa, Nageng and Maareng Junior Secondary Schools. The criterion used to select these three schools was based on geographical location and the socio-economic background of the areas that „feed‟ these schools with secondary school students. The study employed purposive sampling of participants in the selected schools. The participants were nine (9) Religious Education teachers in three (3) junior secondary schools in Gaborone who have been in the field for a minimum of five years and were specialists in RE. Long serving teachers were chosen because teaching experience of typically five years or more is associated with an internalisation of a curriculum. In each school there was a focus group discussion of fifteen (15) students and five (5) students were from each form or level, that is, Form 1 - 3. Students were chosen because they are in a good position to articulate their academic performance and the challenges they encounter in learning RE. Moreover, the Student Representative Council (SRC) academic members were also used as participants because they are involved in

students‟ welfare. Furthermore, three (3) PTA chairpersons per school as the key linkage between school and the parents were chosen to give data in line with the rate of parental involvement in students‟ academic work. The deputy school heads were also chosen since they coordinate all academics matters in their schools and are responsible for keeping students‟ academic records.

Data Collection Methods The researchers used classroom observations, interviews and document analysis to gather information. Interviews were used in order to understand the lived experiences of teachers, learners and parents, and the meaning they make of these experiences. Kvale (2004) states that interviews help obtain descriptions of the lived world of the participants with respect to interpretations of the meaning of the phenomena under investigation. Seidman (2012) affirms that an interview is a powerful way to gain insight into educational and other important social issues when used to understand the experiences of individuals whose lives reflect issues raised in a study. Through the use of interviews, valuable knowledge and nuggets of essential meaning were unearthed in this study. In addition, they help create an atmosphere that allows participants to talk freely since ethical considerations would have been observed. Interviews help to probe deeply into the thoughts and responses of the participants and to uncover previously unknown details since the participants are encouraged to talk freely (Dinama, 2010). Therefore, the researchers came up with interview schedules that were used to meet with the participants at different intervals in a special room that was allocated. In addition, the researchers used research guide questions to orally interview the participants. Classroom observations were also used for data collection because observations help take note of any biased actions because of the presence of the researcher in the setting (Chilisa & Preece, 2005). Observations accord the investigators the opportunity to be first hand eye witness who would check for non-verbal expressions of feelings as to articulate the information that participants may be unable or reluctant to share with others. In this study the researchers sat in class to watch the proceedings of the lessons and also took down notes. Classroom observations were used for data collection because they assess first-hand information on how RE is taught. In observing RE lessons, the researchers were able to witness and observe teachers‟ actions in the classrooms and comprehend what was communicated even in non-verbal expressions (Kawulich, 2005). Marshall and Rossman (1995) further posit that classroom environment as a research site also offers significant data for the research. Document were also analysed as a way of understanding and interpreting the phenomenon (Ary, Jacobs, Sorensen & Razaveih, 2010) and in this case, it was the students‟ academic records. Document analysis focuses on interpreting recorded material in order to understand more about human behaviour or the phenomenon under investigation. Documents are a valuable basis of verification of other forms of unrecorded data since they assist in exploring the actual content by comparing or contrasting perspectives (Ary et al. 2010). Moreover, document analysis is helpful when looking for patterns in order to build up a

picture of the phenomena that is being observed. Documents can help rebuild events and give evidence about social proceedings as well as corroborate observations and interviews and thus make conclusions trustworthy and reliable. Cohen, Manion and Morrison (2000) note that documents are social products that are located in particular contexts and in this study it was the school hence they need to be understood and interpreted within that environment. Documents such as schemes of work, lesson plans and samples of students‟ work were analysed. These documents are important because they reflected what transpired in the RE lessons. Tests and examination papers were also sampled and analysed to verify their standard and quality. The researchers took ethical considerations into account by informing the participants about the purpose of the study, procedures to be followed and its benefits to them as well as assuring them of the confidentiality of the information they would provide. In qualitative research the informed consent of participants is respected (Roache, 2014). In addition, participants were given pseudonyms as a way of further enhancing confidentiality.

Trustworthiness and transferability Various methods of data collection were used and the aim was to bring about a balance and establish trustworthiness of the data due to this triangulation (Ely, 1991; Elliot et al 2011; Goodwin & Goodwin (1996). In addition, several sources of data allowed transferability, so that the reader could decide whether or not the existing setting is related to similar situations (Shenton, 2004).

Data presentation and analysis Introduction The data was based on the interviews, document analysis and class observations done in three junior secondary schools namely Boasa, Maareng and Nageng. The interviewees comprised the deputy school head, RE teachers, focus groups of RE students and parent representatives. Various issues emerged during research that proved to be contributing factors towards declining academic performance of students in RE. The issues included planning by teachers, student-teachers ratios, syllabus coverage, parental involvement, in-service training, and assessment skills, language of instruction, teaching pedagogy, resources and students‟ attitudes towards learning RE.

Planning by RE teachers Planning as a fundamental requirement in teaching and learning entails the organization of academic content into manageable units which comprise scheme books, lesson planning and objectives derived from the syllabus document. Scheme books were in line with the syllabus in terms of the objectives and were divided accordingly to the weeks of the term. The record of what had been covered was recorded fortnightly as well as the students‟ marks for end of month tests. Also, the lesson plan books were checked but some were not up to date for example one belonging to Teacher A at Maareng Junior Secondary

School (JSS). The lesson plan book for Form 1s contained three lesson plans each from the three topics schemed for the term yet in her record of work she had covered twelve specific objectives. However, this was not the case at Boasa and Nageng JSS since the lesson plans were up to date and were consistent with what was in the teachers‟ booklets for lesson planning. In addition, the schemes of work of these RE teachers at the two schools were consistent with the syllabus objectives. The information in the three documents namely the syllabus, scheme of work and lesson planning booklets should correlate in order to enhance students learning and achievement of the syllabus and teaching objectives. If these documents do not link as it was the case at Maareng JSS then it would show that the planning was haphazard. This in itself may affect instructional delivery as well as learning and could eventually impact negatively on students‟ academic achievement. For example, the end of February results for Form 1s at Maareng JSS indicated poor results as there was a mere 5% “quality pass” which is 60% and above. On the other hand where there was an alignment of these documents the results tended to be good. For instance, end of February tests results in Boasa showed an improvement in results since there was 28% quality pass, 61% quantity pass, which is 40% and above and lower 11% fail. With regard to planning, there was incongruence between what should have been covered and what the teacher had covered at Maareng JSS. It had surfaced that the Form 3s at Maareng were still doing Form 2 content work and this showed that the teacher had not organized the content well against the time allocated. At the same school, poor planning was not only evident in the available documents but it was also highlighted by students during interviews. This is what Tebogo one Form 3 student had to say concerning this issue: We are behind with the syllabus and the teacher asks us to go and read on some topics at home which is difficult for some of us. Thato added by saying; “Our teacher skips some topics and asks us to bring CDs for him to download notes for us and this is difficult because not everyone can afford those CDs”. The learners‟ responses reflect that the teacher does not care as he compromises planning by shifting his daily lesson preparation responsibility to students. It is the responsibility of the teacher, when they skip topics, to make sure that all students access all the necessary information without any limitations. At Nageng JSS it was a different case since the planning was consistent with the time allocated for the term. For example, the Form 3s had completed Term 1 content as per the scheme of work. Similarly, at Boasa JSS there were also moving at the right pace with content coverage as planned for the term. In essence, in these three schools some teachers took seriously the responsibility of planning which is an important component of both teaching and learning which need not be neglected.

Challenges faced by teachers in teaching of RE Resources Teachers face a number of challenges in their daily classroom practice. From the data collected, all the participants noted the shortage of textbooks and classrooms for RE as a major challenge. Most of RE classes are not allocated rooms and in most instances they move around during the lessons looking for a vacant room. At Maareng JSS shortage of textbooks and classrooms for teaching RE was identified as the major challenge. During the researchers‟ visit for lesson observation, it took close to 15 minutes for Teacher B to look for a vacant classroom. Teacher C at Nageng JSS went on to say that; “we who teach optional subjects fight for classes, no one wants to teach outdoors especially when the weather is bad like today”. Similarly, the challenge of shortage of books was echoed by both teachers and students at Boasa JSS. For instance, there were no core texts for Form 2‟s whilst the supplementary texts available were used as class sets. Teachers at Boas JSS reported that the school internet was never working due to poor network hence an over reliance on text books when searching for information. The students also noted that there was lack of reference material even in the library and that led to them failing to do some assigned tasks. Students said that they relied mainly on the information that the teachers gave to them in class. For example one student, Nametso at Boasa JSS said that when given homework there is nowhere to research for answers and as a result they would come back to class blank expecting the teacher to provide those answers for tasks that were meant to be done by students. At Nageng JSS like other two schools, there was shortage of resources especially the core texts and computers as expressed by Teacher D that; “computers are not working at all and during computer lessons students stay in class and read”. As such students could not do research on the internet to improve their understanding of the various concepts, and that classrooms were deemed inadequate.

Parental involvement Lack of parental involvement was identified as a major challenge at both Boasa and Maareng junior secondary schools. The Deputy School Head at Maareng JSS indicated that: “There is no support from parents. They do not show up for meetings or collect students reports”. In addition to this, the PTA chairperson Ms Taba at Maareng JSS explained that for the past three years she only met Form 1 parents during orientation but not in subsequent terms and years, and that fewer parents attended meetings called by the PTA. Similarly, at Boasa JSS the PTA chairperson indicated that parents did not attend PTA meetings consistently. For example, according to the PTA minutes at Boasa JSS for thepast five years, less than two hundred parents out of one thousand students attended a meeting each time it was called and that in one of the meetings, only one hundred and eighty five parents attended. The Deputy School Head reiterated

that; “We are not happy with parents‟ involvement in the school affairs as it is not satisfactory”. Contrary to what was happening at Boasa and Maareng secondary schools, at Nageng JSS parents were very supportive. For example, the Deputy School Head said, “Many parents bought their children the much needed books that are not available here at school. Again, the PTA executive is very active because they came up with various strategies on how to motivate the students such as awarding badges for best student of the month per subject, prize-giving and motivational talks at assemblies”.

Teachers’ pedagogical skills and content knowledge During lesson observation the teachers varied their teaching techniques, such as question and answer, demonstration, class discussions and presentation and this attributed to lively classrooms and hence motivated the students. For instance, Teacher E at Boasa JSS used question and answer technique followed by presentations and discussions and pair work when introducing the topic on teachings about the responsibility of the rich towards the poor in Christianity and Islam and the teacher concluded the lesson by giving students a class exercise. At Nageng secondary school Teacher C taught the topic “Personal and Social Identity” (Botswana Government, 2008), and he started by brainstorming, question and answer followed by group discussions, group presentations and he ended the lesson by summarizing it through a brief lecture. At Maareng Teacher B used lecture, pair work and presentation when teaching about the “Role of religion in society”. He concluded with question and answer to check students‟ understanding. From the observations made, if the teachers continue varying their teaching methods and involving students, then learning could be fruitful and lead to improvement in students‟ academic performance. It was observed that the student-centred techniques unearthed the abilities of learners since they actively participated during class proceedings, and in addition the classroom atmosphere was accommodative of the diverse contributions from students. The religious jargon of the different religions posed a challenge to the teachers and students because naturally each religion has its own concepts and terminology. For instance, many students alluded that their parents were always willing to help them with their assignments but the challenge was that they lacked knowledge of world religions, apart from Christianity. At Nageng JSS, it surfaced that teachers were biased towards Christianity, as it was given more coverage and as a result other religious concepts were compromised as they were not given much time. To illustrate this, Theo, a student, said; “Our teacher is biased towards Christianity and always gives more examples from it but not much about other religions which makes it difficult for me to understand other religions.”

Teacher-student ratio

Teachers complained of large classes even though their subject was an option. For example, at Nageng JSS there were forty-five, thirty-five, and twenty-five Form 1, Form 2 and Form 3 students per class respectively, while at Boasa JSS there were forty-eight Form 1s, forty-five Form 2s, and forty Form 3s per class. However at Maareng JSS the RE classes were much smaller compared to the other two schools, with twenty-four Form 1s, thirty Form 2s and thirty-six Form 3s per class. These large classes can have an adverse impact in the teaching and learning because individual student attention by the teacher could be compromised and can also compromise the quality of marking scripts as well as delaying feedback to students.

In- service training Teachers mentioned lack of in-service training especially on the new syllabus as a challenge. At Boasa and Nageng secondary schools teachers indicated that though a new curriculum with it new approach was ushered in 2008 there were no workshops that were conducted to induct in the new syllabus and that affected their instructional delivery. For example, Teacher F at Nageng JSS said: There was no in-service training offered by the Botswana Examinations Council to update us on the new system of marking and grading. We are just in the dark. The government will wait until teachers are about to retire and that is when they will be sent for further education.

Assessment skills of RE teachers Assessment is viewed as an on-going process that measures how much learners have understood a concept in relation to what would have been taught. Drawing from the students‟ exercise books across the forms, the assessment done in class indicates that questions were mainly from the knowledge domain as per Bloom‟s taxonomy. Here are examples of a revision exercises from different topics; 1. Mention two main features of mainline churches in Botswana. 2. Differentiate between doctrinal and experiential dimension. 3. Give two world religions found in Botswana. 4. Mention two ways in which people are exposed to world religions. Based on the above questions it is evident that they are from one domain which is „knowledge‟ which is a low level cognitive domain. There is need for questions to be balanced in assessment to prepare students for what is expected of them in the examination. Nevertheless, from the topics that the teacher picked questions from, there were objectives that demanded high order cognitive skills such as application and analysis but they were not included in the assessment. For instance, the topic „Christian denominations in Botswana’, the specific objective namely that the students should have “Explored the impact of the existence of many Christian denominations in Botswana” is an application objective which could have been included to balance the exercise. As for the end of month tests the assessment for the three schools which is done by a group of schools referred

to as „cluster‟, covers more than one domain unlike class exercises, but still most of the questions are from the knowledge category. This is illustrated by a Form 3 end of month test where students were asked to attempt the following question; 1. a) Define the following terms (Knowledge) b) What are rites of passage? (Knowledge) 2. Case study questions a) List rituals found in the case study above (Knowledge) b) Outline three aspects that show the importance of birth rituals in Sikhism (Comprehension) c) Briefly describe what happens during the sacred thread ceremony in Hinduism. (Comprehension) 3. Explain the significance of the following Hindu marriage rituals. (Comprehension) 4. Differentiate between the Bar Mitzvah and the Bat Mitzvah in Judaism. (Knowledge) 5. Interreligious marriages promote religious intolerance. Argue for or against this statement. (Evaluation) 6. Discuss the beliefs and customs about life after death in ATR in Botswana. (Evaluation) From this test there are four knowledge questions, three comprehension and two evaluation questions, therefore the test was not balanced in terms of the testing of the cognitive domains. Application and synthesis are missing yet they play an important role in checking understanding of content. The challenge here is that teachers have not been trained in item writing as it surfaced from the interviews. At Nageng JSS, a teacher Teacher G complained; “We have never been trained in item writing, mostly we depend on past exam papers‟ standard and try to emulate that when we set tests and exams”. Similarly, Teacher E at Boasa JSS, said that “Most of the time we take our questions from text books and past national examination papers”. Hence teachers find themselves asking questions based on only one type of domain and unconsciously ignoring others.

Students’ attitudes towards learning RE Based on the findings of this study, the attitudes and study habits of most students towards learning of RE is positive. At Nageng JSS, the students always did their assigned homework and were very active in class presentations despite the lack of computers to do research from. This was confirmed by teacher Teacher G in saying that, “The students are really committed to their work because they always do assignments to my expectations”. At Maareng JSS, the students also mentioned their love for the subject though they face challenges when assigned work as parents lack knowledge of RE. For example, Bame, a student at Maareng, reiterated that; “I like this subject very much but my challenge is that my parents cannot assist me in RE like other subjects because they do not understand it”. Similarly, at Boasa JSS students would come back from home with work undone because they could not get help since there was no internet access and relevant textbooks. This was proven by Letso when she said, “I like RE that is why I chose it but the problem is that we do not have textbooks to refer to when given homework so we struggle”.

Some students had negative attitudes and negative study habits towards learning RE. For instance, at Boasa JSS, some students had no interest in studying RE to a point where they did not do their assignments and even disturbed the classroom proceedings. This was reflected by Malebogo when she said; “I do not like the subject because there are no text books and I come back from home having not done my assignment”. Also, Nonofo said that; “There is too much disturbance in the RE class due to use of face book which hinders learning”. This is an attitude to learning that can make learners see RE lessons as places where they misbehave thus not conducive for learning and as such they may lose interest in the subject leading to low academic performance.

Conclusion The findings of the study revealed that teachers have relevant qualifications, experience and knowledge of their subject area and as such adhere to the set standards of the RE. It surfaced that some religious jargons were a barrier to the effective teaching and learning of RE since teachers end up being biased towards Christianity to explain concepts in other religions because they are largely familiar with it. In addition, it was evident that teachers had limited skills in assessment especially in item writing since they could not balance all domains as is the expectation and this in turn had an impact in students‟ academic performance. The study also revealed that learner centred methods and techniques motivated learners as they became actively involved in the learning process and in that way enhancing their academic performance. It emerged that where there was positive, constant and consistent parental involvement the academic performance of the school in general was usually good. It can then be concluded that the cooperation and collaboration between the parents and the teachers is the key in improving academic results. In schools where parents are actively involved, the schools‟ academic performance is high whereas, in schools where parents are less involved, the results are low.

Recommendations Based on the findings the following recommendations were made:  There has to be coordination between the two Ministry of Education departments namely the Department of Teacher Training & Development and the Department of Curriculum Development and Evaluation and the Botswana Examinations Council which is a parastatal organisation responsible for assessment in Botswana primary and secondary schools..  In service training for RE teachers in the pedagogy of the revised multifaith RE curriculum should be provided and has to be initiated by the supervising department which is the Department of Teacher Training & Development whilst the service is provided by the Department of Curriculum Development and Evaluation.  Teachers need to balance the teaching of various religions rather than over-emphasising on Christianity.  In service training for teachers in assessment should be provided in order to sensitize teachers about issues of assessment and in particular

to issues of setting tasks, marking and grading them. The Department of Teacher Training & Development should initiate the move whilst the service should be provided by the Botswana Examinations Council.  Teacher pupil ratio should be revisited by the MOE so as to balance it with staff and resources, in order to enhance attention for individual students.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 15, No. 12, pp. 84-111, November 2016

Research-Based Practices for Teaching Reading in Elementary Classrooms: An Exploration of the Instructional Practices of Former Elementary Education Students Jacquelyn Covault

Purdue University Northwest Westville, Indiana Abstract. This study explored the instructional reading practices of four elementary teachers, who obtained their Bachelor of Arts in elementary education and have been employed in public elementary schools for nearly three years. The individuals were the researcher‘s former university students and had previously experienced classroom literacy instruction in the use of research-based instructional practices within a constructivist framework for teaching reading in a university methods course and practicum. Using a hermeneutic phenomenological approach, this study explored how these teachers‘ knowledge about the use of research-based instructional practices, or best practices, for teaching reading to children influenced their classroom instruction, as well as what conditions contributed to or inhibited their use. Through interviews and classroom observations of the four teachers, data were analyzed to describe the factors and dynamics that influenced these teachers‘ choices for reading instruction. In particular, this study explored whether or not these teachers were implementing the research-based practices for teaching reading that were a large part of their university training in their teacher preparation program, and what may have helped or hindered them from doing so. The classroom teachers described their beliefs regarding how reading should be taught, what influenced these beliefs, how they taught reading, the support or lack of support from their administrators, the pressure they felt from district- and state-mandated assessments of their students, and their sense of self-confidence as teachers. Results of this study indicated that when teachers have a firm understanding of what constitutes research-based practices for teaching reading, and when these beliefs are in-sync with their administrators‘ and school districts‘ beliefs, they are given the support they need to teach according to their beliefs and experience greater autonomy in their implementation of reading instruction, and the use of best practices. Additionally, it was found that teachers who experienced the autonomy to teach according to their beliefs experienced a larger degree of selfconfidence in their teaching abilities and found more joy in teaching than those who did not. Lastly, it was found that if schools focuses solely on the continual assessment of isolated reading skills, they create

teachers who are inhibited from using what they know about good teaching practices and whose main focus becomes teaching for the sake of their students‘ success in passing tests (Covault, 2011).

Introduction The recognition and discussion of effective reading instruction and the significance of using research-based practices for teaching reading and writing continue to emerge in scholarly circles as topics of great concern in the educational arena today. There have been many debates about teachers‘ practices and the need to be certain that all children are learning. The question of how they teach reading as well as what they teach has created pressure for teachers as they strive for answers to help resolve their students‘ reading difficulties (Allington, 2002). In addition, legislative efforts and policies that inevitably affect teachers‘ practices by mandating that school districts find instructional practices to improve reading skills, remain at the forefront of educational debate among policy makers in the United States today (Deshler, & Cornett, 2012). This has been, and continues to be, the focus of concern for policy makers, teacher educators, administrators, teachers, and parents. This is not a new concern or focus for the nation; rather, it has been a topic of discussion since the beginning of formal education in this country.

Theoretical Framework and Literature Review What are research-based practices? Calhoun (1994) reported that the use of the particular term research-based practices causes some difficulty, because in the past it has been applied and given equal weight to practices that vary considerably in their scientific rigor. Daniels and Bizar (2005) also pointed out that the term is ill-defined because of the many names used for good teaching, or what they termed best practice. For example, exemplary, state-of-the-art, research-based, proficient, standards-based, instructional efficacy, and teaching for engagement are all terms used as synonyms for best practice. However, in their research on research-based practices, or what they choose to instead call best practices, Daniels and Bizar (2005) affirmed, Best Practices does mean something, something very concrete and particular, and something well-worth defending. It is not at all vague. Genuine Best Practices embraces certain educational ideas and activities and clearly rule others out. It has a deep basis in research, in the study of child development and learning, in the history and philosophy of American (and world education, and has had a long and distinguished pedigree manifested through a limited and distinctive set of classroom practices (p. 11). Adding to this stance, Hempenstall (1997), pointed to many national studies conducted with regard to defining best practices in reading instruction. This definition, can also be found in the standards documents published by many of the nation‘s major professional associations, such as the International Reading Association (IRA), the National Board for Professional Teaching Standards (NBPTS), the National Council of Teachers of English (NCTE), the National

Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC), and the National Reading Panel (NRP), to name just a few (Daniels &Bizar, 2005). Daniels and Bizar (2005) helped to define what good teaching or best practices looked like in each school subject field. They identified seven key best practices garnered from more than 60 years of research, some of which they had documented in their previous works (Zemelman, Daniels, & Bizar, 1998, 1999). These seven practices, which they consider to be the foundation of good instruction, are given many different names, but based on their research and observations they have defined them as ―reading as thinking, representing to learn, small-group activities, classroom workshop, authentic experiences, reflective assessment, and integrative units‖ (Daniels & Bizar, 2005, p. 10). These key practices are reflected in instruction that is student-centered, developmentally appropriate, experiential, collaborative, and constructivist. The converse of this is instruction that requires the students to take a passive role in their learning. In this case, the teacher is the sole means of instruction and the class is totally under her direction. A major influence is also the emphasis of learning facts and figures by rote memorization and standardized tests are used for determining learning. For the purpose of this study, research-based practices were defined as practices that are the result of reading research that has been conducted and extended over several months or years; where there is evidence the study has been grounded in solid research and that sound research methodology has been applied; where reading research reports have been published in peer-reviewed journals, and there is evidence of student-gain from the use of research-based reading practices (Allington, 2002; Daniels & Bizar, 2005; Darling-Hammond, 2006; Dorn, French, & Jones, 1998; Gambrell, Morrow, & Pressley, 2007; Robinson, Shore, & Enersen, 2007, Tompkins, 2014). The best practice strategies specifically looked for when observing teachers reading instruction, were a compilation of research-based practices advocated by the aforementioned authors (Table 1). Table 1 Research-Based Reading Strategies and Their Implementation in My Teaching PHONEMIC AWARENESS National Reading Panel Research-Based Practices Taught to Students in My University Reading Class (NRP, 1999).

 



Using and experimenting with lots of oral language Phoneme manipulation (identifying, categorizing, blending, substituting, deleting) of phonemes to form words Segmenting of sounds in a word and

Accomplished Through Modeling and Giving Students the Opportunity to Engage in Activities that Involve (Tompkins, 2006):  Using and experimenting with lots of oral language  Wordplay (including wordplay books, songs, nursery rhymes, poetry, riddles)  Sound activities (matching,



segmenting a word into its constituent sounds Manipulating onsets and rimes in words

    

isolation, blending, addition, substitution, deletion, and segmentation of sounds) Group activities Individual Instruction Mini-lessons Connecting reading to writing Allowing children to develop at their own rate

National Reading Panel Research-Based Practices Taught to Students in My University Reading Class (NRP, 1999).

Accomplished Through Modeling and Giving Students the Opportunity to Engage in Activities that Involve (Tompkins, 2006):

 Letter identification  Identifying, blending and combining sounds to form words  Teaching Analytic, Synthetic, Embedded, and Analogy Phonics  Teaching phonics through spelling  Manipulation of onsets and rimes  Phonics generalizations and their utility

 Singing the alphabet song  Learning letters in their own names and their friends’ names  Blending or combining sounds for decoding words  Making words with blends, digraphs, diphthongs, short and long vowels, words that follow word patterns (cv, cvc, cvce)  Sorting objects and pictures by beginning and ending sounds  Locating and choosing words that demonstrate different phonic principles  Game-like activities such as arranging groups of magnetic letters or letter cards to spell words or creating word sorts on the basis of spelling patterns  Reading books with many phonetically regular words  Writing alphabet and other books with phonetically regular words  Connecting phonics instruction to spelling words by making charts of words representing spelling patterns and other phonics generalizations and encouraging children to use invented spelling  Allowing them to see that phonics generalizations and their percentage of utility vary greatly  Explicit Instruction, mini-lessons, and making use of teachable moments  Writing independently and interactively

National Reading Panel Research-Based Practices Taught to Students in My

Accomplished Through Modeling and Giving Students the Opportunity to

University Reading Class (NRP, 1999).



Practice in guided and independent oral and silent reading using a wide variety of instructional materials Providing students with one-on-one feedback about their reading

Engage in Activities that Involve (Tompkins, 2006): 



  

Orally and silently reading and rereading a wide variety of both informational and expository text Guiding and providing students with one-on-one feedback about their reading Reading while listening (practicing reading along with a tape recorded text Reader’s Theater and other dramatic presentations Reading expressively varying and improving their reading speed Vocabulary, sight, high frequency and technical words in expository and informational text Using word walls to extend vocabulary Phrasing and chunking of words Modeling and using Guided Reading

National Reading Panel Research-Based Practices Taught to Students in My University Reading Class (NRP, 1999).

Accomplished Through Modeling and Giving Students the Opportunity to Engage in Activities that Involve (Tompkins, 2006):

 Teaching vocabulary both explicitly and implicitly in rich contexts  Making connections to students’ prior knowledge  Using multiple instructional methods to allow students to have multiple and repeated exposure to vocabulary words  Promoting wide reading

  



   



Introducing and discussing words before, during and after reading Making connections to students’ background knowledge Being given opportunities to read both orally and independently from expository and informational text and to be read to from these as well Using learning activities that help students learn new vocabulary words and their meanings, words in context, and context clues Higher- level word knowledge Choosing words to study from books or units of study Highlighting and using words on word walls Learning polysyllabic words, multiple meanings of words, using Latin and Greek root words and affixes, word histories and figurative meanings of words Learning individual words, vocabulary concepts and word-



  National Reading Panel Research-Based Practices Taught to Students in My University Reading Class (NRP, 1999).

   



 

  



Teaching using multiple method strategies for comprehension Teaching students to work cooperatively in groups Teaching using both direct instruction and teachable moments Teaching students to tap into their prior knowledge and make predictions before, during, and after reading Teaching students to make text-to-text, text-to-self, and text-to-world connections Teaching students to answer teacher questions and receive immediate feedback Teaching students or organize their ideas and make graphic organizers Teaching students how to figure out unknown words by using phonic analysis, analogies, syllabic and morphemic analysis, context clues, and or to skip over unknown words Teaching students how to visualize words by creating mental pictures Teaching students to discuss, elaborate, revise, monitor and reflect, and summarize what they are reading or have read Teaching students to identify important ideas in a story or passage Teaching students how to ask questions about what they are reading Teaching students about story structure to help them recall story content in order to answer questions about what they have read Teaching students about

learning strategies Teaching using mini lessons to introduce a topic, present information, provide structured practice, and review and application activities Using dictionaries and thesauri during mini lessons and other word study activities Creating word posters, word maps, word sorts and chains Dramatizing words

Accomplished Through Modeling and Giving Students the Opportunity to Engage in Activities that Involve (Tompkins, 2006): 



  

        

  



Developing background knowledge with books, videos, and hands-on materials Using anticipation guides to activate background knowledge with K-W-L charts, quick-writes, and discussions Making predictions Preparing, using, and completing graphic organizers Reading aloud using independent, guided, and shared reading as well as reading to partners Modeling reading strategies Monitoring students’ use of strategies Using think-alouds Discussing the text in a grand or instructional conversation Writing in reading log or journals Using drama to reenact a story Rereading and retelling the text Using story boards to sequence events in a text Teaching reading lessons on reading strategies and skills, the structure of texts (plot, cause and effect), and about the author or genre Making open-minded portraits Examining selected sentences and paragraphs in the texts Creating projects to deepen their understanding of what they have read Reading other books on the same topic



comprehension in the context of specific  academic areas, such as social studies Teaching students to evaluate and give  their opinions on a story or passage

Comparing related books or book and film versions Writing reports and other books on the same topic

A Conceptual Framework for Teaching Reading This study utilized a constructivist framework for teaching reading. A general view of a constructivist theory of learning is grounded in the work of two wellknown learning theorists, Piaget (1973) and Vygotsky (1978). Although both theorists agreed that knowledge is constructed by individuals, they differed by the role they give to social/verbal interaction during learning. Constructivist and social constructivist theories of learning provided the framework for the basis of this study. Constructivist philosophy specifically maintains an emphasis on contextual and reflective thinking and practice. It has powerful implications for teacher educators, pre-service teachers, and practicing teachers. Constructivist teachers see themselves as facilitators of knowledge and believe their role is to challenge students to rethink and reevaluate their current schema to help scaffold them to the next level of understanding (Piaget, 1985). Constructivist teachers believe that learning is based upon one‘s prior knowledge, and because everyone‘s background of knowledge differs it cannot be assumed that all children learn in the same manner, or by the same methods (Piaget, 1985). Constructivist teachers know that in order to facilitate children‘s learning, they may need to construct different learning experiences for children to help them move to their next level of understanding, and that these learning experiences should include large amounts of time and opportunities to collaborate and engage in dialogue, as well as to reflect on these experiences. Teachers who follow a constructivist framework engage their students in problem-oriented activities and use instructional strategies to help students build good mental models of problems they are working to solve. They also create rich learning environments where the primary source of information is not the textbook (Allington & Johnston, 2002). They use cooperative or collaborative groups for helping children to learn, invite children to learn through exploration, and advocate authentic assessment methods to evaluate students‘ progress. Constructivist teachers use these theories when they teach phonemic awareness, phonics, vocabulary, and fluency, but they also know that simply focusing on these areas is not enough (Allington, & Johnston, 2002, Allington, 2006, Beck & Beck, 2012, Brady, 2011, Carreker, 2011). They know that constructivist methods also help to foster students‘ oral language and critical thinking skills as well (Chard, Pikulski, & McDonagh, 2012, De Naeghel, Van Keer, Vansteenkiste, & Rosseel, 2012). The constructivism framework was the framework taught to all study participants during their pre-professional university experience. It was expected that they would use constructivist methods when teaching reading in their own classrooms. This study utilized Vygotsky‘s (1978) theory of social constructivism as well. Vygotsky advocated that learning is socially constructed, viewed as an active © 2014 J. Covault and IJLTER.ORG. All Rights reserved.

and constructive task, and what is learned is viewed as subjective. According to Vygotsky, learning occurs in social, historical, cultural, and political contexts mediating the ways in which individuals process information. Vygotsky (1978) viewed an individual‘s development as a process of active adaptation of the cultural environment coupled with the use of language and social interactions within that social context. He asserted that language is the precursor to developing cognition, and learning is socially mediated. It is the process of meaningful dialogue between learners in social and cultural contexts through which thought, problem solving, and language processes and patterns are internalized by learners. He suggested that meanings are first constructed in context and then through many experiences are gradually restructured until they are similar to conventional meanings. Individuals take everyday concepts and add to and refine their meaning through their daily experiences. Through mediation by a knowledgeable other, one internalizes problem-solving strategies (Wertsch, 1991). In social constructivist classrooms, students are typically put in situations where there are lots of opportunities to interact with one another. The main premise is that learning is socially constructed. In these classrooms, much learning occurs as groups of learners‘ dialogue with each other and work together. It is in literacy instruction in these classrooms that children are able to move around the room as they engage in dialogue, read, and learn with one another. There is a great deal of emphasis on conversation and discussion of texts as students strive to make themselves be understood and to understand others. When children are given the opportunity to both articulate and reflect on what they already know, they are engaging in both social and verbal interactions and in turn become active participants in the process of problem solving. Teachers who use responsive teaching practices teach students during all phases of reading, using before, during, and after reading teaching strategies. The purpose of this is to discuss with students the connections they have made with the text they have read. When discussing a text, student responses are encouraged by the teacher and the teacher is present to help students make connections with all they have read. Throughout the before, during, and after phases of reading, students are encouraged to make text-to-self, and text-to-world connections (Clay, 1991; Dorn et al., 1998, Keene & Zimmermann, 2007). As to a learner‘s formal education with issues of reading and writing, Vygotsky (1978) concluded that reading and writing must have a necessary and authentic purpose, as students learn best when the assignments in which they are engaged are based on something that they feel they need to do or learn, rather than those that are generated entirely by the teacher. He theorized that learning is born from intensely personal, human social processes (Vygotsky, 1978). As suggested in the previous review, the constructivist/social constructivist models of teaching are in direct contrast to the traditional or transmission model of teaching. In this study, participants were taught both constructivist and social constructivist theory, and all work completed during their university coursework (lesson plans, etc.) were expected to reflect these theories.

Reading Instruction and the Teacher’s Role In today‘s educational climate there is a large degree of focus on teacher reform as well as on accountability for educators and teacher educators, with particular attention on how teachers teach reading to their students. There have been myriad debates about teaching practices as researchers and educators discuss whether or not the opportunities children have for learning reading at home fosters their learning or creates a disconnect between what is learned at home and then at school, whether phonics should or should not be explicitly and/or systematically taught, whether basal readers should be given up for literaturebased instruction, whether heterogeneous grouping versus homogeneous grouping should be used, and whether direct instruction methods are better than discovery methods of teaching. Is there a right way to teach reading? What knowledge does past research offer about successful learning environments, methods, and practices for helping children to learn to read? What is known is that a preschooler‘s early home experiences with literacy plays a critical role in learning to read (Clay, 1991; Cox & Sulzby, 1982; Fang & Cox, 1999; Purcell-Gates, Duke, & Martineau, 2007); the characteristics and role of the classroom teacher have a profound effect on student learning (Allington, 2002; Darling-Hammond, 2006); and using research-based or best practices for teaching reading to students helps them to become successful readers and writers (Gambrell et al., 2007). Many preschoolers‘ experiences with reading begin in their early years well before they enter school and prior to any formal reading instruction. Research has shown that during this emergent stage of reading, when children experience reading development in the home, it offers them the opportunities to effectively bridge the divide between home and school literacies which in turn enhances their own reading development (Clay, 1991; Cox & Sulzby, 1982; Fang & Cox, 1999; Purcell-Gates & Duke, 1993). In addition to the importance of early literacy learning in the home environment, it was found that one of the most important variables in children‘s learning is the classroom teacher. Research has shown that teachers who teach reading using research-based practices have higher gains in student achievement in reading (Allington, 2002; Daniels & Bizar, 2005; Darling-Hammond, 2006; Dorn et al., 1998; Gambrell et al., 2007). It is the classroom teacher to whom one looks for student success, and anticipate that they have an understanding of how children acquire literacy skills. The recognition of the importance of the classroom teacher in helping children acquire reading skills, and the methods of teaching reading using research-based instructional practices provided the motivation for this study. As a result of an exploration of effective research-based instructional practices for teaching reading, the researcher drew upon these practices in university reading courses by teaching and modeling them for students. This is important because these are the tenets that impact students‘ reading instruction in their own classrooms. In short, this study helped to determine if the practices the students were being

taught in a university reading course were indeed being implemented in their own classrooms when they began teaching.

Research Questions 1. What research based reading practices, if any, do graduates of a small Midwestern university teacher preparation program, actually implement when they are teaching young children to read and write? 2. What perceived barriers to using research-based reading practices in their classrooms do the study participants illuminate, and how do they overcome those barriers?

Methods Approach to the Study. This research study utilized a mixed-methods, hermeneutic-phenomenological, case study approach to determine four teachers‘ instructional practices for teaching reading. This study explored whether or not the teachers used the research-based instructional practices they had learned in a literacy methods course and the reasons why they may or may not have chosen to not teach using these particular instructional practices. The study also explored the perceived barriers to using research-based practices to teach reading, and how those barriers were overcome. Phenomenology was explained through teacher interviews, discussions with teachers, email communications, classroom observations, and document analysis. Data were analyzed to describe the factors and dynamics that influenced these teachers‘ choices, the relationship between their knowledge of the use of research-based practices for teaching reading, their implementation in actual classroom practice, and the conditions or factors that impacted the instructional practices they used. In particular, this study explored whether or not these teachers were implementing the research-based practices for teaching reading that were a large part of their university training in their teacher preparation program. A phenomenological approach, according to Creswell (2013), ―describes the common meaning for several individuals of their lived experiences of a concept or a phenomenon‖ (p. 47-48). For this particular study, questions were developed that sought to investigate one‘s experience of teaching reading to children and how this occurred in teachers‘ classrooms. Data were collected from the teachers‘ experiencing this phenomenon through engaging them in lengthy interviews, and each teacher‘s instructional reading practices were observed for a period of forty hours. During data analysis, specific ‗themes‘ or ‗units‘ were identified to describe how each teacher experienced the phenomenon, and last, the study ended with an attempt to delineate and synthesize the data picture so the reader may be able to better understand the teacher‘s experiences. Creswell (1998) argued that in order to understand and analyze phenomenological data there must be a method to reduce the data in order for the researcher to analyze and explore specific statements and themes. It is

through this method of reduction and analysis that the researcher is able to explore and examine all probable meanings. Moustakas' (1994) study also provided thorough recommendations for the researcher to maintain a balance between what one views as subjective and objective findings. Moustakas emphasized that "establishing the truth of things" (p. 57) begins and ends with the perceptions of the researcher. Creswell also emphasizes the work of van Manen (1990) and stated, ―The basic purpose of phenomenology is to reduce individual experiences with a phenomenon to a description of the universal essence‖ wherein van Manen describes this as (a ―grasp of the very nature of the thing,‖ p. 177).

Hermeneutics and Phenomenology. Hermeneutics, originating from the god Hermes, is the practice of revealing and interpreting, as did Hermes in his role as divine messenger and interpreter. Hermeneutic phenomenology stresses the human experience and how it is lived in the world. It focuses on exploring and revealing details and perceived inconsequential properties within experiences that we pay no particular attention to in our lives. The goal of hermeneutic phenomenology is to establish meaning and understanding (Wilson & Hutchinson, 1991). It is through a hermeneutic lens that one aims to understand the process of understanding. In this process, language plays a crucial role as it is a fundamental way in which humans understand the world and share their perspectives with others (Birsh, 2011). Furthermore, it is this emphasis on language that supports the distinction between scientific thinking and hermeneutical reflective thinking. In a phenomenological study, the researcher first has to identify a phenomenon. After the phenomenon is identified, the researcher must gather data from those involved with it, and then must analyze and describe the fundamental nature or the crux of the experience. According to Moustakas, 1994, ―This description describes what the individuals experienced as well as how they experienced it‖ (as cited in Creswell, 2013, p. 76). Creswell, acknowledged the value of the research in phenomenology by other researchers such as Dukes (1984), Tesch (1990), Giorgi (1985, 1994, 2009), Polkinghorne (1989), and Moustakas (1994), supported Moustakas‘s (1994) approach for conducting phenomenological research as desirable ―because it has systematic steps in the data analysis procedures and guidelines for assembling the textual and structural descriptions‖ (as cited in Creswell, 2013, p. 80).

Participants.

Purposeful criterion sampling was used for this study. According to Creswell (2013), when conducting phenomenological research for a case study, no more than four to five case studies should be included in a single study. In addition, Creswell believed that criterion sampling works well for this type of research if all of the individuals being studied are those who have experienced the same phenomenon. Aiming one‘s focus on just the site or the individuals being studied is not enough. The researcher must also explore and collect a wide range of details about each individual or site being studied.

Four teachers, Jana, Lindsay, Paige, and Sara (all pseudonyms) were purposefully chosen to participate in this study, because they were students previously taught by me in several reading courses in which best practices were taught, and were graduates of a four-year teacher-training program at a midwestern university. The individuals chosen were those who had grade point averages of 3.5 or higher, were those of whom it was believed had the greatest understanding of research-based reading practices, and understood and used these practices while they were tutoring children during the field experience components of my courses. All teacher participants were classroom teachers who were nearing the end of their third year of teaching. Although all of them were working as classroom teachers, each teacher had previous experience in another grade level besides the grade in which they were currently teaching. Two of the teachers taught in the same school corporation and same building; one taught kindergarten, and the other taught fourth-grade. The other two teachers both taught second grade in two different school corporations. Three of the four teachers were viewed as school leaders, and were asked by their principals and superintendents to work on various curricula initiatives, chaired committees, served as team leaders of their grade level, attended professional development conferences, and wrote several grants to obtain funding for their schools. All four of the teachers were open to innovative approaches to education and were eager to learn about new research in their field. Their class sizes ranged from 22-35 students with the largest number of students being in kindergarten. The kindergarten and the two second-grade teachers each had a part time instructional aide; the fourth-grade teacher did not. Each of the participants had some form of resource or instructional support through a Title-I teacher, or a reading specialist. Although this study‘s participant level was relatively low, it was due to the fact that in these students‘ cohort group only 15 students were enrolled. Out of the 15, only these four students met the criteria. Each of the participants, through their discussions, interviews, email communications, and explanations of why they chose particular instructional strategies for teaching reading provided a lens through which I was able to understand and interpret how and why they taught reading as they did. These teachers were employed as full-time teachers in public elementary schools and were from three different school corporations.

Data Collection Teacher Interviews. Data were collected in the field over a four-month period of time. Teacher interviews focused on five different areas—teacher beliefs and instructional practices about teaching reading, instructional planning and implementation, learning outcomes for students following instruction, the instructional beliefs of the school district (principals and superintendents) about reading instruction, and the effects of the No Child Left Behind Law (NCLB, 2002) on their teaching practices. Each teacher was asked the same series of 10 interview questions followed by the same prompts.

Classroom Observations. Following the interviews, each teacher was then observed teaching reading and language arts in their classroom on five different

occasions over a four month period for a total of six hours each time equaling 30 hours of observation. This block of time also allowed for the integration of other subject area matter that might have been studied at the time. For example, if the life cycle of plants was studied in the afternoon science block, it might have been integrated into the language arts block in the morning‘s language arts session as well. Even though each observation took place during the teacher‘s language arts block, the observations ranged anywhere from 180 to 240 minutes per visit, depending on the teacher‘s schedule and grade level being observed. Four standards of quality and verification recommended by Creswell (2003) were used in this study. Rich, thick description of data, triangulation, member checking and clarification of researcher bias provided for increased precision and rigor of the results. Triangulation of the data allowed for the use of varied and multiple sources to corroborate evidence. Member checking was performed to derive the credibility of the findings, analyses and interpretations. Three graduate students enrolled in a qualitative research course helped to code the data collected from the teacher and principal interviews to ensure the reliability of information and assisted in creating the themes analyzed for this study. In addition, they engaged in discussions with me about the research questions and teaching practices of each of the participants in the study. Written field notes and transcriptions were sent to the teachers for verification.

Data Analysis. Data were analyzed by using simple frequency counts during the hours of classroom observation each time a research-based reading practice was seen being implemented. Each time a research-based reading practice was used, it was tabulated to provide a percentage of use for each participant. Next, significant themes from the teacher interviews, indicating what they knew about research-based practices and how they used them in their teaching, were generated. The research-based practices I looked for were listed in Table 1. From the analyses of the data, three assertions were proposed.

Results Question 1. What research-based reading practices, if any, do graduates of a small Midwestern university teacher preparation program actually implement when they are teaching young children to read and write? Based upon interviews with teachers and evidence from field notes and observations, it was clear that Paige, Lindsay, and Jana were able to articulate and demonstrate the meaning of research-based instructional practices and were implementing those practices in their classroom reading instruction. Sara had a much more difficult time articulating her idea of research-based practices for teaching reading and, in addition, demonstrated fewer times that research-based practices were implemented in her reading instruction. This is evident in the responses that followed the question, ―How do your beliefs, well as what you know about literacy instruction influence your creation of lessons plans and the choices of instructional strategies and assessments you use?‖ Following is a brief synopsis of some of the responses of each participant:

Paige said, ―At the kindergarten level, I feel reading should encompass everything they do in their daily lives. There are many opportunities to experience literacy on top of reading books.‖ Lindsay responded, ―Working with kids at their instructional level, not the independent but the instructional level, where you could still help them and they‘re not so struggling that they‘re stressed out and not wanting to learn it.‖ Jana stated, ―I first think that children who are surrounded by literacy, and are read to, strive in reading.‖ Sara, who it was thought had a solid grasp of research-based instructional strategies for teaching reading, could not adequately and clearly express what research-based strategies are and how they were used in her classroom. It is uncertain why this was so, especially in light of the fact that during her time in her literacy methods course as well as during her student teaching practicum, she was observed implementing many research-based practices in her instruction. She was not a student who simply ―talked the talk.‖ She could ―walk the walk‖ as well. In addition, while observing some research-based practices were implemented in her reading instruction, they were less frequent and more random. Sara responded, I think best practices changes so much. Because best practices for me last year, is nothing like what best practice is for me this year. Because my kids are so different. To me best practice is whatever works in your classroom at that time with those children. I may go back to using Four-Block at some time if I know that works well with a group. I just think it‘s such a fluid thing; I mean it changes; it doesn‘t mean the same thing. Paige, Lindsay, and Jana were able to clearly articulate actual research-based practices they used in their teaching including modeling reading aloud for children, reading aloud to them at school and at home, the importance of activating prior knowledge, the importance of meeting them at their instructional level, exposure to print, creating lesson plans tailored to the individual needs of students, and assessing their instructional needs. It was evident that Sara did not have a clear understanding of what is meant by research-based practices. Teacher interview data showed 143 citations which indicated their understanding of the meaning and use of research-based practices. Paige demonstrated her understanding by mentioning and describing how she used them 45 times (31%), Lindsay, 46 times (32%), and Jana, 43 times (30%), and Sara only nine times (6%). Of the four participants, Paige, Lindsay, and Jana used, and were more purposeful about using, research-based practices in their classroom reading instruction than Sara. Paige, Lindsay, and Jana also viewed the teaching of reading not as the teaching of a single subject area, but as one that should be integrated with other subject areas throughout the day. Sara showed significantly fewer instances of when and how she used these practices, and she also could not justify why she chose the instructional practices she did. Her

choices of using research-based practices seemed to occur in a much more haphazard manner without seeming to give much thought as to why she was using the practices she had chosen. Sara also placed much more emphasis on student assessment and the teaching and acquisition of specific skills, such as phonics skills. This was apparent in her discussion and use of the number of ‗morning‘ worksheets she assigned to her students each day, which reviewed previous skills taught. She taught her class using only large group instruction where every child was reading the same story out of the basal reader at the same time, and she did not mention incorporating content from other subject areas. Sara followed a much more traditional approach to teaching reading than the other participants. In analyzing data of the 2,609 total occurrences from all of the categories of research-based practices, (i.e. classroom environment, classroom management, developmentally appropriate practices, and reading practices for teaching phonemic awareness, phonics, vocabulary, fluency, and comprehension), Paige was witnessed using them 773 times (30%), Lindsay, 544 times (21%), and Jana, 898 times (34%) and Sara 394 times (15%) as shown in Figure 1. Total Research-Based Reading Practices Used 350

300

250

200 Research-Based Reading Strategies

150

100

0 Paige

Lindsay

Jana

Sara

Figure 1. Participants’ use of research-based reading strategies.

Some of the research-based strategies they discussed during their interviews, and were observed happening in their classrooms were strategies for activating prior knowledge, scaffolding students‘ knowledge, asking higher-level questions, engaging students in dialogue with the teacher or their peers, collaborating frequently with each other, making connections between their reading and writing, engaging in both interactive reading and writing strategies, and using different comprehension strategies such as making text-to-text, textto-self, and text-to-world connections. These strategies occurred much more frequently in Paige‘s, Lindsay‘s and Jana‘s classrooms than they did in Sara‘s classroom. Sara‘s classroom instruction consisted much more of practices such as round-robin reading, total large group instruction, and a heavy reliance on the teaching of skills and use of worksheets and workbook pages from the reading curriculum adopted by the school.

Assertion 1.

Pre-service teachers who are taught to teach reading in a university teacher preparation program that emphasizes the use of researchbased instructional practices within a constructivist framework will use these practices when they teach reading to students in their own classrooms. However, if the expectations of the school administrators (principals and/or superintendents) conflict with the teachers‘ ideas of how reading should be taught, and/or the teacher is intimidated by the environment in which he or she teaches, (as appeared to be in Sara‘s situation), they may succumb to the wishes of the school district and teach in the manner that is expected of them (See Assertion 2). When teachers experience this type of conflict, their use of research-based instructional practices for teaching reading diminishes. In addition, the self-confidence they possessed in regard to their teaching abilities also is seen.

Question 2. What perceived barriers to using research based reading practices in their classrooms do the study participants illuminate, and how do they overcome those barriers? Paige, Lindsay, and Jana were using research-based reading practices in their classrooms as illustrated in the data clips of classroom observations in Question 2; however, there was a marked difference in Sara‘s use of research-based reading practices. Even though Sara said she was able to choose which instructional practices to use, she was using far fewer research-based instructional practices for teaching reading than the other participants and in a much more random manner. Sara also placed a great deal of emphasis on the standardized testing that was required by either the school district or the state. All four teachers discussed that they felt pressure from the assessment requirements of NCLB, but three teachers did not let it impact how they taught reading and remained true to their beliefs about using research-based practices; two of the three principals supported their teachers in their instructional choices. In addition to the aforementioned field notes from classroom observations, data clips from all four teachers‘ interviews offer rationales for why they felt they were able to use research-based reading practices or not.

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Paige said, Literacy groups are a strong program our school has been implementing in kindergarten through second grade for several years and has shown serious growth. Our principal sees the importance and notices the program‘s success. That is very comforting to me as a teacher who shares the same philosophy. Teachers do have the flexibility to select the text that drives instruction, so there is flexibility of book choice and reading strategies to use for instructing the group. Lindsay said, I most definitely do not feel like my school district dictates or prescribes the way I need to teach. I have the flexibility to teach how I want to. . . When I talk to the principal he will ask what I am doing to meet my students‘ needs. As far as he is concerned if our I-STEP scores are acceptable then we must be doing something right. I really feel like he gives me the freedom to teach reading how I think it should be taught. Jana said, We have guidance from our district as far as what to teach, but not necessarily how to teach. They stress the importance of direct instruction and really want us to not teach directly from the basal. . . We have a committee that meets to pick out the reading series that we will be using for the year, and as a second grade team, we create direct instruction lessons and ways to help our struggling readers and enrich our strong readers. When asked, ―Is your school district committed to your professional growth? How do they show this?‖ Jana replied, ―Yes, we are given PLC (Professional Learning Community) time which is an hour on Wednesdays to create direct instruction lessons and discuss ways to improve our classroom. We are also given daily common planning time.‖ Sara said, We have to teach, re-teach, and test, and re-teach and test, and reteach and test all of the, what we call, Power Indicators for Reading, Language and Math. In order to meet the state standards, a group (in the school corporation) got together and said, ―O.K., these are the indicators; which ones do we want to put emphasis on? And let‘s make up five tests for each one of these, and we will continue to remediate and give the test until they reach mastery,‖ which is 80%. I feel like literacy gets lost in that. I‘m teaching to these power indicators and it‘s just not authentic. When asked, ―So when you say you‘re teaching to these power indicators, are you saying you have to follow the way it‘s done in your basal, or are you saying you can come up with your own things, but there isn‘t time?‖ Sara replied,

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I‘m saying the time element is not there, and what you‘re teaching might teach them the concept, but the way that the test is made up is just completely different. . . I don‘t know how to explain it. . . We‘re teaching to these little tests. I guess it‘s sort of like, ―We don‘t care how you do it, but they just better pass these assessments.‖ They have sent us to a couple of professional development workshops. They really seem to monitor us. We have to send our students test scores to the superintendent each week as far as how students are progressing on their mastery of reading and math skills. When asked to clarify with the following question, ―So, if I am understanding you correctly, are you saying you could basically be testing somebody on something every day, because they‘re all at different points as far as the indicators they‘ve mastered?‖ Sara replied, Yes. We test skills on someone every day. Because we move on as a class, but I have to come back at some point to the indicators (that the students haven‘t mastered) and try to test them again. And that doesn‘t mean that they‘ve mastered it. Just because they can pass a test doesn‘t mean that they understand compare and contrast. There‘s got to be a better way. I don‘t know what it is yet. But I think you get caught up in just the testing, and so you sort of lose the teaching; you know, the authentic concept that you‘re trying to do. District wide, there are certain things, assessments that we have to do, like DIBELS (Dynamic Indicators of Basic Elementary Literacy Skills) testing eight times a year, STAR Reading and Math assessments three times a year, Trimester Tests three times a year. Sara was then asked, ―So do you feel that your view for how you should teach literacy is the same or different from your district‘s view?‖ Sara said, Different! I would do it different than the state! We think our district would probably get rid of Sustained Silent Reading as a waste of time. They haven‘t said that; it‘s just sort of the feeling that we get, because you could be testing or re-teaching. When asked to clarify, ―How would you do it differently?‖ Sara replied, If you could just take maybe 10 really important concepts and spend time and do some hands-on activities, or some in-depth things with them instead of rushing through. . . I guess it‘s sort of like, ―We don‘t care how you do it, but they just better pass these assessments.‖ We are able to choose which instructional strategies to use, you know, unless they see a problem. I‘m sure you‘d have a visitor or someone checking up on you. . . The district decides what assessments we use. There are the trimester exit exams I mentioned. Then for every, we call them indicators, the standards, power indicators, there‘ll be tests. There‘ll be test A, test B, test C, test D. Sometimes there‘s an E and an F. At one time

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we all, every school, had to make up their own, an A and a B, um, now they‘re on-line, so I can go and look up [names another school in the district] and see what assessments they use. But they‘re all from the same school. We also do DIBELS testing eight times a year. She was next prompted with, ―And, do these assessments, when you give those, what do you do with the information you get from them?‖ to which Sara replied, ―They inform my instruction. The trimester tests are usually really telling. . . I then asked, ―So, you‘re saying you‘re looking at their assessments, and if they don‘t pass them, then you know you‘ve got to come up with some different type of a strategy?‖ Sara replied, Right. We have trimester exit tests for reading, language arts, and math. Every week, we have to fill out a sheet [for the superintendent] saying ―these are the strategies we are hitting this week.‖ They look at two things. They look at what we‘re doing in the classroom, and they also look specifically at what my goals are for my students. Teacher responses to the question, ―Do you feel pressure about giving assessments, or do you feel like you are not pressured by them?‖ differed. Jana stated, Because of state testing requirements for my students, I feel pressured, but I don‘t feel that from my administrators. I think they trust us to teach our students and know that we are doing our best to educate them. The state tests are always in the back of my mind, but I don‘t feel like they are driving how I teach. Lindsay replied, ―There is tremendous pressure about I-STEP testing, but I don‘t really feel this comes from the principal or the superintendent. I think it comes from me.‖ Paige said, ―There is always pressure to get students as far as one can. Sometimes I feel the pressure is self-induced. I am really hard on myself and just want the best for each and every student.‖ Sara responded, Yes, very pressured. For the last couple of years, as the year ends, they‘ve (Administration) put this graph in our mailboxes where they‘ve taken the four of us, teachers‘ students‘ reading scores and compared them. They are just looking at the scores. They‘re not looking at how much growth they made this year. Because the district is pressured by the state, the district is just looking at test scores. We‘re doing our best, but we feel the pressure.

Assertion 2. Teachers who have learned about using research-based practices for teaching reading within a constructivist framework in their university teacher preparation programs will not use them, or will use them less

frequently, when they feel pressured or intimidated by their school administrators or school district to teach in ways that are in conflict with what they believe about teaching; especially when they are directed to continuously teach, test, re-teach, and retest discrete reading skills in order to satisfy their district‘s assessment requirements. In addition, © 2014 J. Covault and IJLTER.ORG. All Rights reserved.

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teachers who feel that their teaching time is limited because of their school district‘s emphasis on time spent on testing, will not use, or will less frequently use research-based practices for teaching reading. When teachers are fearful of repercussions by being held accountable for their students‘ performance on various assessments, they will not use, or use less frequently, research-based instructional practices for teaching reading. This environment of fear also causes them to experience little joy in teaching. When teachers are supported by their administrators and school districts to teach children using what they know about researchbased practices, they will implement these practices in their classrooms, and are less likely to teach to the attainment of discrete skills. The triangulation of data showed an educationally important correspondence between the teachers‘ feelings of self-confidence and how they were teaching reading, and the expectations and culture of the school in which they were employed. The data showed that only three of the four teachers used more research-based practices during their classroom instruction and that one used very few of these practices. It showed that even though all four teachers felt pressured by the assessment requirements of the No Child Left Behind act, three of the four teachers did not let it impact their use of research-based practices, and they remained true to their beliefs and use of them. Findings. The results of this study provide insights into and reveal how four teachers taught reading to their students and the types of practices they implemented in their classroom environments. The discussion that follows is organized according to the study’s two research interviews and classroom observations of teachers’ reading instruction, and are as follows: 1. One of the most important observations was that when teachers have a firm understanding of what constitutes research-based practices for teaching reading, and when these beliefs match and are in-sync with their administrators‘ and school districts‘ beliefs, teachers are given the support they need to teach according to their beliefs. Thus, they experience greater autonomy in their implementation of reading instruction. 2. A second observation was that teachers who experience the autonomy to teach according to their beliefs have a greater sense of self-confidence in their teaching abilities and find more joy in teaching than those who do not. 3. A third observation was that schools whose main focus is on the continual assessment of discrete reading skills create teachers who are inhibited from using what they know about good teaching practices, whose sense of selfconfidence as teachers and joy in teaching is diminished, and whose main focus becomes teaching for the sake of their students‘ success in passing tests.

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Results of the study confirmed that teachers who are taught using researchbased practices for teaching reading can and do implement them in their classroom practice. However, it must be said that of the four teachers who participated in the study, only three of the four did this in an exemplary fashion. The fourth teacher used some research-based instructional practices in her teaching, but these were not implemented nearly to the extent of the other three. Three of the four teachers frequently and systematically, used many of the research-based instructional practices they had learned in their teacher preparation program. They supported their use of research-based practices for teaching reading with research-based practices for creating and maintaining a classroom environment that focused upon creating a community of learners. These teachers worked to ensure that they incorporated literacy as part of their entire day and created an environment where many materials were available for their children to experience challenging activities, choice, social interaction, and success. The children in these three teachers‘ classrooms also had many opportunities to work independently and to engage in dialogue and work collaboratively with their peers. These teachers worked to engage and motivate their students, were excited about teaching and learning, and held high expectations for them. These teachers successfully implemented these practices by placing a large emphasis on how they managed their classrooms. They established routines for themselves and their students and followed them. They also possessed very good organizational and management skills and used them daily. Interactions with their students were kind and respectful and they worked at building and establishing rapport with and among them. They modeled and taught this kind of behavior and encouraged their students to treat others well. The teachers showed that they understood the developmental learning stages of literacy and were able to provide their students with developmentally appropriate, meaningful, and varied learning experiences at their level. They created differentiated lessons based on their students‘ needs, interests, and learning styles and then utilized one-on-one, small group and large group instruction in their teaching. These teachers were concerned with the whole child by being cognizant and responding to their social, emotional, and intellectual development. In the teaching of reading, they worked to carry out meaning-based literacy instruction, and to give their students many experiences with reading. They incorporated the use of authentic texts in order to motivate their students‘ interest. In order to foster their students‘ development in reading, they also incorporated a program of skills development that focused on the areas of phonemic awareness, phonics, vocabulary, comprehension, and fluency, and provided specific skills instruction to meet students‘ individual needs. They utilized a long, uninterrupted time period for teaching literacy, and integrated their language arts curriculum with different content areas. Reading was extended into all different kinds of classroom activities and incorporated throughout the day as well. They focused on helping their students develop

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listening, speaking, reading, writing, and viewing skills. As previously stated, Table 1 listed the instructional practices they were taught in their university methods course and used in their classroom instruction. One of the four teachers used some of the research-based practices for teaching reading she had learned in her university courses, however, the percentage of occurrence was much lower than the other three teachers. Data from the teacher interviews, as well as notes from the observations I conducted in her classroom indicated that this teacher felt a great deal of pressure from her principal, the superintendent, and the school district in making certain her students performed well on district and state-mandated assessments. This teacher also had to administer many more tests to her students throughout the semester than did the other teachers in the study. Knowing that teacher accountability rated very highly in her district, and that she was responsible for sending weekly progress reports and goals for her students to her superintendent to ensure they had met specific benchmarks and district and state-standards resulted in increased pressure for her to continuously teach, test, re-teach and retest her students. She felt that the pressure to be accountable for having her students master discrete skills caused her to abandon most of what she knew about how children learn best and caused her to teach using mostly large group, direct-instruction and a skills-driven approach. In essence she felt she was, and appeared to be, ‗teaching to a test.‘ This teacher also indicated her loss of a sense of joy about teaching and a diminishing sense of her feelings of self-confidence. The culture of the school environment impacted this teacher‘s ability to teach using what she knows about research-based practices. If she were to teach in a school environment similar to the other three teachers, the outcomes for her may have proved different.

Implications Prior research on teacher education has found that teachers come to the classroom with inherent beliefs about students, teaching and learning, that affect the teaching practices they implement in their own classrooms. This research has shown that there is a clear relationship between what teachers believe about teaching and learning, and how they put these beliefs into practice. This research suggests that teachers tend to teach the way they were taught unless their university coursework strives to address their preconceptions about teaching (Fang, 1996; Borko & Putnam, 1996; Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 1999; Britzman, 1986; Darling-Hammond, 2006; Fosnot, 1996; Jackson, 1974; Kennedy, 1999; Lortie, 1975; Munby, Russell, & Martin, 2001; Schweiker & Schweiker, 1993; Smith & Rhodes, 2006). Prior research also indicated a relatively strong correlation between what teachers believe about reading and their instructional practices. The manner in which teachers teach reading has a direct connection to their belief system. This belief system influences the manner in which they plan their lessons, which in turn directly affects their students‘ learning (Cheek, Steward, Laureny, & Borgia, 2004; Richardson, Anders, Tidwell, & Lloyd, 1991). Although this correlation may be accurate, one teacher in this study, Sara, contradicted those findings. Interviews and classroom observations confirmed this. Even though she originally believed that using a

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constructivist approach to helping children learn to read produced successful outcomes, her beliefs were severely challenged when she became a member of a school environment whose mandates contradicted her beliefs. There was a definite difference of opinion between Sara‘s beliefs about using research-based reading practices and her school‘s. This difference of opinion hindered Sara in implementing what she knew about using research-based practices because it caused her to feel threatened if she did not do so. This threat, either real or perceived, caused her to teach using methods that she did not really believe in. Knowing that ―you would receive a visitor‖ if your students‘ test scores were not up to par was a very real motivation for her to teach in the manner in which she did. This may have been the reason that caused her to teach using instructional approaches she did not believe were the best for her students. The pressures on this teacher to have her students pass many district-level assessments; more so than any of the other teacher participants in this study, and the requirements of the school for her to teach using a teaching model that emphasized the specific teaching of vocabulary, decoding and word recognition strategies caused her to abandon her beliefs about teaching using research-based practices. One recommendation is that teachers who believe students learn best by a constructivist approach that utilizes research-based instructional reading practices be given the opportunity, by their administrators, to share their beliefs with them. Sharing their beliefs could serve as a vehicle for engaging in effective dialogue between teachers and administrators about a) why they hold these beliefs, and b) the impact of these beliefs on their teaching practices for helping students become successful readers. A second recommendation is for school administrators to give teachers the freedom to teach using methods they believe are the most excellent for helping students learn to read. A third recommendation is that efforts are made to educate leaders in school districts and government positions, that students may not be getting the best instruction in learning how to read through a bottoms-up approach. They must be made aware that there is not a silver bullet, or one-size fits all approach to teaching reading. They need to understand that requiring teachers to use behaviorist methods for reading instruction by having their teachers teach using scripted programs and materials may not be using sound instructional practices. All of the teachers felt the pressure of accountability for their students‘ learning and struggled with feeling that they never had enough time to teach reading. Because of this, Sara tried to use the time she had to teach reading by utilizing only large group instruction. The other teachers utilized frequent individual, small and large group instruction by working one-on-one with students, using literacy groups, and having students grouped in a large group for certain types of instruction; Sara seemed to set aside her beliefs about teaching reading because of time constraints and the accountability she felt. In short, she felt that because she had so many skills to cover with her students and so little time in which to cover them, she taught to the whole class rather than diversifying her instruction.

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Another recommendation is there needs to be increased dialogue between literacy instructors in colleges of education with legislators, school administrators, teachers, and parents about the value of using research-based instructional practices for teaching reading as opposed to the current emphasis on student assessment and performance-based learning as opposed to the use of research-based instructional practices needs to be addressed. Having students engaged in field experiences is not enough. Instructors of methods courses that require a field component should work to create a partnership with the teachers and administrators of the schools in which their students are placed. Doing so may be important in helping them to understand why they are promoting the instructional practices for teaching reading that they are teaching their students. I believe this is important in light of the fact that the interviews with the principals showed that of the three, the two principals who had a better understanding of what constitutes research-based practices and why we use them in teaching students to learn to read, showed greater confidence in their teachers‘ abilities, and gave them the freedom to teach using these practices.

Limitations & Future Research As is true of all studies, this study too had its limitations. Although this study shows promise for understanding what happens to teachers when they teach in a school environment whose beliefs about teaching reading match and support their own, and those who teach in schools whose beliefs do not match theirs, the conclusions are limited because of the small size of the teacher and principal population studied, and the fact that the four teachers were former students of mine. These factors limited my ability to create generalizations of the study‘s findings. Because of this a study utilizing a greater population is necessary. Additionally, if Sara were to leave the school where she is currently employed to teach in a different school environment whose administrators shared her beliefs about teaching reading, placed much less emphasis on testing and meeting district and state standards, and gave her the freedom to teach according to her beliefs, it would be interesting to see if she would teach reading using what she learned about using research-based practices. It is also suggested that a longitudinal study be conducted to see if these results remain the same over time. Research studies that focus on teacher accountability, teacher practices, teachers‘ sense of self-confidence and teacher retention should also be conducted to examine what happens when teachers are denied the ability to teach in ways they believe help children become successful readers. A Final Word Since the introduction of the No Child Left Behind legislation in 2002, teacher practices, student assessment, and teacher accountability have been heatedly discussed in educational and political circles. The results of this discussion have engendered much controversy and opposition among those who favor a bottoms-up, top-down, or interactionist © 2014 J. Covault and IJLTER.ORG. All Rights reserved.

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approach teaching reading. The results of this study appear to acknowledge that when there is a difference, or a disconnect in what teachers and administrators believe about the methods used for teaching reading to children, and when the main objective of the school is on student assessment and teacher accountability, the teacher may abandon what he or she knows about teaching using research-based practices and succumb to the more behaviorist approach being advocated by the school and federal government. References Allington, R. L. (2002). What I‘ve learned about effective reading instruction: The six T‘s of effective elementary literacy instruction. Phi Delta Kappan, 83, 740-747. Retrieved from http://www.readingrockets.org/article/six-ts-effectiveelementary-literacy-instruction Allington, R. L., & Johnston, P. (2002). Reading to learn: Lessons from exemplary 4th-grade classrooms. New York, NY: Guilford. Allington, R. L. (2006). What really matters for struggling readers: Designing research-based programs (2nd ed.) Boston, MA: Pearson Education. Beck, I. L., & Beck, M. E. (2012). Making sense of phonics: The hows and whys. New York, NY: Guilford. Birsh, J. R. (2011). Multisensory teaching of basic language skills. Baltimore, MD: Brookes. Borko, H., & Putnam, R. T. (1996). Learning to teach. In D. Berliner & R. Calfee (Eds.). Handbook of Educational Psychology (pp. 673-708). New York, NY: Simon & Shuster. Brady, S. (2011). Efficacy of phonics teaching for reading outcomes: Indications from post-NRP research. In S. A. Brady, D. Braze, & C. A. Fowler (Eds.). Explaining individual differences in reading: Theory and evidence (pp. 69-96). New York, NY: Psychology Press. Bransford, J. D., Brown, A. L., & Cocking, R. R. (1999). How people learn: Brain, mind, experience, and school. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Britzman, D. (1986). Cultural myths in the making of a teacher: Biography and social structure in teacher education. Harvard Educational Review, 56, 442-456. Brooks, J, & Brooks, M. (1993). In search of understanding: The case for constructivist classrooms. Alexandria, VA: ASCD. Calhoun, E. F. (1994). How to use action research in the self-renewing school. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Carreker, S. (2011). Teaching reading: Accurate decoding. In J. R. Birsh (Ed.), Multisensory teaching of basic language skills (pp. 207-250). Baltimore, MD: Brooks. Chard, D. J., Pikulski, J. J., & McDonagh, S. (2012). Fluency: The link between decoding and comprehension for struggling readers. In T. Rasinski, C. Blachowicz, & K. Lems (Eds.), Fluency instruction: Research-based best practices (pp. 90-113). New York, NY: Guilford. Cheek Jr., E. H., Steward, F. A., Laureny, B. L., & Borgia, L. G. (2004). Facilitative reading instruction: Pre-service teachers‘ voices and perceptions. Reading Improvement, 41, 129-142. Clay, M. M. (1991). Becoming literate: The construction of inner control. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Cox, B. E., & Sulzby, E. (1982). Evidence of planning in dialogue and monologue by fiveyear-old emergent readers. National Reading Conference Yearbook, 31, 143-150. Retrieved from http://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED218585

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Creswell, J. W. (1998). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among the five traditions. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Creswell, J. W. (2003). Qualitative inquiry and research traditions: Choosing among the five traditions. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Creswell, J. W. (2013). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Daniels, H., & Bizar, M. (2005). Teaching the best practice way: Methods that matter, K-12. Portland, ME: Stenhouse. Darling-Hammond, L. (2006). Powerful teacher education: Lessons from exemplary programs. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. De Naeghel, J., Van Keer, H., Vansteenkiste, M., & Rosseel, Y. (2012). The relation between elementary students' recreational and academic reading motivation, reading frequency, engagement, and comprehension: A self-determination theory perspective. Journal of Educational Psychology, 104, 1006-1021. doi:10.1037/a0027800 Deshler, D. D., & Cornett, J. (2012). Leading to improve teacher effectiveness: Implications for practice, reform, research, and policy. In J. B Crockett, B. S. Billingsley, & M. L. Boscardin (Eds.), Handbook of leadership and administration for special education (pp. 239-259). New York, NY: Taylor & Francis. Dorn, L. J., French, C., & Jones, T. (1998). Apprenticeship in literacy. Portland, ME: Stenhouse. Duke, N. K., & Carlisle, J. (2010). The development of comprehension. Handbook of Reading Research, (Vol. 4, pp. 199–228). New York, NY: Routledge. Dukes, S., (1984). Phenomenological methodology in the human sciences. Journal of Religion and Health, 23, 197-203. Fang, Z. (1996). A review of research on teacher beliefs and practices. Educational researcher, 38(1), 47-65. Fang, Z., & Cox, B. B. (1999). Emergent metacognition: A study of preschoolers‘ literate behavior. Journal of Research in Childhood Education, 13, 175-187. doi:10.1080/02568549909594738 Fosnot, C. T. (1996). Constructivism: A psychological theory of learning. In C. T. Fosnot (Ed.). Constructivism: Theory, perspectives, and practice (pp. 8-33). New York, NY: Teachers College Press. Gambrell, L. B., Morrow, L. M., & Pressley, M. (Eds.). (2007). Best practices in literacy instruction. New York, NY: Guilford Press. Georgi, A., (2009). A descriptive phenomenological method in psychology: A modified Husserlian approach. Pittsburgh, PA: Duquesne University Press. Hempenstall, K. (1997). The role of phonemic awareness in beginning reading: A review. Behavior Change, 14, 201-214. doi:10.1017/S0813483900003314 International Reading Association. (2002). Excellent reading teachers: A position statement. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. International Reading Association and the National Association for the Education of Young Children. (1998). Learning to read and write: Developmentally appropriate practices for young children. Joint Statement. Retrieved from http://www.naeyc.org/files/naeyc/file/positions/PSREAD98.PDF Jackson, P. (1974). Life in classrooms. Austin, TX: Holt, Rinehart & Winston. Keene, E. O., & Zimmerman, S. (2007). Mosaic of thought (2nd ed.) Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Kennedy, M. (1999). The role of pre-service teacher education. In L. Darling-Hammond & G. Sykes (Eds.), Teaching as the learning profession: Handbook of policy and practice, San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

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Lortie, D. C. (1975). Schoolteachers: A sociological study. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. Moustakas, C. (1994). Phenomenological research methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Munby, H., Russell, T., & Martin, A. K. (2001). Teachers‘ knowledge and how it develops. In V. Richardson (Ed.), Handbook of research on teaching (4th ed., pp. 877904). Washington, DC: American Educational Research Association. National Association for the Education of Young Children. (2009). NAEYC Standards for early childhood professional preparation programs. Washington, DC: Author. Retrieved from https://www.naeyc.org/files/naeyc/file/positions/ ProfPrepStandards09.pdf National Board for Professional Teaching Standards. (2016). What teachers should know and be able to do. Arlington, VA: Author. Retrieved from http://www.nbpts.org/sites/default/files/what_teachers_should_know.pdf National Center for Education Statistics. (2009). The nation’s report card: Reading 2009. Washington, DC: National Assessment of Educational Progress. National Council of Teachers of English. (2008, February 15). The NCTE definition of 21 st century literacies. Adopted by CTE Executive Committee. Retrieved from http://www.ncte.org/positions/statements/21stcentdefinition National Reading Panel. (1999). Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction. Washington, DC: National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. Retrieved from http://www.nichd.nih.gov/publications/nrp/upload/smallbook_pdf.pdf No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, Pub. L. No. 107-110 (2002). Piaget, J. (1973). The language and thought of the child. New York, NY: World. Piaget, J. (1985). Equilibration of cognitive structures. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. Polkinghorne, D. E. (1989). Phenomenological research methods: In R. S. Valle & S. Halling (Eds.). Existential phenomenological perspectives in psychology (pp. 4160). New York: Plenum. Purcell-Gates, V., Duke, N. K., Martineau, J. A. (2007). Learning to read and write genre specific text: Roles of authentic experience and explicit teaching. Reading Research Quarterly, 42(1), 8-45. doi:10.1598/RRQ.42.1.1 Resnick, L. B. (1987). Education and learning to think. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Richardson, V., Anders, P., Tidwell, D., & Lloyd, C. (1991). The relationship between teachers‘ beliefs and practices in reading comprehension instruction. American Educational Research Journal, 28(3), 559-586. Robinson, A., Shore, B. M., & Enersen, D. L. (2007). Best practices in gifted education. Waco, TX: Prufrock Press. Schweiker, K., & Schweiker, W. (1993). Research findings on awareness, acceptance, and practice of emergent literacy theory. U.S. Department of Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement. ERIC Document No. ED 409552. Smith, K. E., & Rhodes, C. S. (2006). Teacher preparation programs make a difference in teacher candidates‘ perspectives about literacy teaching. In S. D. Lenski, D. L. Grisham, & L. S. Wold (Eds.), Literacy teacher preparation: Ten truths teacher educators need to know. Newark, DE: International Reading Association. Tesch, R. (1990). Qualitative research: Analysis types and software tools. Bristol, P.A.: Falmer Press. Tompkins, G. (2006). Literacy for the 21 st century: A balanced approach (4th) Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice. Tompkins, G. (2014). Literacy in the early grades: A successful start for prek-4: Readers and Writers (4th) Boston, MA: Pearson Education.

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van Manen, M. (1990). Researching lived experience: Human science for an action sensitive pedagogy. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. (Original work published in 1934). Wertsch, J. V. (1991). Voices of the mind: A sociocultural approach to mediated action. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Wilson, H. S., & Hutchinson, S. A. (1991). Triangulation of qualitative methods: Heideggerian hermeneutics and grounded theory. Qualitative Health Research, 1, 263-276. doi:10.1177/104973239100100206 Zemelman, S., Daniels, H., & Bizar, M. (1999). Teaching the best practice way. York, ME: Stenhouse. Zemelman, S., Daniels, H., & Hyde, A. (1998). Best practice: New standards for teaching and learning in Americaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s schools. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 15, No. 12, pp. 112-129, November 2016

Community College Faculty and Conceptualizations of Disciplinary Writing Jodi P. Lampi Northern Illinois University DeKalb, Illinois, United States Eric J. Paulson Texas State University San Marcos, Texas, United States Abstract. In this study, the authors use metaphor analysis to uncover community college faculty conceptualizations about disciplinary writing. The findings suggest that faculty have multiple beliefs, attitudes, and perceptions of disciplinary writing and tend not to articulate differences between disciplinary literacy practices and general writing practices. Implications of this study include the importance of faculty considering how their conceptualizations of writing can support studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; understandings of, and practices in, writing throughout the college experience. Keywords: Metaphor analysis; disciplinary writing; community college

Academic Writing In the United States, community colleges occupy an important segment of the postsecondary educational milieu. Designed to serve local student populations, their missions can vary widely (Dougherty & Townsend, 2006); however, shared characteristics of many community colleges include foci as open admission institutions that, depending on studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; goals, provide a 2-year associates degree or vocational certificate, and/or prepares students for transfer to a 4-year college. A large number of students attend community colleges; the American Association of Community Colleges lists approximately 7.3 million students enrolled in the fall of 2014 (AACC, 2016). Given that writing coursework, including English composition, is a nearly ubiquitous element of curriculum for students in undergraduate contexts (Fleming, 2011), examining elements of writing instruction in community colleges is an important focus. While the goals of community college writing courses often reflect local contexts, they traditionally share a common aim of preparing students for college-level general (or academic) writing; this preparation is done through the learning and application of universal rules for writing, often referred to as academic writing conventions. As Hyland (2002) noted, the teaching of formulaic and model-like practices in current composition courses is based on the expectation that to students will eventually learn how to work toward independent construction as

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they approach higher complex tasks within academic writing. Independent construction is a critical and intended outcome of general composition courses because it assumes the transfer of writing knowledge to other domains. For example, when considering the element of audience, students should be able to transfer that concept to other writing contexts and be aware that they may have to adjust their language to fit the rhetorical demands of the audience. Likewise, Faggella-Luby, Graner, Deshler, and Drew (2012) promoted general writing instruction and suggested that “general instruction seeks to uncover and teach strategies, routines, skills, language, and practices that can be applied universally to content area learning and are by definition generalizable to other domains” (p. 69). Scholars have noted that students may discover that what they learn from a general instruction approach does not easily transfer to other contexts (Perkins & Salomon, 1994) or to discipline-specific courses (North, 2005a), especially if they have no formal training on adapting general strategies for disciplinary uses. In the same vein, some researchers argued that even though disciplines share some commonalities in their academic language and practices, each discipline engages in their very own unique practices in language, syntax, and conventions (Moje, 2015; Shanahan & Shanahan, 2008, 2012; Snow, 1987). In fact, as students move forward in their coursework into more disciplinespecific courses, some scholarship suggests that a reliance on overgeneralized writing rules could actually burden students and constrain their ability to write (Bartholomae, 1985; Hull & Rose, 1990; Rose, 1998; Shaughnessy, 1977). That is, an adherence to generic writing structures may mislead them about the underlying goals and demands of academic writing in the various disciplines (Sperling, 1996) and students may find that their writing skills valued in one course may be unwelcome in another (North, 2005a; Smagorinsky, 2015).

Academic Writing as a Discipline-Specific Process Although academic writing conventions are routinely and successfully taught in basic writing and first-year composition courses (Bartholomae, 1985; Hjortshoj, 2010), some scholars have proposed that restricting the teaching of college writing to composition courses may not be optimal in helping students succeed in their advanced coursework writing tasks (Carter, 2007; Russell, 1991). Rather, they posit that an increased focus on disciplinary practices, in this case writing, may be a more effective route to increasing students’ writing proficiencies in a variety of content-area courses, largely due to the idea that writing contributes to the generation of knowledge and assuming that each discipline’s knowledge construction varies (Shanahan & Shanahan, 2008; Moje, 2015; Smagorinsky, 2015). As Moje (2015) argued, “Students cannot learn the literacy practices of the discipline if they are not engaged in the everyday work of the discipline” (p. 261). Linton, Madigan, and Johnson (1994) explained that this is not to say that general composition instructors are not doing their job sufficiently; rather, the idea of disciplinary writing is to counter the idea that a couple of composition courses is all the writing instruction students need to be successful for the rest of their academic writing experiences. That is, disciplinary writing does not serve

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as a replacement for generalized academic writing coursework, but rather as a necessary progression that is part of students’ writing and knowledge development. Two approaches to writing in college have explicitly attempted to build in disciplinary foci to writing instruction: Writing Across the Curriculum (WAC) (Russell, 1990; 1991; Stout & Magnotto, 1988) and Writing in the Disciplines (WiD) (Deane & O’Neill, 2011). There are differences between WAC and WiD; for example, the former stresses writing instruction by content teachers and the latter emphasizes the role that disciplinary conventions play in shaping text genre. A goal of WAC would be for instructors in the discipline to use writing as part of the learning process, while a goal of WiD would be for learners to explicitly understand the writing conventions within a particular discipline. As Ochsner and Fowler (2004) noted, A convenient and generally accurate way to distinguish between WAC and WID is in the context of curricular goals: The first 2 years of undergraduate education are most often associated with WAC initiatives to enhance general knowledge; the last 2 years, with WID initiatives to refine discipline-specific knowledge. (p. 119) Despite those differences, both WAC and WiD are based on the idea that writing is necessarily part of the discipline learning process and each discipline has a set of socially-constructed expectations and parameters. However, there are problems inherent in implementing WAC and WiD approaches that can center on writing instruction taking place outside of the basic writing or composition classroom (Walvoord, 1996). Fulwiler (1984) described issues in an early WAC initiative that revolve around faculty buy-in and in theoretical underpinnings of WAC that run counter to some faculty’s own implicit theories of learning and teaching. Additionally, Williams (2003) suggested content-area faculty might assume that they do not have sufficient pedagogical knowledge to teach writing in their classes and, even if they did, the large amount of content they need to cover would preclude any additional instruction in writing. Some studies have indicated that faculty resist the idea of writing instruction falling partially within the duties of disciplinary instructors because they see themselves as content-specialists and not as writing teachers (Brzovic & Franklin, 2008; Fulwiler, 1984; Richardson, 2004). Yet, such discipline-specific writing foci are generally assumed to be requisite aspects of gaining knowledge in a content area as well as communicating effectively in that content area. The purpose of this study is to better understand instructors’ viewpoints on that issue. Specifically, we set out to uncover how community college instructors perceive writing in their field. Understanding that faculty have varying perceptions and thoughts about writing is not a novel idea; however, conducting this study allowed us to make those conceptualizations more explicit in order to understand values and perceptions that may guide writing instruction.

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Understanding How Faculty Members’ Beliefs Affect Instruction The reason that we focus on instructor beliefs about the nature of writing is that beliefs – conceptualizations – play a significant role in understanding how people construct knowledge (Buehl & Alexander, 2001; Schommer, 1990). Given the idea that differing beliefs about writing knowledge affects the understanding of the writing tasks and the progressive nature of writing improvement, it becomes important to study the perceptions and belief systems that faculty members may have about disciplinary writing. If, as White and Bruning (2005) suggest, writing quality is linked to implicit writing beliefs, then understanding how faculty members conceptualize disciplinary writing will provide insight into how writing is currently being discussed, used, and implemented in the disciplines. In other words, understanding teacher conceptualizations of writing provides us a glimpse of how that belief may affect their instructional approaches about writing. One way to get at the conceptualizations of faculty members is by employing metaphor analysis. Since metaphor analysis provides a method for understanding abstract perceptions, it enables researchers to have a method for studying those conceptualizations. Several studies in general education and pedagogy employed metaphor analysis as a research tool including studies on in-service teachers’ attitudes on classroom practices and teachers’ beliefs about learning and teaching (Knowles, 1994; Leavy, McSorley, & Bote, 2007; Saban, Kocbeker, & Saban, 2007). These studies, Kramsch (2003) argues, help teachers articulate and construct representations of their experiences and of themselves to make sense of their everyday experiences. Although there have been many scholars who study conceptualizations of faculty members, education, and learning and teaching, there have not been many conceptualization studies conducted on the topic of writing. Some scholars have employed metaphor analysis on the study of writing, albeit from a student perspective. Armstrong (2008) used metaphor analysis to investigate students’ conceptualizations of academic writing and found that students’ beliefs about academic writing are wide ranging and evidence of the prior knowledge and attitude students bring into the classroom. Paulson and Armstrong (2011) examined students’ perceptions of college reading and writing. They suggested that educators should take into consideration the wide variety of beliefs and knowledge about academic literacies that students bring into the classroom to better understand how to support students’ writing development. The current study aims to take the conceptualization of writing a step further, moving from academic writing to disciplinary writing, and focusing on a faculty perspective rather than a student perspective.

Research Question Understanding the variety of beliefs faculty members hold about disciplinary writing can provide insight into their pedagogical assumptions surrounding writing instruction. The research question guiding this study is as follows: How do faculty members in community colleges conceptualize disciplinary writing?

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Theoretical Framework This study aligns with the theoretical frameworks of metaphor analysis (Kovecses, 2010; Lakoff & Johnson, 1980) and the socio-cultural theories of social practice (Gee, 2001; Street, 1993). Because metaphor analysis has two major roles in this article, it is discussed from two different angles: metaphor analysis serves this study (1) as a theoretical framework because of its role in conceptual and cognitive theory, and (2) as a qualitative investigative tool and procedure.

Metaphor Analysis as Theoretical Framework Lakoff and Johnson (1980) challenged the traditional view that metaphors are only literary and of poetic origin, noting in their cognitive linguistic view of metaphor that metaphor reveals social and cognitive constructs. Furthermore, they described how this conceptual metaphorical structure enables us to understand our perceptions and experiences when using language as proof of that system. Metaphorical language enables us to understand one kind of experience in terms of another kind of experience (Kovecses, 2010; Lakoff & Johnson, 1980). Thus, this theoretical approach to metaphor as cognition relies on the idea that language and metaphor impose structure on thought (de Guerrero & Villamil, 2002), enabling us to make sense of, and understand, the way we perceive the world and our everyday experiences. In addition, because language is a function of social practice, this study also relies upon the influence of sociocultural theories.

Socio-cultural Theories This study also emerges from the work of socio-cultural theorists, where learning is viewed as a function of social interaction, such as through language, activity, context, and culture (Gee, 2001; Lea & Street, 1998; Street, 1993). For the purposes of this study, we understand disciplinary writing as a construct developed and honed by social practices. Gee (2001) argued, Different patterns in vocabulary, syntax (sentence structure), and discourse connectors (devices that connect sentences together to make a whole integrated text) constitute different social languages, each of which is connected to specific sorts of social activities and to a specific socially situated identity. (p. 716) Along these lines, each discipline, then, contains its own language, so to speak. In addition, Gee continued, “the meanings of words, phrases, and sentences are always situated, that is, customized to our actual contexts” (p. 716). Thus, language will be a direct effect of a person’s environment, culture, social grouping, and setting. With these frameworks, metaphors are employed to investigate how people conceptualize ideas as well as understand their conceptualizations as constructs of social practice based on their personal experiences. This study will apply those two theoretical frameworks in exploring faculty members’ perceptions of disciplinary writing as situated language processes.

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Research Design The purpose of this study was to understand how faculty members from community colleges conceptualize disciplinary writing. Following Creswell (2013), data were collected in multiple ways and from a broad to narrow perspective, to encapsulate a rich understanding of instructorsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; beliefs, attitudes, and perceptions of disciplinary writing across various fields of academia.

Methods Data were collected through an electronic survey and were analyzed using metaphor and discourse analysis through a process of open coding (Glaser & Strauss, 1967; Saldana, 2013; Strauss & Corbin, 1994). As Armstrong, Davis, and Paulson (2011) suggested, data were then triangulated following the metaphor analysis procedural methods and through peer checks to increase the trustworthiness of the findings (Creswell, 2013; Saldana, 2013).

Participants The participants in this study were community college faculty in the state of Texas, recruited through the American Association of Community Colleges (AACC) database using a maximum variation sampling method. This sampling method enabled researchers to purposefully sample selected people or settings to represent the wide variety of experiences related to the phenomenon of interest (Creswell, 2013), and Texas provided a range and variety of instructors, community colleges, and geographical settings to sample. In this case, the phenomenon of interest is how a variety of faculty from different institutions, educational backgrounds, settings, and disciplines understand disciplinary writing.

Recruitment of participants To capture this diversity of perceptions of disciplinary writing, the AACC database was used to harvest emails in our attempt to recruit a large variety of faculty. The database provided a direct web link to each of the community collegesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; webpages (n=72 colleges), which were hand searched for email addresses of faculty teaching within six specific subject areas described in the next section. For the scope of this project, it would have been impossible to survey every discipline, so the disciplines of interest were purposefully selected. Disciplinespecific instructors were chosen according to disciplines that contain the most common general core education courses that students take to fulfill their general studies: biology, chemistry, history, mathematics, psychology, and sociology.

Participant characteristics and demographics The participants who responded to the survey (n=117) come from a wide variety of educational backgrounds, employment status, and professional roles and have a variety of experiences faculty with writing within their disciplines. Most of the participants have a Masterâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s degree (50.4%) or doctorate (47.9%), work full-time without tenure (51.3%), and spend up to seven hours a week (82.1%) working on academic writing tasks, the majority of which are research articles

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(27.4%) and research reports (21.4%). Respondents have a rich pedagogical background, as more than a third had 20 or more years of teaching experience.

Data Collection To gather a broad view of how faculty members conceptualize disciplinary writing, participants were recruited with an email that contained a 17-item survey. The first fifteen questions elicited demographic data, educational background information, and experiences with writing as a writer and as an instructor discussing writing conventions within a specific discipline. Once participants finished answering questions about their disciplinary writing habits, they were asked, through the last two questions on the survey, to complete two fill-in-the-blank stems to create metaphors about their perceptions of disciplinary writing.

Metaphor analysis as a procedure Metaphor analysis (Kovecses, 2010; Lakoff & Johnson, 1980) explains a basis for describing everyday cognitive structures as a way to uncover individual and collective patterns of thought and action. A metaphor “is defined as understanding one conceptual domain in terms of another conceptual domain” (Kovecses, 2010, p. 4), which reflects images of social phenomenon by “mapping two often incompatible domains into one another” (Kramsch, 2003, p. 125). Lakoff and Johnson’s (1980) cognitive theory of metaphor allows abstract conceptualizations, which are difficult to see and understand, to become tangible through metaphors, which can be looked at, studied, and understood. As Paulson and Armstrong (2011) explained, “metaphor analysis is an investigational and analytical approach that examines metaphors articulated by participants, and then categorizes those metaphors in terms of the themes that emerge from the analogical mappings that underlie participants’ metaphors” (p. 495). These mappings “provide much of the meaning of the metaphorical linguistic expressions that make a particular conceptual metaphor manifest” (Kovecses, 2010 p. 14), which allows researchers to get at conceptualizations. This procedure is fleshed out in the next section using details from this study.

Data Analysis In an open-ended survey regarding faculty’s beliefs about writing specifically within their respective disciplines, metaphors were elicited in the form of “fillin-the-blank” sentences with a simile construction. Faculty were asked to conceptualize disciplinary writing in two ways. The metaphor elicitation statements were:  My writing in my field is like _____. Explain. _____.  Disciplinary writing is like _____. Explain. _____. The stems of these sentences are considered the targets (“my writing in my field” and “disciplinary writing”), whereas the source is the metaphor that participants use to explain their conceptualizations of personal and disciplinary writing. The completed statements become what are considered metaphorical linguistic expressions, or MLEs (Kovecses, 2010).

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Participants were asked to explain their metaphors based on Armstrong, Davis, and Paulson’s (2011) triangulation methods for metaphor analysis that suggest researchers should engage in metaphor checking with the participant to ensure that the researcher’s understanding is on par with what the participant meant. An additional peer check was conducted on the MLEs to further validate the findings. There were 133 metaphorical linguistic expressions collected and subsequently coded by a process called mappings. Mappings are “a set of systematic correspondence between the source and the target in the sense that constituent conceptual elements of B [the source] correspond to constituent elements of A [the target]” (Kovecses, 2010, p. 7). Once the mapping of the source domain on the target domain occurs with the properly shared elements, the knowledge about the source that arises are called “metaphorical entailments” (p. 122).

Mapping and entailment example To provide an example of how metaphor analysis proceeds, an example of a faculty participant’s metaphor from this study follows. 1. Identify the metaphorical linguistic expression (MLE):  Disciplinary writing is like a snowflake. 2. Identify the target domain:  Disciplinary writing 3. Identify the source domain:  Single or multiple ice crystals falling through the atmosphere 4. Mappings of snowflake:  Each is a small piece, or unit, of snow – single/multiple ice crystals.  No two snowflakes are the same.  Each snowflake displays its own specific symmetry or pattern. 5. Snowflake mappings onto target domain (metaphorical entailments):  Disciplinary writing is a type of writing.  No two disciplines are the same.  Each discipline has its own conventions, styles, and characteristics of writing. In this example, disciplinary writing, from this survey respondent’s perspective, suggests that writing is not the same across disciplines and that each discipline has its own unique way of using writing. Implications of this perception of disciplinary writing are that the instructor may feel that general composition methods of teaching writing may not be preparing students to succeed in the various disciplinary ways writing is being used. This connects to the literature discussed earlier. Scholars have noted that some conceptualizations can cause a lack of preparation or hinder success. For example, Sperling argued that a rigid adherence to generic writing structures may mislead students about the underlying goals and demands of academic writing, which could contribute to them potentially assuming writing is to be approached in the same manner in each discipline. In addition, Sperling (1996), North (2005a, 2005b), and Chanock

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(2000) all suggested that what counts as “good writing” or a “favorable writing characteristic” in one discipline may not be valued as “good writing” or a “favorable writing characteristic” in another. Thus, with this perspective, someone describing disciplinary writing as specific or directly tied to the discipline might believe that general composition instruction is not sufficient to support students to write in various disciplines.

Operationalizing and categorizing MLEs These MLEs, using the analysis procedure described earlier, are categorized and operationalized. Cameron and Low (1999) suggested that analysis of metaphors should be operationalized in a manner related to the research topic at hand. Analyses and findings are as follows.

Results There were a total of 133 metaphorical linguistic expressions (referred to as MLEs from this point forward) produced by respondents. These MLEs provided a variety of perspectives on disciplinary writing: Ideas similar to general writing:  Disciplinary writing is like diagramming sentences. It requires pulling out key facts and presenting them clearly so they are understood before looking at the entire process. Positive experiences:  Disciplinary writing is like icing on a cake. Because it adds something sweet to something already wholesome. Negative experiences:  Disciplinary writing is like torture. I have to restrict my writing to the ability of the audience to understand Nonspecific:  Disciplinary writing is like water. Is water, just water in all cases: what are your thoughts? Specific:  Disciplinary writing is like heart surgery. Only an expert can do it. Although each participant created metaphors based on his or her own unique experiences and perspectives on disciplinary writing, several commonalities appeared across individual perspectives, which were revealed during the coding of the MLEs as conceptual metaphors. In the aim to investigate how disciplinary instructors may differ in their conceptualizations of disciplinary writing, categorizations of data examined faculty members’ metaphors as 1) explained with either a general or disciplinary description, and 2) as thematic groupings of MLEs into conceptual metaphors. The results are as follows.

Thematic Categorizations Following metaphor analysis procedures (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980), we grouped MLEs together based on theme and then identified a conceptual metaphor that served to describe each grouping. Table 1 shows examples of similar MLEs grouped together to create a conceptual metaphor.

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The thematic grouping of faculty members’ MLEs indicate that although each faculty member constructed MLEs based on their own experiences and backgrounds, other faculty members had similar conceptualizations of disciplinary writing, which were uncovered during the conceptual metaphor analysis process. As the table indicates, not only are there a variety of ways that faculty describe disciplinary writing through metaphorical language, there are also a variety of categories – conceptual metaphors – that represent overarching perspectives on disciplinary writing. Noting this variety is important as it speaks to the lack of a commonly understood working definition of what disciplinary writing is as expressed by these faculty members. Table 1 Faculty MLEs Categorized as Conceptual Metaphors Metaphorical Linguistic Expression Conceptual Metaphor  Disciplinary writing is like using a prism.  Disciplinary writing is like a bringing a lens into DISCIPLINARY focus. WRITING IS A LENS.  Disciplinary writing is like looking through a telescope.  Disciplinary writing is a snowflake.  Disciplinary writing is like a fingerprint. DISCIPLINARY WRITING IS A UNIQUE  Disciplinary writing is like a personality.  Disciplinary writing is like learning the difference IDENTIFIER. between venomous and harmless reptiles.  Disciplinary writing is like driving to your destination.  Disciplinary writing is like finding your way out DISCIPLINARY of a maze. WRITING IS NAVIGATION.  Disciplinary writing is like a roadmap.  Disciplinary writing is like a room of invisible walls with many thin doors.  Disciplinary writing is like sun breaking through the fog. DISCIPLINARY  Disciplinary writing is like turning on a light. WRITING IS  Disciplinary writing is like shining a light. ILLUMINATION.  Disciplinary writing is like a light bulb to go off in someone’s head.  Disciplinary writing is like a language.  Disciplinary writing is like a secret language. DISCIPLINARY  Disciplinary writing is like Pig Latin. WRITING IS  Disciplinary writing is like being fluent in a LANGUAGE. foreign language.  Disciplinary writing is like translating from one language to another (Note that in metaphor analysis literature, it is common practice to use all capital letters to denote the conceptual metaphor, and the conceptual metaphor is usually phrased as “(target) is (source)”.)

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The variety of metaphorical language used is only part of the story, as it is important to consider the categories that emerged. The conceptual metaphor DISCIPLINARY WRITING IS LANGUAGE may seem an obvious aspect of writing within a content area as it certainly speaks to the particular vocabulary that each discipline uses. But it also speaks to the ways that a particular discipline uses language in constructing knowledge, how understandings are organized and presented in written form, and the general structure of writing within that discipline. Both DISCIPLINARY WRITING IS ILLUMINATION and DISCIPLINARY WRITING IS A LENS speak to what, in a particular content area, is considered relevant and worthy of attention, with the implicit understanding that what is relevant in one discipline may not be relevant in another. Both of those conceptual metaphors indicate that there is a relationship between what is considered knowledge in a field and the writing within that field, a relationship that is highly interdependent. The conceptual metaphor DISCIPLINARY WRITING IS NAVIGATION suggests that disciplinary writing points to how to understand a concept, an argument, or how information is presented, within that field; this navigation process may differ across disciplines. Finally, the conceptual metaphor DISCIPLINARY WRITING IS A UNIQUE IDENTIFIER signifies the distinctive nature of how each discipline is described, analyzed, and discussed: what is considered knowledge in that field and how that knowledge is constructed. While the conceptual metaphors presented above indicate the uniqueness of discourse in a given discipline, it is important to understand that the viewpoint of uniqueness was not limited to faculty from a particular discipline. In each conceptual metaphor category there are at least two, and usually more than two, disciplines represented. For example, in the conceptual metaphor â&#x20AC;&#x153;DISCIPLINARY WRITING IS A UNIQUE IDENTIFIERâ&#x20AC;? above, the four MLE examples are from faculty in the three disciplines of mathematics, history, and psychology. That is, faculty from each of these disciplines agreed that disciplinary writing involves unique aspects, even though there may be differences in how the writing in each of those disciplines is considered unique.

Discipline-focused Perspectives In addition to a thematic categorization of MLEs, we also looked specifically at whether faculty MLEs indicated an understanding of writing as a disciplinaryspecific process through a process of open coding. We examined each MLE and its explanation, and if disciplinary writing was described in a manner that could apply to any field, it was categorized as general. If the faculty member described disciplinary writing as a type of writing that differed across subjects and by unique characteristics, it was categorized as disciplinary. In Table 2, we provide examples of MLEs that indicated an understanding of writing as a general process.

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

Table 2 Faculty MLEs Categorized as General Descriptors Disciplinary writing is like building a brick wall. Each sentence sets up the thought process until the whole idea is revealed.



Disciplinary writing is like building a house. First, start with a plan (prewrite); lay the foundation (thesis statement) put up the support beams (topic sentences and paragraphs) adjust plans as necessary (revise) complete the structure (conclusion) review for possible problems (walk through) move in (publish).



Disciplinary writing is like addition and subtraction. In writing you put words together to make meaning and in reading it is like subtraction in that you take sentences apart to gain meaning.



Disciplinary writing is like arranging items in alphabetical order. Learning to order one's thoughts and put them into words makes sense of those thoughts

These MLEs suggest perspectives about disciplinary writing that are general – and, indeed, formulaic – enough that they could be applied across disciplines. They speak to a process of communicating ones’ ideas additively until those ideas are expressed adequately and make no claims for specificity to select disciplines. In contrast, the MLEs in Table 3 indicated an understanding of disciplinary writing as specific to a given discipline:



Table 3 Faculty MLEs Categorized as Disciplinary Descriptors Disciplinary writing is like painting a picture. Like artists paint a picture, so do different disciplines use different points of view in expression their information.



Disciplinary writing is colors of the rainbow. writing has different distinct purposes.



Disciplinary writing is like a snowflake. No two snowflakes are the same. That holds true for disciplinary writing. It differs from discipline to discipline.



Disciplinary writing is like a fruit basket. You can’t compare apple and oranges and you can’t cross disciplines in writing conventions. Each discipline has its own style and “flavor” for citations and those conventions need to be learned

Across the curriculum,

While both the general and discipline-specific MLEs are rich in providing insight into faculty members’ conceptualizations about writing, the numbers bear mentioning: less than a third (27) of all MLEs involved writing as a disciplinespecific process.

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The MLEs with generic descriptions describe how to write and what writing can do in general terms, whereas the explanations of disciplinary writing as disciplinary acknowledge disciplinary writing as being unique to a field or different depending on the conventions of a field. In other words, many participants appear to approach disciplinary writing as less of a practice unique to specific disciplines and more of a general writing practice usable in all fields.

Discussion The data collected provided a number of significant observations. Relevant to this study, the data suggests that community college faculty members have multiple beliefs, attitudes, and perceptions of disciplinary writing. In addition, the analysis of these data not only provides insight to faculty members’ conceptualizations, but also hints at the nature of disciplinary writing within community colleges.

Faculty Descriptions of Disciplinary Writing Their metaphors and explanations of those metaphors indicate that faculty members tend to conceptualize disciplinary writing more as a general, universally applicable practice rather than a social or disciplinary act unique to an individual subject. That most of these community college faculty members view disciplinary writing as a general skill suggests that they may not foreground their own disciplines’ social or unique characteristics when it comes to writing. In terms of instruction, these perspectives lend themselves to view that the formal instruction of writing belongs within a composition course and not within the disciplines. With faculty members presenting such diverse perspectives of disciplinary writing, it is not surprising that many students encounter what some describe as a mysterious tacit code that they must crack as they bounce from discipline to discipline (Husain & Waterfield, 2006). In a study on writing in economics, Richardson (2004) stated that many college instructors have not traditionally explored or articulated the literacy, language, and writing demands of their professed discipline; the unintended result is that they could be potentially creating student beliefs that proficient writing is unattainable. Some scholars have studied the ways students have acknowledged the inability to “get writing right” (Chanock, 2000; Lea & Street, 1998; Stockton, 1995; Wineburg, 1991), noting that students may experience mixed messages based on feedback about their written work. For example, Lea and Street (1998) related the anecdote that one student whose work was acceptable in history was told that his writing was lacking in structure and in argument in anthropology. This example emphasizes the point that the writing approach used in both situations was not equally valued in each discipline. Similarly, Stockton (1995) illustrated the difficulties that a literature major, trained with similar interpretation skills as history majors, encountered when that student received good marks in literature but low scores in history. This particular study is another scenario where general training in interpretation did not result in favorable feedback in both

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disciplines, suggesting that either the term interpretation has different meanings in each discipline or that interpretation demonstrated through writing has different structures or approaches in each discipline. Chanock (2000) found that students received different comments on their written essays in history than they did in English. In addition, Wineburg (1991) found in a comparison study that, when given the same text to analyze, teachers discussed political, social, and cultural constructions where the students only saw facts. Thus, while some faculty members may not explicitly articulate the nuances of writing as a function of knowledge in the discipline and task demands within their own discipline, that does not mean that these disciplinary writing practices are not being implicitly expected of students. Ultimately, these writing nuances and task demands are important and ought to be explicit, largely because disciplinary literacy scholars argue that the nature of knowledge in each discipline is demonstrated through the valued language, purposes, and habits of each community. And, ultimately, such knowledge construction and knowledge comprehension is demonstrated through writing.

Implications The metaphor analysis methods used in this study revealed that faculty do have multiple beliefs, attitudes, and perceptions of disciplinary writing. These results indicate that due to the variety of conceptualizations faculty members have about disciplinary writing, instructors may find that deliberately making instruction and advice to students about writing in their discipline more explicit may facilitate studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; writing development. Explicitness in this sense refers to discussions with students about how writing â&#x20AC;&#x153;worksâ&#x20AC;? within that specific discipline. Richardson (2004) argued that teaching practices can leave impressions and cause students to make unintended inductions about disciplinary demands. Paxton (2007) warned that if practices are not made explicit, gaps between teacher expectations and student interpretations of certain tasks and activities may emerge. If disciplinary instructors do not include writing instruction as a part of their course, and if writing instructors are not familiar enough with specific disciplinary content to create writing strategies, how can students learn writing demands appropriate to each discipline? The most salient implications for instruction from this research may be to challenge instructors in each discipline to support the development of communication and writing skills since students who may come to their courses with varying degrees of familiarity with, and commitment to, the discipline (North, 2005b). In addition, Forman (2008) suggested we might want to explore how writing instructors can consider teaching context specific strategies and skills instead of a basic skill set. Several studies have provided examples of how faculty attempted to address these issues. For example, Forman (2008) suggested that basic writing instructors teach students topics such as rhetorical leadership; data-based persuasion; ethics, rhetoric, and audience communications; relationships among

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communication channels; group work; and, finally, modern notions of genre. These strategies are skills more easily malleable across disciplines than a set of grammar rules, sentence structures, and basic expository rules. Other studies have suggested that faculty should incorporate more writing in their courses to allow students to exercise their disciplinary writing skills more often (Bangert-Drowns, Hurley, & Wilkinson, 2004; Brzovic & Franklin, 2008). Shorter, parsimonious assignments would provide students with more frequent practice and feedback on their disciplinary skills and help encourage retention and understanding of subject matter. Furthermore, this would mimic a disciplinary dialogue in which students could start to work their way into the discipline-specific discourse of that community. Along those lines, DiPardo and Freedman (1988) argued that peer group work also serves to emphasize the importance of social interaction to disciplinary learning, providing more opportunities for students to negotiate and learn the nuances of language, knowledge, and writing practices as they work together through disciplinary material.

Supporting Disciplinary Writing with Explicit Instruction If, as the findings from this study imply, faculty members tend not to differentiate disciplinary literacy practices from general writing practices, it may be difficult to explicitly instruct students on how to succeed within their specific disciplinary literacy practices. Shanahan and Shanahan (2008) suggested that students may find it difficult to transfer writing knowledge from general composition to discipline-specific courses because â&#x20AC;&#x153;most students need explicit teaching of sophisticated genres, specialized language conventions, disciplinary norms of precision and accuracy, and higher-level interpretive processesâ&#x20AC;? (p. 4). Some scholars have implied that professors might not provide explicit teaching because they often learn to write in the disciplines through slow observation and apprenticeship and not through explicit instruction (Carter, 2007; Russell, 1991). Thus, professors may not be aware that the form of writing in their discipline is actually a specific practice to the discipline. As Macbeth (2010) explained, expert academics often do not realize that the social and discoursal practices within their discipline are unique and invisible to novices. In other words, if academics do not see the differences, they may not communicate these disciplinary writing differences to novices, which in turn can make those differences seem invisible to novice writers. Sperling (1996) posited that writing researchers have yet to fully understand the role of writing in contributing to the generation of knowledge in different disciplinary contexts, and if writing is not yet understood as a method for disciplinary knowledge construction, it likely is not described or used as such. Nonetheless, Faigley and Hansen (1985) and Smagorinsky (2015) argued that students need help to understand the work required to make sense of the questioning and answering methods of their discipline and how they differ from other disciplines. Thus, North (2005b) offered that the most important thing a faculty member could do is to challenge him or herself to take the time to explicitly explain to students the demands, requirements, strategies, beliefs, and

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functions of his or her discipline. Based on the findings of this study that faculty hold a variety of conceptualizations of disciplinary writing, we agree that it is important for faculty to consider whether their conceptualizations are supporting students’ understandings of, and practices in, writing throughout the college experience.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 15, No. 12, pp. 130-144, November 2016

Teaching Probability – Statistics towards Training Occupational Skills for Economic Majored Students – Case Study at Lac Hong University Viet Nam Hoan Van Tran and Hang Thuy Nguyen Lac Hong University Dong Nai Province, Viet Nam

Abstract. Reaching a high quality of the standard learning outcomes is an important innovation in teaching and training at Lac Hong university. The knowledge and occupational skills equipped for students before graduation are clearly stated. However, a big problem is "How to teach disciplines which are major in Basic science and General knowledge to get the standard learning outcomes?". Based on the analysis of the current situation of teaching Probability – Statistics course at school. We have given out some measures to train occupational skills of economic-majored students, which aim at teaching this subject in order to meet the build standard learning outcomes, such as: problem solving, teamwork, application of information technology, algorithm-like thinking, gathering, representing and processing statistic numbers, etc. Keywords: Standard learning outcomes; occupational skill; Probability–Statistics.

knowledge;

economy;

Introduction Improving the quality, innovation in education and training are the most important criteria for a university in era of science and technology today. The innovation is the inevitable trend of the times and according to the strategic development of education is reported at the 11th National Party Congress “Educational development is the first national education policy. Radical innovation, comprehensive education in Vietnam towards standardization, modernization, socialization, democratization and international integration” (Government, 2012). Lac Hong University is an Educational Institutions interdisciplinary, multiple levels, combine training with scientific research, technology transfer in the areas of technology, economics and the humanities and social. The school ensure to provide and care the conditions of quality learning for everyone in need of training and retraining; on the other hand ensure to provide human resources

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have qualifications, expertise and political savvy for the labor market at Dong Nai province in particular , and the country in general. Lac Hong University where manpower training provided directly to the industrial zones, export processing zones at Dong Nai province and the neighboring regions. Therefore, the school has set up training program according to rate of 60% theory and 40% practice and self-study. In recent years, one of the most important innovation content in Lac Hong University has implement is establish the standard output with high requirement. Standard output represents an affirmation of the ones that the students need to know, understand and be able to do at the end of the curriculum, including the specific requirements: Knowledge, skills, attitude, ability to learn and improve, work placement after graduation (Lac Hong, 2012). However, a big question arises “What occupational skills of the students are equipped and trained how through the process of learning the subjects in the field of basic science and general knowledge?”. Probability - Statistics is a subject of basic blocks of knowledge and today the knowledge belongs to this segment has infiltrated most of the field and the various sciences. The scientific knowledge of probability and statistics has been widespread application. Moreover, with particular applications in Mathematics should be trained of basic mathematical skills such as: generalizations, especially modeling, detect and problem solving … Learning Probability - Statistics is also contribute to training the occupational skills associated with economics students, such as: gathering, representing and processing statistic numbers; application of information technology; teamwork… These skills are an indispensable part of the requirements for occupational skills for economics students that "standard learning outcomes" of the school was set out. But, how to teach Probability Statistics to contribute to meeting the standard learning outcomes in Lac Hong University is still a question without answers. Teaching Probability - Statistics subject is always a topic of interest to many researchers. Related to this topic, with the learned material, we see three research trends associated with three goals: - Help students realize intimately intertwined relationship between Probability and Statistics. - Help learners understand the meaning of the basic concepts of Probability Statistics. - Help learners develop statistical thinking. On the world, with Universities, piece of research of Artigue M. emphasizing the relations between probability and statistics in economics education (Artigue, 1992), and research of Artaud M. (1993) with doctoral thesis "La mathématisation en économie comme problème didactique - Une étude exploratoire" made an analysis about history of mathematics and economics to indicate that the creation of economic knowledge often associated with mathematical investigations, research shows that a close relationship between economics with mathematics, especially with Probability - Statistics theory (Artaud, 1993).

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In Vietnam there have been many studies on teaching the Probability - Statistics in College and University, some doctoral dissertation authors, such as Trao Van Phan (2009), Hieu Huu Ta (2010), Tinh Thi Phan (2011), Hoat Tat Ngo (2011), Yen Thi Hoang Tran (2011), Hai Nam Hoang (2013),…. However, the object to which the author is interested in training Maths teacher in the field of Probability - Statistics and to improve the effectiveness of teaching Probability Statistics for students but no specific research on teaching Probability - Statistics target at occupational skills training for economics students. For these reasons above, we have done research “training occupational skills through teaching Probability - Statistics for economic majored students at Lac Hong University”.

Research methodology Theoretical method: Analyze, summarize, collect information, research documents, … to establish theoretical foundation of the topic. Practical method: Method of observation, survey; Method of mathematical statistics: Process surveyed and actual data.

Study results and comments Real situation of teaching Probability - Statistics subject to request of standard output in Lac Hong University In (Hoan, 2014) this part has pointed out that, teaching Probability-Statistics at school has limitations exist the following: - The practice of problem-solving skills have not shown more in the lectures. - Never focus on assessment with practical content analysis. - No application of information technology in effective teaching. - Not to promote self-study ability, ability to work collectively of students through group exercises, assignments at home. This reality led to the final examination results module of Probability-Statistics is low, number of students retake a test, repeat test is high. Moreover, the majority of students said that this is a difficult subject and not the application-oriented subject for his/her specialized subjects as well as training skills through this course. This is most evident in assessment of student for teachers in the subject. For example, the content of questions, such as: 1) Lecturers provide references to students by putting many problems related to the subject; 2) Lecturer held for student group activities; and 3) Your comment on teaching quality this course. With selected items for students: a) Totally disagree; b) Disagree; c) No comments; d) Agree; and e) Totally agree, usually get the answers of students are c: No comments. So teaching Probability - Statistics according to research is unsatisfactory set out in standard outputs of school. In particular criteria such as:

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- Content of Probability - Statistics subjects is still general, heavy on theory, not apply directly to economics. - Not organized teaching towards training the professional skills for students. From this situation, Our research found that “Occupational skills training through teaching Probability - Statistics for economic majored students at Lac Hong University” is the urgent requirement. Some measures to form occupational skills through teaching Probability – Statistics for economic majored students The orientation measures set out First, pedagogical measures proposed must base on manpower requirements of the society for the economic sector, content platforms that students may face to face in real life. Second, pedagogical measures proposed must conform to the objectives of teaching, suitable for teaching perspective detect and solve problems, innovation trends teaching methods at present. Third, pedagogical measures proposed to create difficulties, obstacles, consistent with the ability of students so that they can participate in the process of settlement practical issues associated with economic reality led to the formation of new knowledge and skills training. Fourth, system of pedagogical measures must ensure stimulating students’ interest in learning, to promote active and intellectual capacity of students. Fifth, pedagogical measures proposed should be based on intellectual capital exist of students, feasible and through a measurement system of students so that realize their role in the creation as well as to acquire and apply new knowledge in particular economics. Some measures to train occupational skills through teaching Probability – Statistics for economic majored students at Lac Hong University Measure 1. Teaching some content knowledge through the establishment of the opening problems related to economy. Purpose, meaning Before a problem or a specific situation, teachers set up, problem-solving activities for students will be done, they have to learn, thinking to identify problems; attempt to resolve those issues. Then students will do it yourself the following steps: draw formula, prove theorems, find the best solutions and most concise the problem of theory or practice,... Consequently, students perceive mathematics knowledge and learn to self-discovery (Hayter 2007; Jay 2004), This measure contributes to training: the creative thinking skill, solutions and suggestions, Judgmental thinking.

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How to implement In the course of teaching, each content knowledge is presented starting with a situation or a specific problem related to the economy. The analysis of the situation through the questions suggests problem will stimulate students' thinking and help them find out the knowledge, thereby they can absorb knowlegde easily (Hoan, 2015; Schoenfeld 1985). Such as teaching situations of random quantities with Bernoulli distribution in the following: The teacher mentioned the problem. A machine produce a type of product, the probability that made defective products is 10%. Once the machine produces 3 products, please tabulated probability distribution the number of defective products in 3 products are made. Teacher posed the questions suggests following: 1. Define random variable and find its value? Expected answers: Put X is the number of defective products in 3 products manufacturing, the inferred X Ă&#x17D; {0,1, 2, 3} 2. Calculate probability with the values of X based on the formulas learned? Expected answers: P (X = 0) = 0, 9.0, 9.0, 9 = 0, 729

P (X = 1) = 0,1.0, 9.0, 9 + 0, 9.0,1.0, 9 + 0, 9.0, 9.0,1 = 0, 243 P (X = 2) = 0,1.0,1.0, 9 + 0,1.0, 9.0,1 + 0, 9.0,1.0,1 = 0, 027 P (X = 3) = 0,1.0,1.0,1 = 0, 001 3. In the result of P (X = 1) , each event has the occurrence of events of defective products and how many standard products? Expected answers: 1 defective products and 2 standard products. 4. In the result of P (X = 1) , how many set of accumulate aforementioned and why? Expected answers: 3 set of accumulates, for each accumulates above how to choose one location for the event is defective products from 3 position, so:

P (X = 1) = C 31 0,110, 92 5. Do the same thing for the remaining results? Expected answers:

P (X = 0) = C 30 0,100, 93 = 0, 729, P (X = 2) = C 32 0,120, 91 = 0, 027,

P (X = 3) = C 33 0,130, 90 = 0, 001 6. Teachers mentioned the general problem: If in each batch manufacturing 100 products. Calculate the probability of k substandard products in 100 products? (with k = 0,1, K ,100 ). Expected answers:

P (X = k ) = C nk 0,1k 0, 9n - k , k = 0, K ,100 . Thence teacher guide students to state Bernoulli general formula.

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Measure 2. Strengthening the examples and exercises towards applying Probability - Statistics to solve the problems set out detail in economic Purpose, meaning Practice play a decisive role of cognitive processes, is the standard of truth of Mathematics and other sciences. Practicality of mathematics expressed through application of Mathematics in practical life. Practices also have an important role in the formation for students’ problem-solving skills because it is a very favorable environment training for students, develop the skills, techniques and knowledge learned to master (Wu, 2006; Hoan, 2015). This measure contributes to training: problem-solving skill. (Hoan, 2015; Schoenfeld, 1992). How to implement In the teaching process, teachers give some examples and application exercises under the direction of applying knowledge content to solve specific problem in economics. This not only helps students more interested in learning, but also for students to get the knowledge about Probability - Statistics is used as tool to solve the problems related to practice their profession in the future. Examples apply the following specific:  Applying meaning of expectations in choosing investment plans, business Example. Assuming a bookstore intends to enter some statistical yearbooks. The annual demand of this yearbook are given in the following table 1: Table 1. Table needs of statistical yearbook

Demand (j) book

Probability (Pj)

0,3

0,25

0,18

0,14

0,1

0,03

Store bought for 7 USD/book sold for 10 USD/book. But by the end of the year must sell off 4 USD/book. The store want to define the number of import so that profits biggest expectations?  The problem apply estimation, accreditation, solve specific problems in the economic Example. Expenditures survey (million VND) 160 random students from other provinces in Lac Hong University obtained the following table 2:

Spend Number of student s

Table 2. Monthly expenses table of Lac Hong University students 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 1 2 2 3 4 5 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 5

6 0

2, 7

a) Please estimate the average monthly expenditure of students from other provinces in Lac Hong University?

136 b) Currently the proportion of students from other provinces in Lac Hong University with spending of 1.4 million/month about 60%. Please check insists on the significance level of 5%? Thus after examples, students will better understand the level of monthly spending. Moreover, students can compare their spending with average spending, thus helping them to change their spending habits in order to have the most reasonable spending before the situation escalated price at the present (Moore, 2006). Measure 3. Training for students capable of performing, data processing and forming the statistics icon Purpose, meaning Statistics is the scientific study of random phenomena in nature large number on the basis of collected and processing the statistics - the observed results.Thus contents of statistics is to create the collection methods and dealing with statistics to take out scientific conclusions and practical. The role of statistics can be seen for the whole society, not only at nationally but also within the region and globally. The statistics are used regularly in all the aspect, all areas of social life, from planning and policymakers of countries to the conferences, research projects, teaching,â&#x20AC;Ś Especially in business, statistics are used to: Inform the public, forecasts for planning and making decision... But the reality of teaching statistics show that students are not really interested when studying this module. This measure contributes to training: gathering, performance and statistical data processing skills. Content and form In the course of class teachers should spend a certain amount of time to introduce some examples of practical content to help students initially formed the visual icon of statistics and know how to perform, processing the data. Teachers should make students understand the importance of the concept, all kinds of diagrams, charts, tables, graphs ... in mathematical statistics. Some types of symbols in mathematical statistics should be equipped for students when learning probability and statistics modules as follows: ď&#x201A;ˇ Forming a visual symbol of the frequency table, frequency table (%) Teachers should clearly distinguish for students to know the role, usage of frequency tables and frequency of the performance metrics. For example, pig breed A is tested on a farm. To evaluate the quality, weighing pigs after slaughter and obtained results: Table 3. Table weight of pigs A

Weight (kg) Frequency

85 10

87 20

88 25

89 20

90 12

91 8

93 13

95 13

N=121

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For example, with this frequency table, we can compare the percentage of pigs weighing 68kg compared to pigs weight 71kg. The concept of frequency in this situation is not really necessary. However, if the problem is that there are two breeds A and B put into breed tests in the same time and through data on the weight when finisher below we need to make decisions that choosing breeds put into adopted large-scale the concept of frequency is necessary. Table 4. Table weight of two pigs A and B

Weight (kg) Frequency(breed A) Frequency(breed B)

85 10 14

87 20 22

88 25 30

89 20 30

90 12 15

91 8 7

93 13 11

95 13 12

N=135 N=139

 Forming of intuitive icons about graphs, charts This section should be analyzed for students the role and usage of chart suitable for requests every problem. Moreover when teaching this section, teachers can pose an assignment for the student at home as follows: Why has collected sample data they must arrange and describe them in the other form? 1) The frequency distribution table 2) Cumulative frequency distribution table 3) The frequency distribution table (%) 4) Column charts 5) Wheel graph 6) The polygon  Forming a visual symbol about the average value, sample variance, deviation of the sample. Teaching this section should make students understand the meaning and how to use each parameter characteristic above. For example, at a pig farm they applied a drug weight gain test added to the diet of pigs. After raising three month obtained the following results: Table 5. Table weight of pigs with growth drugs

Weight (kg) Number

65 1

67 3

68 4

69 7

70 6

71 2

73 2

Table 6. Table weight of pigs non-drug weight gain

Weight (kg) Number

55 1

56 2

58 4

Applying formula: x =

59 5

60 6

62 3

63 2

65 1

67 1

x i .n i

i= 1

;x =

x i 2 .n i

i= 1

2 ) ; s 2 = x - (x ) 2 ; s 2 =

n )2 s n- 1

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Sample 2: x = 59, 92; s 2 = 7, 5767 Thus through the weighted average value after 3 months and the degree of dispersion of weight than the average weight, we noticed the effect of the drug for weight gain. Measure 4. Guiding students to use Excel to solve statistical problems Purpose, meaning Today, with the explosion of information technology has a huge impact on the educational environment. Therefore the research, using the tools of information technology to apply to solving problems will bring more practical benefits. Moreover, through solving problems by using the tools of information technology support will initially set up and develop algorithms thinking for students. This kind of thinking should be to equip students in the current era. This measure contributes to training: application of information technology, algorithm-like thinking. How to implement In the process of teaching besides guiding students to use pocket calculators to calculation of parameters characteristic of the denominator, then teacher should guide students to sovle statistical problems such as: estimation problems, software testing using excel. Using Excel for statistical analysis because:  Excel availability in the office  Excel strong enough to solve problems common statistical  Users can understand the meaning of statistical issues Example. (Using Excel to solve estimated average expenditure by students of Lac Hong University in items) Key Put m is the average monthly expenditure of students from other provinces in Lac Hong University. We will estimate m with reliability 95%. Step 1: Set up Table parameters characteristics of the denominator (sample average and corrected pattern deviation). Step 2: Calculating the precision of estimates by confidence function

e = ta

= C ONF IDENCE (a , s, n )

Step 3: Find the lower and upper bounds of estimates (x ± e)

139

Table 7. The table illustrates the use of Excel in the estimation problems

Ordinal

ni.xi

xi2.ni

1,2

3,6

4,32

1,3

2,6

3,38

1,4

1,96

1,5

40,5

60,75

1,7

10,2

17,34

1,8

12,6

22,68

1,9

5,7

10,83

120

240

2,1

4,2

8,82

2,2

13,2

29,04

2,3

9,2

21,16

2,4

9,6

23,04

2,5

57,5

143,75

2,6

6,76

2,7

7,29

160

315,6

651,12

Total Sample average

1,9725

The average of the squares

4,0695

Sample variance

0,17874

Corrected sample variance

0,17987

Corrected pattern deviation 0,42411 The accuracy of estimates

0,06572

Lower bound

1,90678

Upper bound

2,03822

Measure 5. Improve teamwork skill, presentation skill for students through assignments and homework. Purpose, meaning Group learning methods helps students conditional, exchange, mutual learning through activities group. This method helps to meet the requirements: learn to live, one of the four purposes of UNESCO of teaching in the current era. Moreover, according to the National training laboratories, Bethel, Maine, the interchange method will help students acquire knowledge is 70%. This measure contributes to training: teamwork skill, presentation skill, communication skill. How to implement

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We suggest organizational learning process for student groups in teaching Probability–Statistics courses as follows: (1) Preparation before the report: Step 1. (Content) Teachers require students to do assignments and orientation for them solve exercises, also mentioned student activity assessment forms. (See Appendix 1) Step 2. (Groups organizing) Divide the class into groups of suitable so that the team members as diverse as possible and assign tasks to team members. Step 3. (Group activities) Conducting group activities as scheduled, exchange to teachers if there are problems to solve. (2) The report conducted in class: Teachers require students presentations their assignments in class. After the report, teachers spent some time to other groups comment, suggestion ... Finally, the teacher confirmed the results and summarize the knowledge gained from their presentation. (3) Assessment of student activities: reporting on group activities for 20% of the self-study score Research results and survey Content, methods, evaluation aims and object of surveying With the aim of evaluating the effectiveness of the application of teaching methods towards occupational skills training for students through Probability– Statistics course, after impact methods with the lecturer in charge of subject, we conducted a survey on the subject is first year student of Faculty of Finance and Accounting and Faculty of International economic business, Lac Hong University, school years: 2014 to 2015. Votes have clear data to use for statistics in the survey was 152. Research methodology, at the time survey: Information and Documentation Center of Lac Hong University conducted a survey on student course evaluations after students semester exam in that subject, the survey was carried out through the website. Tools and content assessment survey: Questionnaire for the survey includes 20 questions with level scale: 5 = totally agree, 4 = agree, 3 = no ideas, 2 = disagree, 1 = totally disagree. Survey results Survey findings are taken from Information and Documentation Center of Lac Hong University (Here only lists of questions related to skills-table 8).

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Table 8. Course evaluation results of Probabilily and Statistics courses of students in academic year 2014 - 2015

Ordinal CONTENT SURVEY

3 4

The teacher organizes, guides group activities for students to reinforce lessons, expand awareness and adoption of knowledge Teachers teaching methods toward raising issues, stimulate critical thinking and creativity of learners During school hours, Teachers focus on developing expression skills, problem-solving skills of students Lesson content connects with the real life, in association with future career majors

STUDENT'S COMMENTS 1 2 3 4

130

135

121

119

Survey results show that the majority of students agree with the comments set out, in there the rate agree and totally agree, high in the critical comments related to teaching towards skills training in standard learning outcomes. Specific question No. 6: “Teacher organizes, guides group activities for students to reinforce lessons, expand awareness and adoption of knowledge” have 92.11% students, question No. 7: “Teachers teaching methods toward raising issues, stimulate critical thinking and creativity of learners” have 95,39% students, question No. 8: “During school hours, Teachers focus on developing expression skills, problem-solving skills of students” have 91,45% students choice answers are agree and totally agree. Moreover, if comparing the percentage of students pass an annual examination, namely academic year 2012 2013 are 60.2%; 2013 - 2014 are 67.5%; 2014 - 2015 are 85.4%, and when compared to the survey results of the school year 2013 - 2014 we noticed there was a positive change, this insists that these measures have contributed to the teaching of subjects respond to standard learning outcomes, as well as contact with the practical applications for job from Probability – Statistics course.

Conclusions Thus, these measures have initially oriented teaching Probability–Statistics course with purpose of occupational skills training of economic majored students are specified in the standard learning outcomes. These results suggest that students learn Probability–Statistics more positive, specially application capabilities knowledge of Probability–Statistics to solve practical problems profession is improved remarkably. Those things help us get the basis for perfection, target synchronization, content and teaching methods © 2016 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

142 for Probability–Statistics associated with training objectives economics aims meet the standard learning outcomes set out.

References Artaud M (1993), La mathématisation en économie comme problème didactique-Une étude exploratoire. Thèse pour l’obtention du grade de docteur de l’Université d’Aix-Marseille II. Marseille: IREM d’Aix-Marseille. Artigue M, “Ingénierie didactique” (1992), Recherche en didactique des Mathématiques, La Pensée Sauvage, Grenoble. Bernshtein S.N. (1946), Probability theory, Moscow-Leningrad. Brousseau G., Brousseau N. & Warfield G (2002), "An experiment on the teaching of statistics an probability", Journal of mathematical Behaviour of chidren, Vol.20, p.363-411, Edition Elsevier Science. Edwards, D., Hamson, M. J. (2001), Guide to Mathematical Modelling, Second Edition. London: Palgrave Mathematical Guides. Goverment (2012), Education Development Strategy 2011 – 2020, Decision No. 711 / QD TTg dated 16 - 06-2012, Ha Noi. Hayter A.J. (2007), Probability and statistics for engineering and the sciences, third edition, Thomson, USA Hoan V. T. (2014), Situation of teaching Probability - Statistics subject versus outcomes at Lac Hong University, Ho Chi Minh City University of Pedagogy, Journal of Science, 59(93), p.165–169. Hoan V. T. (2015), Some measures to train problem-solving skill through teaching probability – statistics for economic majored students at Lac Hong University, Hue University, Journal of Science, Vol. 105, No. 6. Jay, L. Devore (2004), Probability and statistics for engineering and the sciences, sixth edition, Thomson, USA. Johnson D, & Johnson R (1991), Learning together and Alone: cooperative, compettitive and Individualistic learning, 3rd, Edition Pretice Hall, Englewood Clift, New Jersey 07632. Lac Hong University (2012), Report on implementation of publicity regulations of Lac Hong University's academic year 2012 - 2013. Moore DS, McCabe GP. (2006), Producing data in Introduction to the Practice of Statistics, 5th ed. New York, NY: W.H. Freeman and Company; pp. 191–250 Schoenfeld A. H. (1985), Mathematical problem solving, San Diego: Acadermic Press. Schoenfeld A. H. (1992), Learning to think mathematically, Problem solving, metacognition and sensemaking in mathematics, in D. A. Grouws, a curadi, Handbook of Research on Mathematics Teaching and Learning, New York, Macmillan, pp. 334-370. Wu, M., Adams, R. (2006). Modelling Mathematics Problem Solving Item Responses Using a Multidimensional IRT Model, Mathematics Education Research Journal. Vol. 18, No. 2, 93-113.

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APPENDIX ASSIGNMENT OF PROBABILILY AND STATISTICS SUBJECT (SAMPLE) Exercise 1. (20 marks) Before bringing products to market, they interviewed 200 randomly selected students about the product and get answers of 34 respondents "will buy", 97 people answered "probably will buy" and 69 people answered "do not buy". Experience shows that the percentage of customers will actually buy the product corresponding to the answers above are: 70%; 30% and 1%. a. Evaluate the market potential of the product. b. Among customers actually buy the product, how many percent answered "will buy"?. Exercise 2. (30 marks) The ability to collect on a debt of credit officer at a bank is a random variable with normal distribution with an average recovery is 30 billion. Knowing that the ability to collect more than 36 billion is 11.51%. a. Calculate the probability that a loan officer collected on a debt from 26 billion to 32 billion b. Knowing that the repayment capacity of the customer below 24 is 0.8 billion, from 24 billion to 36 billion is 0.6 and over 36 billion is 0.4. Calculate the probability that a credit officer collects on debts. c. Bonuses of the bank for officers to collect on debt below 24 billion is 10 million, from 24 billion to 36 billion is 15 million and over 36 billion is 20 million. How much is the average bonus rate of credit officers? Exercise 3. (20 marks) A maker of baby formula announced that the protein content of 100g milk powder is 13g and standard deviation 3g. Before bringing products to market, company conduct self-assessment of the production line by the trial production of 300 boxes.Then made 36 out of 300 boxes were randomly sampled. a. Calculate probabilistic of the collected sample average have protein content in 100g milk powder less than 12g? If the product weighs less than 12g from 1 box or less, the test results meet the requirements and are able to produce in bulk to hit the market. Your conclusion in this case? b. The assumption after internal inspection, satisfactory products and is marketed in bulk (large quantities). A quality inspection group also tested the product above with 36 samples randomly collected from 36 stores in the province. You shall Calculate probabilistic of the collected sample average has protein content in 100g milk powder is less than 12g? Your comments compared with the results of sentence a? c. Calculate estimation for sample average in cases as question b with 3 different confidence levels respectively is 90%; 95% and 99%. Your comments about interval estimation in 3 cases? Please explain your answer? Exercise 4. (30 marks) To compare the quality of training in economic majored students of 2 Universities: A and B. A research has been done with the following design. Select the students from A University with college entrance exam scores from 20-24 points and graduated graded fairly. Select group of students of B university are similar. Results only 10 students from A University and 12 students from B University satisfying the ÂŠ 2016 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

144 above conditions and agree to participate in research. Assuming all 22 students above can get a job specialization immediately after graduation and average salaries (million VND) per month in the first year to work can be summarized as the following table:

A UNIVERSITY ORDINAL SALARY 1 17 2 15 3 10 4 13 5 18 6 12 7 13 8 11 9 18 10 15

B UNIVERSITY ORDINAL SALARY 1 12 2 15 3 8 4 16 5 11 6 13 7 14 8 9 9 10 10 12 11 14 12 17 Based on the information above you perform the following requirements: a. You calculate that the statistical characteristics necessary to conclusions about the variability in salaries of the 2 groups above? b. Interval estimation 95% for the average salaries of the students majored in economics satisfy the requirements of the college entrance exam scores and graduated graded fairly of each school? c. Interval estimation for the differences in average salaries of students between 2 schools with significance level Îą = 10%? d. What is your conclusions when drawn from the results in sentence a, b and c above? ---The end--Full name of the author 1: Hoan Van Tran Degree: MSc degree Address: Lac Hong University - Dong Nai Province PhD student at Viet Nam Institute of Educational Sciences (VNIES) - specialization: theory and methods of teaching mathematics. Phone: 0973.851.989 Email: tranhoan.math@gmail.com Full name of the author 2: Hang Thuy Nguyen Degree: MAc degree Address: Lac Hong University - Dong Nai Province Phone: 0937967099 Email: nth2299@gmail.com

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 15, No. 12, pp. 145-154, November 2016

An Investigation of Discrepancies between Qualitative and Quantitative Findings in Survey Research Melanie DiLoreto and Trudi Gaines University of West Florida Pensacola, Florida, USA

Abstract. The purpose of this paper is to bring attention to an important aspect of mixed methods research design which occurs when the qualitative findings do not match the quantitative findings within a particular study. Different perspectives on this phenomenon attempt to understand and then to resolve such differences. The authors present these various perspectives as well as an example of a study which illustrates the phenomenon in question. Recommendations for resolving differences within the study are given based on the perspectives presented and conclusions are drawn relevant to an analysis founded in the literature. Keywords: mixed methods; research methods; survey research; discrepant findings

Introduction While mixed methods research design seems to represent a desirable and legitimate alternative to purely quantitative or qualitative designs, it can bring with it a result that requires attention and reconciliation; that is, the presence of differences between the qualitative and quantitative findings within a mixed methods study. Incongruent mixed methods results were first recognized by Campbell and Fiske (1959) when they established that qualitative and quantitative methods in research are used to validate and expand upon variance obtained from the ontological trait rather than an error in methodology (multiple operationalism). While the theoretical differences that point to incompatibility of qualitative and quantitative research methods may have been largely put to rest by theorists in the field (Howe, 2012), actual findings can and do express discrepancies between the two data sets when conducted either simultaneously or in tandem. We turn first to a discussion of triangulation in the context of mixedmethods studies insofar as it provides the vehicle for understanding findings to arrive at an overarching view of the issue at hand. There are mixed views of the definition and use of triangulation in research (Hussein, 2009). Triangulation

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was first promoted in the literature by Campbell and Fiske (1959) as an important if not necessary means toward the ends of withstanding scrutiny of findings by the greater research community. The initial purpose of triangulation was that the various methodologies’ findings would support or complement one another, thereby providing the overall conclusion greater validity. Mathison (1988) introduced a different concept of triangulation which addressed the occurrence of divergent findings among various methodologies and presented three options with respect to triangulation outcomes: convergence, inconsistency, or contradictory. She also proposed the importance of a holistic approach to understanding the research study itself especially in the presence of contradictory findings. This holistic approach involves an understanding and explanation of context in as broad a way as possible. Such an approach was supported by Howe’s (2012) rationale for triangulation as a valid and important pursuit regardless of particular elements of a mixed-methods approach being either conjunctive or disjunctive that is, addressing the same or various research questions respectively. From a different perspective, triangulation can combine methodologies in one study of the same phenomenon or within-method which uses multiple techniques within one particular method used to collect and interpret data (Denzin, 1978). In the case of survey research, multiple scales or various indices are often used to cross-check for internal consistency (Jick, 1979). Denzin (1978), however, indicated that triangulation should not be confused with mixed methods; but instead, these are two distinct ways to conceptualize interpretations and findings. The process, in a final perspective, includes an assumption that data analyses can come from a variety of designs and that the data analyses are not dependent upon the design that is employed (Onwuegbuzie & Teddlie, 2003). By using triangulation, conclusions about the research questions can be presented as the result of a higher level of synthesis (Lee & Rowlands, 2015). Triangulation therefore, is in support of the complementary theorist who carefully considers the outcome in logical sequence and evaluates whether differences in conclusions can co-occur. The model of triangulation is not proposed in this context to cross-validate data, but rather to capture an assortment of aspects relative to a similar phenomenon. Thus, triangulation is offered as a potential ontological explanation for discrepant findings in the present mixed-methods research design. With respect to typology of mixed methods design, a meta-analysis (Bryman, 2006) showed that two of the possible methods (both quantitative and qualitative) dominated the studies examined: self-administered questionnaires and semi-structured interviews. A coded survey instrument was used in 82.4% of the studies included. The researchers focused on the issue of intention or rationale for each of the components that comprised the studies. That is, do the quantitative questions target different or like concepts, opinions, or perceptions? Another motivation for using mixed-methods design can be triangulation, but this can be a strategy after the fact when findings from the different methods are incongruent. Bryman posited a possible “lack of certainty” among researchers employing mixed-methods and that increased certainty about motivation might reduce redundancy among the data obtained.

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We turn next to an examination of multiple views about how to proceed when discrepant results are found in mixed-methods studies. In cases of contradiction, the researchers may simply juxtapose the findings, reporting them as a recommendation for future research rather than seeking to explain or to reconcile them (Brannen, 2005). Another possibility is that one set of findings may be described as being “better” than the other. Wagner et al. (2012) reported that addressing the differences between findings is an area of investigation unto itself and that there are two theoretical foundations for integrating findings: positivist views and socially relative views. Discrepant findings should be interpreted as being in a reciprocal relationship rather than in an oppositional one (Smith, Cannata, & Haynes, 2016). Wagner et al. further posited that the tensions and dynamics around the various positions should be viewed as both intellectually and scholastically healthy. Discrepant findings can point the researchers to potential flaws in the construction of measuring instruments such as unintended ambiguity or a deficit in the depth of participants’ responses. Fielding (2009) held that an overarching benefit of examining differing results is the prevention of “analytic tunnel vision” by way of achieving “analytic density.” As an alternate to explanation or reconciliation, researchers should review the methodological issues and possibly reject outright one set of findings (Slonim-Nevo & Nevo, 2009). Such methodological issues would include problems with the sample, with the measuring instrument itself, and/or with procedures followed in either the quantitative or qualitative portion of the study. Such an analysis could lead to the conclusion that one data set is actually superior to the other, which should be rejected. When no such methodological issues are present, researchers should then determine if the contradictions between findings are logical or not, with logical differences potentially leading to further investigation. Finally, it is important to determine if the findings are discrepant (conflicts) or if they are contradictory. If they are discrepant, then often the discrepancies can help lead the researchers to a conclusion that will likely be viewed as logical. If the results, however, are contradictory and there is no logical way to resolve the differences, then the efforts should be abandoned, a recommendation that aligns with the previous one suggesting a simple reporting of differences to be left for further investigation. Another perspective is to approach differences as being either complementary or noncomplementary. In the complementary approach, findings are not contradictory and thus can be logically reconciled. The noncomplementary approach necessitates abandoning one set of findings over the other as they cannot be logically understood to coexist. The former assumes that conflicting findings implicate a necessary choice in determining which to keep and report, and which to eliminate. In turn, the complementary theorist does not agree that both discrepant findings cannot coexist in harmony. The latter does not simply accept results which seem to not make sense, but rather, attempts to rectify the conflict by making logical connections. For instance, in reality and in nature, conflicts are always present. Consider the following example. An individual might believe that the universe is the result of a massive explosion dating back to approximately 12 billion years ago. Another may disagree, arguing that God created the universe. The noncomplementary

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theorist would not accept this disagreement; both cannot exist, and one must be wrong. Alternatively, the complementary theorist attempts to make logical sense of both situations and its full complexity, understanding the multifaceted essence of mankind. On the other hand, contradictions are logically impossible. There do exist absolutes that cannot be debated. For example, it cannot be both raining and not raining at the same time according to the laws of physics. Therefore, it is imperative for the researcher to search for potential and logical conclusions for discrepant results and accept if there are none. Conversely, complementary findings necessitate consistency across methodologies (i.e. qualitative and quantitative). If both are in accordance with one another, results are considered to be complementary. DeLisle (2011) went so far as to assert that discrepant findings are necessary in order to portray all aspects of a particular issue, especially true when the findings are used for policy-making decisions. Issues and questions about education and educational policy can often be best be addressed by eliciting more nuanced responses than can be obtained through strictly quantitative methodologies. Complementary, discrepant findings are necessary to illustrate the contextual aspects of an issue that are not apparent in quantitative data alone (DeLisle, 2011; Slonin-Nevo & Nevo, 2009). Positivist views support one sole, measurable “truth” whereas socially relative views support the notion that context influences facts, expanding the possibilities for disparate findings and justifying their importance. Moffatt, White, Mackintosh, and Howel (2006) proposed six ways to further explore differences in the data. The first is to treat the two methodologies as fundamentally different. This leads to treating the two resulting datasets as findings to complement each other rather than to be integrated into each other. The second is to explore the methodological rigor of each component. The recommendation is to use the findings from one methodology as a benchmark to more closely examine the rigor of the other. The third is to explore the dataset comparability. That is, in studies where a different or modified sample population is used, likeness of the participants between the methodological groups should be examined. The fourth is to collect additional data and make more comparisons. For instance, in studies where a smaller subset of participants is interviewed in addition to the larger sample which participated in the survey, the recommendation is to interview additional participants. The fifth is to explore if the intervention under study worked as expected. It may be that initial assumptions made about participants were not entirely accurate with such inaccuracies potentially contributing to skewed or invalid findings. The sixth is to explore whether the outcomes of the quantitative and qualitative components match insofar as they address the same constructs or domains. It can sometimes be the case that quantitative findings do not result from sufficiently explicit or individualized interrogations by way of a survey whereas qualitative, open-ended questions provide the “room” needed by participants to sufficiently express or explain their responses. The first four of these could be applied to survey research and, particularly, to the study discussed later in this article, which study investigates the issue of assessment in education. The fifth proposed way would not apply here as there is no intervention involved in the study and the sixth way would not apply as

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the construct investigated is the same in both the qualitative and quantitative components Education seems an especially appropriate discipline for mixed methods research as educators navigate their way through difficult policy issues using data-driven decisions to inform their practices. Postpositivist researchers believe that an independent reality exists and can be studied. At the same time, postpositivists reject the objectivity of theoretical notions since mankind is inherently biased and largely influenced by cultural nuances. Thus, theoretical constructs can be measured to some degree but never fully grasped (Onwuegbuzie, Johnson, & Collins, 2009). This is able to occur if the researcher takes a neutral and objective stance to the research, and remains as detached from the results as possible. In a constructivist paradigm, researchers believe that contradictory results in a mixed method design are equally valid measures of the same phenomenon (Onwuegbuzie et al., 2009). From the perspective of a postpositivist critical realism, answers to the many and varied questions and challenges that educators and policymakers face today will likely be required to serve and satisfy the different points of view of all stakeholders. As educators and researchers proceed forward to resolve the challenging issues such as assessment at numerous levels, it is clear that research findings should inform the direction toward solutions and strategies that are the most representative and valid. Toward that end, mixed methods research is an ideal methodology as it bridges the longstanding divide, at times a hostile one, between the two polarities of qualitative and quantitative research methods (Johnson & Onwuegbuzie, 2004).

Results of Recent Study A recent survey investigating conceptions of assessment among faculty and students in higher education contained both quantitative and qualitative items (DiLoreto, 2013). According to Bryman’s (2006) meta-analysis on typologies in mixed methods research, this study’s quantitative and qualitative components addressed the same concepts with respect to participants’ conceptions which would be seen as the rationale for their inclusion and as evidence of the absence of a lack of certainty with respect to their inclusion. An analysis of the results showed that student responses were consistent between the quantitative and qualitative data; however, there were considerable discrepancies between the nature of the responses from faculty on the quantitative items when compared to the qualitative items. This discrepancy captured the interest of the authors and led to the investigation of this phenomenon. All undergraduate students and all full and part-time faculty members who teach at Level V institutions of higher education with a minimum of one bachelor’s degree located within the accreditation region of the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools (SACS) were asked to participate in this study. Level V doctoral-degree granting institutions are defined by SACS as institutions that offer three or fewer doctoral degrees as highest degrees. For the purposes of this study, faculty members were identified as university employees whose primary duty is classroom teaching, research, department chairpersons,

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academic deans, and program coordinators. Students were identified as undergraduate students attending one of the institutions within this region. The primary purposes of the study were to confirm a model of the conceptions of assessment based on the previous research and to investigate the deeper meaning of the term assessment and the activities that are associated with the term. The researcher used Huang’s (2012) explanation of formative assessment versus summative assessment as the lens by which to view the responses of students and faculty about the meaning of assessment. Huang (2012) defined formative and summative assessments in terms of their intended outcome. By definition, formative assessments elicit evidence that form the basis of improvement and these assessments ensure students understand the goals of learning. Furthermore, formative assessments provide opportunities for students to receive feedback. These assessments are primarily used as a diagnostic tool by the instructor to provide informal feedback during the progression of the learning itself. Formative assessments can be used to help the instructor evaluate if students comprehend the material without the attached punitive repercussions. Conversely, summative assessments are often associated with high-stakes, are standardized, and evaluative. The cross-sectional design using survey methodology provided a onetime snapshot of information from both faculty and students of higher education within the southeastern United States. Quantitative and qualitative data were collected simultaneously. Participants responded to 27 items using a six-point Likert scale, ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree. Data were analyzed using a structural equation modeling framework in order to determine structural validity of the model before analyzing where the differences, if any, existed between faculty members’ and students’ conceptions of assessment. After determining the best fitting model, invariance analysis began. To this end, the best fitting model was tested for invariance across groups, faculty and students. In order to identify trends and to further explore faculty members’ and undergraduate students’ beliefs about the definition of assessment, an openended question developed by the researcher was added to the modified abridged version of the CoA-III developed by Fletcher, Meyer, Anderson, Johnston, and Rees (2011): “What does the term assessment mean to you?” Participants were also asked to select from a list of possible responses about what types of activities come to mind when they think of the term assessment. These additional questions were used to gain further insight into faculty members’ and undergraduate students’ conceptions of assessment within level V institutions of higher education in the SACS accreditation region and were analyzed to determine if there were any trends in the responses in addition to in the types of activities that came to mind when participants thought of the term assessment. Data were collected from a total of 563 participants. Separate analyses of the quantitative and qualitative data were completed. Upon completion of these separate analyses, it became evident that a discrepancy existed in the way faculty conceptualized assessment when asked open-ended items versus closedended Likert scale items.

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The quantitative data suggested that faculty believe the primary purpose of assessment is to improve student learning. Often, the thought of using assessment to improve student learning – a formative, not summative approach – is evident. When asked to respond to, “What does the term assessment mean to you,” 9% of faculty responses included the word test, testing, quiz, and/or exam. Conversely, when asked to identify activities associated with assessment, faculty selected standardized tests most often, and then followed by program evaluation and student evaluation. Arguably, none of these are typically associated with student learning in terms of a formative approach. It is interesting to note that 77% of the faculty marked standardized testing as an activity that comes to mind when they think of the term assessment. Although faculty members did not necessarily use terms associated with testing in their responses to the open-ended question; they did use terms associated with testing in their responses to activities associated with assessment. This is possibly an indication that although faculty use various ways to describe assessment(s), the high-stakes testing culture apparent in the United States today nonetheless influences the deep-rooted meaning of the activities associated with the term assessment. As evidenced in past research, this study supports the notion that faculty often support certain values about assessment that are frequently contradicted by actual practice (Fletcher et al., 2011). The finding of the open-ended question related to the meaning of the term assessment represents this discrepancy. Faculty indicated that assessment is a form of testing and/or evaluation of either students or programs. Unlike the open-ended question, faculty reported improvement purposes of assessment to the closed-ended items on the questionnaire. The introductory section of this paper explored the various ways in which discrepant findings have been conceptualized and the recommendations for how researchers should proceed when confronted with such findings. Beginning with the initial view as reported by Campbell and Fisk (1959), the findings of the study discussed here can be seen as providing an expansion of the concept of assessment in education and pointing to its considerable variance rather than to an incompatibility among the particular views or understandings expressed by the survey participants. Indeed, the findings can be understood as providing a holistic view of assessment as Mathison (1988) described, especially since we know that the divergence in question actually describes the two major categories of assessment in education – the formative and the summative. When considering Lee and Rowland’s (2015) “higher level of synthesis” resulting from the process of triangulation, the current findings especially point to an issue beyond merely identifying perceptions and definitions of assessment from different methodologies; that is, how shall stakeholders and all participants in formulating educational policy with respect to educational assessment reconcile its practice with its theoretical framework? It is not at all the opinion of the authors here that one set of findings is “better” than the other which would lead to a dismissal of that set. Following Wagner et al.’s (2012) recommendation to further examine the measuring instrument itself, the authors here support its reliability and validity with respect to the Likert scale items. As there were only two open-ended items that contributed to the qualitative findings, there is

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clearly room for an expansion of this component either by having more such items or by wording them differently or both. From among the six ways to further explore the data as recommended by Moffatt et al. (2006), we identified the four which could be applied to a further investigation of survey research in general: 1) treat the methods as fundamentally different, 2) explore the methodological rigor of each component, 3) explore the dataset comparability, and 4) collect additional data and make more comparisons. When each of these is applied to the survey study discussed in this article, the researchers could pursue any one of the four recommended approaches. Specifically, we could consider treating the methods as fundamentally different while exploring the methodological rigor of each component. For example, the quantitative analysis using structural equation modeling produced a decent fitting model; therefore, it is possible to report those results alone. It is also plausible, however, to explore the methodological rigor of each component as a means to ensure that the depth and precision warrant the conclusions. In the case of the study described in this paper, it could be argued that rigor was lacking in the qualitative method and that further investigation using an expanded, open-ended questionnaire is warranted. Finally, another approach to settle this contradiction might be to collect additional data instead of attempting any reconciliation of the discrepancies (Brannen, 2005). Those additional data may be collected using the same procedures from the original study or the researchers may add to the qualitative rigor by interviewing a sub-set from the original sample. Any one of these ways to reconcile discrepant findings could be used alone or in combination with one another in order to potentially resolve the discrepancies described in this study.

Conclusion There are many possible explanations for differences between quantitative and qualitative findings. This paper presents various understandings of these differences and approaches to reconciling them. With respect to the study at hand about conceptions of assessment among higher education faculty and students, we conclude the following.  The difference between the findings is a discrepancy between the two demographics of student versus faculty and not a contradiction (Slonim-Nevo & Nevo, 2009). Therefore, the difference can be viewed as a logical one that should lead to further investigation.  Should these findings be used for policy-making decisions, they should be viewed as complementary and as portraying different aspects of the issue of assessment. The qualitative results provide important information about the context of the issue that might otherwise go unnoted. Consequently, neither set of findings should be rejected, in fact, the authors’ view is that they are actually necessary to understand all aspects of the issue (DeLisle, 2011; Ruark & Fielding-Miller, 2016).  The findings here are viewed from the socially relativist view that the forces of context hold important sway over facts on the

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ground, and that there is not one measurable truth about this issue.  Further investigation is warranted based on these findings to determine how the qualitative results versus the quantitative shall be weighted in relationship to one another. In fact, as indicated by Fielding (2009), a revisiting of the research question may be warranted. The authors also conclude that an unforeseen area of scholarly and intellectually stimulating investigation has been triggered by the current findings and by the existing literature on this topic. The topic is complex, and lends itself to a more realistic understanding of most of the issues that educators at all levels seek to resolve in today’s climate of distilling answers into test scores. Arguably, assessment has developed into an integral and inextricable aspect of today’s educational systems and policies. In fact, it can be seen as a driver of those policies and, therefore, highlighting a discrepancy between assessment theory and practice could not be more essential as educators and stakeholders go forward to develop improved instructional delivery systems. As evidenced in the literature, resolving discrepant and contradictory findings can pose significant challenges to researchers. Furthermore, it is even possible for the issue under study to impact the best approach for resolving discrepant findings. In fact, DeLisle (2011) suggested that the nuanced context of educational issues are best understood when complementary, discrepant findings are present. Thus, prior to resolving any conflicting or discrepant findings, the researchers recommend determining both the context and purpose of the initial investigation. Then, concluding whether the findings are complementary and discrepant or non-complimentary and contradictory is required. Based on those conclusions, future researchers can then take appropriate steps in resolving the results of the research findings. As has already been noted, the fact of discrepancies is a viable area of investigation unto itself that should become of greater focus as the popularity of mixed-methods research increases (Wagner et al., 2012). As has been illustrated by the application to the study at hand of concepts and recommendations with respect to discrepancies, a depth of understanding and a raising of questions leading to future research can and should be the outcome.

References Brannen, J. (2005). Mixed methods research: A discussion paper. ESRC Centre for Research Methods. Bryman, A. (2006). Integrating quantitative and qualitative research: How is it done? Qualitative Research, 6(1), 97-113. Campbell, D. T., & Fiske, D. W. (1959). Convergent and discriminant validation by the multitrait-multimethod matrix. Psychological Bulletin, 56(2), 81-105. De Lisle, J. (2011). The benefits and challenges of mixing methods and methodologies: Lessons learnt from implementing qualitatively led mixed methods designs in Trinidad and Tobago. Caribbean Curriculum, 18, 87-120. Denzin, N. K. (1978). The research act: A theoretical introduction to sociological methods. New York: McGraw-Hill.

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DiLoreto, M. A. (2013). Multi-group invariance of the conceptions of assessment scale among university faculty and students. Retrieved from ProQuest Digital Dissertations. (AAT 3577612). Fielding, N. G. (2009). Going out on a limb: Postmodernism and multiple method research. Current Sociology, 57(3), 427-447. Fletcher, R. B., Meyer, L. H., Anderson, H., Johnston, P., & Rees, M. (2011). Faculty and students’ conceptions of assessment in higher education. Springer Science+Business Media B.V., 64, 119-133. doi: 10.1007/s10734-011-9484-1. Howe, K. R. (2012). Mixed methods, triangulation, and causal explanation. Journal of Mixed Methods Research, 6(2), 89-96. Huang, S. (2012). Like a bell responding to a striker: Instruction contingent on assessment. English Teaching: Practice and Critique, 11(4), 99-119. Hussein, A. (2009). The use of triangulation in social sciences research: Can qualitative and quantitative methods be combined? Journal of Comparative Social Work, 4(1), 1-12. Jick, T. D. (1979). Mixing qualitative and quantitative methods: Triangulation in action. Administrative Science Quarterly, 24(4), 602-611. Johnson, R. B., & Onwuegbuzie, A. J. (2004). Mixed methods research: A research paradigm whose time has come, Educational Researcher, 33(7), 14-26. DOI: 10.3102/00131899X033007014. Lee, C., & Rowlands, I. J. (2015). When mixed methods produce mixed results: Integrating disparate findings about miscarriage and women’s wellbeing. British Journal of Health Psychology, 20, 36-44. Mathison, S. (1988). Why triangulate? Educational Researcher, 17(2), 13-17. Moffatt, S., White, M., Mackintosh, J., & Howell, D. (2006) Using quantitative and qualitative data in health services research – what happens when mixed method findings conflict? BMC Health Services Research, 6(28). DOI: 10.1186/1472-6963-628. Onwuegbuzie, A. J., Johnson, R. B., & Collins, K. Mt. (2009). Call for mixed analysis: A philosophical framework for combining qualitative and quantitative approaches. International Journal of Multiple Research Approaches, 3, 114-139. Onwuegbuzie, A. J., & Teddlie, C. (2003). A framework for analyzing data in mixed methods research. In A. Tashakori & C. Teddlie (Eds.), Handbook of mixed methods in social and behavioral research (pp. 351-383). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Ruark, A., & Fielding-Miller, R. (2016). Using qualitative methods to validate and contextualize quantitative findings: A case study of research on sexual behavior and gender-based violence among young Swazi women. Global Health: Science and Practice, 4(3), 373-383. Slonin-Nevo, V., & Nevo, I. (2009). Conflicting findings in mixed methods research: An illustration from an Israeli study on immigration. Journal of Mixed Methods Research, 3(2), 109-128. Smith, T. M., Cannata, M., & Haynes, K. T. (2016). Reconciling data from different sources: Practical realities of using mixed methods to identify effective high school practices. Teachers College Record, 118(17), 1-34. Wagner, K. D., Davidson, P. J., Pollini, R. A., Strathdee, S. A., Washburn, R., & Palinkas, L. A. (2012). Reconciling incongruous qualitative and quantitative findings in mixed methods research: Exemplars from research with drug using populations. International Journal of Drug Policy, 23(1), 54-61.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 15, No. 12, pp. 155-173, November 2016

Teaching the Novel in a University English as a Foreign Language (EFL) Context: An Exploratory Study in Lebanon Nahla Nola Bacha Lebanese American University Lebanon Abstract. Research indicates that EFL students find it difficult to read literary texts in English mainly due to the vocabulary which is culturally bound and thus may be unfamiliar to them. Studies in the development of students‟ vocabulary indicate that there is a minimum number of academic vocabulary required for success at the university level. However, even though students may have this level, they may still find it difficult to read literature especially the novel in a foreign language context. It is the author‟s contention that with carefully selected texts and methods, the cultural-language challenge can be addressed. The aim of the present study is to explore the preliminary effect of selected novels combined with film and student oral presentations on L1 Arabic EFL learners‟ use of vocabulary in one 20th Century American Novel course at an English medium university in Lebanon. Two literary essay tests were administered to 25 students, one at the beginning and another at the end of the semester, holistically scored and qualitatively analyzed for vocabulary variety. Main findings indicated that although the holistic scores may not show a more diverse vocabulary variety on highly scored essays, the qualitative analysis indicated a development in the vocabulary on Test 2. Recommendations are made for classroom practice and future research. Keywords: Vocabulary, novels, EFL learners, teaching, Lebanon

Introduction As I enthusiastically enter class each semester with a novel on the required reading list, I hear sighs from the room. As I assign a few chapters for the next class session, I hear students call out that they are finding difficulty, one of which is their understanding of the vocabulary. Researchers agree that literature is culture and language bound which raises challenges for the EFL learner (see Brumfit & Carter, 1986; Kachru, 1986; Seidlhofer, 2005). In our global world with more communication among peoples of different cultures, it is important that these differences be understood for better communication among peoples whether for social, political, educational, economical, or religious purposes (Crystal, 2003). Including literature in the EFL classroom can help towards this end (Bacha, 2010; Carter & Long, 1991; Carter &

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McCrae 2014). It is the contention of many researchers that through the literature of the target language, students can develop their language and be better informed of the target culture (Coxhead, 2011; Seidlhofer, 2005; Saigh & Schmitt, 2012). Studies carried out on L1Arabic speakers of English have indicated that students‟ texts show weak lexical-grammatical features (Al-Khairy, 2013; Doushaq, 1986; Hayes-Harb, 2006; Khachan, & Bacha, 2012 among others). Other studies have shown that the students‟ texts do not conform to those required in academic institutions (Khachan & Bacha, 2012; Hyland, 2016 among others). Research indicates, however, that with the teacher‟s input in selecting the appropriate texts and activities, students can participate more actively in literature classes (e.g. Coxhead, 2014; 2016; Coxhead, & Bytheway, 2015; Sturrock, 1990) and produce better writing. Literature, despite this, continues to be taught in high schools in Lebanon mostly through traditional methods which rely on memorization and teacher‟s lectures, that do not give them an active productive vocabulary repertoire when entering university (e.g. Khachan & Bacha, 2012). It is hoped that the present study in the use of literature in the EFL classroom will contribute to an effective strategy in raising students‟ use of vocabulary. But this is not without its challenge that Cook (1986) states below when using literature and where vocabulary can be quite different from academic vocabulary posing more difficulty for the learner than that in the regular academic English texts. “The study of literature in English is suited to the foreign learner‟s needs, and the mastery of literary texts had little bearing on the learner‟s needs to understand or produce more functional written or spoken forms of language. It is, moreover, often in its deviation from the norms of English grammatical and lexical usage that literature achieves excellence. While such deviation may please the native speaker by the freshness they may bring to his or her linguistic world, they can do little but confuse the foreign learner” (p. 155). He further states that even though this is the case as stated above there should not be any changes to simplify the lexical-grammatical morphological and semantic features of the words in the literary text. There is a large body of EFL research that indicates this difficulty with vocabulary. Often times, the requirements are long texts in which vocabulary terminology used by the author impedes students‟ understanding and thus their motivation and consequently their performance (Brumfit & Carter, 1986; Elgort & Coxhead, 2015). In light of the above, this study outlines one method of teaching a literary text, the novel, in a university literature course focusing on students‟ vocabulary development over a fifteen week semester. It is known that a certain level of passive and active vocabulary knowledge is pre-requisite to understanding literary works of which many are culture bound (Widdowson, 1975; 1982). It is also known that vocabulary is one significant indicator of both reading and writing proficiency (e.g. Khachan &

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Bacha, 2012; Carter & Mccarthy, 2014; Coxhead, 1998; 2016; Elgort & Coxhead, 2015). There are also studies on how students‟ vocabulary can be widened through various literary reading strategies (e.g. Clandfiel 2016; Lazar, 1993; Sengupta, 2003). However, very little if any has been done with L1Arabic university students in the Lebanese context. Therefore, this study contributes to the field in offering one instructional method in one university literature classroom as to how students‟ literary vocabulary can be developed. In light of the above, therefore, this study outlines one method of teaching a literary text, the novel, in a university literature course focusing on students‟ vocabulary development over a fifteen-week semester. That is the situation of our students who are required to take a minimum of one literature course at the time of the study. The challenge is helping them to overcome the hurdle of the many words that they find difficult. First, the author claims that the appropriate choice of the novel can help students widen their vocabulary repertoire and in so doing have a better understanding of the novel being read. Since students‟ vocabulary level has been found to be limited on entrance to the university where the present study is carried out (Khachan & Bacha, 2012), resources and instructional models need to be selected to help students widen their vocabulary (Coxhead, 2011; Coxhead & Bytheway, 2014). Literature has been found to be one effective way. Literature is often times taught and learned through the lecture and memory method, one reason which has made many students avoid such courses at the university level (personal communication with students, 2015). It is the author‟s view that if novels are selected according to the students‟ interests, related to life situations, coupled with film study and their involvement in giving, for example, an oral presentation based on a part of one of the required class novels in which they are interested, they will use the vocabulary they learn from the novel.

Review of Literature Improving Language Research indicates that undergraduate EFL students in university settings often have weak language proficiency to cope with their university course work (Coxhead & Bytheway, 2015). Further, teaching and learning of literature can help them to develop their language skills along with awareness of other cultures and develop their own personal profiles through critical thinking and reflection (Al Alami, 2014; Bobkina & Dominguez, 2014; Muir-Herzig, 2004; Yilmaz, 2012 ). Students‟ active vocabulary repertoires have expanded from the readings and have helped to improve their written texts (Yilmaz, 2012; Elgort & Coxhead, 2016). Having said that, however, some researchers find giving literature in the classroom, specifically long texts, too difficult and unnecessary. They report that literature is an art and has no or little effect on language development (see Bobkina & Dominguez, 2014 for an account). Yet, in a study carried out in Tawain with EFL learners of English, Tsai (2012) states that “Analysis of the pretest and post-test shows that after a semester-long novel-reading process, students demonstrated improvement in attitudes, confidence, interest, and their own perceived reading ability. The results

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are of pedagogical significance to EFL teaching in that they present how well a novel was received in an EFL class, the benefits it offered as well as the difficulties it entailed to the reading process” (p.103). Researchers, nonetheless, are in agreement that literature is studied for two main purposes: language development and cultural awareness besides personal growth that the above quotation shows. It is through words that meaning is expressed and thus it is important for students to expand their vocabulary repertoire and reading novels is one way in which they can do so. Related to this is Yeibo and Akerele‟s (2015) statement that “Lexical [vocabulary] items help the writer to crystallize his thoughts, express certain emotions and create images all of which give literature its peculiar expressive beauty. In this regard, writers depend on lexical items and their connotative implications to convey their intended messages.” (p.2) Hişmanoğlu (2005) in his article on the benefits of literature in language study, argues how the novel helps students widen their vocabulary and in turn improve their reading and writing skills in EFL contexts. He, however, states that the teacher‟s role is crucial in selecting the novel to the students‟ linguistic level and interests in the sense that there is a story they can relate to their lives and characters that they may identify with. Pashangzadeh et.al (2016) also report how reading narratives help students in developing their reading skills. In another vein, Rimi, & Zabeen, (2016) also agree that EFL students‟ reading comprehension skills will improve through literature and especially those that are read outside the class such as novels. Interestingly, they found through an action research study that diaspora literature helped with students‟ language skills more than those written by authors of the target language. The students could better understand the vocabulary and relate to the cultural background. Theory and Practice Several theories have given rise to different approaches to the teaching of literary analysis. These include (1) New Criticism, (2) Structuralism, (3) Stylistics (4) Reader-Response, (5) Language-Based, and (6) Critical Literacy with a focus in each either on language, culture, personal responses and involvement with the literary elements in the text. However, Thi My Van, (2009) advocates an eclectic approach where the teacher draws on different approaches according to the students‟ needs, but notes that students‟ language would best improve if they are personally involved with the text. There have been positive results gained in reading comprehension and vocabulary when teachers consider their students‟ reading interests which could be compiled before the start of the semester through surveys and/or interviews (Lee, 2006; Bacha, 2010). Further studies offer theoretical frameworks for the teaching of literary analyses (e.g. Thi My Van, T. (2009). Others outline activities that tap students‟ engagement with the texts such as those with the use of the computer, films, theatrical plays, role play, and dramatic readings to help in raising students‟ interest and involvement with the text to develop their language especially vocabulary (e.g. Muir-Herzig, 2004; Shao- Wen Su, 2010). Moreover, significant to the present study is Maley‟s (1989) categorization of the approaches to

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teaching literature in the classroom, which are in line with the above approaches and which Bobkina and Dominguez‟s (2014) further stress on in the language and the personal growth approaches. Carter and Long (1991) add a third model, cultural, suitable for teaching literature in the EFL programs. This cultural model helps in transmitting various authors‟ ideas on history, theories, biographies and so forth. Moody (1984) visualizes these three models in the figure below (in Bobkina &Dominguez, 2014) where the three parts, language, personal growth and culture can be seen and in the way they overlap. The classroom method in teaching literature in the present study is based on this model focusing on language and personal growth.

Figure 1: Linguistic side of literary texts. Adapted from Approaches to the study of literature: a practitioner’s view (Moody, 1984 in Bobkina &Dominguez, 2014)

Aim The aim of this study is an exploratory one to examine any development in language specifically the type of vocabulary used after a fifteen week semester of teaching the novel. The type of vocabulary is operationally defined by use of more „sophisticated‟ nouns and adjectives in a corpus of Test 1 literary essays written at the beginning of the semester and another on Test 2 at the end of the semester. For example, the adjective „good‟ is used quite a lot by students to mean a great many positive things. Words that would better reflect the situation in question might be „appropriate‟, „suitable‟ and so forth. In the use of nouns, students may use „boy‟ or „girl‟ or „man‟ when the word „lad‟ or „maiden‟ or „gentleman‟ or „lady‟ might be more specific and give a more accurate picture of the character. As for the personal development, students learn about other people‟s conflicts and how they resolve them which can raise their awareness of life‟s problems and lessons which could enable them to reflect and make wise decisions in their own lives. This would be seen in their oral presentations and interviews at the end of the semester.

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Significance Since a liberal arts education is of importance today in many educational institutions of higher learning, literature has become a significant vehicle for both language and personal and cultural development and studies have found the three inextricable in this endeavor (e.g. Tsai, 2012). Although novels as „textbooks‟ do not lay out subject content and language as other discipline related texts and language texts do, they have a great advantage of providing authentic material and a mirror of real life whether in the world around us or that of the author‟s. The significance of the present study is stated well by Tsai (2012). “ When using a novel in the class, the teacher assumes the role as a narrator and facilitator rather than a lecturer; the students are no longer passive language learners but active readers of authentic texts that provide them a genuine perspective of the real world” (p.104). Method The research is an exploratory one in one literature class using students‟ graded essays, (Samples in Appendix A) student oral presentations (Appendix B) and film. Twenty five Literary Test 1 student essays administered at the beginning of the first semester 2015, and 25 literary essays at the end of the semester were holistically scored and qualitatively analyzed through content analysis to find the frequency of adjectives and nouns over a 15 week semester. Topics for Test 1 and Test 2 were similar in that they focused on character analysis. It was not necessary to have the exact same topic for purposes of this study to control for vocabulary. Specifically, the study aims to answer the following research questions:

1. To what extent do students‟ use of vocabulary increase as operationally defined by the use of nouns and adjectives used in the novels? 2. Are students engaged in interacting with the novels as operational defined by the oral presentations and the focus group interviews? Participants Twenty five students, registered in a 20th century American novel course at the time of the study, participated. Their ages ranged from 18-20 with ten males and fifteen females, and were undergraduates following different majors such as business, engineering, computer science, biology and nursing. The literature course is part of the general university requirements. The students are L1 Arabic speakers of English.

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Procedure There were three procedures carried out in the study. 1. Selection and discussion of the novels Clandfield (2016) offers advice on how to select and deal with the difficulty of teaching literature in an EFL classroom. Although the focus is for high schools, the method recommended is also quite relevant and adaptable in tertiary institutions. A more important factor pointed out by Clandfield (2016) than the selection is the teachers‟ role in using the text and providing appropriate tasks in the EFL classroom. Issues in selecting an appropriate literary texts included the texts‟ relevance to the students‟ lives, suitable linguistic level, sufficient time to complete the texts, and cultural background within the students‟ understanding. These factors were taken into account in the choice of the novels for the fifteen week semester in the present study. During the semester, four novels were assigned: A Farewell to Arms by Ernest Hemingway, The Great Gatsby by F.S. Fitzgerald, To Kill a Mocking Bird, by Harper Lee, and Tuesdays with Morrie, by Mitch Albom. These novels were part of the 20th century American novel course and spanned from the beginning of the 20th century with Hemingway‟s novel set during first world war (WWI), to its aftermath and the great depression of the 20‟s with Fitzgerald‟s novel to the midcentury concerning racial discrimination of blacks with Lee‟s only novel, To Kill a Mocking Bird, to the end of the century with Mitch Albom‟s story Tuesdays with Morrie. The latter novel is most significant in that it is a true story on how a disease of one professor brought him and his student together after sixteen years to discuss topics of death, marriage, love, regrets and other topics. Characters portrayed those of real life, the culture in which they lived, and often that of the authors‟. Themes centered on issues of the times giving the students a historical, political, social and individual perspectives in which they engaged during the discussions. Problem situations were discussed and recommended solutions were made. Unfamiliar vocabulary was discussed and emphasized in relation to the modern world and the students‟ personal experiences. 2. Films and Oral Discussions Films based on the novels were screened after the novel was discussed or before to arouse curiosity and for the students to „live‟ the events they were viewing and reading. They quickly made connections to their own lives. Reading parts of the novels done in class in a creative performance with students taking roles were also carried out. The films and the activities helped the students to use some of the vocabulary they found difficult. For the oral presentations, students were required to choose two chapters from any of the novels read in class and to which they related or found interesting and, individually, give a three minute power point presentation to the class. The presentation would provide a summary of the chapter, identify and interpret two memorable quotes, ask two critical thinking questions and interpret two literary elements such as similes, metaphors, personification related to each of the two selected chapters by the student. This engaged the class in problem solving life‟s issues and to interact with the text in relation to real life. Students‟ answers were considered by the speaker, and the student with the best answer, according to the presenter, would

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be rewarded with points or some type of reward such as chocolate or candy which made the assignment fun. (Sample in Appendix B).

3 Focus Student Interviews The researcher met with a random group of seven students after the semester ended but before the final exam so that the final grades would not influence their opinions. It was an open interview in which the students voiced their views on the selection of novels, the film, the oral presentation and the vocabulary. Data Collection and Analysis The essays were quantitatively scored according to the ESL Composition Profile with both holistic and analytic scores of content, vocabulary, language, sentence structure and mechanics (Jacobs, et.al, 1981). Although the profile has a part on vocabulary, it does not allow for a record of which words were used. To strengthen the study, it, therefore, was necessary to qualitatively examine the essays and note the differences. Wordsmith tools (2016), a software to examine the frequency of words was used. A random sample of twenty students (10 from Test 1 and 10 from Test 2) were input into the software and analyzed. Results and Discussion 1. Evaluation of Essays The essays 1 and 2 were holistically scored by the researcher (see Figure 2 scores on essay 2 below) according to the rubric (Jacobs et. al 1981). Inter-rater reliability was not necessary as correlations between holistic and qualitative evaluation of the essays were not part of the study. The results indicated 10% of Test 1 essay scores were below the 60% pass whereas 0% were of that level on essay Test 2 (see Figure 2). However, these holistic scores do not indicate whether the students progressed in the use of vocabulary. The present research focuses on the vocabulary, and thus the studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x; use of vocabulary was evaluated in their essays written at the beginning and end of the semester for any differences.

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Figure 2: Essay 2 Holistic Scores

The vocabulary in Test 1 and Test 2, increased in adjectives and nouns used over the fifteen weeks in the use of more „sophisticated‟ vocabulary. Students would select and use some words that they had read in the novel or had come across in class during the discussions. The sample Test 1 and Test 2 (Appendix A) written by the same student exemplifies this (in bold type). Sample Test 2 also shows an attempt to quote passages from the novel concerned. Test 1 (Sample in Appendix A) indicated use of less „sophisticated‟ adjectives and nouns which gave less of a literary flavor to the text. There is sufficient qualitative evidence that a wider vocabulary repertoire had been achieved. Tables 1 and 2 below indicate the results represented in the statistics and qualitative sample of words showing that there was improvement in the use of nouns and adjectives on Test 2. This confirms the literature in the field (Khatib, Rezaei, & Derakhshan, 2011) which proposed that literature is a great exercise in language. Although Widdowson (1982) among others, argued that literature might confuse students and be ineffective in language development for EFL learners, since then researchers have noted the positive influence of literature in the EFL classroom. The novel is one literary genre that is of significance in the students‟ expanding their vocabulary repertoire. To answer the first research question then as to what extent do students‟ use of vocabulary increase as operationally defined by the use of nouns and adjectives used in the novels, it can be said to a large degree. Table 1 below shows that the tokens (different words) are higher in number on Test 2. Also, the words are

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longer on Test 2 showing use of more „sophisticated‟ use of words. Only part of the results, top and lower ends of the data from the software could be included in the present article due to the length. These results are encouraging and confirm the literature in the field (e.g. Yilmaz, 2012; Elgort & Coxhead, 2016 among others). Table 1 Statistics of Vocabulary Features on Tests 1 and 2 Using Wordsmith Tools (2016)

tokens (running words) in text: tokens used for word list: type/token ratio (TTR): standardised TTR: STTR std.dev.: STTR basis: mean word length (in characters): word length std.dev.: mean (in words): std.dev.: 1-letter words: 2-letter words: 3-letter words: 4-letter words: 5-letter words: 6-letter words: 7-letter words: 8-letter words: 9-letter words: 10-letter words: 11-letter words: 12-letter words: 13-letter words: 14-letter words: 15-letter words:

Test 1 4,815

Test 2 5,575

4,438 29.61 36.70 46.29 1,000 2.46

5,564 22.25 38.26 50.35 1,000 4.40

2.70 554.75 1,151.21 3,454 29 192 199 192 174 178 150 99 63 45 19 15 2 4

2.40 19.52 10.20 219 1,001 1,254 1,033 598 368 441 243 193 112 56 27 24 2 4

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Table 2 Use of Vocabulary on Test 1 and 2 Using Wordsmith Tools (2016) Showing minimum and maximum use of words

Test 1 The And To Of A Love He In His Is That Rinaldi widespread Worthy strange Vain Wind widespread upcoming unstable unchanged stronger State superior

Frequency 285 201 180 152 142 139 131 118 114 111 98 78 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Test 2 The Love A That For because Or Is Her Him Those although Wind wholesome suitable awesome uplifting compassion Thrive Inflict sufficient superfluous unaffected frivolous

Frequency 200 160 130 120 70 65 60 58 56 50 50 45 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2

2. Oral Presentations On checking the written oral reports done at the end of the semester, it is also apparent that there is more vocabulary variety (See sample in Appendix B). Although no comparison can be made with an oral report done at the beginning of the semester, it is apparent that there is an attempt to use a variety of words.. This also confirms studies in the field where well selected activities can help students improve their vocabulary (Clandfiel 2016; Lazar, 1993; Sengupta, 2003; Widdowson, 1975). 3. The Focus Group Interview The focus group interviews aroused much interest among the students. Many students mentioned that they like to read novels, contrary to what is claimed by some faculty at the university where the study was done (personal communication 2015) and view the inclusion of novels as helping them learn new words. Students saw the relevance of the novel to their lives and became aware that the novel is not a subject matter to be studied, but a „mirror of life‟ and life‟s lessons. This was very revealing and many students commented that

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if they had „studied‟ literature this way in high school, they would have read more novels. Part of the 30 minute interview, the researcher carried out with the students, is given below: Teacher (T) Tell me about the literature course? Student 1 (S1) The vocabulary is difficult.. A farewell to arms is easy .. I understand the words S(2) I liked gatsby – but daisy was not very kind. S(3) I enjoyed the course –the films … amazing and I could understand better S(4) We memorize in high school … I like to talk. I loved speaking about two chapters I loved with the class – seeing myself like Mitch – always rushing around – I may organize my studies now. S(5) I learned new words … but I like short stories S(6) I like this way … I like talking about what I think S (7) I had more words … I liked giving my idea in the report The short extract above from the interview indicates that EFL students find the vocabulary difficult and confirms the research that teachers need to play an important role in the selection of the novel in terms of language and content. Films make the novel come to life once visualized for some students. Activities are better substitutes for the „traditional‟ method of memorization and writing essays strictly according to the teachers‟ lecture notes. They also give the students the opportunity to learn and produce in a non-threatening context. The findings from the focus interview confirm the results in the literature (Tsai, 2012; Clandfield, 2016 among others). To answer research question 2 then as to whether students are engaged in interacting with the novels as operationally defined by the oral presentations and the focus group interviews, it is apparent that although a few of the students still find the vocabulary difficult, students voiced personal interest with the text and learning some of the words in the novels (Carter and Long, 1991). The results confirm the literature in the field especially the theories and approaches on teaching EFL students language and contributing to personal growth (e.g. Maley, 1989; Carter and Long, 1991; Bobkina &Dominguez, 2014). Conclusion and Recommendations The aim of this study is to see the effect of one method in teaching the novel in a literature university class in an EFL context in expanding students‟ vocabulary. Although some research has indicted that literature is difficult for students and

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often confuses them with its stylistic terms, it has been shown that with wise selection of the literary text, the use of films, student presentations and discussions related to real life as support, students become engaged and their vocabulary improves. The preliminary results are promising. It is recommended that further research be carried out with more literature classes and larger samples and to investigate in more detail different types of words. Implications of the preliminary results in this study are significant for EFL contexts where teachers can contribute in the selection of literary texts and activities to help in the development of their students‟ vocabulary. References Al Alami, S.E. (2014). Promoting communicative competence within EFL contexts: A UAE case study. Journal of Language Teaching and Research, 5(6), 1245-1255. Albom. M. (2007). Tuesdays with Morrie. Random House Inc.: New York. Al-Khairy, M. (2013). Saudi English-major undergraduates‟ academic writing problems: A Taif University perspective. English Language Teaching, 6(6), 1–12. Bacha, N. N. (2010). Teaching literature in an English as a foreign language classroom: A study of student attitudes. International Journal of the Humanities, (8)1, 47-64. Bobkina, J. & Dominguez, E. (2014). The use of literature and literary texts in the EFL classroom: Between consensus and controversy. International Journal of Applied Linguistics & English Literature, 3(2), 248-260. Brumfit, C. & Carter, R. (1986). Literature and language teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Carter, R. & McCarthy, M. (2014). Vocabulary and language teaching. London: Routledge. Carter, R. & Long, M. N. (1991). Teaching literature. New York: Longman. Carter, R. & Mcrae, J. (2014). Language, literature and the learner: Creative classroom practice. London: Routledge. Clandfield, L. (2016). Teaching materials: using literature in the EFL/ ESL classroom. Retrieved http://www.onestopenglish.com/methodology/teachingarticles/teaching-materials/teaching-materials-using-literature-in-the-efl/-eslclassroom/146508.article Cook, G. (1986). Texts, extracts and stylistic texture. In C. Brumfit & R. Carter (Eds.). Literature and language teaching. Walton: Oxford University Press. Coxhead, A. & Bytheway, J. (2015). Learning vocabulary using two massive online resources: you will not blink., In D. Nunan & R. Richards (Eds.) Learning beyond the classroom (pp. 65 - 74). London: Routledge. Coxhead, A. (1998). An academic word list. Wellington: Victoria University of Wellington. Coxhead, A. (2011). Using vocabulary in writing in a second language: Writing from sources. Koln : LAP Lambert Academic Publishing. Coxhead, A. (2016). Acquiring academic and discipline specific vocabulary. In K. Hyland & P. Shaw (Eds.). Routledge handbook of English for academic purposes (pp. 177-190). London: Routledge. Coxhead, A. (Ed.) (2014). New ways in teaching vocabulary. Alexandria, Virginia: TESOL Inc. Crystal, D. (2003). English as a global language (2nd ed.) Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1093/elt/cci064

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Doushaq, H. H. (1986). An investigation into stylistic errors of Arab students learning. English for Academic Purposes, 5(1), 27–39. doi:10.1016/0889-4906(86)90005-0. Elgort, I. & Coxhead, A. (2016). An introduction to the vocabulary size test: description, application and evaluation. In J. Fox & V. Aryadoust (Eds.). Trends in language assessment research and practice (pp. 286 – 301). Cambridge: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Fitzgerald, F.S. (2000). The Great Gatsby. Penguin Books Ltd.: New York Hayes-Harb, R. (2006). Native speakers of Arabic and ESL texts: Evidence for the transfer of written word identification processes. TESOL Quarterly, 40(2), 321–339. Hemingway, E. (2003). A Farewell to Arms. Scribner Publishers. New York: N.Y. Hyland, K. & Shaw, P. (Eds.). (2016). Handbook of English for academic purposes. London: Routledge. Jacobs, H.J. et.al (1981). Testing ESL composition: A practical approach. Rowley, House. Mass: Newbury. Kachru, B. (1986). Non-native literatures in English as a resource for language teaching. In C. Brumfit & R. Carter (Eds.). Literature and language teaching. Walton: Oxford University Press Khachan, V. & Bacha, N.N. (2012). A vocabulary corpus-based analysis of L2 academic writing: A case study. Asian ESP Journal, 8(1), 53-74. Khatib, M., Rezaei, S. & Derakhshan, A. (2011). Literature in EFL/ESL classroom. English Language Teaching, 4(1), 201 – 208. Lazar, G. (1993). Literature and language teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Lee, H. (2003). To Kill a Mockingbird. Penguin Publishers. New York: N.Y. Lee, W.-L. (2006). Teaching English through the novel: A case study on the use of Jane Austin‟s Pride and Prejudice with non-English-major EFL students at National Cheng Kung University. Proceedings of the 23rd International Conference on English Teaching and Learning in the Republic of China (ROC-TEFL) (pp. 724-734). Kaohsiung, Taiwan: Kaun Tang International Publications Ltd. Maley, A. (1989). Down from the pedestal: Literature as resource. In literature and the learner: Methodological Approaches. ELT Documents 130. London: Macmillan. Muir-Herzig, R.G. (2004). Technology and its impact in the classroom. Computers & Education, 42, 111-131. Pashangzadeh, A, Ahmadian, M., & Yazdanim, H. (2016). From narativity to criticality: Developing EFL learners‟ critical thinking skills through short narratives/stories Reading. Education and Linguistics Research, 2(1), 98-119. DOI: 10.5296/elr.v2i1.8952 Rimi, R.N. & Zabeen, S. (2016). Extensive reading: Using diaspora literature to develop learners‟ reading comprehension skills. Journal of Education and Social Sciences, 3, 17. Saigh, K. & Schmitt, N. (2012). Difficulties with vocabulary word form: The case of Arabic ESL learners. System, 40(1), 24–36. doi:10.1016/j.system.2012.01.005 Seidlhofer, B. (2005). English as a lingua franca. ELT Journal. 59 (4), 339-341. Sengupta, S. (2003). Developing academic reading at tertiary level: A longitudinal study tracing conceptual change 1. The Reading Matrix, 2(1) Shao-Wen, S. (2010). Motivating and justifiable: Teaching Western literature to EFL students at a University of Science and Technology. TESL-EJ, 4(1) Sturrock, J. (1990). Culture and the language classroom. Hong Kong: Modern English Publishers and British Council.

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Thi My Van, T. (2009). The relevance of literary analysis to teaching literature in the EFL classroom. English Teaching Forum, 3, 2-17. Tsai, C. (2012) Students‟ perceptions of using a novel as main material in the EFLreading course. English Language Teaching, 5(8), 103 – 112. Widdowson, H. (1975). Stylistics and the teaching of literature. New York: Longman. Widdowson, H. (1982). The use of literature. In M. Hines & W. Rutherford (Ed.). On TESOL 81.Washington, D.C.: TESOL Wordsmith Tools (2016). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Yeibo, E. & Comfort, A. (2015). A lexico-semantic reading of Chimamanda Adichie‟s purple hibiscus. International Journal of Language and Literature, 3(2), 144-155 Yilmaz, C. (2012). Introducing literature to an EFL classroom: Teacher‟s instructional methods and students‟ attitudes toward the study of literature. English Language Teaching, 5(1) 86-99.

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Appendix A Test 1 Essay Score 70% Ernest Hemingway once said:” When writing a novel a writer should create living people; people not characters. A character is a caricature”. Looking closely in each person involved in Farewell to Arms and The Great Gatsby, Fitzgerald definitely followed Hemingway‟s advice with the identity he gave for Daisy Buchanan. Daisy was the center of the story which made her the most interesting part of it. What made her “character” so good is the end of the novel. At the beginning of his novel, Fitzgerald draws Daisy as an angel and links her to the white color too many times (white dress, white flowers, white car…) He tries to make her high. He carefully builds her as a beautiful young lady filled with light, passion, good and innocence. Daisy is the ideal lady who was always fashionable, always spoke in a delicate matter and always chose her words good. He wanted to show the reason Gatsby was about her. She belonged to the Elite class of the twenties. The rich class that any girl loves to belong to. She‟s the “dream girl”. Young, fresh, beautiful and lightened just like a Greek Goddess. The contrast between how Fitzgerald introduces Daisy and how Hemingway introduces Catherine is good. Catherine was the “crazy” girl who had suffered a lot in her life and now she is suffering more during war with the loss of her fiancé. So while Daisy was enjoying her fancy and great life, Catherine was on the edge of pain and out of her mind. As the story moves on however, the true Daisy is comes out. Chapter after chapter, she becomes less of an ideal and more of a picture Gatsby created of her in the past. The contrast in her personality starts to show. Yet, he can‟t actually see what she really is now. Gatsby does not accept the fact that he can‟t repeat his past with the “idea” of Daisy. Daisy knows of her husband‟s Tom badness does not do much about it. Why? Because she preferred money and security over love. As the story goes on, Daisy adds about her daughter:” I hope she will be a fool, that‟s the best thing a woman could be”. This shows the mentality of the 20‟s but also shows how Daisy thought that all a woman should do is try to survive and act bad. Her beauty was more important to her than her moralities or culture. The materialistic in her soul from the past had not changed. So maybe all the purity that surrounded her was fake for her to get what she wants. All the white that surrounded her was void and emptiness; emptiness of morals and convictions. Compared to Catherine again, Catherine was a flat character. She does not develop much through the course of the novel but rather stays good to pure love of Henry. She was submissive and reflects the pain of the typical Hemingway hero traits. The carelessness in Daisy‟s character after she hit Myrtle‟s car was the climax of her development. And to make it bad, she left Gatsby in his most important mark of his life: his death. She betrayed him three times. The end of the novel, reflected the betrayal, unconsciousness and carelessness of her character. In Farwell to arms, the love story was too pure for betrayal. So while Henry stood by Catherine in the last minutes of her life, Daisy left Gatsby without looking back. This is what makes Daisy so good.

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A novel character should be a real person not a caricature. Fitzgerald drew Daisy as the beautiful innocent girl at the beginning of the novel. But then, he shows more of her. He shows greed, foolishness, betrayal, carelessness and infidelity. Her lust for money made her what she is. Other characters in the novels had a good growth but they grew bigger and better. With Daisy, her change was to the dark side. Good girl gone bad. And once a good girl goes bad …. She‟s gone forever. Test 2 Essay Score 80% In his Tuesdays with Morrie masterpiece, Mitch Albom enriches our souls with moving life lessons and makes us question our existence in this modern world. One of the most touching quotations was: “Death ends a life, not a relationship”. This simple yet complicated statement reflects the power of love in fighting death and maintaining life eternally. Comparatively, the aspects of death and love are well maintained all through Ernest Hemingway‟s Farewell to Arms. Matter of fact, the story takes place during World War I where death was just another habit of the characters daily life. Furthermore, The Great Gatsby by Scott Fitzgerald asserts on how death does not put an end on life but life cannot continue without true love. Addressing literary critics, this paper will develop how death, life and love is visualized in all three novels. Even though death, life and love are represented in different manners with different characters in the three novels, they all assert on Morrie‟s magnificent idea on how life is eternal in the heart of the loved ones. Addressing literary critics, this paper will develop how the three themes are visualized in all three novels. First, in Tuesday‟s with Morrie, Albom does not really focus on death and what is after it even though the whole novel goes on with his expected death in mind. He rather focuses on the how to live life successfully. He repeatedly advices Mitch not to cling to material things but rather build relationships. Because to him love is the ultimate source of satisfaction to human kind. Death to Morrie does not mean the end of a road. Especially if that road was paved with love, compassion and ideal intentions. When we live with love, not only we will give a better meaning to our lives but when we return to the ground, we will still remain in the hearts and minds of the people we shared love with. Love here is described as an energy that will never be lost. Morrie died at the age of 78 but he was confident that his knowledge will not die with him. The relationship he built with Mitch went too strong to let go of his words and knowledge. He wanted to teach the world how to give and receive love more freely. To him, the competition for money, fame and materialistic values were impoverished. In summary, after death, relationship struggles on the minds of the survivors toward some resolution that they might never find but will always continuously chase. On the other hand, death was continuously repeated all through Farewell to Arms. The story goes on during a time of war where everything seemed fading. Death symbols like rain and statues were repeated many times though the novel. Love however accompanied death everywhere. Matter of fact, it is the love and loyalty of the soldiers towards their country that made them fight for it until the last drop of their blood. Equally, Catherine‟s love to Henry made her

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fight to stay alive until she surrendered at the end. The title of the novel (A Farewell to Arms) shows how the death of soldiers and the death of Catherine were parallel tragedies of equal importance to Henry. He memorializes both of them and keeps going; hoping to heal his pains with time. But he never forgot them. They survived in his memories which only asserted on Morrie‟s quote. For instance, Hemingway‟s novel is written in a ways of diaries. Like Henry is telling the story at a later time. This shows how his story in the war and his story with Catherine remained immortal in his mind. Death here again killed life but did succeed in killing love. In the third novel, characters do not really discuss themes like death and what is after it. But death was hindered behind symbols all through the novel. In fact, there was a constant thrive for Gatsby to kill James-Gatz, the real him. He fought hard to build the man he is in order to win the love of his life: Daisy. And that what humans someone do. They are ready to kill their true personality in order to gain love or the allusion of love they create for themselves. Equally important is the actual death of Gatsby at the end of the novel. The only person who cared was Nick. And that is of course because of the true relationship they built through their lives. Daisy, the one who was supposed to care did not. Why? Because she was clinging to the material world she chose to devote to a long time ago. This example only sheds more light on the importance of Morrie‟s quote on how we should not make the material world sacred. Only love can bring the best humans in us. Gatsby‟s death revealed how he lived in the mind of Nick rather than Daisy because their relationship was not materialistic nor was it based on fake golden bases. True love will only lead to true life. Memories are kept in the hearts of the people filled with love seeds even after death. Morrie‟s statement deserves to be called aphorism because it must be a principle of life. Hemingway showed it through the story Henry kept in his mind about his love to Catherine and in the same manner Fitzgerald expressed it through the great of Gatsby after knowing that his love for Daisy was only built on materialistic fading rhinestones. We are a part of the ocean, we will never disappear but we will always remain a part of a bigger entity: a loving world.

Appendix B Sample Student oral presentation A Farewell to Arms by Ernest Hemingway CHAPTER 6 Summary • After being away for two days at the post, Henry goes to visit Catherine. • Catherine, feeling sad having been without him these few days, asks him if he loves her while they walk through the garden. • He lies and says yes. • She goes on expressing her love for him and asking him not to leave again. • Henry, in complete awareness that he does not and will not ever love Catherine feels like he is involved in a complex game like “bridge” which she then admits as being a miserable game. • She tells him that he does not have to pretend to love her.

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They kiss and she goes off. • Back home, Rinaldi senses the uncertainty coming from Henry and admits that he himself is glad he did not get involved with any British nurse. CHAPTER 6: QUESTION 1 In the plot, an object is introduced in this chapter that will prove significant later on in the book. What do you think is this object? What does it indicate? A: The narrator is forced to wear the “pistol”. This is the obligatory object. It reminds us that we are at a short distance from war. Its presence along with other objects are mentioned in minor details in these tranquil chapters, that set a reminder of the closeness of war. QUESTION 2 “Thank God I did not become involved with the British.” - Rinaldi, Chapter VI It is another skillful Hemingway mode to end the chapter Why does Hemingway use this mode and what does this quote Signify? A: Hemingway expresses the way his characters are feeling by showing the reader the reactions these characters inflict on others. He doesn‟t quote their conversation nor describe their every move or read out their thoughts. Indirectly, we can sense that the narrator is perturbed and upset after he was with Ms. Barkley. This is shown through Rinaldi‟s response: “Ah, ha! It does not go so well. Baby is puzzled.” Note: Permission was received from the students to print their essays and novel oral presentation in this study. An adaptation of this article was presented at the International Educational Conference, Orlando, U.S.A. January 7, 2016. A travel grant was received from the University Research and Development Center, Lebanese American University to attend and present at the conference.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 15, No. 12, pp. 174-207, November 2016

The Academic Outcomes of Boys An Argument for a Pluralist Approach Gregory IB Woodrow Griffith University Abstract. The conversation surrounding the underperformance of boys and the issues they face have occupied the popular press and academic articles for some years (see Biddulph 1998, DiPrete and Buchmann 2013 Doyle 2010 and Epstein 1998). Much of this conversation continues to be polarised along gender lines, driven by those within the debate who have opposing interpretations of the issue of boys‟ comparative academic performance in relation to girls. I will discuss the politics of these conflicting interpretations, as expressed by pro and post feminism, to highlight the contrast within this conversation. Connell (2011) believes that the effect of fragmenting the debate into parallel gender policies is a weakening of the equality rationale of the original policy. The relational character of gender is lost by following parallel policies which results in more gender segregation at a time when less is needed. I will argue that the rhetoric espoused by authors from different positions in the debate has done little to unfold the real issues around the underperformance of boys. The rhetorical elements that distract reasoned debate are highlighted by Gilbert and Gilbert (1998) who legitimately ask; “Which boys are we talking about here?”. Whilst the debate is distracted by a competing victims‟ mentality, any meaningful discussion around the issues of boys or girls will stall. One might argue that whilst the focus remains on the battle, the war will never be won. Whilst it is not my intention to present a defined resolution to this dilemma, I will offer an argument against reductionism in favour of a pluralist approach (see Yeatman 1994 and Walby 1992). The debate will move forward, in a mutually beneficial way, when opposing views are brought together through an understanding that conversations around boys and girls need to articulate them as equal and interdependent stakeholders within their educational worlds.

Introduction Given the discussion I am about to construct around the position that boys now find themselves within the educational landscape, I wish to clarify with the reader my position within this debate by offering a philosophical framework around which I will base my argument. Given the inherent social nature of schools and the constant gendered interplay between pupils and staff coupled with and my belief that all parties within this debate have a vested interest in addressing the issues around boys‟ attainment, I am drawn to the relevance of the pluralist argument within postfeminist theory or third wave feminism as Munford and Waters (2013) would suggest. Brooks (1997) elaborates on the philosophy of postfeminism by defining it as a „conceptual frame of reference encompassing the intersection of feminism with a number of other anti-foundationalist movements including postmodernism,

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poststructuralism and postcolonialism‟. Yeatman (1994) elaborates further by adding that postfeminism is: „a politic representing a move away from reductionism to pluralism and difference reflecting on its position in relation to other philosophical and political movements demanding similar change‟. Walby (1992) suggests that as postmodernism is engaged with the principles of modernism, so too one might suggest postfeminism is positively and productively engaged with patriarchy in a way seldom seen amongst pro-feminist writers (see Smith 2013) and in doing so conceptualises power as highly dispersed rather than concentrated in identifiable places or groups. Barrett and Phillips (1992) build on Walby‟s argument of the dispersion of power by noting postmodernism‟s emphasis on difference rather than equality as the central differentiation between its theory and other social theories including pro-feminism which Carby (1982) and Hooks (1984) argue is rooted in a reductionist theory that historically focused on a select group of white, heterosexual, middle class women. Linda Nicholson (1990) moves this point forward by commenting that from the 1960s to the mid- 1980s, feminist theory exhibited a recurrent pattern; its analysis tended to reflect the viewpoints of white, middleclass women of North America and Western Europe. The irony was that one of the powerful arguments feminist scholars were making was the limitation of scholarship that falsely universalised on the basis of limited perspectives. Moreover, feminists were becoming increasingly aware that a problem with existing scholarship was not only that it left out women‟s voices, but also the voices of many other social groups. One may argue that the voices of men were excluded from this scholarship. A growing awareness of the oppressive nature of this traditional reductionist scholarship began to gather pace throughout the 1990s which took issue with the manner in which feminism had dictated to women what they should think and how they should act. Given the philosophical framework underpinning post-feminism, one might argue that the aforementioned authors‟ philosophical positioning within postfeminism and its theory of antireductionism, pro-pluralism and the dispersion of power provides a philosophical framework that is best positioned to provide equality through an appreciation of difference across different groups. It may also be argued that the competing victims‟ mentality within the debate (see Mackey and Coney, 2000) often seen through pro and post-feminist conversations is stalling the type of pluralist, open debate that is required to strike some balance between the political positioning that conflicting sides have taken. For example, Smith‟s (2013) reductionist beliefs are borne out in her pro-feminist beliefs; „Yes, I‟m one of those feminists who doesn‟t want men in feminism, the type who doesn‟t think men can be feminists. I‟m quite happy to talk with you, work with you, work in partnership with or alongside you, even count a select bunch of you amongst my friends, but call you feminists . . . nah!‟ The counter pluralist argument is put forward by La Paglia (2013): „We often think of feminism as purely a women‟s movement, based on the inclusion of women and the exclusion of men. The phenomena of “Sisterhood” itself, advocating for the solidarity of all women, implies the existence of a movement of women, standing up for women and challenging social institutions that support men. While I have no doubt sisterhood is important, I have some reservations about the idea that feminism will achieve success through the exclusion of men‟. The disparity in academic outcomes between boys and girls at all levels of education has been apparent for some years. Reasons for this divide have been debated by various academics and within the popular press both of whom have offered a variety of resolutions needed to address the concern (see Lingard and Douglas [1999] and Martino and Meyenn [2001]). To the detriment of both boys and girls, the debate surrounding the underperformance of boys has too often been polarised around gender or politics or both and has in part been driven by the psychology of a competing victims‟ mentality (see Cox, 1996). The polarisation of this debate has resulted in broad, rhetorical statements articulated in a way that aims to reinforce the

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argument in line with whichever political view the author favours. These statements have done little to clear a path along which reasoned, informed debate may travel. I will use my first section „Clarifying the Rhetoric: Clarifying the Issue of Boys‟ Underperformance‟ to explore this rhetoric and in doing so set the stage for what I plan to be an unbiased, objective evaluation of the reasons behind boys‟ underperformance. The debate has involved reinscribing binary oppositions between boys and girls, femininity and masculinity, where any success ascribed to one gender is seen to be at the expense of the other. The subsequent polarisation has done little to advance the cause of addressing the needs of boys and in some aspects the needs of girls who are equal stakeholders in this complex landscape. The result of the rhetoric espoused by the popular media and by right wing advocates within women‟s and men‟s movements alike, is a fundamental biological determinism and competing victims‟ syndrome which sets the interests of one group against the interests of the other at a time when clear objective debate is needed (see Martino and Meyenn, 2001). With advocates from both sides of the debate driving their own politic through a competing victims‟ narrative, what has evolved is a backlash arm-wrestle for ascendency which has made any meaningful progress difficult to negotiate (see Faludi, 1991 and 2006 and French 1992). Writing on the National Organisation for Men Against Sexism (NOMAS) website, pro-feminist, Brian Klocke (2014) argues that "Although I believe that men can be profeminist and anti-sexist, I do not believe we can be feminists in the strictest sense of the word. Men, in this patriarchal system, cannot remove themselves from their power and privilege in relation to women. To be a feminist one must be a member of the targeted group (i.e a woman) not only as a matter of classification but as having one's directly-lived experience inform one's theory." Whilst this backlash arm wrestle continues, one may argue the emphasis will continue to focus on the battle rather than the victory with boys and girls featuring equally amongst the casualties. The over-emphasis of the central position of the female in gender equity policy has created a division on both sides of the debate which has resulted in an opportunity for „femocrats‟ (see Lingard and Douglas, 1999) to enter the debate through the politicisation of education departments which has served to further polarise the debate. This move has provided impetus for authors (see Gilbert and Gilbert 1998, Faludi 1992 and French 1992) who have been given space and legitimacy within which to promote their notion of girls as the true victims. Despite the evidence that would suggest girls are doing better than boys across all levels of education, some authors continue to espouse the belief that if there is any disadvantaged position that boys and men find themselves in, it is the currency that needs to be paid for the superiority they hold in society (see McLean 1996). Connell (1995) touches on this principle through his concept of hegemonic masculinity. McLean writes; „It is meaningless to argue that men are oppressed on the grounds of their gender. It is perfectly legitimate to argue that men „suffer‟ as a result of conforming to gender stereotypes, as long as it is also recognised that this suffering contributes to the maintenance of systems that actually oppress others‟ (McLean, 1996). This quid quo pro argument attempts to normalise the underperformance of boys and the disparity in academic outcomes because they recoup when they enter the workforce. If there is a pendulum bias to one pole within the workforce, I do not believe education should be seen as a site for the justification of the opposing pole. As a recognised leader within the gender debate, Connell (2011) adds that by fragmenting the debate into parallel policies for men and women and boys and girls, he acknowledges a wider scope of gender issues that weakens the equality rationale of the original policy. His argument forgets the relational character of gender and in doing so tends to redefine women and men or girls and boys simply as different market segments to serve some purpose which does little more than promote more gender segregation at a time when less is needed. Connell‟s notion of defining boys and girls into Epstein (1998) and Kenway (1995) reflect on these separate issues

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in a rather derisory and off-hand way. The authors suggest the underperformance of boys may be related to three dominant „poor boys‟ discourses, these being single (fatherless) families, female dominated primary schooling and feminism. Epstein polarises the debate further by suggesting; „if it is not women teachers, it is mothers, if not mothers, it is feminists; most often it is a combination‟. Ironically, it is a combination of these factors that I have used to underpin this article. Devaluing the narrative in this manner seeks through negation or denial to discredit the argument, and in acting to inhibit support from others. Cohen (1981) comments on this form of political control of truth which operates at a number of levels and through a range of mechanisms. Another semantic framework through which one discourse or belief attempts to neutralise the power of alternative narratives through the employment of interpretive denials, discretisation or the acknowledgement of the existence of an alternative argument. The issues which inhibit boys from competing on an equal footing with girls are broad, complex and in some cases interlinked and need to be considered in total if the disparity in academic outcomes is to be addressed. Arnot, David and Weiner (1996) argue this point by proposing that any single issue lacks sufficient gravity to create the disparity we currently see between boys and girls. Rather, just as the perfect storm required a variety of factors to come together at a particular time to create the most destructive storm to hit the eastern seaboard of North America, so too have key issues around gender come together at the same time to create the divide in the academic outcomes that we are currently witnessing. It may be argued that 1960s feminism provided the initial momentum which has seen the academic results of girls pass boys in most subjects at all levels of schooling for the first time. This feminism has also offered a new and inspiring set of role models for girls (see Nicholson, 1990). In this respect boys have been left behind. They still aspire to many of the same character traits amongst their role models and the same employment opportunities that their fathers aspired to. Despite those role models that encourage girls to be strong and assertive, stereotypically seen as traits for boys and men to aspire to, there are too few role models who encourage boys or men to be as compassionate as they are competent or as able to express themselves emotionally as they are to express themselves professionally. Feminism has provided girls with the confidence to play the part of a tomboy at a time that it is still unacceptable in mainstream masculine culture to be seen as effeminate. Feminism has also challenged the rules of conduct and girls‟ aspiration in schools and within the workplace with laws that prevent and punish sexual harassment. Subtle and overt forms of discrimination against girls whose place was once seen as within the home economics classroom have been challenged which now allow them to sit equally and comfortably in maths or physics classrooms. Whilst this feminism has offered a blueprint for a new outlook and aspiration for girls, the opportunity has passed by many boys who still see their rightful place within a narrow band of stereotypical subjects and men who aspire to an equally narrow range of professions. In this respect, the gains that have been achieved for girls and women have shifted the balance of power in many male dominated fields but have failed to create the same shift for boys and men. This shift has challenged hegemonic masculinity (see Connell, 1995) and it is, therefore, not surprising that feminists have been blamed for taking opportunities away from men and boys in trying to present alternative models of masculinity that have mutual benefit to boys and girls and men and women. There remains those whose mindset has not made this shift (see Gurian 1996 and 1998 and Biddulph 1998) who continue to attribute laddish antisocial behaviour as simply „boys being boys‟. In doing so these apologists promote a particular version of masculinity which is treated unproblematically as an effect of biological sex differences which fails to appreciate there are alternatives to this culture and it is these alternatives which can provide the impetus to challenge the underperformance of boys. Connell (1995) takes this point forward by suggesting that masculinity should be conceptualised in terms of relationships, that different masculinities are constructed in relation to other masculinities and to femininities through the structure of gender relations - a pluralist

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approach to gender relationships. Thorne (1993) elaborates on this proposal by suggesting a move away from a reductionist role based on gender. Masculinities need to be conceptualised in relation to their class, sexual orientation and ethnicity. Furthermore, Brittan (1989) argues that masculinity should not have a one-dimensional identity; rather it should embody multiple dimensions, for example white, working class gay masculinity alongside Asian, middleclass heterosexuality. The thrust of this paper will argue for a politics of alliance between men and feminism which may be achieved either through the acceptance of a strategic essentialism which both groups are able to present themselves through the acceptance of a pluralism which allows both sides to agree to multiple, even contradictory strategies to be adapted and maintained as possible courses of action. Connell (1995) follows this pluralist notion by proposing not so much a parallel men‟s movement to counter feminism, but rather an alliance of politics. Any project with the aim of developing a mutual benefit through social justice will depend largely on the overlapping of interests between groups rather than the mobilisation of one group‟s ideas around its primary interest at the exclusion of the interests of the other group. I hope to play some small part in demystifying the debate which is too often driven by emotive rhetoric, with parties on both sides acting to defend their position within the gender landscape and seeking out opportunities to discredit the alternative view whilst endeavouring to cement their position. What I hope to bring to this paper is the merits of a pluralist approach driven by a belief that headway can be made for boys that will not compromise girls‟ attainment through a conversation which provides space for the views of both sides. Whilst Lingard and Douglas (1999) present recuperative masculinity strategies as a possible solution and Martino and Meyenn (2001) propose physical education and school sport as a counterbalance to be used to connect constructively with current concerns about boys, it is not my intention to set out a model or definitive answer as to how the current disparity in academic outcomes between boys and girls may be addressed. Working on this paper from London has drawn me to this location for much of my work. However, as the issues surrounding boy‟s underperformance is world-wide, I have consciously drawn in references for this topic from The United States and Australia in an attempt to provide the reader with a more balanced international perspective on the issues surrounding the underperformance of boys. I hope this paper might in some way add to the debate for continuing the emotive and sensitive discussion of theory, political and cultural change and education reform that will ultimately lead to the benefit of boys and girls who deserve equal access to the curriculum and an equal footing in the educational sphere.

Challenging the Rhetoric: Clarifying the Issue of Boys Underperformance It is often said the devil is in the detail, it is also often reported that boys are underperforming girls, the inference being that all boys are underperforming all girls with no consideration given to the variety of characteristics surrounding these „boys‟, whether they are in independent or government schools, be it their age, their socio-economic background or their race. Political rhetoric has deflected the true statistics behind the misinformation that espouses the viewpoint that boys are underperforming girls with no consideration being given to the variety of characteristics surrounding who these boys and girls might be. The rhetoric which underpins these oft reported statements is driven by those within the debate who are motivated by presenting a view that reinforces their politic and it does little to promote informed, objective debate of a pluralist nature. To reinforce this position, I will use this section to unfold the populist statements which have distracted the reader from the fuller picture of boys‟ relative underperformance.

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The complexities of boys‟ performance in school has been documented for some years (see Teese 1995, Yates 1997, Murphy and Elwood 1998, Raphael Reed 1998 and Arnot 1999). What these researchers, amongst others, have shown is that boys are disproportionately represented amongst the lowest achievers but also amongst a small band within the highest of the high achievers. The least differences in academic attainment occur amongst the highest socioeconomic groups; the greatest difference is noted amongst the lowest socio-economic groups and herein lies one anomaly that challenges the generic statement of boys underperforming girls. Gilbourne (1997) also points out that the inequalities generated by race are greater than those generated by gender. Lu (2014) supports this position by adding that relative disadvantage could accumulate and become significant when a student experiences multiple aspects of disadvantage. Many leading British independent schools have embarked on school partnerships and the sponsorship of academies to support underperforming maintained or government schools in low socio-economic areas. These independent schools offer financial and teaching support through sharing professional development opportunities, best teaching practice and the use of a wide range of their facilities. The notion of these wealthy independent schools, which include Eton and Wellington College, supporting underperforming schools in the maintained sector is tangible proof of the divide between the resources at the disposal of independent schools and those within the maintained sector. Whilst it is true to suggest these independent schools support underperforming schools in part to justify their charitable status for taxation purposes, it is equally true to suggest that the resources independent schools have at their disposal is far beyond the reach of those maintained schools in low socio-economic areas which they have chosen to sponsor. Whilst I have used my Introduction to highlight the complexities that lie behind the reasons for the academic outcomes of boys and girls, I will use this section to clarify the issue of this disparity in outcomes and refer to Gilbert and Gilbert (1998) who legitimately ask; “Which boys are we talking about here?”. One does not need to conduct too much research to come across blanket statements that point to the increasing discrepancy between the academic outcomes of boys and girls, the inference being that all boys are falling behind all girls, in all subjects, at all year levels and in all levels of education. However, when one takes a deeper view of the situation, it is not as clear cut as one might be led to believe. Gender aside, geography, ethnicity and a raft of socio-economic factors all play a role in differentiating outcomes and these need to be considered before generalised statements are made. What is true is that the academic outcomes for girls and boys have shifted in recent years and this has been noted in most Western democracies including the United Kingdom, the United States and Australia. The shift in academic outcomes is not as straight forward as one might hope and it would be fair to suggest the devil is in the detail. To clarify this point and to give weight to the complexity of the issue, I would refer to a UK report by CentreForum, an independent think tank which develops evidence-based research to influence both national debate and policy making. In January 2016, CentreForum set out what it considered to be world-class standards in education (for full details on the assessment criteria, see CentreForum Report, 2016). The English Report highlighted a stark geographical differential in achievement levels between pupils with 40% of schools in the lower socio-economic areas of the East Midlands and 30% in Yorkshire and the Humber failing to get 25% or more of their pupils to the proposed standard. In contrast, the more affluent areas of London had fewer than 10% of schools fail to meet the same benchmark with 61.2% of pupils achieving CentreForum‟s benchmark compared with 55.4% in Yorkshire and the Humber. To reinforce the socio-economic bias in academic results, the Report found London boroughs dominated their list of the 20 highest performing authorities whilst 25% of the lowest 20 performing authorities were found in Yorkshire and the Humber. The proportion of children who achieved a good level of development in 2015 ranged from 71.9% in the South East to 64.0% in the North East. Based on performance on both

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attainment and progress indicators, the highest performing local authorities at Key Stage 4 are in the affluent areas of Barnet, Kingston upon Thames, and Westminster, the poorest performing are Knowsley, Blackpool, Stoke-on-Trent, and Doncaster, all low socio-economic authorities.

These results show a clear socio-economic and geographic divide, with the highest performing regions located in the more affluent areas of the south of England and the lowest performing regions located in the poorer regions in the North. The Report also found pupils for whom English is an additional language (EAL) are less affected by poverty which reinforces the socioeconomic perspective of academic performance (Taken from CentreForum Report, 2016). Figure 1.6 shown above highlights London‟s position as the highest performing region at both Key Stage 4 and Key Stage 2, in terms of both attainment and progress. Gillborne (1997) takes this argument forward in a study he conducted on the intersection between race and ethnicity with gender and social class in terms of exam results at 16. Gillbourne‟s study found that irrespective of gender, colour or ethnicity, the higher social class of the pupil the higher their performance. The disparity in academic outcomes by regions is compounded by the skewed allocation of government funding to these regions. According to Department for Education funding statistics (2016) London schools received £8,587 per pupil in the 2015/2016 academic year. Schools in York received less than half that amount at £4,202 per pupil during the same school year. In the 2003 school year, the two regions of England with the lowest GCSE attainments were London and Yorkshire. The capital, which has the benefit of the devolved Greater London Assembly (GLA), was able to address the issue through instigating the London Challenge, an initiative offering increased funding, specialised training for teachers and the sharing of best practice into underperforming schools in their region. In 2014 and 2015 the London region returned the highest GCSE results in the country while Yorkshire and the North-East continued to return the worst GCSE results. The GLA holds the London Mayor and Mayoral advisers to account by publicly examining policies, funding and programmes through committee meetings, plenary sessions, site visits and investigations. The Mayor is expected to respond to any formal recommendation made by the Assembly and this may include the

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allocation or reallocation of funding aimed at addressing any disparity in academic outcomes across boroughs within the Greater London boundary. Regional political parties such as the North-East Party and the Yorkshire Party have called for an end to such inequality of funding. Chris Whitwood (Deputy Leader of the Yorkshire Party [2016]) has called for an end to the skewed allocation of funding which benefits London pupils in a way that regional pupils are not benefited. Whitwood has called for a more equitable model that will „aid in addressing the underachievement of white, working class boys‟ in his electorate. The correlation between socio-economics, race and disadvantage and academic underperformance is a consistent factor that is not restricted to the UK alone. (Aud et al., 2011) reports on the significant disparity in letter recognition disparity between differing socioeconomic bands of American children at the same age ranging from 10% to 13% differentiation. Proficiency in recognising numbers and shapes also displays a noticeable disparity, in some cases up to 40%, between ethnic and racial minority groups and White and Asian groups. In mathematics achievement, 8% – 9% of fourth grade White and Asian children scored at the below basic proficiency levels, but 29% to 36% of African American, Latino, and Native Indian children scored below basic proficiency. It is noted that the pattern of disparities has been consistent over the last two decades and the patterns are similar across reading and mathematics for Grades 4, 8 and 12. On Advanced Placement (AP) tests, where a score of 3 or above is considered „successful,‟ 62 – 64% of White and Asian students‟ scores met this criteria, 43% of Latino and Native American students and 26% of African American students were considered successful. Graduation rates also show a marked differential; 91.3% of Asian students, 80.3% of White students graduated from high school at a time when 60% to 63% of the Latino, Native American and African American groups graduated. Dropout percentages favour Latino and Native American children at approximately 17% at a time when the dropout rates for White and Asian pupils at the same age is 5.3% – 6.1% (NAEP, 2011). Added into this American research on the socio-economic disparities in academic achievement and high school dropout rates, is work undertaken by Harvard economist Richard Murnane (2015) who reports that it is now widely acknowledged in the United States that girls are better than boys at school. Not only do girls achieve better grades than their male counterparts, they are excluded, suspended and expelled less from school have been more likely over the past forty years to earn high school and college diplomas. The high school graduation rate for males has stagnated around 81% since the 1970s while at the same time the percentage of girls graduating has risen slowly to a current rate of 87%. I believe there is significant relevance in the 1970 date. I have mentioned previously the impact that the women‟s movement has had on refocusing attention and resources into girl‟s education. The women‟s movement has undertaken an admirable role in offering girls opportunities at all levels of education that their mothers did not have and the consequences of this refocus can be seen in the aftermath of the 1960s and 1970s feminist movement. In support of the socioeconomic factors offered by Aud (2011) Murnane‟s research also highlights the greatest differential in academic results being among the most disadvantaged children. David Autor (Massachusetts Institute of Technology [MIT] Economics Professor [2015]) and colleagues analysed the records of over a million Florida children born between 1992 and 2002 who attended state government schools. Their research also found that young women had surpassed young men in schooling. They also noted the significant contribution that race and socio-economic status played in this disparity. Furthermore, the work of Raethel (1996), Capp (2000) and Cox (1997) has also highlighted the statistics which show the marked disparity between the academic outcomes and opportunities between American boys and girls. I would ask are disciplinarian schools to blame? Crime and gang activity tend to draw in more boys than girls, so are disadvantaged neighbourhoods to blame? Many of the poorest boys and

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girls grow up in single-parent families with mothers overwhelmingly filling the role of single parent, so are absent fathers to blame? To untangle these contributing factors, Autor and his colleagues (Figlio, Karbownik, Roth and Wasserman, 2015) pieced together birth and school records, combining them with information about neighbourhoods and school quality. Their research showed that all of these factors play a role at some point for most boys living in social disadvantage. Their research also found that girls living in the same settings are less likely to be adversely affected by their situation which supports the work carried out by Murnane (2015). Autor, Figlio, Karbownik, Roth and Wasserman (2016) collected from Florida which showed on average 83% of students in that state were kindergarten ready at the appropriate age. Their research also revealed a disparity of 2% between boys and girls in advantaged communities were not ready to begin kindergarten with boys being less ready. Their study also revealed this percentage rose to 8% disparity for boys from broken families where their mother was the sole parent with the gap between African American boys and girls being significantly wider at 8.4%. In explaining this increased differentiation, the researchers revealed boys are less resilient and more sensitive to family disadvantages than girls. As the children in the survey continued to grow, the disparity in academic outcomes continued with boys never being able to close the gap (Autor, Figlio, Karbownik, Roth and Wasserman see Figure 2; Boy-girl Gaps in Absences, Maths Scores, On-Time High School Completion and Kindergarten Readiness by Family Characteristics). The report also noted that boys are 10% less likely than girls to graduate high school on time with the gender gap is half that among children born to college graduates revealing the socio-economic impact on graduation rates. The Report also reveals that amongst children born to married parents, boys outscore girls and that among children born to fathers who did not claim them on their birth certificates, girls outperformed boys. Research undertaken by Harvard economists Raj Chetty, Nathaniel Hendren and Larry Katz (2015) reinforces these findings. Their work reveals that giving poor families vouchers to move into better neighbourhoods has had a large effect on young children who grow up to earn 30% more than their peers who they left behind in the disadvantaged neighbourhoods. Autor and his colleagues found that the biggest reason boys underperform their female peers is their family situation, that being family income, the mother‟s education and the presence or absence of a father. One may ask why boys from broken homes and disadvantaged communities are more disadvantaged academically and aspirational than girls from the same environment. I have noted that boys are more adversely affected by their environment, furthermore, it may be that boys naturally need more nurturing and are more dependent on appropriate male role modelling. Autor (2015) adds weight to this assumption by commenting that „There‟s a lot of studies that show boys have trouble with what we call soft skills. They're more impulsive, they have more trouble containing themselves. It takes a lot of work to help boys overcome those behavioural traits. Where do they learn that? It starts with families, with parents role-modelling appropriate behaviours.‟ Because of their tendency to act out, boys may be in particular need of parental guidance but because poor families also tend to be singleparent families, time spent with their mother or father is a scarce resource. A further study from economists Marianne Bertrand and Jessica Pan (2015) showed that boys are particularly at risk when they grow up in single-mother households. When boys don‟t get enough parental attention, particularly from their fathers through appropriate role modelling, they misbehave. Girls, in contrast, are less likely to misbehave regardless of how much time parents spend with them, they are simply more resilient and less affected by adverse environmental factors. The phenomenon of female advantage in school is not unique to the United States. In other wealthy countries there is also a gender gap between high school graduation rates. The pattern is consistent, as the following Chart 2.5 Successful Completion of Upper Secondary Programmes by Gender from the OECD shows. From Korea to Sweden, girls are slightly more

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likely to finish high school than boys. The latest research from Autor (2015) and his colleagues shows that early-life adversity causes boys to struggle much more than girls. The gender differences are minimal in households with resources, but among poorer families, boys systematically fall behind female peers.

The Australian context presents a similar picture. In terms of social disadvantage, indigenous people have a lower rate of participation in the education system. A Report by The Australian Council of Social Services (ACOSS, 2016) presented by CEO Dr Cassandra Goldie, notes that 731,300 or 17.4% of all children in Australia are currently living in poverty, a rise of 2% in ten years. The Report notes that those at most risk of deprivation in living conditions, education and aspirational opportunities are those children in single parent families, the overwhelming majority of those families have mothers as the sole parent. Children within this group are three times more likely to be living in poverty (40.6%) than those living with both parents (12.5%). Since 2012, the poverty rate for Australian children in lone parent families has risen from 36.8% to 40.6%. Of these children, the Report notes indigenous children suffer more than their nonAboriginal counterparts and highlights the significantly higher percentage of single parent families of which the mother or grandmother is the sole carer.

Age Range and Qualifications

% Indigenous % NonPeople Indigenous People

16 Year Olds in Full Time Education

57%

84%

18-24 Year olds In Post-Secondary Education

10%

28%

Attained Post-Secondary Qualifications

11%

30%

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Attained Skilled Vocational Qualification, Undergraduate or Graduate Diploma

20%

Attained Bachelor Degree

10%

The table has been created from the 2000 Australian Census (2000) to highlight the disparity in educational outcomes. As a result of social disadvantage and lower educational attainment amongst the indigenous population compared to the remainder of the Australian population, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people have reduced access to employment opportunities which has been shown to affect their motivation to participate in education beyond the compulsory years of schooling. Educational attainment limitations in turn affect the ability of Indigenous people to secure employment and has been shown to contribute to a cycle of poverty which impacts on successive populations (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2000). This disparity is despite the significant funding that has been made available to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders by the Australian Government and may highlight a lack of aspiration as a consequence of a lack of role models. The Australian Mitchell Institute (2015) reports that a studentâ&#x20AC;&#x;s family background plays a large role in determining his or her educational pathway. At every stage of learning and development there remains a strong and persistent link between a socio-economic status and educational outcomes as shown in the following table.

Taken from the Mitchell Institute Report on Educational Opportunity in Australia (2015).

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The Feminisation of the Classroom Those who argue against the notion of the feminised classroom being an environment that benefits girls and disadvantages boys, echo a competing victims mindset. An example of this is found in Skelton (2011) who writes; This articulation of the feminisation of teaching is a feature of the political usage of the term, specifically in terms of backlash politics. Nevertheless, the predominance of women in the teaching profession and any subliminal, engendered preferences they may bring to teaching needs to be opened up for discussion. Since the introduction in Great Britain in 1870 of elementary state education, teaching has always been regarded as work for women, particularly the younger years and statistics would suggest this mindset continues today (see Coffee and Delamont 2000). Men account for less than 14% of teachers in nursery and primary schools in England and 2% of day nursery staff (Johnson 2012-2013). The exception has to this day been the independent sector which sees many more men employed, particularly in senior schools. One may ask if this gender divide within the classroom has always been the case. The percentage difference in male and female teachers, particularly in the primary classroom, has changed a great deal since inspectors in the early to mid-nineteenth century reported on teachers in their districts who noted: „The majority were men who had tried other trades and failed. They had been semi-skilled craftsmen, shopkeepers, clerks or superior domestic servants, all occupations which either required knowledge of reading and writing or offered opportunity to acquire such knowledge‟ (Tropp, 1957). In short, the predominant gender of teachers in the early part of the nineteenth century was male. However, Jacob Middleton (2012) notes that the split between the sexes in teaching in England began around 1860 shortly after an Act of Parliament instigated School Boards which set a starting salary for a board school teacher at £70.00 a year. At that time the recognised poverty line was £50.00 a year. This wage was significantly lower than that received by a skilled tradesman or a man who entered the civil service as a low-level clerk who could earn up to £500.00 a year. The exception, as it is now, were independent schools that could set their own independent wage structure which was above the minimum set by the School Boards which kept men employed in larger numbers as private schools do today. Women by contrast, had significantly fewer earning opportunities open to them. Consequently, they began to move into the teaching profession via government schools at a much higher rate than men who continued to be drawn to the higher wages offered in independent schools which also offered various forms of accommodation for additional duties. A teaching career for a woman in Victorian times was seen as a suitable profession in which a woman could earn a wage and bide her time until she could divert her attention to its proper focus, that being a family (Troop, 1957). One position within the debate argues that the predominance of female teachers, particularly in the maintained or government primary sector has had a negative impact on the academic outcomes of boys whilst at the same time enhancing those of girls (see Dee, 2006). This feminisation of the classroom implies that there have been fundamental and widespread effects on primary pedagogy and culture as a consequence of the predominance of women teachers. Included in these discussions are the beliefs that: ● Daily routines and practices favour the majority, those being women. ● Female teachers hold lower expectations of boys‟ abilities based on perceived generalisations and stereotypes. ● The absence of male role models in the classroom creates issues for boys in terms of motivation, discipline, positive same gender role modelling and social interaction. ● The way in which the curriculum is delivered and assessed favours girls‟ learning styles (Delamont, 1999).

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One might also consider the restrictions that a predominant female staff has on delivering a cocurriculum that boys are drawn to or wish to engage in as one more factor that discriminates against boys. Dee (2006) and James (2007) argue boys and girls have a preferred learning style. Simy and Kolb (2011) move this argument forward by suggesting that there is also a cultural bias in preferred learning styles between boys and girls. It follows that a classroom led by a woman which focuses on verbal, auditory and visual communication in a structured, defined space which restricts the movement of pupils and expects boys to sit quietly, still and remain attentive is unsuited to the way boys learn. The argument follows that this structure best suits girlâ&#x20AC;&#x;s learning styles and it continues into tertiary education, particularly undergraduate classes which are often delivered in lecture theatres with large numbers of other students who are expected to sit quietly and take notes. Abigail James takes this argument forward by reinforcing her belief that boys are more successful with kinaesthetic activities, visual, spatial relationships, and competitive activities while girls are better with verbal/linguistic activities and auditory learning styles (James, 2007). To suggest boys and girls learn the same way and are equally suited to the same learning environments follows the path of reductionism that I highlighted earlier in this paper. The past few decades have seen tremendous changes in the world of education, particularly innovations in the delivery of the curriculum. These innovations have included charter schools, year round schools, differentiation of instructional strategies, various specialty schools, the diamond shaped curriculum and a number of others new concepts including Harkness and Assessment for Learning. Underpinning these initiatives is the drive for educators to provide all pupils, irrespective of gender, equal access to the curriculum to achieve, if not surpass, a minimum expectation. Given that current pedagogy recognises the need to present the curriculum in various forms to engage boys and girls equally, it follows that there exists amongst educators a belief that the curriculum needs to be presented in a variety of ways if it is to capture boys and girls equally and in doing so provide them equal access to the curriculum. To gain a clearer picture of the impact of differentiated learning I recently conducted an experiment involving pupils within one of the Preparatory Schools which feed into my senior school. I chose three sets of ten random items setting them out on three tables in three different rooms of the same building. The intention of choosing the twenty different items for each of the three rooms was to select items that were not closely related to each other in order to make it difficult for the pupils to create linked associations between the items. For example; if a pencil sharpener, a pencil, a sheet of paper and an eraser were chosen, pupils would be able to create a link between those related objects making them, as a group, easier to recall. The thirty items chosen across the three rooms were: ITEMS Lightbulb

Screwdriver

Spectacles

Pencil

Spanner

Bath Plug

Rock

Dog Biscuit

Scissors

Calculator

Leaf

Small Trophy

Credit Card

Phone Charge

Spoon

Key

Cup

Table Clock

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Headphones

Sweet

Tennis Ball

DVD

Toothbrush

Medicine Bottle

Toy Car

Golf Club

Bottle Top

Book

Jigsaw Piece

Flash Drive

Forty 13-year-old pupils were chosen at random for the experiment, twenty boys and twenty girls. Birth dates were not considered, therefore, there could have been up to twelve months difference in ages between the pupils. The group was non-selective so no attention was paid to academic levels of achievement. Experiment 1 Auditory The twenty girls were blindfolded and led into the first room containing the table with twenty items. I verbally listed all of the items individually to the girls leaving a five second pause between each item. Shortly after the last item was called out, the blindfolded girls were led from the room. After the girls had left the room, the group of twenty blindfolded boys were led into the room and the experiment repeated in the same format as the group of girls before them. After each group left the room accompanied by a fellow teacher, they removed their blindfolds and asked to write down as many items as they could recall. Absolute silence was maintained at all times; the pupils were supervised to ensure no cheating occurred. Experiment 2 Visual The twenty girls were then led in silence into the second room containing a table with twenty different items which were covered by a blanket. After the group had entered the room they were told that they were required to memorise as many items under the blanket as possible and given two minutes to complete this exercise in absolute silence under teacher supervision. The experiment was then completed with the twenty boys in exactly the same manner. After each group left the room accompanied by a fellow teacher they were asked to write down as many of the items as they could recall. Absolute silence was maintained at all times. The pupils were supervised to ensure no cheating occurred. Experiment 3 Kinaesthetic The twenty girls were then led into the third room containing another twenty items on a table covered with a blanket. The group were placed into a circle and handed a marble. I then asked them to hold the marble in their right hand and to pass it into the left hand of the person on their right. This task was completed so they could familiarise themselves with what was required of them during the experiment. Having established this routine, the girls were then blindfolded and each handed one item off the table. After handling the item for ten seconds, they were asked to pass it to their right as they had practiced with the marble at the beginning of the experiment. After the last item was held, they were asked to drop it into buckets that were presented to each of them. The experiment was repeated with the group of twenty boys in exactly the same manner. After each group left the room they were asked to write down as many items as they could recall. Absolute silence was maintained at all times under strict teacher supervision to prevent cheating.

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Results of Experiments Results of Experiment 1 Auditory Average Number of Items Recalled Correctly Girls

11 55%

Boys

Percentage Differentiation

Girls recalled +15% more items correctly than boys on the auditory experiment.

40%

This test of auditory recall showed that girls were able to recall 55% of the twenty items listed for them whilst the boys recalled 40% of items listed to them. The disparity between these two percentages show that in this experiment, girls were able to recall 15% more items than the boys in a similar experiment. Results of Experiment 2 Visual Average Number of Items Recalled Correctly

Percentage Differentiation

Girls

14 70%

Girls recalled +5% more items correctly than boys on the visual experiment.

Boys

13 65%

This test of visual recall showed that girls were able to recall 70% of the twenty items on display whilst boys recalled 65% of the items on display. The disparity between these two results of this experiment reveals girls were able to recall 5% more items than the boys in a similar experiment. Results of Experiment 3 Kinaesthetic Average Number of Items Recalled Correctly Girls

45%

Boys

14 70%

Percentage Differentiation

Boys recalled +25% more items correctly than girls on the kinaesthetic experiment.

This test of kinaesthetic recall showed that girls were able to recall 45% of the twenty items listed for them whilst boys recalled 70% of items listed to them. The disparity between these two percentages show that in this experiment, boys were able to recall 25% more items than the girls in the same experiment. The disparity between the boys‟ performance in recall and that of the girls of -5% on the auditory test and -15% on the visual test are not significant percentages. However, the +25% disparity in recall that boys have over girls in the kinaesthetic experiment highlights an overall net gain of 40% over the auditory experimental results (-15%) of girls and a 30% net gain over the visual experimental results (-5%) of girls. It may be argued that prioritising work on preferred learning styles is misconceived if it simply tries to identify and teach to students‟ dominances within a specific learning style to which the pupil shows greatest preference, to pursue any one specific learning style narrows learning. Rather, it may be argued that it is important to locate any discussion on preferred learning styles within an on-going professional

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development process which addresses issues of classroom pedagogy if the notion of preferred learning styles is to be translated into teaching style and ultimately pupil performance. Within this framework, it is important for teachers to develop skills which will allow them to engage in a variety of teaching styles which will ultimately translate into their pupils being exposed to a range of access pathways to the curriculum. This may be recognised and addressed through peer mentoring and staff appraisal opportunities which seek, in part, to address opportunities to share best practice across departments. Consideration given to the differentiation of learning styles and single gender education are amongst the most critical changes in the past ten years to come out of these initiatives. Although it might appear counterintuitive, the goal of single gender education is equality. Studies on the human brain and behaviour suggest that boys and girls develop and learn in different ways and separation within an educational setting is beneficial for both. Sometimes equality is not necessarily achieved through identical treatment; but rather, from giving people the best opportunity to succeed given individual circumstances. What may work for one group, may not for another (Gurian, Stevens and Daniels, 2009). The notion of the benefits in single gender education formed the topic of study for Stephen Keast (1998), a researcher at Monash University, Australia. Keast based his study on a small rural co-educational secondary college in western Victoria which had identified low numbers of girls continuing with maths in the final years of school as a major problem. In an attempt to address this decline, after an initial investigation it was decided to introduce a single-sex maths class experience for all students in Years 7 and 8. It was noted that the boys in the single sex (SSB) class preferred to work individually with the teacher as the primary provider of information whilst girls were seen to prefer to work in small groups sharing information amongst members of their group. Boys preferred to work individually, girls preferred to work collaboratively. To address the different method in which boys and girls chose to access the curriculum, in the following year, teachers adjusted their teaching style to accommodate the collaborative preference shown by the girls. By identifying how one particular group preferred to learn, the school was able to respond by moving towards an emphasis on group work and sharing knowledge in the SSG maths class which was noted to be the preferred style of learning for the girls. Given that the girls were observed to prefer a particular learning style; one might argue that women may follow on with a preferred teaching style based around their preferred learning style. If one was to take this argument further, it may be reasoned that the best teacher of a particular learning style is the teacher who themselves preferred to learn via that style. Gilligan (1982) and Belenky, Clinchy, Goldberger and Tarule (1986), have offered a framework for analysing variants in learning styles which build on the findings of the Keast‟s (1998) research. Their work provides a further insight into reasoning and learning styles, the formation of knowledge and the construction of understanding and have proposed two types of „knowers‟. The first, which typically represents boys‟ learning, has been referred to as Separate Knowers who are people who develop their knowledge in isolation through their use of impersonal rules which they objectively and critically sort information by filtering out any subjectivity. The second group which typically represent how girls learn have been referred to as the Connected Knowers. These learners prefer to connect with the knower; they value learning and knowledge that is woven into their personal relationships, surroundings and environment. These people do not view knowledge as cold and impersonal but prefer to include the emotion and personality of the knower into their learning. Their knowledge of truth develops through an interconnection with others and the relationship they build with them.

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Alan Smithers, Director of the Centre for Education and Employment Research at Buckingham University England, expands on the physical disadvantages to boys in the current environment by commenting on the manner in which lessons are presented (taken from an article in The Observer, June, 2009). Smithers believes that the curriculum has been feminised by an emphasis on coursework, modular exams and extended essays which favours girls‟ learning styles and discriminates against boys whose preferred mode of learning involves the competitive nature and higher risk of sudden death exams. The greatest differential in performance has been in English where reading, writing, listening, oral communication skills and modular assessment carry the greatest weight. Not only is the physical environment of today's classroom best suited to the way girls learn, the manner in which the curriculum is assessed also benefits girl‟s learning styles. Support for the belief in the advantages to boys in being examined differently to girls may be found in UK data of maths and English results by gender. When the modular assessment and coursework element of maths exams was discontinued in 2009, boys started to do fractionally better than girls as the following graph highlights. When these results are contrasted against the gap between boys and girls pass rate in English which has maintained its 60% controlled assessment, the gap in boy/girl attainment has been maintained. This may be attributed to the higher verbal abilities, on average, from an early age but the 60% weighting for coursework and modular exams which favour girls‟ learning styles cannot be discounted as a contributing factor in girls continuing to outperform boys in English which has maintained its 60% coursework weighting.

(Centre for Educational Research [CEER] 2014) Further support for this notion may be found in the 2015 GCSE results (Year 11) of boys and girls in Great Britain. Whilst girls still lead boys with 73.1% of all subjects sat being awarded an A* - C, boys have closed the gap by 0.4% to 64.7%. Brian Lightman, the General Secretary of the UK Association of School and College Leaders, attributed this narrowing of the gap to a change in how assessment for some subjects have changed from coursework to examinations. Lightman reported that coursework, or controlled assessment, is more suited to the way girls work whilst boys tend to perform better under the pressure and competitive environment of final exam conditions (Lightman, 2015). The report also noted that girls in Great Britain have scored more A* - C grades every year since 1989 when the gap was 4.3%, rising to a peak in 2000 when the gap was 9.2% after which it dipped to 8.8% in 2014 (for further evidence of gender bias across differing exam conditions (see Gneezy, Niederle, and Rustichini, 2003 and Niederle, Carmit and Vesterlund 2008).

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The presumption is that women‟s predominance within the classroom is a recent phenomenon which coincides with an equally recent decline in the academic attainment of boys. DiPrete and Buchmann (2013) state that girls have performed better than boys for well over 100 years. Indeed, the seventeenth century philosopher John Locke expressed a concern for boy‟s problems with language and literacy (Cohen, 1998). Girls more recent rise to the top of academic league tables may also be attributable to societal changes and expectations in recent years which has resulted in girls, and women, being freed of the pressure to choose between completing an education or having a family. Societal pressures and expectations prior to 1960s feminism placed a greater onus on girls prioritising motherhood over academic achievement so the desire to do well at school and achieve their academic potential was less of a pull factor for many than becoming a good mother and wife. Girls could have one or the other, but not both. Employment was something that girls tended to do till they were married and started a family; consequently, there was no pressing need for girls to perform to their academic potential at school in order to achieve the results needed to enter university or a vocational pathway. It may, therefore, be suggested that boys‟ access to higher academic grades and university places was easier to attain as girls were not competing equally against them. Even after joining the workforce, the widespread practice of marriage barring in Western countries restricted the employment of married women in general and in particular within acknowledged professions or occupations rather than in unskilled or lowly paid jobs. Within many public sectors the practice of marriage barring called for the termination of employment of a woman on her marriage, especially in occupations within the public service. There was little economic justification for this practice which, when rigidly applied was disruptive to workplaces. It was justified during depression years as a social policy to increase employment opportunities for men, but the policy persisted beyond such economic times. The practice was common in Western countries from the late 19th Century to the years immediately after the gains brought about by second wave feminism. Marriage bars have less impact on employment in lower paid unskilled jobs which had an additional impact on lowering incentives for women to acquire the level of education that would provide them access to higher paid work. Marriage bars were widely relaxed in wartime when the availability of working men was severely compromised but re-imposed immediately after these conflicts. Since the 1960s, the practice has been discontinued or outlawed by anti-discrimination laws which may also deal with discrimination based on marital status. The impact of marriage bars and societal expectations of young women to prioritise marriage and motherhood had a double impact on their involvement in higher secondary and tertiary education. With boys only having to compete predominantly against each other to gain entry into university or a high skilled profession, they could get away with lower academic results because the pool of applicants was less, as was competition for places. Martino and Meyenn (2001) argue against the popular and simplistic view that stresses the need for boys to reclaim lost territory. An alternative argument may support the notion that this „territory‟ was never truly theirs because of the bias in the landscape. It has only been in recent years since more girls have remained on at school has a valid comparative study been able to be produced that maps the performance of boys and girls in a common setting, with similar numbers and equal motivation for academic success. One may argue that this shift in the landscape has allowed the disparity in achievement levels between boys and girls to develop and subsequently be identified. An argument may be initiated that presupposes that this disparity has always existed and we have post 1960s feminism to thank for providing the opportunities for girls to expose this differentiation through their new found access to higher secondary and tertiary education and greater access to the workforce. However, to simply assume that the feminisation of the classroom and the greater access that

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girls now have to higher education and the workforce is the sole deciding factor leading to the underperformance of boys is an oversimplification of a more complex arrangement. I have created the following table taken from the UK‟s Higher Education Statistics Authority (HESA [2016]) on Russell Group Universities to highlight the point I have made regarding the gender skew in university applicants. University

Gender % of Applicants

King‟s College London

64% Female 36% Male

Leeds University

60% Female 40% Male

Edinburgh University

59% Female 41% Male

Glasgow University

58% Female 42% Male

Cardiff University

58% Female 42% Male

These statistics reinforce the concern over the falling number of boys applying for university places. The HESA also released figures on the number of applicants to all English universities in the autumn of 2016 which saw approximately 90,000 more women applying for a degree course. Alan Smithers, Professor of Education at Buckingham University, also notes that for the first time 2016 saw the number of applications from male school leavers fall against the number of female applications. Furthermore, although not shown, the same HESA report revealed the majority of students in 2016 enrolling in the once traditional male dominated fields of medicine, law, dentistry and veterinary science are now predominantly female. One may argue that the concerns over fewer males going on to university is a symptom of an outdated psychosocial economic mindset which places too great an emphasis on pupils having access to higher education. This mindset places too little regard on the alternatives which may be the most appropriate option for their skills set and motivation. If boys are failing to move into tertiary education, one may ask where they might be choosing to move when they graduate school? British Airways, the Dorchester Hotel, Rolls-Royce and English National Opera are among companies offering apprenticeships to school leavers as an alternative to university at a time when many employers are investing heavily in internships, scholarships and traineeships. Crossrail created more than 400 apprenticeships during the construction of the new railway. The apprentices working on the project have been trained in a range of skills including construction, accountancy, quantity surveying and business administration. Frank Field (2016) Chairman of the UK‟s Commons Work and Pensions Select Committee blames universities and the government mindset of setting a 50% target of school leaver entering into universities for the emergence of a graduate „precariat‟. Field continued by claiming: „There has been a huge miss-selling by universities. Partly it is a terrible British snobbery which implies that if you earn money with your hands, you can‟t be as good as somebody who supposedly earns it with their brains‟. One may see this as a very positive alternative career pathway for boys graduating from school in providing them with alternative career pathways to meet the need of a greater cross section of male school leavers. In what may be interpreted as a typical backlash, competing victim‟s mentality, the Young Woman‟s Trust (YWT) sees this

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development differently. The Trust reports that young women are missing out at every stage of apprenticeships, including being underrepresented, achieving poorer outcomes and being paid less (YWT Report, 2016). The report found that in sectors such as engineering, women make up a lower proportion of apprentices than a decade ago, for every female apprentice working within engineering there are 25 male apprentices. In construction, there are 56 men to every woman and in plumbing there are 74 men to every woman. One may argue that the thrust of such feminist arguments which are based around equality of access, lose some credibility when the same authors, being aware of a similar gender imbalance in teaching, nursing and the care sector, choose to withhold similar proportional access comments. A 2016 Report from the Independent Panel on Technical Education notes that the UK has a serious shortfall of technicians in industry at a time when over 400,000 16-24 year olds are unemployed. The Report highlights the UK‟s lack of a skills base by noting that by 2020, the UK is set to fall to 28th out of 33 OECD countries in terms of developing intermediate skills. Furthermore, the Report notes that the size of the post-secondary technical education sector in England is extremely small by international standards and this has an adverse effect on productivity. The UK currently lags behind its competitors Germany and France by as much as 36 percentage points. The Report presented 34 recommendations to the UK Government in a bid to draw greater investment in the country's technical base. The Report noted that the UK has a long-term productivity problem, although some sectors such as the automotive industry have enjoyed stronger productivity growth in recent years. In 2014 the UK had a productivity gap of around 30 percentage points with its competitor countries France and the USA, while the gap with Germany was 36 percentage points. The UK productivity was 18 percentage points below the average for the rest of the G7 economies which was noted to be holding back the economy. Across the globe, countries have realised that investing in the development of technical skills, especially at intermediate and post-secondary levels is essential to enhancing productivity and improving living standards. Yet, by 2020 the UK is predicted to rank just 28th of 33 OECD countries in terms of developing intermediate skills. If as statistics show, fewer boys are entering tertiary education, one may suggest that the issue is not one that we should be overly concerned with given the many opportunities available to boys within the wider workforce. The issue will be for those unaware or unwilling to accept these opportunities. Furthermore, the size of the post-secondary technical education sector in England is extremely small by international standards. As a result of years of undertraining at these levels, the UK faces a chronic shortage of people with technician-level skills. In engineering and technology alone, Engineering UK data show an annual shortfall of 29,000 people with level 3 skills and 40,000 with skills at level 4. Given that these occupations have traditionally been the preserve of males, the impact amongst this group has been the greatest. Among 16-24 year olds, England and Northern Ireland together now rank in the bottom four OECD countries for literacy and numeracy – key prerequisites for access to intermediate and higher level skills training. A 2016 Report commissioned by the UK Government of the Independent Panel on Technical Education found, „our education and skills system is failing to develop the skills employers seek. Unless we take urgent action, our economic competitors will leave us even further behind‟. If initiatives are to be considered that engage boys in the education system, one argument would be for the UK Government to invest in those areas within the workforce that boys have traditionally moved into. Given that there is a shortage in these sectors, this investment would be of benefit to both boys and the UK economy. Finally, I wish to cover one further point linked to the predominance of females in teaching that has is linked to boys, namely the issue surrounding appropriate male role models. Martino (1995a) and (1995b), Heywood and Mac an Ghaill (1996), Jackson and Salisbury (1996), Gilbert

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and Gilbert (1998) and Letts (1999) all argue that it is the ways boys learn to be male which presents teachers in all subjects with one of their greatest challenges. Young people do not need any role model because many of these are inappropriate, young people need role models who affirm correct behaviour and to whom they may aspire to in a way that enhances their lives and those with whom they come into contact. Young people need role models in their lives who allow them to develop within themselves an appreciation of their place within the wider community in which they live that enhances their ability to make a positive contribution to that community through thought and action. The dilemma facing many young men in the 21st Century is where these role models might come from. I have shown they do not necessarily come in the form of male teachers for a great number of these boys and this is borne out in the following table that I have created to highlight the percentage of male and female teachers in the primary and secondary sectors of government schools in Australia. Males in Teaching

Trainee Registrations in the Academic Year 2008 -2012

Primary Teaching 1992 2003

Gender

Academic

Male Number/Percentage

Female Number/Percentage

Total Number of Registrations

25.8% 20.9% Secondary Teaching

2008 -2009

2567

15%

14,284

85%

16,751

1992 2003

2009 - 2010

2824

16%

14,671

84%

17,495

49.4% 44.7%

2010 - 2011

3262

18%

14,507

82%

17,769

2011 - 2012

3743

19%

15,750

81%

19,501

(Figures taken from; Males in Teaching and Teacher Education; Australian Bureau of Statistics and DEST Higher Education [UK Department of Education Database for Teacher 2005] Statistics 1992 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 2003). Although I have accessed Australian data for this table, the disparity is found across the Western world. Smithers (2009) reveals that more than 25% of state primary schools in the United Kingdom have no male teachers. This denies a significant percentage of boys with a male role model throughout their primary education. The additional concern of this gender disparity in the classroom only serves to reinforce the belief that teaching is a feminised profession and it is a conundrum that universities grapple with in their endeavour to attract more males into teacher training and degree courses. Professor Smithersâ&#x20AC;&#x; report is reinforced by the 2009 data released by the General Teaching Council of England which reports that only 123,827, or 25%, of the 490,981 registered working teachers within maintained or government schools are men, with the majority of those men occupying secondary teaching and further education posts. Male teachers make up 13% or 25,491 of state primary teachers and 3% or 43 state nursery school staff. Of the 16,892 state primary schools in England, 4,550 or 27% have no male teachers. Given that 92% of all children educated in England attend maintained or government schools, the chance of any boy being taught by a man within this sector at any time throughout their primary schooling may be slim.

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Beyond the United Kingdom and Australia, a similar pattern is evident from data published by the OECD in „Education at a Glance, 2003‟ which highlights few significant differences amongst OECD member nations. The OECD 2003 report noted that in 2001 the mean proportion of female teachers for primary education was 78.6% and for lower and upper secondary education 64.8% and 51.4% respectively (Australian Government Department of Education, Science and Training [DSET] Submission to the House of Representatives Standing Committee on Educational and Vocational Training Enquiry into Teacher Education, June 2005). If, as I have argued, schools may not be relied upon to provide all boys with appropriate male role models because of the high percentage of female teachers, then surely one might expect boys find their male role models in their homes . . . or can they? The role models who influence adolescents tend to change over time (Glover, 1978). Early in life, young children look to their immediate family to provide positive role models. Within the first five years parental influence has the greatest impact. When children begin schooling there is a subtle shift in the people they look to for role modelling and aspirational guidance. Once children begin school, they begin to change their role models with friends and teachers beginning to fulfil the role that immediate family members once held. As we grow, our role models begin to originate from a range of other areas including athletes, coaches and television, pop and movie stars (French & Pena, 1991). A Report for the Tavistock Institute (2014) found family breakdown affects both individuals and the immediate and extended residual family unit in terms of short term acute outcomes and longer term residual issues. These issues include hostile parental animosity towards each other at the detriment of the parent / child relationship and parents who choose to use their child to play out their perceived position of victim through isolating the other parent and casting them in a poor light in front of the children. The issue of competing victims is a recurring theme in this landscape of gender relations that serves to isolate one group, and in this case an individual, from the other through a victim mentality. Furthermore, insidious chronic problems impact on the long term future mental and physical health of the children and in many cases their ability to maintain healthy relationships. Further concerns involve the negative impact on the extended families. On the contrary, there are significant mental and physical health benefits for couples and their children by maintaining their married status and with that their circle of friends, support networks and extended families. The UK pressure group Fathers4Justice cite that there are 87,000 children involved in contact orders in the UK, of these 30% will lose contact with a non-resident parent within two years. The group further cite that 94% of residencies are awarded to mothers and 50% of all contact orders for fathers are broken which denies children access to the many benefits that fathers and male role models offer both boys and girls. One million children have no contact with a nonresident parent three years after separation, with the overwhelming majority of non-resident parents being the father. It is the child/father relationship which is lost in the majority of cases. Research would suggest that boys from broken homes are less likely to live with their same sex parent as their sisters. Furthermore, during the course of my research into this issue, I interviewed Mr Guy Barlow, a Partner in the family law firm Charles Coleman LLP in Windsor, England. When I asked Mr Barlow to reflect on the number of successful fathers who he had represented during his 23 years as a family lawyer in residency applications, he responded that in all his years of practice, he could only recount two cases in which the father was awarded a residency order over the children‟s mother: “One involved a woman who was residing at Her Majesty‟s pleasure, the other woman was an inmate at Broadmoor Psychiatric Hospital” (Woodrow, 2014). Similar statistical evidence of custodial orders may be found in the US Census Bureau‟s report by the Office of Child Support and Enforcement of the Department

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of Health and Human Services which states there was 13.4 million custodial parents in the United States in 2002. In the spring of 2002, these custodial parents had residency of 21.5 million children under 21 years of age whose other parent lived somewhere else. About 5 of every 6 custodial parents were mothers (84.4%) and 1 in 6 were fathers (15.6%), proportions which have remained statistically unchanged since 1994. Overall, 27.6% of all children under 21 living in families had a parent not living in the home (Data taken from the 1994 - 2002 April supplements to the Current Population Survey, CPS). Moloney (2000) conducted a study of Australian Family Court judgements of residency from a gender perspective and found that only 18% of judgements resulted in custody being awarded to fathers, 79% went to mothers and 3% resulted in shared care arrangements. Of the shared residence orders the results provide some support for separated siblings living with the samesex parent, a slender majority of sons (53.3%) lived with fathers, but the vast majority of daughters (70.5%) resided with mothers. In Britain women head 90% of single parent families (OXFAM, 2005). One cannot discount the outdated Victorian belief held by the Family Law Court that the parenting and nurturing process of children is the primary responsibility of the mother, not the father. I have used the following table to highlight a selection of the top 20 out of 46 countries in terms of percentage of that country‟s divorce rates across their population of married couples (UNESCO, 2007). Divorce Rate Percentage Per Population New Zealand Australia Canada 17%

41.2%

37%

Netherlands

France

Germany

Russia

USA

Sweden

38.3%

39.4%

42.6%

43.3%

54.8%

54.9%

The women‟s movement has brought with it many considerable advancements which have proved mutually beneficial for women and indeed men (see Fernandez and Cheng Wong, 2011). However, women‟s access to independent income, greater access to child care, a streamlined divorce system, the de-stigmatisation of divorce, no-fault divorce bills, women‟s shelters and changes in the benefits system that supports, and some may argue rewards, single mothers with housing and financial assistance by way of government benefits and garnishing the wages of the children‟s fathers, has all played a role in the dramatic increase in divorce since the early 1960s. In the United States from 1960 to 1980, the divorce rate more than doubled from 9.2 divorces per 1,000 to 22.6 divorces per 1,000. Less than 20% of US couples who married in 1950 divorced, approximately 50% of marriages in 1970 ended in divorce. Approximately half of the children born to married parents in the 1970s saw their parents part, compared with approximately 11% of those born in the 1950s (Wilcox, 2009). The psychological revolution of the late '60s and '70s was largely fuelled by a post-war prosperity and a user society that allowed people to give greater attention to non-material concerns (see Bradford Wilcox [2011]). This lifestyle shift played a key role in reconfiguring men and women's views of what constituted marriage and family life. Prior to the 1960s, people within Western societies were more likely to look at marriage and family in terms of duty, obligation, self-sacrifice and long term commitment. A successful pre-1960 home built around the notion of the advancement of marriage and family life was one that was reflected through meaningful employment for the husband, a well-maintained home by the wife, mutual spousal aid and child-rearing responsibilities valued by both father and mother and a shared religious faith. But the psychological revolution that the post 1960s brought with it refocused people on individual fulfilment in a way that did not previously exist. Increasingly,

197

marriage was seen as a vehicle for a self-oriented ethic of romance, intimacy and fulfilment and in an increasing number of cases, a means to an end rather than an end in itself. In this new psychological approach to married life, one's primary obligation was shifted from a focus on the primacy of one's family to one's self. This mind-set shift brought with it a new definition of marital success being defined not by successfully meeting obligations to one's spouse and children but by a stronger sense of subjective happiness. Whilst it must be accepted that the women‟s movement brought with it considerable gains for women, one cannot discount the fact that these gains have come at some cost to the concept of and viability of the nuclear family. Should we be overly concerned about children in single parent families in the 21st Century where our communities are more liberal and accepting of the wider variety of families that have developed beyond the traditional model of heterosexual parents living in a monogamous lifelong marriage? Ermisch and Pevalin (2006) argue that children‟s pathways to inequality and social disadvantage are interconnected; children who experience family breakdown and the consequential loss of an appropriate male role model in their lives are significantly more likely to achieve lower life outcomes. Too often this is a cyclical event as young people mirror the role models of dependency offered by their parent. Daughters of single teenage mothers are considerably more likely to become single teenage mothers themselves. The stigma once attached to single motherhood has evaporated. More recent studies have shown that the likelihood of a teenage birth to a single mother in Britain is 2 to 2.5 times higher for the daughter of a teenage single mother and that intergenerational factors were a major thematic finding (Whitehead, 2009). If, as I have argued, schools and homes can no longer be automatically considered to be the stereotypical bastions of male role modelling for young boys, one may justifiably ask where these young males might look to find the male role models missing in their lives? Altman (1995) believes boys and young men are increasingly drawn to gangs and their pseudo family hierarchical culture as an alternative to the traditional family unit. Traditional independent boarding schools also offer this structure in the absence of a boy‟s family. Boys belong to Houses that develop a bond of collective union and ownership, they provide a structure, discipline and routine that is lacking in many young boys lives. Boarding schools provide a breadth of opportunities for boys to engage in community service activities that link them into the broader communities in which they live, these schools provide a breadth of education that enriches the academic, cultural and spiritual lives of those young men who are lucky enough to attend such schools. Boarding schools provide a communal environment and instil a respect of self and others including peers, teaching and non-teaching staff. Although not entirely, but nevertheless considerably, the Children‟s Act of 1989 has resulted in the development of institutions where bullying and fagging are no longer an obstacle that needs to be negotiated. These traditional establishments now have a moral and legal obligation to provide the necessary pastoral care and support that boys living away from home need. The calibre of teaching staff has moved well away from the strict disciplinarian to pastoral leaders who provide a genuine concern for and care of their pupils. However, as mentioned previously, despite their charitable status and the many means tested bursaries offered each year, fewer than 5% of boys have access to these types of independent boarding schools. Boys and young men are increasingly joining gangs which provide them with an authority figure as an alternative to a father figure. The gang provides boys with security and a selfidentity that they would normally be offered within a family unit and gang membership provides boys with a support network, a code of conduct and expectations that they would normally be given within their family unit. In these ways, gang culture is the only alternative many boys and young men have to a traditional family culture. Decker and Van Winkle (1996) and Baccaglini (1993) believe there are push and pull dynamics for boys who join gangs. Pulls

198

involve the attractive dividends in belonging to a gang such as enhanced prestige or status among friends, especially girls who play a significant role in reinforcing stereotypical interpretations of masculinity which are highly destructive to those boys who choose to follow those models. Gangs provide attractive opportunities for excitement and to make money through illegal activities including the sale of stolen goods or drugs. These pull dynamics result in many boys making a rational choice to join a gang and the personal advantages attached to gang membership. Wilson (1987) believes young males are drawn or pulled into gangs for social relationships that give them a sense of identity that would normally be provided by their biological families. Similar pull dynamics are in play with cults and communes that offer isolated, vulnerable people an opportunity to belong to something better, something that offers them a sense of purpose and belonging not found within their current existence. Social, economic, and cultural forces may work to push many adolescents into gang membership. Protection from other gangs and a perceived general well-being are also key push factors. Family members who are also members of gangs also act in pushing young males into the gangs of which they are members of. To many young males living in socially isolated and deprived communities, gangs provide the only perceived route to a better existence and a possible way out of their deprived situation. A 2008 report commissioned by the Association of Schoolmasters Union of Women Teachers (NASUWT) of the United Kingdom reported that the lack of positive role models, the absence of a father in the home combined with too much unsupervised freedom to behave without prescribed boundaries and expectations of behaviour resulted in young people with no respect for their elders. These young people with common ideals around this lack of boundaries are attracted to others with similar unsupervised lifestyles. Teaching staff who were interviewed as part of the report claimed that existing gang members were actively singling out recruits who lacked an identity and a sense of belonging as a consequence of them not getting that affirmation from homes that lacked a father figure (Broadhurst, Duffin and Taylor, 2008). There are a variety of factors that contribute to a boy joining a gang but there is a common theme amongst these factors which relates to dysfunctional relationships within the boy‟s family and includes such themes as a lack of parental guidance, a lack of love and respect from within the family, a deterioration of the family unit and poor or absent parent role modelling, particularly fathering. When combined, these factors lead boys elsewhere to find an environment that satisfies their need to be accepted and to belong (Campbell, 1992). In general, poor family management strategies increase the risk for gang membership by adolescents (Friedman, Mann, and Friedman, 1975). More specifically, low family involvement, inadequate or inappropriate parental discipline and control, monitoring or expectations, poor affective relationships between the child and their parents put youths at much higher risk of becoming gang members. This is particularly pertinent in communities where there is a gang culture. These family-based risk factors are leading contributors to an increasing risk of involvement in delinquency and gang membership (Loeber and Stouthamer-Loeber, 1986). Rob White (2009) presents three propositions as to why young males join gangs in an Australian context: ● The gang offers a substitute family-like role for its members, regardless of specific social composition, particularly when it comes to material support, emotional refuge, psychological wellbeing, physical protection and social belonging. ● In some cases, particularly in regard to ethnic minority youth, the gang is mainly comprised of family members and or members from a distinctive and frequently tight-knit community, which means that there already exist strong filial bonds within the context of gang formation. ● In the case of indigenous young people, the gang and family connection is unique insofar as the colonial experience reinforces an „othering‟ process that is distinctive and specific to this group.

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Gangs take root in schools for many reasons and gang members specifically target these institutions for recruitment, but the primary attraction of gangs is their ability to satisfy needs not otherwise met by their families. Young recruits are particularly sought as their age is seen as a low risk factor if caught committing an illegal act. Whilst there is no national standard in determining at what age a child can be treated as an adult in the criminal justice system in the US, the younger a child is the less likely they will be held responsible for their illegal activity and the more attractive they are to recruitment into gangs. To clarify this point, gang homicide victims were significantly younger than non-gang homicide victims across the US. Whereas 27% – 42% of the gang homicide victims were school aged boys between the ages of 15 – 19 years, only 9% – 14% of the non-gang homicide victims were in this age group (taken from the US National Violent Death Reporting System [NVDRS] 2008). Gangs provide the disaffected with a sense of family and an acceptance that comes with belonging to a group with shared interests and ideals (Burnett and Walz, 1994). If the nuclear family is absent, dysfunctional or if there is a competing value systems being presented to a child which creates conflict and confusion, the transmission of mainstream cultural values may be compromised. Appropriate values may not be transmitted or those which are transmitted may run contrary to the values of the mainstream culture.

Conclusion Pro-feminists (see Yates [1997], Lingard and Douglas [1999]) support the notion of a backlash against their position within the debate by right wing, reactionary men‟s groups, particularly those supporters of the mythopoetic or masculinity therapy models (see Bly, 1991, Doyle, 2010 and Tacey 1997). It is suggested that these reactionary lobby groups employ essentialist constructions of male and female students, arguing in part that all females are now outperforming all males in all sections of education, which I have shown to be inaccurate. Those pro-feminists on the left argue that this approach attacks their position within the debate and attempts to undermine further resources aimed at improving the position of girls within education. Unfortunately, the emotive and self-serving accusations employed by both sides which seek to discredit the other argument does little to move the issue of boy‟s underperformance forward in a way that will result in mutual benefit to boys and girls. Profeminists argue that a critical approach to facilitate a reconstruction of masculinity needs to be combined with a recognition of the underlying stubborn, yet not immutable, bodily and emotional attachment of men to their masculine heritage. Kimmel (1998) moves this notion forward by arguing that there is another important element in some men‟s feelings of powerlessness and that relates to the notion of entitlement, men‟s feeling of their right to preferment and power within the public sphere which is challenged by feminism. Too much of the debate about boys‟ performance in schools reads as a competing victims‟ response to a fear of losing ground in a gender-centric struggle to promote girls in schools and women in the workforce and counter responses by opposing politics at a time when a mutually beneficial, pluralist discussion is needed about boys and girls. In order to move forward in addressing the issues of boy‟s education the debate needs to move away from this competing victim mentality as seen through backlash politics (see Mills, 2010) states „making boys welfare a social justice issue may encourage the diversion of funds away from girls‟ social justice programmes‟ and „gender equity for girls is quite clearly under threat from these concerns about boys‟. I have argued a pluralist position which acknowledges how much may be learnt from the advancements made for girls and women by the women‟s movement. Many of these lessons should be followed particularly those which have resulted in the increased representation of girls in tertiary education, their place at the top of academic

200

results across many subjects and the movement of women into areas within the workforce which were once seen as the domain of men. Given my earlier stated belief that schools are socialising agencies, I would support Connell (1995) who argues that the questions surrounding boys‟ education are questions of major importance with education being a key site for the type of alliance politics that unite us as mutual beneficiaries, this being a contrasting view to those within the debate who espouse a reductionist theory. Despite the rhetorical responses from pro-feminists (see Douglas, 1994, Flood, 1997 and Messner, 1997) that girls should retain our focus of attention, statistics compiled around the world indicate that girls are continuing to outperform boys across primary, secondary and tertiary settings. I would, however, temper this statement by reiterating the socio-economic and cultural considerations that need to be factored in when making these assumptions. Concerns raised by pro-feminists include a rejection of any refocus of resources away from their priority for the education of girls (see Lingard and Douglas, 1999). This argument pushes forward the notion of addressing hegemonic masculinity (see Connell, 1995). The pro-feminist evaluation of the issues surrounding the differential in academic outcomes between boys and girls rejects post-feminist politics which seeks an engagement between feminism and other contemporary theories, including postculturalism, postmodernism and postcolonialism which portray an anti-essentialist politic of difference in pursuing equality and difference. Opponents of this pluralist theory include Yates (1993) who believes that as a result of post-feminist ideology, the politics of feminism generally and specifically in education have been weakened and complicated to the detriment of girls and women. Despite Connell‟s (2011) comments on how the changes in girls‟ and women‟s education around the world in the last two generations and the reduction in class inequalities in access to secondary schooling have profoundly changed learning outcomes for girls, pro-feminists continue to promote the notion that the education of girls should maintain our focus and priority in schools. Furthermore, the argument discourages any re-focus of resources onto the difficulties that boys might face. This is seen as a backward step for the ongoing success story of the education of girls. Despite the assertions (see Lingard and Douglas, 1999) that the debate about boys has been characterised by a strong backlash against feminism, schools and policy writers need to avoid this alarmist populism which seeks to assert a binary oppositional and competing victims‟ perspective on the factors impacting on the social and educational experiences of boys and girls. Recent developments in identifying the disparities in the academic outcomes of boys and girls has resulted in pro-feminist writers feeling the need to defend their positions, but such stances will only serve to homogenise and normalise boys and girls on the basis of sex and in doing so reinforce the disparity in academic outcomes, and many stereotypical versions of masculinity and femininity will have detrimental consequences for both. Bleach (1996) asserts that males are now having to reconcile themselves to a reversal of roles. Boys and men face the erosion of their traditional roles of leaders in their domestic and occupational roles. They have no formal men‟s liberation movement, no informal male equivalent of the „sisterhood‟ to help them cope with the increasing loss of identity. The current situation in education should not be seen as a fait accompli, but rather an opportunity to move the debate forward in a fresh and new direction that will be mutually beneficial to boys and girls which will lead on to similar benefits for men and women. It would, therefore, be feasible to suggest that pro-feminists have a great deal to gain by engaging other politics in meaningful, mutually beneficial conversations. To those who are of the opinion that feminism has created the current divide in academic outcomes between boys and girls, research would indicate that the disparity in these outcomes has always existed. Feminism‟s role in the past two generations has been to simply expose what was already there (see Troop, 1957). Therefore, the blame should not lie with feminism in creating this divide, but it must take some responsibility in refusing to move their fight beyond the singular which

201

would allow an opportunity for mutual benefit to boys and girls rather than a fight that has proved to be beneficial to girls alone. Pro-feminism must also take some responsibility for the debate having to negotiate a landscape which is scarred by a backlash, victim mentality which has resulted in a fight for space on two fronts. This battle has served to split resources and our focus on a system that must set party politics aside to the mutual benefit of boys and girls who deserve our collective and undivided attention. A greater appreciation is required of a fuller picture and of the issues that currently impact on the academic outcomes of boys. I have presented an exposure of engendered rhetoric and the concerns with the feminisation of the classroom as two key inhibitors to boys gaining academic parity with girls. However, they should not be seen as issues holding separate ground within the context of the larger issue. They need to be addressed collectively and with a pluralist mentality. I have presented the women‟s movement model as a matrix for reference when beginning to address the relative underperformance of boys. Women‟s fight for equal access to education and areas of the workforce traditionally seen as the domain of men has been successful, although more work needs to be done, because of the support they have enlisted from influential men in political positions that few women occupied. An argument may even be raised that the platform from which the women‟s movement lifted itself was a platform set down by men through the Chartist movement of the mid-19th Century (see Chase, 2015). A great deal of what women achieved was through the support and acquiescence of men in influential positions who had the authority to legislate in a way that provided women with more equality. It may, therefore, be argued that emancipation was successful because of the pluralist approach taken by men in positions of power who were sufficiently open minded to appreciate the important role women had to play in society. The argument may, therefore, be made that the success of the men‟s movement relies in part on the support of women in influential positions within the debate through the type of pluralist conversation and convictions that men held in the earlier part of the twentieth century that began to improve their positions and roles in society. Had women fought for a raft of issues at the same time, success and momentum may have been compromised by the complexity of the debate. Whilst the manner in which feminism succeeded in addressing issues individually, addressing the complex issue of the relative underperformance of boys presents a more complex, multi-dimensional conundrum which needs to be confronted on several fronts through the pluralist support of a diverse group of people on both sides of the debate. The issues of boy‟s education are far more complex and present a range of concerns which are interlinked to produce what I have referred to as a perfect storm. In this sense, the blueprint offered by the women‟s movement in successfully addressing single issues does not provide a perfect matrix to follow in order to address the multi-faceted concerns of boys, nevertheless, it is one that provides some model of optimism. Any one issue amongst those I have covered in this paper will not offer a full picture of the problems that needs to be negotiated. It is only when the issues are appreciated as parts of the whole does one begin to understand the scope of work that needs to be undertaken and where the focus of our attention needs to be directed through a new pluralist, meditative approach. In this respect, new pathways need to be chartered through which the debate needs to pass in order that the issues of boys‟ underachievement may be resolved and these must be negotiated in sympathy with the ongoing issues that girls and women continue to face. „There is clearly no single cause for boys‟ relative under achievement in education, nor is there a simple solution‟ (Boys: Getting it Right Report, 2002).

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